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NEW 

AMERICAN    CYCL0PJ:DIA. 


VOL.  vn. 

EDWARD-FUEBOS. 


m 


THE  WEW 


AMERICM  CYCLOPSDIA: 


l^pkr  Sirti0Tittrj 


OF 


GENERAL    KNOWLEDGE. 


EDITED  BY 


GEORGE  RIPLEY  aito  CHARLES  A.  DANA. 


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EDWARD-FUEROS.' 


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»«••••  ••      ••' 


NEW  YORK : 
D.     APPLETON      AND      COMPANY, 

SM  ft  S48  BROADWAY. 

LONDON:    16    LITTLE    BRITAIN. 

JLDCCaUX      . 


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D.  APPLETOK  4  COMPAKY, 

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ill* 


THE 


NEW  AMERICAN  CTCLOPJIDIA. 


EDWARD  (thz  Eideb)      7  EDWABD  (thx  Cobvbbsob) 

EDWABD  I^  snrnamed  the  Elder,  son  and  opposition  formall/  aooepted  as  king.  The  strife 

noceasor  of  Alfred,  king  of  the  West  6axons,  among  the  clergy,  however,  still  divided  the  Idng* 

aKeoded  the  throne  in  901,  died  in  925.  His  dom,  and  the  part/ opposed  to  St.  Donstanplot- 

dmm  to  the  throne,  thongh  recognized  h/  the  ted  the  mnrder  of  (he  yonng  monarch.    He  was 

vifcenagemote,  was  ^spnted  b/  his  oonsin  Ethel-  stabbed  in  the  back  at  Oorfe  castle,  the  residence 

vild,  who  gained  the  support  of  the  Northnm-  of  his  stepmother,  as  he  was  drinking  a  cup  of 

kia  and  East  Anglian  Danes.  The  rebels  march-  mead  on  horseback,  and  sinldngfirom  his  seat 

«d  through  the  counties  of  Gloucester,  Oxford,  he  was  dragged  away  by  the  stirrup  by  his 

ad  WHta,  and  Edward,  unable  directly  to  oppose  frightened  horse. 

dbon,  retaliated  their  ravages  in  the  country  of  EDWARD  HL,  sumamed  the  Ck>nfesBor,  king 
fte  East  Angles.  He  thought  proper  to  with-  of  the  Anglo-Saxons,  son  of  King  Ethelred  IL, 
diaw  Ms  army,  loaded  with  booty,  before  the  successor  to  Hardicanute.  bom  in  Islip,  Oxford 
jqppraach  of  the  rebels,  but  the  venturous  Kent-  shhre,  in  1004^  ascended  the  throne  in  1042, 
M  men.  greedy  of  more  spoil,  stayed  behind  in  died  Jan.  5, 1066.  His  mother  was  a  Norman 
defiaaee  of  orders.  They  were  assaulted  by  the  princess,  Emma,  and  during  t^e  Danish  domi- 
lastAngle^  and  resisted  so  valiantly  that  though  nation  which  had  succeeded  the  death  of  ^- 
ebliged  at  last  to  retreat,  it  was  not  till  after  mund  Ironside,  he  dwelt  in  exile  in  Norman- 
tibey  had  5l^n  a  great  number  of  the  bravest  dy.  When  the  news  of  the  death  of  Canute  in 
ot  the  ened^,  and  had  terminated  the  rebellion  1035  reached  him,  he  determined  to  assert  his 
ky  eansini^  the  death  of  Ethelwald  himself.  The  pretensions  to  the  crown,  crossed  the  channel 
ijlgn  of  Edward,  as  of  many  of  his  predeces-  with  a  fleet  of  40  ships,  and  landed  at  South- 
am  and  successors,  was  occupied  with  subduing  ampton.  He  found  himself  opposed  by  his 
the  turbulent  Danes,  who  abounded  and  were  mother,  who  had  become  a  second  time  queen 
eoDstasktly  reeoforced  in  the  provinces  of  East  of  England  by  marriage  with  the  Danish  mon- 
Ai^^ia  and  Xorthmnbria.  In  this  task  he  was  arch,  and  was  now  regent  of  the  kingdom. 
~  by  his  sister  Ethelfleda,  who  governed  Menaced  with  destruction  by  a  constancy  in- 
Ile  protected  his  territories  by  for-  creasing  force,  he  hastily  effected  his  retreat, 
which  gradually  became  centres  of  trade  With  his  brother  Alfred  he  received  a  perfidious 
population.  He  gained  two  signal  victories  invitation  from  King  Harold  to  cross  the  sea  in 
M  Ten»ford  and  Maldon,  and  subjected  all  the  1037.  Alfred  was  murdered  at  Guildford,  and 
tribes  from  Northumbria  to  the  channel  to  his  Edward,  apprised  of  the  fate  which  was  await- 
haul  I  lite  control  He  was  twic«  married,  and  ing  him,  escaped  into  Flanders.  After  the  ao- 
kft  a  numerous  family,  and  8  of  his  sons,  Athel-  cession  of  his  half  brother  Hardicanute,  Edward 
Ami,  Edmund,  and  Eared,  successively  occupied  was  received  with  honor  into  England,  presented 
Aa  throne.  with  a  princely  establishment,  and  was  at  court 
EDWARD  n.,  sumamed  the  Martyr,  king  when  the  king  suddenly  died  in  1042.  TheDan- 
<f  ^  Anglo-Saxoufs  son  and  successor  of  Edgar,  ish  heir  Sweyn  was  then  absent  from  the  king- 
in  962,  ascended  the  throne  in  975,  and  dom;  the  rightful  heirs  of  the  Saxon  line,  the  sons 
murdered  in  978.  The  intrigues  of  his  step-  of  Edmund  Ironside,  were  in  exile  in  Hungary ; 
Elfnda  raised  a  faction  in  favor  of  her  the  Anglo-Saxons  were  determined  to  throw  off 
son  Ethelred,  who  was  but  7  years  of  age.  the  Danish  yoke;  the  Danes  were  divided  and  dis- 
itical  parties  took  opposite  sides,  Uie  pirited ;  Edward  was  the  nearest  to  the  throne 
clergy  who  had  been  ejected  in  the  pre-  of  any  one  present,  and  after  a  short  period  of  hea- 
_  reign  regarding  Elfrida  as  their  patron-  itation  and  commotion  he  was  recognized  as  king 
mtd  supporting  the  pretensions  of  Ethelred,  in  a  general  council  at  Gillingham.  His  reign 
'  the  monastic  followers  of  St.  Dunstan  main-  was  the  period  when  the  mutual  aversion  of  the 
Bg  the  superior  claim  of  Edward.  A  civil  two  fierce  Teutonic  peoples,  whose  struggles  for 
had  already  begun,  when  at  a  general  meet-  dominion  had  vexed  the  country  during  6  jgau- 
%i(r  the  witenagemote  Edward  was  after  mudi  erstioo^  began  to  sabside,  wben  intAnnarnaiiS^ 

TOI^  TIL — i 


2  EDWAIU)  (rni  Coxrawnu) 

!in«l  A  Monilln^  of  lanpin^*?  an«l  cti*!.r!.«  n«-irir  At  tlii*  poritij  I'lViirrt-i!  tlio  ov,nfH  wlil'h  furni 

c?r-«'i'il  l!.i*  •l.V:!.-?iiin  U'twivn  tin- twn  rjiiv«,  lli.'  jrMiuilMorL  "f  Mm"    *p«  sin'*  tr:u:f1y  nf 

a:.<1  »!jin    t!.^'  Nittiuth   U/.»m  :■•   rXir«*i-o  a  "  M:i- Utli."      In   1»';{'.»,       .rthtli.  n  tiirl>u!«  ut 

po'i'Ht  iiitliii  :i'«-  in  t!.«'  r«>'ii.trv,  !iitlt   iiulMnn  iii>!'lr!ii:iii«  riiiiriliTiMl  l>iinraTi.  kisij f>f  S-p:!.iiii|, 

«if    w!.:.  Ji   l'n  \    wi"*-   •..^■n  III   |-r-«i!r:ift'.     lUo  c]ia<H-il  M:ili'ii]Tii,  lii- Ntin  unil  !i«-ir.  into  Ki:;;!aii«l, 

fr-t   rijk.'il   i*- !  "f  r.Iw.ii'l  w:»-  !  '  -trip  !.i«.  nn»-  ati«l  n<.ur|Hil  l)  «•  rriiwn.     Tin*  *  \ili-»I  |.rin<v  ri»- 

l?.t  r.    »!.—^«   :• -.-'•.I'l.  I-    l.:i!  ili'i  it»«l    ln-^   l";r»l  cvivi-il  frmu  Ki!vi.ir«]  |  <  nni<>»iitn  In  \  iitiliiMti' M4 

aTlt  Ti.pt  i.i  !■' :.i.!i  l!..    tlr.-:..'.  <'l"  !,i  r  iJ!.::iC'ii'Mi  ri^'li!'»  » ith  tin  Kiijli-h  iirrnv.  liiit  fur  ITi  ^viir* 

tri'i^'.T*  *.  \:.'\  ! !,iirii'  hi  r  f'-r  !.:i  iii  :i  ni^L.t—  llu*  ji«i*ir  ff  !l:i-  mcriii-nT  <li'fi  .itrd  i\rry  at- 

ttry  ;it   W-.7,/!,i  «!t  r.     lli>*  p'%ir:.r!K':.t   u :i«4  nt  tiiiii't.     Al  K  n^'tlt  in  U'tVl  M.ilri'lm  wA«' «tir- 

ihi- l::ni'  1:.  i).i'  !.:4:.iN  if  li  |-^«*t:iI  i.'i'ltini  i.  :  n—liilly  MippiTtvil  l»y  Maolutt  tlio  thani*  of 

K:*r'.  <i.n!\%  .v.  M  !.  1  r.li.l  :i!l  :\  v  ^■•  i:!ii  rn  pruv-  Kit'i'.  mpI  l-v   Mwaril,  tarl  nf  Ni<rt!inni!fr!.irhl. 

llii't*  .  K  i"!  l.«   '!>»■■,  wl..i  pT  >v«  ri.'fl  I. -.Ti  rrunl  Tl.i*  f.iH   "f  M;i'  l-  t!t   ii-t  tlji-   iltatJi  n!"  tlio  ikia 

tho  nM;:!.irn  11   tn!.t«  •I   Mir>:i.  ninl  Karl  ^:-  of  ^iMun!;  \\.*'   Ni<rt)iurM!ri:L!i  mrl  ilitil  Mi^in 

wan],  hL-'^i*  •••Aiiv  I  iM:-!!-!!  !r.-m  tin*  IIimmI'it  iiI"t«T.  uLin    II.'irnM  o!>taiiiril   r!.;i!  i-.irlilnni.  in 

ti*  tin*  iN'iiSiut- I'f  SLi':I;ir.!.    IMw:»riI  s»'ijs!il  tlj.«  c>;'ii>i«i!i«>i:  !■•  l!.i'  ri,.-!il- of  an  inf.ir.t  Kiir.  for  hi* 

pr«':ii  :i"::   i-f    Jjirl   ifmlwin    \\   ii-jirriin/  h;-*  «'wn    l-rntlur   T»'*tl.     T}.?!*  tin-  ^■:pINlrl  wliirli 

ciaiii;! '.t  r  K'!-.:l:  L.  A  l.u!«  priii<Hi!  l-y  :!i>.*  i-}iri>rii-  K'lwnnl  ptvo   t«»    M:ilii»lrii    ri-ihi'^l   in  a*U\ixii^ 

cKt*  f'-r  !i«T  1'  .iri.mj.  I'U?\.  :i;;'l  li-ri.  xcli-niir ;  !ar>ri ly  U*  ihv  j.*i\vi  r  i-f  M*  muii  ru-'*l  :injl>i:i>>ua 

y*-t  tl.o  i:.'li\i-  wliiili  pri'Mij''.!'!  K'iwjiril  l'»  tnar-  aiiii  iJ:injiTi»:i-i  «.i;l'ji  rr.     T-mi]  p.iM.  ILtruM'.- f^r- 

ry  l.iT  ux->  nil  rrly  |>^':iiir:i!,  iii.>l    tin*  allianri*  thiT  pri>;;rvo<.  tin- kiii;!  iii\vi*:rd  Al*r:vr.  ihv  Min 

prit^<il  tiiiTi  f'irc  a  -ninv  »'f  vnntity  i:>ti-4il  »'f  I'f  I.i"frir.  «  i*Ji  iho  piVcriinn-Lt  i-f  tliL-^l  A  1.^:1  ia, 

fr.rt  1^-^  *   ^    '             !.!»  Lin,^  :iii>l  hit  futht-rMn'  l>nt  tho  ini'.u'M<  <•  of  Al^:ir  •^uiikU  Ictl  t>>  hi«  vx- 

irti.tl  U>i!i  t<i  Nornuai  num-  pultun  fri>ni  hi^*  iirw  ]Mi«-v>^iiin.     \U\  howvVvr, 

!iy  fonitri  ihun-hnion  ami  mnih  ritiir::0'l  int^  llLTft'iiriUhiri.'  MiiU  an  army 

<.i!  him  t'l  Kni:lan>!,  whcro  i>f  Wi-Nh  iiinl  Ni»rM'ivi'^t>  !iii\ili:»ri(-!\  w.-it  fpfti^ 

,  ...K.  iiiiluntv  in  tin'  ^'iiMTnini-nt.  i-<l  hy  the  imi-iiotant  Kn^'Ii-h  ni>>n:trch,  hut  wa* 

A  ('•'p  iLv/'-ilixi-y  «aiairi:ii)>  h  !t  iu::r.l:^ttllt■lll.  uMv  tu  tiiuintain  thv  r:iu«<>  of  i!if  kiMf;  in  ^ptl^ 

«h«n  in  1"V>  K»t.'trf,  n.un!  !•(  Itx-.il'vno.  Mii!i  of  tho  kin^*  hini'^lf.  tiinl  rL-lurniti^  lur^in.  for« nl 

bi«   train.  %  .^.!.!i*'  Kt;»:!a:.«h  >t  :arrtl!i>l  nitli  tho  IIar>>M  to  u  I'unijirnnii'H'  lUul  wa«  n-iii-tatfii  in 

Larirhi-:«of  I>i\^r.  niA  in  tl.i  t  inr-ill  m  vcral  |ht-  K:f*t  An;:h:i.     ![•'  %«»••  u^'ain  fxpflli-il  anJ  »^*:An 

winf  WiTf  «l.tiri.     Tin*  n!!rny  \%a«  ri  purtfl  to  tho  ri-^ti»r«-iK  atnl  ut  hit  Jralh  in  lt>'>*«  IlaroM  uaa 

kiLi:  at  (li-.iMi t-«t«r.  hy  *\.v  A.-*  -ti.ti!!*!  r.ii«tari\  K-ft  wit!i<>iit  a  rival,  O.w  ni*>^t  {xfArrfi;!  ^jhjt-ct 

aod  ^I'SwAn!  i*i\f  of'h  ri  t'l  (i -Im  in.  in  Mhi*««*  in  Kn^rlai:  I.     lM\iiiril   t!iO  tiuthiw.  thf  Sai«>n 

ptvtTi.n-.ir.r  I'-.-.ir  !a^. '-n  ha-'s-- l!jf  iiiM.l-r.ro  hiir  !•»  thf  tliP'i.i-,  tiiXvT  a  h\v  i"^  €ii!i-.   ih«.d 

oft!if  ii*i: «  f  th.it « ^!v,  Thfi..!l  ri  j'i-« 'I  IimI-1  V  ;  wi!hin  u  lVwi!.i\i  iif  hi- arrival  in  flh^'LiMi.  a:.ii 

arupt -.r«  M  k^  t!.<  r«.? 'ri- 'i:.a\'  .liM".  :i:i-!>iarin.>-i  thm  i.«>vi  <•:••<■•{  ht  tM  1  •  n  Il.irttM  ji!!*!  t!.ri.ri>uii 

iii;i!i  r  th<- •   >(t.;i..i:.<l  c!  <  mmIu  .:i  a'l-l  h:-  *J  •mii.'v  fitly  t!.f\ii-.iii^  mhI  1i-«-Mi' KMpTar.     r!i«.<  i!:tirin  >*M 

iinn:<  ^i:  k*i '\  :*iir<\i«l  a«::ix'.x:  T' •-  L:iij.*  :n  (il>>:i-  ki*:,:.  iii\i  :•  r:t:r  in  hi-u::iiiii*«.!v  t"  t!ir  falinly  wf 

n**ri:-*.:ri-.     Klrtar-l  ■"..ri.nj-r.i  1  !  •  \..-  at-l  !.•■»-  Karl  (i'>«!\\iiv,  turi.iil  hi-iii-  towunl  h;-  k.K»- 

fri>   a^  !  >  w  .n!.  .%:.!  \i  .'i«  >,  .:  ^!y  i:.  n  «  "rti!!!.  -n  in.in  a' r<>'->t]i>' 1  ha:iiii!.\Vi!iiaTii  i>f  N**rnia:.d\,aft 

UMnV.rij..!.»ti  h.'  •;■;-  r.-r.:-.  w  *..  u  :•  v^.i-  a/rv^l  ap»  r-'-n  w!.«»^'i' ip-it  i!y  ainl  piviir  wi  :i!«!ri{H!tT 

111  rtf»T  th-- ■!  -p  ;rf  •■•!!..i!. .  .*.-  ri .  !' thi-  ».*i;i-  hiin  ihi    ti:"-t  f -riLphihlv  rival  I"  IIafi'M.     IIa- 

atfvT".' !•■     <»  -Iwi'i.  h  w.  \ir.  !!.  ■!  \\:\\  !..-  w  .'"i-  ri'li!.  U-iTi.' t!>ri-^i  It  i:i  ii  ti  nk]>^-l  i:{>«n  t!ii' ii  a!*:i'f 

ai.l    •••:.-!.•   }":  r.   h  r^  .    ?!..  .r  • -i  iV  »  w  •  r**  !!i..!i  N"f:.;.:i'i,*.  w.i- >•' I.p.'^«I  Vkhilv  l!.:- in  th*- l-wcr 

Ci  :?':-■  *?!-!.    1^.  » :.   Kl:''..i  v^.i*  i-.-iV-.,.!    iii   a  i.f  \V.;;.;i?;t  t.i  ^\%iar  that  In-  r»  !i   uIm-.iI  nil  h  '{m 

in«-:..v-V  r* .    a-   !    !!,<•    »rri  *!:..-•    .f   t'  :■«  f  ji;  I'.v  i>f  tl.<-i  r--^^  !i.  aiji*.  !>•  I'l'i !  ••l;i:.;.*«  !  .r  !i  -  lax.iS  and 


»•••• 


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k:::«;i.i:        !!■■  wa»  n  ■  1  ;\  14'.  ;:   .1  ::..?.- 1  r  «    r'.i.y  !ya!it\;i  \.*.:  ■:   .•!.:.»::.'••  t:.*-  r--'-' t.r^  i-f  WiJ.*^ 

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n'^il  ^-...a-,  ■::  *.%*;;•  1  -■»  -•■^!  i*;!h  I..  V'-'  '  •  :  t  :.i  \'  t   r-  .j:'.  "•.  I  \'i!.'i««l   h.'*  *-.i.i\  hjk  n..4rr»  i::^ 

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r-'i;*   %'t  ri  ••.•.».  I  :•  f '.*    1;:-.  .r.  ■!  ;:.  P-TiJ  .'i  \%  a- •  ;■■«  !."l  k.i:,r  "!i  t!"   ^  t  r\  i!.i-.  'f  K.lw^rvi'a 

the  ».■•'■  r*.  .     .-•     f  K-.^v  .:   !.-«•;•  aw. »]k  !-.o  •!■  .'.*..       I:   w.^-i   f  :!  ;:../•■  !"  r   !!  .    i. ..:!-■  r_^   »'f 

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EDWABD  L  EDWARD  H.                       8 

and  strled  "  the  Confessor"  abont  a  centnry  nndcrtaken  in  France,  advanced  again  to  the 
after  his  decease.  The  most  commendable  fea*  Forth,  and  defeated  the  insurgents  with  the  loss 
ture  of  his  goTernment  was  his  attention  to  the  of  from  20,000  to  40,000  men  near  the  forest  of 
administration  of  justice,  and  to  collecting  the  Falkirk,  July  22, 1298.  Wallace  himself  escaped. 
laws  of  the  realm.  Ilis  compilation  is  lost.  The  rebellion  again  broke  out  in  1803,  and  again 
EDWARD  L  (of  the  Norman  line),  king  of  Edward  overran  the  kingdom,  its  temporary  sub- 
EngbiTid,  sumamed  Long  Shanks,  from  the  ex-  jugationbeingcompletedbythe  surrender  of  the 
ces^ve  length  of  his  legs,  son  of  Ilenry  III.  and  strong  castle  of  Stirling  in  1805.  Wallace  was 
cf  Qcanor  of  Provence,  bom  in  Westminster,  soon  after  surprised  and  captured,  and  was  hang- 
June  16,  1239,  crowned  Aug.  19,  1274,  died  ed  in  Smithfield.  In  1806  the  war  was  again 
Jdy  7,  1307.  Being  invested  with  the  duchy  Jcindled  by  Robert  Bruce,  who  was  elected  king, 
d  Gnienne,  his  right  to  that  province  was  di&-  and  though  at  first  unsuccessful,  at  length  gained 
pnted  by  Alfonso  X.,  king  of  Castile,  who,  how-  a  decisive  victory  over  the  earl  of  Pembroke. 
ever,  renounced  his  claim  in  consequence  of  Edward,  now  enfeebled  by  age  and  disease, 
Edward^s  marrying  his  sister.  In  1254  he  re-  marched  again  to  the  north  with  the  purpose 
ceived  the  lordship  of  Ireland  and  of  the  prov-  of  renderiug  Scottish  rebellion  from  that  time 
iaoes  which  had  been  seized  in  the  reign  of  impossible ;  but  he  was  surprised  by  death  on 
John  Lackland  by  the  king  of  France.  He  sup-  the  frontier  at  Burgh-upon-Sands.  The  most 
ported  the  throne  against  the  revolted  barons,  and  enduring  results  of  the  reign  of  Edward  were 
was  with  his  brother  Richard  I.  made  prisoner  the  reforms  which  he  introduced  in  the  ad- 
at  the  battle  of  Lewes  in  1264.  He  recovered  ministration  of  government,  of  Justice,  and  of 
las  liberty  in  1265,  defeated  and  slew  Simon  de  the  finances,  which  have  gmned  for  him  the 
Montfort,  earl  of  Leicester,  at  Evesham,  and  in  title  of  the  ^^  English  Justinian.^'  He  ameliorated 
1S67  conquered  the  last  of  the  insurgents  in  the  the  laws,  confirmed  and  finally  established  the 
isleof  Ely«  He  now  joined  the  crusaders,  and  two  great  charters,  gave  to  the  parliament  the 
aerred  3  years  in  the  East.  Kcarly  2  years  form  which  it  has  since  retained,  and  is  said  to 
after  his  father's  death,  he  was  crowned  without  have  first  instituted  justices  of  the  peace.  The 
epposition  at  Westminster,  and  began  to  signal-  Jews,  who  during  the  whole  period  of  his  reign 
ize  his  ability  both  as  a  warrior  and  legislator,  were  objects  of  the  bitterest  hatred  to  the  great 
His  aims  were  first  directed  against  Llewellyn,  mass  of  the  people,  were  cruelly  despoiled,  and 
prioce  of  the  Welsh,  whom  he  reduced,  but  who  in  1290  ordered  under  penalty  of  death  to  quit 
lebelied  again,  and  was  slain  in  single  combat  by  England  for  ever  before  a  certain  day. 
an  Eogiissh  knight  immediately  after  the  army  of  EDWARD  II.,  king  of  England,  son  and 
Edward  reap|>eared  in  that  country.  It  is  said  successor  of  the  preceding,  born  in  Caernar- 
t2jkt  Edward  caused  the  massacre  of  all  the  von,  April  25,  1284,  ascended  the  throne  in 
lords  of  Wales,  for  fear  that  their  songs  should  1307,  murdered  Sept.  27,  1327.  Ho  was  of  an 
rerive  the  patriotism  of  their  countrymen ;  but  irresolute  character  and  dissipated  habits.  From 
this  story  may  have  been  invented  in  view  of  his  childhood  ho  had  lived  in  close  intimacy 
the  strict  censorship  which  he  exercised  over  with  Piers  de  Gaveston,  the  son  of  a  gentlo- 
the  national  poetry.  He  established  corporate  man  of  Guicnno,  who  had  at  length  been  ban- 
bodies  of  merchants  in  tlie  principal  towns  ished  from  the  kingdom  as  a  corrupter  of  the 
of  Wales,  and  introduced  the  jurisprudence  of  prince.  Edward  I.  on  his  deathbed  forbade  his 
the  English  courts.  In  the  castle  of  Caernar-  son  under  pain  of  his  paternal  malediction  to 
TOO  his  qneen  Eleanor  was  delivered  of  her  son  allow  the  vicious  favorite  to  return  into  Eng- 
Edwani ;  the  natives  claimed  the  child  as  their  land  ;  yet  the  first  act  of  the  new  king  was  the 
coQntryman,  and  he  was  declared  prince  of  recall  of  Gaveston,  whom  he  created  earl  of 
Wilea,  a  title  which  has  since  always  been  borne  Cornwall  and  married  to  his  own  niece,  and 
by  the  eldest  son  of  the  sovereign.  In  1289  ho  to  the  scandal  of  the  whole  kingdom  appointed 
neolved  upon  the  subjugation  of  Scotland,  to  him  regent  while  ho  himself  went  to  France 
Ifae  crown  of  which  there  were  at  this  time  13  to  marry  the  princess  Isabella.  A  formidable 
ddmants.  Being  invited  to  the  oftice  of  arbi-  league  under  tlio  earl  of  Lancaster  forced  Gav- 
trttor,  he  first  took  possession  of  many  of  the  eston  into  exile;  but  instead  of  being  disgraced, 
Sooleh  fortresses,  and  then  conferred  the  crown  ho  was  appointed  lieutenant  of  Ireland,  and  ao- 

EJohn  Baliol,  who  soon  renounced  his  alio-  companied  for  some  distance  on  his  way  by  his 

?.     Edward    marched  again  across  the  royal  friend.    He  returned  soon  after,  when  an 

d,  gained  a  great  victory  at  Dunbar  in  army  raised  by  confederate  powerful  barons  and 

UM,  Bent  Baliol  into  exile  in  Normandy,  bore  commanded  by  the  earl  of  Lancaster  pursued 

my  the  Scotch  sceptre  and  crown,  and  left  tho  him  to  the  north ;  ho  was  besieged  and  captured 

H^mA  offices  of  government  in  the  hands  of  at  Scarborough,  and,  without  any  pretence  of  a 

bgjlifbmen,  under  the  earl  of  Surrey,  who  re-  legal  process,  was  executed.    Edward,  at  first 

Mived  the  title  of  guardian  of  tho  kingdom,  threatening  vengeance  against  all  who  had  taken 

The  Scots  rallied  in  1297  under  the  chieftain  a  part  in  the  death  of  his  favorite,  seemed  soon 

mStm  Wallace,  and  drove  the  English  out  of  to  forget  his  friendship  and  his  hatred,  and 

ftnr  kingdom,  totally  defeating  them  in  the  turned  his  attention  to  the  revoltecl  Scots.    At 

Ittie  of  Stirling,  Sept  11.     Edward  hastily  tho  head  of  an  iraraenso  army  ho  crossed  the 

bibed  the  war  which  he  had  in  the  mean  time  frontierf  but  after  losing  the  battle  o£  BaonocV 


EowAirn  ni. 


Imrn  iW  from  thi*  kini!«1oni  witli  .1  KmIv  nf  S  ft- 
ti«li  riiiitln*  fit  )ii«  }ifi  1-.  In  li'i'Jl  1m*  w.'u«xi;miu 
di'fraU'^l  At  |{la<  kiii'Nir.  aii'I  ]>iirMii-«i  wcii  t.i  tito 
wall*  of  Vork.  Ttic  pii}>!io  «]i^'<int«  iit  «.'>«  i:i- 
rfv.vi«l  liV  ihi«  hi'Ti'T!!  U-tiiwitl  ui"'ii  Hii^rh 
S|irnM-r.  A  iii-w  (a%i>ritf.  nixl  an  arniiM  iitturrt-c- 
ti'in  of  till'  bariitit  uiiili-r  tin*  carU  nf  Liara-Htor 
atid  IltTrfiiril  i-.vi*>«-<i  l!ii>  >|H-ii'M'r'*  U*  )k'  tmn- 
Ul.r^l ;  h'.A  titi  ill!  Ir  rit'iru  Iau*  rtttrr  nn»  ^iznl 
Mid  |iiit  to  (liAlli  Hi'Ji  tlio  ^aliu'  iiM!i;;ijit;i-4 
vliith  hwl  tuniierlv  \*\  lii^Mrdvr^  Uvii  I'lrn  t<HMl 
ftpiiii^t  (fa«i«Ti»ri.  Kdw&rd.  imw  ut  {'vua'o  wiiK 
hU  own  hiiSjiit*.  )iii|H-i!  !••  Mi-iiro  hi«  tran>|uil- 
litv  l>y  iH*pitiatiii|C  in  I'.'ri-i  a  truri-  for  X'.l  vi'uri 
with  ^^■l•tI:lIIll.  Thou^'li  tiit*  thMnip!i  i^f  the 
S|M-riM r«  via*  ctniiplflr.  tho  |iartiuiity  viitli 
wliir!i  t!ii*  Liii>r  ri-kr:inli-«l  hi'*  fivunt**-  li.til  t!ii* 
rifi't't  iil'  alifiin!.!!.*  iiMt  iin'\  lti«  ^iiKji>r:!>»  li'it  al««i 
)ii*  ij-.tt'ii.  I'l.iliT  i*ri'ti-iii'<*  ot'  arriiti«:iti;;  ^«>ino 
di!r«  n-ni-i*«i  It-tu  ci-n  lirr  ]iii'>li:Uiii  adiI  iit-r  l>riillii.r 
•)ic  Wfiii  tu  rr.iru'v.  vk  III  rv  pho  fiXHul  a  ^rt'at 
nuiiiUr  cf  Kii/ii-!i  f*i^MitVt«.  lUv  t'ri«'iiiK  i>f 
LAiir:k'*;aT,  (!u-  iui»t  (MiD^idirAliio  ai«l  ]>otvnt  nf 
win  nil  «i:k9  till'  \iiiiii;;  lC«nrt  r  Murtiiriirr.  A  ili>- 
lii<-*t!i«  ri  U  lii"ii  MipiHirtftl  ly  a  f«iri  ijn  in%:i«i«iii 
wa,*  pri;>«^'ti«l.  Ai.d  111  ri'i*>  tliv  itUitii  villi  a 
fi»ivi,;n  !•  m<  nI'  :i.<«Mi  tm  n.  U-ii  liv  ilu;;li  M-T- 
tinuT  ai.'l  Jii)iii  t>I  Ilikittaiil.  lrui>U*«i  on  tUo  roa^it 
of  >iiir>iiW.  Tliv  iii'i-t  |*>i«ii*r!'i4l  iii>lil«.">  and  yrv 
lati<^  liApU'iinl  ti>  tiH  i-t  ill  r.  und  K^Im  ar>l,  li.iviiif^ 
in  «.tin  a|>|ii*jii-d  to  tin*  (■ilizi-ri'«  r*r  h>i|i|iiirt, 
wa*  o!i!t^*i-il  Ci»  rttrvat  In  tin*  ni.ir»ln*^  <>(  \Va]i«. 
Tli«*  •{'i«i  n  ]i'trHi:t*«l  lnni.  and  Ik*  t«"ik  »lK|»pirii( 
ft>r  In  Ui.d.  Imt,  ui.l'it-kv  \t\  ^-.1  ai  vidl  a*  l>v 
laiiil.  «.-i<*  ilrMi-ri  liu<  k  liv  rii;i!rar%  wmd-.  wa<« 
fiiund  t-tiht  i-.ili  d  in  till-  liii>:ilit:ii!i«t<f  W:i!t-«.  uIhI 

•till  in  i:.«t<"ly  t>i  till*  >:i*!!f  of  Kiiitlwortli. 
Till'  fj\«iri!i-  >;••  ti««  r  wa"  tnktii  At  (lio  -auu* 
tiiiK'  and  !:an^*«^l.  'I  J  if  {iirli.inn-i.!  U-iiit;  a^^-ni- 
Mid.  i'}  t!i«'  mil':- 1!«  V  «•!  l-.'il"  ila  and  Vl>'rt.iniT. 
lt«a«  r^-*"hi>!  th.ii  tin'  p  iprn  i>t'  T^lviard  of 
C'ai'rnAr%i>ii  h^l  ri-A<«i«l.  ^Vl.ili*  ru{'ri«tirif«l  in 
Itcrkili-y  ia«tlr  ninii  r  '.l.t'  •  i.:ir/»'  of  r::t!i.iri<» 
riiip*oxi-l  l>v  \l><rtiinir.  PMu^ird  II  Mat  foL.rni 
dral  in  Iji^  Ud  int'i*  n.xriiin*:  niit-r  •hruk*! 
La*l  Ui-n  Itf-.trd  ir^'tii  !::<«  ap  irirnt  t.t  il  :r)iit:  \Uv 
tiU"!it,  ar.il  liL«  d.*l<<r!id  l^Mriirf*  iNtruyol  tiio 
Bpmv  ]fi  will-  li  111-  liAil  (\j>iri'<l. 

KIiWAlMi  III  .  tldiM  H..U  Mt  yA^\:ir^  It.  and 
I«a*NlU  *i  Kraii'i',  \'"t:i  nl  W  >rji!-.'r,  %••%.  It, 
IJI.'.  I.n*la.nu-U:Mtf..f  KiipTlmd,  .!.in.-j:..  1  JT, 
dirtl  at  >!.*!•■•.  i.iw  ill!  hiiixi.i!.  .I-:!*!-  'Jl.  I ".77. 
At  llif  aff  !•(  I'i  ,^i  ar«  !*•*  «t  i  t  «.::i  a  »|ni-ii>]:d 
rr'.:r.  K-  I  »  Kril,--.*  ti  il«  liiM:i-%ji>  !••  *'I.irii  *  IV. 
for  tin-  |-*»M*»-n  I'f  ItM- i:::f  bi  il  r«MJ.iiU. 
trliU  .'1  haii  luA-ri  n-^irtii^il  !.i  l.irn  1>  hi-  f.;';.i  r. 
Iltf  rr ?:.i;n«- 1  VI. *.li  i.i*  iip''.^«r  at  tlio  Kr<  ;:i'h 
r«»urt,  «»*  ri'i.tr-.i!!-*!  in  n..»Ti.ii:i»  \\  1,.  r  \>» 
V\i.\.]]*.\,  ii;k-;,:i.trr  it  t^i'  !••:::■.  u!  llailii:«t,  ai* 
c«iii{ia:.ud  li*  r  ar  1  !«« r  f>!!i»tr«  in  !S-.r 
|h«a«i  >n  *■{  K*,:!.ir»!.  a:.  I  ir.\*  d-'*..irid  k:  ,: 
aftrf  tiic  rajtiv  .rj  if  !:.^  fji*?..  r.  A  r-i'in-  .!  i-f 
rflpiftry.  O'fi*.  •!.:«"  I'f  4  I'i*in-|"  a:.1    1"  l."!'.f- 

Ipai  f  up  t<i  lit  r  a;.-!  M   r'..r:.>r  '  ii'>«  1  r«  y.%*\  %  ar! 
^  MmrcJj/  the  M^LvudnUcji  lu  ti«v  g<j«cruuicbt, 


IiAiI  l-nt  j:i>t  U^n  Ap{H.in:>'<l,  wjj.-n  I*.0-  n 
Ilr  ifo,  in  vi-il:i!i-»n  of  tl;».  tn:.*o  Utwi'ii;  n  ■■:. 
Lind  and  Kn;;land.  fr-ni  an  uriny  i>f  'Ji,<HMi  p,.  n 
u!:tli'r  Ilandolf  and  I)«iu;:!.-is  «lii*'li  ru\»Lvd:^o 
rnM!i!y  «if  CuniUTUnd.  Y^'  in;:  tMwArd  ni;i-i'lj- 
(M  t'l  till  ii.irth  nitli  tiviT  4",||<'*>  nan.  i:nii!i*  • 
rnin  |>iir«::iL  i<f  tlu-  Siois  i'.»nio  n|iiiiith  tluin 
tuii-i'  whin  tliry  wt-ri-  in  irjat*i"c^*iMi'  iMi-i*.!..:!*, 
i^  rii-i-rdiil  to  li.ivi'  Wf'it  ulnri  lu>  fiiiiM<l  Mrn- 
N  !t' icit't:' ixrillril  l>y  i}u>  «>ki:l  i>f  uii  iiit'i  ri<ir 
fmin^.  aiiil  tMnilndtil  nn  ir^loriotH  r:ini]'ai,ni 
l>y  a  lr(-:i!y  in  nhiidi  tho  cfitiri'  indt'|H.'ndi'r!iv  t*f 
Srtitland  w.i^  ri'C«%:'i>'«^<^*  1  !><>  o«liuin  nf  ilii^M-t- 
ticnu'Ht  «  A.1  tlirown  u{Kin  I-^l'cllAAiid  MortiniiT, 
wIjo  iniTcUM-d  tliiir  uri|H'{Mi!;irity  by  inlrij:ni.-a 
a.r:iin'*t  tlio  i-iirl  «'f  Krut,  vilii.>lii  tlirv  calLMtl  to 

U-  I'Xi'rtitrtI  f'T  }ii;;li  trfA-'-n  in  1  :'>;:•».  A:  tho 
0;^!'  of  1*^.  l-^lMArd.  li.iviii;:  di-:  cm  lintel  tu  a^^^Tl 
lii<«  oM  II  autl.fTiTy  ;u.iin<*i  li:'«  inutlii-r  ami  her 
fa\orit«-,  ron^rivdl  ilnir  am  «t.  Mortimer  wa4 
vit'i-'.ittil  fiif  l.'.»'ti  tri'.i<Min  at  Sinitlitu-!i|.  and 
1^!i-!!a  wa*!  mniiiinl  f>>r  tlir  n  •it  i>f  l.cr  life  in 
tlif  ni.'iiior  I  if  Kt<in  jt.  linniL-dt:ili  ly  alU-r  a»i«iiin* 
in^'  tilt'  u"*viTnin(  lit  IuTi  iu-\^iil  iii<4  fatl:or'«  anU 
frrundl':iilii*r*4  projirt  of  ii>ni{fn'rini*  ScotlaiiJ, 
and  -MH  ri'tly  i-ni-ii'.:ra::i-il  tho  rl.iini  of  Kd«Anl 
l{Aa<l  til  tho  rniwn  nf  th-tl  ri'Unlrv.  whu  «M 
willin;*  to  hi'Iil  il  a^  a  firf  of  tlu*  KnL:li«h  nion* 
ar-h.  lt.ihid  Won  thi*  rmun  ai:d  lii«i:  it  «ithia 
3  tnonth«,  anil  tho  in«  iirojiMM  of  tlic  Scut^  p^^o 
to  K'lward  I  lit*  it*.  t«it  n  hirh  lit-  lU-trt'd  to  r^ 
Di'W  tilt'  w:tr  and  titicnip*.  t'>  r«."torL'  I  ho  rl*fup^e. 
llo  l.iiil  !*!ivt' til  licrui.  k.  and  <JiiIy  19.  153S> 
dv'fr:ilfil  on  llalidmi  hill  with  i:t\:\1  1o«4  tht 
army  ui  tho  ro;:tnt  I>ii'i;;i  t;*.  wim  had  uppruarli* 
i-«l  t<*r  it«  n  lirf  Ihi*  t>'Hn  and  c':i«ti«'  wfte  im* 
nifii:ittdjk  •Mrrt-nili  ri  il.  and  I'laliol  hiins  a^aia 
k«-Ati  d  oil  tlio  thr>>nfi<f  S-ii:laii<i  diMnfmbrHrtt 
tho  kiriu'ilofn  hy  a  l.ir/r  ii-ir.ii in  of  ii  rriturj  to 
Kti.'laml.  11  nio:o*rin'  «!.!« !i  ma*!  foliowi-ij  br  lik 
tli.'ht  to  Knirhkipl  w::liin  4  nioiith's.  llirco 
tini«"«  K.«!wurd  inv:ii!i  .|  and  dfVa*talid  Scotiaiid 
in  »iip;»<«rt  i*(  lt:ii!'>l.  hut  l.ail  not  cum^norrU  Um 
intli-fi^-ndoiit  "p.rit  of  thf  r>iiintry  vrhm  he  Mif* 
fori-d  tlio  uar  to  laii.'-ii-h.  hu^ir:;  dt-tormiiMd 
to  hiy  rlai'ii  !••  tin-  «ri>«n  of  Kranrv  A|raiiM| 
rh:ii|<  if  Valiii-.      I'hi-  ;:ri"ind  of  thii  |r\'trD* 

pinn  Ma-.  t}i:il   :il!!i>>il;^*h    !i-Hiu)i"»  M^vFv  I'lcludcd 

fri"n  tlii'  Krin«*Ii  t'lp  jh-.  tl.oiii:i!i'  di-rotidantaof 
fi-ni  iIo«  i%iTo  n<<t :  nnd  th.-il  a«  tin-  "iMi  of  l^bfl- 
la,  x\iv  dau/liti  r  ••!'  (  !i.ir!i-n  IN'.,  hi«  r!:iim  VM 
lHitt-rt!.An  th:kt  if  P!.i:.i<.  Hhn  wa«  drMXudcd 
fr-M  A>".n^'ir  hr-'tij-  r  i-f  Cli.irlf'.  IV.  To  cany 
hi"  r!i  p'htt  dioipTn  int>>  4  \i<  'itiMii,  ho  niailr  alii* 
ar.i-i*  uir'i  •«  «ir:il  i-t'n:iniii!;il  pr.nrt^  and  mlef^ 
thi'  rh;t  r'l'f  m!i-mi  Hi-rr  I.'-^:«  t  f  Ua^afi^  cM- 
|.^Ti>r  ot'  (r«r-  1.1;. y,  t!if  1!  .ki  <«  of  Kralant  aod 
(ii<!>lrt«.  .1? '1  .\r:>  ii  Ml'  i>f  dli^'t.  Il4!«aff4 
f>'r!!ii'.i«  |''i^'..«^i-<l  !  4-4  i  i.iini  in  l.'i  :7,  Mid  in  the 
f  •'.!•«!  ir.^  \i.ir  «.iii>t!  mi'.Ii  a  i.  iimnMi^  fit^l  to 
A-.*  Mir{'.  d< -itrr.lt .:  t<>  Ui^'iii  thr  1  anij>a:;rT;  witli 
ti:>'  ^.kj:'-  oI  iArit^r.*;;  l-ut  |«  ri'%i\iM.;  iLr  t!ifl» 
ti'.'r  if  ;':!•  i-t.'t  r;>n'M-,  ho  ad^  i!ii  td  ir.to  Kraiws 
%r  ::.  .iN.rr.  :.ii.i"hi  iiii  :i.  i%n«  a!i!i"-!  r'«!ifmt«4 
*.''t  .i":  arn;%  ft  i.iaT!\  d  iTiMi-  tl.o  for''o  ti 
r^iiip,  V  v:  bo  vbfa^«.xuoUl  cUaUi-d,  aud  hm 


EDWARD  IV,  5 

lo^  returned  to  Brossels  and  disbanded  his  of  the  lionso  of  York.  The  great  Lancastrian 
armr  xrithoat  having  derived  any  advantage  chiefs,  Cardinal  Beaufort  and  the  dukes  of  Bed- 
fiom  his  immense  expenditures,  lie  returned  ford  and  Gloucester,  who  ably  though  discord- 
to  Esglaod  in  1340,  obtained  an  unprecedented  antly  supported  the  throne  during  the  minor- 
grant  from  parliament,  defeated  a  French  fleet  ity  of  Ilenry,  were  dead,  when  Richard,  duke 
of  Slais  which  Philip  had  sent  to  intercept  him,  of  York,  the  father  of  Edward  IV.,  returned 
Ktomod  to  the  continent,  and  at  the  head  of  from  Ireland,  cautiously  and  gradually  ad- 
frXlOOO  men  undertookat  the  same  time  theslcges  vanced  his  claim  to  the  throne,  gained  the 
of  Tonmay  and  St.  Omer,  both  of  which  were  support  of  the  powerful  earls  of  Warwick  and 
ossaccesffal ;  and  he  quickly  concluded  an  ar-  Salisbury,  took  arms  against  Somerset,  the 
aasiice  for  9  months,  and  soon  after  another  for  last  great  nobleman  of  the  Lancastrian  branch, 
3  rears  and  8  montfak  Another  English  cam-  and  began  by  a  victory  at  St.  Albans,  in  1465, 
pum  in  France  was  begun  in  1346  under  the  the  wars  between  the  red  rose  of  Lancaster 
tsi  of  Derby^  and  prosecuted  with  unintermpt-  and  the  white  rose  of  York.  The  claims  of 
ed  f Qccess.  Edward  also  landed  with  a  numerous  both  these  Phmtngenet  lines  were  derived  frgm 
fcrc«  on  the  coast  of  Normandy,  advanced  to  Edward  III.  From  the  first  2  sons  of  that 
Sdoen,  sent  his  light  troops  to  insult  the  fau-  sovereign  no  issne  survived ;  the  3  Lancaa- 
bou^  of  Pari^  and  on  Aug.  26  gained  over  trian  kings  who  hod  occupied  the  throne  for 
Philip  the  decisive  battle  of  Crecy.  The  siege  more  than  half  a  century  were  descended  fh>m 
of  Calais  followed,  and  while  the  chivalry  of  the  4th  son ;  the  dukes  of  York  were  descended 
Eo^and  lay  before  the  walls  of  that  city,  the  from  the  6th  son,  but  had  also  by  intermar- 
Soots  suddenly  crossed  the  frontiers,  but  were  riage  become  heirs  to  tlie  rights  of  the  8d 
de^:ed  by  a  miscellaneous  and  rapidly  collect-  son.  The  Question  of  genealogical  right,  com- 
ed  army,  led,  according  to  the  improbable  testi-  plicated  in  itself,  w&s  rendered  more  so  by  the 
Bony  of  Froissart,  by  Queen  Philippa.  Calais  irregular  accession  of  the  1st  Lancaster,  while 
mrendered  after  an  obstinate  defence,  and  a  Edmund  Mortimer,  the  heir  of  the  3d  son,  waa 
tnce  followed  which  lasted  till  1355.  Mean-  alive,  and  by  decrees  of  parliament.  Richard, 
time.  Edward  invaded  and  widely  desolated  duke  of  York,  after  varions  successes  and  re- 
Scoclaad,  caosing  a  havoc  long  remembered  by  verses  in  maintaining  his  claim,  was  defeated  and 
tlie  nadveft.  The  war  was  renewed  in  France  slain  by  Queen  Margaret,  at  Wakefield,  in  1460; 
noder  the  Black  Prince,  who  gained  in  1356  and  young  Edward,  the  inheritor  of  his  father?8 
the  memorable  victory  of  Poitiers,  in  which  he  pretensions  and  ability,  immediately  put  himself 
took  Kic;:  J<:»hn  of  Franco  prisoner,  who  was  not  at  the  head  of  an  anny  of  Welsh  borderers  and 
nasi^med^  till  1360.  In  that  year  the  *^  great  mountaineers,  and  defeated  a  formidable  force 
wac*''  was  conclnded  at  Bretigni,  by  which  under  the  earls  of  Pembroke  and  Ormond,  at 
£iward  renounced  his  pretensions  to  the  crown  Mortimer's  Cross.  lie  tlien  marched  southward, 
cf  France  and  restored  his  conquests,  retaining  supported  by  the  earl  of  Warwick,  who  suffered 
only  the  full  sovereignty  of  Poitou,  Guienne,  a  defeat  at  I^arnot  llcath  by  which  Henry  waa 
ud  the  county  of  Pouthieu.  Though  the  mis-  again  restored  to  his  friends.  Edward  marched 
Simnes  of  the  latter  years  of  his  reign  con-  directly  to  London,  which  ho  entered  without 
tiftate^i  Firongly  with  the  glories  of  its  com-  opposition,  and  where  his  youth,  boldness,  and 
znencement,  and  though  his  victories  left  few  beauty  gained  him  the  public  favor.  Ho  waa 
laRing  acquisitions,  yet  they  gave  to  England  a  proclaimed  king  in  1461,  and  thus  there  were  two 
\astn  and  renown  which  were  long  her  strength  kings  and  two  royal  annies  in  tlio  land.  Both 
Bid  <«fcty.  In  his  reign  tho  elegant  arts  began  parties  made  the  most  formidable  preparations 
a>  be  cultivated,  the  castle  of  Windsor  was  re-  for  battle,  and  at  Towton,  near  York,  100,000 
bmh,  the  order  of  the  garter  was  instituted,  and  Englishmen  were  drawn  up,  in  not  very  un- 
Eigilsih  poetry  and  prose  may  be  said  to  have  equal  division,  in  hostile  array.  •  Proclamation - 
been  besrun.  '  had  been  made  that  no  quarter  should  be  given, 
EDWARD  IV.,  king  of  England,  bom  in  and  tho  battle  was  probably  tho  bloodiest  in 
Booen,  April  20, 1441,  died  April  9,1483.  An  English  history.  It  lasted  more  than  a  day, 
old  chronicler  f^peaks  of  '*  the  troublous  season  and  ended,  after  the  slaughter  of  more  than 
if  King  llenry  VI.,  the  prosperous  reign  of  80,000  persons,  in  the  total  rout  of  the  Lan- 
XxBg  Edward  IV.,  tho  pitiful  life  of  King  Ed-  castrians ;  and  thus  the  crown  was  firmly 
VTO  v.,  and  the  tru^ical 'doings  of  King  placed  on  the  brow  of  Edward  IV.  The  cause 
Behard  III."  The  lot  of  the  feeble  Henry  VI.  of  the  red  rose  seemed  desperate,  but  it  was 
4DiDo«'t  inappropriately  in  an  age  of  violence,  to  supported  by  tho  courage  and  energy  of  Mar- 
vluch  he  brought  only  meekness  of  spirit;  and  garet.   She  sailed  to  France,  seeking  the  alliance 

k  Mw  daring  h'        ' '     '"      * '  '^  '"    "'--''  '  * '  — ''''  ^"  '—'  -""  ^" 

of  forei;rn 
isDomin  V 


ft^Ue  qneen,  Margaret  of  Anjou,  were  the  oc-    tie  to  the  English  general.  Lord  Montacute,  near 
~'     of  revi\iiig  the  long  forgotten  pretensions   Eexham,    Tho  LoDcastrioiis  were  again  eoui- 


6  EDWARD  IV.  EDWARD  V. 

ji!i'ti  !}■  rrtnt*-*! ;  tho  liiij  liii-!  ri.ir.y  t »f  Oi-^  r!ii.  f*  now  luraln  !mv:iiik»  master  of  LiihIoti.  And  uf  i}m 
¥iri.' r.i|it;ir«  il  f*n  titi*  r!iM.  or  af'.' r  l^irkiiii:  :ur  in-r**-!!  ot'  lliiirv.  wh«i  w.v  ri'MuiinKil  to  tlie 
A  »}.:!•'  i:t  t  ••riicaliMt  I.! ;  hri>l  .M.&rjart :  lu'-iin  l<*wtr.  rtr\iT  ni;:un  tn  K-hvo  it.  MtanwMle, 
Im.-mIi-  ].«rt'-a|i-  t}.rfi:^li  S-.  rl^i:.  1  int>)  Fr.un'i',  Mar,:.int,  uith  lur  wn,  iiow  H  viar*  of  a(^», 
tri!h  ).<  r  ."•';!  and  lii-  fvii>>-.;<i  {To*  ptur,  Mr  luudul  uC  WiMihicith  :a  tho  Iu'jmI  of  .1  bi«]r  uf 
J>i!.ii  Fiirtt«<-)r.  K'lMaril.  ai  t;:ij  ujtiii  the  Frtiirh  triHi|H  mi  tlio  wn  thiv  uf  tliv  baltle  of 
l;;;i\.r:i  ^if  M  i* .  !.;;iv.  !!i.  ^%i!li  ( l.ar.M  t«ri-«:i''  1  i^-  ]{:iniit.  Tin*  lifNi  iVihf  of  u  hirh  >\iv  n<«vive«I 
t>r.  x:;.i>!i-  :i  l*  rr.^'li*  ^!:kw•:^:l  r  of  l.:i  i:.i  imi-*  in  tiihtip«  vrn^  h«-r  ltii*<l*aiid's  raptivity  and  tlio  di<^ 
t!i-  tir-t  iiiiMiii-:,'.  ff  11  !<>r\,  u:.-!  iii  hi*  mi*<m-  frat  tuid  di-ath  df  Wurwuk.  N overt tnU'sfes,  tdio 
q'i«^i!  :idiij!!n^!rv.i"7i  n.I> d  ui'.h  1  !i-iiii  !.>}.  Af-  iKti-nuinol  to  (Ufi-nd  to  tho  utiiuMt  hi-r  fallen 
Ur  ili:-*  Miii'.il  n-tr^.it  cf  Mar^MTt :.  l.v  di  vii!til  furliiiii's  :tnd  with  an  uniiy  otiiinuiiHU-tl  l.r  tlie 
liiri'vif  f'lr  u  tii!i«' :•>  I  !•  a-'Tr.  lie  h-A'\  Niii  d'lki*  of  Snui-rMt  inutU*  a  staiKl  :il  Tcwkiittiury, 
liTint::.^*  i'l  t!.'-  fTi  -t  ff  <ir:kfl4.:i,  u]i.  u  Iil-  nut,  M.iy  4,  1471.  Mt-r  nnny  w:l-  ili  fi-altil.  ht-r  hm 
Bt  K>r  fu!!it  r'**  }i<>'L-«'.  KI;/.il>i :!:.  ^^iilnw  i>f  >ir  i'riniv  FMwanl  >lain.  niiil  ^)R•  lMr<<-lf  takt-n  pri»- 
Juijii<ir«y  and  di:/)itir  tif  Iluhard  Widvillo,  uni-r  lUtd  hi-ld  in  «-;qiti\ity  Ti  \v:\r^^  ntu-n  ^lNl 
liar*ifi  Iti^iTt.  TLi'  iiii|i^«inuui  kiiu*.  in  v:un  vu.i  run-in ird  by  ttu*  kin^< if  Friuiiv.  llrrhu»- 
N-t-k:!!,r  u:i  i!!h  .t  uIi'umi,  (iin'M  ;it4.tl  to  a  iirivato  l>:U)d  ii:irt  ]»nt  to  d«.at}i  in  tlu*  tuwi-r.  May  21. 
niarr-.vf  uitli  !.i  r  (April,  1I04>,  aiid  Mio  Wii.i  E*lw:knl  foriiivd  an  idliuniv  in  1471  with  tlie 
witiij;  a  yi-.ir  i'.;llii  ly  :m  k;tii\\Kt!»:fd  •purn,  and  dukt*  of  Hnrpindy,  l>y  «  hirh  Fninri*  wtu*  t't  lie 
li«r  futhir  wa^  li. &•!•.-  un  •  ^I.  Itii**  tii.ion  di-^  dividi-d  into  tuo  !*t:ai-?,  one  of  \«hii-h,  cxfrni>rv- 
|dl^^•^■d  tJio  (••>^«ir!-.d  a:.<l  }iaii;;}ity  t.irl  «>f  W^at-  h«  niliii;;  tho  nor!hrrn  anil  i-;i.*«tcni  i-niviniv^ 
wi<  k.  «!jo  hud  It  fort'  tivn  a<:thi»r:Ad  U*  rit.-;r»-  hl.<iuldU'lon;;ti»  Murcnndy, iind  th«ijthvrfthi>ul>l 
tiato  fL>r  !}.L'  i:;arrta4!i*  of  tSr  kiitu'  ^«ith  l!io  Ik*  [MP^<.^-<iM-<l  l>y  Kn^'laiid.  Uc  \r^s<*\  iAiT  to 
f>ririri— «  I(«ii.i:f  if  ^:k^oy,  and  \\\i*j  ii:i.<i  nion-  C*ulai4  witli  a  forro  uf  arrlii-r*iind  nit  u-at-unns, 
owT  in-li^TtA!.!  ut  t!ii-  ii.riiuniv  ikium-^miI  by  only,  hoUi-Vi-r,  to  Ih.*  di.t:i{>|Hiiiitvd  I ly  the  duke 
tht'  ni-u'  >|'..iin,  Hliiih  ^!lo  i!upl>i\iil  in  tlio  of  jtnr^'iintly,  who  rt^nt  he*  ni^iio^y  iiMcad  iti 
€h-\ati<<!i  of  htfown  fKiiiiN.  Tiio  nioii'itntinl  an  anny,  autl  !••  miiko  aii  advantafn^iiUa  in-atj 
carl,  allying  ).iia-<lf  with  Kd\i:u-d'p  l-ruthrr,  uith  I/'ui-i  without  u  t>altlv.  J{y  thi^  irt-atj 
till*  d  iki-  of  (  un'Hf,  !ri>ki<  I'Ut  iiito  c>;>n.ii  ri^  iiiii<>to:i<4iif('i>:i-iil^-rahlt' amount^  wi-r\- 1 •«'!ttuw«tl 
Vi'it  1:1  ll'j'J.  Til*.' rtWii  of  hi'*  i-oniViinat:on  l^y  I.ouU  ni>t  (Mily  tifmn  the  F.n^r'.i-h  kinir,  hot 
With  thv  d:'«ii!it«  ii!<'<l  !i«iMiity  and  pntry  uai  aUi  niNin  all  thr  ron«i«K-raMi*  |'ir>«int  uf  the 
q'iikly  iMiii  in  Mi!:tiori4  fi iiii*  :]t«-il  in  i-% I  ry  part  Kii^Ii"h  miirt.  (Mwar^l  rfturni'«l  to  KtvlaiHl 
of  tl.c*  ('•".;ii:ry.  In  Y^rk^liiro.  ICoSin  of  llitK*^-  !••  Uinriif  iiivohid  in  a  hitter  Atrifi*  w  itJi  hu 
cL&lf.  a  hrpi  aniitri:!  tin*  tnn'i'LTv  of  tho  fronti«  r,  hr>t(lA-r  (  lafi-Xitv.  The  inti-rfin-nii'  of  Eduanl 
t«»/k  t}H*!*iM  \%  i:!j  tio.o-i*»xi.i  !i.  Kdu:kpl  n;ar<  If  |irf\inttd  tlu'  inarri.i^v  of  ('I:irin<v  wi:h  the 
cd  a.':ii!i-l  i}f  rii.  utiaw.iri?  of  \*  v  d.iii*:vr  to  wiiJiny  lii-iri-^^  of  Uiippfiindy ;  N^on  aftt-rwani 
tihi>  !i  h>.«  X|-"*t  d  I.>i-a;-it.J.  \V  jirMji  k.  al'-M-i.t  twoMf'ttn-  f;:i  nd'*  of  (  Iin  m  r  were  pnt  to  di-ftth 
In  Fr.i'.' 1-.  )..>l  ^Miiinl  tho  f.ivfr  i<f  I^^^a^  \1.,  u{t>n  a  frivi<!>(io  pn  t«ni  i\  ji>inr<l  with  an  acca- 
ai.d  h:k>l  •  %•  n  !<«(m::i»  r<  ••>!]■  i!iiI  with  hi<«  o'll  Kiiion  of  r»*•T^K^\\  and  \i  lit  n  hv  niAintainrd 
mtiiiy,  \I.ir«:.ir>  ?.  II*.-  Uiidi«l  at  ]*.irtni<>u:li  tin  ir  iiiniHi-rirt ,  \,m»  wh^  liini*^  If  privatvly  put 
Willi  a  -"T.-iIl  l--!y  if  tr  ••p^  w}itro  h.-*  p"pii-  t«i  iliath.  Ft*-.  M7S  lij^in  a  iliapp.*!?  K*f  trvan^Q, 
lartty  •••.n'.lid  hi«  army  in  a  fi  u  il:iy^  to  ni'TP  for  arrai.:ini..;  p<:)  li-'  j<>Ti'-'-.  Darin.:  lln-  lal- 
tlian  ''•o.'"^' ii.i*n.  II"  a'!v:iii> >  1]  to  tiic  n<  r:h,  tiT  part  of  h>i  hi«-  FdManl  %«a«  Mi:.k  iu  itMli>- 
and  h.-*  a' ;  r-'T  }i  •'h'"  k  t].i- fi'h'..!\  of  t!to  ro\al  hn<  ••  aixl  ph  a-itrt*.  He  \*-(\  't  •hk.i^'KttrN  uf 
tr<-"p".  I'^fviard  thd  :ii  l4To  \,t  lidl^.ind,  and  u!<->mi  Kii/al'iiM  w:i-  a!\rw.iril  i.i.irrii'«l  to 
lii«  i!:.pr-.^i'.ii!  n^olu^i  !.d  f<'r:h  fruni  t!«u  Ih  i^ry  VII.  ;  aii>l  'J  >«•:.<•,  t!ii.-  ill  faUd  priu«.«i 
towir  to  )iiar!hi'  -tr^.*!^  of  I.'irj>!«i:i  ri-^"..:idin,;  }!•!'•» ard  ni.d  Ki<  !.ap!. 

«i:m-  !;i"ri?  u  rth  ihv  uni.iv  ol  K.:.,:  liii.ri.     A         KI»WAllI'  V.,  kii  1:  of  F.r.;:!afid.  I'f  thv  Yi>rk 

pnrlL.vVf'iit  }^x'*  •iv.T'ji  rnd  in  thi' :.anM' of  t!io  lTa!i<  h  of  :!;•■  I'l.»:.:a.»i  r.»  *.'•,  !h.!i  ai.d  ^'.u«  t^^or 

n  •!..ri-.!L ::..-.»  y  wl.:- h  r.'l  ward  u  ;*"«  ppijH'-.inivtl  oI  tlii*  j-ri  ■  i-'.::  A  h":T'  N"*.  I.  l**'',  in  the  ^axu^ 

A  'j»  irj«  r,   h:*   a  :!•  r% :  I*  ui  n*    at'.aii.'.i-il.   and  lurirv  i.f  \\\  ••.i:..r.-:i  raM««  y,  u!.ichtr  hi-  niothor 

all  a«?«  :  I*- d  1  *  !.:*  ar.h^-r:!*  p  i-^  a!i  i!.     liii-*  \,ii>\  I'.i.-l  U'T  t*.:-.*:*-  ir»-VA  t!ii-  arn.v  of  tho  I.an- 

»^  •!..:»:. -n  /avi .  I.'W<  \ir.  ^'::  a  l-r.i  f  r*  *:'it»-  to  r^-'.ri.tn  ^Jii»  :i  M.ir*r  in  t  anil  ul  Wurwii  k.  dit!«i 

tliv  Ijin<-i-!.-;an  fa::..!y.     'l'].^'  {:^\:,\y    K'Im.ipI.  d'»'*S!l«*-  hi    :.i'y •' •'"  "*  ^••'^"  towirof  1.4>i«ikn, 

•e*  p  :.'»  :^-i-!.'l  *  y  :!.»■  diko  ••!   !'•  .rt^in-iy,  <  ul-  w!.-  ri-  J.^*  wa"*  i:ir;  rix>ii«i!.  iii  1  l^.i.    A*,  tl.i-  t.:ikki 

Ii-«!id  a  l--!y '-f  Fl- ri;.?.j^<  aii!   I'-.Ti  iiint  d  i:i  a  t  f.'.i^f.i!  J  » :'- •!«  .itli.  Ajr.l '.',  1  l^'i.y -.lii.j  i;«l»ard 

ffw  rrn  •:.!:.•.  w.'li  m  !.••!:*  lii*  t  :.!•  ri^l  tJji-  II  .m!--r,  w.\h  p  *id:r.^  ■  n  :!.i   l.--rili  r-ol  W.ili  1.  i:.  tl»«'  iar« 

an<l  l.v.  l.'-l  a*.  lLi*i '-•; -.r.     U.*  .ii!^i:.i'd   ii.'.o  of  i\.*'  •.»:!   l::-.»  r%  l-r-tlu  r  tT  t'iv  'iii"*.:;.      In 

Un»    j:ir»r;-T.  J  •. !.  H'lifi.:  .tl  !"r»:  t.'i.il   hi'  rarii.»  ittfr.pi:;^  m  .!!i  K;^*  .-•*  In- i::i::ii  •!:>»:•  ly  "-W-n:  ii*r 

«»::!y  l.»  ri r  :..•  pa!:.!:i  •;*  a«  d.ki' of  ^•■rk,  l^-ndi-ii.  w  I..\' lh«.  duk.i'f  *  t!'»  in -Itr.  tin' I  rtth- 

a?-d  t:..fci.* ,:  }..*  !  '.ii«.  r*  •  •>  "  !-■•:.■:  !!*••  Ki:.,:  iro!  th^*  l.*:**  k.r.pT.  aii>l  now  tin-  PiTti.:  d..rii^ 

II-::ri.'"  !  ;;  \."   ri-t.^id  P  •  :.f  o  •  nn  i:>  wl..ih  thi*  rii.j;nr:'v.  -•.ur:*  d  f"r  iln*  ••■j!h  froi:*  Yt^rk, 

l^fit  J.r:i  ,:i  nit;  :.'•■  n  ti  f.u  i- l.'.i  •'.•ri:t\.     1  !.o  a!!t-:ii!i«l  h«  .1  *|  I- t:'!;«l  P.'i;f.ii'.    'Pn  twopn-^x*- 

ad^tp^i*  arr   ;.  •   r;..  •.  at  Ir»r:i«  •,  on  }'..i-.!t  r  ln«rrj-  t>:«ir.«  !:.•  t  at  >:«'!sy  >:r.ilf"pl,  w  hvn  (ihiUCcAXcr 

i: /,  Apr.!   !  t.  1171    .\ipl  t!.«   Ij»ri>  i^lrukU*  WiTd  a;  pr>isit  !ii^l  tlic  youii,:  |r:!i<i-  Wt*.h  thi-  ^rtaU««t 

drs\m:*'J  AbJ  Uarni.k  tauA».If  »1aiu.     Ld«ard  dvuiuuatr;fc:iui*svfrv:<|t«i.t   bul»iK;ualUrtLaq(ed 


EDWARD  V,  EDWARD  VL 


LVers  and  the  qneen's  son,  Sir  Richard  Grey,    ofan  old  stairway  aheap  of  decayed  bones,  which 
rith  having  idmcil  to  estrange  from  him  the  af-    proved  to  be  those  of  two  boys.    The  indica^ 


Rivers 

wi: 

fection  of  his  nephew,  arrested  and  imprisoned  tions  were  deemed  sufficient  that  they  belonged 

them  both  in  the  castle  of  Pomfret,  and  endeav-  to  the  nnfortuoato  Edward  V.  and  his  brother, 

ored  nnsaccessfally  to  satisfy  Edward  with  re-  and  they  were  removed  by  royal  command  to 

Old  to  tho   violence  thus  exorcised  upon  his  Westminster  abbey,  where  an  inscription,  be- 

kindred.    Tho  king  was  from  this  time  a  captive,  ginning   Ossa   desideratorum   diu  et  muUum 

The  queen  mother  in  London,  perceiving  that  qumitOj  was  placed  upon  tho  monument.    So 

BOthing  less  than  the  ruin  of  her  family  was  in-  well  ccmcealed  a  matter  as  tho  death  of  tlie 

tended,  hastily  took  refuse  with  her  second  son,  royal  princes  leaves  room  for  paradoxes  and 

the  duke  of  York,  and  iier  5  daughters,  in  tho  historic  doubts ;  but  it  is  certain  that,  though 

nactoary  at  Westminster.    Gloucester  had  no  the  name  of  Edward  V.  stands  on  the  list  of 

SDOoer  arrived  in  London  than  ho  postponed  tho  English  sovereigns,  ho  had  hardly  the  shadow 

coronation  of  tho  young  king,  confined  him  for  of  a  reign ;  that  under  tho  dark  protectorship  of 

lecurity  in  the  tower,  and  was  formally  invested  his  uncle  he  went  speedily  from  the  palace  to 

vith  the  office  of  protector.    Uis  next  step  was  the  prison,  \vithin  whoso  predicts  ho  found  sc- 

tD  withdraw  tho  duke  of  York  from  his  retreat  cret  death  and  burial. 

vith  hb  mother  at  Westminster;  but  he  hod  still  EDWARD  VL,  Sd  king  of  England  of  the 

to  fear  opposition  on  the  part  of  those  noblemen,  Tudor  dynasty,  born  Oct  12, 1537,  ascended  tho 

iDch  as  LLtrds  Hastings  and  Stanley,  who  were  throne  in  1547,  died  July  6,  1553.    The  son  of 

friends  of  the  late  king,  and  unswerving  in  their  Henry  VIII.  and  Jane  Seymour,  ho  was  little 

fidelity  to  his  children.     Their  destruction  or  cared  for  by  tho  3  stepmo&ers  whom  he  had  in 

iopzisoainent  without  form  of  trial,  or  even  spe-  quick  succession ;  but  at  the  ago  of  6  vcars,  being 

dncation  of  od!ence,  swiftly  followed.    Tho  earl  intrusted  to  the  learned  masters  Anthony  Cooke 

Kvers  also,  and  his  friends,  were  put  to  death  and  John  Cheke,  mado  progress  in  philosophy, 

withoGt  any  semblance  of  judicial  forms.    Tho  divinity,  Greek,  and  Latin.    Henry  YIII.  ap- 

imoars  of  the  late  king  now  suggested  to  Glou-  pointed  in  his  will  a  council  of  executors  to  ex- 

cester  a  means  of  vili^ing  tho  queen  dowager  *ercise  the  royal  authority  during  the  minority 

and  ber  descendants.    He  even  did  not  hesitate  of  his  son,  who,  at  their  first  meeting,  fearing 

to  malign  his  own  mother,  affirming  that  the  that  the  government  would  lose  its  dignity  for 

resemblance  of  Edward  IV.  and  of  the  duke  of  want  of  some  head  to  represent  tho  royal  ma- 

darenee  to  notorious  gallants  was  a  sufficient  jesty,  bestowed  upon  Edward  Seymour,  now 

proof  of  their  spurious  birth,  and  that  tho  duke  created  duke  of  Somerset,  or  allowed  him  to  as- 

of  Gloucester  alone,  of  all  bis  sons,  appeared  by  sume,  the  titloe  of  governor  of  his  majesty,  lord 

his  features  and  cuuntcnanco  to  bo  the  true  protector  of  all  his  realms,  and  lieutenaut-gen- 

o3S?prin2:  of  the  duke  of  York.    Thus  having  eral  of  all  his  armies.  The  chancellor  Wriothes- 

insulted  the  memory  of  his  mother  and  brother,  ley,  who  resisted  this  measure,  and  who  in  his 

d»graced  the  queen  and  her  children,  and  re-  zeal  exceeded  his  judicial  duties,  was  compelled 

moved  their  most  powerful  friends,  ho  openly  to  resign    his  office.     Sir  Thomas  Seymour, 

dccied  the  title  of  Edward  V.,  who  meanwhile,  tho  brother  of  Somerset,  was  created  Baron 

with  his  hrotfier,  languished  in  prison.  The  pre-  Seymour  of  Sudley,  and  appointed  lord  high 

ebe  time  and  the  details  of  the  death  of  these  admiral.    Tho  government  was  ahnost  entirely 

princes  are  among  the  mysteries  of  history.  Protestant,  and  its  first  object  was  to  complete 

A  conspiracy  liad  been  set  on  foot  for  their  lib-  the  religious  revolution  and  establish  a  church 

cntion  during  the  first  year  of  tho  usurper's  independent  of  the  see  of  Rome.  Tho  statute  of 

Rign,  when  it  was  announced  that  they  were  no  the  6  articles  was  re[)ealed,  prisoners  under  it 

loMtr  alive.    The  account  of  Sir  Thomas  More,  were  released,  and  exiles  recalled.    Preaching, 

which  was  collected  from  the  confession  oi  which  had  been  raro  in  Catliolic  times,  was  en- 

the  murderers  in  the  next  reign,  is  as  follows :  forced  by  nsitors  despatched  throughout  tho 

that  Richard  had  in  vain  tampered  with  the  gov-  kingdom,  who  with  other  powers  wore  author- 

of  the  tower,  Brackenbury,  to  put  them  to  ized  to  require  that  4  scnnons  bo  preached  ov- 

,  bat  found  a  ready  instrument  for  tho  exe-  ery  year  in  every  church  against  the  papacy. 

1  of  his  purpose  in  l^Trel,  his  master  of  Images,  which  Luther  had  tolerated  as  aids 

;  that  Tyrrel  was  despatched  with  a  com-  to  devotion,  and  of  which  Craniner  vindicated 

to  receive  the  keys  of  tho  tower  for  one  a  moderate  use,  became  objects  of  dislike,  and 

a^t,  and  that  during  that  night  ho  watched  were  torn  down  in  places  where  they  had  been 

without  while  one  of  his  grooms,  accompanied  honored  by  pilgrimages  and  offi?rings.      The 

If  a  notorious  assassin,  entered  the  sleeping  room  English  Bible,  with  Erasmus's  commentary  cm 

tf  the  princes,  stifled  them  both  with  feather  tho  gospels,  was  placed  in  every  church  for 

teds  and  pillows,  and  buried  their  bodies  at  the  the  use  of  the  people.    In  tho  first  parliament 

ftKit  of  the  staircase.    The  testimony  of  More  is  the  statutes   of   Kichard  II.   and  Henry  IV. 

doMBst  contemporaneous  with  tho  event  itself,  against  tho  Lollards  wero   repeale<l,  togetlier 

■d  b  confirmed  by  the  honors  which  were  cer-  with  all  tho  acts  in  matters  of  religicm  pa-sed 

^maty  conferred  upon  tho  alleged  murderers.   In  under  Henry  VIIL,  except  those  directed  acainst 

ft* reign  of  Charles  II.,  when  alterations  were  the  papal  supremacy.    The  uniformity  of  public 

"  in  the  tower,  there  was  found  at  the  foot  worship  was  established,  uud  all  mimslcr^vcciXQ 


8                     EDWARD  VL  EDWARD  (va  Black  Pmai) 

c^JoiiMN]  to  DM  onljr  the  book  of  omnmon  pray-  Undlordi.  Thcro  were  Armies  of  imnrgent«  in 
cr,  |»iv|>arutl  br  tlio  (iriinmlo  Craiiuivr  ftou  )iU  teverftl  coantioH,  bat  tbo  IftrgcAt  and  iiiunt  tkh 
brvthrvu,  whu-It,  aAA.T  varkms  iiItiTatioiui  io  tlio  lent  wa«  in  CornwAll,  where  a  tjurner  naincd 
fviKniiof  ElitthvCh,  JauKHi  I.,  and  Cbark*«  II.,  K«tt  cocamjii'd  nvar  Norwich  at  tho  hi*ad  of 
contiuuc4  in  oh*  in  tho  Anglican  church  to  thtf  20,000  men.  He  r«|>ulie<l  tho  maniuisi  of  Ni»rth» 
daj.  The  En^liMh  clergy  wcru  ^niancifiati'd  amiiton,  but  wa«  at  Wngtlt  di*fcate<l  and  hangud 
from  cowi'alnory  cvUltacy,  though  it  wan  rvcom-  wiih  Uxa  principal  aflKociate^.  Tbo  pn»to«'tor  had 
ui'Oiivd  til  thetu  **to  U«*eM>|iaratv  from  the  b4»nd  incurred  odium  bj  what  wait  (eriiu'il  his  ftvhlo 
of  niarri.i;^*,  fi>r  thvir  own  intimation,  and  that  adiuini«lration  during  this  rebellion,  and  alM>  bjr 
tbvy  mi^ht  attend  M»lely  to  th«  niini>tration  of  his  lavikh  cxiienditures  uixm  his  magnifier ot 
the  gl>«I^.•l.'*  Thero  wi-re  as  yet  no  lYutv^tant  palace  of  Somenn't  house.  Ho  had  wavorvd  and 
nooronft»rmb4A«  but  all  pir»ns  were  command-  almost  given  sanction  to  tho  demands  uf  tbo 
fd  to  attend  public  workliip  under  pain  of  ih>  populace  when  thcv  were  in  arms  againi4.  tho 
clesia!4ioal  cen^un^  of  6  month**  impriiionment  royal  authority ;  and  had  bvcomu  from  a  simpU 
tor  the  tir»t  otfencv,  12  for  tlio  second,  ami  cim-  knight  with  a  slvndor  fortune  tho  injivenur  of 
finenK-iit  lor  lifi^or  tlto  third,  lionner,  bLthop  more  than  200  manon  and  parreUor  Und  in  dif* 
of  I»udoii,  (laraitK'r,  bi«>ho|>  of  Wim-heater,  and  fvrent  parts  of  tlie  kingdom.  Tlie  dl^iconteoted 
several  otU-rt,  wero  deprived  of  their  sei-H  bo-  lords,  directed  by  Dudley,  earl  of  Warwick,  grad- 
canse  tltiy  ci>uld  not  keep  |iaco  with  the  reform-  ually  withdrew  from  court  and  met  in  Loodoa 
aiory  m«>Vi:m«nt  Tho  fir-4  step  toward  reli-  with  bodies  of  tlieir  retainers.  Tlicprr»tector,aa 
giottB  lilierty  was  a  distinction,  rvcognixAMl  prac-  toon  as  ho  received  intvlligenre  of  tln^ir  move- 
tically  though  not  by  canon,  between  what  were  ment,  took  tho  king  with  him  io  Windsor,  and 
mp|ii»>v«i  to  be  the  euvntial  and  the  unesm*ntial  called  by  proclamatitm  on  all  Ciithful  suliji«(s  to 
paru  of  i'hrUtiaiiiiy,  and  only  offences  againrt  re|iair  to  him  at  Hampton  court  in  arms  for  tho 
the  fornu-r  wvro  liable  to  deadly  iieniet*utioiu  protection  of  tho  royal  iH'rbon  against  a  conspi- 
Tha\  u«j  Il'iuuftn  Catholic  suffertd  death  for  re-  racy.  Multitudes  of  the  common  ficople,  bat 
Ugiou  in  tliiA  ni^rn ;  but  Joan  HtMrher,  comuMtnly  scarcely  a  gentleman,  obeyed  his  i^nmmona,  and 
eallcd  J>  MH  of  KeiiU  was  burned  for  an  uniutel-  his  i^uso  was  rendered  de»i»enite  when  the  cooo- 
ligible  hir%-fty,  which  denied  feumething,  tluKigh  cil  declared  against  him.  TIte  king  was  obliged 
ber  a  on!-  \  ainly  MTu«rf:ivd  to  explain  w  liat,  con-  to  sanction  tho  vote  for  hb  depotiition,  and  he  waa 
erruing  e  liruc.  Von  I'arris,  a  i Dutchman,  was  brought  to  London  and  incarcerate^i  in  tlie  tow* 
also  bunicd  for  detiving  the  divinitr  of  tho  cr,<K:t.  14,  1549.  Warwick  diftiiembU*d  fur  the 
tsiavit#ur.  .Vm«jng  civj  occurrences  in  tFi is  nugn,  moment  his  purpose  conceniing  tlK»  priaoDcr, 
the  fir»t  of  imjiortance,  afler  tlie  settlement  of  and  was  obliged  by  hU  |iobition,  tliough  a  secrvt 
the  p»%ernmeut,  waa  the  exitediiitmof  S>NH*n»et  Catholic,  to  Sivor  tlie  cause  of  the  reformation, 
into  Si 41  olid  tt>comi*el  the  nisrhago  of  Mary,  and,  though  a  rancorons  enemy  of  Somerset 
the  }i*ui^:  iitK^n  uf  ^vots.  to£«lward,  according  soon  to  sot  tluU  nobU'man  free,  and  to  give  bia 
to  a  proMUA  treaty.  A  bloiMly  encounter,  bo-  own  son  in  marriage  to  SomerMrt's  danghter. 
irun  U'.»  ixn  the  S'«>ttl»hand  fcjigliih  cavalry  at  Wlion,  liowever,  Warwick  had  re«*cived  the  of- 
jalaiih-,  ^s}•L  If,  1547,  wan  c<intinue«i  iIm^  next  fice  of  bird  high  a«iniiral,  liad  l<een  raised  to  the 
day  UtMtwi  the  entin.*  armii*!*  at  Tinkie,  and  dignityof  dukeof  Northuml»erluud,  had  twcuma 
CD«U.<«1  .11  the  victor^'  of  tho  Kngli«h  protcctx»r.  tlie  uihiispnted  chief  of  tlie  government,  and 
Ho  wa^  however,  ouickly  called  h*mie  by  hati  annihilated  tlie  iMiwer  of  Smierni't,  he  waa 
niai)iii.sia*u^  againsit  liim,  the  ><Hiug  <|uet.'n  of  able  to  iirix*e\.Hl  furtlR'r  against  that  duke,  who 
Bcvit*  »a«  »ent  to  Kntiice,  and  the  war  «a<%  end-  mas  again  coimnitted  to  the  touer  in  1551  lur 
ed  «ith««it  La\  ing  effet-ti^  its  ohJe«*t.  Ili4  brtn  treoMou  and  for  feU»ny,  wan  coii\icled  u|ioa  tba 
thcr  aijd  ri^aJ,  I.AinlS'T moor,  «aA commit te«l  to  latter  chan^*,  and  eie«*utetl  n|H»n  Tower  hill, 
lhet«>wir,  Feb.  25, 154!l.andal'iIlatLuiutinghim  Jan.  2i,  15.'i2.  Warwick  next  i^^'n^iiaded  Ed- 
Was  brn'U'ltt  into  tlie  hf>u«o  of  h'VxU.  This  bill  ward  to  make  a  Dew  KttlenM'nt  excluding  bia 
was,  by  tiieuiliuencucif  SiUMTwl,  abo«aspn*f^  sifters  from  the  su4x:ession  to  tin*  throne,  and 
cut  in  thi'  ho<i.«o  U>  cn<-iiurage  it,  |'a»«i'<l  unatii-  giving  llie  faud  nomination  to  Ijsdy  Jane  tinry, 
liMiu«ly  mthin  3  liays  ;  and  S-\m<'ur,  «it)H»ut  who  bad  bren  his  pla\ mate  and  4*t>inpanion  in 
baviiig  h..il  an  o|*|MNiunity  to  defeh'l  him<K*lf  or  studies,  t'lilward  »aiik  ra|'idly  alter  tlii\  and 
oonfrticit  h.«  S4t-uvr%  «a«  Ite.Sewicd  on  Tuwer  divd  in  the  16th  year  of  hi«  ag\*  autl  the  Tlh  of 
hill.  Mari  h  *».  l>^ring  the  bexi»uf!imer  fonni-  hi«  reiim*  Hw  act-«impUihmentii  wvrt*  puth  aa 
dable  i:i^:irrvciiun4  bri'ke  out  in  tarn'U*  |»art*of  to  ftur]>ri»tf  the  fainoua  Italian  |ih\>irian  Jeroina 
the  kiri,;i!o::i.  The  deprt^iation  of  thcrurnncy  Canlan,  who  vlMted  hiui  in  lii«  la^t  ^i«-kncw; 
durm,;  t^i  U«t  rtign  l^ad  U>  n  ft»!lomed  by  an  ad-  and  for  hi*  diary  and  otlu  r  cotii|M*^iti«»n«  Ih*  i%  in* 
van«v  iti  i.'if  pricvirf  o>mnuji!itit-«;  at  tht<  saxno  dudnl  by  WaJ|Ni]e  in  hi<»  h^t  «»f  nnal  atithor^ 
time  1 2  rt*  dims  fill  fur  laUir  h^l  U*en  h«ihiu«^  Tlie  literar>  r\-niain%  of  K<1  ward  VI..  i«ili  ted  with 
and  i!*  w !„-««  ndut-^^L  The  nrw  uikiwr%uf  ab^  bi«tiirical  notiivi  and  a  biograph(«*.-iI  imnio-.r  by 
tir}  lai  «i»  i.^1  rruUned  maxiT  of  tlie  lieUU  which  John  <ioU|:h  Nithuls,  wtre  prtiilol  in  1^*5)1,  for 
Lad  fvr7.i«r!i  l<^ii  ailott<>d  fir  the  ri.*mnHin  the  Knxbiirgh  club  (2  %f«U.,  I^Hidoni. 
ttw  t>f  l}<v  i^T  uihahitants  aiid  th«.ir  rapacity  KI'WAKIi,  i>rin«x*  of  Wa]i«,  f^i;niamr«l  tbo 
Waa  i-urM|t.ir*<i  w  :ih  tJie  iiidul^-nc«.*  of  t^ie  Ulack  IVmfi*,  frcm  the  nihtr  of  hi«  ariiMT,  rid- 
iavftk%  w  Lo  Lad  vfUu  bvcD  the  UMjat  kbiuit  of  cat  sun  of  Edward  UL  and  i'hdippa  vf  llaitiant^ 


EDWARDES  9 

bom  at  TToodstock,  Jane  15, 1830,  died  Jane  8,  appointed  8d  assistant  to  the  commissioners 
1376.  la  Ills  16th  year  he  accompanied  his  of  the  Trans-Satlcj  territory  a  few  weeks  later; 
&ih<rr  in  his  inrauon  of  France,  uid  he  held  the  and  in  Jan.  1847,  was  made  first  assistant  to 
nominal  command  of  tlie  largt^  and  most  ac-  Sir  Henry  Lawrence,  the  resident  at  Lahore, 
tirely  engaged  division  of  the  English  forces  in  and  was  charged  with  collecting  the  revenue  in 
tbe  battd  of  Crdcy,  the  king  giving  him  this  the  N.  W.  part  <^  the  rui\}aab.  The  skill  with 
cpportunity  to  ^*  win  his  spurs."  Among  the  which  ho  performed  this  difficult  duty,  and, 
^a  in  the  battle  was  John  of  Luxemburg,  king  without  resort  to  military  measures,  reduced  the 
of  I>ohemia,  and  his  crest  of  3  ostrich  featliers.  lawless  tribes  of  that  half  subjugated  country, 
with  the  motto  Ich  dien  (I  serve),  was  adopted  at  once  drew  the  attention  of  the  Indian  authori- 
ty the  prince  of  Wales,  and  has  always  been  ties  toward  the  young  lieutenant;  and  his  con- 
bome  by  his  successors.  Li  1356  he  gdned  the  duct  in  the  troubles  which  foUowed  with  the 
Tictory  of  Poitiers,  in  which  the  French  King  Sikh  chieftain  Lalla  Moolr(\j  soon  made  his  name 
J<^  was  taken  prisoner.  He  returned  to  Eng-  familiar  in  every  part  of  England.  In  April, 
lud  in  1357,  the  king  of  France  on  a  splendidly  1848,  Mooing  stirred  up  a  rebeUion  of  the  Sikhs, 
e^wrisoned  chariger  forming  the  principal  oma-  fortified  himself  at  llooltan,  and,  aided  by  the 
Dent  of  the  cavalcade  with  which  he  entered  native  garrison  of  a  small  fort  near  there,  mur- 
London.  In  1861  the  king  of  England  united  dered  Lieut.  Anderson  of  the  Bombay  fusileers 
iQ  his  dominions  between  the  Loire  and  the  and  Mr.  Vans  Agnow  of  die  Bengal  civil  service. 
FtpfOces  into  one  principality,  and  bestowed  it  At  this  critical  period  it  was  probably  the  cour- 
cpoa  the  Black  Prince,  with  the  title  of  prince  age  and  military  knowledge  of  Lieut  Edwardes 
of  Aqnitonia.  There  Pedro  the  Cruel  took  ref-  which  saved  tlie  British  power  in  the  Puigaub. 
Qge  from  Castile,  and  young  Edward  undertook  Leaving  the  town  of  Lcia  on  the  Indus,  where 
10  replace  him  on  his  throne.  He  marched  he  had  been  employed  with  a  small  force  in  col- 
throof^h  the  valley  of  Roncesvalles  and  by  Pam-  lecting  the  land  tax,  he  summoned  Col.  Cortlandt^ 

2oaa  to  the  frontiers  of  CosAle,  met  and  commanding  at  Dera  Ismail  Khan,  to  come  to 
ifeated  Henry  of  Trastamare  on  the  plains  his  assistance,  called  upon  the  friendly  nabob 
InetweenXavarrete  and  Najera,  was  disappointed  of  Bahawalpoor  to  take  the  field,  and  having 
of  the  reimbursements  which  had  been  stipu-  effected  a  Junction  with  Cortlandt,  May  20, 
lated,  and  returned  into  Guienne  with  an  ex-  moved  down  the  AV.  bank  of  the  Indus  at  the 
hansted  treasory  and  a  shattered  constitution,  head  of  7,000  men.  At  the  same  time  10,000 
To  defray  the  expenses  of  his  court,  perhaps  of  the  enemy  who  had  marched  out  to  oppose 
the  must  magnificent  in  Europe,  and  to  fulfil  liis  passage  IV'cre  compelled  by  the  demoustra- 
his  contracts  with  the  troops  that  had  followed  tions  of  the  Bahawalpoor  troops  to  retreat 
Lim  to  Spain,  he  was  obliged  to  impose  taxes  toward  the  Chenaub,  whither  Edwardes,  hav- 
▼hich  made  him  unpopular  with  his  baruns.  ing  crossed  the  Indus  on  the  17th  with  a  small 
Siaumuned  in  1369  to  answer  before  King  b(xly  of  infantry,  hastened  to  attack  them, 
ChiHtrs  of  France  to  the  complaints  of  his  vas-  leaving  Cortlandt  to  follow  as  soon  as  boats 
taU,  he  replied  that  he  would  obey,  but  at  the  could  be  got  for  the  passage  of  the  rest.  Mean- 
head  of  00.000  men.  IIo  appeared  in  the  field,  whUo  Mooing  had  defeated  the  nabob  of  Baha- 
but  the  French  generals  avoided  an  engagement  walpoor,  and  Edwardes  on  reaching  the  scene 
aod  garrisoned  tlieir  strong  places.  Helaidsiego  of  action  had  to  withstand  the  onset  of  the 
to  Lunoj-cas  captured  it  and  reduced  it  to  ashes,  whole  Sikh  army,  12,000  strong,  including  horse 
lad  ma^>acn:d  the  inhabitants.  This  was  the  and  artillery.  After  a  hard-fought  battle,  mem- 
dose  of  Lis  military  career,  and  by  the  advice  orablc  for  a  gallant  charge  of  the  mounted  Brit- 
of  his  physicians  he  returned  to  England,  where  ish  officers  ui>on  the  Sikh  front,  the  insurgents 
he  Lngcred  for  G  years.  The  Black  Prince  is  were  routed  by  the  opportune  arrival  of  Col. 
portray  e-l  by  contemporary  writers  as  the  mir-  Cortlandt,  and  made  their  way  to  Mooltan.  In 
ror  of  knighthood  and  the  most  heroic  of  princes,  the  subsequent  siego  of  that  city  and  its  assault 
He  was  married  to  his  cousin  Joan,  countess  of  after  the  arrival  of  Gen.  Whish  from  I^ihore, 
Eent,  faniel  for  her  beauty,  by  whom  he  left  the  heroic  young  officer  gained  new  laurels,  but 
le  foa,  Kichard.  who  succeeded  Edward  III.  lost  his  right  hand  by  the  accidental  discharge 
I  the  throne  of  England.  of  a  pistol  For  his  services  he  received  the 
EDWAKI>ES,  LiECT.  Col.  Herbert  Biwja-  local  rank  of  miyor  in  the  Lahore  territories,  tho 
:,C.  B..  an  English  soldier,  born  in  Frodosley,  East  India  company  voted  him  an  annuity  of 
*:iire,  in  Jan.  1820,  where  his  father  was  £100,  the  court  of  directors  caused  a  gold  medal 


netor  of  the  parish.    He  studied  at  King's  col-  to  be  struck  in  his  honor,  and  ho  was  raised  by 
kfB;  London,  and  having  been  nominated  to  a  successive  promotions  to  the  rank  of  lieutenant- 
ship  in  the  East  India  company's  service,  colonel.  At  the  end  ofthe  war  he  visited  England, 
ul  for  Calcutta,  where  he  arrived  in  Jan.  was  married,was  created  by  siKJcial  statute  an  ex- 


tf  fioodkce,  Dec.  18  ;  was  actively  engaged  in    appointed  commissioner  and  sunerintendcnt  at 
fta  Tictory  of  Sobraon,  Feb.  10,  1846;  was    Pesh^iwcr,  aa  oiUco  which  ho  bIlII  holds,    Mlftt 


10  EDWARDS 

0»c  <!i*.inninff  t-f  ili^  tr-v\j>i  at  tM<  «f.i?ii»n  <lMr-  K^t  knnwn  work,  llio  •*  ITi«torr,  Civil  ami  r«»rii- 

iiik'  thv  "i  j-i\  ri  V  i',?  4»f  l-'7  ■*».  !io  I  r^Tiiii/t-^l  .in  intp-i.il.  of  t!n»  Hriti^h  ('«'Itini»«»  in  i}\»'  Wt  -i  In- 

rf  i!ii'  f:-*i.ritr-,  nn  !  w:i«  ii.»:r.ly  n.-Tnun*  i.tjU  uurk  Ik.ip*  »  liitfli  chfirrMTt-r,  arnl  j:i\r-  \iry 

in  |ri^ri.i«'  t'n-  r"!!i:;»?TiT:\i-  traT.'iUilI'.'.y  of  iiiiTiUto   uml    vurutl   iiif(»nn.ition.     Ii    w.i-  ri- 

t!..it  ;•..-..  I  f:.l:.i  t!.r- ■:/!.•• ;!  tJ.i-  ri!-  !!i"ii.  |>riiiti«il  in  Philm<K*l|i)tiii  in  4  voN.  Svo  i  I-m-:— V,). 

KI'WAiM***.  !i  S    K.  t>  .;'  Ii!..  liniLi^I  t-'t  a  A  r»t!i  Ltlitii>n,  with  arontinntition  t«i  17''f*>.  «:l<« 

hv.\.i\\  i  \!t:.:  I  V  i!n-  l.:v:i   W.j.v),  ri\.r;  ari-a,  i'«Mi-!rril  in  5  %•••!%.  Hvn.  <I.omlon,  l»^r.»v     Mr. 

2'*t  --,.  i!i  i  ]•••'.  .1.  l*'!'!.  l.'i."».     Im-m  r.KiTrik  rI«l\vanU  ritnnu'^l  to  Kii^lum!.  ti-ik  nj-  !.i-  n-i- 

ll>)u  <.:*.•>!./ i'-  r.  *-  nl-  r.  :i:.'!  tl.i-  Wj'  a-!»  t«»i:«  Iu'H  doriro  m  JVily^fin,  nrar  Southanjpt*.  is,  a:iil  fn-m 

i!  .Ill !? .  N  K      I '  \-  •  :r! »  .- 1*  »-••':;■..!  I  y  i.-rt-^t;*  lTl"»  till  Li-*  ili-ath  rf|in*«ciitctl  iLc  borvu^h  of 

atii]  fi  :".!■  I.')-!  .'  .'  •  .• ;  n.'.i-.     Iij  >'■"  ijj..-|-pi-  (irrtnirHHin'I  in  {'arlianu-nt. 
il ;.  ■:  .:  -  >\.!  ■  -jj;."    't  !  •>.!■•  I  f  I:.:i.»n  lurn,        KI'WAIiMS,  (iCiiMiK,  ''tho  fiitlwr  of  orni- 

;.'».41J     I  -  .•-,  .1  .•!   I.'*  J  ?•-•••  <f  l.!»y.     Tlii  r«  t]ii>lotri!>t«s"  Imihi  in  Siratfnril,  K.^<>fX,  F.n^..  April 

fivr-   11   .1..-.'..-,  a:..l  l."M   pv;  il- '.'ilUn'lii:!:  3,  WM,  «liiil  JuW  2:i,  ITT.i.     Ilr  wm  ImMi^M 

|.';*  I !■••«■  !:•-■.'.      I  ijvi  .i'jM!y  w:;-i:.iM«'*l  inli'-ii'-r  up  t«>  tnnlc,  but  lii^  tH.-t«r4  livin^:  dovvli^i^c-fl  l«jf 

«if  N.:.:  -n   K-'.w-.r  1-.  ^'.•\«.r:."r  I'f  liliNoL'*  ti-rri-  tlu*  w-ru«al  of  work^  un  natural  Li^tury  niA  ao- 

tory      1  ij  '.t\  A. *■:••!».  tiipnlic^  At  the  t*K»«so  of  hi-i  appr^-ntiit-^hip  li« 

K!•^^  Al:!  <*^.  Uu  \  I'tiTr*.  [i  IV,  an  Aiiu-riran  travvlltil  uliruail.  vi^itin;;  Ilolhuni,  Norway,  and 

Bntl:  tr.  pp-:'.  --ic  i:i  tli--   A:.'l«»\«  r   tin-  -l>>/ii*iil  otIuT  (•arts  of  Kiipipv,  in  proM-rutinj:  hid  faTur. 

H?M:.r»r_*.  *-■.':*  .fi  N«i*l::i!:ip!ii:i.  M;i— .,  July  4,  itt*  rvM.-arrliO'i.    The  fniit  of  hi*  hiln.r*  apjH-ared 

1»»"J.  .'.ji'!  Ill  <...--^'.v.  A;  r:'.  *J".  \<>2.     llfua^  in  his  •'Natural  History  of  unfoiiini«>n  innl% 

irra<!w..:«'l  li*.  A:.i!j>r-'c  r>>li<  .'•■  iii  I'^JI.  t- tilt  riil  ami  i>f  houu'  rart*  anil  umU'^'nUtl  AnimalV*  (4 

Ihr  ■*:ir.i:ir\  :»!  Ai;'!  -\.r  J!i  l-'J'".  in  l**J'i  wart  Vol^  4to.,  lAinilon,  174.J,  '47, '5o,  anil  '.M  • ;  lo 

ftpi-'.i.:'  '1  !..!.r  a!  Aiiil.'T"!.  in  l-J**  tt;i-ih"^n  mhiili  3  «n«rc  volumes  wcfi-  acldi'd  in  17."»-,  *Ci\ 

a*-.-!.ir.:  -M  .  '1 !  .ry  if  tin-  A*n-  rn  un  olni^Tinn  ami  *»H,  cilUfl  ^liUnnini!^  of  Natural  lli-t.'ry.'' 

f-"  ii !;. .  ui.'l  p-  rf- irriii  -1  t!.t;  i!  ;ii<<*  of  lhi'«  oiVi'-v  Thi<  c-xrif«linjrly  valuaMi*  w<trk  ri'iitaint'^I  na- 

t.!l  1-  :i.     11.-  '  "i  r.iry  :i:..l  i<!i!.ri:il  I.i^kip*  wtn*  iiKroiin  platir*.  with  iK!**'ri;»liiin-  in  Friinh  aiifl 

y\r\  L-r^^it  u'.i'l  i'.  ;■  ■.-!;!!.:.     Tro?.'!  I'^L'-'to  I'^l'i  En^ili-h  of  ovi-r  f'*^*  Mihjtrt-*;  in  it-*  ori^nal 

!.«•  «'l.!t.l  :>.•    "  A'jii  ri- .i:i  <;iirt.  r!y  lU-ji-t.  r/'  fi>rni  it  i-*  vi-ry  M^anv,  hnl  M.-vtr;il  pnrti.tl  c*Ji- 

fihii!..  "J*  i'»  !?:■■  iir«:  .\iti',  h:iil  1-iriii.'  :!.o  n.iino  tit-n*,  a!«ri<Icinviit4,  A*-.,  havi«  \-wt,  p'iMi*hi<L 

of  !!.f  ■•V^»:..rt.  r]\  J..:n..il  nf  ilic  Aiu'  ri-  .in  Elu-  Mr.  E*l»ar»!-i  h-ft  a  »-%»rk  t-ntillnl  "  K.^iiM-btaof 

ra:; -n    >•"..!;.."     I:i   l-.i'l   he  t  •T.iMt'In.'J   t!jo  Fi»^'«:l»»l"irv."  whirli  aji|'«-firc«l  in  1«7»«. 
**A\..  r:    11  iij:ir*ir!>  O!-^  rvir,"  x%  !.i.  !i,  :il>er        KWWAHI»S,.Ioiin.  I».l>.,a«li\  ini-ofthvchnrrh 

3  \"'.  .'M.  -,  u  .L-  w:.!t.  -1  \*  i*.h  t!ic  "  Tu!  lual  lli»-  of  Kn;rlaip!.  l-orn  in  llirtfi»n!,  K«h.  2««,  lii  *7.  tli«il 

!*»-.!  ■%■'  i-!"  iV'-r".  I:'*>j--!i.  w!i.  !i  ht;  olitfil  in  I'.inihritik^,  April  Iti.  171'».    lU-u:L*^Tai!aatt'<l 

!r.«::i  1-  ■'•  r»i  >  •^.     !»:'  t!.r  *■  15  :*■)•.•  h.  "i  S.ura"  at  r.iml-ri'Lv  in  It'.ril,  and  kwhi  atVrManl  t«<ik 

hv  u  k-  •.■•..•.!  '■.rrr-'r:i  1«»14  !  ■  1**J.     In  l**  Clm  rh:ir^«  of  Trinity  rliurrh  in  C'.inihrulu***,  t!j«-nce 

U.1- ji! '•■:'.'■  M  jir'f- "^--r  of  ll'!riw  in  tf.i  *•  nii^  rtnio^«-«l  Mi«'ii'>*i\ilv  In  Wnrv  St.    Ktlnii;D(l\ 

mr.^  ./.  A;.  I"^- r:  .n.l  i:i  1»*  J  •«•>:;■  n — rt-i  I'rof.  |m  C-l-'ht-trr.  anil  oaik  «i;:iin  t.i  C.-unhndirP. 

hr'.rt  .:»  !'.«■•  !:.k.r  i'f  li'-Ii.  i!  li?.ri:.ri'.  wliU'h  In  ir.-.i-.i  hi-  w:i'4  ni.i<K*  «l<H'ti>r  of  dlviiat}  :  and 

o??:- •■  l.«h«  1 !:  !!  h:oit>:i!h.   K'r  2  i  jki.ir- i. •.■'«' i!»»r-  fp-in  thi*  linn*  he  Ui-:inii'  a  loluininoiH  writer, 

iii!(:.!i''l  iiJi   :!:.pT\*:.:  j-irt  i-f  «■'..-  j-*  ri'^iii  .il  hlinuiiip;  hini^-lfa  Mihtii*  anil  aMf  i«>lt.tiii<*.  and 

liUrat  ;r. ,  ;i:.i!.  \\\'.\t  t'.f  m-I  i »:"•■: ?»tr*,  pp-l  in-*]  lh'-ri»u;:J.!y  IiTm,'*!  iri  o  i-h-i.i'^tii  :il  hi-ri-ry.     He 

r>l  i- :.i^'>  \'i  :!:;•".  i.".<-".u:. !•*.!<•  I  f  hi- ii.i!'>:ry,  ti  :i^  •>«»  iliii>li^l   a  l*:il^iiii*»t  t!.:il   lu-   ha*  l^-«a 

Itnr:   :  /.  !,i-'.'.  .i'.  I  t..I.  :.'-.    Ih  :il-*i  r-  j  ;ir.  lll^o  tti.l*  •!  "tin.-  Vm\  tlir  AufiMim-.  th*-  1*  railway 

•'  v.-  !«^ :.     II'  .i!ir."  "Io-vT;*!  !.*  "f  >•  if-!a*:jht  i[\u%-.  m\*\  tht»  l'.i!\in  of  hi-«  zO'."'  anl  ••Jirh  wa« 

li|.  ii."  a". ■!  •'.»••■  M;--;- II  .r}  li:u'i 'T. .  r."     A  *^'-  hi-*  u'-hiTr- ii--*'  t-f  Annii.iiuiiTU    lh.it   hi»  rii|»- 

!*•  !;'in  'i  i..i  **  r* :«■■:.-.  !■ .  •■:ri  -,  :ir..l  ;n!'!ri  -•«  *,  i,  i.i'.i  il,  witli  tin*  ol^l  rurit.iTiN  that  it  ».i**lo^'ly 

l»;:Ji  a  r:».  •  ;■   r  \\  I'ri.f.   P.irk    J  \il-.  I'Jinu.V,  i  •nin-.  ti.il  \i  ith  irfij-Tv.     lli-  pi:Mi«hol  nufftui 

W;."  ;    '     -■•!  J'i  !'••*••. •!!  -.n  1^*'  r  w.  r*-  \*  r\  ii'irni  rou-.  and  tlji-y  rvir.if  f\tt'n«ir« 

l!I»W  M:!'**. !'.»!  ^ '....•:!*• /"..-Mi  •t'T:.ir..K'm  hariiin;:,  d.  ■  p  tl.iiii^rhl,  *iij»  nl  n  a^-nin,:.  and 

\r.  \V.   •    .r;.    \^  .'.•••..r-,  M  .*  Vt.  !7i  ..  iIm!  i  J.t  c\!r:iiriiin.iry  :*a\  f-.r  w  li.it  iiri»  Lin-wn  it*  thm 

1*.  l--'     A'*r.i    ;■-  r,:i,»  A /I*--!  Kn^vi^h  I  !•:■•.>•  i!.  i. 'ri::' *  of  ;:r:iri«.     The  in-'^t  i!ii|«*r!4::*  of  hia 

I.  •■.  %•  !::.  '■  1,  i."  • '..i/r..:. 'I  !■■  .ri:;ii;- .i  I'.  IT*'*,  wi.rk-i  iir.- '*  r»rif.ii /.•../•ij.  ur  K\.iii/»  li- a!  Trctbi 

»'.r     .r    ;.  '.'i  '■/*•.■   I..':  !ii.  •  ...  i:*-*!  :' n::!-  Ili-tor.  ■! ."'    *•  Ir.'i'.iiry    iiiT-i    f»::r    rt  tiiirkal^e 

{!■!.:./   .'.  .   -•.:■%   .v.!  :  r  :»!'y  r::i-!-    \.\r.\  hii  T.  x*-;"  "  Pi*«-.»*:r«H.'  ruin  i  ri.iii^-  'Jk^  A^stJ.i-r.tjr, 

.'  r.     !!•    '-     .•:..   .1  :••■•    :.  \:  e  .■  i  *.r  .f  the  Sr>'..-.  ar.-l  I'«  rf.  i  n-.n  if  th.-  ]^*'\'*  of  tlif  o!d 

r   !   r..  .!   .-.        '^.v.-l  ;  -.*.-*..  1  :ri  IT"!  n  p.v.>  mpI  Srw  Ti  ^taiLtu!-* ,"  *"  S'lrv.  >  if  t!.«   ►.  vrral 

I  "•.!  •..■*.•..•■•.?■■•.-•:.  •     ■.  !...l  \.  ;•«■•..  r:  ••■..  :.t  li>'.«  rj-.iri.-r.-*  if   !!• '.i/":i  ;*'   "An*»ir  !.«  I*r. 

!••.  v.-   !:i;     '.:«..:.!*..    \V..!   It,  1..  *  a: '!  !!.••  Wl.irhi-  K:v.«    !•».■.:»!".;'*  "  Ar.lniu-Iv.r^i.-:.*  tifi 

I  !.!.  1  *"  i"   -       II.-  ..iVrwir-!  w.r-.r  •...  >r.  !».»■  I»r.  <';'irl.''.SripT::r.' I»»»lr.!:i'of  !:..•  Tr.:  .!«  ;■• 

rr.  ■  j^..  1    .1   ■'!.  ■  '..1  :.  *r.  r.  .U  f  r  h-  -  H-r-r-  ••  Aa* -y* »  /.''/'"-'vif.!    t?..-  ll--!y  .j*.i  Si:S»! 


■  hi' !.  H  .• :  ."  ".''.t.!  -.I'-.    !•'.*.  r:,  IT'.'TV  :  Ji  I     a.-:..'i-*.  t!i''  S-Miniin',  imd  a  la-l  i...Uil'\r  uf 


JONATHAN  EDWARDS  11 

EDTTARDS,  Jokathan,  an  American  divine  since  yon  last  heard ;  five  now  stand  proponnded 

nd  metaphysician,  horn  at  East  Windsor,  in  for  admission ;  and  I  think  ahovo  SO  persons 

the  colony  of  Connecticut,  Oct.  6,  1703,  died  at  come  commonly  a  Mondays  to  converse  with 

Princeton,  N.  J.,  March  22,  1758.    He  was  the  father  ahout  the  condition  of  their  souls."    To 

first  of  the  sons  of  Connecticut,  the  greatest  the  power  of  analysis,  Edwards,  like  *•''  the  great 

theologian  of  his  century,  and  the  ablest  meta-  master  of  those  who  know,"  ilmafstro  di  color 

j^Tsician  of  the  period  between  Leibnitz  and  eA««an72o,  added  the  power  of  observation;  and 

Kant.     Thomas  Chalmers  of  Scotland  gave  him  when  12  years  old,  he  sent  to  a  European  cor- 

tSiepalm  over  Hume,  and  added:  *^  On  the  arena  respondent  of  his  father  an  account '^  of  the 

of  metaphysics  Jonathan  Edwards  stood  the  wondrous  way  of  the  working  of  the  spider"  in 

highest  of  all  his  contemporaries.    The  Ameri-  the  forest,  whose  habits  he  had  watched,  as  it 

can  divine  affords,  perhaps,  the  most  wondrous  seemingly   ^'  tacked  its  almost  imperceptible 

example  in  modern  times  of  one  who  stood  gift-  web  to  the  vault  of  the  heavens,"  and,  swayed 

•d  both  in  natural  and  in  spiritual  discernment."  by  the  west  wind^  moved  through  the  air  to- 

Sr  James  Mackintosh  says :  ^^  This  remarkable  ward  the  ocean.   With  proper  opportunities  ho 

man,  the  metaphysician  of  America,  was  formed  would   like  Aristotle  have   become  a  great 

among  the  Calvinists  of  New  England.    His  natural  philosopher.    In  Sept.  1716,  he  entered 

power  of  subtile  argument,  perhaps  unmatched,  Yale  college.    His  fellow  collegians,  only  80  in 

certMnlv  unsurpassed  among  men,  was  joined  number,  dwelt  not  together,  but  scattered  in 

with  a  character  which  raised  his  piety  to  iervor.  clusters  among  several  villages;  Edwards  for 

That  most  extraordinary  man  in  a  metaphysical  the  most  part  at  Wethersfield.    He  gained  a 

ase  or  country  would  certainly  have  been  deem-  good  name  for  "  his  carriage  and  his  learning ;" 

cd  as  much  the  boast  of  America  as  his  great  but  in  his  scanty  opportunities  the  range  of 

eonntryman,  Franklin."    Robert  Hallos  testi-  his  learning  was  very  limited.    He  knew  little 

mony  is :  '^  Jonathan  Edwards  ranks  with  the  of  classic  literature ;  the  best  impulse  to  his 

brightest  luminaries  of  the  Christian  church,  mind  was  given  by  Locke's  *^  Essay  on  the 

not  excluding  any  country  or  any  age."    Du-  Human  Understanding,"  which  he  read  with  "a 

nld  Stewart  says :  '*  One  metaphysician  of  far  higher  pleasure  than  the  most  greedy  miser 

America,  in  logical  acuteness  and  subtilty,  does  finds,  when  gathering  up  handftils  of  silver  and 

not  yield  to  any  disputant  bred  in  the  universi-  gold  from  some  newly  discovered  treasure." 

ties  of  Europe."    He  was  an  only  son;  with  10  But  he  was  quickened,  not  subdued  or  mastered, 

staters,  -4  of  whom  were  older  than  himself.  His  by  Locke's  system,  of  which  the  perusal  only 

own  father  and  his  mother's  father  were  eminent  roused  his  own  faculties  to  speculative  activ- 

rainiaters ;  he  sprung  directly  from  John  War-  ity  and  creative  reflection.    His  nature  was 

ham,  the  west  of  England  minister  who  reached  inclined  to  that  system  which  in  Europe  had 

America  a  week  or  two  before  Winthrop,  set-  found  its  representatives  in  Malebranrhe  and 

tied  first  in  Dorchester,  and  then  with  a  part  l-icibnitz;  and  in  some  way  or  other,  probably 

of  his  flciok  removed  to  Windsor.    The  father  from  citations,  sometliing  of  Plato's  theory  of 

of  yonnj^  Edwards  was  distinguished  in  his  day  ideas,  and  something  of  the  doctrine  of  Cud- 

forhiskuowkxlgeof  Hebrew,  Greek,  and  Latin;  worth's  "Intellectual  System,"  infused  them- 

his  mother  was  a  woman  of  an  excellent  mind,  selves  into  his  youthful  reflections.  At  this  early 

well  cultivated,  fond  of  reading,  and  of  ardent  period,  when  about  15,  he,  in  opposition  to  Locke, 

piety.    He  was  trained  by  his  father  and  his  denied  tlio  possibility  of  adding  to  matter  tho 

dder  sifters  for  college  and  to  habits  of  careful  property  of  thought;  and  held  that  "every  thing 

ttody  and  analysis.    The  community  in  which  did  exist  from  all  eternity  in  uncreated  idea;" 

heDveil  was  "remarkably  favored  by  revivals  that  "spirit  or  mind  is  consciousness  and  what 

of  religion  ;"  and  before  he  was  10  he  was  much  is  included  in  consciousness;"  that  "truth  is 

••eoncenied  for  his  souFs  salvation,"  abounded  the  agreement  of  our  ideas  with  the  ideas  of 

hreliginus  duties,  prayed  five  times  a  day  in  se-  God;"  that  "nothing  has  a  proper  being  but 


the  woods.    But  the  boy  did  not  obtain  nowhere  but  in  the  divine  mind."    His  spccu- 
of  mind ;   his  childhood  was  troubled  lations  have  sometimes  a  startling  re8eni])lanoo 
"•with  many  exercising  thoughts  and  inward  to  those  of  Spinoza.    The  latter  names  thouglit 
itniggles;*'' and  the  doctrine  of  GckVs  sovereign-  ami  extension  as  the  attributes  of  God,  and 
tj  in  choosing  w^hom  ho  would  to  eternal  lifo  ascribes  being  to  God  alone ;  Edwards,  the  col- 
ad  rejecting  whom  he  pleased,  used  to  appear  legian,  to  whom  God  was  Intelliffenco  itself, 
tohim  like  a  horrible  doctrine.    At  10  years  wrote  also  that  "space  is  God."    In  one  of  liis 
M  he  wrote  a  paper  ridiculing  the  idea  that  tho  latest  works  he  says  of  God  :  "  Ho  is  all  and 
tool  is  material.  At  12  he  described  in  a  letter  to  alone ;"  "  the  inflnite,  universal,  all-comprehend- 
a  absent  sister  "  a  very  remarkable  outpouring  ing  entity."    In  his  youth,  at  15  or  1*),  he  said  : 
if  the  ^irit  of  God  "  in  his  native  place.     "  It  "God  and  real  existence  are  the  same;  (Jod  is,  and 
rtiD  continues,"  ho  says,  "  but  I  have  reason  to  there  is  none  else."    Spinoza  retained  till  he  \va8 
ttink  it  is  in  some  measure  diminished ;  yet  I  past  40  the  so-called  Arminian  theory  of  the 
kope  not  much.    Three  have  joined  the  church  wiJi.  and  did  not  adopt  that  whkli  harmomLV^ft 


12 


JOKATILVN  EDWARDS 


>-  Ii'K'l  i-f  I'l  -•  :irTt  *.    \"i'lTiiiri-  in  lii"*  iMrlv  iiuiJi- 

■ 

I.'mmJ  t:i^;:)it  M:tii:tlli<- i!il  t ')i:'ilt  id  tlir  AniMIiirUi 
\HW.  t)i'>Mi:^  :irti  r  4"  ii:ir^«'f*  I'urtlsi  r  t  \|n  ri- 
rr.if  :.ril  n  lli«  t.'.!i  hi- n— *  rtii!  rJu*  •  tlii-r  llimrv. 
ri'f.fi  — jr.;:  I  .ii:t!i'!!\  «•!"  liim-H-'.t .  "Thf  i^inTaril 
|,l,!l..-4.j.|  I  r  w  ?.■■  »:.»>  rt-:i»..i.-  i!i«\v,  Im*  inT  :il- 
l%j4i-  U.  !i  .■!"  tJ.>  wti\  «■!'  l!ii!:kiiij."      UmT  K«1- 

■ 

w.ir«!«.  w  •■  !•  II  1  i'II«v':»»'>  "f  1*'  'T  1**'.  fir^^i»'l  "'it 
f  .r  !.!ii.-H  If  !  .-Ttiii-ri  ■■!  il.r  w  I'.l.  :iiii!  ln-tliri-ry 
tif\ir:i:i  M  1- ;i!-i?!.ll\  l>>riiit  it  :iii<I  ili  r!:tri  •!  itiiil 
%i  r;**' II  •!'■«  II  I'l  wi-rl*  iUn-  tl.iii/ iiii-n-  w  a-* 
%iriril:i  „•!  ■  -!,ipt  111- .  .i^r--.  !!•'  inilliln!  !i:i:,- 
H  If  •>:.!!  :iT..'-:  j  thi*  ui-n  t'«  »n  rat*- ;  l-'H  :ir*T  :iii 
VAv.t  •*  ill  hi*  I.j-i  >•  'ir  i!i  t  ..;ii  ;,•. .  u  !ii  h  ii'it  It  t  17. 
|i.«u  i.r  \}  ys  !i,il  in  ;i!.««  !.».•  rmiM  in\i  r  X*  II.  "  M-* 

|«ri«t  «  ••III  :.  :."S.««'"  WiTi-  I'ViTiiilin'.  lilHi  In-  }i.-A 
ii'»  iiH-ri-  ilo'i!.'*  «f  ■■  I  ii~r*  iil»'-»!»:ti"  '••i\i  ri  i:ri.t_v 
b!:')  i«.-:ii>'  Uit!i  ri«|MiT  !•■  «.'U\:iTl<Ii  lilui  iLilii- 
I.:i!l  »li."  Ni'W  !:r  lnnl  I'-UImI  llu-  I'Mr|-»M«  i-f  I,m 
1;*".  ,  J.I*  ^]••  •  ii!:i!!Vi' M|>iiii>>n«  :iii«l  It >  ri  1  :.'!•■•!* 
f  tiT!i  M  •  r»  M'l  i!'i  r:iM\  f< •rim  i!.  IIi*  {i:ii1  im  !•  "i* 
Ui.ii  I.'H  ki'  :i  fi.-iMi-iTixii  l>i  »)iiiw  tlif  Ii:irM]i>iiy 
lM!i»iiti  r»ri»-«*i  iiiiil  Ti  Ii,ri««n.  tlir  fai'iiliu*  nf 
li..i?i  :.'.■!  !!n-  »l"jJM;i-  ««f  ll.i-  tnii'  f.iitJi  ,  l-nt  Ir»iiii 
ll.i  l!r-:  ?.•  n  J-  .!i  *\  tin-  in.iti  ri.il:*!  |'li:!«-»«'pliy  ; 
a::'i   w!  .!••  In-  l.iiir  « ;iii:r  l«'rw;ir«1  a*  llu*  i  \- 

j'Ti  -^ '-a!.!!.!  ■■!'  I.«H  Li-,  it   Ih-<  aliif  fr«'!n  Iji* 

iar!\   \';??i!l ';■  •  !  «'f  lii«»  i  :irtli!_v  rarit  r  t-i 

<  ■•:■!' :i?  »!. I-  r. -ill!*  i'l'  I.^t  ki*'-*  |Oii!<-*>«i|>liv  iii  it* 
ft|'|-',ii  .ii;>-ii   !<•  iln-  *i>nrri-'*  •■!'  Lii-iu !•  •li.'i-,   tin* 

H  ii-Iti'i-  I'f  lr.i'r:i!'-.  :i!.-l  llii  "I-'/V .  tViiIll  lIii-« 
Iii«'riii  I.!  ••i'«!"««  fi '*••'...!«■  •••ivi  r*i/iit_v  l>i  I  aiiii-  !•• 
Iiini  n  <!•!..'!.!!■, I  i  •••i\  ii  Th'ii  -  tin- (Imi  tnitr  i  \- 
c»f*i!!;:l*  }■!..»•. ill!  ai.'l  Irii'ht.  A-  If  n  inl  ul" 
l!.o    Ki!i/   I'lr!  il.    iTiiiiiMr!iiI.  Rfjil   iii\  i«i''li'.   ii 

III  W    ■-.!-•-    i.|     !!.••     ;;!i'r_l     I'f    tl.i-    I'llli"-     I'm  ii.j 

ma»<ii!t'>i  •'.  !*,ri  :;i:!j  ft.«*i>iil  III-  !•  rij»«l  t-i  Ju- 
r.i;t  '.:ji  :.i  J  ,!■!  iri  l.i.i\i:i.  IIi- r^  j'1  av-l  m*  •!{- 
t;>%  «i  •  !  t!  .  '  i  :  ■.?*  t»r  .1  I  \i  •  !:i  :..  \  i.f  tl-i-  pi  r- 
H-ri  i-f  t  '.r.-T  ii:.i!  !*n-  l'>«i-!>i:>-«  i>t  *:iji  :i!ii'ii  Kv 
l.i^  !ri  •  ^T'si*  III  t!i'-  ««•  lil.  I'l  A  I  jiiiii  a'«-tr:ii-- 
t'.-ri  tr-  r.i  t',-  i..:..irT:-i  «  1'  Tfi-i  Wi  rl-i.  Ii- 
^.  irt.i-.!  •.!  U-  Ml  ti.i  iiiiiijii*.i!i.'.  Tir  Irt'Tii  !:i:i?i 
k:.'!.  ■ '  r.\i  r-.:ij  w  •):  (  Iri-t  11*  -•  •  *•■  *'i  *\\- 
\  :.*'  t!. .!.,:•  «■•■  !•!  >•***  !:  ■•!'  n  •^pIi!-  ij  k'.icl!i-  up 
"a^wnt  '  .;i..'.:  i:i  !i:*  !..  irT  "  M-  .:.i\i' ;i!i 
II'  ••■  ::.*.  ft  !..-  •  \|«  r-.  in  •■  tn  la-  f.*.!!.-  r.  af.-l  U-- 
ra."»  a  fii 'ri^H  r  I'f  !l  ••  \  i*i'-!i-  I  i.'iri  h  Ni-w. 
a.»  *..  u;."k.'1  .:»  a  •-•■., ?.ir_%  ]•' n  «■  iii  I  :•  f.i*!  i  r'* 
|M-*  i'' .  !.-  -..-.*  r' ■■  ..■■■r;.-;-  i:.r.-'v  ar.il  :'r»i«- 
f>f  1  t^i  'J  I  .  .•  1  *  <  ■'.  „•■■•!•■  iv.a 'I  •?*.  'rr  :•"■!;■  • 
r.i  •  '».:.•  ••  ..  I  .■':  „■  ■!  /'•  .i'  :ir.'!  ;..  '.\  ;••  '.'"i 
I.'  ■ »  I  •  '  '.I  ■  'r  .  :.;  j-.  .»r.i:.- 1-  M'  i  *•  ry  tV  ■  ^• 
»  ."•  .!'•••  •  •;.-.■  M  ..•  :i-  .•  w.r.-.  ;i  I  .liiM. 
•  »  '  •  •  ■  .  ■•  ■  •■  ■  ■  >  ;T  r  •  •  if  ill".  '..■  .■'■•r»  :': 
r  ■  •  ■ "  I  .  I  •  1  '  ■  '  •  I  ■  i  ."  *  1  ^  ■•'!.•  ^  ..'..■■  w  * 
«?   ■       J    •    ;     ■  •  ^     .■■!!■■•      *■■:•■!•  I   :i'  ■■•  ;r 

I    I 

il'  •  .     •    ■  .  •  I?   !  -Vi'-      11    !    ••  •  I-  'il*  .4:.'! 

}  '      ,       m  .    \  ;•.      '  ^"    i"        ','  •     'A  ■    '•      ''iiw^      ;•;      ^|.- 

»   .!•  -     .'  -l  .;     :    .'       I  11. ■  .  •».  !.    «.*.  -1   ".•  -  ! 

■  ■      <     .      •  .•    •       ,      ■  •    .'     1    '..■      •   '     ■■    .  •••■■••• 

t\.»}   *;■*  :  •   ■  '   ■    •■      1  \   .  ^*    r  /  ?*,•    i  !■    ..!^  :,    •! 

*»  .     •■•  '     '       .    ■.?••.    v..   -  A. .  •  /■    :*  .  ?  Il   •! 


Wrtfi  h  tlin  tlinniltritnnn.  and  while  iliu*  rn- 
piL'(*I.tir  will  II  walkiiii:  iilom*  in  •Military  |iliir«P4 
fun  Mii\i-rM'  u  \\\t  (iih),  it  filunv4  M-miwl  nntorftl 
f(ir  liiiit  tn  chiMiX  fiirtli  hi-i  iii«-<liliiti<>ii<«.  or  to 
■>|H-:tk  lii*  thftiL'lif^  in  *>*>liIiH|uii'4  w'nh  n  Mn^nit 
\i»in'.  IIo  w:i*  o^iti-tif*!  ••fill'*  pMMl  t-*tutc.  bat 
lif  lMii;:iil  M»  \i-liciiuiitly  f**r  umrv  }iiiiin("-4,  thftt 
III*  mm]1  wa*  l-rtaLiii;!  f"r  i!<*  lunL'itiL'.  TraTer 
uii«  n*  nnlurnl  tn  him  jv^  th«*  hn'atli  nliirh  rr- 
lifvril  lilt  iiiwnril  tiiiritiiii:'i.  M'ith  ^ml  nnitnAt- 
iii;.'  ni.<l  rt-fn-liin^'  iMik'ht,  he  naw  ttir  rhTine 

r.XriHiIKv    itf    tliO    tliillk''*    «'f    (hmI.    and    tAi4(Ml 

tlirir  •••'»l-»'ati-fyiMtf  an<l  lifi'-^'ivimr  j?tii«4l. — For 
tuii  \4  ;ir*i  aftiT  ht-  tiNik  lii**  tli-;:r«*«*  hr  ri-nminrd 
in  N\-\«  Ilavi  II  U-*  i\  »tiii!iiit  fi^r  thi-  inini^tiT'; 
HI  111  in  Ant'.  17-2.  l^f-iri-  hv  wan  ly  yoart  of 
n'jt\  hv  wa«i  ••rlrrtiil  tn  nphiiM.  a-*  a  prcarher, 
tiirrMii»«-  of  <'alviiii*rii  in  u  l*n"«hvtt'ri.iii  I'harrh 

■ 

in  till"  f  ilv  iif  Nrw  Yi«rk,  Ili-ri-  ho  ri'nmizird  6 
iiiiinth;*.  iiKTi  a^iri:;  all  tin*  tiriu'  in  hi;*  m-Hmt  of 
fliviiu'  (hill;**.  Ili-avt-n  apjH-arcil  ti>  hiin  ai  A 
wi-rM  I  if  l«ivi' :  hi  ill  Hi  •"•  iiH  ri»vi*hinely  IuvcIt— 
ni!ivint<  liiatity,  nf  a  i  lianiiin;;  MTtiir  natare, 
l>riii:;in;;  pMriTy,  liri;rlitnr^«.  and  |i^ainv  lie 
wiii:!<l  fftiri-  intn  a  Military  phin*  nn  th«*  iMUikc 
f>f  till- IIiiil*'in  ri\i  r  fur  mntiniplntiiin  nfiliriiM 
tliin/-,  hanu'iii;:  a  tlioMu'lit  mi  i-vrry  thorn.  Life 
in  till-  (oiniiKTi'i.'il  i-ity  rnlark'til  hi*) !*yni|*atbie^ 
ami  nn  ll.i*  arrival  nf  a  *<hip  "  hii  nuiI  «-ai?t*riy 
«-ati  lull  at  aiiv  tH-w*  fa^nrahlo  to  tht*  intrrMt 
uimI  a«]vaiii'i-iiii  lit  nf  I'liri^t'**  kiiiLr«lniii."  Here, 
nil  Jan.  I 'J.  1T'.*M.  Ill-  iiiaili*  aiit  w  a  ^•l^■nln  (Mi- 
I'atinii  **(  h:iii*4  It  tnCiiNl.  Ml-  n  riinim-il  in  New 
Ynrk  ]n|};r  iii.'ii:;|i  tn  karn  tn  Invi*  the  |iUre 
"uiiiTi-  h«-  liiiil  iiniif  nthiT  than  «ur«'t  and 
|*!ia">.iiit  ila't*."  and  «hi-ii.  in  A]»ril.  17:23,  Im 
r«  Turin  il  lioiiii*.  Ill**  partiiiLT  Imnr  "  wn«  mciiC 
1-iTTir."  hi*  In  art  *m-i  nu-tl  !<•  ■'ink  within  him, 

nil'l  a*  In-  o.iiliil  au  a\  In-  kt  pt  oi;;}!!  nf  tll^  cHj 
a«  I"r>«'  a*  In  in'.i'.il.  At  l.i*  fatlur'^  hnuntf  ia 
Km*:  \Vii.-l*«.r  }ii-  I  ■•:!? iiiiii  il  Iii«  m  \it«- antl  iinr^ 
iii^Mih^  »Tii'!i.  *,  iiijiii'  with  the-  fKii  III  hand. 
ill  ri .  ti'«).  lit-  t':iii>)n*il  a  »4-ri«^  nf  7h  rrMi!iitioii\ 
Hi"**  Itf  wl.iih  ho  urnTi*  in  Niw  Ynrk.  He 
lii:i!.Mv  ii-triatii}  (nxl  hv  hi**  irraiv  tn  rnabls 
li  III  ti>  ki  •  {I  thtiii  ail  :  !•!  ai't  alwai^  fnr  tiM 
::|nri  *•{  (n-I.  fi>r  tin-  cinnI  nf  luankiiiil  in  ■««• 

i-r.i!     Tn  ! r>>!  nin-  iMnim-rit  «<f  tinu-;   ttt  livs 

uit!i  a!!  }:>*  n  i.'lit  mIimi-  l.i-  did  li\t-.  !.•  ht  Xhm 
klin\«  |i  .l.'i-  ..f  :)..'  t.iililii:*  nf  n»lnr*  nnly  ^ipt^ 
iiii''i-  -!..»::■•■  !!i  I.^T:.-i  !t  .  ?n  *i'I\t-  a*  f.tr  a*  Im 
■  ••■-.:>1  aii>  rl.ii-rif'i  Ml  lii^i'iify  .^i*  iii-.'K:  think 
'■!  .  !■•  !r.iii-  ;ii  •.■!:;- '  .\*  k  tn  thi  ir  i-ri^'iii.ii  Miiirr*; 
1..  >■.-  lirir.lv  !.i.r)i!'-.'i  T  •  }|.«  !r:i-t  .  !••  l.w  a»  Im 
M<  ■:!■!  I*  It  ui  r>  f  'it  :kii  l.o'ir  li  ti-ri-  I.r  •ht«ld 
l.i  ir  t!i    !  !■?   tr'.!':;.     t-*  *!ri\i' iht\  wnLto 

a  '  ."?  '  -  .>i"l  V  '  ^'  "'''*  '  '  **  ''  "•'  "t  ;►*'«'■•* .  "tn 
li  •  p   I  '■■  :.  .'u  M^j"  •  T.  ar.'I  !••  1- 1  tJn  ri-  \h-  •» 


!>.. 


.•  ». 


r  .  \ 


'•  :i<  I  \u  ;.!!  )i  •  ^{t  I  •  i,  "   AU'Und- 

!!■/      •;    -I     •    :     -i",    :iJ:d    li.I»     '  '^  ^.   t.'.i-  T.HlPi:  **  •©• 

rip'  •  i:«"  !'-r  "  ••!  T'-i./ri /:iV..T.aii-!ii  rbt  ri^htn 
I  ••  !  •  ;■«  ]  ki  tV  ^  I !  :\  •  •  ii  ri  -.*.  nf  }in)itit<««aad 

•■  k  '  r'.  :  /  !'-\.  ti- lii'd  '  Ir  w  .1*  a'*'' aniiiifoft 
!..  ■■  \  t..  *i.-\  •:  :\.\\  -?;itr  i-f  f.lin  —  nf  J€iy 
«■■:-  :•  .":- 1  » .1-.  I  T.!%.  I  .till.  ai'.d«ii  h/J.I?"iil  h»*fL 
"li>.->»    '>v%i<.;:«.  "  ^al•i  l.i',  *' w  lil  inutuiU  luvcfV 


JONATHAN  EDWARDS  13 

loin  together  to  sing  the  praises  of  God  and  tho  possessed  of  so  mnch  intellectual  cnltnre.    It 
Lunb/'     He  heard  of  the  wondroos  virtues  of  was  the  shire  town  of  a  very  large  county;  the 
ftchildof  about  14,  and  noted  them  down  in  this  most  populous,  richest,  and  happiest  town  in 
wise :  *"  They  say  there  is  a  young  Iwly  in  New  western  Massachusetts.     Hardly  was  the  young 
Haren  who  is  beloved  of  that  Great  Being  who  divine  settled  witli  a  competent  salary,  than  tlie 
made  and  rules  the  world,  and  that  there  are  thought  ofSarahPierrepontjoined  itself  with  his 
ctitun  seasons  in  which  this  Great  Being  in  studies  and  his  devotions.   '^Patience,^'8aidheto 
Kxne  way  or  other  comes  to  her  and  tills  her  her  in  one  of  his  lovo  letters,  pleading  fur  an  im- 
mind  with  exceeding  sweet  delight,  and  that  she  mediate  union,  *^  patience  is  commonly  esteemed 
hardly  cares  for  any  thing,  except  to  meditate  on  a  virtue,  but  in  this  case  I  think  I  may  almost 
him ;  that  she  expects  after  a  while  to  be  re-  regard  it  as  a  vice/'  She  listened  to  his  urgency, 
eeived  np  where  he  is,  to  be  raised  up  out  of  and  on  July  28,  about  5  months  after  he  was 
the  world  and  caught  up  into  heaven;  being  settled,  tho  youthful  preacher  was  joined  in 
adored  that  he  loves  her  too  well  to  let  her  re-  wedlock  at  New  Haven  with  the  wonderfully 
main  at  a  distance  from  him  always.    There  she  endowed  bride  of  his  choice.  She  was  pure  and 
k  to  dwell  with  him  and  to  be  ravished  with  kind,  and  uncommonly  beautiful  and  affection- 
his  love  and  delight  for  ever.    Therefore,  if  you  ate,  and  notable  as  a  housekeeper ;  ho  holy, 
present  all  the  world  before  her,  with  the  rich-  and  learned,  and  eloquent,  and  undoubtedly 
est  of  its  treasures,  she  disregards  it,  and  cares  tho  ablest  young  preacher  of  his  time ;  siio 
not  for  it,  and  is  unmindful  of  any  path  of  aiflic-  17,  he  23.    What  was  wanting  to  their  happi- 
tioQ.    She  has  a  singular  purity  in  her  afiec-  ness?    The  union  continued  for  more  than  30 
tions ;  is  most  just  and  conscientious  in  all  her  years ;  and  she  bore  him  3  sons  and  8  daughters. 
conduct  and  you  could  not  persuade  her  to  do  In  Feb.  1729,  the  senior  pastor  died  at  the  good 
any  thing  wrong  or  sinful  if  you  would  give  her  age  of  85,  and  the  young  minister  of  26  was  left 
in' this  world,  lest  she  should  offend  this  Great  with  tho  sole  care  of  tlie  town.    Notwithstand- 
Reing.    She  is  of  a  wonderful  sweetness,  calm-  ing  a  weakly  and  infinn  constitution,  his  zeal  and 
&e«A.  and  universal  benevolence,  especially  after  industry  were  equal  to  every  duty.    His  wife 
this  Great  God  has  manifested  himself  to  her  spared  no  pains  to  conform  to  his  inclinations, 
mind.    She  will  sometimes  go  about  from  place  and  ministered  cheerfully  to  his  comfort,  as  her 
to  plare,  singing  sweetly,  and  seems  to  be  al-  greatest  glory  and  best  service  to  God  and  her 
wayAfoilof  joy  and  pleasure,  and  no  one  knows  generation.    She  was  a  good  manager;  and 
for  vliiit.     She  loves  to  be  alone,  walking  in  he  carried  into  the  business  of  life  the  samo 
the  fields  and  groves,  and  seems  to  have  somo  thorough  exactness  which  marked  his  researches. 
one   inYi>ible    always  conversing  with  her.''  Yet  ho  kept  himself  as  free  as  possible  from 
TLLs  younii  lady  was  Sarah  Pierropont,  daugh-  worldly  cares,   giving  himself  wholly  to  tho 
Uz  of  a  minister,  and  like  Jonathan  Edwards  work  of  the  ministry ;  rose  early,  and  employed 
having  ministers  for  her  ancestors,  among  them  himself  in  study  all  day  long.     He  made  no 
Thomas  Hooker,  one  of  the  best  of  men ;  one  visits  unless  sent  for  by  the  sick  or  the  sorrow- 
wiio  fiCed  his  earthly  career  with  great  deeds,  ing;  but  encouraged  persons  under  religious  im- 
•nd  left  a  free  and  imperishable  commonwealth  pressions  to  come  to  consult  him  on  the  state  of 
fti  his  monument.     In  Sept.  1723,  having  re-  theirsouls,and  they  were  sure  of  easy  access  and 
eeived  at  Now  Haven  his  degree  of  master  of  tenderness.  The  little  exercise  which  ho  took  con- 
iztj;  several   congregations    invited   Edwards  sisted  in  solitary  walking  or  in  rides  on  horse- 
to  h«  their  minister;  but  he  declined  every  pro-  back  among  tho  lonely  woods;  but  his  mind 
pQsaL  reserving  2  years  more  for  study.    In  was  in  full  action  all  the  time  he  was  abroad, 
Jime,  1724,  he  entered  on  the  office  of  tutor  in  and  he  would  return  richly  laden  with  thoughts. 
Tile  college :  and  he  and  his  colleagues  are  re-  His  fame  spread  more  and  more  widely.    In 
membered  as  "  its  pillar-tutors  and  glory ;''  all  July,  1731,  he  was  prevailed  upon,  notwithstand- 
the  while  practising  ascetic  abstinence,  not  of  ing  "  his  youth  and  modesty,-'  to  preach  the 
hod  only,  but  of  sleep,  for  the  sake  of  closer  dili-  Thursday  lecture  in  Boston ;  and  "  divers  min- 
gnce.     In  the  suumier  of  1726  he  received  an  isters"  found  him  to  be  a  workman  that  need 
Bigentinvitatioutobecomethepastor  of  North-  not  be  ashamed  before  his  brethren;  printed 
npton.  as  the  colleague  of  his  grandfather,  his  sermon ;  approved  his  teaching  "  evangelical 
fiokmoD  Stoddard;  and  on  Feb.  15, 1727,  in  tho  principles  to  the  churches  notwithstanding  all 
Hth  year  of  his  age,  he  was  introduced  to  his  their  degeneracies ;''  and  "  heartily  rejoiced  in 
I     oAee.    Every  omen  promised  usefulness,  honor,  the  special  favor  of  Providence  in  bestowing 
I     ad  happiness.     His  residence  was  in  tho  most  such  a  rich  gift  on  the  happy  church  of  North- 
keantiful  town  of  New  England,  where  no  one  ampton."    Ho  gradually  obtained  universally 
MB  live  without  imbibing  love  for  tho  place,  tho  character  of  a  good  preacher,  beyond  nny 
The  inhabitants  were  all,  even  those  who  were  ono  of  his  times ;  writing  out  his  thoughts  with 
■edianics,  engaged  in  agriculture.  The  rich  soil  care,  but  uttering  himself  fluently  and  freely, 
teemed  witli  abundance ;  the  people  were  none  in  words  full  of  ideas,  without  regard  to  his 
if  tbcm  wealthy,  but  all  enjoyed  plenty,  and  tho  notes  ;  above  all,  adding  to  his  closo  reasoning 
flommaxiity  was  affluent.     The  scenery  is  as  and  great  acquaintance  with  divinity  an  inward 
iheerful  as  it  is  beautiful,  propitious  to  mental  sense  of  true  experimental  religion.    His  o\vn 
lity,  and  there  was  scarcely  another  village  experience  and  his  rare  powers  of  o\)a<irvQL\AOU 


14  JOXATIIAN  EDWARDS 

pivc  him  ^ofit  inNi{;}it  intn  tho  Iitimnn  limrt^  of  nlipon ;  lii^  pro<]occ«nr  had  had  fire  har^ 

nit'l  ).t>  kilt  w  i»h»t  w<L<«  ill  man.  Imth  in  Miicit  \iM.'s  lint  tho  h.arvi'<tt  uf  thin  year  mnil  tho  nrit 

bii'l  o'.nhi  r.     II;-«  vnii-i',  ihMti^'h  n«*t  >tn>rk'.  wa4  i-X(v«-«li«tl  cvi-ry  tiling  that  had  bc«n  knuirn  at 

(\-.ir  iii'.il  t]i">tiiiit;   tiiA  liN  nmiiT;tr.  ilinii^'h  ho  any  tinio  in  any  I'lirt  df  thv  cMuntrr.     It  vaa  oa 

!:•<'<  I  lit  ill-  (if  ^'i  «tiirtMli<««o\i  Till  hi^  nwn  ft-rvnr  thin  rit-ia^iMn  that  Kdwanli  printcil  a  fH^rtnonon 

mA  i-tri'Ctu.iliy  iiiii\t«I  llii:  hcirt'*  of  hii  hi  ikFiT^.  ^  A  Pivinc  and  S(i{ii-ni:itiiral  Kik'ht  iinparti-d  to 

III*  dtun  l.iul  twii  t  t'iini|>tni-i.-iiry  in  tiiMi  and  in  thrSiuIhy  thcSpiritof  GlhI;" apfrfonnanre im« 

t!io  « iiiiK  :.i-y  ii'.Ti«ij^  Cliri*!.     Tin.-  }tii)in«.«.H  hi  u-d  with  ht«»  views  of  the  M)iirt'v(ifknu»lvdi:o 

of  (itnl  ApiHaritl  t>  h;.'ii  till'  uiit^l  )'>\ily  it'  ail  as  well  n.-*  of  the  re^rnerutin^  infldenro  of  th« 

ttie  ili^  ii.f  attri!  iili«.   diNlh  al-^'Inte  »u\i  r^i;;ii.  Spirit.     lie  wruten  narrative  of  tlie!i«'!>ur|<nsinff 

ty  ai.il  iti-*'  ;:rai  *>.  and  n:aii'.t  uli^i'Iutf  diiniid-  c«>nverMi'ns  whii'Ii  was  printiii  in  Kn^laiid,  and 

iiii-f   0:1  tl.i-   riiK.Ta*.iMht  i.f  (mm!*!*  }iiily  •>|>irit,  repuhliihed  in  ]{«»<*ti>n  with  s«>nio  dot*trin.iI  di>- 

ai>lH'ari->!  t>i  hi!!:  nuT**  nn'I  n.iiiv  ut  -Meet  and  roMr«>4.-<«  o^ntin^t  the  Anuiiiian4.     [u  all  hid  read* 

^Inriiuo  li'M-trit.i-.     lit*  ]«i\i-d  to  mliTi-  him  at  in^*.  the  ph-a-ante^'t  thin^'  to  )i\ui  had  ever  been 

a  !«'^«  rii^'n.  ai.d  :k-k  ^•»VLrl  ipi  ni*  ny  df  him  ;  to  read  of  tlio  iiilvan<'Oint-nt  of  ('hri*«t*!i  kingdom, 

it   K^  nii^l    "  li.al    it    WMiiId   ^|•••il    liia^rn    to  and  liis mind  uiv^entertaineil  with  the Sriptara 

Tiivi^e  it  in  any  nilur  «a\."     TKu-  he  tun^ht  prophc^-ie-i.     In   IT'tT.  As  he  ru«lo  in  the  woixla 

hi-  [H-op!o  th>'  iSNTrih'-v  *•(  tlie  ^'i'^IhI,  which  on  thu  (''inneetirut  river,  and  alighted  to  walk 

wtTv  !•!  h  «  •^•'il  a!i>I  thvir-  likf  en  en  [•a-ttire'*.  fi^r  divine  ciintemplation  and  pra}er.  he  haii  an 

JIv  hini-A-'.l'  in   h:-  hwmihtv   wat  "  a!«  a  little  oxtruordinurv  vii-w  v(  the  irlorv  o{  t lie  Sin  of 

uhiti-  thiw«.r.  whi<  h  may  W*  H.rn  in  the  mea-  (ohI.  and  hin  full,  pure,  aiiil  hweet  ^rrare  and 

dii««  in  tlie  hpniij  i>f  the  yi'ar,  lnw  and  hum-  love,  wliteli  kepi  him  f«ir  an  honr  in  a  fi*»**\  of 

l>le  lO  the  ;rrnn:id,  oi<«-niijff  itt  Ut-(int  to  re-  tt.nr!>,  wei-pin;:  ali>nd.     On  a  Sutunlay  ni::ht  in 

ctiv"   the    p!ca".ii«t  Uaui-*  of  the  Min't  jrl^iry;  Jan.lTJiy,  he  |Kre*.iiei!  so  lU-arly  how  lle^-^^.n!  a 

ri'j*i^-ir.^  a»  It  u*rt'  in  a  ealmrapinri*:  dit)u«int:  thin^r  it  ii  to  walk  in  tho  way  of  iluty.  t!ial  it 

ari'iiiid  us^vtvC  fr.i;:ra;iry  ;  Ktandinf*  ]i>ac\fully  eaiiM-tl  him  to  l<riak  f<irih   into  h»nd  wivt>ini{ ; 

fii.d  I«jviiu-!y  in  the  mid^t  of  ntlicr  t!ow«r-  round  f**r  he  hail  an  utVtt-tin;;  hen-e  how  miit  and  ^uit- 

aUfjl,  .I'l  lii  like  ntaiiiu-r  ojn  iiifi^  fltiir  Ui-iiiii4  uMe  it  was  that  CokI  hhonid  p»veni  the  w«>rhl 

t'l  ilri:.k  in  i}.e  li;:!it  of  till' r»L.n.'*     Tuthi^Niw  and   ordt-r   all   thin^'i   ariHinlim;    to   hU   omn 

Kii,:'aiiil  ('i.r:^:i:in  pliili'-Mipln-r  tlie  \  i!l  ijr  nu^-t-  p!ea-Mri\  and  he  rejoifi<«l  in  it  that  (ohI  re-cnfU 

inj  hiiu««*  u a^  till-  (rtirxh  ot'  tli*-  Ai  .ulcmy,  and  an«l  that  hit  11  ill  wiLt  done.     Tlte  fruit  of  thia 

{]&in  iniiiiiry  |iiMpli<  t}te  pnpi!!*  wlm  (liin^;  to  exiilrnuiit  of  mind  wa<*.  two  m<intht  aAer,  in 

.im  fi<r  lit-u  t  «»f  M'lrit.ial  cinry.     What  ti-ailier  Marrh,  lTo9.  the  U-pnnin;;  of  a  volnine  of  dia- 

in  hi-  » t>!t-t  fkiiie  ti  At  ):ri-ati-r  than  li«- /     IIuw  rour *>•.!«  on  nniver-jd  hi-torr,  treating  the  won- 

|"Mir  in  t!.e  ri'in;>:ir;t«'n  w:k4  I.* jKiiiiA,  ^|K■akin};  di-riid  M-rir-  nf  •stl^ee^^ile  ait-  and  eveiitiiat  i)j« 

tiilhei'lii  iliiw:uvr«  J.  I  trt— <'f  II  iImivit.  or  to  the  retard  nf  IJimTs  rflifminj*  proviilrnn-  fp-ni  tho 

«l<i-i:.  ff  I'r  .o'l.v  IT  iif  i*ri:.«e  Kiu'lik-!     Ih^w  K-f;inniiiE: — a  ntnt'eptinn  not  le-s  Mihl;nif  and 

(l:d  t!.i>  »:>i';^i  pr<  :iih<.r,  ^^\^^>  ^\^^r\:^T^'^\  divine  nMre  full  nf  fielin;;  than  that  of  liti^^nrt  in  hii 

tru!}:.  {.••:    i-il'ol   til    tho  huriiiil,  hut  In  tlio  **  I'nivrrvd  ll>tiir\" — hut  failing  in  thf  ixccn* 

i;m\i  r^.J  !t.tr:,  r:^  i:i  il:/Mi_\  a^Hiii-  Ma-fi'.lun,  tinn  alike  from  thtieii-iuy  anil  from  e\i't-.%  tb« 

•l<aoi:..r  the  ij*  i.-i  !i<tiit  t'f^.rt  of  I.uii:-!  \\'.  \i  itli  Want  <>f  r!<>M'  knii%ih-«l^e  of  t\int«,  and  tht>  dl*- 

i.«  1- a':'..i  .1  •{•!!••!;:  iTiVtu   lt>:!li  r,  iuktrui  t-  |>«»-iti*'n  til  o*inttni*  t  i>ul  4»f  int«  r{in-tu;iiui»  of 

i:.j  l^M'M  r..r'I.:4i-  T.i  fjlri!  ai!  li.r  part*  and  prMhhi.vit"*  a  narrative  a1-o  of  thr  futuri-.  evea 

Mt-^  ;iil  If  r  «Ii.I-Ir*n  !     I-  it  ttra:  i;i-  that   Kil-  to  that  !•«  rfVrt  i>'.ale  of  think'*  iK-ttlnl  f^r  eter- 

UuriN  ^!.<•l!•!  ].\\*-  t}.ii'ip:ht  ofti  n  of  tln'  mil!i-:i-  intv      In  thitwai  viar«  rullolovir  t!iet^»<:!;vDt 

■  ■     •  a 

i.iij-.i.  •  r  i!i  1!  i\  -!.!<  .!lh:i%i  ii'ti.f  ii.!ii  hit  niind  m«-»'>4-ri;*ir  nf  ('cli<!i:d  truth,  anil  he  wj-  tiiur- 

th-i^  :hj!  h  »;■;  1  ;■« :  •••I  Ma«  t<i  takf  1:1  U  jin'i::^  ouji.ly  h:ip|>^  ,     ILt  wi:e  u!!*<i  hail  the  ilri])c^ 

in  Ni-«-   I.:  /  .ii.>l .'     K<!«.ir«!t  •l.riiiiutl  a!w.i\<i  n  I:.::>>ut  chin  rii-iiff.  at  thnUj:!!  a  eloi«  i>f  dn  ino 

till  r>  «{Ki  1;!  b::io  •,':•  «!:tiii-;   hu*   t!..*   ArriMri.an  h'^e  1  ann'  d-<iin  fri>m  thf  In-art   nf  1  hr.*!    in 

il-t  !r.ut-,   wh.i-!i   i::  !<!'•  ii.:«ri't   riV'"^^*'":i   hi-i  Ik aM  n  into  her  lit-art  in  a  n instant  *!r^.;n:.  iikft 

(•w  II  «>.:k.  H ..«  ri.:.irdtd  !•>  hiiii  at  i.f  *h«-  mo^t  a  |>em*:l  i-f  »w«tt  h^'ht.     A  \vr}  irriil  ri  Mval 

ii.ii.*:vr>   .•  I  ri  !.<  a!  !•  r.ili  n>  \.     IIi-   1 1  !>1   i:.ii.d  ln>'a!i  t>)  1  \fiiiil  far  arid  n  tde  thrun.'h  the  NeV 

I'iN'a'-  %!■  !..i'!ir.   "the  wi-rktif  »!.■!  m  the  Ki</!:ind  1  •^••iii« -.  a  '•.ihin  t  nf  iiittri-!   ard  in- 

ri  :.^  •  r-.'>T;  •  f  ■•!..-  ^    .1   in   U'    :a  li.<-ri'   e!"r>-i:^  ^tru*  ti"!i  !••  the  wurlil.  ha\  iii^',  a- m:*ii)  ihii.k.  n 

u«rk  if  tt-1  *.\.i\   ll  ••  r-.a!j.ri   1  :'  tlit-  w  Jmle  {t  r:::aiii  nt    in!Vn :.« e  t-n  tht-    il.ararrr  i>(  th# 

tKA'«  r.  k^    r.:..\.  r<^- .  ■  u:.d  1 w   1  ■•  •  m1  t>i  t!.i<  i*  ij  I.,  fitting  tin  m  f«'r  tlif  >,-nat  *  xi  I/"  i:i  their 

if:i!..iir.!     i-:,M    ,;.r.itt    nf     !).r*r     h    Ili.iti     JT.lo  |ii-:<>ry  l.'i.kt  ^«i  Tv  -^^'n  tn  rn!lii-        'I  :;4'i.ln  n  *;ill 

»  h.i :.  \%>i  .!■!  I  !j.!.i  !i..-irri  .i!*  •:  «'<rk  :.« i!«iu  n.  ki*;-  in  fmri:- ry  tin- Wii-.ilirful  ifSit  «■'   Kd- 

'■  1  ■  e  il  ► 'r  "r  1  !  1..1  ■   *  U  .I.J  l?.»' •!.  •.  :n,  :..:.^  w  u;-!-'"  m  rin-ri  at  Ki.?nM  on  mijuT'.  Ui  the  I  .^.:i«U 

r.»ij- ^  •■!  t'.     ruWTj  *.rVif!»  .  '.•:!..vi  !;,►:  :.i  nf  an  ;»:i/r\  it- A.     Ih-  wr«'U     ■  Th»i;.i:hSt  i.*.  tho 

ilii -I  :■  .  ■•.   :i»  •■..-.   thi-  jr-.  ,  I   rjiT.«-e  d -l  Ki  \  :^  .i- ■■?  Ili  ^,:»"n ;"  anth  a?^»  r  h.i  ;:  :'Mt!»:^!.i'n, 

H  hi  :.  J  .    !"..-■. k.-l  li  -1  i  'T  l'.:.kK.'..j:  h.ui  t.»  iLtfrr  hi-.  :'.i  ITi*'-.  ^.kW  Intht-  H..r!d  hi*  ■    T:i  k!.*»    *oti- 

f.-f  I  i  tin  r  I.  .  I  ;:.  \  r*.-."      A/ ».r.-!  :!i.- ;  r;  :*•  *«  r:..!.jr  lIi '.>:,i'.:i  Aifn  Tint.-."  a  vn»rk  1  .!'.  •  f  tia 

h*  •■;».:."•!   .1  w  ir  i:i    :7   4.  '^/.li  \-\  il.-«..r>««<  -p.?^.!.  {■«  rnn  .iti  •',  I  y  n'l  h."  rht  n-h- •!»'.- 'r:;  «4 

oil      .-!.'.    /     r.    *i    f..''i    .1!   :  .        lii-   .4.-.!..:v  n:.  r  »■  r.il-,  ai.l  ii.nrki-.!  *  i  kti<.  ui.al^ -.- 'I  ••.!!•  • 

a:.!  i  v •*ir  m ^ :    :.^1^h^:  ! ^.  :•  mc!.v!«.::.«1  rv^«^al  ^i  !...i.d.  ^hivh  »hoH«.-d  Lis  t^It'p  •>^-v!inn  ::.  the 


I 


JONATHAN  EDWARDS                                                 16 

midat  of  tho  most  exciting  scenes.    No  one  Las  and  wine  alike  to  all.    Calvin  and  the  Congre- 

bettor  analjzed  and  described  the  affections  of  gationalists  offered  both  to   cverj  ono  who 

the  hanian  mind  under  religions  influences;  and  partook  of  either,  but  confined  them  both  to 

tho:]gh  his  style  in  this  work  is  neither  polished,  visible  believers,  tho  regenerate,  the  elect ;  and 

BorconcL<e,  nor  correct,  his  characterizations  of  baptized  only  the  children  of  communicants, 

ooonterfett  piety  are  sometimes  worthy  of  tho  On  this  latter  system  were  tho  churches  of  Massa- 


centuricsy 

life  was  wasting  away  with  a  hectic  fever,  to  had  baptized  all  children  born  within  their  pale; 
cotne  under  his  roof;  and  with  tho  exception  of  and  the  influence  of  their  example,  prevailing 
a  short  vi^it  to  Boston  to  consult  physicians,  more  and  more  after  timo  had  enfcebl^  the  pas- 
Brunerd  remained  with  him,  nursed  and  cared  sion  for  dissent,  made  the  Now  England  <|>eoplo 
for  and  comforted,  till  his  death.  Meantime  generally  desire  to  secure  the  ordinance  of  bap- 
war  rag«Ki  between  France  and  England ;  Ed-  tism  for  their  ofl&pring.  Half-way  covenants, 
wdrd^'s  parishioners  took  an  eminent  part  in  tho  and  an  opening  of  the  church  doors  to  tlie  un- 
eapmre  of  Louisburg  in  1745;  and  it  happened  regenerate,  was  the  consequence.  The  half-way 
in  the  next  year  that  the  night  after  a  day  of  system  was  illogical  and  saperficial,  and  tliere  was 
fasting  and  prayer,  appointed  for  the  colony,  nothing  half-way  about  Edwards.  According  to 
and  kept  most  fervently  at  Northampton,  the  the  Catholic  church,  tho  oucharist  was  changed 
terrible  French  '^armada,*'  under  the  duko  into  the  body  and  blood  of  Christ  himself;  the 
d*AnviIle,  was  finally  dispersed,  and  utterly  Lutherans  held  Christ  to  be  present  with  and 
confounded;  ''the  nearest  parallel,"  said  Ed-  under  tho  elements;  but  Calvinists  held  Christ 
wards  in  Lis  plea  for  a  visible  union  of  God^s  to  be  present  only  in  the  soul  of  the  believer, 
pe«p!e  in  extraordinary  prayer,  "  the  nearest  and  therefore  there  was  no  place  at  the  Lord^s 
parallel  with  God^s  wonderful  works  of  old  in  table  for  tho  unregcnerate,  for  those  who 
Mofies*«,  Joshua's,  and  Hezekiah^s  time,  of  any  could  not  ascend  in  spirit  into  the  presence  of 
thai  have  been  in  these  latter  ages  of  the  Christ  in  heaven.  As  the  seal  of  a  covenant, 
world.''  Tills  trast  in  Providence  never  fail-  the  sacrament  presupposes  conversion.  Ed- 
ed  him;  but  his  life  was  now  destined  to  wards  desired  to  enforce  tho  rule,  which  in 
meet  with  seemingly  one  of  the  saddest  of  the  Northampton  church  had  been  evaded,  not 
aSicn'oas.  The  New  England  of  that  day  abrogated ;  and  tho  purc-mliulod,  sincere,  logi- 
ar-p-eareJ  to  grudge  a  homo  to  its  noblest  sons,  cal,  consistent  pastor  found  himself  at  varianco 
u  thucgh  Ti^solved  that  they  should  elsewhere  with  a  church  of  seemingly  visible  Christians, 
ttai  their  shelter.  Ono  of  the  two  greatest  who  made  no  profession  of  tliiit  in  which  real 
lifid  fcl:  himself,  while  yet  a  boy,  forced  to  run  Christianity  was  admitted  to  consist.  The  pas- 
away:  and  the  other,  the  Dante  of  the  New  tor  would  have  sanctifying  grace  go  before  ad- 
EncJand  churches,  as  Osgiwd  of  New  York  mission  to  full  communion ;  the  brethren  wero 
rzhily  CiilU  him,  was  destined  to  bo  driven  of  opinion  that  tho  Lord's  supper  is  a  convert- 
•Lto  t'lile.  The  civil  tribunals  take  cognizance  ing  ordinance.  A  Congregational  minister  is 
of  offences  against  the  law ;  the  ecclesiastical  only  tho  moilerator  of  his  church ;  Edwards  was 
cc»!irt«  of  the  Catholic  church  exercised  a  super-  overborne  by  tho  majority.  He  proposed  to 
rjaoa  over  the  inmost  actions  of  tho  soul,  deliver  a  course  of  lectures  on  the  subject,  and 
Among  the  Puritans  that  power  of  the  keys  they  refused  him  their  consent.  After  years 
w«  taken  from  ecclesiastical  courts,  bishops,  of  difference  of  opinion,  tho  greatest  man  in  tho 
tLi\  priest?,  and  transferred  to  the  several  bodies  New  England  churches  was,  on  June  22, 1750, 
'jf  covenanted  believers.  Tho  members  of  each  driven  away  from  his  congregation,  to  wliicli 
Xew  England  visible  church  exercised  a  broth-  ho  had  devoted  tho  24  best  years  of  his  life ; 
criy  superintendence  over  one  another,  and  and  now,  as  his  decline  was  beginning,  with  a 
dealt  with  those  offences  of  mind  or  heart  of  wiieandl01iviugchiklren,of  whom  but  one  was 
vluch  the  hiws  of  the  land  took  no  notice,  provided  for  by  marriage,  ho  was  left  without 
Edwards  discerned  levities  of  manner,  conse-  any  visible  moans  of  support.  IIo  must  quit 
^nt  as  it  seemed  on  reading  books  which  a  tho  scenes  that  he  loved;  the  groves  in  which 
terere  morality  could  not  approve,  and  ho  in-  he  had  meditated ;  tho  modest  mansion  where  ho 
vnked  the  attention  of  his  chnrch  to  the  subject,  had  studied ;  tho  elm  trees  which  his  own  hands 
The  chnrch  disapproved  of  tho  scandal  which  had  planted.  Throughout  tho  whole  contro- 
vooli  follow  an  inquiry,  and  let  tho  matter  fall  versy,  it  is  hard  to  say  which  was  most  admir- 
to  the  ground.  Here  then  it  appeared  that  there  able,  the  single-hearted  humility  of  Edwards,  or 
was  some  deeper  defect;  tho  church,  under  his  martyr-like  firmness ;  and  when  afterward 
file  lax  discipline  of  Stoddard,  had  been  filled  up  he  gave  an  account  of  his  ejectment,  ho  can- 
with  persons  who,  though  outwardly  well  bo-  didly  revised  his  own  [conduct,  and  sought  to 
hived,  were  not  saints  by  calling.  The  Catho-  find  cause  of  blame  in  himself.  When  the 
Re  diorch  offered  bread  to  the  people,  tho  cup  news  reached  Scotland,  his  friends  there  iii- 
onlT  to  the  consecrated ;  the  reformation  estab-  vited  him  to  come  over  and  establish  himself  in 
Ifahed  the  equality  of  all  believers,  and  the  Lu-  that  country;  Samuel  Davies  of  Virginia,  tho 
tfaerans  and  the  Anglican  church  offered  bread  samo  who  uttered  tho  famoud  prophecy  a\)0\x\i 


16  JONATILVX  EDWARDS 

Wjw!iinpton,  rntrratoil  }iim  t-i  remove  to  Virji-  wnrl«l  ah  "  Inquiry  intn  tlio  Frcc<lom  of  tho 

iii:i.  •iiri-rir »:  !••  "tirn  nl«r  t»  liiiii  !•!*  nwn  par!-?!.  Will."     TJiis  wriiioii  uiit  in  a  vcrv  !«!iiirt  j-*  rit  J 

aitd  I'liMilinj  liial  Ijc  ni.-I   !ii>  iinly  Ii.vl  wvi;:ht  of  lini«\  not  «-Xiei'<liits  •'>  inoniliN  wa<*  piiMi-livU 

i-iitKipTh  !-y  !ii4  rv;ri->«  rifa!i  •:i'«  in  tirfAl  Iirilniii  in  ITr>4.     WMlf  \tv  w.ih  in^':u;i-<l  in  iTvpuratiuD 

to  ;»:••{•  fl.o  ill  lit  rid  ••]']-ri  ^-:'>ii  *•(  rrc-l'VUriaiiH  f*r  tliis  wnrk,  Aziroii  Hiirr,  t)ir  pre«ii}r2;t  i>f  the 

liy  till*  iT'iVi  rniir"*  «■!'  tl.i<»!i!  Iiiirriiriion.      Iiut  r«»iK'gi»  «)f  Ni'W  Ji-rnoy,  at   rrinrct«in.  nftt-r  ■ 

iiiiTJiir  N  ..ti.iii.l  n.'T  \:tj:'.  i:i  «ii:.I'l  •  ifi  r  !iiia  a  tliri-o   JayV    [H-rMinul   ai'i}uatrit:iTire   at   SliN-fc. 

urtuiii  |-ri>\iMi.:i ;  un!  !!.••  ui:ii\  wlju-i*  intilUv.  l>n'I;.v,  ni.irrioil  Kilu:ipI-\  tiiirililuui;!iii  r.     Di»- 

ti:Al  ii.'low ni>  [>!<*  \«<  Ti-  i/ii  |(.:i:I'-il  i:i  tin- I.iii«l,  trt'-^Mtl  aiiil  ontV-tMi-d  t<y  a  li.ilf  wur'*  iiini*^ 

l.uil  liii  oj-Tifi:  !ii:r  t.ia4->(;i!   :& -iii.iil  t>ir«.r  from  h\n  partial  nroviTy  mily  »>i'iit  liim   intu  new 

thi*  a;.viir  I'f  :}:•'  I.-':i<Ii-;i  ^tIi  ry  I'xr  prupii^'utin^  tuliN,  ami  hori<nipK'ti-il;i<]i<i-«-rt:itiiiniin  "litid*! 

tlic  Ar-'-;^!  !•<  U^K'Ski*  »  i!r.»-iiiiiary  in  tho  rriii-  l^*»t  Kiiil  in  tin*  Crratiiiu  nf  t)ii>  \V«.irlil,'*  vkl.icb 

iMiit  iif  Ifii  :>-.iT'Mi'i>-k  li.>!i.iii«  nt  StiH'kI>ri<!.r«-.  i;*  a  pii  lure  of  )ii<t  (»wii  t-!i:ir:it-t«'r,  niL-Minins; 

'Wiv  Iiri!i>!;i!  «>t'  u)ii!o  f«:!!ir^  that  \nf\  ;*at!ifri<l  ain!  iitiinl.     Ho  al-xi  ^M'ti*  ii  (ll-«Mrt:i!iuii  on  the 

nii:n<l  t!i>'  tn-t'  ;i!-«)  ii*ki*<l  hir;!  t"  ft^otiK*  tin  ir  "Natnroof  True  Virtiit*.**  in  uliii-h  lu*  iinUMlicd 

paittor.      1  tti.*  ?r.:!iiij  ii !iu>  tl.ii'*  •■l>intiu-«l  wtm  tho  ron\ictii>iM  th:it  )u*  ha^i  Inrnu-tl  in  }(»ulh, 

Miffiitly  iMipr<<Vi«l  t.y  :)>•'  dilir.ito  hMtiliwurk  of  ami  hml  rnrrii-41  wiilt  liirii  tJirmuh  lifr,  a*  the 

hi^  ^^  \U'  aidl  ii.i'i.'!iii  r-,  u  1.;.  1,  w  li-*  fi.rw  uriUil  to  Vi-ry  rt'nir*'  and  heart  of  hi*  n-lijiiiU-  tAjK-riince 

i(fi-t>>:(  t>i  U' •..•M.      I:  \\:i- :i]']<:iri-nt!y  Iijinl  that  Ai.d   hin    pliil iilorul    n  t!t  rtiuii^.     Oiif   c^naj 

!«u  w.-M'  aiiil  t'r<  ai  :i  iiKin  «!.ifi.i-l  h:i\e  -«i  liniitc«l  umtv  iH'Inn^ttitlii^  {h-riiHl,  in  nliirti  )k-  I'liuhod 

a  ^phiTi-  iif  i!i:t\  ;  *'-.t  in  (ru*.!i  tiit  ^pliiTo  wa;*  nimo  hut  t!i«*  !iik'hi'<>t  lUnl  n:i>«t  nionu-ntKn^  «uS- 

inl.irjiii  !>y  h:*  r<  iiiii^ul.  a!i<!  ni>w  i-iiitirat'i-il  tliO  ]*•«?•*:  it  i**  iho  cli-rnur'H'  on  "Orij'in.il  S;n." 

«h>iii' K:i/!.oh  «<<r'.>l.     A  iiiitnl  hki- lii^  warncil  nut  tho  niorr  ht"  a*  ri>!M|>li'>lu-t]   tlie  i):i>re  be 

fiiriMiiiKiTf.-  intvri<i-:rM'  ui'Jj  i\^  kirnl;  at  North-  hin;n.sl  to  a«viMn|>li«li.  ainl  lu'  l^Hik  u{><>n  hiofiiinii 

.nnt|'!>>:i.  KilHariU  \%;ii  tiu-  \i'n!ri*ii!*  a  witlocir'  and  hl^  lu-art  uliat  hv  hiin-tlf  haw  u:i<>  tu  be 

r!«i»  «•!  iiiTliii  :io-.   \>.!i-.|   \*\   many   fui-ni-.  ron-  *'a  rr«at  wtirk  :"  l'liri-:ijin  thfi'ltijry  in  ihi- fonn 

Milic-  I  h\  ni.ki.y  «-!ii:ri  !ii-«:  nt  >!<n  Ll<ri«!L*>\  iill  hi'4  of  a  hi-tury  :  a  rvvi-ti'n  and  ri*ni;il«'iii>n  of  thd 

prtat  !jiI:.«   !••  tl.t-   Indiir.i-  \%a«  uttcri^l  «'Xtf;!i-  hi^t^ry  of  n-ih  tnpli'in  uliii-h  lie  had  «r;U4.*n  at 

|Niri-.  %%:!)iiii,t  I. ••!•-,  iiidiil   hy  an  iiiti-rpri-tor ;  NorilianiptnU :  a  hi<t>>ry  !•»  ho  rarriid  ««n  with 

.Mid  mIm  n  hi'  u:i-i-:.it.'  i-taMi-!ifl  i::  .i  hM:i«H.*of  rr^:tril  !•>  all  thru*  wurJiN,  htii\iij.  larth,  and 

|p«i>Mn.  ):i  fxiitxl  li.i[i^  if  |-»X4— «4i!  oi  uion*  Ji-U-  till!.     I'lu*  pl^in  of  oilur  tr^'atiM'*  troud^il  aI«o 

urv  l«ir  -iiidy  thiiu  Uv  l.ail  i  \vr  l-ifi-ri*  criji»y*d.  ujhim  hit  lu'Sive  mind.     ThcM*  Mi:d)i-<i  wvi\*  in- 

T!»r  ii'\*  ••  }*:ir*  i-:"  li:i  lifi-  wr.-c  Ti-ar^  t'f  un-  trrruplcd  hy  tho  d»a!h  of  l.i*  ^-'U-iii  !.,w,   tho 

inltn.']'!!  '1  "'.-A).      11,0  n  irri-\«  ;ipurini«.-nt  that  l«rr*idcMt  uf  rrinir?i>!i  ••'Ilrj.v.  anil  f.-r  hi*  mic- 

fi>rniinl  li.«  ui'.-k-r'xiiM  fn'iiid  him  i  :irlv,  all  tho  i'«'"Mir  tin*  tru^Zit.**  tif  llint  !:•«*. iluii'ii  liM<ki-4l  to 

d»\.   Old  l.i'r  at   Ii.-  di 'k  .  hi*  -  aruN  -!:urid  the   wiJiU    on    tin*    fr.-iiliir   of    M.i>vit ' -i-^'tt^ 

thi*  fill  ..!•  of  2..^  f  Hi,  \%.  •  ii  I  pt  I.I  ;i-k  Ih-avi-n**  'lln-y  »aili-d  KdwanN  fn-Ju  hi*  t.i-k  t-f  u.v  ':.'*y.^ 

h*i-«-i'-j:  ••:it:.>!.i.  ai.d  i:  i-  i!.>>  tr.»ili'.i'iii.  that  tlio  Ihiu^itMniiiuk^  tu  t.ikc  t-!i:ir.:i' of  i!i«*  c\n' 

ii!i.>    !  J*  w  r'o  .kS.d  IJ..-  iVii'lriti  ii<:.T:nurd  at  tr.d  *<-minary  of  tfn- oitmtry.     Af'ir  •Ni:no  htr^ 

til- iT  r.  p  .-•.  h'!w.*rl«  «.i.!  1  r«:.rv  t.»  I.:'  p  r-  itation   ho  riMiM-nti-d   t-i  ai«'»-pl   t!if  i:ii  .ia:i«.«n, 

h..it\  <•■::.■■  .*  I':!  «ii.i,\  !••  r« '.urn  tf.iiiks  u  hi  n  r«-pa:ri-il  to  IVmh  «-ti*:i.  kiiidii  ti  hy  hit  pri-**«ni^ 

t!ti\  h  .-l  •!•■!. •■.      I  :.(■  i!>  \i  !••;  r..t !.?  of  tl.i'  \ii-Wi  and  lii<*  wurd-  ihi'  livi-lii^t  intt-n-t   tni,*jf\,x  the 

ii!ii<  :i  i..i  1  l"::j  •  r..' i.-^l  .ii:  !  -w  ..!!'-\«c,l  up  )ii<«  ^!uih*nt.-*,  b:ii1  on  K*  h.  It'i.  IT.'i^.  na.**  ii.«ialU-U  ai 

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l.»-^t  •■{  ii  o  !:'• .    lie  u.i"  h.i:'!>%  Mi  ti'.i  ■>•■  ( !ii]  !,>\  -  hi  i.'lil»'r!iiNHl ;  a*  an  :i<  t  of  pn  i-aiilii>n  l.o  «as 

Hunt*.     II. «   i-'>:)>>!  i  f  •:  :•!%    hid    «\ir   l^t-^n  ii."« -ila!!-!!.  I'-'k  i!ii- •i- .i-i-  ui.'hr.i  i:...I..;t  ant 

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l-:if.'.      i',  .'.   T   iW    ir;  !.;<.  hSo.  •!:!••  ri  !iri  r;:i '  T,  l":  ,:   ""^ih-i-^ttd  |ii:\*«in  tJ.tiii.  nui!  t'i>t<  d  thai 

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.'I  1 1  :....-!.  ;«:.-]  I  r.^.p'  l<5.:urt.'  thu     f.ril  t*.in^  !•'  Iv  li.'rnv  ii;  z:.i:«d  i«  h.«  i!..'d..kf. 


V 


JONATHAN  EDWARDS  17 

sncere,  nnqaestioning  acceptance  of  tho  truth  never  proposes  as  a  problem  the  contradictory 

of  cTcry  word  ia  the  Iloly  Scriptures,  of  every  question,  if  willingness  to  be  damned  must  pre- 

event  recorded  there,  of   every  miracle  ana  cede  hope  of  salvation ;  he  moves  in  the  retd 

every  prophecy;  the  actual  fall  of  man,  the  in-  world  among  his  fellow  men,  and  brings  theology 

carnation,  death,  resurrection,  and  ascension  of  down  from  the  dim  clouds  of  speculation  to  the 

Christ.     The  next  is,  the  intensity  of  his  attach-  business  and  the  bosoms  of  the  univeraal  people, 

men!  to  the  system  of  Calvinism  as  opposed  to  — It  is  one  of  the  strangest  misconceptions  that 

tba*   of  Arminianism;   he  declares  it  himself  has  ever  been  uttered  about  Edwards,  that 

cTerywhere ;  if  in  any  thing  he  departed  from  ho  drew  his  pliilosopby  from  Locke.    In  the 

its  essential  principles,  it  was  done  without  his  dismal  want  of  books,  tho  essay  of  Locke  was 

consciousness,  and  therefore,  according  to  every  the  work  which  trained  him  to  pliilosophical 

rule  of  interpretation,  his  words  are  never  to  be  meditation ;  but  his  system  was  at  its  founda- 

forced  into  an  antagonism  to  the  reformed  con-  tion,  as  well  as  in  every  part  of  its  superstruo- 

ie»oa9  of  faith.    These  points  being  premised,  tnre,  the  very  opposite  of  the  theory  of  Ixxcke. — 

the  characteristics  of  all  that  Edwards  has  writ-  On  the  subject  of  tho  origin  of  ideas,  the  views 

ten  are  threefold.    He  looks  always  to  establish  of  Edwards  accord  with  those  of  Leibnitz, 

the  reasonableness  of  his  views.    The  doctrine  which  in  the  present  day  have  been  in  some 

of  a  divine  incarnation,  for  example,  approves  measure  popularized  by  Cousin.    Tho  doctrine 

itself^  as  he  thought,  to  human  reason ;  and  he  that  all  truth  is  derived  from  sensation  and 

cites  in  proof  of  this  the  authority  of  Greeks  reflection  ho  discards  as  ^^  a  low,   miserable 

and  Romans,  the  most  philosophical  nations  of  notion  of  spiritual  sense. '^    ^^  A  clear  appre- 

tbe  world.     He  even  refers  to  the  aTiiTTuxtnt/n^i  hension  of  things  spiritual"  he  calls  by  the 

of  Blonnt  and  the  pantheism  of  Spinoza.    He  name  of  ^^  light,"  ana  attributes  it  not  to  *'the 

KoSs  at  the  pretensions  of  greater  liberality  put  external  senses,"  not  to  "  the  inferior  powers," 

forward  by  tne  Arminians,  and  puts  reason  and  but  to  "  a  new  principle,"  "  the  divine  nature 

oommon  sense  on  tho  side  of  orthodoxy.  In  this  in  the  soul."    "  It  is  some  excellent  communl- 

battle,  he  was  in  Europe  preceded  by  Leibnitz,  cation  from  the  divine  beauty  and  glory."    "  It 

with  whose  works  he  was  not  acquainted,  and  is  the  Spirit  of  God  that  gives  faith  in  him," 

WIS  followed  by  Lessing  and  Kant,  who  were  at  were  tho  words  of  his  sermon  at  tho  Boston 

aH  times  ready  to  defend  the  sternest  doctrines  of  lecture  in  1731 ;  and  3  years  later  ho  enforced 

orthodoxy,  election,  free  grace,  and  eternal  pun-  at  large  that  it  is  a  doctrine  of  reason,  that  "  a 

ishiaeDt,  and  especially  the  Trinity.    "There  is,"  divine  supernatural  light  is  immediiitely  im- 

sayshe,  ''no  need  that  the  strict  philosophic  parted  to  the  soul  by  tho  Spirit  of  God."  There 

truth  should  be  at  all  concealed  from  men,  no  and  elsewhere  he  toadies  tliat  knowlo<lge  of 

danger  in  contemj>lation  and  profound  discovery  spiritual  trutli  cannot  be  derived  from  *'  second 

in  these  things.    The  truth  is  extremely  needfid  causes,"  from  tho  senses,  from  flesh  and  blood; 

to  be  known ;  and  tho  more  clearly  and  perfectly  that  it  is  a  wisdom  not  earthly  or  sensual  or 

the  real  fact  is  known,  and  the  more  constantly  natural,  but  descending  from  above ;  that  it  is 

it  is  kept  in  view,  the  better.    The  clear  and  full  "  nearly  related  to  a  participation  of  tho  De- 

kfiowledge  of  that  which  is  the  true  system  of  ity ;"  that  it  is  *'  a  kind  of  emanation  of  God's 

the  universe  will  greatly  establish  the  doctrines  beauty ;"  that  ^'^  it  is  tl>o  image  and  participa- 

wluch  teach  the  true  Christian  scheme  of  divine  tion  of  God's  own  knowledge  of  himself;"  that 

idministration  in  the  city  of  God."    Least  of  all  "  it  is  beyond  man's  power  to  obtain  this  knowl- 

woold  Edwards  give  up  the  individual  right  of  edge  and  light  by  the  mere  strength  of  natural 

fieeinquiry,  forhesays:  **  lie  who  believes  prin-  reason,"  and  by  natural  reasrm  he  means  the. 

dplesbecause  our  forefathers  afiirm  them,  makes  understanding  as  it  deals  with  knowledge  ae- 

idob  of  them ;  and  it  would  be  no  humility,  quired  through  tho  senses ;  in  a  word,  that  "  to 

Vat  baseness  of  spirit,  for  us  to  judge  ourselves  see  spiritual  things  depends  on  the  sense  of  tho 

iso^ble  of  examining  principles  which  have  heart."    The  term  is  not  well  chosen ;  but  by 

been  handed  down  to  us."    In  harmony  with  sense  of  the  heart  ho  means  what  later  philoso- 

flus  principle,  and  indeed  as  a  necessary  conse-  phers  mean  by  intuitive  reason ;  and  by  '*  spirit- 

qsence  of  it,  his  teachings  all  bear  tho  inarks  of  ual  understanding,"  that  higher  faculty  which 

mdrersality.     He  knows  no  scheme  of  Chris-  reaches  at  truth  which  is  not  received  by  the 

fiinity  that  is  the  fruit  of  time ;  tlio  Logos  took  senses,  "  and  could  be  produced  by  no  exalting, 

eotmsel  with  the  Father ;  the  divine  administra-  varying,  or  compoimding  of  that  kind  of  per- 

tion  of  which  he  desired  to  unfold  the  character  ceptious  or  sensations  which  the  mind  had  be- 


tire  questioms,  and  while  he  discusses  the  great-  shines  forth  in  beams  of  communicated  k no wl- 

CBt  topics  that  can  engage  tho  mind  of  man,  ho  edge."     "  Tho  Spirit  bears  witness  with  our 

never  treats  them  but  because  of  his  overwhelm-  spirits."     **  There  is  some  new  sensation  or  i)cr- 

iof  consciousness  of  their  important  bearing  on  ception  of  tho  mind;"  "a  new  simple  idea." 

eooduct  and  morals.   He  never  involves  himself  As  a  consequence,  tho  contrast  of  Edwards  with 

lUapsarian  or  supralapsariau  subtleties;  he  Locke  and  those  who  camo  after  him  uy^y^QOX^ 

VOL.  XILS 


18 


JOXATIIAX  ETlWAKDS 


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JONATHAN  EDWARDS  19 

ic:ioiL    Liberty  consists  in  the  power  of  doing  is  truth  to  be  fonnd  bnt  in  the  world  that  God 
wluit  one  wills;  and  the  pi>wer  of  willing  be-  created,  and  in  the  Being  of  beinjys  himself  f 
lungs  to  the  man  or  the  soul.    The  cause  of  an  Does  it  rest  on  sympathy  ?    But  nothing  so  cer- 
actioQ  is  comjilex.     The  volition  follows  the  tainly  and  universally  commands  sympathy  as 
greatest  seeming  good;  and  what  shall  seem  to  a  spirit  that  is  in  harmony  with  the  whole  sys- 
a  man  the  greatest  good  depends  on  the  state  tem  of  OtKl's  providence.    The  love  to  univer- 
C'f  his  soul.     Liberty  is  to  bo  sought  for,  not  in  sal  Being  includes  all  being,  each  in  its  degree, 
the  act,  but  in  the  man ;  and  if  a  depraved  iia-  according  to  its  amount  of  existence ;  active 
t-:re  i«  to  abstain  from  sin,  it  can  only  be  effected  love  for  the  goo<l  <»f  the  world  of  mankind  before 
ly  a  change  of  heart.     This  theory  Edwards  the  love  of  country,  of  country  before  tliat  of  a 
assorted  by  an  appeal  to  the  facti^  of  universal  single  city,  ofa  city  liefore  a  family,  of  the  family 
eip-erience,  and  by  a  most  thorough,  complete,  before  the  individual,  of  the  individual  only  ia 
and  aniinswerable  analysis  of  the  complex  cause  subordination  to  the  great  system  of  the  whole. 
I'f  action.     All  the  while  that  he  was  engaged  The  theory  is  directly  at  war  with  the  system  of 
in  this  most  severe  demonstration,  the  seem-  self-love  as  the  foundation  of  moral  order,  or  a 
iLgly  sturn  doctrine  appeared  to  him  as  involv-  respect  to  happiness  as  the  only  good ;  for  where 
ing  man's  dignity  and  worth,  and  his  abstruse  scTf-lovc  is  made  the  root,  it  grows  to  beinordi- 
Teas', ining  was  answered  by  a  flood  of  perfect  nate,  and  is  at  war  with  the  being  of  the  whole. 
nirlcdy  in  his  heart. — From  the  consideration  But  every  man,  into  whatever  career  of  enter- 
of  the  wilL  the  transition  is  natural  to  the  prise  he  goes,  may  take  Edwards  along  with  him 
theivry  of  virtue;  and  Edwards  finds  it  to  con-  in  all  his  course  of  prosperity,  if  he  will  but  seek 
eL*t  in  love — not  in  love  as  resting  complacently  that  alone  wliich  is  in  harmony  with  the  greatest 
oa  its  objects,  but  in  love  xis  the  ruling  motive  good,  and  keep  every  passion  and  inclination 
of  the  will;  love  in  action,  benevolence.     A  subordinate  to  the  divine  will.    Least  of  all 
biiiwledge   of  divine  things  comes  from   the  would  Edwards,  whose  whole  theory  is  one  of 
divine  in  man;  as  justification  comes  of  faith,  love,  weaken  the  bonds  of  family  affection; 
Eo  vir.ue  has  it6  perennial  spring  within  the  only  the  love  of  wife  or  husband,  parent  or 
Kr*L    And  this  love  is  not  for  self;  the  doc-  child,  must  not  be  the  paramount  motive;  the 
trineof  Edwards  is  the  intensest  protest  against  wife  must  cheer  her  husband  to  do  his  duty, 
tlie  thi-t^ry  of  solt-love.     He   raises  the  soul  even  though  he  is  called  upon  to  become  a  mar- 
to  the  highest  jioint  of  contemplation,  takes  tyr;  the  father  may  bless  his  son,  who  goes 
i:  as  ii  were  to  be  present  at  creation,  and  bids  forth  to  battle  for  his  country's  freedom,  or  as 
i:  iove  actively  all  tliat  is,  univers:d  being,  the  a  missionary  defies  the  danger  of  foreign  climes 
all-O'jmprchending  entity  (»f  God;  so  that  the  to  diffuse  the  knowledge  of  pure  religitm.     On 
virjjuus  in:in,  with  holy  love  sanctifying  his  will,  Edwards  himself  the  effect  of  this  theory  is  ap- 
is KP.t  f.Tth  joyously  for  action,  action,  and  parent  in  a  wonderful  tenderness  toward  every 
r  11  f-.^r  a*  tioii,  as  (ind's  own  sc»ldier  and  servant,  thing,  a  compassion  for  human  frailties,  a  can- 
r.i:?  ^irt'iu  iiir.-ludos  right  reason,  holiest  love,  dor  of  judgment  that  nrirrored  the  purity  of  his 
and  ae:iiin ;  a  mtional  motive,  wnrracd  by  love,  soul.     Viewed  in  this  light,  the  doctrine  of  the 
and  Iv.irir.g  fruits  of  righteousness.     The  view  oneness  of  tlie  race,  which  Edwards  asscrte<l 
is  r.ot  an  ei-ctutric  one  in  Edwards's  system;  witli  greater  clearness  and  force  than  the  mod- 
it  lies  at  its  heart.    It  appears  in  his  college  em  school  of  philosophers  who  have  so  much 
nafi-cripts  ;  it  colurs  a  half  dozen  of  the  resulu-  to  say  of  tlie  solitlarite  of  humanity,  gains  new 
tions  wli'.i-h  he  formed  at  20 ;  it  runs  through  significance,  a^  may  be  seen,  not  altogether  with- 
his  treatise  on  the  affections;  it  reappears  in  out  excesses,  in  the  writings  of  his  followers. — 
his  fcs.'-iiy  on  the  end  of  God  in  creation.    It  The  ethical  theory  of  Edwards  is  cosmical ;  no 
mast  bo  accepted,  or  Eihvards  himself  can-  one  was  ever  more  so.    His  manner  of  contem- 
not  l^e  accepted.     It  enters  too  deeply  into  all  plating  the  universe  was  also  cosmical.    It  em- 
t2iat  ho  ha-i  written  to  be  set  aside  as  no  essen-  braced  more  than  the  whole  course  of  tinie,  and 
till  part  t'f  him,  and  must  be  explained  and  de-  all  as  one  work ;  universal  history  resting  on 
Teloped  iu  connection  with  the  sum  <^f  all  his  the  principle  of  the  redempticm  of  the  world, 
doctrinv;?.     The  test  of  a  theory  is  that  it  em-  decreed  from  all  eternity  ;  a  history  of  the  grad- 
bncea  and  absorbs  all  that  is  good  and  true  in  ual  progress   and  advancement   of   the  race 
other  theories  on  the  same  subject ;  the  rod  of  through  the  presi'uce  of  tlie  Divine  Word  and  its 
the  tme  prophet  swallows  up  all  the  rods  of  his  ever  .ipproaching  triumpli  over  all  its  enemies. 
i^posers.     l)'.»es  virtue  imply  the  love  of  GikI  Events  seem  confused  like  the  work  of  an  ar- 
with  all  the  soul?   This  is  exactly  the  doctrine  of  chitcct,  who  einpl(»ys  many  hands  in  many 
Edwards ;  for  God  is  the  Being  of  beings, "  in  ef-  kin^ls  of  labor  at  once ;  but  a  knowledge  of  the 
feet.  Being  In  general''  I)«»esiU'on«;ist  in  respect  design  reniMvos  all  appearance  of  confusion; 
for  the  nii>ral  fitness  of  things  ?    That  moral  fit-  and  so  the  design  of  tlie  Divine  Word  in  redeinp- 
ness  lies  impressed  on  the  universe  which  per-  tion  gives  unity  to  the  history  of  all  the  nations 
feet  moral  power  has  created.  I  )oes  it  consist  in  of  the  earth.     The  development  of  this  idea  em- 
themvoiding  extremes?    The  universe  of  being  ployed  the  latest  tluMights  of  Edwards.     Ho 
b  moderated  by  the  divine  law,  and  is  ever  giv-  left  his  work  unfinished  ;  hut  the  sketch  shows 
ing  the  lesson  of  just  order  and  proportion,  howcompletely  he  ec.nsidered  universal  history 
Docs  it  consist  in  regard  to  truth  ?  And  wheio  ns  tho  record  of  GotFs  providence,  and  tii^i  c^u- 


so  JOXAHTAK  EDWARDS 

tarit'4  as  ■  projrivMiTO  «iti«»<;  lrinnul-ftii<l  n  v-  nnuri-liiMl  ilu*  >y\Tii  i-f  j  ntrinii-m  ai:-!  lil'^rtv  ; 
olutiitii**  t'>  Iii>M  iiipS  Hiif  hii'tlhtT  l'r>  rii  .vt'  t>*  :n:^\  ui:*\  in  tin'  In  i-.  {.<  .ki'tl'.:!.  tkiA  \-ii\'\*}  Ii<':ii«  -  *»{ 
onlv  i.i  l-riii,:  f'-rtli  tnitJi  iii.'lli-'l!:  ■ -•.  •«•  "tLia  tin- Niu  K!:/!:ii.'l  \(<-ni;titn.  it  \i»  liK-«l  il.i- jj-t- 
aII  lIiiiitT'*  •■)*<'':M  N'  ^)i)ikt  ;i  iiiiT.l  lliiit  ••<!:.•«  ly  ili.t-  {iXi  •  i  •!•  m  i  In  that  |'rii.i  i]<li'  ft  .i>t.\tf 
wliii'li  i-*  tr'.u- nh<l  ri/*.:.  :l:  •!  H/ri«.-tMi*  T'l  liif  "I>'\r.  u  !ili  h  i«  tlii' i  ••iit]'rtl>t  n-ii'ii  i<!' aii  true 
luiuil  nt"  li'«!.  M  !.!•  !i  •  ;ii.i  "T  5'v  ^!.jiki  :..  "  ai.i!  \  ;•  -  \irMii-."  'Ij.i-  irr*  al  rijii*  •Kiii.iii^i-  i-!"  (l*:- {if- 
ti^rv  In- t-r-ivlit  t"|-A-- !■;  "  .i^rr.iilii.il  pr-v'-i--."  ri«"!  •■I*  tr;ii.-!tii'h  i-*  .1>'ri.i(!.uii  JMwiinN,  N«  ir 
"viT)  hwiltl*.  \tt  jrr.iil'iiil'.y.  '  K*»ry  i  rr-r  K:i»*l:i!.'l  ui.'l  Ni  w  Jtr-»\.  in  lli-  '.xj:*'  f't-lli-w- 
of  iipii.ii>ii  M'A  *>::|><  r-!kti<-!i  i.r>T  ti  :klH.li>.|..  .1.  Ut^  IMu.ipU,  itj-plifi  uu^w  Mj<>'i;,;!.t  (••  tla  <ti]1i- 
'•  Wfll  iiiu\  »••  uiu.iri-."'  •>a\  -  li-lwari!-,  "  ll.t*  ji  •  I  ••!"  fi  Lirltui-  j-Lili'-i'i'li}  ulnl  -y-Ii  l!i;ilic 
gTrxlliy"^  i'(  III."  l-ii.'.-ln.p:  t  I*  <i<>l,  \>!.i<})  I.i*  tlii-<:>/y  tl.:ili  (In-  -ulni-  uHm'ML!  i-I'  {•••|i>;!a:.i'll 
bu  ill!'*  up  &•:•' ;il^^«  r  &.:•."  "  A!!  t!.>- ri  ^  •>'.«. t.>>!i-»  iii  urs  **i\i*r  }Mrt  of  ilu-  ikurM:  Jii"!  l-i«  iU' 
In  ihf  vki-ri'!  urc  tl.i  ^im  •!  lit-!'- u- ilu*  if  llu- n- o  i-  «li--«ri.i!'K*  **u  rwry  Iculii.^*  i.-.iiuL 
tirii\)*!i  i.(  t .  "     "Tl.«-  w«-rL  i-f  l!:f  I.,  w  iri.i!:<-!i  ii<!!.iiiiy  u'.A  llopkiiti  Wirr  hi-  l-'ipi!-.  h^tL'M 

U  tiH>rr  « ii-filt  :it  t)i;iit  t) '.•! .  "^'i  i!   f^ir  i-:  ^m.- hi- ■  xpi-iliT  ;  Sii.aln  ^.  KiiiUtniis  ai:il  irLiuy 

whf  II  tiiH*  \}i::.^  io   n M '1   ly  (ii-1  !••  luaLr  !■;  lit  r- H«  Ir  iii- !•  •!!••»•  r-;  lliri'iiu'li  n<>pki:.'«  hid 

w»y  fiT  an<*lhi  r.  ih<  i:<^  t\iiN!!it  ••'.•!."  "  1  t.o  iiilliU'iivrri  :ii  hid  KirkhiiiiI.:iii«I:i«!«i-tt(It<>iifii!J 
•Vv:.!-  ff  I'rov  iih  :i- i*  ot  1 'I  ill  i!.i<*  I:^!it  n{  ]■!  :ir  ti.i- >  harm  Iir  itf  lii. inning*.  K<luari!<>  «tiii.- up 
All  i>ril*  riy  -t.ri--  ••!  «%«!i!-.  ui^-iy  il.rtiit.il  in  thf  *i!il  (liii<Ii-jy  kI'  Nim  Kiijhiiid.  idi*t  i»  tliO 
eX(*«lUiit  }uirTi:-t:iy  .v.'l  i>-ii'-.-:i  ii<  •-.  !•  ii*!iii^>  all  f'-MMuiii  hcail  i>t  ihi-  ii«  w.  '1  hi  ti'lln  «-f  a  un- 
to ni.t*  «!iih  TIm'  «h<<!«  i-f  pri'viihiHf  un-  iM>t  tnry  tiiriit«l  th«-  wiMi  riii--.  U>  «hi<ii  iih  u  !.aJ 
turiu«I  r«iiiii'!  l-«  Mti.'l  «-h.in<  ••.  l*\t  thti  arrfu!!  l>i*ii  i!ri\i  it  f>'r  Ilhirtv  tn^a^  ihiirpravt  r«.  luto 
of  i-yi-  r»»i::»«l  a?-*-:!!,  a-  K/t  kj«  1  !■  |':i*«  nl-.  ain!  u  ;:.irihn  nf  p'niity.  pi  aii .  am!  jiiyini.*  aiti\i!y  ; 
\}^vy  art' ^ini!i<l  l>y  ih*-  Sp.rit  ft  (ImiI;  wl.irc  !ii  tl.:il  \n!l  trait.- tin-  i  i^rri  »pi-ii<!iit;;  irai<«>i:i«ia 
tilt*  Spirit  (;••«•  thry^'n,  »:•!  u!i  (n-il'!*  ui  rk-«  cf  C.tlvliii-ui  fii>iii  iiliar.;.*)it\  "•  If  a"<H  r:i*:ii>ftht* 
lif  prii\  iilt  n<  f  fhrK'i^h  all  a;:«-«  ii:iit  ill  I'lu-  lit  ih'itriLr  iif  ihi!:i>ii  a«;ani<-t  i!if  pri'it' wf  fppfi'^- 
lahl,  ap  ^•t  m.ii.y  liiii  <•  nil  I?  ill  iti.t'  i«ii?ri-.  It  i^  hii'it  tii  il^  ai!i>ptii>ii  uf  h*\i-  u«  ttir  rcijtr:il  pfiiit 
witii  (fixl'- Work  i«f  ]  rx^i'h  III  «■  ii-*  ir  j«wit!ihi»  i>fii-*\ir^»  i>f  «  ri  .ilii>ii  and  tin  duty  nf  iIa-  ire- 
Hi  irk  if  rrratii'M  -  il  I- I- ]!  !•:.•■  H'lfk -i-.'ii.- ri .;-  atfi! ;  ]n-  that  will  ki."»  t!i«-  ikurkiii;:'*  ct  the 
nUrf^hdi.i-.     T!ii  ri-   arc   iiia:.\    •>?  tM -.   luunv  iitiitil  i-f  Ni  u   Kii^'!.ii:i)  m  iht*  iiiiiiil!«- i-:' ihi- la»l 

}iK*«-«  ii  iif  ti*:.^H<r.  lilt  a!i  nri   »>••  j<<i!.i>!  ai;'l  li;!y  rtlitury.  niiil   thf  ihrnhhii:/"  i>f  it-  ht  ar',  luitot 

raiiK'il  t.v't'th«r  t!ia!  t?<>y  ii:rik«   hut  ni.t*  h'li-il-  ^'wc  lii-  i!ay  ••  umI  iii^rht-  !>•  lti«'  .-tudy  t-l  Ji<La- 

llij?;  thiy  hl»^i■  all  I  u!  i-iii   f-«Mii!.iT;<i..  iwA  arc  th:iM  K«!\W4r<!«.  -  '1  hi  ri-  air  »«  \\rA  livt-nf  Ji-n- 

nuitt-d  at  hi.«t  i:i  ciiv  *.>-p  :'ti>iir.     In*!'-  pr>i-.i*  alii.iii  KdM.i.d-;  ihi-  ii.i-!  iiili  ri -liiij:  i»  That  ly 

di'Mi-i'  may  i."t  uiifil'.y  U-  i>'iiipari<l  t"  a  hir^i*  11  -pkiii-,  \\\.'f  \t  .ii  Iii-  p'i)-ii.  ih^  fuiU-t  i«  xUjll 

uhI  lull,:  riv«r  h:i\ii.4  ii-.ttui  .•  ra!-!«-  l-r.i:.*  ).•  <s  1  y  Si  m  im  K'hNariN  Pu  i;:ht.     Tin  if  Iiu\r  Uaq 

U'«;it«i*:>'*?  i<<  ililliTiiit   rip:.i>:i-.  aiid  M  .i  j:r>  at  \\y*  i -li:;!'!.- <  f  ii'.«  Uurk-  in  Ki!;:!an*l.  fi.t  in  b 

di<»laiii  I- I'lit-  lr>-;ii  fiin'tln  r.  nii-l  a!!  i  ••::-p:rM.,^ !  i  %••!«.  ^n'.  a:id  ••i:i-  in  i'  i>>iiii*ait  \i-lMitt-.     Tl.e 

fiuv  fti!iiiiiiii  iii-'n-."'     Tliv  •■:ni  n!  tin   w  ).■  !•   i^  Aim.'i'aiL  ii!/.  :■  ti"  afi-  !•»  U-  pri  Ti  rri  •!.     Dae 

that  KilM.iriS  i.inki  -  a  t'lri.iik' I  "ii*  in  t!.f  in-  ^%.k-  jij.l:-?i.-l  ;/.  W.-ni-Jir,  Ma—.,  tdito!  hy 

trll«-«tuid.  i-r.  Ik*  III"  p«  rliap*  »■■';!  1  !..»%%•  ■.»;'.- il  S.»niit  I  A:i-!.!«,  i:»  i  ••'•'.*.  m  **  ii'.':n.t -.    Thi  Ni  w 

it,  tin  ^ptritti:ii  h;->t>Ty  iS  Nt  M  K!.p:la:i>i.    i'a!\iti  Y<-:k  •  dit.- n  i- l-ii  St  ri  !.••  K.  I'w  i^h?,  i:i  l'i\<ilii. 

haul  ri-M  !i  up  t"  I  ai:I«'  :v'L:i**t  i.  vi!;.v\al -'ijh  r-  h\M..  <  f  h  hn  h  t!ii- fir.-i  runTaii  -  t!.>  i.!i  .     Thi-re 

•titinii^  aid  nii-d.a  ^  a]  ar;-!<'i  r.n  .•  •  :  a  pli  '•«  i.*n,  i-  a!'->  a  !aN  r  a:.-!  ii*!i\t  •.{•  i.t  Ni  \%  Y>  rk  -:«  ri^»- 

cir  to  um-  hi«  •  w  II  utird,  *'Af  'ii-.\<--.7 .«.  '  iM:<>  t>p''  I'h'i-  !i  ill  (  \i'!tii:.i<.  i'!  ««h:ih  ihi  ft  ha%0 

dimtiij  I  hi  Ti '•!,:!■  p  p^'  Iv  .in  r*  f'-rti .  I-t  ■•■::«  ar-l  U  *  n  n'.nn  r-  I'i  iinj-r*  "-.^'i.-. 

|»rna:uv  *:ih-?.M:i:  pj  p  ir.ty  il  !.i  :irl ;  1- r  !.i.  r-  r.l»\\  AKI'S.  .h-.N.\iii\N,  P.P.,  j  ri -:■!- r.t  nf 

an  !iy  aii'lLiut\.t!tti'ji..vi:)  i.f  *i  \u  \%  r-.  S  ITiiv  t'l.i-:!  ■  •■','.•  /i .  S-  !.■■:. i  •  \.A\.  f-u  i-f  ihi  prt-  fJ- 

liii!i««'^f  iipi'i^r  a^-a*.'.-:  ti.f  pr.wli/i.l  i  :.i-« -,  ii.,-.  an*!  lik«-  h.ni  i'..-!ii.;:  i.-Iitil  :i"»  a  hn  taphy- 

la*.  «ilh  B  I'i^ii  r  i-r.di-  than  !!.•  i-».  r»  ^i  .ihd  ih-'  ^j•  ;.i:i  ;J.'!    t!.-  ■  '■.::..::.  ^-rn    in  N'-rlhan.i't'-n, 

ptiutT  ft  a  ytl   fii/hif  iri!.r  if  i.- '  lii'i.  n- t  M.i--.,  M.i>  'J'-.  ITi'-.  *lii  il  ::i  S  !.t  n*  !a'ly.  N.  Y^ 

€if  a  r*'j*.-!i  :•  d  a!..  i-*try  ■■!   I'l  ^'i :«.  r.i!:.  i.-,  *■  .t  A  ./.  1.  l""! .   A  vl.r.V' f  •'.*«■*'*•"■  ^**'-^  *'*^ 

Wii»  a!'*«I  ir.  I.n   -pi!.-'.  i'.\   i' •«-:!■  h.-..  pr*--  t?  «  I.i'!..;\  .:  hi- |  .»r«  ;.!^  l-i  .*•»..  klrid^-*,  «  hi  r« 

ctrda:ni  d   in  !l:o  i- ;•...!   «  VaT'ih- r  ■  f  i  %  r:..!\ .  i)..  r*-  w  ..- !  ■:  <  :  ■•  "^  .■■•■!.  a:.d  that  i*  i;.T:..-n  lf> 

Ilul  hi  .'i    ;n  •..*.•   f-'fi-r-i!   A::.' r!- 1  th- :i   u  ..-•  t:. •.:..[  Iri  :.■  I  1  ■  !'.  !hi   li.  !:  i:.^.  ;i:  ■!  »  h;!c  ic- 

lii»iU:j.:ir"fi  i.l. .  itiij  ri-  :.■  ..  i.t.  m.  ll.ri  .  :h«  -o  ha*  /..:.!-.  .  It:  ■   !..'.:•:  •  :"  wh-::.  tht  ri-  u  •  r\*  »o 

Hfrv  :.i  |ir»««  ;•.:•  :.-  !■•  d.  •' » .  r     <  ;  j  ti  "i-.-. .  :.-.-  f.  -a    :!..*:   :.-    w  ..-  i';  d  i:  ^'i  r  i  t  f  r^'i  \'*'..^  ih* 

tlixnt;  t M"  ^:.     Tin-  t'l  ^» ..- i    •  .'   w  ht  n  Ki»"'..-!i    !•:»■.•■.      M*-   ^■•   th.  r««:»';.'.y    h  .irr.rj 

t«ii  i  t!.«  r  I  f  !h>-  .  r.,*.:.  J  .    ■    ;-;:.;.•  •!.!',:.?■•  t!.-    '..i:  ./■.  u'.-   ■:   ?)..    >*.k!:jd^*.    L.ih.ki.v  th.^I, 

l»f  I'aJ*. -.r..-::!  -h  ..il  !  r.  ■  .  ...    •.' ■    rd.  ..!•;•   •  :  :.  :.-    1       !■  !  -   ;;•.    a"I    !.»•    I^     ;,•!.?*   r.k::    is    Shiir 

Tl.t-  fA.'ii  I.  ?.  !■  :.^-l  ;:.  !.  ■    • ..  ■  '     l-.llu;.-.  •!.!.    '      :i  .!  •?.     .^I.    i* -;:•:    i:  i  :.iT.    :.»-.-.  1- 

[•111  d.  :.  .vd-l   :•  '.    -  .';^»    Tfl  ?.' trii    i*   ^..:^,  \r*  •  .•  '  \  '\ '*     :.'.!!.*■  I../ .\ .-;.- k:.    « '.-d^^  d  th.U 

Ai;il.    ».!h    .:    •    I  ^I,-:  ,-.    •■..:!'.:./    I.i.:/.   -r  h.   I   .  1  ;k-  ,•..■■  1.:  :.ri*.'!\.  »:   ■:».  t'-y  *uJ, 

turii.i..*  !h>    \  ..  k.     t     I.    •'.    v» '.  :  .  *.    ;.:   I...r-  J.:.-!   !i-i«r    i .  ••■:.■   Kiii  .'   :.i     :  .^    a'.}    A::^li- 

liHir.i    %•:!'.   r»  .■*  11   a."  I   •  ■   -•       .   -  :.- .      I':-  A"  .■  '      •:        l:..-k:.    \i  !■  l/i    •:  i\.%  ^:  \.u  ir.^ipc 

dft^l^a'.iwL  wcj^d  tv  li.  11.1.  d'.^.  :;i;«^  i:^l  \,^y\  Lc  r«.*..u;.\.d  ll^rt^'a^-U  l.li.  a:.d  .:i  Lur  iv:^'.-*  ^  ..l^- 


EDWARDS  21 

fishcJ  his  celebrated  treatise  on  the  raWoct^  his  second  def^ree,  ho  delivered  an  oration,  in 
which  led  HnmhoMt  to  say  that  if  lie  had  not  which  he  attacked  the  existinp;  law  by  which 
been  the  greatest  tlicnlojrian,  he  would  liavo  the  eldest  son  recfived  a  double  portion  of  tho 
been  the  jrrcatest  philologist  of  his  age.  In  his  estate  of  the  father,  if  tho  latter  died  intestate. 
l'!ih  year  he  w.'ls  sent  by  his  father,  with  tho  This  excnted  w)  much  attention  throughout  tho 
Rev.  Gideon  Ilawley,  among  tlio  Six  Nations,  state,  that  at  the  next  meeting  of  the  legisla- 
tbat  he  might  also  lenni  their  language,  and  be-  ture  the  obnoxious  law  was  repealed.  Having 
come  qnalilied  to  be  a  missionary  among  them,  studied  law  at  Litchfield,  he  settled  at  Hart* 
Hert*  he  mude  rapid  progress,  and  became  a  gen-  ford,  where  ho  rose  rapidly  in  his  profession, 
eral  t'lvorite;  but  owing  to  tho  disturbances  of  and  soon  l>ecame  widely  known  as  u  i)rol<>una 
the  French  war,  he  remained  but  a  few  months,  lawyer  and  distinguished  advocate.  Unremit- 
when  he  returned  to  St4>ckbridge.  In  17^1  ho  ting  a])plication  to  his  profession  so  impaired 
e!i&?red  the  college  at  Princeton,  N.  J.,  whero  his  health  that  he  early  retired  from  public  lifou 
he  wa>.  graduated  in  1705.  After  leaving  col-  — Tryox,  D.D.,  an  American  clergyman  and  au- 
leae  he  studied  divinity  with  Dr.  Bellamy,  and  thor,  son  of  tho  preceding,  great-grandson  of  the 
in  1776  was  licensed  as  a  preacher  of  tho  gos-  first  and  grandson  of  tho  second  President  Ed- 
pel.  In  17^7  he  was  appointed  tutor  in  tho  wards,  born  in  Hartford,  Conn.,  Aug.  7,  1809. 
C'.'llege  at  Princeton,  and  soon  after  accepting  IIo  was  graduated  at  Yalo  opllcge  in  1828,  and 
this  office,  which  he  held  2  years,  was  chosen  afrer  studying  law  in  Now  York,  and  theology 
to  the  professorship  of  languages  and  logic,  at  Princetxjn,  settled  in  the  ministry  at  Rochos- 
vLirh  he  declined.  In  176y  he  was  ordained  ter,  N.  Y.,  in  1834.  IIo  removed  his  pastoral 
as  pojtor  of  the  church  in  White  Haven,  in  tho  relations  in  1846  to  New  London,  Gonn.,  liisprcs- 
town  of  New  Haven,  Conn.,  where  he  contin-  cnt  residence.  In  1832  a  prize  tract  on  Sabbath 
ned  till  May  10,  1795.  Resigning  this  charge,  schools  appeared  from  his  pen,  and  ho  has  from 
imunly  f«n  account  of  ditrerenco  in  doctrinal  that  time  contributed  constantly  and  in  various 
views  between  himself  and  some  of  his  people,  forms  to  the  religious  press.  Among  his  publi- 
he  was  settled  in  171*6  as  pastor  of  tho  church  cations  aro  an  address  delivered  at  Williams 
in Colebrook,  where,  in  addition  to  professional  college  in  1841,  entitled  "Christianity  a  Philoa- 
dnties  his  time  was  devoted  to  his  favorite  ophy  of  Principles ;"  a  memoir  of  the  younger 
Gtadic-N  and  to  an  extensive  correspondence  President  Edwards,  published  with  his  completo 
which  ho  had  long  carried  on  with  learned  men  ^works  (1842):  **  Self-Cultivation"  (1843)  ;  and 
U>:h  in  iliU  country  and  in  Europe.  In  May,  'Ji  memoir  of  Dr.  Bellamy,  published  with  his 
17i?'A  he  wri<5  i-h-ctcd  president  of  Vnirm  college,  completo  works  (1850).  Ho  has  edited,  besido 
find  cniorinc^  on  the  duties  of  this  office,  ho  the  works  of  the  younger  President  Edwards,  a 
pre  him-^if  with  unwearied  diligence  to  the  in-  volume  entitled  **  Charity  and  its  Fruits,''  from 
Kmfti.in  ,.>f  the  stu<lents,  and  to  aU  that  might  the  MSS.  of  tho  elder  President  Edwjirds,  and 
advaneethepro-i»erity  of  tho  institution,  for  tho  several  collections  designed  cspcoially  for  do- 
SroTain'.r.Jni:  years  of  his  lift-.  There  were  several  mestic  culture,  as  "Select  Poetry  for  Children 
remarkaMe  ooincidt-nces  in  the  lives  of  Dr.  Ed-  and  Youth  ■' (1851);  **  Jewels  for  tho  House- 
wiird*  and  Jjis  lather.  They  were  similar  in  char-  hold ''  (1852) ;  the  "  World's  Laconics"  (1852) ; 
after  .'irid  Srtrufture  of  mind.  Both  were  early  and  "  Wonders  of  the  W^orld"  (1855).  Sevend 
dtsrinsrii^hed  for  tljoir  love  of  study,  and  were  of  these  books  liavo  passed  through  many  odi- 
t^tors  !''»r  equid  ]>eriods  in  tho  colleges  whero  tions,  and  have  been  republished  in  England, 
they  were  re-])e«^tively  educated.  Both,  after  Dr.  Edwards  has  been  a  frequent  contrihutor  to 
having  beon  settled  in  the  ministry,  were  dis-  the  "Christian  Spectator,"  " New Englander^" 
ici»a<-'i  on  acenunt  of  their  d<)etrinal  opinions,  '^Biblicd  Repertory,"  "Biblical  Repository," 
sad  were  nijain  settled  in  retireil  ])laces,  whero  and  other  periodicals  of  note,  and  was  fur  many 
they  h:id  leisure  to  prepare  and  pul»lish  their  years  editor  of  the  "Family  Christian  Almanac." 
valuable  works.  Both  were  called  from  these  EDWARDS,  Justin,  D.D.,  an  American 
ritoa:ii»ns  to  be  pre*i<lents  of  colleges,  and  both  clergyman,  born  in  Wc^thampton,  Mas.-^.,  April 
died,sht.'rtlynftertheirrespectiveinaugnrations,  25,  1787,  died  at  Virginia  Springs,  July  23, 
odein  the  Sotli  and  the  other  in  the  57th  year  of  1858.  He  was  graduated  at  Williams  collego 
hi*  ace,  cwrh  having  ])reached  on  the  first  Sab-  in  IHIO,  settled  in  the  ministry  at  Andover  in 
bathnf  tl If  year  fri>m  the  text:  "This  year  thou  1812,  removed  thenco  to  the  Salem  street 
ihiiit  di»r."'     I)r.  Edwards  was  a  man  of  great  church,  Boston,  in  1828,  and  in  1821)  resigned 


edited  with  a  memoir  of  his  life  ]»y  his  grand-    with  great  ability  and  success,  by  lectures  and 

con,  the  Rev.  Tryon  Edwards,  D.D.,  were  pub-     addresses,  in  every  part  of  the  land,  and  i)re- 

fisihed  in  2  vnl<.  at  Andover  in  1842. — »Joxa-    paring  tho  well-known   "Temperance   I>ocu- 

mxs  W.,  a  Iftwvf-r,  tho  only  son  of  tlie  i>rece<l-     ments."     After  this,  he  was  for  0  years  presi- 

"  -    -      .     -  ^^jj 

ob- 
ath 

ward  tutor  in  the  same  institution.    On  taking    Manna],''  ttc.    He  then  i*peut  4  ycara  \ii  ^t^- 


S2  EDWARDS  EECKHOCT 


*!>•*«•  M. »:.■..»!.'  _  .  ^   ...     J  ...   .     . ._ 

fvTvi.i   j.i-r-.  «.:'  I,  •  •■^;l••  .jrii   M.iin.  i!."   .iS-'-.i  \i'!\ril    in  vlilJi'i.-  lin  :r   opj-'^itc    :trj-.iTiitM.t<% 

1,. *•"".' ■■  ;  !•  -  1.  .-.  ••  J". «  :i  J  .'.s-'.-'l.      A  ?!it'-  a^^i  in^>li'>l  tl..»  w  :•«  ri.ijitui'Ti-  t'l-r  r'>h''ii1:.ilh>r., 

Iii'iir  I't  i."  '..'.'    ill  !   I.ii-  r-.    •»    !l.f   Hi-..   I  »r.  n;!.- ••tr«'iu"l\  iu!!'.!i  r..i  •!  !iv  Inn  M.ir._\  «.,(r>'«<H-4a 

Hull'  •  k,  w  .4-  I  j'  "i-lii-i   !■;  ill.'  Atj:i  :;.  :i::  :racl  iilii<?i  I'a'iliuu-u*'  Ti'-' 'I  !•»  IfM-  !.i\"r  «•!'(  i*ri«t, 

fcN-t*  '>   I'l  >*•■'•.  an>l  at  la^l  hif^iiil  Imli'h!!'  a  (-••!t\i  rt,  axiil  was 

KI'W  Alli'S.  M«t  NK.    St"  M::  VE  Kiw  ir:"».  f.'lli'»«i|  l-v  hi-*  ju*»i  li*.     KtlMiii  |m  rt^inil  in  ft 

KI'WAllI'>.   111!  II  ii'.!t.    •■:,»■  i»I"   \]  V    tarli.  «t  di^.i-lrt-u-i  l>:ii!li-  u  :i]t  iLf  i  ••iiil'ii.nl  arii.if*  t^f 


Ir.!  «!.    jr.'-t    V.  .«   ;.-    •    ••!    }.\    •'.■■    N-rT'. ■;•:.-  ll.i-    \;;!a   » '»■  Ti-    K!.'iV:i    r«-l'ii-.!.   i!<  :.trrU    iha 

I?. -If     ..'   :  r"' •    t ".  .. -•  I:  1 !   Hi  !.'i.-  •.■'■[  i'v  li«-.i'itv  i.i"  !•  ii   !;rlv    mith  1  riiM!-.   uiul  t  ii'.cU 

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EECLOO  TgTer. 

EECLOO,  or  Eccloo,  a  town  of  Belginm,  in  alive  until  wanted  for  market  in  ditches  sup- 

th«  province  of  East  Flanders,  11   m.  from  plied  by  the  tide.    In  Feb.  1858,  at  Harwich  and 

Ghent ;   pop.  in  1856,  8,837.    It  has  an  active  the  neighboring  towns  on  Cape  Cod,  tlio  princi- 

indiia'try  and  commerce  in  woollen  fabrics,  hat«,  pal  part  of  the  male  population  were  engaged 

tobacco,  and  nil,  and  is  the  most  important  grain  in  eeling;  the  fi^fih  were  obtained  by  Kpearmg 

miirket  in  the  province.  through  tlie  ice ;  in  a  single  bay,  and  on  one 

££Is  a  name  applied  to  several  malacopter-  day,  200  men  HjK'ared  100  bushels,  or  1,200  do«- 
o-i"?  fishes  of  the  families  anyi/iZ/Mf<p,  cow^tfriA*,  en;  such  as  were  not  consumed  in  the  town 
lH'I  murtrnidiF,  especially  to  tlie  typical  genera  were  sent,  packed  in  ice,  to  Boston,  New  York, 
art^iilia  (,Cuv.),  conger  (Cuv.^,  and  murana  and  other  cities,  wliere  they  were  readily  sold. 
iTncnb.).  From  their  snake-like  appearance,  The  silvery  eel  (-/4.ar^cw<«»,Les.)i*' silvery  gray, 
aii-1  the  absence  of  ventral  fins  or  posterior  darker  above,  and  satiny  white  below ;  the  pec- 
Uabx  they  liuve  been  called  anguiform  apodcs;  torals  are  nearer  tlie  head  than  in  the  common 
they  all  have  the  body  more  or  less  elongated  species,  of  which,  however,  it  is  considered  by 
&z.t!  cylindrical,  no  ribs  in  the  skeleton,  a  cxcal  some  only  a  variety ;  it  is  taken  in  pots  in  Oc- 
stomaoli,  and  simple  not-jointed  fin  rays.  In  tober,  when  it  leaves  the  ponds.  A  large  spo- 
th^  genus  anguilta^  to  which  the  common  eel  cies,  caught  in  the  lakes  of  western  New  York, 
UIonff-5,  the  scarcely  apparent  scales  are  cy-  is  the  beaked  eel  {A,  raatrata,  Les.) ;  the  snont 
cJoid,  narrow,  oblong,  arranged  in  groups  at  is  elongated  and  pointed ;  the  upper  parts  are 
ri^iit  uncles  to  each  other,  forming  a  kind  of  olive-gray,  sometimes  slaty  blue,  and  tne  lower 
iacike-work  under  the  cuticle ;  the  whole  skin  parts  white ;  the  dorsal  and  anal  fins  reddish ; 
ia  *>ft  ar.'d  tlimy,  thickly  studded  with  mucipa-  length  about  2  feet.  The  common  eel  of  Europe 
roM  elands  and  ducts;  the  nostrils  are  double,  (A.  ticutirastrity  Yarrell)  has  a  sharper  snont 
each  having  2  orifices,  the  anterior  prolonged  than  ours ;  it  is  highly  esteemed  as  an  article 
inio  a  tube,  and  tlie  pasterior  opening  above  of  food,  and  the  London  market  is  supplied 
t'ae  mouth;  the  teeth  are  card-like  or  villiform  principally  from  Holland,  from  which  the  eels 
in  botli  jaws,  and  a  few  on  the  anterior  part  of  are  brought  alive  in  vessels  carrying  each  from 
the  Tomt-r;  the  gill-opening  on  each  side  is  very  15,000  to  20,000  lbs.  Eels  are  mu(?h  esteemed 
small,  and  just  in  front  of  the  pectoral  fin,  which  in  other  countries,  especially,  acconling  to  El- 
exists  ia  all  the  species;  the  dorsal  fin  begins  at  lis,  in  Polynesia,  where  they  are  often  tamed 
a  caafidvrable  distance  from  the  head,  and  be-  and  fed  until  they  attain  an  enormous  size. 
Ij'aJ  this  pectorals,  and  forms  a  continuous  fin  The  attention  of  fish  breeders  mi^ht  be  very 
wirh  :lie  oa-.i'lal  and  anal;  tlie  lower  jaw  is  profitably  directed  to  this  family ;  they  are  nu- 
I'-iijcr  th;in  The  upper.  There  are  about  50  merous,  prolilic,  linrdy,  ea.-^ily  iiroservod  in  salt, 
bj-v*  iL"?  do-cribed.  The  common  eel  of  the  fresh,  and  brackish  water,  and  will  always  find 
Dijnhern  and  middle  states  (J.  BoiftouieiUiU,  Lc-  a  ready  sale.  Eels  are  de'scribed  as  making  2 
fficar.  ami  tulgarU^  Mitch.)  is  greenish  or  olive-  migrations  annually,  one  in  autumn  to  the  sea, 
bruwn  abrtve,  and  yellowish  or  yellowish  white  the  other  in  spring  or  summer  from  the  sea  to 
bcDtiatli,  ofron  with  a  reddish  tinge  along  the  the  rivers.  They  are  not  found  in  arctic  regions, 
anal  fin  ;  in  a  specimen  2  feet  long,  measured  nor  in  the  rivers  of  the  extreme  north  of  Eu- 
br  Dr.  Storer,  the  short  pectorals  were  about  rope ;  even  in  temperate  regions,  at  the  ap- 
8  inohos  from  the  end  of  the  snout.  The  eel  proach  of  winter,  they  bury  themselves  in  the 
inhabits  both  .«alt  and  fresh  water,  from  the  nmd,  renuiining  torpid  until  spring;  they  re- 
B.*ici>h  provinces  to  the  southern  states,  wher-  main  without  f<)od,  breatliing  hardly  at  all,  at 
ever  it  i-an  find  its  favorite  muddy  bott<»ms  a  low  animal  temi)erature,  and  almost  motion- 
sad  extensive  fiats;  it  prefers  shallows  near  less;  yet  the  irritability  of  the  muscular  fibre 
the  shore,  where  it  may  be  caught  in  great  is  very  great,  as  is  shown  by  the  restless  motions 
nambersi  by  hook  and  line,  by  bobbing,  and  by  of  eels  during  thunder  storms,  and  by  their  well- 


I' 

d«rpth   of  about  a  foot,  and  are  then  speared  the  eel  is  able  to  survive  a  long  time  out  of 

throazh  liolc<  cut  in  the  ice  ;  the  be>t  time  for  water,  simply  because  the  gills  remain  moist 

cati-hin;;  thorn  is  at  ni^jrht,  by  torch-liglit.    Dur-  from  the  small  size  of  the  branchial  nrilices  ;  by 

\S3^  their  passage  up  and  down  rivers  they  are  this  means  it  traverses  considerable  distances  on 

taken  in  baskets  an<i  pots  baited  by  fish  or  any  laml,  moving  like  a  snake  through  the  grass; 

decaying  matter.     Tlie  eel  is  very  voracious  and  in  this  way  is  ex])laine<l  the  apjiearance  of  eels 

quite  iimniviirous;  when  in  good  condition  it  is  in  fish  ponds  from  which  the  utmost  care  has 

a  wrll-fiuvored  fish,  though,  from  its  s?iake-liko  been  taken  to  exclude  them,  on  account  of  th<*ir 

appexiraure  (and  it  is  only  in  form  that  it  re-  destruction  of  the  spawn  and  young  of  more  val- 

wmbles  a  snake).  m«>st  persons  are  prejudiced  uable  fishes;  they  have  been  otYen  seen perform- 

affainst  it.     The  length  varies  from  li  inches  to  ing  such  overlaml  journeys  at  ni«:ht.     Eels  are 


Mts^  'l5  or  20  bushels  at  a  time,  and  are  kept    burface,  and  sometimes  swun  very  high  m  d<«\> 


34  ££L 

wfctir;  iltf'Uirh  m»>w  f.f  prnwth,  iK-y  httJiln  n  It  hn*  Uvn  ranel.t  on  llio  I!n(;li:*h  coA^t,  bnl  it 

Wji'  ■»>/«'  iiinii  r  i.i\><r.iMi' I  .ri  iiiit«rM:«  i".  liHv  -  aIhmitmIh  in  iIk- Mi  (liti-rrtiiif.'iit :  ^n-At  nninWri 

iiiiT  !N*it  I  .iMfeT^r   ill  V.uj:\.ivA  ui-iifiiin^  *J7  I'-^.  wi  ii*  rtiiiourn*<i  hy  tli<*  bricii-iil  HiiiiiAn«,  nho 

TIk'  t«<nn  I'l  Ki\  i-  ^nitl  !••  Ii:i\r  1>«.«  i\  -•  r..L'!Mil  k(  pi  tin  rii  in  pei.t!*',  hihI  i'^i-ii  {•liio'fl  tlii-ni alire 

frt'in  tlif  riiit*  !::iv;;  j  Ihoii   |i.p!inrl_\  j.:ii.|    in  i-n  li.f  ta'Oi*  in  trv-lal  \i*MN  t!iiit  the  fni<^tJ 

IH'I-.  tK*'  li-r-U  imIi.   in.i'p.r  ^^  iii^  ;ii!ii-i.i!i%  t  :i-  mijlil  jplmiro  i!:i  ir  lH';mii!'»il  nili.r*!»«"f'»r*'  thfT 

tilK'l  l'»  I!.".-!    :!.:i:i   !'•  «. ».   Klri..iri'.  ■rj  Tjm  »•  n- i  •M'ki-il.    l';i-ar  i**  Nii'l  l«»  Imwili^lriiiUlrJ 

Hi'V»-rii,  w  tk*  Ml  « ;i;;,  il  !r"Tii  iS-  iiiiiin  !.-.■•  hiiin-  ri.i'Mn  i.f  tli^ -i"  iNIhh  Himtti;:  !ii^  frii'iid^  nii  tho 
Ut  <f  I?it—  t>!.  II.'  ro  laki  ri.  TS.r  i  •  :!,:•  r  <  •  !■*  i  •  !•  !'riilii»ri  I't"  Mru*  ni"  lii.-t  triuiiiph*.  Tlify  are 
diif*  r  fr»'»i.  il.r  v'' •■•■'  "■■■.yi./.i  iti  lui^nij  t!.-  v.  r\  \i-r;ii  iiiij*  aul  turro,  ami  nn*  haid  ^'ine- 
dnrvhi  Imi  Uj'.ii  ii>.irirtii«  ill  .f!.  :ir  iir  t  v«  n  in  tiiiti  «ti>  li:t\<' !"-«-(i  l*i'«l  •■!!  llit*  lK->!i  nf  ^lHVr*  who 
fn»ii!  ••!  ti.i-  j'tf  ••■r.-.I-.  ai.'i  :!.  ii.iv.n.'  t'.i-  nj-i"  r  Ij.i-I  ff!!  ?:"!i«l  tlnir  Kniii.'iii  nnt-ti-r*.  TIk-t  are 
Jaw  t!.i'  I'i.,*ir.  tin-  ji'.t.  ri -r  i.-r-Tr.!-  i  pi  n  liv  t:-!i' •!  r-r  wirli  -Trunif  Ii!ii-<«,  uii<l  tluir  l»ile  is 
nhiirt  !':"'i "  i  I-"".-  T'l  iln"  *  ii  i  !■!  till"  •!..i.T,  tui'l  isiui  ii  «lrt  .I'l.  •!  I«v  iln-  ii<>iit  riarii ;  tin*  are\iTy 
UjO  i^i-ri  r:-.r  i'l  !"r"!i:  •:  lJj«  lar»-i-  »}.-;  l!.-*  li-ii.H  iou- d'  lii'i*.  Tlit- llf-!i  !•«  wliitf,  «Mit*ftte, 
tci-th  ff  tin-  |-.il.i'f  :ii.'!  ii  ::.tr  :!!••  -li  ifl-  r.  »i;li  ull^\  iiuch  *->!i  i  iiu-tl.  Tiuri*  uro  iiiiiiiv  ••|it'cii*4i, 
clii-^  1 -Jinlt'l  iri^*!.*.  jii.il  «!.i-ili  «rr:iiii:i  i! ;  *  >> '.ii-i\fly  niiirrii-. — Tin*  haml  n.-!  (iimnicK/jr'M 
t!it»  fi.in  i-  (...k' «l  J.!.'!  »t  jL;i  !•  •«.  .-ii.'!  tin-  t.liI  .!"•< ''i>'i>i*iii.  Iir  K:t>  )  li:f«  u!i  i-Ii>ii::iit«*l,  hlitrht- 
irliiu.:.!!!  •!  .ill'!  j"  -.iiV"!:  I!.  I'tJiir  r- "I'l  i  t- !l.i  y  \\  (••(i.|>ri-«'>i-iU'iN|\,  Iar;:i*  ::iI1-n|  it- niniT'*.  adored 
rvM  iiiMi*  tilt  •  ••::iin"n  i-i !.  1  !•••  An  <  rii  .'iii  i  <<n-  fim  \Ti  n>lin,riii:iriv  \\n'  u  hi>Ii'Irii;rthi>!'tLoN*t'k, 
l^r  Ctf'.j/rr  (•'*•< .^sr.i'i*. 'Ik-  K;i,^  M-i'!iw  !  [••wii  iinila!i:ii.:tlfini>ti  •■n-i•^■ra:•]•■^i/«^ !N.itliM-|tiir&lc4l 
»Imi\o  ;i:.l  w!,i!.-lt  Ih',.i»  ;  i!i,-  iLir-.-il  rii-il  ii!.;il  iV.-rn  i)m- t  :i-.i«ial :  llio  l<'»ir  jaw  tlio  ]f>ni!i-*t ;  the 
fiii«  iiri'  Ir.iT  ""iL'tri  :.l  ^  i:!.  a  (!»:k  !i«'ri!t  r  :  \)n-  !:i:-  t  <i!>'r  i«  }  i  Il^u  i«h  nr  }i]ui-<li  \^T*^}^  u  a)Hi\r,  iiiiic4 
vral  linr  >  li^-tnn  !.  w  illi  u  »<  in  -  •■!  \k  liiii-  •!••'«>:  \%  I'.li  ^iiv«  r\  ainl  li:r!it  i^ri*  n  :  llir  -idi-* nnil  uti«]«>- 
it  jfri»»  -  !".i  l:ir,:i  *i/i'.  rri-iu  ;j  i.» .'» i".  ••!  in  ]i  tijili,  im  tiiirc-«:l\t  r;k  ;  tluli  nk'ttti^  iVmhii;  in  1:*  iiii'litr^ 
Aiiii  i'i!!.i  r  !h.-  iir  aii"!!.»  r  !-p«  ■  ii-  i*  !'"i!.«l  trmn  TLi-  -pi  'i'  •«  i-  f-iiinil  from  iIh*  ri«a«t  i»f  IjiUraiUrr 
tlieK"'^  "•^•- ^-'**f«  ■'■*■  """•■'**  ^tf'i  •^•' *■»'".»' J  );••  t'»  !l:.it  i>i  Ntw  Yi-rL;  in  lUv  prmiinvi  il  U 
r«»a-»l  i'f  N'«  M  Jir-^-t.  "!!»•  lviri-;i«  an  i.'i.:«r  l;ir;.*t  Iv  n-^  «1  a*  l-ail  !"'»r  i'^mI  ;  it  it  iir\  «*iiiiiiitoii 
('*.  cu^:«fri#.  ("1:1  i  i-  •••■::.nii«!i  i-n  t;..-  iii.i«i  i-i"  in  l.-'n/  I«!.i!i'!  "Minnil  t'ri»ni  Ma>  I«i  Ni«ii'iii?*T, 
l\>riiuti'!.  «  :;  th«  «a~'irn  r-n  k\  x^xr*  ".  a:.>l  in  •  ":i«;iTii!itij  in  I't  *••  a^nii  thi-  prini'ip:il  t>it*«l  uf 
l>aziLt  ••!!' t!- •  I  •  .i-T  I'l  Kraiit  I  .  it  i-.  r.iiijl.t  i»n  tl.i  '•!'».  ri-li  a.'iil  l-a"*;  it  i"  al""*  tat*  n  by  ••"'^ 
lll.f*,  tJ.»-  l« -!  '  .i:l  l'«  ii.p!  tli»-  -ai'l  I.i'nn  •  \  Pi-  ui.-l  I'TfnT  li-!! ;  tin- 1  iplialfpit!  » 'itt'.*.  Ii»h  pfi*  J 
mt»fytt*\  I'f  :!.<•  p:!\  l..iril.  aMi  tl-i-  li-}  r  j  it  iip'!i  it  <  \r<  ii»n<  i\  ;  liki- t!ii'ir<>pii  al  I^Mii*:ti*h, 
|irrfiTrm«!  :»t  i.i/!i:  ;  ^rr.  a!  I.  ;!ij'-i  r-  ar*  Taki  n,  i!  i^  pi;r-:h'l  ]'\  ll^lii-  in  t!.f  iiat^r.  ai.il  l-^  jruIU 
aii<1  !i;»i!  ni??i  a  T*  i*t\}  -al«  at  a  I"M  pr  i- •  \>>  ll.f  a?.. I  ti  n,*  ii.  t!,.-  .-li:".  'I  !.t  naim  «  ••!' ».in«l  !aunr« 
|Mi<irir  I  in-"!  ".  \  i\  1*.  ii  n--T  Li  !l  1:1  iiin  !.  t -ti!!..!-  iii.<l  -i'm ''i>-<;\v''4  I'-rt-  ^'ivi-n  !•»  it  lri>ni  iT«  haMt 
ti"n.  (  •■■i,'i  r*  ar--  \«  r_^  \  «":■,».;.. w*.  sivil  :ii  •■.;;:«•  i.f  il.ir!ii  „•  i-iil  i'l  :i!,il  int-i  tLi*  -.ilii!.  IkAiI  fi»iv» 
ftlar^'r-i/-  .  -p.  •.;..•;.-.  !.a\«  Ut  ;ii  .lUj;!  !  w.  :.•!:•  ii.'^l  an-lis.-T-i: 'i^ .  I>  nn  ah^  o!"  it"  priJi-«  tin|C 

in*c   1  •••  i  ■- ,  I  .'ri-  I'lUh   I"  I- •  t  i":  ,'.  ai -1   is  I.'W.rjiW.     Ii- ! !  i"  priiti  ipii!)%  iij-«*!*.     IHi 

liiri.i  •  in  I  .:«  .ri,:.  ■.  :  « I  ;  li.i  »  i,r.  *t  : »  •tr-r-.'.  L*.*  i  ".koi  •>!  T.t  .-!.i:.-!  1!  i^  t -:i  i  n.*  •!  A«  Iim«!.  and 
1»it«.  »K-irp!i.  ui'l  1..V  /ri  :i:  !•  r..L<  :\v  «.i  !.;  .  io  :-.ik*  •!  K.it  i*!  t!.<  *.ii.i!  :tT  !<»u  liilr  in  trrtat  iii:m- 
A*  Tiifti.^  .1*  l.*»'»  w  r!' '-r.!  ),.»..  "m  I  :i  »•■..■. .1  i;!  !)..■  I  •  ;  "  .  1;  i*  a!-»  •  .ii»';.!  iii  -*  li:<  ".  T»"*I«*rir« 
ruiiffi  r.  a'-- .t  4"  I..' ri  t}  .1;.  .ri  !•-  '.•!  iii !'.-  ••!;  a:i  r!- -,  r;' •  •!.  r.i>>li:i>\(  Y\i  ^:^f^**lf^fu»e!gr- 
l}^\•^  »\:\\\ :.  V:  }*• » *  :..''*  r  uiA  Jl.n.  .  r.  \ .  >:rJ.!n  trt.-..,^  I;.,:  1  "i:...iijli  ap"<!nl  a:.'l  tv!".iki-  in 
Kirli.iT':-!';.  n'.I  .•!^"i  tii '.»  *;•«  I  h  ^  i  ui- •  •  i  .■:  r'n-  ^ri  ■•  r..l  .1;  :  1  .irii:.- . .  ;!.:-  t>li  JjtVi  :-•  fri-ni  \\t^ 
Viiitt  rTa:.« ..!..  •"■ !  I"   •  .1  v.  !!■•  -I  \\  -  ••?  :»:.-  i.  i.t  n  I-  m  !!i.   •  ■•:  .pi.  :.   i*--  •  r  il.r   law  *.  tL«-  jifx-*- 

I'"nn".  *■•■'■!  J'  !■•  Till   i^i '."i*  t'j'jrr  ,ij.  1  ...i:.,.  ?.  r  in l'  m    -«.    a:.<!   ti.i   j'-iiifiil   tMiriijk-;   1!   \:mm 

iii*\  ^\   \}.'     ri'-t  : t    |N  .!••.' ;i;-.  •:..  .•:!   :\:A  n- l»^■  r  %•  :.:i.il  h-T  il'-r-.ij  li'   .  t^•■  ai..u  ri  .m  Kt^ 

wall  It  •*  »k.- .  *'..:.I'.  laii  "i!  i-r.i!  I  !.i:i!  i  •  .•!•  1   !■:*  I.-?...    p.  :■.:  •  •   ::.■   r  ni.  aii-l  !iki-  ll.i    ptt"-'r»i» 

I'BkA,  •ii!i-.  HI  •!  ::..    ■.!..•■  ■'.  il-.r-a!  a-    !  ..■..»'.  :.'i-.  .-•  «   :\i '■  ;  . -1  it.  a  tl  .■  k  *kin  n  !,•  !«  1 --ri. .  a'.*  the 

Jiiw   ar.  !   !'•••*.  l.-.if'.^  (1  •'!:/. I-:   .' ..    !••».. -1  r..»  -     :)  i    -»wii.  .-   *•  :*   :i'.'l   ■•iali!»--.    iJ.i    Ki  ad 

ll.r  n.a:/T     t" '..!-■:_*  .   i!.i  •»..•■   ..-.    iT  i   „■. -!  j- ••%  li  .t  .•'.:!  iV  •!..  ::.-•;::.  i  .ri.i»lit«l  w  ::K  >  .-..aiI 

In  B  •:!..!'•    !•  w   :.:      :.l  :?  .    •'!,••    '■!   I  .■■   •  i-.w  '.;-.  ;.i  «!•;■•:.•■,•:.'•■,  ..'.«    ..- far  U"   :.♦:■!«  r  iJ.t* 

b«>iii-,  »."•   n  Sw  t  :.   !.'.•    !  ••  /  •  .ilii.  i'.    •!..l;..'.  .*.-     '.'•  •   .k   •■:■.■  r  :  ■•-tfj^i  ari- -n  .■\'i  l;!-*  •  i!i  • 

Itrir.      V'-r-    •:.  .•     J'   -;....%    ..:.     .•.  n.  r.    ..!../  -  ..     '    .!;:-•.■.    .••     :    .     ".i-I.-    i-J    !!.r    l:j  •.  t'  f 

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l\\  '  w.t-  r'     •.'.    .1  ..•■  -■  *  ..:  •'..    ;-:.!.•  .1  .  :  1   ...'-•!.•.  J.  ■■.•*■'  i  ••■  •.  '\ !. , :":  .•:.  t!..-  .iT« 

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^<ill«»».:     'J   •     ,•■'.•.-   -   V-     '^     ..?'«■*.■       *    •  ■'■    •;■  :    |  .p      i       1  li«    •:.•    ^p- •  i.  ■•   kt."«ri    ir. 

ai.tt  r.  r  :      •••.;•..  1  ■  .•  *.'-.•■  .».'•.•;...•.  »  ..     •.:■-.     .--.  i  r"..  j  .:•'.• :    p.ju   ■l  ^-u'.h 

Ir.i   p.  •!.  -.   r      .'..-.  ■   :  ,■    ■  .  :  ..    •    . .  •.-  A         i    1      •.•* •.*...•■;.  !..::i  •:.'■  .-r  •••.»'..  r4i'I 

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EELEE  EFFEN  25 

trio  apparfttos  irliich  has  rendered  this  fish  so  mountains,  "where  they  find  abundant  pasturage 

Cciehrsted  occupies  the  space  between  the  pec-  for  the  flocks  and  herds  which  constitute  their 

ton^  and  the  tail,  for  a  largo  part  of  the  lower  only  wealth.    They  breed  camels,  horses,  and 

Iwlk  of  the  body ;  the  organs  are  4  in  number,  sheep.   The  latter  furnish  tliem  with  milk,  which 

S  on  each  side,  the  upper  and  larger  organ  be-  is  made  into  liquid  butter  and  sold  to  the  in)iab- 

ii^  separated  from  the  lower  by  a  thin  stratum  itants  of  tlio  lower  country.    They  pay  tributo 

of  muscle  and  membrane,  and  the  organs  of  one  to  the  government,  and  are  obliged  to  furnish  a 

i&ie  ait  distinct  from  those  of  the  other;  the  certain  number  of  soldiers  and  horsemen  for 

apparatus  consists  of  an  assemblage  of  mem-  the  Persian  army.    In  personal  appearance  tho 

branons  horizontal  plates,  nearly  parallel  and  Eeleeyats   are  frequently  prei)ossessing.    Tho 

intersected  by  delicate  vertical  plates ;  tho  cells  men  are  hardy,  powerful,  and  well  proportioned, 

tins  formed  are  filled  with  a  glutinous  matter ;  with  dark  brown  skins,  aquiline  noses,  and  pierc- 

ibe  lepta,  according  to  Hunter,  are  about  ^V  ^^  ^S  black  eyes.    The  women  when  young  aro 

in  inch  from  each  other,  and  one  inch  in  length  often  beautiful,  having  delicate  nut-brown  com- 

contains  S40  cells,  giving  a  very  great  surface  plexions,  regular  features,  handsome  teeth,  and 

to  the  electric  organs.    Tho  system  is  abun-  countenances  beaming  with  good  humor.    But 

dntly  supplied  with  nerves  from  the  200  pairs  perhaps  no  women  in  the  world  change  so  com- 

of  ventral  spinal  nerves,  but  not  from  tho  lateral  pletely  as  they  advance  in  years.    With  tho  ap- 

oostinuation  of  the  trigeminus  and  vagus  nerves  proach  of  old  age  the  charms  of  the  Eeleeyat  fo- 

from  which  the  electric  system  of  the  torpedo  males  vanish ;  their  skins  parch  and  wither,  and 

iisappUed.   The  electric  eel  seems  to  be  a  mere  their  pleasing  expression  ^ves  place  to  ono  of 

qpendage  to  the  anterior  part  of  its  battery  for  inconceivable  repulsivcncss.   The  Eeleeyats  usu- 

porpoees  of  moving  it  about,  as  all  the  other  ally  dwell  in  communities  of  20  or  30  families. 

oigBDfl  are  confined  to  a  very  small  space,  even  Lady  Shell,  in  her  ^*  Glimpses  of  Life  and  Man- 

^  vent  opening  under  the  head;  and  the  ners  in  Persia"  (London,  1856),  remarks  that 

BBves  supplying  the  electric  organs  are  much  "  the  tent-dwelling  Eel  is  to  be  recognized  b7 

jugcr  than  those  sent  to  any  sensory  or  motor  his  bold  and  manly  air  and  his  freo  and  inde- 

organs.    According  to  Humboldt,  the  South  pendent  look.    The  stationary  Eels  aro  termed 

American  Indians  capture  these  eels  by  driving  either  Tats  or  Takhtch  Eapoo ;  the  latter  term 

horses  and  moles  into  the  water  inhabited  by  implies  that  their  doors  are  made  of  wood,  that 

them ;  the  electric  powers  of  the  fish  being  ex-  is,  they  live  in  houses.    They  are  also  termed 

Laastcd  on  the  quadrupeds,   the  former  are  Dehnishccn,  which  means  village  dwellers." 
harpooned  and  thrown  on  shore ;  the  horses        EElSSAll,  Somaulee,  or  Somafli,  a  powerful 

fwr  greatly,  many  of  them  being  killed  by  tribe  inhabiting  tlio  territory  of  Adel,  on  tho 

the  electric  discharges  of  the  fish  which  glide  coast  of  the  sea  of  Babelmandeb,  £.  Africa, 

leneath  their  b«>ilie».     By  grasping  tho  head  They  are  a  pastoral  people,  leading  a  roving  life, 

cf  the  eel  with  one  hand  and  the  tail  with  the  and  subsisting  chiefly  on  tho  produce  of  their 

other,  the  niu?t  ])aiuful  and  almost  insupport-  flocks  and  herds.    Tlicy  have  no  fixed  habita- 

abie  ^ocks  were  received,  in  the  experiments  tions,  and  wear  little  other  clothing  than  a  loa- 

«f  Fanuiay.     This  fish  is  neither  voracious  nor  ther  apron.    They  carry  shields,  spears,  bows, 

fierce,  but  u«es  its  battery  to  secure  its  prey,  and  poisoned  arrows.    Tho  Danakils,  a  ncigli- 

■sd  to  defend  itself  from  its  numerous  enemies,  boring  tribe,  hold  them  in  great  dread,  and  do- 

(See  Electric  Fishes.)  scribe  them  as  a  nation  of  thieves  and  murderers, 

^CTFF  Elk,  or  Ili,  alsoGooLDjA,  GorrnjA,  or  but  tho  character  given  them  by  European  trav- 

GrLKcnx  (Chinese,  IIoci'yuan-tching\  a  city  ellers  is  moro  favorable. 
of  S.  V.  Soongaria,  China,  and  capital  of  a  dis-        EFFEN,  Justus  vax,  a  Dutch  scholar,  4>orn 

triet  of  its  own  name;  pop.  76,000.    It  is  a  in  Utrecht  in  1684,  died  in  Bois-le-Duc,  Sept.  18, 

ee  of  banishment  for  Chinese  criminals,  but  1735.    IIo  was  a  graduate  of  tho  university  of 

also  considerable  trade  with  the  cities  of  tho  Ley  den,   and  for  many  years  was  a  privato 

pt^Hnce  of  Kansoo,  and  with  other  parts  of  tho  teacher,  conducting  at  tho  samo  time  several  lit- 

MBpire.    It  is  well  fortified,  surrounded  by  walls  erary  periodicals.    II is  first  publication'  of  this 

of  ttone,  and  contains  barracks  for  tho  troops,  kind  was   called   Le  misanthnppe,  written  in 

puaries.  and  government  offices.   It  is  situated  French  and  published  at  the  Hague,  sliortly  after 

«a  the  right  bank  of  tho  river  Eelee,  a  stream  tho  appearance  of  Addison's  "  Si>ectator."    This 

•nr  800  m.  long,  which  rises  in  tho  mountains  wos  succeeded  by  tho  IloUand^hc  Spectator 

of  Thian-shan-nan>loo,  and  empties  into  Lako  (1731-'35).    IIo  si)ont  some  time  in  England  as 

TcBgfaeezor  Balkash,  near  the  borders  of  Siberia,  secretary  of  tho  Dutch  embassy,  and  tnmslatcHl 

mLS,  Eeleeyats,  or  Ilitats,  a  namo  ap-  *  ^Robinson  Crusoe, ''Swift'd"  Tale  of  a  Tub,"  and 

jficd  to  tho  wandering  tribes  of  Persia.     They  146  numbers  of  tho  **  Guardian,"  into  French. 

««  Cound  in  every  part  of  the  country,  and  So  thoroughly  was  ho  master  of  that  tongne, 

lUioagh  many  of  them  have  become  inhabi-  that  some  of  his  writings  which  appeared  an<»n- 

of  cities  and  viUages,  tho  m^ority  pro-  ymously  were  at  first  attribute<l  to  FontcnoUo. 

their  ancient  customs,  living  in  tents  and  A  collection  of  his  French  works  appeared  at 

jiming  all  connection  with  tho  old  Per-  Amsterdam  in  1742,  in  5  vols     A  2d  edition  of 

■tocfc.     In  winter  they  keep  to  the  plains,  his  JloU^ndschc  Spectator  was  published  in  IUq 

Ittoa  tho  approach  of  summer  ascend  to  thg  samo  citf  in  If 56, 


20  EFFESDI  EFT 

EFFTXI*!  fRoniAii',  artvr^t,  lonl).  in  Tnrkcr,  of  an  cx«rti»inn.  and  n^ilnrinir  t])<^  corir: 

thi*  iitif  pve!i  !••  i\\  il  niKi  ^r«.  I'.ariii  ^I  nun,  oud  niorely  iMi-^iing  iIk*  iiamcof  tho  i*i>[!(!>  ixr: 

bll  l)i'>«4'  w}i>  fiil'ii  :.iiv  i7ii|Kirt.iiii  f'.i:i(:tl(»n.  n^in,  t4>i;ithi-r  witli  the  ju<!,niuiii  fv.:..::i 

K^K^.!tVK>^■K^■^  k.  !!.•■  ». /-..m  wliirli  lali-*  ujNin  a  jiiiMu"  j»l:u'i'.     1  ho  tx«.r.ir:iM  I; 

J ':i' .-.  r- "<  II  ':'..:.,:  ■••■'  :i^:.  wl.iii  n  /;i«<  i"  i«'pi-  I;a-«  cxUtiJ  «liiw?i  to  llio  lalc-l   t\.\'%*  i:, 

I- i-!v  •  \ • '.-. •  I  I':  rr.   1  r>  ukli.*:  ii;> t'f  ii::i' I  }.f[iii*  olhtT  i*iniiitric«»,  Iviiijj  i-xt-ni^ti!  l-'t!.  \ 

(  al  i  "1.  ;••■:. ij  1  ..':-l  t!ii   r<rii.:i!  imIi  ••!:»:.>•:  L>  r.  .'ih  criiiiii-nU  an«l,  wit!i>»ut   U^:^]  -M. ■'.'.•■?•,. 

\\!..  r.  tJii-  n  •.!  aJ.  4  :ilk.»'.r.--  ^'--wiiir-*  i-f  « tVi  r-  |ivi»pio.     In  Kii^IhikI  it  i-*  a  |">j«;.!.ir  i;.v:l 

\i-  ::  j:  'i;. »■,:■■••   ■'''    tl.-*"'.'.  •  i   <r   isiixt  ■!.  ff  vcntiiii;  ^pito  A^Miiiot  nii|Mij.iilAr  i::* :;. 

lii.:t .      Ill    I.  r!j    ;!..r.ii.-.-    r;i:^.f.i.'    m  id   jrw-i  Fa^^kc;!  in  t-lVi^'ir  auiiually,  ni.d  fn-jUvr 
I'M  .»i '  ••.  .i-  iT  :-  -■:■!.  \\  i:!i  •  ?'".  rs.  -It  rii  ..*.  ixu«^l  {iniiiiihi'iit  Hkmi  ot*  iji^laii'!  i:.iLr  :!; 
Kl"H'l:VK><  INi;  r<»\Vlir.l:S.  J  rii.nr:it*H)fi«i  ally  f»r  ?hhih'  iM»'illi«al  i«r  iivlt-i.i^!  .  .i;  .  t 
i»f:n  .  1  .iiiduikalii.i'  |-«iwi!.  r«,  J  ur  j.pimhiVcrciitly         KKKINlillAM.     I.  An  E.  r«v  i-fiJa  . 
f"! 'rol  jMjHrv  i:i  tTiUr  !••  <ii*>:]i:knii-li  li.oru.  to  cd  W.  l»y  the  <  ^kvorhfo  ri\ir,    !»♦.•!  -•  j 
I'c  t.»«,d  ii-«  :i  t:;i-ilii  i:.o  Iv  nii\lij^  ll.r  i'i>ii!vnt!i  from  Sciutb  ('.in'lina  «*ii  the  K   !•«  tV< 
•  i{"  tvi.i.l:?V.  ri  :4:  ]>:\\"  r-^nV.*  r  thv-i.-  liiivr  Inrvii  did-  uali ;  arnv  4'«n  ^•^.  in. ;  |»<»|i.  in  l"*.'.;.  .'i.i 
^  O^oil.  u:.d  ilr:!.kin.;  \il.ili- t!if  i-l.iniii-alrcai.-:i>*n  ulifiu   l.r*7ri  wr-rr  h!:&v<.'».     It   hu-<  ap 
il  tak.r.p;  ]!.ii'r  ui;!i  I  :l*i.r^>  ><  •  Lii*.     Tlic  inin-  lovil  Mirfa>i',  mIiIi  a  Kktuly  M.j-r<<il  .  t:i 
in*-:!  •'•  1.1  :ii.J  N  •.!.:/  |'"wdiT^  :""'ri;i  ttViTVi  -iitj^  lait  there  arr  t  xt«  u-'ive  |iin».'  uirl  <.'»;:•  -- 
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cilhiT.  ar.il  <.-\{M '.iiiii;  ihi-i  .irl'Miiic  :u  id.    Thi'*;:a.s  <'t*  Indian  r<>rn,  .'m.'J'i'J  •>!' !>\%ivt   |  •<*:»:.' 
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a  r<  :iij;t-r.i:.t  :Jii!  d.apltur^  lli-.  i^Mtr  tix*  alk^uinv  nnd  'J**><  jjupi!'*  atti  imIIll'  i>ul>'.i«'  >•  }.•-  !< 
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a<l.i|-Uil  t'l  :•  !ri!'-  runii'liiit/.-  :n-ni  iU  nxiliof;  a  Knli-h  I'tlici  r  u  !iu  r«."i^iir>I  h'>  i«>ri.! 
aniir- :>!.  *}.i:.^'.|i:ik:i:ii!<.    'I  ).c  •  M!r.::ii  niKHla {•«'»-  rather  than  tako  arns'<  BL':i'n-t  th-    A: 
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Cithir.    An  I  .|>a'.  :dr:.t  pr"|>4trT;<in  <.<f  hirarl'i-nito  III.,  draiiivd  hy  I.i'.tlv  Waha^h  r:\'  r.  a';  i  i 
(■f  I*>t.i^h  to  »<(ni  t4iui«t  piil'-^sit.itt-d  tor  till*  H'd4.  mill  >triain  ;  uri-a,  ni»*iit  n*'**  -•;.   >.. 
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"Ann'ri"a:i   I  h*j"-n-al. -ry' :  tartari*-  acid  1  o/,,  WimhIIiUiiI*  and  t"i  r'il*'  |  ra'.rii  *  i:.  n!!:.--^ 
l»:«arl«un.itf  .-:" --mIj  1  i/.  ar.d  Til  jTi.i:!;*.  nr  I'ii'.ir-  iiri>|H>rti'ii.«.     (*i'|'(M'r.  li'ad,  a'l  i  ir       ar^ 
l"r!.a*t!   t'(  |■^»^l•vi  1   •  /.  a:id   !'"»'•  ^Taiii.o.     "ll.o  liori*,  nu<l  th*-  i  lii«  f  ;urr:'  '  !:':r.»'.  [       !..  • 
i^id  ai;d  till.ir  !  i- ar^'ii  it« .  ^1  ill/ •- l-aratt  Iv  rt-  jfraMi    niid^«>i*l.      In    !**'•'•  U..-   .       r '» 
di  i»l  *<•*  I  ji'.'  ;-  A'hr.  .iF"  t!:vi.hil  t  .11  h  iiit.t  lO  SiT."'-*'*  I.ij-IhIi  «r"  huliiii  i..r:  .  .*.  >  •  -  :' 
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if  til."  j-*'*^.-'!      ••.  .-1  i'.'  )H.u-iir'«  ar-  a  iifi\:iiro  ilji!.  Kwin;:t  -n. 

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•  ■a*.       ••■&•••<•■     'li  31  V.   •(.••>.    a*«*.  '      ''''•       ••^•■^•••«  1>\..      * 


£GALIT£  EGERIA  27 

tlie  efta  in  the  genns  lissoiriton.    The  color  in  his  wife,  2  sons,  and  46  oth<rr  persons,  and  in  July 

the  male  is  brownish  gray  above,  passing  into  following  landed  upon  the  coast  of  Greenland  in 

7e£k>wish  beneath,  which  in  the  spring  becomes  lat.  64^  N.     Ilis  mildness  and  zeal  gained  tho 

bright  orange :  there  are  numerous  round  dark  affections  of  the  rude  natives,  and  after  several 

ipots  of  unequal  size,  and  2  longitudinal  streaks  years  of  effort  ho  was  able  to  ])reach  tho  gospel 

oa  the  head ;  the  crest  in  spring  is  often  tipped  in  their  language.     Various  calamities,  among 

with  red  or  violet.    The  female  is  light  yellow-  which  were  the  ravages  of  tho  small  pox,  al- 

"*  brown,  or  buff  with  brown  dots,  plainer  be-  most  annihilated  the  result  of  his  labors.     Yet 


low.    The  total  length  is  about  3^  inches,  of  before  his  departure  he  succeeded  in  laying  a 

whidi  the  t^l  is  nearly  one  half.    It  is  very  foundation  for  the  further  propagation  of  Ohris- 

eoDunoQ  in  the  ditches  and  ponds  of  Europe,  tianity  upon  those  icy  shores,  and  in  establishing 

t^ecially  where  the  water  is  clear ;  its  food  the  germs  of  what  was  to  be  an  important  com- 

eoittistff  principally  of  annatio  insects,  larves,  merce.     The  Danish  govenimcnt  sent  out  3 

worma,  and  moUnsks.    Tne  reproduction  and  Moravian  brethren  to  aid  him,  and  after  a  resi- 

neUmoq>hosis  are  almost  identical  with  those  dence  of  15  years  in  Greenland,  Egede,  seeing 

df  the  newta.    Though  usually  spending  most  tho  colony  flourishing  in  the  hands  of  the  Mora- 

of  their  time  in  the  water,  the  young  in  June,  vians,  asked  and  obtained  permission  to  leave 

md  the  adults  in  summer  and  autumn,  become  it.    He  continued  his  labors  for  the  evangcliza- 

temstrial;  they  appear  to  attain  their  full  size  tion  of  Greenland,  alter  his  return  to  Denmark, 

the  first  year.    The  experiments  of  Spallanzani  by  publishing  several  works,  and  by  superin- 

ibow  that  the  members  and  the  tail  may  be  re-  tending  a  seminary  designed  especially  for  tho 

pwdnced  several  times  in  succession,  with  bones,  education  of  missionaries  for  that  country. — 

nnseles,  vessels,  and  nerves.    Like  the  other  Paul,  son  of  the  oreceding,  and  successor  in 

npliibia,  it  is  very  tenacious  of  life,  and  can  re-  his  apostolical  labors,  born  at  Waagon,  near 

■it  even  congelation.  Its  bite  is  perfectly  harm-  Drontheim,  in   1708,  died  Juno  8,  1789.    Ho 

Iml    They  are  eaten  by  the  larger  amphibia^  was  a  child  when  he  went  with  his  father  to 

hf  flahea,  and  by  various  reptiles,  birds,  and  Greenland,  and  in  1728  returned,  bringing  to 

nail  camivora.  Copenhagen  several  Esquimaux,  with  the  design 

£GALIT£.  PniLiPPR.    See  Orleans.  of  initiating  them  into  European  civilization. 

EGBERT,  king  of  Wessex,  and  1st  king  of  tho  They  all  died,  however,  of  tho  small  pox.  After 

niitcd  Anglo-Saxons,  born  about  775,  ascend-  pursuing  his  theological  studies  in  Denmark,  he 

«d  the  throne  of  Wessex  in  800,  died  in  836.  returned  to  tlie  mission  station,  and  labored 

The  defeated  rival  of  King  Brihtric,  he  took  there  4  years  after  the  return  of  his  father.    Ho 

refuse  fir*t  at  the  court  of  OfFa,  the  king  of  translated  the  ** Imitation  of  Christ"  and  por- 

M«rcla.  and  afterward  in  France,  wlierc  he  was  tions  of  the  Bible  into  tho  language  of  Green- 

rwtiveJ  at  tho  court  of  Charlema{^e,  in  whoso  land,  and  at  his  departure  left  the  colony  in  a 

inme«  he   s-orved  3  year:*.     Ufion  the  death  highly  prosperous  con«lition.     He  fullilled  va- 

ef  Brihtrio  in  bCKl  he  was  recalled  to  his  native  rious  functiims  in  Denmark,  was  particularly 

ewoarrj,  and  acknowledged  as  king  by  the  West  active  in  expediting  tho  exploring  mission  of 

Saoa  thanes.     In  600  he  commenced  his  career  Lovenon  to  tho  cotusts  of  (i reeiiland,  and  at  the 

i4  ci>nquest :    and.  successively  subduing  the  time  of  his  death  occupied  a  chair  of  theoh)gy. 

Britons  of  Cornwall  and  tho  Saxons  of  Mercia,  EGER  (Boh.  Chfb)^  a  frontier  city  of  Bohe- 

Htsi,  Es^^x^  and  Northumbri:i,  and  assuming  mia,  on  a  river  of  the  same  name,  at  tlio  foot  of 

B  in  request  the  i>rote<-torship  of  East  Anjrlia,  the  Fichtelgebirge,  92  m.  W.  from  Frjigue ;  pop. 

bj  627  he    had  bccumo  the  actual  sovereign  10,500.     It  has  cotton  and  woollen  nianufac- 

flf  the  whole    hei»tarchy.     In  832  tho  Danes  tories,  and  in  its  vicinity  at  Franzensbad  are 

knded  up*m  tlie  isle  of  Shoppy,  an<l  carried  otf  chalybeate  springs  and  baths.    lUi  fortifications, 

inch   bVntty.     In   8-33   they   disembarked   at  formerly  strong,  were  destroyed  in  1808.    It 

Gttrmouth,  and  defeated  Egbert's  forces.  Tlioy  has  a  city  hall,  in  which  Wallenstein  was  assas- 

Imdcd  aq;ain  iu  6o5  on  the  coa>t  of  Cornwull,  sinated,  Feb.  25,  1634,  and  the  ruins  of  a  castlo 

wbere  tlu-y  tormed  an  alliance  with  tho  Britons,  in  which  the  friends  of  Wallenstein  were  killed. 

'    Zjben  en<  on ntercil  their  united  forces  at  Ileng-  Eger  was  taken  and  retaken  by  both  Swedes 

tfMe  hill.  jrainLtl  a  bloody  but  decisive  victory,  and  imperialists  during  the  30  years'  war.     In 


k  Korway,  Jan.  31,  UJSti,  died  in  Nov.  1758.     this  city  was  the  capital  of  a  district  of  the  samo 


as  a  missionary,     lie  was  unable  to  ob-  gives  its  name  to  a  circle  contuininff  5(U),000 

k  royal  audieni'e  before  the  spring  of  1711*,  inhabitants,    in  which   tho  former  district  of 

wwms^  to  ihe  wars  witli  Charles  XII.  of  Sweden,  Egur  is  comprised. 

wiaeix  encro?sed  the  public  attention.     He  then  E(;EKIA,  one  of  the  Camenm  c\t  nymphs  of 

Mfeived  the  i>atronafre  of  Frederic  IV.  of  Den-  Koman  mythology,  who  was  believed  to  havo 

k,  And  5ct  sail  in  May,  1721,  with  2  vesseJi^  dictated  to  ^sumu  rompilius  his  wise  \l\l^v^,  vxuvi 


28  KGERTOH  EGO 

M    ■-.■.;'w;     *    !i-  .' T'-l-i- •  ■!       Ir  \%.i- 'tii! 'r  il  ♦-■•.  iti* --f  !i."»^'Ti.-m. '-xiu*  «■!' if- 'n.  -i  :"'.-• '.] 

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s.  '  /  '•    .:•■  ."■  '   -  ■..  ..*■;.  -Vi-  \%  .1-  ■  :  i."  J.  !  i:/  ■  :»  t  .- 1  .'  ran--.  •  <  v.ij  --••1  jVi-..  i|'..il>   •  :'    i".-  '". 

r-;'.'i'.      >!  '   '  .  !  ■  • .  M  »\-r-l.  ;  I"  ■:  :- ;i  I*-.' ;1  A:  ?!•.••)  irj»  r  i  :.»!■-: 'In- • /^'  !' :i -;>  i- .    ■  •■: 

:.■  !  J  !■   ;  *  '  T      ■  .  ■:•>::   ;  :  t)..   .  ...•  I:-  •' p.  ' . -!^  t;..   ..i:t.  r -li.  11  .»i.«!  t1..- t:..  n.'-r-.:,. . -.v  •     :.. 

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EGG  EGG  PLANT  29 

throQ^b  the  pores  of  the  shell.    This  diminntion  to  148  hens'  eggs,  or  60,000  eggs  of  the  hnmining 

Km  been  observed  to  continue  for  2  years;  an  bird.    From  some  of  the  bones  of  the  hird  which 

eighing  originally  907i  grains  being  re-  have  been  preserved,  its  height  is  calcalated  to 

a«  remarkeii  by  Dr.  Thomson,  to  368.2  be  about  12  feet. — Ego  Trade.    The  demand 

'When  they  have  lost  so  much  weight  as  for  eggs  as  an  article  of  diet  has  given  riso  to  an 

to  ixmt  upon  water,  they  are  generally  unsound,  immense  trade  in  furnishing  the  supplies  requir- 

Tlie  preventing  of  this  evaporation  by  covering  cd  by  large  cities  and  thickly  populated  districts ; 

ttdr  surface  with  a  coating  of  varnish,  wax,  gum  and  by  means  of  railroads  and  steamboats  they 

vabiix  or  lanl,  cliecks  their  putrefaction.    It  is  can  be  transported  long  distances  with  despatch 

■id  that  if  every  new-laid  egg  was  at  once  rub-  and  safety.    From  the  western  states  and  from 

bed  orer  with  sweet  butter,  it  would  be  a  rare  the  British  provinces  they  are  brought  in  barrels 

tfiiiig  to  see  one  unsound.    Tlie  Scotch  some-  to  the  seaboard  of  the  United  States,  those  from 

tiniKS  drop  them  in  boiling  water  for  2  minutes,  the  provinces  being  admitted  free  of  duty.    In  a 

Vf  which  the  membrane  within  the  shell  is  par-  single  day  as  many  as  15,120  have  been  entered 

wtj  coagulated  and  rendered  impervious  to  air.  at  Boston  from  Nova  Scotia ;  and  in  1852  about 

EcDs*  eggs  vary  so  much  in  gravity,  that  it  is  a  8,000  barrels,  containing  84  dozen  each,  amount- 

wonder  they  continue  to  be  sold  by  numbers  ing  to  about  8,000,000  eggs,  were  shipped  from 

fartead  of  weight.    A  dozen  of  the  largest  have  Montreal  to  the  United  States ;  but  this  amount 

Wen  found  to  weigh  24  oz.,  while  the  same  is  probably  small  compared  with  the  quantities 

■mber  of  smaller  ones  of  the  same  stock  brought  from  Ohio  and  the  other  interior  states. 

washed  only  14^  oz.    The  fair  average  weight  In  Great  Britain  the  home  production  Ls  put 

hand  to  be  about  2Sioz.  to  the  dozen.  Thorcl-  down  at  75,000  tons  annually,  and  the  value 

itirc  weights  of  tlie  portions  of  the  egg  as  given  at  $15,000,000.    Beside  this,  the  importations 

W  Dr.  Thomson  are :  shell  and  membrane,  106.9 ;  comprised  1 1 7,230, 600  eggs  in  1 856,  and  126,- 

lUmmen,  604.2 ;  yolk,  288.9.  About  i  of  the  en-  818,600  in  1857.    The  imports  from  France  into 

tin  wei|^t  may  be  regarded  as  nitrogenous  and  England  amounted  in  the  former  year  to  £244,- 

ntritioos  matter,  a  greater  proi>ortion  than  that  041 ;  from  Belgium,  £19,677 ;  from  Spain,  £11,- 

«f  meat,  which  is  rated  at  only  from  25  to  28  830;  from  the  channel  islands,  £1,731;  from  oth- 

per  cent.,  while  the  nutritive  portion  of  the  er  parts,  £1,143 ;  total,  £278,422.    Since  1854 

0T8ter  is  only  about  12  per  cent.    The  white  the  duty  on  foreign  eggs  is  Sd.  per  cubic  foot 

of  the  egg.  from  its  tendency  to  coagulate  into  of  200  eggs,  and  only  4d,  on  those  from  British 

a  bard  and  indigestible  substance,  is  likely  to  possessions.    They  are  packed  in  crates  and 

disagree  with  the  stumach  of  invalids,  when  boxes,  the  contents  of  a  single  box  amounting  to 

the  yvlk  may  prove  i)erfectly  harmless.     Raw  2,500  to  13,000  eggs.    The  consumption  in  Paris 

c^  are  more  wholesome  than  boiled,  or  even  is  also  enonnoiis.     In  1835  it  was  estimated  by 

titan  those  lightly  poache<l,  which  are  very  Legrand  at  138  per  annum  for  each  individual, 

&«ftible.     Eggs  become  more  difficult  of  di-  and  in  the  provinces  at  double  this  rate.     By 

pkion  by  being  kept.    In  medicine  the  shell  the  estimate  of  M.  A.  Husson  in  his  late  work 

B  TLaid  as  an  antacid,  its  animal  composition  on  the  Consommatwn  of  Paris,  the  number  is 

Kerning  to  adai»t  it  better  for  the  stomach  tlian  now  about  175  for  each  person  annually,  costing 

dkalk,  the  mineral  form  of  carbonate  of  lime,  about  $1  85,  and  the  whole  population  thus 

TSe  white  is  employe<l  for  clarifyiug  liqnors  sui>i)lied  is  rated  at  1,000,000.    The  following 

■d  amps,  which  it  accomplishes  by  entangling  table  is  given  of  consumption  and  prices : 

the  snail  particles  floating  in  tlicni  as  it  coagu-  

ktea,  and  thither  ri^iug  with  them  to  the  sur-  ve^.  |    Nnmter. 

fcee,  or  sinking  to  tiie  bottom.    An  astringent  

pmltice  is  formed  by  causing  it  to  coagulate  is*7 

»ith  a  piece  of  alum  briskly  stirred  with  it.  itS.V.V.V.'.'.'.'.V.V.V.' *.!!!. *!.'!!. 

Us.  under  the  name  of  alum  curd,  is  used  as  iS5o!!!!!!!.'!!!'.!.*!!*..*!!;!!!*.!! 

■I  ippHcation  to  the  eye  in  some  forms  of  oph-  J^ 

fittlmia.    Tho  white  is  also  used  as  an  antidote  isss!! ! !!!!!!!!!!'.."!!*.!!!!!!!! 
toeorrosive  snblimate  and  salts  of  copper.    Tho 

jdk  is  f^^metimes  given  in  jaundice,  and  forms        EGG,  Augustts,  an  English  painter,  bom  in 

B  excellent  diet  in  dyspepsia.    It  is  preferable  London  in  1816.    Uo  became  a  contributor  to 

to  the  white  in  making  emulsions.    The  largest  tho  academy  exhibition  in  1838,  and  was  elect- 

ibed  eggs  of  which  we  have  any  account  are  cd  associate  of  that  institution  in  1848.    IIo 

■me  Ibond  in  1850  in  alluvium  in  Madagascar,  has  produced  a  great  number  of  pictures  illus- 

Ihey  belong  to  a  bird  which  it  is  supposed  has  trative  of  humorous  scenes  from  Shakespeare, 

noently  l>ecome  extinct,  to  whicli  M.  Saint  Le  Sage,  and  Walter  Scott.    In  1857  ho  was 

HEure  has  given  the  name  of  c^piornis  max-  one  of  the  artists  connected  with  the  arrange- 

inuL    Two  of  the  eggs  are  preserved  in  the  ment  of  the  gallery  of  modern  paintings  at  tho 

K«nch  academy.     One  of  them  measures  13^  Manchester  exhibition* 

Uka  on  its  longest  diameter,  and  8i  inches  on        EGG  PLAINT  (solanum  mclongena^  'Willd.), 

Ac  diortest.     The  thickness  of  the  shell  is  about  the  popular  name  of  a  species  of  tho  soJanacea^ 

lof  an  inch.    The  capacity  of  the  egg  is  about  native  of  N.  Africa.    The  plant  grows  to  tho 

\  4fBartA|  6  times  that  of  tho  ostriches  egg — equal  height  of  about  2  feet,  with  a  prickly  alem^  uiA 


120,M0.784 
10C74T,223 
118,^S7J92 
124^7,lft0 
129,782,299 
160,l«0,000 
175,000,000 


At.  priw  p«r 

1,000. 


67.00  fhinca 
4<k.40  " 
46.70  " 
48.93  ** 
42.69  " 
41.85      " 


80                     EGINUARD  EGMOKT 

wi!Ji  1  ippp  f-vn?*'.  f!i»wny.  priiVU*  \i*\T%'% :  flnw-  ^liirh Arcfortlio most p.art Itomo npnn ihcl 

i  r*  of  i\  vi..I.!  ii'V-r.  ■•!' «•••!»•■  U-rtsty  ;  friii?,  n  brfturlifs,  iiro  ul'  a  lii-Hiirilul   li^rht    ro*v    « 

fr!"- l.«*T_v,  cruwilin;:  i!'«lf  «»»il   fn»iii  tlio  niKl  full  of  frnirriinco.     Tlu»  rhiff  p^-rfiim 

(Iiiviiiy  t :,!%!,   vi!ii>)i    ri  riiaiii^   until  the  fruit  tho  plunt,  howovi-r,  in  in  the  fnhniro.  itrt'l< 

rijHT.-.  lu.'l  i'm'  •!•  ri' p-irj-li-  «ti!.ir  it  a— iiTn«'««  in-  Ikmii^  lK>*'t  witli  ruv.4l-4'nli'n'd  frlnixN.  w 

dirfiti*  i>  j-i  rfi  I  :ii-rj.     li*  «•!/#•.  }iM\i«\tr.  iK--  mi  l>(iti^  ^ii^Iitly  hriiiM'J.  emit  a  |H«-ul].ir  i 

pi  !!•!*  I  •■T.-ii|.  ri*'''jk  ii|-i'n  Tin*  ii«"!ji.«  *<  "f  tho-i»il  Tho   i'^I:intinc  MU'ri»f«i«i  wi-ll  in  thi*  fnnk 

niiil  w:irTi>!!i  if  ilin.Htf.  :it:<1  J!)  ]>n>|'iTioii<-  m-:i-  aiiiplo  nnini  niid  h  iWp  N>il  nro  nlluun!  i* 

|i««ij»  it  T'  .11  !.•-  M  i.r.il  j'l.i'.r.i!-'  Uii^'ht.     \\\  !ii-  in  Muh  rjiv*  it  hiu*  Im-n  kliuwii  !•>  |>n<liK 

ili;iiir:i!  I'T'ii  r  !iiiT  r*»ntitr:i— i*  i"  iif.i^i'riti*  !irtii  K»  r;i.«iMii:i]ly    iImmMo    tluwor*.      Il    ^mw-i    re 

iff  f.-wl.  :,».il  !••  iti".i  !i  '!*•■.!  in  tho  I  iiiTt  i!  ^trili*.  from   iho  K-oiN,  ami  Hiiwn  in  niw-*  Ih^  j 

It  i*>  c -i*  ^t'!.^  ^<r\i<l  m;i  in   f?:<lL.i  i«  i*li  si'.jnr  liaw*  l^fn  rIip]HiI  into  ^imfK'  ti»  fi>r:ii  \*t 

ni:i1  w  :t..'.  fi!.i|  I-  i>i«H'\  tlii-  Kr»  ijt  h  ninl  !?.■»!-  nrnaiMviilal  !i»i!k*'*  •ii^i-i'-ii"*.     Thr  •'j-^'io* 

inn*  in  -t'-'A"*  nn«l  "■•uj"..     A'M-tf.ir  -ni:ilUT  ^|•v'-  kmi^n  in  thi*  li.itnl  Stutr-J  i-*  fui-jfj-^M  I 

cit-*  i*  >'  '-'i*;*.— .'n.  h.i%".n;r  :i  whitf  fruit  of  iho  nn  fn!\i*iililinu'«  C'ln'  fn-m  Kurnpr.  an'l  wa 

^i/.•  ii!i<l   hjijN  iiran-f  «.!"  h   f.-wT*  ojriT.    rhii't!y  tpHlnriul   with  n  «-oj«|'crif,  u!-*i  friurrmn 

€UiTiv.iTi<l  :i>  :t!i  i'r!:-i!iit  t.tal  r'.iriii«'.l \ .  ami  Mime-  fni'*r.r;iM'f,  Sir.ilh),  li!ivin^  ^m:t'lv^  T^iwcr 

tinii  *  riMTMl  i:i  j  ■  r- !••  ^^i -.irr  tin' riiTiiin;;.  an  nclitViTi'nl  ^ll:lf••'J  frwit  »»r  Mi-ii  \»-«.*l. 

K  li'Tik*    f«  i"'!!    ••••::.••    Ti  .i'li-.T"   ftt    tht'   niirtli.  licoin  ti»  havv  M-.in't  ly  iXtciidvU  lo'uiid  thi 

T!m' •-s-'l*  !■!' tin- I  ^'j  j.l:i!kl  *S'':M  W*  Hkwn  mi  cou-t  rif  Ni-w  Kn^Iamt. 

a-i;^-*.T  II..!  U.l  ir.M.ir. !.  ..r»:irS  in  Ai-ril.  aiM  F.til.INTnN     ami    WINTON.     Ai:.in 

tl.f  |lti.*«  ■>}ii-'i!ii  >'i-  trMiopliTiii-iI  in  tlio  latttT  W'li.tivvi  M<*n"i«<<'MKi:ik,  i-arl  di'.   iNirn  iii  ] 

j.art  •  f  M;iy.  it  :n  Ji;::*-.  in  ri' !i,  wartn  trronml,  int>.  .S-j.t.  :!'.»,   1*»12.     Ilo  !■»  Kinl  !:•  .tin* 

lit  tl.i'  i:.-:  !?!•  •■  •  f  "j  f '  ■  t  u-i:ni!ir  rvi-ry  wiiy.  Ayr*>liirt'.  IwL's  \w\\\  tui  varii>!H  tni:i-.«.!i^ 

W"fi.|»    ••^■•';'.•l     \ ir«  filly    vruiliiiitt-d    fn-in  ]in  al  }i;<|">intmriil»,   iiinl  w.-i-*  ^.lutii!   in 

b!n  'Jij  t!.i  i!i.  t!ii-  "•■.!  Ifi-, Hi  Fitly  l'«»i*iiiril  wiiji  I'^.'i'J,  KniJ  rri'Tor  t>f  fila^piw  i;iii\ir«i!y. 

tht'    1"N-.    n;.il    t!r;ii%  ;i    ■:{•    tirnui.'I    tliO    ^t^tns.  Yvh.   \*\  I^-i'.    1^^'J.  Li*  wam  lunl  Iii-iit'.i:a] 

Aiifiij  !!.-    rji.i >'.    .f.'rhi'i'ir'.tn.   haMn;;  In  iniid,  and  tn  tliis  (•lVn  i*  hr  ua"  n.*ij:  n;-] 

similar  fn   •.  >  i«liiiii<<!  T'-r  f':ruj-!iif;;r  ii!i  t-r-  i**!,  Krli.  1.'.*.  l'«r>^.     Ho  w  priiiiip.illy  Lmi 

rar:unt:il  ili-h  in  ^Tiat  ti  i  .i«!'M.>  aiiil  i>u  fi'-t;!!  a  ]iatrtin  ul'  thr  turf  and  :»<•  an  ni:!:k:t  ur  %.( 

davik.  iiaiiuntH.     llr;ra\fin  l^o'Ja.^pli  udul « i:Uv 

'K*iIVH\KM.    I'T    KiMi\Rt«.    tho    M'orotary,  im-nt  if  tin- l.iltrr  iwind  At  I-V'inton  « .i-:!.'. 

ci'iifid.  T.!i.il  ttih'.MT,  atpl  l'!«vnild»»'r  f»f  I'hnrlo-  d'li  L<  .*'«  of  SunuT^ot.  thi-t»  Lu!)   .Svi. •■■•:! 

mnirtii*.  I'tTTi  in  A'>trn«ia  c  Ha^t  Kranrri,  iliiJ  thir  ijm.-i  n  cf  !■<  nuty  (in  that  ifi'vU>*:.  ai  d 

July  S"'.  *»U.      H'*  W14  A  |''Ji'il  i-f  .M'-'.;in.  who  Na|KiI<*iin  t«"»k  a  par',  in  t!i«'  papa:.!.      M:' 

IniriNl'ii-.d  h::M  a:  tfi.r'..     !!«•  ntiriil.  aftor  hi*  wif-.-   iliid   in    I'^Tin.  aud    hr  lii.irriid.    N\ 

r«»>:kl  i-fttr-;.'*  d«  a?!i.  !••  :ii  I'liritry  n-idi-nif  nt-ar  l'*o'*,  Iji«ly  Adi  la  Ca]it.l,  utily  da.v'l'ttr  i 

M'ilii}i''i:::,  i:i  tin*  <  )il<  nu.iM.  vili<  ro  hf  do\"ti  d  <-arl  cf  K*>m'X. 

)ii!.—  :i  t.»  li'..  rury  |.Mr-'.si-      Afl.r  the  d-ath  K<iVln,\T.  f.\M<ii:\i.  vn.t  if.  a  •  l.rf 

i«f  !:.■•   u .fi'.    \\\  >t  \m   \'*\'.K\iA  ti»  Jiavo  W-i-n  a  h?att-inan  i-f  tin  N« 'In  rl  ih'!*. '  "r:.  r.  t::« 

4!  ?»«»».•*.!  IT  1  f  CI..»r!i!M!i-:  .',  !.i-  l.'iili  ai  •»nvc!it  at  i.f  la  niirii.'iid.'.  in  lla.TJu  it,  in  l.'JJ.  .  Xi .  :.' 

K!:,-«i.>!a-!t,iri!?.»j.ri -.  rtl  ^Tatiddil"!!}  of  !!(^*o,  !<r«i-'t  I-*.  .Im:-- ."..  iri''**.      Fr-i!j  I.h  r  ,   -^i 

ar.  I  fi.t.-rid  1!  a*  a  i.i-  :.k.     T!i«'  -arifphojii^  in  nr-t  hi  a':t.t'.I  Kit  ru>h  \\'TI!:i:i  ■  :"  \.%  r  T.r; 

*l.  i  ii  III- fi'i  1 1.:- »  !"••  w«.  ro  ! 'jrttd  ;«• -tJil  ""hown  iiilii-rirnl   !!.••  dij;:.:\^  tf  |  r.!.- *•  if  tior 

a!   th«'  i\v'lo  t»f  }'.t\  II  !;.  .4:>il  tJ.»  ii-i:j.S*  of  Kr-  J..-  prt  f«-rrid  tKi   i;.'»r-'  r.-  •!-  «r  !:•;•■  «  T  '  .  •; 

I  It !»  I '.:•.:;.  t*%  If  l.js  li'ji  iI  i!«-<-<  r.<!;iij:4.     1 !«»  K^'?t!«-i.t.  w!..'!i  lann'   t-i  I  .;:i  fri  :  .   }   ■»  i 

Wr  t  I'-.'-'ti  .V »;•.!.  Iv  K/ifihnn!.  i*  i.s.i*  of  tho  ai.d  »!ii'!i  ?■• -i'*ik«-  a  l!'.i  a^-i-  a^  I-  •'■.   :•.- 

!■«  ■!  !..'kTal'hj- a!  tH'tL*  of  tJ.i- !r.  dillo  a^t  ■•.      It  NUiTt  i/n-*    t.uld    ^.m^V      T!ir«    :i:?.   a    I.r 

}.:%.*  **>  n  I'  p".Mi»'  •  <I  \  y  ]■'.•  !•  r  »Ha?ii*'';rfc',  l-^.T.M,  1  hi^alroi:^  ai.il  il-MiiJi:  ^?i"'.  m.-  •  -r.-r-  *  ■  ! 

a:.d  a'«-i  ir.  tl." -I'l-:.'!  *i  !":ri.'   of  iVrt/'-i  Jl/ll^^-  lii- <!.  m  i::M'r"'n  ai.«  :•  1  ■    pu'i?'.   K'.*     '.   1 

r..*.'i    ^'"••.M.if    //.••'•■I-?       K,'i::l;.ird'*    .li-  H\  !hi'«!«  a^ii  .  f  ar.  « Id.  .- hi.'!.' r  I  •■  .' .    .»r: 

f..iV*  /,>■/■  ••»   /^  f  -  •-•  •.    ;ifi.!  A  I-  iliH  !:>in  (»f  hin  1..  il.-    h.  t  !■•  !h.'   ti'-i*-  :i!;d   i-V-'i  '  ■  ?    .1    f 

K-!t<  r*.  .%'!'  l;kr«  i-*-  of  iT*- »l  \  k!  .»•  to  the  !.«•••»•  w)i.r!i  \\  .%*   -i  .■  lid  to    T'V«-  "ii    I  "i: 

r.'in      I:..' j-«;  .Ijir  \t"r»'.  ?i  i  f  K»':TiJ.  ip!"*  iimrt-  ^^"••':.   *»■  ^i'-i.  a'.d  |   ■•.v.r.      Ih 

»?!:;•  u  i:l»  1"'  ir"..  ?»i.^/:,.  -  d  k"-,'V:.  r  II  I*  rr.ij'.iiiitly  I ...  I,i-d  a  j  .i.*.- '-f  th.    .■:.|..-ic(  '.  i'"- *  \' 

!.«•  :.  tj.i-  *  .'^-  .  :  I  :   J-^  ti-  a1   ..r.  1  i!.''.i2;.jt:i:  ft  j»-  in  i.i-  i'.*'S  ^.  ;ir  -  '■r..r.'r  ■!-  ■!  w  .■!.  .1  ••  ■  •  ' 

ri**'r.*T.'    -rv  tf' .-ji  I-f  !:«'!.•  h.-r^-'   .'»   Tin-  i^i"I'     .1   a. 

K'rl.AVriVr..   r.n  oM  r-ij:*.->i   l..i?no  f.ir  th-  A!.-:,  r-       l:.  •  ;:•    ■  j  ?•■  1.  -  <•    .'■T*  ).   » 

fcw.- :    '  r.- r    ■•■•I    r-'iy,.,».i    l.r.».  I,    a     H'l-  ('   r-.  a,  i  i- ?  ■  i.  :»:.!   I '-rru  :.«.  i?i  r.4"   *  . 

L:..<»n    a:.!    I'l 'i*'!.'.f .  '  ■    f-t#v.i:.t  ;.  r.vnl    r"**-,  r-i-l   ^rk^  r  i  ..;    |'.n'..,?.\.   *  ••- r  if   •'.  •  •! 

irr.'W  I  ,r  1 1.'?. !.!'.'!_»:;»  f  '.  p\.'»V:r« ..  a:.d  isi  jli  •  •-     |-.i!  iVi.. .  •'' !  ' '"  '    •   '•   •'  •    '■■•     ^-^    ■ 

i'l    I.. !  U       I:-.    «'...;■    '/ .!*  .%•■!  •.;•  dt  r  I.i\.r..M.'  «!.    vr*  ..••!;  r  !  ..|  .il  ?. -•'.■.-.  f  •.' .  .  •-.;   '• 

I   r    .-.-rv.ii*   it   :-   t."  !    ':r -.  ?::Tii  .'i   fir  tin   i-l'l  1  r  ?  /  !*•.    i...j*..ii-    ^>   "'..  .r   J -• -•  r    .        11 

n  .      .  -Vi!  !.-*.•  I  r  »••*  l.i  •-  :.d  »::-  \  v'""*  ^h*-**  in  '.).%•  I W  •y\  r  .•  *«Mr  .!. » .  •'.  d  »  M.  T'  ■■  - 

ir   '      ki  r«  -  .-r   i'»  r.!    !.v*«. '*•'.«' '•   ^rv   i.-v-  thi- ».•' M* 'i  !'.•  •    1'.   :i.  I''     !-•  a'?.  :.:.   1  !*. 

cr<-l  vk  .:li  har%.\  cr.ivkid  jTi-AK-ft.    lliv  duMTin^  |tri  r  dunn^  thv  ^i•■^'v  c-f  M«-t/ ;  in  K'''*t  !. 


■  < 


EGMONT  81 

i£  the  bead  of  the  splendid  embassy  sent  to  in  tbo  field ;  and,  swayed  by  tho  contrary  mo- 

fiBzUnd  to  solicit  for  Philip  II.  ofSpaintlie  band  tivcs  of  sympathy  witli  the  popular  movc- 

of  JiCary  Tudor ;  and  in  1555  be  was  a  prom-  ment^  loyalty  to  tho  throne,  and  devotion  to 

incfit  fignre  in  tbo  throng  amid  which  Charles  the  Roman  Catholic  church,  ho  accomplished 

V.  transferred  to  Philip  his  dominions  in  the  by  alternate  hesitation  and  rashncBSonlyli is  own 

Vciherlands.     In  1557,  when  war  broke  oat  ruin.   In  1559  Egmont  and  tho  prince  of  Orange 

between.  Spain  and  France,  be  was  esteemed  were  appointed  members  of  the  state  council  of 

one  of  the  5  principal  generals  in  the  Spanish  tho  Netherlands  under  tlie  recent  Margaret  of 

KiTice,   and  commanded  tho  cavalry  in  tho  Parma ;  hut  being  excluded  n'om  coiLsultation 

•nny  which  invade<l  France  and  invested  St.  on  the  most  important  affuirs  of  state,  they  ad- 

Qoentin.      The    constable    Montmorency  ad-  dressed  (July  23,  1561)  a  joint  letter  of  rcmon- 

TiDced  with  a  select  body  of  troops  to  relieve  strance  to  Pliilip.    Egmont  united  with  Orange 

tlie  garrison,  but  failed  to  accomplish  his  pur-  and  Horn  (March  11,  l€63)in  another  letter  to 

pose.    Egmont,  at  a  council  of  war  held  in  his  the  king,  urgently  remonstrating  against  the 

tcnt^  proposed  to  cut  off  the  retreat  of  the  extent  of  the  authority  of  Cardinal  Granvelle^ 

IVeneL    His  eloquence  gained  the  assent  of  a  leading  member  of  the  council,  who  was  de- 

the  oonncil  to  this  project,  and  having  detected  clared  to  be  odious  to  many  of  the  people.    Tho 

tftebly  guarded  defile  in  the  rear  of  Montmo-  unpopularity  of  Granvclle  increased  daily,  and 

mcy,  he  threw  into  it  a  portion  of  bis  cavalry  the  most  reckless  and  resolute  of  his  opponents 

before  the  coni>table  was  able  to  strengtlicn  it ;  was  Egmont,  wlio  despised  him  for  his  low 

nd  the  main  French  army  on  its  approach  to  birth,  and  hated  him  for  his  airs  of  superiority. 

the  post  found  itself  confronted  here  by  Egmont,  At  a  banquet  given  to  a  party  of  Flemish  noble- 

vho  assailed  it  with  a  brilliant  charge  at  the  men  it  was  decided  to  invent  for  their  menials 

keid  of  2.000  horsemen.    The  French  received  a  livery  that  should  symbolically  express  tho 

iloul  and  most  disastrous  defeat.    Of  21,000  general  contempt  for  the  cardinal.    Dice  wero 

tnopa,  ail  but  6,000  were  killed  or  captured  thrown  to  decide  who  should  devise  tlio  typi- 

vitlun  an  hour;  more  than  80  standards  fell  cal  costume;  and  tho  pri^c,  which  ultimately 

into  the  hands  of  the  victors ;  and  600  prison-  proved  a  deadly  one,  fell  to  Egmont.    His  re- 

en  of  noble  birth  were  on  the  following  day  tainers  appeared  in  a  few  days  in  tho  famous 

maented  to  Philip  in  tho  camp  before  St.  fooVs  cap  livery,  which  immediately  bccamo 

Qcentin.    Rarely  had  a  Spanish  monarch  en-  the  reigning  fashion,  and  which,  together  with 

Joyed  so  i^ignal  a  triumph  as  that  which  was  the  numerous  pasquinades  and  pamplilets,  drovo 

Ha*  achieved  by  the  promptness  and  gallantry  Granvclle  from  the  Netherlands.    Thus  far  Eg- 

of  Effmont.     In  the  following  year  the  marshal  mont  had  acted  under  tho  eye  and  infiuenoe  of 

de  Taermen,  who  had  taken  a  distinguished  part  William  of  Orange.    In  15(35  ho  was  Kent  as 

IB  Uie  capture  of  Calais,  marched  into  West  special  envoy  to  Spain  to  enligliten  the  Spanish 

FUs'Iers.  storming  and  i>illaging  Dunkirk  and  court  concerning  the  afliairs  of  tho  Netherlands; 

dcTi5ta:ing  the  country  as  far  as  Niouwpoort.  but  ho  bccamo  the  dupo  of  royal  smiles  and 

Flasled  with  victory  and  laden  with  spoils,  his  favors,  and  returned  to  his  country  only  to  dis- 

insy  waa   already  on  its  homeward  march,  cover  that  his  mission  had  been  fruitless.    For 

rfccB  Egmont  took  the  field  to  intercept  its  a  year  his  course  was  uncertain  and  fitful,  after 

Rtnat.     With  such  forces  as  he  could  collect  which  ho  departed  for  his  government  of  Flan- 

11  the  nei^rbVjrhood,  amounting  to  10,000  foot  dors,  then  in  rebellion  against  tho  royal  edicts. 

and  3.000  horse,  whose  numbers  wero  increased  Had  Egmont  now  put  himself  at  tho  head  of 

ly  large  vohmteer  bands  of  the  peasantry,  he  tho  reformers,  he  might  undoubtedly  have  seized 

threw  himself  into  the  path  of  the  French  army,  the  capital,  imprisoned  tho  regent,  and  made 

■fid  arrested  its  progress  near  Gravelines.    In  himself  master  of  tho  country ;  but  on  tho  con- 

Ae  hard-fuUi^ht  action  which  followed,  Egmont  trary,  he  exerted  himself  with  all  his  energy  and 

fisj^yed.  brilliant  valor,  and  the  army  of  Do  with  ostrcmo  severity  against  tho  insurgents 

Ibermes  was  annihilated,  and  himself  taken  and  Protestants.    Ho  continued  enthusiastic  in 

friiDDer.     In  respect  to  its  results,  the  battle  bis  loyalty,  oflfering  to  throw  himself  into  Wal- 

of  Gravelines  was  one  of  tho  most  decisive  in  cheren  against  tho  rebels  who  had  taken  refugo 

kiiCory,  for  it  compelle<l  tho  French  monarch  to  there,  risking  his  life  at  Valenciennes  to  recon- 

«B9ent  to  a  treaty  which  has  been  pronounced  noitro  tho  works  and  suggest  tho  best  point  of 

■ore  ruinous  than  any  other  in  the  annals  of  assault,  and  avowing  his  intention  at  a  meeting 

ftance.    These  two  splendid  victories  gave  Eg-  with  Orange  at  Willebroek  never  in  any  caso 

Boat  great  renown  and  popularity,  and  largely  whatever  to  take  arms  against  tho  king.    On 

a^gmentel  hi^  here<litary  infiuence  in  the  Neth-  tho  arrival  of  Alva  in  tho  Netherlands  in  15G7 

iMads.    Rather  from  a  generous  sensibility  to  Orange  escaped  from  tho  country,  but  Egmont 

ftfl  wrongs  of  his  coimtrymen  than  from  any  remained  to  receive  and  do  honor  to  the  man 

nttfed  principle,  he  ranked  himself  among  the  who  camo  armed  with  his  death  warrant.   Alva 

■ileontents  against  the  oppression  of  Philip,  arrested  him  by  stratagem  together  with  Count 

ki  opp06xti<:in  to  which  he  was  from  tho  first  Horn  at  Brussels,  and  conveyed  them  under  a 

doacly  associated  with  William  of  Orange.    But  strong  military  escort  to  Ghent,  whore  for  2 

im  coodnct  as  a  statesman  was  as  weak  and  months  they  wero  kept  in  rigorous  confinement. 

fKiOatiDg  as  it  had  been  prompt  and  audacious  In  vain  E^^ont  cloluicd  to  bo  tried  by  onQ  oi 


1 


82  EGRET 

the  8  ri»nrtA  whi>^«  Inri-Mlirtitin  hlonc  lio  ror-  fh>tii  betwMn  the  ^honldere  arises  t  tuft  of  loog; 

opti/<-«I.     Ai  .1  kiii»:M  of  t!M'  piM>  n  tli-i'iv  it  dvoun'ctl,  aiiJ  dflU-ntc  tliranitiHl  fvathm,  ex* 

wu->Im»  \  niur^i'  [••  If  tritil  liv  it-  -tatiitif«;  om  tciiilinfc  aU^ut  lu  iiichi'fl  beyond  the  tail;  thft 

a  liti'.'Ii*  I'f  r*r.i)>.i:u  lii<  iI:ti(iH'«l  tin*  iirotrriiiin  wiiit^s  are  iiuKlorate,  and  the  tail  ahort,  of  IS 

v(  \\iK- J"yt',*e  Kiifn^:  ui>>l  u.«  a  (••iint  of  ilio  wvak  fi*athoni ;  the  bill  ii  bright  yclloir,  feet 

holv  n*i!iiun  iiMi'irr.  Ill*  i-liiiuM  l<o  trii<l  hy  }ii^  chiws  Mu4*k,  and  the  pliimufce  vhite,  in 

i«rr*.  tl.f  •ItifxT'i  uii«l  ]'riiii  t-H  iif  thi'  riahn.  tturlA  slightly  tiu|^.-d  with  yoHuw.    This  el 

Ii* 'Mu^  I'p'i:,^-!.!  U>:'i>ri    till-  trit>iiiial  kiKtvin  in  binl  Li  found  broe«1ing  t'nmi  Florida  to  ^i 

hi->ti*ry  ii-  tlif  "I  M:i:ti-il  •<!'  MimmI."  i«:i.'4rhtirp-*i  York,  and  along  the  hhori*^  of  the  gulf  of 

Willi  li:i\i:.j»»  U*ii  u  |Mirt>  !••  the  Kfi^Mu*  ami  ico  to  TcxoA,  and  |triibaM}' furthiT ;  it  it 

c<>ii->|>i:ui  %  I'Mht  |.riiiii'  ff  i>r:iivf  :iiitt  h\*  a«-  m.*i-n  hi  MA^»achu9l'tt^  anddooA  not  appear 

lMKUl^^  iii.'l   \kitli   tiauiit;  o'liiinit;*  li  Miihlry  thun  50  niileM  inUnd,  nnli*i«»  along  the  cuQi 

lAiajprtM  !!• « ->  to  till-  |ir^i:iliri*  of  tlu*  ^•>\iTn*  lurgi*  rivorti;  it  gi'iierallj  hrt'cdft  in  lo^ 

uitiii  iti.il  •'!'  till-  (':»!ltM|ii'  I  liiin-li.  ami  ullv-r  lit-  pl:icr<i.  distnal  pwonipe,  and  thu  niArgins  of 

tic  tmn  th;tti  a  iii-h  k  trial  uh-  :i«!jm<!^'ii1  guilty  ami  jmuhN;  tlie  nvntu  are  >>onioiime« 

of  trvuMOi   nij'l    ri!<«  lli":i.     lli-  l:tt«r   zeal   in  low  liU!>hvis  and  oiva-Mtinallr  <»n  land j  H 

tho  KT\iii  **(  thr  ^'i>\i  riir.'M-iii  liinl  imt  iitiii]i-«i  iii'ur  tlio  ciia*>t,  but  ginc-raily  on  lii^ 

in  till.*  nii!i>l-  !<!'  riiilip  :iiitl  Alva  T«ir  lii<«  «:ir!iiT  Thv  long,  hilky  tiutmi'ntH  of  thv  back  are  haidl/ 

iM  t»  4«f  i<|>}M>«iti<>h.     M<  ai.T'iiii.-  tlic  primv  of  to  Itv  M.n,*n  i-xcvpt  in  the  love  neasun,  which  va* 

l^raiifi-  Ka'l  tliTiiM  II  %\i*\\  u  till-  ;;auiitl«t.  ti*  the  rit***  from  early  !«pring  to  miilnDunnvr, 

*\iii%i(l  I  !iiiiii|iii>ii  i>t'lil«  ritiiiiTrjb'*  vkri>iiu'N  mid  to  latitude;  l*oth  m'Xv»  poeiH^M  thi'm,  and 

it  «a-  di^:/iM<l  to  Mriki'  terror  to  tin*  h«art  of  an*  hhot  during  thv  bn-etling  K'UMiu  to 

till'  :'t«>|ili-  I'V  luakiiij  till-  cu-i-utM'ii  of  K.rim<nt  tlu'M* f«*athiT<t  furoriiHnu'nial  purpOHML   It  fcadi 

atiillh'ni  all iiii|ir(^«ivi  aikil  a};al!iiii;o|i'(  tai-K-.  by  day,  on  i»inall  ti*hf?s  cru!«tttcva»  and  rrptiliU, 

Vu  JxLut-  r>.  l.V-^  ^i.i.MHi  S|M!.ioli  triHi|».  wtTi*  v huh  it  rutchen  in  the  feliallow^  and  manbcs; 

draw  n  liji  in  battle  hrru\  uroiiiid  I  In*  ^  atfoM  in  it!>»  tliirht  ia  wiU  Miittainiil,  and  ilN  gnit  and  moT^ 


t!.i-  ^rriat  ^•iM:lrl•  of  I'lruHM  ]«.  nipi,   mIiIU'  all  nient»  are  grai'cful.    The  ne«t  ia  made  of 

bu-in- •-  «a«  Mi»|>«mliil  ami  tiie  UIN  of  ilu*  sticks  urerhunging  the  water,  and  is  oacd  §0f 

thun  !.•  •<  wi  r«'  tolliij^',  KpTfi.t-i.t  \ia^  U-hradnl,  yi-an  by  the  Kunie  birds,  whirh  annually  reoair 

afttr  !.aw:.^»  i  iiti^-h.!  n  bt;;>r  ri  k'r*  t  that  he  it;  the  etrgS  3  or  8,  are  *2i  inihiv  b>ng|  whiB 

L-Ail  i.oi  rati.i  r  Ui.n  itr(hiT!iil  to  <lii*.  ^uonl  in  fre*bly  hiid  Knio«)th  aitd  pale  blue,  lM.*ri>nruiif  nf^ 

hai.'l.  tj,:ti!itii;  f-r  l.i'*  fiii:;r>  aij  1  kin.-.     Kvtu  terward  nmtfh  and  whiti-h.     The  egret  ia  ahj 

th«  •*«  Mu  r«  .«!.f  •!  !•  ar**  n^*  iln  i  biin  !•!  ilic  death  and  dirtieiilt  to  nbtain,  eicept  in  the  breediaf 

(if  il.i-  i:><<«!  ^'.i!!ait!  a!i>l  i.t!ii'>;>  of  tin  ir  gill-  K-aarfju ;  many  of  the  young  are  de«tniTeil  bj 

CTaN.  a  •  r}  •<!  l.orr<>r  ri>«i  troiii  iti<  lunltiiiiile;  crovi-<i   and    turkey    buxzardi*. — The    Eunii|Mna 

aii'l  t.^i    Kr<  :.•  )i   :ini^M->.kii*ir  i  \«laiMiid  ihiit  he  e^'Ti.t  (.1.  (i/'w,  <initl.l  i«*  almUt  3   feet  5  inclMi 

hail  •>••::  tV'  li<  .1'!  ••(  tli.i!  ti.  I'l  !all  ht  i<iri-  whom  lon^r.  of  a  piin.'  white  pluiungt*.     Acrordiu  to 

Fraif    ?..»■!   ta;  ■    Tn  :.'■!..!.     K.'Tii'ti.t    i^  t!*e  Svlby.  the  uill  i**  blat'k  or  dark  brtiwn,  ydow 

m'-jt .  r  I-!'  I'M-  I.:*  I  i.i?' .  -  i:.i^'i  ■!!•  -.     Tli*-  U»t  at  the  ba.»«e  and  al>out  the  nostril*,  and  the  le^ 

K'  •  •> .-.:  if  i.i«  •  .ir<«  r  ;.;i>l  •  ?-  ir..i  !•  r  i»  ^'i\i  ii  in  are  alniii!*t  bluik.     It    !-«  i-otmnon  in  MrtitheffB 

y":!i\''*  I.  ''"r*   of  !S«'  •■  l;.-.-  oi   !ljf  !».sh  KuriijH.*.  but  (-oni]>arati\vIy  rare  in  the  Dtirtheia 

Ilil-u:'.'"  iN.A  \'rl.  l-'.'.j.     >*.-  ul^i  Tri."-  and  rei.tral  part>;  tbo  white  heron«  of  Avia  art 

tv!'.'-  •■  nj-!-rj  of  V:,:.'.y  11."'  U-Iii  nil  t.»  l>e  of  iIiIh  ^pecieJ..     The  little  Ewi^ 

£<fl!Kr.  a  nanir  gt\iri  t"  iho««*  ^piiMi-*  of  iHatttvn't  i  .1.  y^ir.^/ M,  I. inn.)  is  aUmt  2*2  inchtl 

whiti-  htTorf  hI,;i!,  I.a*. f  (!..•  fi:t:litr'<  uf  tiie  lnu^  from  li!I  to  i-nd  of  tail:  tlic  plumage  !• 

luHi-r  par:  I  I  tl.'- !>i(  k  t-lon^rati-d  ari'l  tliiir  «i^i  wli/i*;    ln>in  the   bind    lirad  spring  2 


di>>:iiiiti  iL  n:u^;:.p:  ^-t^^oi^  1  »'r  !••  thi-  tail,  at  (tr-  fi  atlii  p»  4  inihi  -  btn^';  the  pluniri  uf  the 

tain  K-a!«':««  of  the  ><ar;  t!i<  ir  foni.s  are  al-o  an-  tlun^ratid:  the  bill  and  tar^i  are  blark ;  iht 

hiurc  grw  «  fd  t!.:>r.  t}.<*^*  of  rti!iii:iiiii  hi  ron«.  tar":i«  i!>«  4  inrhi's  b«{:^'.    Thi-*  s|i^-i'ir«  i«  ovoflDtd 

Tluv  It  loll,:,  )tM\«iii  r.  i<  tin-  %knti'  »*i  ii'i<*  'ir-f**i  to  the  t-a-^ti  rn  hiiiii'>|bf-re,  Uiiig  iiiir*t  abundaMi 

(I^iiU  I.  I  f  t!i«-  ori!<  r  *jr  f  'f.    nii'p:rr..t  Ati.i  ri<  an  in  ^'iUthern  Knn^pf.  iir««re,  asid  northern  Afti* 

t'grvt  (.t.   r*yr,:t>t.   <ft.  .!  )  i-  »>•:.!   ^7   m  l.i «  ra;   it  ini a^iunally  wamhrs  an  furAf*  ExkgUod. 

long  lu  c!.d  I  f  ta'..  4.'  t"  i  !.-l  i-f  •  I.iw^.  wiTli  an  Tlit-   b':trburkiM|  t-^'n-t  (.1.   /'"rr..«rri./.i.  liudd.) 

estf i.t  of  uii.^"*i.!  ;.*!  i:  •!.•<..  V-!I  ||  up  !i.  «,  tail  i^  aliiut  ••>  inrhii  h*UK,  the  bill  *J  iiuht**  and 

6t.  Ur-;.«  t' ;  n.'.ti  r."r  t- «  2\,  4,  ui.<I  3}  imli*.*,  iira::;:e  .^ili'iw;    i!i.<  plumaje   i«   »  h:te,  rirepi 

with  thf  I  !aw  <   ).  |.  a'.'l  j  if  ail  it.' ii  ri-|H'<--  tbi-  i*<pi>f  the  hi  ai!  and  friii.t  i:ri-k,  wliich 


ti%*N.  !hr  }.:[.•!  t>M   1 1.  .>;..l  it«  I  !uu   Ij   ir.- i.i-*  l-wtf.  U'vominir  Itohmt  n^  thf  bird  i:n*w«  lUder; 

L'U*.  w*:^*!.!  a":--'.:  '2%  ".*  •  ,  tJi-*  f•l::^ll•  i^  •»n.i-  i!  i-.  \ir\  /•:.•  rally  ili^thbut««l  I'^ir  A^ia.     Tba 

whV.  •Ti..il!ir.      1!..-  I :',]  .^    *!ra.,:}.!,  talitrsrs;:  t«»  riiM;-h  i-grtl  ■  .1.  n./'i,  Ifc^M  ).  i  f  i%hirh  Prale't 

an  ii\\x  :.j>.  tin  }..  :»•!  r.<*..i  -•  --••1  a:.il  ofifi.g;  ivr<  t  ii  tl.**  \i'i(ifc:.  i<»  a)-out  -"1  iii(-hi-«  b>i^.  aOil 

lu-*  k  1  1./ ri:.'!  •^i<  :i'li  7  .   It-lv  •.;:.;:•  9*t't!;  ft  •  ?,  4''>  i!i  i-xt«  i.t  if  « in^-^:  t!it*  palt  I  lU  hx«  a  black' 

tarvi*.  a:,  i  :.'  .a  !-  :.^  :\a»   !i!'<  r  b.iri  ui  it^*  !••«•  r  t  ;• :  thv  iri«   i«  «  !.i*.i  ;  tin-  :<-athrr«  of  the  hra4 

l.:i!f.    11. t' -|  V  t  *•«!«•.;.  ^  .;i  ..n>l  I  ;.i.  :ili.l  :ir>.    rrd  a'.!  Th  «  k  brr  Iin^*  i^d   j<«  ?:tb  lit.  of  a  !i^*ht  rv4- 

Ihi  !at:*r.  :•  *  .ir%  .  ::..  [•'.  i:..a^-.  i-  ^r*  a:i'!  ^  !•  :j  !•  di*^  1t..h:i  lnj^'nl  u  ill,  lUi-.  failing  irto  brviwn* 

r<l:  l.txl  i.ui «  r<  •'•  !.  th-  .j:*  .!*f<  .&'.:.•  vtur*  •  \"U-  \-\i  uMtf  a!  tl «  t.|">:  :fif  h.^  k  niid  «iiiir*  gra^^ith 

i;V.«.^  u  a:i-  li,sjK  uu  l^v  ljMi.r  Li.i.k  i:i  f:v;«'. ;  blui .  lvn(:f«ather^of  the  bavk}«;Uo«bh'*:tp{H.-U; 


EGYPT  83 

pole  frrayish  bine  below.    It  seems  never  to  go  of  the  Birkct-el-Karonn,  at  the  distance  of  50  m., 
nr  from  the  Florida  keys,  except  westward  are  the  natron  lakes,  from  which  the  water  eva- 
alon^  the  gulf  of  Mexico;  it  is  a  plump  and  poratcs  in  the  drj  season,  leaving  the  ground 
gTMefol  bird,  and  an  easj  and  high  flier;  it  is  covered  with  a  crust  of  natron  or  cnrbonate  of 
dij,  rarely  associating  with  other  species ;  it  is  soda.    Along  the  sea-coast  of  the  Delta  there  is 
iHWMbly  strictly  marine.    The  nests  are  made  a  series  of  largo  lagoons  stretching  for  nearly 
Bj  the  middle  of  April ;  the  eggs  are  8,  of  a  200  m.,  of  which  the  principal  are  Lake  Manr- 
pale  sea-green  color,  and  are  excellent  food.  oot,  the  ancient  Mareotis,  40  m.  long,  Lake 
EGYPT  (Gr.  Aiyimrof ;  Lat.  jEgyptuM;  Heb.  Boorlos,  80  m.  long,  and  Lake  Menzaleh,  50  m. 
JfiniM  /  Coptic^  Ckami  or  Kemi)^  a  conntir  long,  with  an  average  breadth  of  15  m.    From  a 
in  the  N.  £.  of  Africa,  bonnded  N.  by  the  Mcdi-  very  ancient  peri^  Egypt  has  abounded  in 
terrmnean,  E.  by  the  Red  sea  and  Arabia,  S.  by  canals,  chiefly  constructed  to  facilitate  the  dia- 
Kabia,  and  W.  by  the  Great  Desert    It  lies  be-  tribution  of  the  water  of  the  Nile  for  purposes 
twcca  laL  31^  87'  and  24"  I'  N.,  and  long.  27""  of  irrigation.  The  Mahmoudy  canal,  50  m.  long 
IS'  and  S^""  12'  E    Its  lengtli  from  K  to  S.  in  a  and  100  feet  broad,  was  made  in  1820  to  ac- 
dhvet  line  is  about  520  m. ;  its  breadth  from  £.  commodate  the  commerce  between  Alexandria 
to  W.  varies  frum  300  to  400  m. ;  area,  includ-  and  the  Nile.    In  the  beginning  of  1859  Egypt 
tag  the  desert  regions,  abont  200,000  sq.  m.  had  about  500  m.  of  railroad  completed.    The 
The  river  Nile  enters  Egypt  from  Nubia  at  the  principal  lines  are  from  Alexandria  to  Cairo, 
aknd  of  Philse  near  Asswan,  the  ancient  Syene,  131  m. ;  from  Cairo  to  Suez,  91  m.;  and  from 
yahen  it  descends  the  famous  cataracts,  and  Cairo  to  Beui-Souef,  up  the  Nile,  76  m.    The 
lows  thence  unbroken  by  falls  or  rapids,  and  railroad  bridge  across  the  Nile  at  Xafr-el-Zyat 
■ot  aogmented  by  any  branch,  nor  even  by  a  is  one  of  the  greatest  works  of  the  kind  in  the 
rirolH;  till  it  reaches  the  Mediterranean.  From  world,  and  is  expected  to  be  completed  in  June, 
the  eitaracta  the  river,  whose  general  breadth  1860.    Another  great  work  commenced  several 
is  about  half  a  mile,  runs  for  600  m.  through  a  years  ago,  but  not  yet  finished,  is  the  hat- 
fiBey  bounded  by  hills  varying  in  height  from  rage  or  dam  across  the  Nile  at  the  beginning 
100  to  1,200  feeL     The  average  breadth  of  the  of  the  Delta,  designed  to  heighten  and  regu- 
fiQey  is  7  or  8  m.,  its  greatest  breadth  11  m.  late  the  annual  inundation.    The  construction 
Andently  the  whole  of  this  valley  was  called  of  a  canal  across  the  isthmus  of  Suez  to  unite 
Upper  Egypt,  bnt  afterward  the  term  Middle  the  Red  sea  with  the  Mediterranean  was  he- 
Egypt  was  applied  to  the  northern  part  of  it.  gun  April  25,  1859. — ^Tho  most  striking  geolo- 
Aboae  100  m.  from  the  sea,  the  hills  disappear,  gical  feature  of  Egypt  is  the  vast  bed  of  alluvium 
lad  the  river  enters  an  extensive  and  perfectly  deposited  by  the  Nile,  which  covers  all  Lower 
lerel  sJIuvial  plain,  where,  12  m.  N.  of  Cairo,  Egypt  to  a  depth  that  probably  averages  30  or 
it  separates  into  two  great  streams,  which  con-  40  feet.     The  predominant  rocks  of  the  country 
timiiily  diverge  until  they  reach  the  Mediter-  are  limestone,   sandstone,  and  granite.      The 
luean  by  months  abont  80  m.  apart,  the  eastern  great  pyramids  arc  built  of  limestone,  and  stand 
It  Damietta,  and  the  western  at  Rosetta.    This  on  a  limestone  plateau.    This  rock  extends  up 
put  plain  is  Lower  Eg}T)t.  The  triangular  space  the  valley  of  the  Nile  as  far  as  Esne,  and  from 
ockised  by  the  two  arras  of  the  river  and  the  thence  to  Asswan  or  Syene  sandstone  prevails, 
Ma  is  called  the  I)v.*lta,  from  its  resemblance  in  from  the  quarries  of  which  most  of  tlyo  temples 
Aipe  to  the  Greek  letter  A.   But  iX\Q  term  Delta  of  Egypt  have  been  built.    At  Syene,  at  the 
■  also  sometimes  applied  to  the  whole  plain,  southern  extremity  of  the  country,  granite  pre- 
or  to  so  much  of  it  as  consists  of  fertile  land,  dominates,  and  the  quarries  there  liavo  furnished 
Hm  area  of  the  Delta  and  of  the  valley  of  the  chiefly  the    materials    for   the  obelisks  and 
Sife  in  Eeypt  is  variously  estimated  at  from  colossal  statues  of  Egypt.    The  soil  of  Egypt 
11,000  to  17,000  sq.  m.    This  comprises  all  the  is  of  unsurpassed  fertility,  and  its  richness  is 
ohirable  land,  the  rest  of  the  country  consist-  annually  renewed  by    the  inundation  of  the 
faf  of  deserts,   with  the  exception  of  a  few  Nile,  which  deposits  upon  the  land  a  coating  of 
•HCi  and  of  the  region  called  Fayoom,  which  mud  which  renders  needless  any  otlier  manure. 
left  at  no  great  distance  W.  of  the  Nile,  between  In  many  parts  ploughing  is  dispensed  with,  the 


and  30%  and  has  a  fertile  area  of  340  sq.  seed  being  thrown  upon  the  mud,  and  sheep, 

The  largest  of  the  oases,  the  one  most  re-  goats,  or  pigs  turned   loose  in  tlio  fields  to 

B  from  the  Nile,  is  Siwah,  the  ancient  Am-  trample  in  the  grains;  though  in  other  parts 

limn,  the  site  of  the  temple  and  oracle  of  agriculture  is  carried  on  with  considerable  labor 

J^iterAmmon.    It  lies  10  days'journey  W.  of  and  care,  especially  where  artificial  irrigation 

l^ooni,  and  has  an  area  of  only  15  or  20  sq.  m.  must  be  resortetl  to.    The  rise  of  the  Nile  begins 

lb  desert  between  the  Nile  and  the  Red  sea  is  in  Egypt  in  the  latter  part  of  June.    The  inun- 

'  ■     ected  by  chainsoffhountains  whose  highest  dation  reaches  its  greatest  height  between  Sept. 

its  attain  an  elevation  of  6,000  feet.— The  20  and  30,  when  it  is  usually  24  feet  above  the 

iiote4  lake  of  Egypt  is  the  Birket-el-Ka-  low  water  level.     It  remains  at  that  height 

,in  the  N.  W.part  of  Fayoom;  it  is  30  m.  about  15  days,  and  then  gradually  falls,  till  it  is 

;   kw  and  6  m.  broad.   The  remains  of  the  famous  at  the  lowest  about  the  middle  of  May.     It 

■oent  artificial  lake  Moeris  have  been  recently  rises  sometimes  30 -feet,  when  it  does  great 

Untified  in  the  R  part  of  Fayoom.  To  the  north  damage  to  the  country.    K  it  fall  8\\otloi\% 

YOL,  vn, — 3 


34  EGYrr 

fwr,  A  famine  i*  tlio  rrtn*oqnrni'C.     Tlio  ftillow-  i«  nmrh  nnrortninty  nlnrnt  thoAinAnnt  nf  popa- 

iii^  |ilurii<«  uro  miwii  iiniiuiluiti-lv  afti  r  ihciiniii-  latii'ii.     A  p»ViTnincitl  cciiMi^i  in  1^47  (iflifiAlIy 

<l:ititiii  U-^'iM!«  III  oiil'^hli*.  anil  iirc  liarvi-«u-i|  3  Mafi-il  iho  niiintii'r  i>f  i nimbi tunt!»  ut  4.&4:i/rJ0. 
v>r  4  ii!itiittt'«  LiliT :   \OitnI.  Itarloy.  lNsin<.  {K-ai, 


A  iinMi!!  t»ki*n  diirin);  thv  jircM-nt  vt-ar  I  lb5'i) 
i:i  \  1- «  a  r ot  ul  uf  5. 1  :*:». i  u  k>.     I  Jy  fi  .nl jr n  < kim  ct- 


!i4*ni]t,  riiriun*lt  r. ]«<i;>|>u-,  ti'l  an'it.  uaU-ruKlnii^,  cm  i>f  jinltrntent  and  in runicy,  ilic^*  «-vnAi 

anit    turunidr*.      'llii>    f<lli»u  111^;    |  lai.!-«    nru  arv  iliM^Titlitol    aimI  tliiir   n*i*nlt>  ItvM   lu   \m 

ruiMMl  in  Mininii  r  1  hirily  l«y  artiticiul  irr.;r:iCi<in  :  (;ri*^«]y  tiil^itK'il  amI  i'.\ufrk;crAti-c!.     Sir  Cianliicr 

clurra.  in.ii/r.  4>i.ii>r>.  Ill  nu:i,  Mi^'ur  rune,  mt'i'n.  WilkinMin   roin|iiiU^   (In*   |iupiilAti(in   At    onlj 

n»ilv«'.  inili»'i>.  aii>l  ntaiMi-r.     <tr.i(K«i  mv  \>\kuU'  1.MHJ.<mhi.     Hyu'lu-rs  it  is  Mi|i|Ni^il  Ut\te  aUiiit 

fill,  anil  othtT  fniit<<  aUi  inil.  c>f  wiiuli  iljv  niit*t  2.'V^i.<nn». nf  i\||iitn*J.(KMi.iHN)arcMtiltunin>itlAiia 

mnitnnii  uri- ii.iU-*«  1!.:%  iN»niivrHnatf«,  A{'noft<«,  uiul    rail    tltvni»clvi>4   Aruli;*,  tlMHi^'li   tli«-y 

jn'A'.hi^.    i'i'u:;^i"s    li!ni*it*.    citn-ns    bananMi,  |iri»)iAlily  in  nrvai  purl  tli-M-i'itdfii  tVoni  the 

iniii)>«'ri  ii'«,  a^l  uli\«  •>.     Titrr\'  nr*:  no  furi'^lri  in  fimt  K^:}  pli.iti'<.  TIk-v  urt*  a  tim*  raiH\  lian(iM>iiic^ 

(I^ypi,  itii'l    r<  w   tri  i-^  i>f  atiV   kiinl  vxcipt  (liO  violl  nwwlv.  unil  riiiirti«*n<»  in  ihi'ir  nianniT*.     la 

palm,  i«i  n !ii<-}i  iliiTi*  ari.- u^iiully  frr<>\i*!« ariMinJ  ni>rt}ii'rn  K;:\pt  tiny  an*  «if  a  yflliiHi<*li  etiOk' 

t\w  viilnfTi-i.     Kri'iii  t)ii-uli<^-nro  nf  lur^^t"  lluTo  pli-xiim,  ;:row  in^  ilurki  r  t<»wunl  tlir  fM»ntlt,  nntU 

an-  fiw  u  iM  li'4-('»,  t!if  prii.i  .pal  ^pl.ric'«  U-in^  tlio  Imi*  UTiinic-uiKrp  lirnn/r.     Mr.  Ijuu*.  lb* 

till'  «•>]''.  fi>\.  j:u.kal.l..«vlia,  tin*  %iili) as.«>, anil >cv*  |<i.»t  authority  u|m»ii  \\iv  *>iihjii>t.  .^(•tuk'*  highly  of 

c-ral  kiniN  nf  acttiopi*.     'Ihv  1  hiif  il<tnii.'-<tii:  ani-  their  mental  lapariiy.  ami  ^'i\e-thim  rreilit  for 

main  are<'at:ieU,  li<<rv-%  Ao««'^  hfr:.!  il  lattle,  ainl  n:ii'<'!iimiin  ipni'kne!>ii<t'appri'iie(i«ion  aihI  reaiU- 

^ht■«■p.     Till*  h:p|i>j-«>tamiio  ii  n«t  luti^rer  fi»uiiilin  ni^-^of*  vkit.     Tlu-y  are  lii^'lii}  rilif!iiiu%  bimI  art 

K/jkpl,  tlinii^h  It   ii  n:i:l  uilli  la  ilie  Nile  aUive  p  ru-rally  lii>ni'«t.  rhterful,  hnrnane.  ami  Imm^- 

thc  lalarai  t^  a^mI  ihe  •  riN-iilile  lia^  aSanil-ineil  t:kMe.     The  Araho  i»{'  pure  hli<ii«l  Ulon^fing  to 

the  U.*vt  kf  ;i.irt  d'  l!.e  ri^er,  and  i^  lii'ofiiin;;ruro  Kj>  pt  are  eliiillv  IteiimiLn-  uhmlMfil  in  tvDlAUl 

i-vtn  III  l')'!**  r  lL'^p:.     AiUKn;:  l^'e  l>:riU  Are  U  the  ih  MTt.  aiiil  niimlx-r  alMiut 'J'hMmh.i.     Ther* 

^|«^ir*  i«f  \u!'.iirt-«  ("i.e  nf  *\i.,e!i  :-\ery  lar|,H%  are  l.'i«VHHinuti\elliri«lian"»  !erineil  ('•tpt%who 

iiiiii\i<!'i.i!«  •iiiueliiui-!*  iiiea-urir.;*  l.^  lci.-i  A4'rf*>d  are  the  ri-ni^rnizeil  (1e'^'r(ithiiil<«  ut'  llie  anridit 

tlie   «ii^'»J,   «ii^v«s    f.il  •  r.«,   liavik%   IfUZ/anK  inlial'ilaiit>.     Thev  are  l'*  neraiiy  tinpln^rfl  m 


k;te*,   I  riivi«,  ii;ine:«.    lark«.   *>parrM«>.  anil  (he     eK-rk«  an^l  areimiiiant*  ill  pi\i  riiMii  nt  aimI 
lH-!iit!ilul  hi  ••ji»e,  Vkiiii>!ii<«  rejrinlnl  wi'Ji  ••miht-     eantile  ulVnv.    iKMiIf  thi-e  tliereure  Tiirkik  Um 
■«titi<<u<«  n  verv:i«-e.  I*i^i.'ii'ia7.<l  \ari«>UH  kitit!^  nf     ruling  rla->>.  i.f  u  hi  mi  tliere  are  aU^nt  2u.0i'Ml|, 


!»•»«. irry  are  vt  ry  a^lin•laJi!.    Thei"»:rii  h  ii  f«(unil  unil    Arnieiiiant.  (ireek%  lU-rUr*,  J«»^ 

in  tliv  ill  M-rto.     Aiii"!!^  the  fi'pTiit'o  are  the  le*  Frank*.     A^'rieuhnre   i-*  the   i  liiel'  puri^uit  «jf 

rn*tv>  u:  1    i.jji  l..iit*.   h'!!i  iK:.'l!jk   p<  i>«in>>ii«.  the  pi'i*t>!i-.  ami  turn  iolii"*  nil  th«**'taplt«  rf  ex- 

).•!.•■<•   at  ^.:.il    ill    Uiv   N:.i-   mpI   ','.\   ll.e  lakii,  pert.      \VheaT,   ht  all*.  I<arh'^ .  Iinlian  <'i»rTt,  Im- 


ai.-i  I  .::.  -ii  a  1  i:ni:.fii  n;.>l  I.ti'-rire  arl.ih-  •»('  r^i-'i,  M-^anif.  rMttmi.  u<hi1,  t!;ix.  aIuI  htnitm 

fi*iH!.      I,'.,  i..;^  i-i  •  .L-!>ti  u!_^  i:.v  fii- ti.i- 1 '•'■.!.try  aiiciLiIU  eipurti  il  tu  the  aniituiit  ut' Al>«»iit$lCa- 

Ai  \    ••••.r..i'.  ^rri  it    ra\.i^e-.      I'l.e   1 1.1;. .ill-    I'l"  iMMi.rMHi,      \V  heat  i«  tlie  prim  ipal  art ii  le  iif  ez- 

K,'.'» ;  •    ■*    -•.•...*:'•>    •!:>    a:;«l  t-j-.:a'!e,   a:.<l    i^  |M<rt.  :iii*l   uhi».:t   ri.'»«Hi.iMMi  hoheU.  i«r  •  of  ill* 

h'...t:.^.   I        .:'i    i\<<*v\<!\    !.••:    in    »MMii:«.r.  eiiiire  (T«>]>,  are  »«iit  tti  Kuri'pe  nniiuully.     Of 

t!i'-   n. •■•;•*    T  "i'.j:  •"■!.!•  M.ii  *  lit  llj  .     'i  j.i-  r..!ii.u   the  a\ir.it:v   annual  ixp'-rt   f-r  M-Teral 

%ii:.'«r  >   !....  I    !i:.«l   -- ri  i  . .  •:   ■«   Ii  .iij  aii!i.i*t  ^*-.ir'i»a*l  Ii.i-  Ui-n  iMarlv  I'lNr.iHNi  hal»  •.     Thm 

n!.k;i<H!)       I::  I  ;•;»•  r  K.*;< :  t  r.i  t: i.irithat  aiinnal  ainoui.t  it  iiiip<irl- i- aUiiil  f  14.<"*<>.4M>; 

A  -ii»J.*  *!i"^ir  I-  !--'ki-t  iijN.Ti  .t-  :\  pr«-::j_\.    In  the  priiii-ip.tl   ariii-le^  are  tinilfr,  n-pj-^-r. 


t).'-    W- '.'a  :i  ^:.will  <,i.  ki.I.'t^   ■•!   i.i.!i f-xuallv  V^'HijIi-n.  ri»tl-i'i  ai-'l   •^ilk  pNni'*.  ilril)>.  Iin^ 

la..-  1:1    w  .:  ■•  r.      'I .  «     »  j«"!    ■   .ti::-"!!  i!fi.iM«i  pa|HT.     I'il.     jiwtiry.     Mij::ir.     ):la*^    li>tiam\ 

Ari"  1*.,^  -  !ir.  r-. .  i.\.  r  «i*   ;!i:.i''.   .*!;•!    i>;>liii.iil-  ^;•ll-« '*,  nn«l   <•••!!"•«•.     T)i»-   l"ri'i;:ii   n»iiiiiiiTni»  li 

i:i;.i.    f=<    ;  iVi  :     I  •  .:  ^*  <•!!•  n    1  ji !    \\ir!i.     '1  he  1  h.i  lU  u  i:ii  (iri  a!  nriljiiii.  Kraiu  «■.  uinl  AuMli^ 


pl.u'"'   ^*  *•  :■  :!.i.  :i\  :.'■  ,  li'il  a:.  1  ^.r.i'«:.:.  I '.t  ainl  i-iarr.»«l  oii  thr>tii^'h  tin-  \-*tI  *•(  AU- 

!•«  ii.^»  •  ■'.,.*  -..:,.'..r»  J  •■ .  .I"'  •  :.»  lit  l' ■•  iT-'*.  :  :i-  i!ria.      An  v\U  Ii-Im  lr.4tU- hi  ixi«-an-*iif  rarar 

i;.i  t:!  ;:  .':  i- :    •'  ■  .  i*!-    ;:<..;■;■•  ir.t*.*  •-  ri>  •    1***:.  i<*  I'laiitt.tiiii  il  vi  iTii  tin-  iiitiTiMf  1  f  Al'r.<  a.      TIm 

I  »:ii-  t'f  !  .■    :;,  -:   •;.    ,/r.  1  u-.i    !i..l-,r««   nj   l'.,v  iiiatiiil.ii  :iir«-    •-!'  I.rearni*.   aiiil  nf   c«'lli»fi,    »Jk, 

« !i' i.iT.  .' :    '■  K     tv.-.'i.  :i;.   •  «  .'.i!  tr.i'M  l.'.i  lii  •■  ar.l  « i»'»'ien  u*""*!'.  i*  •  arrii  «1  i-n  •  lli  i.»i\ili  IB 

« :!    *i!.l»   ,  -.  \  i.!»  :■:'.'»  *\  .\  •»  1:1   il.i   •«;■:.:.,•.  « -t  I'-.i-hhit  n'.-*    I-uinh-il    at.il    ilire*!*^!    !••    tht 

I-*  -  :  !    ■«    /•■:..',•     ..■■'.:   \l..\    J.   a:.'l    i.  i-  .1  p.-.  •  ri.Tin  i.t.      F."- p!    i*   n   ih|H:».hn']»    ««f    tlM 

I- i'-.y    .;•--...■   .Ill    i.:i;..  ,'!'i\    %  :\\    •  T:ri»  -'i  1  !i:p.ri .  .iiiil   ii   ^"iiitrSLil   ih«(->!ieAllT 

t'/^l'l  I-   :f\*  ■;..    1- .|    I'.'o   7  \  r-  \   t.   • -.  \i:.:')i  \\  .1  pa-li.i  •  !  tip    l,inn!>   nl    Milni'nl  All.  « ith 

A'e     -.'-l:-.     '..   !     J-  v.    .;.  I  !ir'i:..  •.•-     :»;,■!     :l.i  •••  u?..m!?i.   "i  ursi"!! -i;!:.!?.  »fM«li- a  Irt  :i!_\   il.  I"m, 

a/t:ii:>!< •■    -V.*-       A:..  :•  I  tl*.  ..:.U  r  ;•».  ]\   \i  I.    h  .r  w  .t- a.Tn -I'tJ.at  ll.i  tT'*^  •  rr.!:u  nl  »rf 

I.  I'.iii    f  ."    :-    I     :'.,.    r  I'l  r-    .-.  1 1: .«  k.  :.:.•!  Il- ■  !!.■    |  r-  \   Mi  .■  •.!,..'i.l    U T'd.kiI   tn   l^.^Ti.  Alwl 

r  i.'i   ■■  : •-    '.'.•  :':)   -i.  ..•■'..•,  i-h  1   ii.'..  1:1  «' 1  •  •  ».i-!:  T><  '!-i- I-i*  ii  ):^  iii,:  iiui.ilt  r*  lii  hlA 

•  '•■•■■•   •   ...'   !    :     •   •  ..    •.  .- .   ■/   ;:i   I.  .!..'.»  r    .1!  ? .'    .!.        A  !i  ' ''■•    •  t  j  »•!' 'li*   rt\ti.i:«    i<  aiinu* 

•:  •^  •-  :.'  I .    • :     •  .     •,:.!.     -  '  -*      1  Ih   •  .|  .!  ji  a!.^    ••  i.*.   ?•!:••    -^i<ii :•.*•''•«  >m •in  a!««i  ail  a|>- 

if  K.»  i  •    •  '    .  •       »■•:.■••!■:;  I  :..;  li  ;.w  '  1  p..  •./:.  •  !.!-  ri.  j  ..-:•  iii  tin   .nn:}  a*-'\i  :h*  rabk 

ATI-  .^.1  la.vlr.iA.  I.  •f\'.'  i.  i^.-;  A*.i:...i  '.:.i.     Hit  re  ff  ii4a'<>r  l.a\c  lu  In:  feUrrvii  K-r  ivbtirbkatMjia. 


EGTPT  86 

The  nnmber  of  the  army  is  limited  to  18,000  to  conquer  and  possess  the  neighboring  land  of 
men.  thongh  this  regulation  has  not  been  strict*  Canaan.  The  date  of  their  exodus,  according  to 
It  observe^].    There  are  ministers  of  foreign  the  commonly  received  Scripture  chronology, 
ttid  internal  affairs,  of  war,  navy,  finance,  and  was  1491  B.  0.,  after  a  sojourn  in  Egypt  of  215, 
public  instruction.    The  government  maintains  or,  at  most,  of  480  years.    Bunsen  assigns  the 
•boat  50  schools  of  various  grades,  a  school  of  date  to  1820  B.  C,  and  mainttiins  the  duration 
languages,  another  of  medicine,  several  military  of  the  sojourn  in  Egypt  to  have  been  1,484 
•cImoIs.  and  a  printing  press.    There  are  4prin-  years.    From  the  exodus,  for  several  centuries, 
cipal  courts  of  justice,  whose  seat  is  at  Cairo :  the  relations  between  the  Hebrews  and  the 
that  of  the  chief  of  police,  which  summarily  Egjrptians  appear  to  have  been  friendly,  until 
4Kides  petty  cases ;  that  of  the  cadi,  or  chief  in  the  5th  year  of  the  reign  of  Rehoboam, 
iadge:  that  of  the  mufti,  or  chief  doctor  of  the  about  980  B.  C,  Shishdc,  king  of  Egypt,  con- 
kw ;  and  that  of  the  pasha's  divan.    There  is  quered  and  plundered  Jerusalem,  an  event  the 
ibo  a  cadi  in  each  town  and  village,  who  dis-  occurrence  of  which  is  attested  and  confirmed 
penses  justice,  and  each  province  and  subdivi-  by  the  monuments.    The  first  of  the  Greek  au- 
mm  of  the  country  has  a  governor  clothed  thorities  upon  Egypt,  Herodotus,  visited  the 
with  a  certain  degree  of  judicial  power.    The  country  about  the  middle  of  the  5th  century 
dominion  of  the  Egyptian  pasha  has  been  ex-  B.  C.    His  knowledge  of  its  history  was  de- 
tended  by  recent  conquests  far  up  the  Kile  over  rived  from  conversaUon  with  the  priests  of  va- 
Nabia,  Dongola,  Sennaar,  Kordofan,  and  other  rious  cities,  with  whom  he  talked  by  means 
iMrbarooa  regions,  to  the  confines  of  Abyssinia,  of  interpreters.    They  told  him,  he  says,  that 
—The  history  of  Egypt  divides  itself  into  6  great  Menes  was  the  first  king  of  Egypt,  and  was  suo- 
pcriods :  1,  the  Pharaohs,  or  native  kings ;  2,  ceeded  by  880  monarchs,  of  whom  one,  Nito- 
the  Persians;  8,  the  Ptolemies;  4,  the  Romans;  cris,  was  a  queen.    None  of  them  were  distin- 
6^  the  Arabs ;  6,  the  Turks.    The  main  sources  guished,  and  none  of  them  left  any  monuments 
of  its  history  under  the  Pharaohs  are  the  Scrip-  worthy  of  note,  except  Moeris,  the  last  of  the 
tarei,  the  Greek  writers  Herodotus,  Diodoms,  830,  who  constructed  the  artificial  lake  which 
and  Eratosthenes,  some  fragments  of  the  writ-  bears  his  name.     He  was  succeeded  by  Sesos- 
iBgi  of  Manetho,  an  Egyptian  priest  in  the  8d  tris,  who  conquered  Ethiopia  and  the  greater 
oentnry  B.  C,  and  the  hieroglyphic  inscriptions  part  of  Europe  and  Asia.    His  successors  were 
on  the  monuments,  that  is,  on  the  temples,  Pherou,  Proteus  (who  was  contemporary  with 
tombs,  and  other  buildings  of  ancient  aate.  the  Trojan  war),  Rhampsinitns,  Cheops,  Ceph- 
From  works  written  on  rolls  of  papyrus,  found  ren,   and  Mycerinus.     The  last  8  kings  built 
in  the  tomb?,  information  has  also  been  derived  the  8  great  pyramids.    Mycerinus  was  succeed- 
by  recent  Egyptologists.    There  is  still,  how-  ed  by  Asychis,  and  Asychisby  Anysis,  in  whose 
crer,  much  uncertainty  and  controversy  as  to  reign  Egypt  was  conquered  by  the  Ethiopians, 
the  true  interpretation  of  the  hieroglyphics,  and  who  held  it  for  60  years  under  King  Sabaco. 
Kvcely  any  two  authors  agree  either  with  regard  At  the  expiration  of  the  half  century  they  vol- 
to  Dames  or  dates ;  though  the  discrepancies  in  untarily  abandoned  the  country  and  retired  to 
R^ard  to  names  are  immaterial,  while  those  in  Ethiopia.    The  next  king  of  Egypt  was  Sethos, 
the  chronolo^  are  wide  and  apparently  irre-  between  whom  and  the  first  king  Menes,  the 
eoDcilable.     The  chief  living  authorities  upon  priests  told  Herodotus,   there  had  been    841 
tte  interpretation  of  the  hieroglyphics  are,  in  generations,  a  period  of  11,840  years.    Sethos 
En^ifh,  Sir  Gardner  Wilkinson,  and  in  Ger-  was  succeeded  by  12  kings,  who  reigned  jointly, 
nan.  Chevalier  Bunsen  and  Dr.  Lepsius.    From  and  together  built  the  Jjabyrinth,  which  Hero- 
ffae  Scriptures  we  learn  that  the  Hebrew  patri-  dotns  thought  surpassed  all  the  works  of  the 
Ufh  Abraliam  went  into  Egypt  with  his  &mily  Greeks,  and  was  even  more  wonderful  than  the 
beorase  of  a  famine  that  prevailed  in  Canaan,  pyramids  themselves.    After  the  lapse  of  some 
Ha  found  the  country  rulcJd  by  a  Pharaoh,  the  years,  Psammctichus,  one  of  the  12  kings,  de- 
l^jntian  term  for  king.    The  date  of  Abra-  throned  the  others  and  made  himself  sole  sov- 
kn  a  visit,  according  to  the  chronology  of  the  ereign  of  Egypt.    lie  was  succeeded  by  Necho, 
Habrew  text  of  the  Bible,  was  1920  B.'C. ;  ac-  Psammis,  and  Apries,  the  last  of  whom  Hero- 
eorffing  to  the  Sentuagint,  2551 ;  while  Bunsen  dotus  calls  the  most  prosperous  king  that  ever 
tea  it  at  2876.     Nearly  two  centuries  later  Jo-  ruled  over  Egypt.    But  m  the  25th  year  of  his 
nph,  a  descendant  of  Abraham,  was  sold  into  reign  a  rebellion  broke  out  which  was  headed 
Ijgypit  as  a  slave  to  the  captain  of  the  guards  of  by  Amosis.    Apries  was  defeated  and  put  to 
aoatber  Pharaoh,  whose  prime  minister  or  grand  death,  and  Amasis  became  king.    Amasis  was 
vUcr  the  young  Hebrew  eventually  became,  succeeded  by  his  son  Psammenitns,  at  the  very 
iDHph^a  father,  Jacob,  and  his  family,  to  the  beginning  of  whose  reign,  525  B.  C,  Egypt  was 
Miaiii  I  of  70,  accompanied,  as  Bunsen  conjee-  invaded  and  conquered  by  the  Persians  under 
IVM,  by  1,000  or  2,000  dependents,  followed  Cambyses.     Diodorus,  the  next  of  our  Greek 
I     tWr  Ibitanate  kinsman  into  Egypt^  where  tliey  authorities,  was  in  Egypt  about  58  B.  C.    Like 
HHled  in  a  district  called  the  land  of  Goshen.  Herodotus,  he  begins  the  line  of  Egyptian  kings 
Then  they  remained  until  their  numbers  had  with  Menes,  who,  he  says,  was  succeeded  by  52 
aaitiplied  into  2  or  8  millions,  when  under  the  monarchs,  reijrning  1,400  years.    These  wet^ 
kid  of  Moses  they  revolted  and  quitted  Egjrpt  succeeded  by  iiusiris  I.,  and  7  or  B  geueralAOiA 


S6  EGYPT 

laltr  br  Bafiiri^  T!.,  irlio  Inilt  Tliel>os.    Ijiter  dynasticft,  with  inron»i«]crabIe  exception^  vera 

•till   rvigtivU   0»riiiAiii]vas   litid  mfti-r  A  muro  ctmiocutivv,   ami   that   the   kin^  vuuiiK'ralcd 

gv Herat iiiiis  Uchorvu*,  Hhohuilt  Mvinphis  aikI  rvipii-tl  owr  the  whole  of  £K>pt*     U>  lucigft 

vh«>  aHcr  15  more  gi-ucTatiof.ii  wa«  ^ucceeiied  writimi  uii  the  feuhjti't  it  U  Lel«l  that  liiatij  of 

bj  M}-riA  or  M«Kri<*.     I>i<Nh»ru^  aUo  relates  the  tlio  dviiafiiiefli»erecuiiteiiiiMiraiieou.s»rHl  tkat  S 

cipkiitJi  of  the  pvatciiii'invrfir  SrMwtri*.  whom  or  more  kiii^  rei^'iietl  ut  the  aaiiio  time  over 

be«'alU  S-«taio«*i«.     He  ('iiiii|iutc«  the  whole  nuiii-  ditlvrvnt  parts  of  K}{vpt.     It  b  a«!fmttvU  by  aU 

ber  nf  naTiTe  N>vori>ii;ii!*  ti  Flcvpt  at  47u  k'lun^i  thut  the  Ibtli  i] ynas«ty  and  th(»?«  «hiih>iicce«d- 

and  6  «}iii-vii!*,  ami  thr  dnraiioii  *>(  tlie  native  itl  it  retfCiu'd  over  the  whole  of  I  lie  ruantrj. 

iminarc-hv  at  4.71h>  vi-ar^.     EratuMheiifA,  who  ]tiiD.<k.>ti  dividtTi  the  dvlltt^tic:t  ami  the  hiAtorjof 

diodaUiut  11*6  It.  (\,  wu«a  i!atiie«if  t*y rents  ami  Ki:\  pt  under  th«rni  into  3  great  masMrs :  1,  ths 

«'as  made  hhrnrian  ot' the  Aiixamlriaii  hhriirj  old   empire,  from   MeneA  to  Ani\ntiui»iii^  iii- 

bj  Tti'leniy  III.     lie  «niteai»Mrk  on  nniver-  rluding  the  tir»t  12  dyna»ties  of  ^aticthu  and 

m1  rhronohvy.  fru^nnoi.t.i  of  nhii-h  have  U-en  p:irt  of  the  L'Uh,  and  embraciog  a  periud  id 

pre*ier\ed  by  Symvllu*  and  <ilhiT^.     II ia  rum-  l.uTti  yeunt ;  :2,  the  middle  iicriiNl,  or  ibe  pericid 

pulation  of  Kc:ypit:iii  i  hrnhol.i^ry,  io  far  oi*  it  of  the  kht-pherd  kings  U'22  or  tfiV  yean;  S,tb« 

giH-!«,  biM  liTtu  adopteil  I>y  iSiiiiM-n.     Manetlio  new  empire,  fnuiithu  18tb  to  the  SOth  d^iiaair, 

wan  high  prii-t  of  S-Unnytu^  uU'iit  S'^n  H.  C  aliout  I,;i«Ni yearn.     Ix'pMUA  di*eutA  from  tbia 

He  «rote  a  hi«(ory  of  tv>P*  f*'!"  the  informo-  arrangement  iu  M»me  rei^ifoctis  and  rt-ckom  tb« 

tion  of  the   (iri-i*L\  of  vihiih  only  ikjme  ex-  length  of  the  firnt  i*erioU  at  1,S':>6  jeara  in»CrMl 

tra«'t«  have  rcac-he«l  U4  iu  tlie  wurk^  of  later  of  I.UTO.    He  al»o  main tainn  that  there  alvaja 

writers  who  do  iiot  agree  in  their tranikcript ion  were  native  iVyptiaii  dynatitiet  coutcmporarj 

of  the  nl4■^t  inifiortant  part  of  theM.'  remaims  with  the  hhephenlrt,  aii«l  diiiden  the  d\uatftM 

wbirh  ht  a  li«t  of  t?jc  dyutetii.-^  and  Mivenigni  merely  into  the  old  empire  and  the  new.     Wil* 

of  EfOpt  from  thu  earliest  (leriod  to  tlie  end  of  kinMin,  however,  regards  thki  divi»iou  into  Um 

the  IVptian  rule.     Hut  bi>twith<«t:indiog  the  oc-  old  and  new  empires  ad  purely  arbitrarj  and  on- 

cai»ional  di!<n*iianrie4  priHlui.*!^!  hy  careleM  or  neivsMiry.   Thecaj*ital!i  of  the  l»tand  iddynn»* 

fraudulent  copu^t:*,  thew  *'dMia*>tie!«**  of  Ma-  ties  »i.-eni  to  have  been  iu  L'piier  Egypt,  bul  thm 

netbo  are  of  Mie  hig!ie»t  \uliie  to  Kgyptian  bi^-  teat  of  the  3d  dyna»ty  wast  at  Meuuihi;*  iu  Lower 

tiirr,  and  their  general  authentitily   has  beeu  Egypt.     The   kings  of  tlie  4th  uvna>ty,   «bo 

full  J  e<»lAM  lulled  by  coinpari*«>n  « itii  the  nionu-  reigned  al'O  at  Memphis  an  early  at  least  ««  2450 

raeutt.  They  c^ impriM*  3 Id^na^tiesnthiih  reign-  ]i.  I*.,  were  buiUlen  of  pynuuidA.  mhiib  w«rt 

ed  Mjrce«»i«ely  in  Egypt,  nuniU-ring  upwanl  of  intende^l  for  their  tomlm.    Tlic  monuiuenUabov 

SUUking4,  the  Bum  of  the  yeurn  of  «  hone  reigna  that  at  thii  |H.Tiud  the  Egyptians  bad  alreailj 

from   MeueA  to  Net'toiieljo  II..  351   H.  (.*.,  was  inailo  great  ailvaiii-e^  iu  the  artt  and  babita  o^ 

a..Vi5  }ear«.     ''Ihi't  mii-re^iou  of  time,'*  aavit  civili/edlife.  '1  he  maK»nr}' of  their  build iugv  was 

l<uD»eu,  "  the  va^:e«t  hithi  rto  c^LltMi^he«l  any  e«pial  to  that  of  any  other  fK'ritid,  ancient  or  mod- 

wbere  in  the  old  world,  Lt  now  ai*o  the  be»l  ern,  and  their  M'ulpture  of  the  human  form  wa« 

authmtiratcd.     It  it  ba-ed  ufnin  li^t^  of  king^  better  than  it  wa<»  in  a  later  and  more ciinTvuti4>a- 

aikd  their  rrgi::d  yeiir.4 ;  ui^il  thew  Ii»(«  are  O'r-  al  age.    The  art  of  making  gla<«!i  wa«  knon  n,  and 

roburat«.-«l  audi  lui'Mutcil  b}  route  m  I  Kir  ar^  nmn-  the  furniture,  ro»tunie%  implement!  of  trades 

DUient*   up   to  the   4th   dynasty,  i»ith   »li^'ht  and  ogriculture,  and  the  maniirr»  and  mBtooM 

breaks;  an  authrnticalion  nhifh  i4  a»  mieiam*  of    the   |*et>ple,    are  apparently  aa    indicativs 

fiK'd  a»  it«  r&tent."     'Ilie  era  of  Mene%  aeeord-  of  a  refimnl  i-i%ihz.itiou  an  at  any  anl-ar^nrat 

ing  t4i  Hunw-n,  w.i4  .".til:)  li.  i*. ;  ai-eonhng  U*  \»vruK],     Two  hntther;!  of  this  dynaaty,  «bo 

l4-|i«iu«,    :>*«y3.     WiIkii.«M  rt-mork^  tf  Metier  wvm  to  ha\e  reunetl  togilher,  Supbi*  or  Sbaftt 

lh«t  llio  fri-)Uent  otc-urr«  uri*  of  a  ^imiIar  name  I.  aiid  II..  the  I  1u^*|h  of  llerodo(u\  wvr»  tbs 

in  early  hiRtory,  ai  Mamx  iIk-  lir^l  king  of  I.y-  buiMers  of  the  great  pyrami«L  iibirh  waa  tiwir 

tiiK  the  riirygian  yatii%  the  MiniH  of  Crete,  tomb  and  in  Hhith  their  names  Itave  r^<«ol^ 

Ibc  Indian  yeim,  the  TliiU-tian  Maiii.  tiie  Siam-  Ui-u  fMUiid  iii*«'ril»e<l.     The  •eeoiid  pyramid  vaa 

Maiiu.  theCftnnan  M.iiinu«.  and  other«.  may  built   by    Sliaire   or  K'phrei^  the  iVpbrcn  <i# 


m   t4>  a»«ign  him  a  plate  a!iH<f'.g  nivthii-al  Hero<lotu*,  and  the  od  p\ ramid  by  Mez Jiare  or 

triDgv,  but  that  the  Eg}p:ian!«  the!ii<iil\e'«  In^  Memhere-,  «ht»iii    llerotlotu*    calU  UyciribO^ 

lir%cd  him  to  l«  a  rt-al  |M-P«i;i.ige.  a:id  ai  i  epted  A  |»irth>u  t«f  hi«  ritSiu,  taken  from  bi^  pyramid 

the  reeort!i-«l  events  of  hi4  repTxi  ai  umlitul'ied  bv  den.  Vy^.*  a  lew  \«-ar**  agn,  i»  in  the  Bntiak 

fartfl.     Me,  howe%er,  d^^  \iu*  •»  in  hi^  lat«.«t  pub-  nm-eum.     The  (*ll)  dw.asty.  according  to 


liratam   ti»  aMign   to  Mtn««  anv  date,  f'>r  the  authoritie»,  iuiiiudi.itriy  »ua-ei-ded  the  4th  al 

a!li-e«^l  rea«i*n  tiiat  no  rvr:.»iii  er.i  Uw  beiU  e«-  Memphis  u  h:!e  the  ut:i  at  the  ftame  time  rei|^ed 

tabli*hcd  lu  carW  Key  ptian  •  ;.r'>tfli-gY.     In  )ii«  in  rp|Mr  Eg^  pt.    At  the  rml  «if  lh«  t'.ih  dyii«»ty, 

JiviuKAft  Work*  he  l.jtio'ifj.tt^l  i!.'- date  of  J '.On  at-i'>'r>iing  tu  \^  ilLii.^>ti,*JJlu  H.i'..  I.«>«tr  EtfipC 

(.  tV  a«  the  MMMt  |r«*baM«*.      It  i.«  a  {Niidi  «titl  w:^,*  eiiii'it«er«-d  l>y  in%ad«r!i  from  .\«.a.  «!<«f  ea- 

In   dispute  ariKifig  E.M{>tiI(»'«;i>t«    thither  the  tal'U«!ie«l  t!jim»4-!%e«*  at  VIeinphi!*  aUii  made  ibe 

tir«t  17  duia9ti«*«  «!.it  ii  •*:i^ii-«h  •!  Mt-m**!  Here  »*itereuMi«  4-f    I'pjier  K.»'>pt  their  tril-utanca. 

riH.M<-'Jti%e.      It    :«  niiiLitaiiie«l    Vy   lhi»^    who  TIh-^*  iiit.ithr*  >»«re   raiinl   by  thi-   >Ig]ipl«aoa 

are   di«fMiwl    to  a-^*./!!   i'*  the    l^ginnmg  of  •!it{<h«  rd«,  ari'l    the:r  kit.»r^,  of  tehttm   »«tvral 

£itjrpUMU  }d23tor/  the  reiuutcit  dale,  that  the  d«LMt.ei  r«.:giMd  at  MtUipbu,  are  ca^>i  iLe 


EGYPT  87 

ihepherd  kings.    Nothing  whatever  is  known  thathisreignwasoneof  themost  distingnished 
of  their  origin,  bnt  it  has  been  coT\je€tared  that  in  the  history  of  the  Pharaohs.    He  extended 
tbej  were  a  pastoral  race,  either  Arabs,  Scyth-  his  arms  far  into  Asia,  from  which  he  received  a 
itns,  or  Tartars,  who  emigrated  from  their  native  hirge  tribute ;  and  tlio  elephants  and  horses,  the 
seats  and  oonaoered  Egvpt,  as  in  later  ages  the  rare  woods,  bitumen,  rich  gold  and  silver  vases, 
Goths,  Huns,  Mongols,  Alagyars,  and  Tprks  snb-  ebony,  ivoiy,  giraffes,  apes,  gold  dust,  ingots,  and 
daed  and  occapied  remote  countries.    The  date  rings,  pictured  on  the  monuments  of  his  reign, 
of  their  inroad  into  Egypt  is  placed  by  Bnnsen  show  not  only  the  value  of  the  tributes,  but  the 
tf  about  2567  B.  G.    Lepsius,  on  the  contrary,  distance  from  which  they  were  brought.     **  The 
compotes  it  to  have  been  more  than  500  years  great  additions  he  made  to  Kamak  and  other 
later,  at  abont  2000  B.  O.    The  12th  dynasty  temples  in  Thebes,"  says  Wilkinson,  ''and  the 
began  about  2000  R  C,  according  to  Wilkinson,  remains  of  monuments  bearing  his  name  at  Mem- 
Its  e^Htal  was  Thebes,  and  several  of  its  mon-  phis,  Heliopolis,  Goptos,  Ombos,  and  oUier  cities 
archa,  among  others  3  of  the  name  of  Osirtnsen  in  different  parts  of  Egypt,  show  how  much  was 
•r  Sesoitasen,  were  highly  distinguished.    Osir-  done  by  Thothmes  to  beautify  them  and  to  com- 
tMea  L  was  a  conqueror,  who  seems  to  have  memorate  the  glories  of  his  reign ;  and  the  style 
enried  his  arms  southward  into  Ethiopia,  and  as  well  as  the  nigh  finish  of  his  sculptures  were 
ta  have  regained  neariy  the  whole  of  Egypt  not  much  surpassed  at  any  subsequent  period. 
from  the  diepherd  kings,  who,  howeven  still  He  has  left  more  monuments  than  any  Pharaoh 
Weld  Memphis,  and   part  of  Lower   Egypt  except  the  second  Remeses.^    RoseUini,  thedis- 
He  is  supposed  to  have  been  the  original  Sc^os*  tinguished  Italian  Egyptolo^st,  remarks  that 
Kris,  io  ^moos  among  the  Greeks,  though  in  there  is  hardly  an  ancient  city  in  Egypt  and  Nn- 
after  agea  a  still  greater  monarch  and  conqueror,  bia,  as  far  as  the  second  cataract  beyond  Semneh, 
Rharaw^  IL,be^me  confounded  with  Osirtasen  where  remains  of  the  edifices  of  Thothmes  III.  are 
L,  and  the  achievements  of  both  were  attributed  not  to  be  found.    Thothmes  IV.,  his  grandson, 
to  a  sin^e  Seaostris  by  the  Greek  historians  and  caused  the  great  sphinx  at  the  pyramids  to  be  cut 
poete.    Osirtasen  IIL  also  made  conquests  in  out  of  the  rock.    Amunoph  or  Amenophis  III., 
Ethiopia,  and  his  memory  was  so  highly  respect-  another  king  of  this  18th  dynasty,  was  known 
ed  thtt^vine  honors  were  paid  to  him  long  after  to  the  Greeks  and  Romans  as  Memnon,  and  his 
his  death  by  some  of  the  kings  of  the  18th  aynas-  colossal  statue  at  Thcb^  was  the  famous  vocal 
ty.   By  some  Egyptologists  he  also  is  supposed  to  statue  which  was  supposed  to  salute  the  sunrise 
hare  been  the  prototype  of  Sesostris.    Osirtasen  with  a  clear-toned  sound.    Ilis  conquests  and 
L  boiic  the  temple  of  Heliopolis,  where  to  this  his  power  were  very  extensive,  his  empire  com- 
dar  stands  one  of  the  finest  obelisks  in  Egypt,  prising  Ethiopia,  a  large  part  of  Arabia,  Syria, 
erected  by  him  and  inscribed  with  his  name,  lie  and  Mesopotamia,  and  ho  is  supposed  to  have 
ibe  excavated  the  principal  of  the  grottos  of  introduced  innovations  or  heresies  in  the  nation- 
Beni  Hassan,  in  which  tlie  arts,  manners,  and  al  religion  of  Egypt,  and  to  have  prepared  the 
customs  of  his  age  are  vividly  depicted  with  a  way  for  the  great  religious  revolution  which 
Biinnteness  and  variety  of  detail  that  have  given  took  place  under  the  ^  stranger  kings,"  as  the 
IB  a  better  acquaintance  with  the  domestic  life  Eg^-ptians  termed  them,   by  7  of  whom  he 
of  E^pt  4,000  years  ago  than  we  have  with  the  was  followed  in  immediate  succession.    Of  these 
■me  feature  of  European  existence  3  or  4  cen-  monarclis  very  little  is  known.    They  seem  to 
tnriea  since.     Under  the  next  dynasty,  the  13tli,  have  been  usurpers  or  invaders  of  foreign  race, 
about  1860  B.  C,  the  shepherd  kings  seem  to  to  have  ruled  tyrannically,  and  to  have  supplant- 
have  recovered  their  supremacy  in  Egypt,  and  the  national  gods  of  Egypt  by  the  worship  of 
to  have  driven  the  Theban  monarchs  to  take  tlie  sun.    Their  capital  was  at  or  near  the  mod- 
TCfbge  in  Ethiopia.    Under  several  dynasties  the  em  village  Tel-el- Amarna  in  Middle  Egypt. 
esnqaerors  held  the  country  till  Ames  or  Anio-  Their  memory  was  so  detested  by  the  Egyptians 
W,  the  first  king  of  the  *18th  dynasty,  who  that  after  their  expulsion  from  the  throne  their 
tooogfat  aid  from  Ethiopia,  headed  a  successful  monuments  and  inscriptions  were  everywhere 
vnotL  of  tlie  Egyptians,  and  drove  the  shep-  destroyed  or  defaced.    Their  reigns  were  short, 
herda  oat  after  a  long  struggle,  which  ended  not  more  than  30  years  in  all,  according  to  Wil- 
widi  the  capitulation  of  their  last  stronghold,  kinson^s  calculation,  and  terminating  about  1324 
tta  frontier  city  of  Avaris,  from  which  they  B.  0.    It  was  in  the  reign  of  Pthahmen,  one  of 
withdrew  into  Syria.    According  to  Wilkinson,  these  kings,  that  Wilkinson  supposes  the  exodus 
ttto  took  place  iU>out  1500  B.  C,  after  the  shep-  to  have  taken  place,  when  the  children  of  Israel 
karit  had  possessed  Egypt  511,  or  at  the  most  went  forth  out  of  the  land  of  Egypt  under  the 
05  yearsL    According  to  Bunsen,  the  shepherds  leadership  of  Moses  and  Aaron.    Bunsen  coin- 
TOB  expelled  in  1548  R  C^  after  having  occu-  cides  with  this  view  of  the  date  of  the  exodus, 

SI  Egypt  under  43  kings  for  022  or  929  years,  though  he  gives  the  name  of  the  Pharaoh  who 

attributes  their  final  expulsion  to  Tuthmosis  ruled  Egypt  at  the  time  as  Menephthatli.    Tho 

m.,  ft  grandson  of  Amosis,  though  he  maintains  date  he  fixes  at  1820  B.  0.    Abraham  he  sup- 

ftftt  Amobis  recovered  the  greater  part  of  Egypt  poses  to  have  visited  Egypt  about  2876  B.  C.  in 

frooi  their  grasp  and  reestablished  the  throne  the  reign  of  a  Pharaoh  of  the  8th  dynasty,  and 

aftlie  Pharaohs  in  Memphis.    Tuthmosis  III.  is  Jacob  to  have  settled  in  the  land  of  Gosheu  with 

Thothmes  IIL  by  Wilkinson,  who  says  bis  family  in  tho  9th  year  of  Oairtasea  L^  ^1\S4 


88  EGYPT 

n.  C.    Tlia  lonicth  of  tho  fojonrn  of  the  I§rftcl-  tnd  wero  M  often  fubdaeil,  bnt  at  lenfrtK  al<oat 

|U.*4  in  Kirypt  h«  thus  ciiin|mtii4  at  1,434  >cam.  411  B.  C,  thor  »acccc<le<l  in  (Iriving  uut  the 

Th«   ll^th  «lTna»tv,  which   K-pui  aUntt  1H24  Persians  and  with  the  aid  vf  (irvek  aiiiiliafica 

B.  C.  with  KIioiiim:!*  I.,  rviioioil  diiriug  tho  nio»t  maintained  their  indc|>endoncc  under  a  K-ri«a<if 

Ulu»trioU!»  iKTimi  uf  Kfcvptiun  hi<»ti*ry,  when  tho  native  nionan-ln,  thv  la-tt  <if  wliuni  was  N«cta» 

extent  and  iM>wiT  uf  the  iMiii»iro  were  at  their  Dvbn   II.,  who  w&n  (*onijuervd  and   di-thnnitd 

highiM  pitch,  and  whi-n  the  nui^t  h|>Iuiidid  luon-  hr  (Vhus  or  ArtuxerxeH   III.,   in   351    H.  C. 

nnivnts  wvre  ereiMi-d  at  ThiSo,  and  in   fact  Efr^pt  continuid  a  IVn-ian  pruvimv,  lioveTery 

throughout  tho  ixiuiiCrr.    The  ^r«.-at  im march <»  only  till  IV^'i  H.  C,  when  it  wav  conqtKTetl  bf 

of  thi^  dv(Ui>t/  Were  Srthon  or  Si'thi  Land  Alexander  the  (fn-at. — <Jf  the  niannvrs  and  cos* 

Ithaniik««  tl..  tlie  ^^^n  and  f;ra:i<lM>u  of  UhainM,*s  touiii,  nimle  of  lifo,  and  Mx*ial  condition  of  ib# 

I^  the  fiiuuder  of  the  lino.     SvthuH  made  ext<-n-  ancient  I-^ryptian^  wo  can  fonn  a  very  ■atisfac 

■ive  coni|uc7it4  in  Africa  and  Ai<i.i,  and  warred  tory  opinitm  fnun  the  repre!<«ntationa  oo  tht 

aoccr^«fuI  wan  with  thv  A<*'«yriun«  and  Mi^cs.  nionuinent!».     It  is  e\*idi-nt  from  their  te^liinooy 

He  built  many  »iU{n:rh  etliticci  at  The bcii,  among  that  nt  a  %*ery  early  af^  tiio  Kfr^ptiaiit  wera  a 

otiicrs  tSc  frreat  hall  uf  Kariiak,  on  the  walls  of  highly  civilized  |»eop)i*,   wealthy,   indn^trioaa^ 

which  hit  \iotunes  are  nculpturid,  and  his  tomb  with  a  fully  urgani/etl  MK-iety,  and  great  iiru6* 

excels  all  uthepi  in  E^'vpt  in  tho  beauty  aiid  ciency  in  arts,  munufucturcK,  and  agricuitart. 

richness  of  iiBftculptun. SttUil]  taint  int:4.   Acconl-  Of  their  literature   we  knuw   little,   the  faw 

ing  to  liuiiM'U,  NrthiH,  or  SvtliiK*i%  us  he  calls  remains  that  have  reac*hi><l  us*  I>eing  too  scant j 

biin,  w.ia  the  trut.' tTi^iiidlof  S«'<Hi9tri4,  tho  Cole-  to  cnshlo  uh  to  Jitdgo  with  i^tditideni'v  uf  tbtt 

bratv«l  hero  i>(  Kgxpt.     Khjn>'H-4  II.,  his  son,  general  character  uf  their  intvlle«*tual  prudne* 

reigovd  C6  years  aitd,  in)i«.rt:in(;  a  mighty  em-  tions.    A   largo  numU*r  of  |wpyri  have   bcao 

biro  and  a  great  and  veteran  army,  achievi'd  found,  containing  writing^  some  of  a  hkktoricnl 

vnlliaiil  victories  ovi-r  the  Mim>iiiiding  nationis  ft»d  othersof  a  religions  nature,  but  tliey  haTanot 

and  erect e«l  nnmerou!i  nuinuments  bv  tlie  Ial>or  yet  U'en  so  perfe^'ily  deciphered  as  to  be  full/ 

of  the  captives  w!i>>ni  he  brutight  Lome  from  umlenttiMMl.  The  religious  doeuuK*nisaU  betong 

his  campaign*.     Wilkin!<i>n,  on   tho  contrary,  to  one  w«irk,  which  wan  called  by  riiamfiuUiaa 

tboogh  admitting  tlie glory  and  [lowerof  Seth<«,  the  **  Funeral  UituaU'*  but  which  lie|miiipi  tvmift 

ooiiMders  his  mu  the  greater  monarch  and  tho  tho  ^'  lUnik  of   the   Ik'.od.^    This  work,  which 

true  Se!H««tri4.     IIv  fixei  tliv  beginning  uf  his  seems  to  be  alike  |M)or  iu  matter  and  si\le,  eoa- 

reign  at  1311  \\A\  and  mivs  that  this  period  ftb>ts  chiefly  of  prayers  and  of  instnictiuu  aboBt 

may  be  ngurded  as  the  Augu«taxi  age  uf  Egypt,  the  future  life.    The  hi«t4irical  |ia|iyri  relate  to 

in  whit-h  the  art»  altaiiie«l  to  the  highest  degree  tho  exploits  uf  Borne  uf   the  kings,  which  am 

of  excellence  of  «  hirh  they  Were  then  capable,  told  in  a  Uimbafttic  manner.     Avery  curioi 

A  cent urv  later,  af^er^e^eral  uliM-ure  and  feeble  nuiiamv  or  fairy  tale  of  the  age  of    tin*  19Ch 

reign%  KhaiUM-s  III.  of  the  2o:li  dyna<>ty  revivi-d  dyua.My  has  Inn'O  disi'overtsl  and  traniJale«l  iDtO 

the  marti.il  renown  tif  his  name,  aiid  {K-netrat-  French.     Sime  mllertituis  of  letters  writl«o  bjr 

cd  to  remote  ci>iiutrif4  in  A-«ia,  to  which  the  acriU.-^  a  bii»',;raphical  memoir  of  a  MTilie,  and 

arms  of  Kk'}pt  hu<l  never  U'firo  reat^hi'd.     Ho  a  numl^er  of  ini*«*eHunetm»  frugnHiitu  have  al'O 

•oen»  evi-n  to  ha\e  encountervil  and  defeated  been  found.      The  progress  v(  the  K.'yptiAns  in 

autne  Tartar  nation «.    With  him,  nay <•  WiILintM>n,  iculpture  and  painting  was  hani|ierv«l  l>y  r«ii- 

cUmt*   the   glorious  tra  of  Kgipliaxi  hiatury.  gious  rei4 mints  which  pre vente<l  tlieir  dc\elup- 

IlhauM-s  VIII.  lHiwev«-r,  wlii««o  reign   In-gan  men t  U*yond  a  |K»int  which  n  as  early  rvacbesL 

1171  II.  C\  uiaintainvil  the  furei^  |Hi«!k-Mionn  In  architi-rture.  however,  they  u«*r upy  pvrba|M 

vi  Egy|iC,  and  lia»  left  M»me  i«tr iking  monument 4  the  mup>t  di4tingni'»hi*4l  i>Iare  among  thi'  ualiunsw 

on  «hirh  hi*!  own  |M>rtrui£,  ion*piru4»u^  for  the  No  iK.tipIe  hn^  «ijiiaile«]  tbem  in  ll»e  grandvuf. 

high  bndge  of  hi«  ni^n,'.  i<i  yet  to  l*e  wn.     The  the  luaitf^iveni'Si*,  or  the  durability  «if  tl^'ir  »<riir- 

fir>t  kiivg  uf  the  2Jd  d}naMy  was  She^lmnk  1.,  turi*^.     A  comin-tent  autluirity,  Fc*nn»*on.  tbe 

9Shill.  1*.    IleiiastheShiihak  of  thv.STiptuses  author  of  the  *' 11! U!i! rated    liaiidUN*k  t*f  Ar* 

n  Kings*  11.  4<M.  «ho  uas  c«'i.tem|M»r:iry  with  chiti*cture,"  Kiyn  :  **Taken  alttfetlier,  |Krha|» 

oohiiuiiu;  and   in  the  5:h  year  of  Kehi»boam,  it  m:iy  be  »afely  a>Mvrtetl  t!<ni  the  Ki?>pli«aa 

king  of  lararl,  he  captur%^l  Jvru^kUni  and  pil-  werethe  niict  e^'*enti.illy  abniii!ing  |<ok('U*uf  aD 

laged  the  temple.     The  st  ulptund  rvciinlof  this  thiiso  «e  aro   aci|uainted   with,  and  tin*  nwsl 

cana|iaigr«  i«  utill  t>i  U*  kiu  on  the  wall  of  tlio  getierall)  succc^ful  in  all  they  attempird  tntlhia 

creat  temple  of  Kariiak,  Dkith  the  name(»f  Juda  way.    Tlie  (in-eks  it  is  true.  Mirpaw^d  tLrin 


jCclchi,ur  kiugtiomof  Judah.  wt  legihlo,  tf»giih-     in  relinement  and  U  Auty  *4  tt-  tail,  and  iu  tbe 
er  with  tl>e  |>ortrait  of  aiapt:%e  with  Mmngly     cla««  of  N'ulpture  with  v^hicli  they  i«rni 


marked  Jewish   features     FniMi   the  time  4if     their  buiMini.*^.  ainl  the  ttoihii-  arrhitr«.ts  far 
hbr«)(««fik  K^vpt  dt'i^i.ed  in  {NiWiT.  nut  impri«!»-     exrelhtl  them  in  c-i»nMnii-ti%f  rie\ertMiM;  lint 


aUy  bi-rauio  of  t!.e  i-ipid  gr>'«th  at  thl«  |ieri«<l  U'^ide  tbi*^\  no  ikIkt  ^%1i«  can  U'  put  in  c« 

of  the  A««>nan  m.pirr.  At  thr  ^h  ginning  of  the  |>etiti>in  %iith  tii<  tn.     At  tin-  ^mie  Urn-  oeitlier 

reign  of  r»aiitmen:t  i%  the  l.i«*.  kii.,;  oi'  the  SOih  (•r<-«-i:in  bi»r  (ntthii*  art  hiti-i*ts  uihU  r^tt^^l  inore 

dsiAasty,  i-*^  H.  l\  l^'M-t  ».is  c 'h.^uerLd  by  |i«rfeetly  oil  l!ie  grailuli*  n^  iif  .v!,  and  iIk- exact 

Canib% «e%  ai>l  lii-«mmv  a  t'l  r*uu  pruMme  guv-  chjrar^tiT  that  nhi^Mld  W  gi\rn  !•»  e\eri  form 

^romJ  i'j  M  amUap.  7  ht  j •loj  I v  f ro^ueut ly  rv  v ul ted  and  e \  cry  dv t ail.    Th**y  u nder stood,  oImj,  bvtur 


EGYPT  89 

than  any  other  nation,  how  to  use  scnlptore  in  elaborately  constrncted  tombs. — ^Tbe  govern- 
combination  with  architecture,  and  to  make  ment  of  Egypt  was  a  monarchy,  limited  by 
iheir  colossi  and  avenues  of  sphinxes  group  strict  laws  and  by  the  influence  of  powerfcd 
themselves  into  parts  of  one  great  design,  and  hereditary  privileged  classes  of  priests  and  sol- 
tt  the  same  time  to  use  historical  paintings,  diers.    The  priests  were  the  ruling  class.    They 
fiiding  by  insensible  degrees  into  hieroglyphics  were  restricted  to  a  single  wife,  and  if  polygamy 
on  the  one  hand,  and  into  sculpture  on  the  other,  was  permitted  to  the  rest  of  the  people,  it  must 
linking  the  whole  together  with  the  highest  have  been  very  seldom  practu«ecl.    The  mar- 
dass  of  phonetic  utterance,  and  with  the  most  riage  of  brothers  and  sisters  was  permitted.  The 
brilliant  coloring,  thus  harmonizing  all  these  laws  were  wise  and  equitable,  and  a])pear  to 
arts  into  one  sreat  whole,  unsurpassed  by  any  have  been  rigidly  enforced.    Hurder  w:is  pun- 
thing  the  world  has  seen  during  the  80  centuries  ished  with  death,  adultery  by  bastinadoing  the 
of  straggle  and  aspiration  that  have  elapsed  man  and  by  cutting  off  the  nose  of  the  woman, 
iiDee  the  brilliant  days  of  the  great  kingdom  of  forgery  by  cutting  off  the  culprit^s  hands.    Im- 
the  Pharaohs.** — Of  the  religions  system  of  the  prisonmcnt  for  debt  was  not  permitted,  but  a 
ElTptians  we  possess  very  scanty  information,  man  could  pledge  to  his  creditors  the  mummies 
The  people  worsliipped  many  gods,  and  each  of  his  ancestors,  and  if  he  failed  in  his  lifetime 
city  or  district  had  its  tutelar  deity,  who  in  that  to  redeem  them,  he  was  liimself  deprived  of 
place  was  particolarly  adored,  while  in  the  rest  burial.    Women  were  treated  with  respect,  and 
of  the  country  he  was  little  regarded.    The  the  laws  and  customs  seem  to  have  been  so 
principal  gods  were  Osiris  and  Isis,  who  were  favorable  to  them  tliat  their  condition  in  Egypt 
vorshipped  throughout  Egypt ;  Amun,  or  Am-  was  much  higher  than  in  any  other  nation  of 
moD.  who  like  Jupiter  was  held  to  be  the  "  king  antiquity.    The  military  force  of  Egypt  was  a 
of  gods»^  the  especial  tntelor  deity  of  Thebes;  species  of  hereditary  militia,  which  formed  one 
Noma,  the  god  of  the  cataracts  and  oases,  who  of  the  lending  classes  or  castes,  and  in  time  of 
in  Uicr  times  under  the  Romans  was  calle<l  also  peace  cultivated  the  land,  of  which  it  held  a 
Ammoi^  and  considered  the  same  as  Japiter ;  largo  portion.    The  king's  guards,  some  few 
Sal^,  his  wife,   who  corresponded  to  Juno ;  thousands  in  number,  were  the  only  standing 
Plithah,  the  Memphian  deity,  who  symbolized  army,    llie  number  of  soldiers  in  the  military 
the  creative  power ;   the  goddess  Neith,  wor-  caste  is  stated  by  Herodotus  at  410,000,  which 
shipped  at  Sais,   who  may  be  compared  to  probably  included  all  the  men  of  that  class  able 
Minerva;  Rem,  who  represented  universal  na-  to  bear  arms.    It  is  not  probable  that  tlio  whole 
lore,  ami  particularly  the  generative  principle,  of  them  ever  were  or  could  bo  brought  into 
and  vho^e  cliicf  temples  were  at  Coptos  and  at  the  field  at  once.    Their  arms  were  spears  and 
Ci.L-inmis:  the  goddess  Pasht,  whoso  worship  swords,  and  they  were  protected  by  largo  shields. 
[jfrvailed  at  Buba-^tis,  and  wlio  corresponded  to  "^hey   were    distinguished   for   their   skill    as 
i!»  Arteuiis  or  Diana  of  Greek  and  Roman  my-  archers,  and  also  used  the  slinjr.    They  do  not 
tholo^  :  Maut,  the  maternal  principle ;  Re  or  seem  to  have  been  well  suppliiKl  with  cavalry, 
Plirah,'  the  sun  ;  Seb,  the  earth,  vrho  was  called  though  they  made  mucli  use  of  war  chariots. — 
**litherof  the  gods;"  Nepte,  the  sky,  wife  of  The  researches  of  modern  investigators  have 
Seb,  the  "  mother  of  the  gods ;"  Moui,  the  sun-  established  the  fact  that  the  ancient  Egyptians 
Edit:  Atmou,  the  darkness;  Thoth,  tho  intel-  were  of  the  Caucasian  type  of  mankind,  and 
l*ct.  Other  noted  deities  were  Khons,  Anouke,  not  of  tlio  negro.     Their  language  bore  unmis- 
Ttine,  Savak,  Eileithyia,  Mandou,  Seth,  Nepthys,  takable  affinities  to  the  Semitic  languages  of  west- 
Homs,  and  Athor.    A  great  variety  of  abstract  ern  Asia,  such  as  the  Hebrew  and  tho  Arabic, 
principles  and  even  of  animals  and  vegetables  Herodotus,  it  is  true,  speaks  of  them  as  black 
were  however  worshipped  by  tho  nuiltitude,  and  woolly  haired,  but  the  mummies,  of  which 
thongh  the  doctrine  of  one  God  was  privately  immense  numbers  remain,  prove  that  his  words 
tangbt  by  the  priests  to  a  select  few.     To  each  are  not  to  bo  taken  literally.     The  shape  of 
deity  an  animal  seems  to  have  been  held  sacred,  their  skulls  is  Asiatic,  not  African  ;  and  the 
iriikh  was  pirobaMy  reganled  as  his  symbolical  paintings  on  the  monuments  show  that  they 
represent  at  ivo.   Bulls  were  consecrated  to  Osiris  were  neither  black  like  the  negro  nor  copper-col- 
■nd  cows  to  Athor ;  the  sacred  bull  of  Mem-  ored  like  some  of  the  Ethiopian  tribes.     The 
pUi,  called  Apis,  being  particularly  venerated  true  negroes  are  distinctly  represented  on  the 
throQghout  Egypt.   A  hawk  was  the  symbol  of  monuments,  and  in  a  style  of  caricature  which 
Be.  tSie  ibis  of  Thoth,  tho  crocodile  of  Savak,  the  Egyptians  would  not  .have  applied  to  them- 
andthecat  of  Phthah.     Of  the  doctrines  of  tho  selves.    There  is,  however,  reason  to  believe 
Egyptian  religion  little  is  accurately  known,  that  tho  Egyptians  had  mixed  largely  with  the 
The  existence  of  the  spirit  after  death  was  be-  negroes,  and  from  tho  positive  statements  of 
Ecved,  and  a  fnture  state  of  rewards  and  punish-  Greek  and  Roman  eye-witnesses  there  can  be 
aenU  inculcated,  in  which  tho  good  dwelt  with  no  doubt  that  they  were  of  very  dark    com- 
th«  goda,  while  the  wicked  were  consigned  to  plexion.     We  have  no  certain  knowledge  of 
fcfj  torments  amid  perpetual  darkness.      It  the    amount  of  population     under  the   Pha- 
vw  believed  that  after  the  lapso  of  ages  tho  raohs.      By  some  of  the   Greek  and  Roman 

£rit  would  return  to  tho  body,  which  was  writers    the    number    of  inhabitants    at    tho 

nfore  carefully  embalmed  and  preserved  in  most  f  ourishing  periodd  is  stated  to  \iavQ '\)^^i;i 


40  EGYPT 

7/i<X),000.  a  procli(;ioni  amonnt  for  m  briaII  a  enli|tht«no«]  ruler,  who  after  a  splradid 

country,  tlio  avoriigi*  iiuinUrr  tu  tlio  At^iiare  milo,  of  .'(S  yvur^  nlNlicati'd  in  favor  of  LU  aoo  Ft«il» 

ezrluftiTc  fif  tlio  «lif<Tt.  Wing  twioo  aii  larp*  od  eiiij  riiiiiulvliiliuis  and  tlivd  two  yaars  aflarw 

in  the  iiH*«t  lU-niivW  |ii.>oplid  IniuU  of  uiuJcrn  wanl.    The  varly  part  of  tho  reign  of  PtulcnT 

tiinvft.     Still,  v>  irrvat  was  tho  fiTtilii  v  of  K^vpt  Philadelphuii  wa.i  distiirlMitl  bjr  ri%'il  war  vitb 

tliat  the  «tatftni.-nt  is  nut  inipniliahlo.     Tho  cul-  hin  rehvllious  hruthvrs  two  of  whom  be  pat  to 

ti%'aliK-  laml  i«  Minu-w Imt  (rrfatiT  in  txtiiit  nitw  dotith.    Tho douieUic fftatv of  Efcrpi waa greatl/ 

tlian  it  ma*  in  uutt>)ijit\.  nwin^  !•»  tho  widiT  iniproviMl  under  hi^  adniiniHtratiun,  and  (*PP^ 

■prt'Ail  (if  tho  inundation  <>f  tho  NiU- :  and  it  in  E^rypt,  whirh  ha«i  bwn  in  a  turbulent  oondkUoa 

r«>niputttl  that  if  pr<i|HTly  tilK-d  it  would  yioM  ft»r  half  a  ivntury,  was  reduced  to  order  and 

in«in-  than  i«  ro<|uisto  ftir  tho  (i**A  of  sjhnmn»o  niiule  Kufo  fur  merchants  and  other  traTellenu 

fMNiph-.  t!iii!ip;h  withiMit  alluwihj  nny  riin«ii]or-  Tho  {Nirl  of  IWreiiire  on  tho  Uod  lea  vai  cun* 

ahlo  Mir]>:u«  ii.r  oxpurtatinn.    rndt-r  thi-  aniii-nt  structod,  and  tho  rity  of  Ar^inoo  waA  bnilt  vImiv 

rharhi>h**  Iiri!i'  nr  nn  rurn  iiiLt  «x}HirT«^l,  and  Suoz  now  stand'*.     Ttoleniy  aliio  built  other 

the  land  mi  insi  t<*  liuvo  Uoii  ourifully  ('uUi\  utod.  cition  on  tho  lU-d  sea  tu  facilitate  the  trade  witk 

Anothor  ^tatcnit-nt  of  tho  <ir(ok<>  an<l  Konian^s  India,  wlitoh  was  at  that  time  extensive  and 

that  at  tlio  hoi^ht  of  hir  |>rif<iKTity  tlioro  WiTo  pruti table.    Tlie  ntiiM'um  of  Alexandria  and  its 

in E^'vpt  2(i.(Niii 4iti< <«, is alt-i^vtlu-r pro|KMtort»u>i.  funioU!»  library,  Uith  fuundod  by  Ptolemy  Soter, 

Tho  ct'Uniry  containod  •M\(Tnl  lar^^u  anil  iN>pn-  weru  now  at  the  height   of  their  proepeAtj. 

Iou«ciii«-«.  the  iiiii^t  ri»n«iiK- ruble  nf  whioh  uoro  I>oniotriu«t  Phalerous  wili  librarian,  Euclid  wm 

Tliobofs  I.'itiiiHi]i«,  A{*<>I]iiii>|N>lisSyono.  in  rp|tor  head  of  the  nmtlioiuatiral  M'hooh  and  the  poet* 

E|ryi»t  :    Mrinpht^    HtraoloKiNiIi-,   An^init'-,  in  Thoiirritiis   CaJIiniai-hus,   and   Phil»tna   were 

lliddio  (V.M'^ :  l!vli*i|Hih».  HiibtMiK,  ] .eon topi i-  n'lkuniH]  anmn^  the  ornaments  of  the  court* 

lis    ^aio,    UuMrit,    NuuiTatis    Mrndi-!i,   Tan  (4,  Tho  Jew  A  at  t!ii>  time  Wore  very  numeriMM  ia 

Pelu>iuni.  iu  L'Wor  l^ryi't.     At  the  h»ue'>tcom-  E^vpt,  and  with  t!io  kin;!*-«  fanction  tho  SeptB- 

putatinii  thoM,'  frroat  ritii*!«can  H-arooIy  Iiuvo  euU'  ai;int  vor>iiin  of  tho  Old  To<«taiueut  was  made 

tainvvl  in  tho  <4r^TL>i*ato  h-i^s  thaii  t>,iHHt.fNio  |k'i»-  front  the  llohrow  into  the  lireek  by  70  or  79 

pie,  whiih,  dodui-tr«l  from  tlio  7,tHHMi(H)i.f  tiitid  Jewish  t^holun*.     Tho  dominions  of   Ptulem/ 

|Mipu!utiiin,  «i'i:Id  lia%-e  loft  bnt  an  uvor:ti:e  cf  lK*<*ido  Kt?\j't  mniprisi'd  a  rotiHideral'Ie  part  oC 

SAO  itJiahitaiitN  ti>  each  of  thr  2'*."<hi  (itio<. —  Ethitiiiia.  to;^■tho^  with  Palontire.  i*<rIe*Syri^ 

Tho  rMn«iiu-«'t  i<i'  K^% pt  |iy  AU\:ui<li r  the  <iroat  l*un>ph\lia,  Cilioia,  l.yoia, Ciria, Typruii, ami lh« 

wait  nm*  h  fM-ilitutt-ii  by  tlio  liutrtd  of  tho  na-  CvoIai1o.<4.     Hit  army  is  haid  ti»  have  numbeiW 

tivo^  t.i  thoir  1%  r-iun  m'a.<^ttr-.   Tiny  wi-h  i.mrd  26*».ouo  f.N>t  ami  2iMKtO  hiifjio,  2.<KKi  cliariuCi^ 

tlio  (iro«  k^  a^  d«  !i\(Tcr^  and  « ith  nuMin,  fnr  4^^)  oK-i'hant".  and  a  navy  of  ],5oi)  »lii|r%  of  war 

m'ith  tl.r  nili-tif  Ah  xunihr  ranio  trailf,  Uarnin^',  and  IjXni  tian»|KirtA.     t.*i»fntmToe  aiid  the  artai 

sriomo,  tl.i'  arT-.  a:.d  jiM   and  >tal>lf  piwrn-  Mrionoo  and  literature,  directed  by  ti rook  Keniua 

nunt.     Ill'  (-••III  iliatcil  tho  prio-t;*  by  ^ai  ri:ii  in;;  and  (*re«-k  eni-nry.  won*  rarriod  to  a  hoi^ht  of 

t«i  the  ^aiT«d  h'ill  \v\\  Hhnni  tin-  i^lol-haTin^  »ph*ndiir  tliat  rivalUil  the  brighti*ftt  day«  of  tbe 

PofMafiH  had  trt.ittd   with   iniUirniT\  .  ainj  in  elder   I'huraoh^.     AIozandria«  the  capital,  wae 

onSi-r  tu  r«-*!>'ri*  t>«  till- (H-i>|>Ii- thrir  azi4  it-nt  lau^  a»iij»erbri!y.  adurned  with  nia^uificont  ediftcHk 

and  i:-.v*  *<  1'*'  ("^'a-'t^^id  tMi>  jmlijioliij.*.  with  aiitl  pniiniiiont  tiiroii^hout  tho  rivi!izf«l  world 

Juri«li<  :.<iM  tixir  t!.«-  «  L*  !•■  iKiidlrt.  uimI  ap*  a^a  H-at  uf  harnin^,  s  icni-e.  and  tradr.  I^tcdccnT 

-Miintol  twii  om':iio!it  K.*>  I'lLin-  ti  t!ii'*4  i  ■;!'..(•».  I*hiladi1|<!iti'«rti.-nfil  )ik«.-  hi«  father  :*^*<  vean,and 

'irot-'.ir:;;  al-^*  uli  tho  (iri*  k  i>:!^ cr^  tu  ricurd  inan  Mit-ioodi-<l  by  hi.'»  mhi  l^oK-niy  l!uergetcs 

thoi  :j»tiim«  "f  Kjypt  in  alniiz.i^trrin;:  thr  ^•w\'  who  huil  a  brilliant  aiid  |  riM|H>niu^  ni^  f«f  SS 

rrnm«!ii.     Idi!   tin-  cr^att^t  i4:.il  uw-t  |*t niu-  yi-ar*.    l!o  robuilt  many  <-f  tho  final  ti*nipK'a  uf 

m-nt  liri«^:  wli'.ihthv  M;i<'f«Iiini*tzi  i  ••ii'|i)iT>>r  I'4:y|>t  and    fcuiuh-d  i>t}ior\  ai.d  hi;*  itMirt  vai 

lN»t"»id   u;m.ii   KpTyi't  au4  tl.r  f«>i:rii!.iM«<n  ^-f  thriin}^-«l  l>y  arti^tn  aiidunthur^.     Tndrr  his  pro- 

Ahxax.ilria.  »!i>m4-  t apiifitii"*  t>>  l>o  ni.i>!i-  a  p^rt  ili»rito  M'.d  twuiiniial  ■'••n,  I'tithmy  I'hilnpator, 

«>f  tho  t.r«t  •  U->«  and  an  oMipuritnn  f -r  t}.«-  t  ••!'.•  tlivkin^*«!i»m  U^'an  ttidri'ini*;  and  in  the  rri|[nuf 

ni«  no  4>f  thi'  la-tt  ni  Mi  •li!(rrai.<  :i!i  hi-  t<trii;v-  tho  noit  k:Mj.  I'tnh  iin  Ki'ipl:ane«,  a  minor,  tlie 

ed  at  a  irlari'-r  »hiK»  p.i*«iii;;  tl.ri'*:^h  t!io  p!.!- o  kin);*}tpiaplian4  wi  ro  furt-ol  to  invuki-  thepffo- 

on  hi«  %jk\  T>»  \W.t  tho  lira*  !•■  tf  AiitiM.iii.    Tlio  tootion  of  tl.i-  K'tmaii^tafThitiskt  tho  ambltiiiU*  de- 

city  «h;ih   ho  i>n!t  nd  t-i  \n-  b.i.l!  tijtfo  r«».-t?  ki^n.^of  ih*- »»»viroi;:n!«  I'f  Syria  aiiil  MAcv^lani^ 

rapi'I!,^  !••  inifMirtani-f.  ai'.d   m  a  ft  w  yi-.ir%  hi--  who  hail  fi-nni<l  a  ««'ni]>in.ition  a^rain*:  Kjt^pL 

caxno  ft.o  (f  !ho  trr«at    ra|.,:al«  ff  tin-  H'tM  The  ri-^ult  uf  thi  ir  iiittTt'oft  nre  wo^^  that  a^.er  • 

anil   !!.••   rliiif    f .  nt.-o   «-f    (iri-k   riviIi/aTi'-n.  cn.tury  ui.d  a  l:*Ifttf  t'.:rbuhnre and  misrule,  un- 

Alt'Xaii'lir  ifftT!«i!  !.■■!   nnrtl*  a  |N>litira!,  liii  di.r  8  fkuViTixi!-*  Uarinj  tho  nanio  c^f  I*!  Itrmv, 

a  •m-ial  aii'l  ixit«!:f  I  tual  r«  %M!titii.n  in  I'lt.Mpt,  tht- Ia*t  t<f  n  ^t.i;;,  P^.Iiniy  \II..  rfi):nrd  jukctly 

mhirhfiir  a  i^M-'i-atiil  }« .I'^af^i  r  !:.t  i  iini{T:r«t  rr-  Kii'.h  Uin  ni-ti-r  ni.d  wilo.  the  faniou«  i'lu'pttnw 

inaini-il  • -«i  r.ti.t!I%  atiri  <  ki  ■•ii  tri      :livlir(«k^  (l^rji  pt  w  .i*  ndm  i  d  tu  tlie  mndilifn  iT  a  I»i<ruaa 

licirj:   !!.r  i*.>r:..na2!t    :f  !...•  !^.    nn.-?    i.  :nii  r-  pr'.\.nroly  Anir;!>!!H  I'a-^ar.  :io   \\.  i\     !*.  re- 

i*n«  r:*4'f      A{\at  i:<t' di-.k:!i  ff  A!«'ia*>ihr.  SJ  1  nt.ii:'<d  »ul--ri  t  tu  tin*  tiiii>4  rur*  «fKiHiu'fi-*nMi-e 

n.    (* ,   a:  •!    '.I.r  4l:%:*hri  ff  h  4  t  Ti.j  iri-  anifii^  thati  li  n  tiVirn*.  m  ith  ll>i- '•Ix  rt  aiid  doiiStf  tl  rl* 

ill*'  y.v  f' >!;;  n  rjp!.iin«.    (l.'\|t   Uiarni-  »:J»-  r**;  t:>'ii  if  a  {t-r-ipl  w  hi  n  i!  ma%  lia\r  l-^^  n  ImM 

jcrt  ti'  I*:<>!i:!.t,  turiuu:ii>l  S^tir,  aii  alio  aLd  ly    ZtUulia,  tho   t^uv^u   uf  Taliu^ra.     Il  w:^* 


S 


EGYPT  41 

looked  upon  ai  the  most  valuable  of  the  prov-  the  Egyptians  from  the  govornmcnt  at  Constan- 

inoes  of  the  empire,  as  the  granary  of  Rome,  tinople,  so  that  tboy  mi^e  no  opposition  when 

vpoo  whoae  harvests  the  idle  and  tnrbnlent  mil-  in  the  reign  of  Heraclius,  in  61 6,  the  country  was 

Coos  of  the  imperial  metropolis  depended  for  overrun  by  the  forces  of  the  Persian  king  Chos- 

their  daily  breaa.    Its  history  during  this  long  roes,  who  held  it  10  years,  until  the  outbreak  of 

ptnod  is  a  record  only  of  fruitless  rebellions  Mohammedanism  so  harassed  the  Persians  that 

and  of  aavage  peraecutiona  of  the  Christians,  Heraclius  was  enabled  to  recover  the  province, 

vboae  religion  was  eariy  introduced  and  made  only  however  to  lose  it  for  ever  a  few  years  later 

npid  progresa.    After  the  transfer  of  the  seat  in  640,  when  it  was  conquered  by  the  Arabs,  led 

of  the  empire  to  Constantinople,  A.  D.  830,  by  Amrou  the  general  of  the  caliph  Omar.  For 

the  Christiana  of  Egypt  triumphed  over  the  more  than  2  centuries  after  the  Mohammedan 

pagam^  and  lor  another  period  of  8  centuries  conquest  Egypt  remained  a  province  of  the  ca- 

iti  hisborj  preaenta  little  but  theological  con-  liphate,  the  seat  of  which  was  transferred  from 

tan,  which  not  unfrequently  broke  out  into  Medina  to  Damascus,  and  from  Damascus  to  Bag- 

dTfl  strife.    The  first  of  these  contests  was  the  dad.    In  868  Ahmed  the  vicerov  threw  off  his 

Ariaa  coatroversy — Ariu8,who  was  pronounced  allegiance  to  the  caliph  and  established  an  inde- 

a  bereCic  by  the  oomicil  of  Nice  (325)^  being  a  pendent  kingdom,  which  lasted  87  years,  when 

presbyter  of  the  church  of  Alexandria,  while  the   caliphs  again    reduced   it  to    subjection. 

Athana«in%  hia  orthodox  opponent,  was'  arch-  After  a  long  period  of  anarchy,  Moez,  the  4th 

bishop.    By  the  emperor  Constantius'  II.  Atha-  of  the  Fatimite  caliphs,  who  reigned  in  northern 

iiawu  waa  removed  firom  his  see  and  an  Arian  Africa,  and  were  rivals  of  the  caliplis  of  Bagdad, 

ippointed  in  hia  place,   while  the   orthodox  conquered  Egypt,  in  970,  and  building  the  city 

Qttistians  were  grievously  persecuted.    When  of  Cairo,  miule  it  the  seat  of  his  government. 

Jalian  the  Apostate  became  emperor,  the  pagan  The  Fatimite  dynasty  ruled  Egypt  fur  2  cen- 

Biob  of  Alexandria  rose  against  the  Christians  taries.    Tlie  most  distinguished  of  them  was 

tad  murdered  the  Arian  archbishop,  and  Atha-  Hakem  (died  1021),  the  prophet  and  Messiah  of 

Bimu   finally   regained    the    arcniepiscopate.  the  Druses,  who  still  look  for  his  return  to  eartk 

Alter  his  death  the  emperor  Yalens  appomted  Adhed,  the  last  of  the  Fatimites,  died  in  1171, 

in  Arian  to  succeed  him,  and  the  persecutions  and  was  succeeded  by  his  vizier  or  prime  min- 

of  the  orthodox  were  renewed.    Theodosius  I.,  ister,  the  renowned  Saladin,  the  chivalrous  and 

in  379,  isBoed  stringent  edicts  against  paganism,  successful  adversary  of  the  crusaders.    He  took 

▼Lich  still  held  ^ita  ground,  especially  in  Alex-  the  title  of  sultan  of  Egypt,  and  at  his  death  in 

indria.  where  it  numbered  among  its  adherents  1193  was  sovereign  of  a  vast  empire  which  hia 

most  <^  the  learned  and  scientific  classes  and  sons  divided  among  themselves,  Egypt  falling  to 

the  students  in  the  schools  of  philosophy.     In  the  share  of  Aziz.     Successive  invasions  by  the 

compliance  with  the  orders  of  the  era[)eror,  the  crusaders  harassed  Egypt  for  the  following  cen- 

pigaia  temples  were  broken  into  by  the  Chris-  tury,  but  tliey  were  all  repelled  by  the  descend- 

tiins  and  the  statues  of  the  deities  destroyed  ants  of  Saladin,  with  signal  loss  to  the  Chris- 

or  overthrown.    The  great  temple  of  SerapU,  tians.    The  last  and  most  disastrous  of  these 

which  had  been  for  ages  the  most  sacred  and  attacks  was  made  by  Louis  IX.  of  France  in 

eelebrated  of  pagan  fanes,  was  plundered  and  1248,  who  landed  with  a  largo  army  and  the 

desecrated,  and  its  library  of  700,000  volames  fiower  of  the  French  chivalry  at  Dimiietta,  but 

de^oiled  by  the  mob.    The  pagans  resented  after  some  successes  was  defeated  and  compelled 

these  oatrages,  and  took  arms  in  defence  of  to  capitulate  with  the  loss  of  30,000  men.    A 

(heir  religion ;  but  after  several  battles  had  been  remarkable  revolution  next  took  place  in  Egypt. 

iDOgfat  in  the  streets,  the  Christians  were  vie-  Saladin  and  his  successors  had  organizi-d  a  nu- 

torioQs.  and  the  pagan  leaders  were  driven  from  meroas  body  of  guards,  called  Mamelukes,  com- 

the  eitir.    In  the  reign  of  Theodosius  II.,  the  posed  exclusively  of  slaves  of  Turkish  origin, 

edehrated  Cyril,  archbishop  of  Alexandria,  in  brought  from  tlio  countries  around  the  Caspian 

41<4  raised  a  persecution  of  the  Jews,  who  were  sea.    They  gradually  acquired  such  power  and 

BBmeroos  and  wealthy,  and  himself  headed  a  influence  that  at  length  tliey  deposed  their  law- 

■nb  which  attacked  and  plundered  the  syna-  ful  sovereign  an  dm  ode  one  of  their  own  number 

mgnea,  and  in  one  day  expelled  every  Jew  from  sultan.    For  120  years  these  mercenaries  con- 

tfae  dty.    The  pagans  were  next  assailed,  and  trolled  the  destinies  of  Egypt,  making  and  un- 

OHof  their  most  popubr  teachers  of  philosophy,  making  sultans  at  their  pleasure.    At  length,  at 

fhabeaotifnl  and  learned  and  eloquent  Hypatia,  the  close  of  the  14th  century,  the  Circassians, 

dai^ter  of  Theon  tlie   mathematician,  was  from  whom  the  ranks  of  the  Mamelukes  had 

fagged  from  her  chariot  as  she  passed  through  long  been  largely  recruited,  overthrew  the  pow- 

Iha  fftreet,  carried  into  a  church,  and  brutally  er  of  the  Turkish  Mamelukes  and  took  the  gov- 

■trdered.     At  a  later  period,  the  theological  emment  into  their  own  hands.  Another  century 

eoBtroversies  of  Egypt  culminated  in  the  com-  of  anarchy  succeeded,  and  in  1517  Egypt  was 

plate   separation  of  the    Coptic  or  Egyptian  conquered  by  the  Ottoman  sultan  Selim  I.  and 

^BTch  from  the  orthodox,  whose  bishops  held  reduced  to  a  Turkish  province.     Some  of  tho 

aeoancil  at  Chalcedon  in  451,  and  denounced  Mameluke  sultans  were  men  of  talent  and  ener- 

tbe  Egyptian  doctrines  as  heretical.    Tlie  bitter  gy,  and  under  their  rule  Ejrypt  waa  at  tuuea  iho 

generated  by  these  contests  alienated  centre  of  aa  extensive  though  fiuctuat\ug  ^m- 


42  EGYKT 

|«iri*.    The  arts  wore  ruiti rated  villi  some  sur-  arrnv.  and  avert  the  orerthrow  of  th«  Otto> 

cv94.  u  i«  sliown  }  y  tin*  iiiom|ii(-4  und  t4>iiibfl  cf  tiiun  oiniiire.     In  1^48  Melicniet  AIL  at  theaf* 

thtTM.'  AultAii.'*  ht  Ciiini,  Mliiih  jn-tly  rank  nnioiiK  of  bO,  grew  imbecile,  and  his  pod  Ibrmbim  waa 

till-  iiMi^t  iiia^Mtifiiviit  Mill  vlf^aiit  ^Ii«ciI^¥ll»  of  invcftte<i  with  the  ]ia»hiUic.    Ibrahim  du-d  aft 

Saracviiii'  :in  iiitcciurc.    I'lidi  r  thvir  bwav  Cairo  the  end  of  S  nionthis  and  wa«  MK-ceeded  by  hb 

Ut'aiiiv  wl.at  it  li.i«  iVvr  sni'o  remained,  the  Dtrphew  Abbu^s  ^n  ignorant  and  profligate  fo- 

cliiff  K'ut  III'  MohaniiiK^luii  Uamin^  and  intel-  natic,  who  was  bigot«llT  oi>|i09ed  to  tlw  n-fuma 

Kitnul  4  ul;ivMiiiL.     Vor'2  cvntunv«  the  Turkish  introduced  br  his  grundVatlKT,  and,  immencd  in 

)i:i*liiii  rult^l  i'l^'.M-t,  uhuh  deiayv*!  undvr  thvir  Mutual  gratiticatiouis  |*aid  no  attt-nt^on  totba 

ruli*  liki*  Jill  thi-  lai.<U  Miljrrti-d  tn  it.     Hut  in  duties  of  hi*  fiOAt.    Meheinet  Ali  divd,  Aag.  S^ 

thv  l*«:h  ivfilury  i:,v  Mamvlwkcs  who  Mill  con-  1849.     AbboA  died  suddenly,  not  without  ao^ 

Mitut<.il  the  niiiitury  foTre  I'l  tU*  \*T\j\  ibio.  crad-  picion  of  violence,  in  July,  1>^.     He  wa>  aoe- 

ually  ri-^'.iitie>i  tl.i  ir  l'i>rni(r  fH>wer  to  such  an  ceedvd  by  the  present  rukr.  Said  ra^ia»the4th 

cstitit  that   in  17''S,  ui.iler  the   load  of  their  M>n  of  Meheniet  Ali,  a  nmn  of  enorpy  and  itt- 

ablest  Aiid  iiiii'>t  iiiiliieiiiittl  «-hii-f,  Ali  Key,  they  telligence,  who  thun  far  has  goveri.iHl  wiacly 

thri-w  «iir  ihi-  iurki<Ji  }iike  nijil  de^'lareil  Kg>pt  and  liufiianely,  and  has  carried  out  thv  enlighv 

ii.4li|H-iiihi>r.     A:  the  end  (it*  4  yi-ur%  however,  ened  plans  of  hin  father  with  notne  nnWlifieation 

All  lUy  u.ii  In  tnAt-d  and  |H»i<4tned.  and  the  of  itrtain  «il  Meet  ion  able  featnre^  by  which  tliey 

authority  nf  the  ^il]!.1a  vas  nnniinallv  rei^tab-  were  defwid.     Under  his  au^picv^t  E^pt  a^ 

h-he-l  in  177J.     i  fMu-ion  ui:d  civil  war  bo>  |>euri  to  be  pratluully  advancing  toward  that 

twon  t!.e  d.iiiTint  fui'.i><n4  (it  tho  Maxneluken  }Hj»ition  amuni;  the  natioM  to  which  tlie  ia 

c«fii:iiiu«d  tij  |<re^::.l  ijM:1  in  IT'JH  tho  inva.Mou  entitled  by    her   inexhaustihlo  n.'iiourcca   and 

ofK;;>pt  by  N:i|'«>:i-«  n  lMiM:i|i&rttf  united  their  unnvulled  geographical  I*o^ition. — Fur  fuitbar 

«hiei<i  ill   h*  ir  di  ii  i.>  e.    Their   fainouft  cavalr}'  infurtuation    on    Kg}|'t  g^'nemlly,   K-e  Caih\ 

inaile  a  g:ill  Jit   n^.-Mnie  to  the    French,  but  CoI*T^  NiiC.     Tho  Muljects  of  IllUooLTI-UlOa 

w;i«  fiiri-til  til  gill*  Huy  U-fure  the  M-ience  and  and  tho  riKAMioa  will  be  trvateU  i.nder  tbow 

tA4*:ii<»Mi  Ki)ri>|if.     In  the  bat  tie  of  the  Ty  ram  ids  titles    re«|K-(  lively,    and    artirle*    u|>«in     tlM 

the    Manuliilhi-  r.nny  ^nn   i.«-urly   annihilated,  chief  citie<(  and  {k THunoges  of  (^gi  plian  kiatury 

Tlie  Kri  III  !i  •••n'lUt  nd  tho  %%hnle  nf  K^'ypi,  and  will  lie  fuund  under  their  prt>iier  headx.    Tba 

h>M  It  tiil  InM.  «»litn  tl.ey  w«-ro  eiiielled  by  a  d L<ic<i verier  uf  nindem  trnvelhr»  in  Egyi-t  will 

i»rit<-h  antiv  i«ii*Ut  <iener:iU  AlH.Tcn»mbv  and  bo  nutieed  under  the  nauicii  of  the  tra%«DeriL 

JJi.Ti  liin^'ii.    Atter  thf  ih)Kirturc  i»f  the  French  The  following  is  a  li?*t  of  home  of  the  uikM  im* 

civ.l  uar  briike  ut.t  at'n<*h  U-twii-n  the  Turks  iiortant  works  on  Egypt  and  Egy[>lian  Mjbiects: 

atid  t!.o  Mir\i\:ii^  Manielukes  w  liich  re»uItiHl,  iiun«>en,  AfjypttM  SttUt  in  titr  HV/'yrsrAirilt 

in  l^'-.'t.  in  the  ilii.itii-n  tn  the  jxi-it  of  pa>haof  (5  vols.  8vii.,  Hamburg  and  (iotlia,  lM&-*37; 

Me!M  irft  A!i.  nn  Al'ar.iun  aiUentiirerwho  had  Engliali  trannlutiun,  by  Charles  11.  I'l'ttrvD^  S 

U-ti'Mir  !.:r!4r  Kfi-iiecf  il.iMiintcndingfactionA.  vols.  bv<i.,  Ivohdun,  Is4')-*&H  ^f  s^y  )  ;  I>&p»4ii% 

]Ii«  a>.!!.i'riM.  huwi-vi-r,  w:iS  ni>t  tinuly  e»ta1>  J^nlmaUr  tiu$  Ar*jtfptrn  und  Arthnj'tf n  tL^ip^ 

1i*!m«1  i.M.l  altera  1 1 'I  I ,;  Mr  U;:;;lo  wiih  the  Mume-  tic,  IMi^'uH  r'  •«''/.>,  J!rif/f  iii/«  Jr^'y/'^rOi.  Jk. 

lull  *,  ''Y.'O  >-i'hI'"-i>  I'C  iH-rtiili'iu-ly  niasKocred  (iCerlin,  lK*i2;    Kngh«h    tran^latifii,    I.*  nJoa, 

in  1*11.   'P.<:  i^i^pitttnl  Mirnvi.rs  tlml  to  Nubia,  l^ao)  ;    linigM'h,    litifhtrichte  iiu§   Afjy^m 

anil  »:i.*v  the  n.a— i<  :<•  the  internal  troiiouillity  (lA-iii^ic,  lbo5);  I'lileinann,  Ilamilveh  dtr  ^ 

of  l^VI't  h:L«  r."t  Infii  Kfiou-ly  di-turlivJ.    Me-  mmmUn  Ae'yif/diarh^n  Atffrthunuluude  i^  r^h, 

hiiiit!  .\ii  ii.fr>i4ii]r««l  prat  ri  fornix  in  Ei'ypt,  in  H\u.,  l.ei|»«ie,  l*«o7'*^);  In  nun,  Vtyai/*  Jfiaj  ia 

the  »}•*.«. ni  of  hili!i;i.^«!rat ion,  ai.d  in  the  uriran-  UiMMf  tt  Ui  hauff  K'jyvtf  (2    vol*,  tu!.,  l*ari^ 

i/j!.«n  if  th«-  arni>  uz.d  na^y.    With  tlie  aid  i>f  \*^^^'X\,  Jh»erii»*ion  dr  VK'jypte  f*2r>  %«.!«.  Hva, 

Euroj-^un  an*!  .\ni.  rii.iri  ailvcnturen  ho  anned  and  12  voU.  !••!.  uf  plates  m-w  ed.  Pari-.  1^*20- 

a::  1  •..««  i;>hued  in  the  Kuri'iK-aii  manner  a  large  '•'■•Oi  Cliaiiifiollion,  L'hjyvU  9oua  U»  I'h^r^wmM 

f.ali**    f-rrr,  ami    irtaled    a   ri  •j-eetaMe  tltit.  (2  VnN.  h\o.,  Taris   1^14),  I^ttrrt,  Are.  l***"!!^ 

Mair..f.ir:iirrt  iif  a^li^   i!«>th«.  and    other  ini-  i\  r  «,  l*«3::),JI/»fit,Mifnf«c//rX2fy^f/rff// At  A'viAsf 

J4<r:aiit  art.- Ie«  vitr«*  iiitrudun-d  and  »etliiii*u*!v  (iMliu,  I\ir.-,  IM*!):   Marietta,  CK»i^  de  noaa* 

•  •*tiri-<!:   ilif   I  ••iri:iii  fie  of  A!t  iaiiilria,  wliirh  mtnfatt  dedta»iuadieoHT4rt$vurjfeu*ia  i^ndaaJi 

had  i'Mi:iil!.tI  a!:i.  »*!  ti»  nuth-iv*,  uos  reviveil.  U  dihhiittuft.t  dn   Sertifitupi  de  if'fri/'Ai«  (4tO,, 


and   the  jxijiilat.'-n  of  the  (I'.y  via«  increaMrd  ]'ari\    1^'*'*).  Mfmoins^  &r.  (Invito:   Mei 

tcnf'ii'l  ilur::.»;  \.i%  reipfn.       Iv.^pt.   lirmly  aitd  ///,«;y;»V   rout*v jn*r*iihe  t>«*o.,   Tari*,    1^5^); 

liii«Ii-r  *l«  !>  ^'it^i  rii<  i\  i  ;;>iyfd  a  "tate  of  |H.-ace  iStiM-llini.  Sf^*hururufi  dfW K*J^fto  «  dfUt*  Swhi^ 

ai.d  ,:  «-l  i-rdif  ti  Mi.h  !i  i*.  l.ail  Ui-n  a  »lr.nnL'«-r  A'c.  i^\o.,  fdiu  plate*.  Ti-a,  l^*');  E.  W.  I^d^i 

fTi*:.'  >r.i*,  .It  •!  a  taiiii  •!  a  Min  iiiandiiig  jNMi.  "Vtannm*  ai.d  i'uMoni*  of  thi  MmUrn  Egyp- 

l.'i?i    a*'-«Jig    the    »  .rroMitliftf    i.atu>n«.     The  tian*"  i*J  vti!*.  *i\n.,  Sd  i-*!,  I  oi.dnr.,  l'«42):  S 

I  ikOia  ..:ii.i«l  !i!  « ••!n;  !t  t<-  i!j>i<-;i«-n  !enr«>,  and  »u  ml  Hiari<«-,  **  lli^tury  |.f  Egypt  fioi*.  tl.e  Earli 


gri.»ti«.ri«   It*  rt*-»ur««  thut  in   1**j1-'3.*-'33     linte*  to  th«»  (\«nipK-«t  bv  the  Arr.r* "■('«* Ok, 
hoiiB»''^l  a  !.;/!  \\  •i:«e«'Nifil  wnriii'.h  the  Turk-     L  ndi-n,  l**!'"'):  .*»ir  J.  fJ.  (VilLii.^-n.  *  M 


ith  •.:.:aj..  it-t.-rutrM!  >\t\x  and  a  k.'rtat  p.irt  of  and  ru*t<ini«>of  the  An*  let t  Eg,«ptiai  •"  (A  voliL 

A*  a  Mil.,  r,  a:  •!  «i-:!il  har.-  niade  J..f!H*!f  nia»-  h\«>.I.i  nih<(i.  lM7i.  "  Ilni.d^-o^'k  tt-r  TrAelkra 

tir  tt  l- i.^t.ii.i.f.fj  !•   had    I'*,    the    K.:r4>|Han  in  Ej^pt"  | !  i<i.ihiii.  I'>l7t.  ".V  l*««pi:Iar  Ao'<4iiit 

^Hjmin  jjiUr!irid  to  arroi  tiic  progress  of  his  uf  the  Ancitbt  Egyptiaiu"(2  vols.  12u.o.,  Lufr 


EHNIN6EB  EHRENBERG  43 

doxL  1954),  Xotes  tnd  Appenclices  to  Rawlin-  and  pnblbbed  a  narrative  of  Lis  travels  and  ob- 

foa's'*IIefodotas'-(London,1858-'9);JobnKen-  servations  (Berlin,  1828\      The  new  species 

rick,  "Ancient  E^nrpt  under  the  Pharaohs"  (2  which  he  had  discoverea  were  described  in  a 

Tols^  London  and  JSew  York,  1852).    See  also  series  of  8ymboh»  PhyBiea  Mammalium^  Avium, 

the  travels  of  Savary,  Sonnini,  Belzoni,  J.  A.  St.  Inseet^^rumj  et  Animalium  Etertehratorum^  puV 

John,  Haniet  Martineaa,  Mrs.  Poole,  J.  Ij.  Ste-  lished   between  1828    and    1834.    Other  sci- 

pbena,  the  late  Bishop  Wainwright,  Dr.  Robin-  entific  results  of  his  journey  were  contained  in 

BOD,  G.W.Gortis^  Bayard  Ta7lor,W.O.  Prime,  &c.  his  works  on  DU  KoraUenthiere  des  Eothen 

EHXINGER,  John  Whxtton,  an  American  Meeres  (Berlin,  1884),  and  Die  Akalephen  des 

artist,  bom  in  New  York,  July  22,  1827.    He  Eothen  Meeres,  &!.  (Berlin,  1836).    In  1829  ho 

was  gradnated  at  Columbia  college  in  1847,  and  accompanied  Alexander  von  Humboldt  in  his 

ihortly  after  went  to  Europe  to  pursue  his  art  expedition  to  the  Ural  mountAins,  which  was 

BtadiesL    In  1848-'9  he  was  a  pupil  of  Couture  prolonged  to  the  Altai ;  and  during  this  journey 

in  Paris,  and  between  1851  and  1853  he  made  ne  began  to  apply  himself  to  microscopic  invcs- 

loBff  risita  to  DOsseldorf  and  the  chief  capitals  tigations,  by  w^hioh  ho  has  since  made  highly 

ofUie  continent.    His  first  oil  painting,  "  Peter  important  discoveries,  and  may  be  said  to  havo 

StOTvesant'^  (1850),  the  subject  of  which  was  created  a  scientific  knowledge  of  the  infusoria, 

td^ea  from  *^  Knickerbocker's  History  of  New  Among  the  larger  works  which  embody  the  re- 

Tork,^*   was  engraved  by  the  American  art  suits  of  his  researches  with  the  microscope  are 

Bnion.    Among  his  best  w^orks  executed  since  the  Organisation^  Systematik,  und  geographi- 

tfait  time  are  **  Love  me,  love  my  Horse,*'  *^  The  9che$  Verhaltniss  der  Infunansthierehen  (Berlin, 

Bvord,"^  the  *' Foray,'' the  landscape  of  which  1830;  additions  were  made  in  1832, '34,  and 

u  hj  Mignot,  **Lady  Jane  Grey,"  and  An  Ce--  '80),  and  the  more  complete  Infusiomthierchen 

Im  Artemi^  the  latter  now  owned  in  Washing-  aU  vollkommene  Organismen  (Lei|)sic,  1838\,  il- 

ton.    He  has  2^90  produced    some  excellent  lustrated  with  64  fine  copperplates,  which,  from 

etchings  and  drawings  in  outline,  pencil,  and  the  elegant  style  in  which  it  was  issued,  as 

India  ink.     Of  the  former,  a  series  illustrating  well  as  from  its  scientific  contents,  is  reckoned 

Hood's  '^Bridge  of  Sighs"  was  published  in  among  the  ornaments  of  German  literature. 

1849,  and  in  l&O  another  on  subjects  from  Ir-  Prior  to  Ehrenberg  the  infusoria  were  consid- 

TiQz's  story  of  ^*  Dolph  Hcyliger.''    Of  his  pen-  ered  as  scarcely  organized,  but  he  ascertained 

eil  orawings  the  composition  entitled  "  Christ  that  they  have  an  internal  structure  resembling 

Itealing*  the  Sick,"  executed  in  1857,  and  now  in  that  of  the  higher  animals,  and  discovered  in 

tlie  poa««os!^ion  of  the  Kev.  Dr.  Anthon  of  New  them  muscles,  intestines,  teeth,  different  kinds 

York,  is  among  his  latest  and  best  works.    In  of  glands,  eyes,  and  nerves.    The  astonisliing 

1sj8,  soon  after  the  appearance  of  Longfellow's  minuteness  of  his  observations  api>car3  from  his 

'^  Miles  Standish,"  he  prei)arcd  a  set  of  8  illus-  estimate  that  the  size  of  tlio  smallest  colored 

trations  of  the  poem,  wliich  were  copied  by  the  spots  on  the  body  of  monas  tei^mo  (the  diameter 

pbixo^rraphic  process,  and  obtained  a  consid-  of  which  is  only^gVv  of  a  line)  is  -^^1^^  of  a 

enble  popularity.    Mr.  Ehninger  has  of  late  de-  line.    So  great  are  the  powers  of  reproduction 

voted  mucli  time  to  perfecting  a  system  of  pho-  in  these  animalcules,  tliat  from  one  individual 

tofEraphic  etching.  {hydatina  senta)  ho  observed  that  1,000,000  wcro 

EHREN  BERG,    Christian    Gottfried,    a  produced  in  1 0  days ;  on  the  1 1  th  day,  4,000,000 ; 

Gennan  naturalist  and  microscopist,  born  at  De-  and  on  the  12th  day,  16,000,000.    In  pursuing 

fitadi,  April  19,  1795.    Ue  was  educated  at  his  studies  he  made,  partly  by  accident,  the  dis- 

Sefaolpfurte,  till  in  1815  hewenttotheuniversi-  covery  of  fossil  infusoria,  which  form  an  im- 

ty  of  Leil^sic,  where  after  a  short  study  of  theol-  portant  element  in  many  of  tlie  strata  of  the 

ogy  lie  devoted  himself  to  medicine.    lie  con-  earth's  surface ;  and  he  showed  the  similarity 

tinned  his  studies  at  Berlin,  where  he  received  of  their  phenomena  in  3  dificrent  parts  of  tho 

the  degree  of  M.D.  in  1818,  publishing  on  tlie  world  in  his  Bildung  des  Europdischen,  Lihy- 

Mcasioo  a  dissertation  entitled  Syha  Myeologica  acheUy  und  Uralischen  KreidefeUens  und  Kreidc- 

Beniiiunscs,  in  which  he  gave  an  account  of  mergels  aits  mikroskopischen  Organi$men  (Ber- 

fl8  ^Kcies  of  cryptogamous  plants  found  by  lin  and  Leipsic,  1839).    That  black  earth  consists 

UBanMind  Berlin,  62  of  which  had  till  then  of  infusoria  he  had  before  stated  in  a  special 

keaa  unknown.    In  1820  he  was  enabled  to  treatise.    Ue  made  the  same  discovery  in  1841 

pitify  a  long  cherished  wish  to  travel  for  the  concerning  the   peat  soil   which   underlies  a 

pBipose  of  scientific  exploration,  being  appointed  large  portion  of  Berlin.    In  his  treatise  on  Das 

vita  Lis  friend  Hemprich  by  the  Berlin  academy  Leuehten  des  Metres,  which  is  a  model  of  acuto 

if  adences  to  make  a  scientific  journey  in  investigation,  he  attributes  the  appearance  of 

^gypt,  wliither  Gen.  Minutoli  was  then  going  shining  bodies  in  tho  sea  to  the  agency  of  mic- 

1m  antiqiiarian  researches.    During  6  years  he  roscopic  sea  animals.    A  similar  application  of 

aplored  the  natural  history  of  Egypt,  Nubia,  his  discoveries  he  made  in  his  Passat-^  Staub-y 

M  Arabia,   narrowly  escaping    from    fevers  tind  Blutregen  (Berlin,  1849),  proving  the  ex- 

wU€h  caused  the  death  of  his  companion,  and  istcnce  and  operation  of  animalcules  in  the  at- 

Monied  to  Berlin  in  1826.    He  was  at  once  ap-  mosphere.    The  most  important  of  his  other 

lofnted    extraordinary  professor  (ordinary  in  works  are  the    Verbreitung  und  Einfluss  des 

jM)  of  medicine  in  the  university  of  Berlin,  milro^lopUchen  Lehens  in  Sud-  und  ^ord-Ame* 


41  EIIRENDKEITSTEIN  EIDER  DUCK 

ru.i  int-Hin.  1M2k  tlii*  Mtlrot^rol^if  iUii^ic,  25, 1827.    ITarinffiitndiodtheologjAlGOItiiifRQ, 

1*C>4.  fimtifiuiii  ill  isVi  rt  «/y  ).  ntii]  niitit^riMifl  in  1775  he  wan  elert^Ml  pmfeMnr  of  the  oricoial 

]i:ilifr«  ill  (Ik*  "  Trmi^ftinfi*."  4.f  tin*  lU'rltn  nroil-  Iad^uaitp^  in  the  uniTernty  of  Jena,  and  in  ITM 

em  V  I '(  M'ioiii  v<«.     M  luiy  of  the  i»|ierilifai  ion*  of  wan  calM  to  the  Raiiic  office  in  the  untTerwtj  of 

KliK-iiU-rK  liavi*  Ui*n  '«|iU'«4ii»nitJ  hr  ot!ier  m-  (f«>ttiii»ren.  where  he  tauglil  with  brilliant  aoe* 

vttiitN  hut  liv  hu<  (vrtaifily  tliv  im-rit  of  having  ccft«  till  near  his  death,     lie  firat  prored  thm 

hi*iloi 


fip4  firovitl  tilt*  i-ii«>tiii«*o  of  A  linro  chisa  of  extent  of  his  learning  In  oriental  hi^norr 

nii«'r«><«*npio  |iUnT4  mud  aniiiiiiK  and  o(  having  literature  hx  treati^*A  n|Km  the  commerc*  of 

o|N-ni-4l  n  fivw  pfuh  in  whii^he  him  Duw  uu-  the  Kant  InJie;*  prior  to  tlie  time  of  Mohammtd, 

nifPiiiH  fiilli>«tr«.  and  uiN>n  the  ancient  hintorj  of  the  Araba^     At 

KIII:KNIU:KITSTKIS.  a  tnwn  ..f  PJicni^h  (i'lttinpen  liedev(.te<lhini<ieIf«^wcial!Ttobib> 

I*rii—i:i,  i*ti  tlif  ri;r(iT  l>:kiik  tif  thi*  K)iiiH\  nm-  littil  rritiriiim,  nnd  published  the  rpwiitji  of  Ut 

nt-i-tril  !•%    A  Ui:it   l<ri«li!i>  with  i'l^Mrntz,  and  studies  In  hiii  lifpertorium  fur  hihiiatke  mmd 

raiU-il  ili.tl  K!)ri-n)ir«MtM«-in,  fp^in  it  a  Mtii:itii>ii  m*»rtfrnh\Mliwehf   LiUratur  (18  toU.,   Ijripair, 

at  tiif  t'iNit  III  »  rtN-ky  hctirht  which  rtn-n  772  17 77 -'bit),  and  hi^i  Afhjfmeine  BihlUthek  4tt 

flit  al*t»%r  ihr  ri\iT.  |Nip.  alMiut  4.iHHi.  iiii>Iudin|(  biblisehrn  Lit* rat nr  { 10  voln.,  17B7-1901).     Ht 

thr  (Tarri^xHi.     ( i!i  t!ii«  livi^M  htuitiN  the  cfle-  wai  especially  influential  In  fonnding  the  teCei^ 

I»r:itfd  ttirtrio*  iii'  Kliri-nlircttMi-in.  whii-h  wu^  i»retatinnofthoSTipture4onaknowled|!<eofbib* 

pnil>.tl>h   iKiihiU^I  by  tlio   lb«nian<«  unibT  the  iical  ant i«)uity  and  of  oriental  modes  of  tiMmgbt 

fniii«T«ir  Julian,  wa-  rebuilt  in  the  TJth  «vnturT  by  hU  introdnrtionn  to  the  Old  and  New  Tertftp 

b>  Jlt-nnnnii,  nn-libi-liiifMif  Trivc«.  nnd  U'cume  mentA,  and  his  wurks  on  the  Hebrew  praplMCi 

of  irrmt  -trutc/^tii.d  itii|Nirtani-i*  tlurini;  tin*  HH  and  on  the  AfKx*n]yiNeof  St.  John,  besMlcmny 

yf.-tr»*  war.     TIm- Kr«-n«  li  unilt-r  Mnr^bul  Itnuf-  Taluable  pA[K'ni  in  iH^riodical  work*.     Near  IM 

ritTN  uidfl  by  Vaiiban.  in  \uin  U*»iivol  it  in  cIi»m*  of  the  l:i»t  century  ho  eonccived  the  plM 

li>*^.     Tliiv  no^diK-il  it  airain  ut  tli«*  t-nd  i>f  the  of  a  full  hi^torruf  all  the  branches  of  in  teUerlari 

f<!li*viiiii:  if!itury.  but  (raim-d  |iii«^-««iiin  of  it  culture  in  Eurojie  «inre  the  revivAl  <if  leCtcfiL 

(Jun.  *J'*.  IT'.'-O  oiily  nt^i-r  u  Mtve  <>f  14  llll•nth^  Totbi^  end  he  A.<w¥*iated  hiniNclf  with  teiefll 

and  ntt«-r  ritbii-iiii;  the  ptrri<«>n  to  KtArvutiim.  leAme«i  writer^  and  r<ifn|M»NMl  the  ''llitCoryof 

In  l*«iil  ihii  bit  u  up  itM  di'l'tnrt«,  but  the  n-  IJteraturt*  I'runi  it<4  (n-ipn  to  the  nMwt  KcMBi 

otiiMrurtiou  iif  tho  ftirtrfo*  ha<*  Wvw  aL'i*«»m-  TinitV  (l(  voU.,  (mttinp'n.  IKi^'lS),  ao  an  !■• 

pli-Iittl  !•%  l*ru<*oit  Hhtv  I**!.*!.     Tlit*  cti«t  of  the  troduction  to  the  whole  ciilleotinn.    Among  Ui 

«ii«rL4  «>u  1mi*1i  ojilf^  I  if  tlit*  Kliiuf  it  e«rimatfd  other  wrtcinir^  inton^Minit  U>th  from  their  erv* 

At  hH>r<-  than  |:(.5«mi.imni.    Jhcv  «  ill  Imlire  1(ni,.  dition  And  M>le,  are  hin  rr^fffthi^hfeiWM^^WS^ 

OiMi  niiMi.   ^tt   a  carri^cin  nf  fi.tuNi  i^  difnit-d  in  which  hccritirAllv  fXaniiniil  thoMin^aie  re^ 

Mitririd.T  i*idffi  nil  tln-ni.    Thf  inA/a/ini-« arc  t\i-  ord<t  of  the  creation  A^d  fAlt,  And  wurk^  on  th« 

pabS-ff  i-i'!itaitrnit»  pni\i»iiin«  fur  h.inni  nu-n  fur  Fn-nch  rvvfilutb»n  (I7l»7>,  on  ancifnt  hi*t<inf  If 

111  wur-.     Il!trti)l>rrit»ttin  i^di-ffUibtl  by  aUmt  toN.,  Hll-'lMi,  and  on  the  hi^tury  of  the  ImI 

4'i*>  ph-i v«  «'f '  .iiiiii*n.     The  f«rar]Htl  pm  k«  AXid  3  cvnturif^  \\U\  fd..  ]><17-*1*^). 
»t«t  p  -I-hn  »  n'l  :i  -i.K  *  I'f  the  liirtn-*"*  •^t-ni  ini-        EirMSTXl>T,  n  IlAv.irian  town  in  the  rlrrln 

privi>n ■■!«'■     1  !'•'  pi.iif'irni  i-n  the  top  tif  the  of    Middlo   Franconia,  on    tbo   river  AltmttM, 

riM'k  •t-r\r«  a*  a  piiraib*  in^mnd.  anil  rti%-fr^  %u«t  aUuit  Tii'ini.  fnuu  Munirh ;  iNip.  6.8<mV    Theprin- 

arrliitl  I  cTi  rn«  i  ap.iK|f  nf  lifMiHi!  a  'A  \vi\rn  ci|»iUity  ttf  Kich^tadt.  nf  nhirh  it  wamheeapilnl, 

•up|«!\  i«f  u .it<  r.  H  111-  )i  i^nbtaiiiitl  fmrn  ^prink'4  wa«di«Hi|vi*«|  Ktb.  S*^.  1*sM.    Kich^idt  hail  M«« 

«iiiiiti)T  tin-  ».i:N.     Tbi*  wiirk*  wtTo  tXt-^-uti-il  a  bi^ihopric  until  l**«r!,  nhcn  it  becainea  prind- 

uiMbr  fill'  il:n-«:;<>n  iif  the   I'ru^^ian   ^viitTal  pAlity,  a  uTt^at  part  tif  which  wa4  on'«enled  la 

A*it  r.  ubti  ilktd  i!i  l^'lV  ]HI7  to  Kul'i'iic  ile  KeanhAmAi^  duke  of  l^or^ 

KhJIKNlM»l:KK.  JifCfn   Kaal  llivrnmr,  tenlienr.     A  n^w  bi-^Jnipric,  however,  was 

liATiiu,  A  (itTinau   AuthiT.   U^ni  noAT  katilnir,  li^btil  in  1^«*i1.  which  is  suflTrapin  to  the 

rplN*r  Sdi-iA.  March  10.  178H.  diiil  At  Nci^***,  bishopric  of  ItAnilicrK. 
Nov.   ■.*•■^  1*07.     He  ».!«  dt-^t-ntliM  fmm  ah        KIi>KI*.  a  n vit of  Dt^nm Ark.  ri«in:»  ne«r  Kki 

AiM-itnt  ('axlii'lir  VlorA%iAn  fAiui]\.  wa- a  rep-  in  the  duchy  nf  lb tlntr in.  And  tfowinff  into  iIm 

n^^'ittoiMe  iif  tijo  i^k-calbHi  ruuiAntif  «c1hmi|.  North  m*a  not  far  fn>intb«*  t«iiin  of  Innnin^ea. 

wnite  many  line  i««*ni«,  tnn*l.itt-«l  Ht^n  Juan  Itf  ptnfnU  ciMir«4*  i^  N..  and  fur  a  c«in«iiSt-rabl9 

Mamit-r*   i'>*T,*U   /u/*iji.L'r  (lk*rhn.    1*^10)    and  di«tan<*e  it  furm^  the   Ntuntlary   b«*twr«-n   iIm 

C*aMfn*«r«  rWvM>-i«    pU,^«  i2   \k*W,  Mutlpirt,  duchiv«  of  S*!,li*«wi(«   aikI    llidMric.     Its  tutnl 

l*^r»-'Vii  iii!«i  (iirm.in,  jiubii»h<tl  in  Ik'jI  /vr  lent^th  i«  aNmiI  lu%  ni.,  of  which  7nArv 

«lr^r«rA/'  /taMH.ifi  Jf  ]•«  J ikrk%in»ifrts  in  teinrm  bb*.     With  the  aid  of  a  canal  thit  rivrr  ft 

Vfrhtklhttmf  funt    4'SrisftmrA*im,   ami  In    1*^*6  a  mcan^  of  c<immuiiii*ation  U*twecu  the  Nortk 

(if9-AtrKU    ,ftr   f^^turkrn    LiUnttur    ItmtatK"  aud  Kaltir  H*a«. 

Liftmis.     Kii'ir  flitiiin*  tif  bi«|a«!r\  and  of  bis        KIPEK  PITK  (i'>«niT/critfi  fPM»//iflfiiiMi,  I.ian.\ 

Bi4r*t  |«*p-ilar  \.tt\*\  I  .\*t»  tif  91%  /y-Arii  /imm   T^iu-  otw  i>f  the  fuU^whutf  ur  m'a  (liirks  wrll  kmiwa 

^uhfkUt  ar'i«*ari«l  in  l(*-rliii  in  tbt*  i«int*  y«*Ar.  for  th«*  rfniarkablr  "^lOnr^s  ff  it«  iVoiin  ao«1  IIm 

Ill4'nil<  >ll\.  JxiMw  (■•■rrrricn.  a  (ti-nnm  U*auty  of  it*  pl1:ln.•l;^^  :ini|  ctimriHtn,  liki"  other 

c«r.«>ii(al  *i  iif!.ir  ainl  lii^turian.  Urn  iti  !^<riu-  ar«'!i«*  ^fi^N-uxs  ti»  Nitb  b«Mni*fih4«n'«.     Tlie  liill  ia 

r>Hi*ii«rn,    in    \\i^    prim  i^ixdiiy    cif    lb*ht  rili«lH--  rb'\alt^!  at  the  bitw,  ritnipn-^'H*<l  brhimi  llie  hn^ 

i*i*ri:.^*t,,  iji  I.  }  0,  J  7^2,  dii^  tu  lit/tlingi-n,  June  UiK  di%  idcd  in  fn»iit  by  an  acute  angle  of  fcnih* 


EIDER  DUCK  45 

ezs,  flattened  at  the  tip,  which  is  armed  with  a  an  instance  has  been  related  in  which  thequontltj 
ftroDgi  brood,  and  hooked  nail ;  the  lamells  are  obtained  the  first  time  from  a  single  nest  is  said 
Bodcrate  and  far  apart;  the  wings  are  moderate,  to  have  weighed  |  lb. ;  when  proper] j  cleaned, 
pointed,  the  1st  and  2d  qaills  longest ;  the  tail  it  is  worth  from  12s,  to  l-k.  per  lb.  for  the  Eng- 
ibort  and  wedge-shaped;  tarsi  more  than  half  as  lish  market  So  highly  is  it  prized  for  wanuth 
long  as  the  middle  toe ;  the  toes  long,  united  by  a  and  lightness,  that  in  Iceland  and  Norway  the 
M  web.  Tho  head  is  very  large,  the  neck  short,  districts  resorted  to  by  the  duck  are  regarded  as 
tiie  body  balky  and  much  depressed ;  the  feet  yaloable  property,  and  are  strictly  preserved. 
«•  short,  and  placed  far  behind.  The  plumage  The  Icelanders  t^)ce  pains  to  make  artificial  isl- 
ii  short,  dense,  soft,  and  blended.  The  bill  is  ands  by  cutting  off  projecting  points  from  the 
pale  grayish  yellow,  iris  brown,  feet  dingy  light  mainland,  such  spots  being  more  attractive  to 
green  with  unskT  webs ;  upper  part  of  head  the  birds  from  their  seclusion  tban  the  mainland 
Uoish  black,  with  the  central  part  white ;  occi-  itself.  Eiders  fly  rapidly,  steadily,  and  generally 
vttty  upper  part  of  hind  neck,  and  sides  of  neck  near  the  water,  rarely  more  than  a  mile  from  the 
flel&eate  pale  green ;  sides  of  head,  throat,  and  shore ;  they  are  very  expert  divers,  descending 
Beck  white;  lower  neck  and  upper  breast  several  fathoms,  and  remaining  lone  under  water; 
ocam-oolored  or  buff;  rest  of  lower  surface  tho  food  consists  of  Crustacea,  moUndc s,  and  the 
black,  as  are  the  tail  coverts  and  middle  of  the  roe  of  fishee ;  the  gizzard  is  largo  and  muscular ; 
ranp ;  rest  of  upper  parts  white,  the  scapulars  they  are  rarely  seen  inland,  unless  driven  in  by 
tingnd  with  yellow,  except  the  secondaries  which  storms.  They  are  shy,  and  difiicult  to  kill ;  the 
■e  brownii^  black,  and  the  primaries  grayish  fl^h  of  the  yonng  and  females  is  s2ud  to  be  well 
teowA;  the  length  is  !25  inches,  the  extent  of  flavored,  but  that  of  the  males  is  tough  and 
wags  42,  the  tail  4},  bill  2 J  inches;  the  weight  flshy,  and  rarely  eaten  except  by  hungry  fisher- 
ii  Son  4^  to  5i  lbs.,  greatest  in  winter.  The  men.  The  common  eider  has  been  reared  in 
fawle  di&ra  greatly  from  the  male,  having  the  captivity,  becoming  as  gentle  and  tame  as  the  do- 
■eaenl  plomage  brown  barred  with  black,  mestic  duck,  with  which  it  readily  associates ; 
Belter  on  the  head  and  neck ;  secondaries  ana  from  its  eminently  social  disposition,  it  would 
their  eoverta  with  white  tips ;  the  size  is  also  doubtless  be  a  valuable  acquisition  in  a  domcs- 
•omewbat  smaller;  the  jotmg  in  the  first  winter  ticated  state,  for  its  feathers  and  down,  for  its 
resemble  the  female.  The  eider  is  rarely  seen  eggs,  and  even  for  its  flesh. — The  king  eider  (S, 
•oath  of  New  York ;  east  of  Boston  it  is  more  ipeetahilU,  Linn.)  is  a  handsomer  bird  than  tho 
and  more  abundant  as  the  latitude  increases,  preceding,  and  like  it  is  an  inhabitant  of  the 
Thousands  of  pairs  breed  and  pass  the  summer  higher  latitudes  of  both  continents.  Tho  bill  of 
in  U>rador,  where  they  are  called  sea  ducks,  the  male  is  yellowisl),  the  upper  mandible  having 
a  name  also  given  to  other  species ;  they  there  at  the  base  a  soft,  compressed,  orange-colored 
b«gin  to  make  their  nests  about  the  last  of  May,  substance,  extending  upon  tho  forehead ;  the  front 
iiud  the  grass  and  low  bushes,  and  in  sheltered  is  covered  with  short  black  feathers ;  the  general 
places  among  tho  rocks ;  many  nests  are  found  shape  is  like  that  of  the  common  eider,  and  tho 
Bear  together,  made  of  sea- weed,  moss,  and  twigs,  character  of  the  plumo^  tho  same.  The  iris  is 
each  euntoining  from  5  to  7  eggs,  about  8  inch-  bright  yellow,  feet  dull  orange  with  the  webs 
it  long,  of  a  pale  olive-green  color ;  the  eggs  dusky ;  the  head  is  bluish  gray,  darkest  behind ; 
neeonsidered  great  delicacies  by  the  fishermen,  the  sides  of  the  head  pale  bluish  green ;  a  block 
When  the  eggs  are  laid,  the  female  plucks  the  spot  below  the  eye,  and  2  lines  of  the  samo 
down  from  her  breast,  and  places  it  under  and  color  on  tho  throat ;  fore  neck  cream-colored ; 
■oond  them,  and  when  incubation  commences  the  sides  and  posterior  part,  with  a  patch  on  tho 
the  male  leaves  her  to  take  care  of  her  eggs  and  wings,  and  one  on  each  side  of  the  rump,  white ; 
benelf ;  when  she  quits  the  nest  in  search  of  lower  plumage  blackish  brown ;  posterior  part 
ind,  she  puUs  the  down  over  the  eggs  to  keep  of  back,  scapulars,  larger  wing  coverts,  and  scc- 
ftflB  warm ;  when  hatched,  she  leads  the  young  ondaries  brownish  black,  tlie  latter  with  a  green- 
to  the  water,  or  carries  them  thither  in  her  bill,  ish  gloss ;  primaries  and  tail  blackish  brown ; 
les  them  to  dive  for  food,  and  protects  them  the  size  is  about  that  of  the  other  species.  Tho 
their  worst  enemies,  the  black-backed  female  is  quite  different,  having  the  head  grayish 
;  by  the  1st  of  August  old  and  youns  are  yellow,  with  small  brownish  black  lines,  the 
log  southward.  In  many  places  the  birds  scapulars  with  brownish  red  margins,  the  gcn- 
Aot  allowed  quietly  to  hatch  their  eggs ;  the  era!  color  of  the  lower  parts  pale  yellowish 
ire  robbed  by  man  of  both  down  and  eggs,  brown,  and  the  quills  and  tail  deep  grayish 
the  female  seeks  another  male,  and  lays  a  brown ;  the  featliers  of  the  lower  neck,  breast 
L  time  with  the  usual  quantity  of  down ;  udes,  and  lower  tail  coverts  with  a  centre  and 
if  again  disturbed,  she  will  try  a  tliird  time,  margin  of  brownish  black.  The  king  eider  10 
tta  down  being  supplied  from  the  breast  of  not  often  seen  in  the  United  States,  breeding 
the  Biale.  The  unnecessary  destruction  of  the  further  north  than  the  common  eider ;  its  hab- 
lUi  by  the  eggers  of  Labrador  has  nearly  its  resemble  those  of  the  latter  species ;  its  liomo 
ill uj  rill  the  trade,  and  driven  them  fur-  is  the  sea,  the  land  being  visited  only  in  tho 
ttv  aiMth.  The  down  of  a  nest,  though  bulky  breeding  season ;  its  down  is  valuable ;  the  eggs 
anggh  to  fill  a  hat,  when  cleared  of  grass  and  are  about  2{  inches  long,  of  a  doll  grtt^mah. 
I«%a  rarely  weigha  more  than  an  ounces  thoi^h  color. 


4G                    ElUiOy  UILL3  EKATERINBURO 

ETI.PON'  ITT1.LS  ft  irroQp  of  hWU  in  the  m.  whirh  U  tho  r&*'tIo.  fonnerlj  the  retldeocit  of 

of  ]I<izliur^'!i.  S-oiIafitL  ri>n«i^tin|{  (<f  3  conical  tho  I>rincc4  of  Ki'M.^narh.     Ita  in«naCictnr«t  m 

]i«-«L«,  t!io  hi^ho^t  i>f  which  hma  an  clo^atinn  chiefly  woollen   and  cotton  fabrin^  aiiil  plM 

«>f  alMiut  I.n'iu  :V«*t.     Fnun   their  puininit^  a  head*  of  ■•  tap  stone.     In  its  environ t  on  a  lofty 

inaiTTiifiiviit  ui-wnf  t!i4*  rumantic  UinhTMvncrjr  hi-i^ht  14  the  ancient  caMlo  of  Wartharg;  ooea 

cif  >i-fitliinil  may  l»c  fditaiiivil.     There  i»  a  tra-  tlio  residence  of  the  landgraves  of  Thurin^iii 

ditiiiii  ainontr  tIic  {•(•.•Mint.'*  of  tho  nei;;hl»urinfc  celehrated  as  tho  place  where  the  Minnceinfm 

ctr.Mlry  t!i:it   t\i\^*e  hilU  wi-rc  ori finally  one  contended  fur  the  palm  of  p<MrtrT,  and  as  tiM 

riii>'jntAiri.  ^hiih  wa!i  divi4h-«l  intt>  3  wjiarate  aiivluin  where  Luther  cmn|ioik-d  hia  tranalalioB 

»!iiniint9  hv  a  dt-niou  under  tho  wizanl  Michael  of  tlie  Bible.     It  wa4  in  t!ie  ktnH:t.<«  of  Kiwnaeh 

K-titt.  that  Luther,  when  17  yean  of  age,  and  a  DOor 

KlMIiKc'K.  a  town  of  Hanovrr,  capital  of  Mii'lent,  sang  befiire  tho  houHvs  of  the  ricn  to 

the  prill!  ipality  4if  (irubenhagon.  21  m.  N.  N.  M*.  gain  U\*  bread.     Thecimfcrenci-^  of  tho  Ciemun 

fr>>in  <i"ttin,.vn.  on  tho  lhn«;  fto]*.  <i.5<ni.     It  Evangelical  church  have  been  held  in  Eiteoark 

haft  maniifAttoriefl  of  woollens  and  linens,  and  »ince  18!i2,  and  the  12th  CiHiforcnce  of  the  Z$Q^ 

several  tann>  ries  and  MeacherioA.     Itti  iiniKir-  rrm'a  was  held  there  in  1 806. 

tanix*  I1.14  del  lini^l  ^iiii*e  its  walU  were  destroyed  EISLKHEN.  a  town  uf  PruMian  Saxony,  f7 


by  the  Fri'iii-h  in  ITHI,  but  prior  to  that  it  was    m.  N.  W.  fmni  Mer^-hurg;  iMtp.  lu,Hu<t.     ||  |g 

le  iiliuv  where  M 
empire.   It  enrlyemhrared  the  reformation.   Its    born  and  died.     The  hi»uw  in  whirh  he 


•  ---.  — -J      --    -      —     —  --      --         —  «-■»■■• 

pruiiiiiient   a  lilt  m;;  the  military  towns  of  the    noted  aA  the  iilmv  where  Martin  Luther 


beer  w-as  mi  ceUh rated  that  it  was  said  that  tho  l»«»rn  no  longi-r  roniuin^  having  1ie«rn  burned  lo 

afTaim  of  (lerniauy  were  lettled  by  the  princes  lfis*i,  ).ut  that  in  whirh  he  died  i«  still  prMcrr- 

over  foaming  draughts  of  it.    The  church  c«>n-  etl,  ami  lia«*  rivi-nily  Uvn  convertiil  intoascKofll 

taining  the  niaiiM  ileum  of  the  dukes  of  Gruben-  fur  pi  n  ir  children.  In  an  up|K-r  htory  of  the  hoosa 

hagen,  and  tlio  cattle  of  Rutheukirchcn  in  the  si-veral  relies  of  Lutlu-r  are  kept,  among  whkk 

vicinity,  are  \x.%  6neftt  edifioes.  in  the  album  of  hijt  friend  tho  jiainter  Cranarhi 

EINSIKI>KLS.  or  Eixhibolkv,  a  village  of  who  maile  the  design*  for  hi^  wtirk*.     In  tbo 

HwitzerUud,  in  the  canton  of  Schwvtz,  on  tho  rhureh  of  St.  Aii'lrew.  tho  pulpit  fn*m  whiek 

Sihl ;  \fo\K  Ck-'jO.     It  isaituatvd  9  m.  k.  N.  £.  of  Luther  proaehiHl  but  a  few  dayt  iM'ftire  hisd<-alh 

tlie  to«  II  of  Schwytz,  and  ab«>ut  3,inio  fort  abtive  14  Mill  |»reM-rve<l.    Tliero  arc  cup|>cr  miaca  Is 

tlie  level  of  tli«  sea.     Adjoining  the  village  is  tlio  virinity  of  the  tow  n. 
a  famous  Ilennlictino  abbey  whence  it  derives        KI.STKIM>KOl),  the  name  of  an  awembly  of 

its  name.   This  abbey  was  originally  founded  in  the  bard?*  and  miiiMn-K  of  Waleft,  in  the  town 

tho  iMth   century,  but  has  been  since  several  of  IVrwys  in  KlintNhire,  for  tho  purpine  of 

timeH  nb'iilt.     The  present  edifice,  which  dates  niti«»i<'al  nn<l  |MHtirid  cnnteM^.     After  UtkM  di^ 

fro!n  1719,  i«  in  the  modem  Italian  Mtyle,  and  um\  they  arc  now  held  at  repilar  internals, 
contains  a  mUMruin,  a  library  of  2«t,(|iMj  volume^,         I-UEi'TMENT  (Lat-  ejeetio  Jirma  ;  Fr.  ijftt^ 

and  a  marble  1  Iuiih-I  wherein  if  an  illlai^.*  of  the  mrnt  dfjim^x^  an  artiiiu  for  the  recovery  tif  ibo 

Virgin  that  ntiroi-t^  thither  multitude <  i*(  do-  lN»*H'^!«iou  of  l:intl^  but  now  u.4ed  both  in  Ea(- 

TifUt  Kiifiiaii  ('aihi»lic4  from  maiiv  parts  of  Eu-  land  and  the  I'nitod  State*  fur  the  trial  of  title 

ro|ii-.     The  villaje  has  more  than  iO  inns  and  Tho  pt*culiarity  \*i  thi^  action  has  been  refciTcd 

restaurants  for  thiir  accotiimiNlation.     Zwingli  to  in  thoartu'lel>i<«i*i:iMN.    As  it  retain*  vcarrc^ 

wa9  onre  (lan*!!  prit^t  of  thi«  plaiv.  any  thing  of  its  original  fonii  and  uae^i,  the  hi^ 

EI>KNAC*I1,  a  princifiality  in  tho  cent n*  of  tory  \»t  the  ai-tion  is  mutter  rather  of  curiooi 

Cicrmany,  f>irfiier\T  inde|K-ndt*nt,  but  stnt-o  1741  learning  than  of  prirtical  imtmrtance.     Yk  It 

unitetl  to  the  gr  nd  durhy  of  Saze-Wiimar ;  is  well  worthy  uf  stndv  a*  |KTiiapi  tlie  mott  r^ 

area,^<^  u\  \\\.\  jiop.  Ht/wio.     It  ikboumied  N.  markable  pr«.'ri-fiviit  of  the  adaptation  of  funa 

by  rniMianSaiitfiV,  E.  by  Saze^*othaaiidSax«,»-  to  new  exigeiieie^  to  bo  fitund  in  tho  Eogliah 

Meinitigoii,  S.  liv  Itavaria,  and  W.  by  IU-«M'*i*a^  law.    A  lucid  exit<r»ition  of  tlio  t>rit;in  and  grvd* 

si-I.  and  c«inta.U4  7  cities,  H  Uirougliv,  and  !•'»<)  U:d  miMliticatioii  of  the  ai'tion  will  l«  fuund  is 

%illitgr».    It  i*  travvi>c<l  irrvgularly  by  UMiunlain  nifM*k«t4>no*s  '*  i'oiuiuentariesi*'  Vol.  iii.  y\k  1 


ranges  c«ivcre<l  with  f<«reK(^  and  «at<*re«i  liv  the  2u5. 
rivers  Wcrra,  ILt^I,  Ne»e,  I'Mer.  and  Feldo.        EKATKrJNHrn(;.lKKATKKixaorao.  or  To> 

ItspruductA  are  gram,  rial,  timUT.  hiTTied  rat-  KATKiaMiiMHio.  Iiti  rallv  i*atharine'«  caftlle,  tho 

tic,  shcip,  c«i|i|4T.  iri>ii,  and  alum.  There  are  al^Mi  rapital   ••!'  thf  Uii«*iaii  ntining  di«trii't  i>f  tbo 

quarru'ftff  niarl>Ie.  im|->rtant  Kdt  uprihtr**.  and  I'ral.  in  tliei:i»««Tiinti-nt  uf  iVrin,  »itua!i<«l  ali«.«t 

hiaiiufactu.v^  i-^jKvi.illy  in  the  t^m  n  uf  Kiwn.-11-h  Ti'Mii.  I'miii  the  Kurii|Nan  fri'ntit  r.  «>n  the  .V*;alic 

and  the  %u!ll^•  t.f  Kuhlo. — EidCXACii.  the  i*a{»-  mile  i-f  tliel'r.d  nifuntain*;  lat.Ai'i   5«i  W    N^ 

i:al  t'f  thf  a'>»\e  |inncipa!it,v,  i«  •itu.i!«'d  mi  (ho  IxiikT.  '•**"  •U  44    K.  ;  \*>*Y.  in  1*01.  1^. ''-■*.    Eka- 

U  rdir  K'i  the  Thurii.giau  fiiro«t,  at  the  runtlu*  ti-riiihiirk!  i«  hmlt  mitai  h  »ideof  the  t\wt  l«rt. 

cnoo  if   tho  ITrMl   with    the   Ne««e,  712  feet  On  the  .V    K.   ;i:>le  i«  an  exteiiMVv  plain,  Upott 

alnne  (}.i<  ».a  le\il,  4^  ui.  W.  i*{  Wiimar.  an^l  is  v^hii  !i  are  the  p>\erniufnt  buiMin*:^  rminc^lt^ 


t!.e  (hirf  ftU::i-n  Ktt  the  Thtinugian-S.iii  n  rail-  11  iih  tlie  iii>rkiii}r  <-f  the  pmitu;*  nirlals 

way  .  {M>p   l^.V**".     It  It  cxii*!>>«etl  by  a  wall,  has  iri'ii'N  a«  oImi  a  pi.^'ln'  ^«|Uare  \*t  market  plsi**. 

I  ri  .;«1  streets  ginrra!!y  pa««U  with  ba«ait,  and  On  t''H-tipp<i*i!e  »idi-nrf  *pa(  ii>'.i«  »trt^-l«andcl»> 

**»tra/   nxi^arXjifla  J'uLlic   buildings   among  gant  LuU9<a  of  the  mertliaiitsanduiibcprviprte- 


EKATERINBURG  EL                              47 

tors.    Some  of  tlieso  are  upon  the  snmmits  of  tho  higblj-  prized  qualities  bo  wen  known  on 

hilUf  and  those  upon  the  north  side  of  the  town  this  side  of  the  Atlantic,  as  obtained  from  the 

overlook  a  beautiful  lake,  which  extends  several  Ural  mines  and  furnaces.     Machine  works  liavo 

jmlta  in  a  wes>terlj  direction  until  hid  in  the  Iset-  also  been  established  at  Ekaterinburg  witliin  a 

ikoi  wooddL     From  the  lake  is  a  fine  view  of  few  years  past  bj  private  individuals ;  alsu  an 

th«  towen,  spires  and  domes  of  the  8  churches,  extensive  manufactory  of  st^arine.    (See  Atkin- 

the  monastery  and  the  convent  seen  above  the  son's  "  Siberia,"  I-^mdon,  1858.) 

numerous  other  public  and  private  buildings ;  EKATERINOSLA V,    lEKATEiiofosLA.v,    or 

vbile  overtopping  and  behind  all  is  a  rocky  Ybkaterinoslav,  a  government  of  European 

nwont  clothed  witli  dark  green  foliage,  upon  the  Russia,  between  lat.  47°  and  40°  20'  X.,  and 

fommit  of  which  is  the  observatory  used  for  long.  33°  30'  and  39°  40'  E.,  bounded  E.  by 

nuffnetin  and  other  scientific  observations.  The  the  territory  of  the  Don  Cossacks,  S.  by  the 

nameroua  costly  editices  are  mostly  built  of  sea  of  Azof  and  Taurida,  W.  by  tlio  goVern- 

brick  and  c*ivercd  with  cement.    Some  private  ment  of  Chcrson,  and  N.  by  those  of  Pultowa 

booses  are  described  as  well  built  and  beauti-  and  Kharkov,  and  comprising  also  the  district 

ftlly  decorated,  and  furnished  with  much  lux-  of  Taganrog  and  the  territory  of  the  Azovian 

my  and  comfort.    The  town  owes  its  impor-  Cossacks,  separated  from  the  rest  of  the  gov- 

tince  to  the  numerons  rich  mines  in  its  vicinity,  ernment  by  the  country  of  the  Don  Cossacks ; 

Tbe  mineral  productions  are  gold,  copper,  iron,  area,  25,52*3  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1851,  902,3<>U.     The 

platinum,  and  precious  stones.    The  iron  mines  Dnieper  intersects  and  divides  it  into  2  unequal 

Dear  here  are  of  vast  extent  and  importance,  portions.   The  larger  of  these  divisi<jns,  situated 

mi  some  of  their  products,  in  the  form  of  £.  of  that  river,  is  mostly  an  open  stoppe,  des- 

iheet  iron,  find  their  way  even  to  the  United  titute  of  timber,  and  adapted  only  to  pasturage ; 

Sutea.    Platinum  is  found  in  considerable  quan-  but  the  smaller,  or  W.  section,  is  fortilo  and 

tides,  and  this  is  the  most  important  region  on  undulating.    The  climate  is  mild  and  healthful. 

the  globe  for  the  production  of  this  metaL  The  principal  vegetable  productit)ns  are  wheats 

Amon;;  the  precious  stones  worked  at  the  great  barley,  oats,  hemp,  flax,  and  fruit.    The  chief 

lapidary   establishments  of  Ekaterinburg  are  wealth  of  the  inhabitants,  however,  consists  of 

aoted  particularly  the  jas[>ers,  mxdachites,  to-  horses,  horned  cattle,  sheep,  and  swine.    The 

paz,  emerald-s  beryls,  chrysoberyls,  aouamarine,  rivers  al>ound  in  fish.     The  most  valuable  min- 

toannalines  of  different  colors,  amethysts,  &c.,  erals  are  granite,  limestone,  chalk,  and  »ilt. 

S4>me  of  which  are  brought  great  distances  from  There  is  little  manufacturing  industry,  but  a 

ea&tem  Siberia.     The  jaspers,  malachites,  and  great  many  distilleries,  where  hirjro  (niantities 

porphyries  also,  are  made  into  tables  of  great  of  brandy  arc  made.     The  population  consists 

nu^mificence  and  immense  value,  some  inlaid  chiefly  of  Russians  and  Cossacks,  ]>ut  Servians, 

with  stones  of  different  colors  in  imitation  of  Walluchians,  Greeks,  Tartars,  Turks,  Persians, 

birds,  flowers,  and  foliage.    The  jasper  vases  or-  and  German   colonists  are   also   found.     The 

Bamented  with  delicate  carvings  of  foliage  are  houses  of  the  poorer  classes  are  generally  con- 

des^ritKjd  as  objects  of  great  beauty,  executed  structed  of  clay  and  thatched  with  rushes.    The 

with  extraordinary  skill  and  taste  by  workmen  government  is  divided  into  7  circles. — Ekate- 

whose  wages  are  somewhat  less  than  a  dollar  rinoslav,  the  capital  of  the  governnu-nt,  is  on 

per  month,  with  2  poods  (72  lbs.)  of  rye  flour,  the  right  bank  of  the  Dnieper ;    ])o]).   about 

SUtt  tliey  are  supposed  never  to  eat.     At  the  13,000.     This  town  was  founded  in  17^*4.     The 

great  establishment  called  the  Granilnoi  Fab-  streets  are  broad  and  regular.     The  principal 

ric,  which  belongs  to  the  Russian  government,  edifices  are  the  churches,  ^ynmasiuni,  eoclcsias- 

this  work  is  extensively  prosecuted,  and  the  tical  seminary,  hospitals,  law  courts,  jjublie  of- 

orfimins.  pedestals,  tables,  vases,  and  numer-  fices,  barracks,  and  bazaars.  There  arc  nianufac- 

flnaller  articles,  are  said  to  be  unrivalled  tories  of  cloth  and  silk  stockings,  an<l  a  largo 

rorkmanship,  either  in  ancient  or  modem  annual  wool  fair.   It  is  the  seat  of  an  archbishop. 

-VJl  the  precious  stones  found  in  Sibe-  EKRON",  the  most  northern  and  important 

riaare  the  property  of  the  czar,  and  the  most  of  the  5  royal  Philistine  cities,  assigned  in  the 

Tiluable  of  these  are  sent  to  the  imperial  palace  distribution  of  territory  to  Judah.     The  ark 

cSl  Petersburg.     Tlie  government  also  owns  was  taken  to  Ekron  after  its  capture  by  the 

Afferent  iron  works  in  tliis  region,  in  which  are  Philistines.     Beelzebub  was  calle<l  the  go<l  of 

eoostructod  heavy  guns  and  other  munitions  of  Ekron,   and   was    here   worshipj>ed,   and   the 

»ir.    The  chief  of  the  Ural,  or  principal  officer  prophets  made  this  city  the  burden  of  s(.)nie  of 

rf  the  mining  direction,  appointed  by  the  gov-  their  most  violent  denunciations.     It  is  sup- 

nment,  is  a  general  of  artillery ;  and  another  posed  by  Dr.  Robinson  that  the  inodorn  Moslem 

gaeral  of  artillery  is  appointed  by  the  minister  village  of  Akir,  5  m.  S.  of  Ramleh,  occupies  the 

«f  war  to  reside  at  Ekaterinburg,  with  especial  site  of  the  ancient  Ekron. 

duTTO  to  inspect  and  RuperWse  the  construction  EL,  or  Al,  the  Arabic  definite  article,  often 

flf  aU  the  g:uns  made  in  the  mining  dwtricts  of  making  one  word  with  the  noun  which  follows 

fte  UraL     At  Ekaterinburg  are  machine  shops  it ;  thus,  Alkorany  the  Koran.     Its  other  forms 

rfpvat  extent  belonging  to  the  government,  in  are  i7,  id,  and  oL     Many  words  in  English  and 

vluch  the  machinery  is  made  for  the  mint  and  other  European  languages  beginning  with  cl  or 

ither  public  works,  the  iron  employed  being  of  al  arc  from  the  Arabic,  as  almanac^  alcohol 


48 


£L  DORADO 


ELAGABALU3 


F.L  r»On.\r>n.  OnlliHifu  tlio  licutrnnnt  i.f 
Pixurro.  !•«  iiit;  •'•■ni  (Mi  ati  t'X{Hiliti<>n  truni  t!io 
fMiiiriA«  fi'liu*  Ain:i/*iii  til  it«  niiiiitli.  iinCfiuK-il 
t«>  Im\r  ili-M  ••\iT(il  ill  t!ii*  iiidriitr  ut'  tho  r«iiiti- 
iiciit,  iH-tuKii  tSi*  ri\ir  iiiiil  the  OrizitH'n,  a 
rniiittn  •'iir{>:bfi-iiij  t-\i  71  iVrii  ill  t  Ik*  all  111  111  linn* 
i>f  it">  {•m  :••■:•  liiil.i-rnU  uml  iml.iU.  '!'•»  t}ii«  ho 
pi\i-  tin*  li.uiir  til  Kl  Ii«ir:k«lti.  tin*  ^uMi-fi  ri>i:iiiii, 
iiiitl  !••  it**  I  apit.tl  till'  ii.kiiu-  *'(  Maiii>a.  For  a 
h'UiS  I'luw  iiT'iruaiil  l!i.*  lal'iilnii*  rc;:ii>n  firvw 

flii*ri-  uinl  liPTi*  talii>>'.<*  tViitii  thf  f\:l;:;:vruU'4l 
a4-tii{i!t:«  Tital  MiTi  }'.i)<Ii*li«->l.  (ihil  tVtilu  till*  ('\- 
iiliiratiii!!**  T!..it  uiTf  iiiiiUrLiLcti  in  M^arrh  of 
It.  iiii'l  it  i\ :i«  n>>:  liiii.I  (lii.-  •'••tiiiiKiiivuirnt  nf 
thf  \jL<  It  ntur\  tli:k:  i!*  i-\i»t«-iii-i*  wu<<  (Tifirrttlly 
di'^Tol.li  •!.  K^  t  II  a-  Lite  :i*  17**'»  :i  liir^v  pitrty 
tif  S(i:iiii:»riU  »i  ro  \**-l  in  n^c  ut'  tli<.'^i.'  cxiH'ili- 
tii*ii«.  'I'l.c  x^'Tti.  I  \i  I  { t  :i«  iiku  api'lii-il  iruii) 
till-  'i.-Vf  III'  !i\:..  rl»..!.-  t<»  MVir.il  \ill:i:ri"»  in  tlio 

■    1 

%i<olirn  kiati -.  :iIh1  to  a  i-'iiiii:>  in  Culil'i'miik, 
i*  i'nl\  ii*'-*\  ]*••*  III  .iV\  t«»  1  xpn--*  ii  rt- jinn  •tvor- 
tlouiii^'  «  .:!i  rii  ii^  «. 

Kl-  Im»1:A1h»,  a  N.  K.  r...  «.f  rulir..rnin, 
lNit:!ii!f  t*  v..  \.\  I  tj!i.  aitil  N.  I>v  AiJitTi«-:iii  ri\i'r, 

WalL« t'*  fi^i-r*.  it  i*  u!--*  <lr:i:iii-i! :  ftrr;i,  iJiriO 
h-j.  In.:  |»"j».  Ill  l>1''n'-::!ii:iTi-il  .it  .'».'.!<**«».  It  is 
tTi*'*^-il  '■•}  !lir  >irrra  N\^:k*Li.  In  lVi>»  it  i»ru- 
ilii.*.l  lT.*J«"t  l-ii-l.*.!*  iI'  wliiiit.  •JT.i'iH*  «,f  lar- 
K'v  'J'l. »'"•  ••i"  ••ai^.  :i»Hi  ,•!'  |Mi:.if«N..  uml  JjiJS 

tiili*  "I  li.i>.  N'll  iii'tr*-  lli:.:i  .'i.hini  uiTr*  im-re 
uii'lt-r  I  ii!t.%:iT:<iii,  iivcr  i  I'f  till-  iKunty  ruii^iHt- 
inj  I'f  iiiimral  \au>\,  vii.ii'i  i<<  atiiun;;  tlic  nii««t 
\u!uaMi-  ill  i!.«-  *tali\  a:i-!  oii  wliii  li.  lN*oiilop*M. 
arr  !' •:;:!'!  rii  *i  •  »\  j-i-rori*  aic!  *-xi-i.lI«'!il  iiiartili*. 
Ill  1  *»'.••  !ht  ri-  Will-  17  'i-j.-.r!/  iiiili*  in  i>}H-ratii>n, 
41  «.*'•«  iiii  !•.  1  ;:riot  ni;'.!.  P*  )>ri*  k  kiln-.  H  lan- 
lii  r;«-,  :»:il  ••  '.r« -.%•  r.- -.  4';ij'i?;il.  riii.-iTVjlli-, 
Kl.  rA>»».  aN  \\  ....  .?■  IVxa-,  l...iii».U..lN. 
liv    Nrw    M- ■..•'■•.  :i:-'l    ^\     )'^  tI;«*   Ili»  (iriiiuli-: 

■  •  ' 

nri-a.  1".  .••»  •;  m  ;•  ;■.  iM  ]*'*••'.  /i.'»T''.  all  i-f 
Kil:«'iii  w  1  ri  rtV:r!-l  :i-  tr- ••  w!j:!t-.  TIm-  -nr- 
f.Vf  •-  lit  ■  ::.*  k.:.-'  ;•.  :i:i  !  ;»'«-''it  J  I-  i-ii\i Tul  W  itli 
l.fti^ii  r.  T;.'-  -■■it  ■!  '  n-  ■k.»!lt>*  :*  ri- li  aiiil 
miIti '^  I'.'  ^t  I.I  i:  :.:.!  I:.  ):.i:i  >  ••rn.  i'^ai  i-* 
f«'.irjil  III  n".-.. •..'..»:...  .  \  ..!  .i-  if  n  fil  • -lal*-  in 
\<»7,    i'.'-  .'.J'      1   T'....!    !r..nj    lUxar  n*.   in 

Kl.  rA>'».  •  •  r.T  r^Mi  i-ei  S'-rnr,  n  lin*-  i»f 
••  !'li  :■..  !.!•  »  I  •!..'  \'.  1!.  •  rr.i  r  ■•!  rliiiiiialfH.k. 
y,  li. ..,  .ij.;.. I.  :.••.,  ?..  % :.  ..|"  )':.iliki:n  in  Ti  \;i«. 
1*.t\  .ir.  ->.'.:.,'..!■:  .k  ?.  »rr..^  '.  .i!.-  %  i  Xtt- liiliii.' 'J 
t'T  \* !;.  a!  ■■:.•  •  .1'  r  /■',•  *i:iii  •  f  lIi.-  Km  (fr:i:.ili\ 

n  !.!•'..•  'i«  ri   !->>■  1     ■••*:  >  !>  1 1  M  i'I<-.     '1  !i«» 

ft.-.!  i'!   :'..    1...    »   :.   r    v.irk.i'. '..'k   r.«  h.  .ilitl  "lil 
f»*  !•  '    r-     ■■    w:  .  i?.  ..:   ■  ni^in   .    •)!»•  ^Tain-  .il-n 
irr-w  *!..-.    ■..••■  .T ;-»    :■    '.v.i.     Tl.r  •  In  I' rii-isi- 


ii!.».  !■.:.  -■  : 


■  ■t 


ar.l  '-.k 
I  !  !*  .  - 


»..'  !  -A:  .1  :;''.tv.  •.ra#li  r*  "  !'.»** 
t  i'.  ■  .%...-i..^  ■  I  I..-  iiiLa^-!ta:it« 
"  :..:'-  .:  ..'  :.il!i  •  f  !ii.\»,i!  r.u  .  >.. 
f .  *  !  ••  ■  .  .  ■  .•  •■..  f:  ■::  a  •.:./!■  if  Ii..l::t:i 
I!-.  I  1 ..  ♦  .:■  ■  •*  rr  ..  ;•■».*:•»!.  >.fi»  rii  %.  r 
u*'-  '.  .■■  :  ■  »  •  .*.  '  ■  .r  1  •  ::.::.-.:.■!  t-i  *■;!;'> 
tV-  M.*.  !      '    »  ."      ■.*•     '   -  .  !  ■    ■:.?  -r!  fir  \-i\  .r\ 


c«l  infl'KpoiKAMo.  (fflazM  wint1ow4,  fiir  c-iam- 
|>lc.  an*  unknown;  kntvon  an«l  fnrV*  arv  noC 
um-iI  :  aiiil  rvvn  tho  hoii-^'^i  nf  tliv  rirli  crintata 
m'ithiT  rlinir?*  nor  taliU-*.  Their  tlwi-llinpi  vm 
hnilt  of  Min-<lriitl  hrirk^  with  earth«*n  lli«>r^ 
and  nro  ii<*niilly  hut  oni*  story  htfrh.  The  f^rivb 
rliurrh.  tho  {iLvju  and  the  nmrt'  |<n^tenticHi»  uf 
till*  privati*  rc«>i(li>n(-c%  are  nitiiatiHl  in  thcnurth* 
cm  part  of  the  \alK'y,  jiint  Ih-1ow  a  f^^^r^pe  or 
|izL«i*t  in  tho  unMintaini*.  This  iNirtion  of  tlw 
K-ttli'nii-nt  i*»  |irolfiilily  In'^t  entitu-il  tft  licralkd 
tho  town  of  Kl  Vam*.  It  i!*  alKMit  .150  ni.  S.  br 
W.  frt»ni  Santa  Ki*.  iVhi  m.  in  a  «lir(*ot  Iin«  i 
fruni  the  I'm-ittr,  nnd  I.mk)  in.  froin  Wa^hill9- 
ton;  lut.  31-'42'  N..  liHic.  ItMiMn'  Mi.:  pop. 
aliMit  5.1  MNi.  It  i^  the  |innri|ial  thon>nfrhfiM 
hetwet-n  New  Meiiro,  iliihnahna,  and  the  Mci* 
ii-an  hCatc<t  further  Ninth,  and  !•«  an  ini|M>rtMt 
utat'nm  on  the  Mnithern  nviTland  ri«tite  tn  Cali- 
fornia. It«  n.inic,  M;:nify  infT  **the  pa-r"  !«•  prob- 
ahty  derived  from  the  |ia*>«a^'e  of  the  Uio  ItraDdt 
thrmvh  the  mount iiin-*. 

KKACfAHAI.rs,  VAKiirt  ATtTr*«  HAMiAyrii 
a  Koiinin  einiii'ror,  Min  of  the  M-nator  Varioi 
Marri'lliM  ami  Julia  SixniiiL^  and  roiiMn  «>f  C*A- 
rufali.1,  iMirn  at  Knu'«*;i.  in  Syri.a,  aUiut  A.  D. 
S<i5.  iIknI  in  Home  in  'J*.**i.  lie  ha«  U-en  railed 
the  SanlannpaluTt  of  Kume.  While  \i*t  a  hov 
he  wan  inaile  priest  of  Klii^'altiilu^.  the  Ph^nil- 
iian  Min  pMl.  in  hi"*  native  eity  :  and  thr  Kofuui 
holdier^  hIio  ii^hJ  to  re<Mirt  to  the  ina^rnitioeBt 
cereinonirM  of  the  temple  there,  licliolilinir  tb« 
(■Ii-;raiit  dre**H  uml  ti;;ure  of  tlie  }onnir  pontiC 
thou;:Iit  they  reeiiirnized  in  him  the  fca!ure««if 
I'urai'alla.  Hi-  artful  irraiidniotln-r  w:l«  nulling 
to  advaiire  hi^  fort  urn-  nl  the  e\p«'n*e  of  her 
iluu;:ht«  r'«  rrp'itati'tii.  ainl  ^prrad  a  rrffrt  tlkat 
he  w:i.<«  the  oti'-priii;.' of  an  iiitri^ie  T<«*tiirrii  hrf 
and  tlie  inunUrcd  (iiipcror.  The  tkni\} .  di*tra«l- 
\t\  nith  the  par-iiiiony  and  ri;:hl  fllMipIm^  f>f 
Murrinn^,  Muodi-poMd  tondmit  hi<»  pn  tt  nM<•Ii^, 
K!iHraliaIii«.  a^  ht*  »  aoralh"*!  front  in-  •ai  rrt|  prc^ 
fi-H«iiiii.  t'Mik  tiie  name  of  Ant<-!iini!«».  mk*  re^ 
ct-ivvil  «iih  fiii]iu»iu>ni  l<y  thr  triM  |.«i>f  Kii?r^ 
and  tlcfhirt-il  riiiiKror  iinihr  t*.e  n-m*-  *•(  Mar- 
cM'*  AiircliuH  Anti>ninii<i  r'Jl**r.  M  u  nnr.*  firnt 
d«-tarhnifriT«iif  hi*  army  tr><ni  Anti'N  li  f.i  «  r:i*li 
the  rcU  nmii.  l>ul  tl.r  h-/ioii«  ni'ird^  rol  ttirir 
ri>t!Miiaii'!i-r*  .ind  j"iiii-«l  t!ie  •  !n m*  .  A!  h-rpfh 
h>-  hiiJiM  If  iii:iri'lii^!  tiirth  !«•  nin  t  i^t'  {-"^-Tt-nilrr, 
and  li;«  pr;rton:in  ,:i:.ip!-  l<ri*k«'  tli*-  r<  ^  •  ^  r.'inkK 
Htit  Kliu'ahahi*.  fur  tSf  Mtil;i  t  in«>  1:1  li  •  I  !•  rtvk- 
li-«oI;i  lii-roh'.  t  li:tr/:;i;:  a!  tin-  hv.i  I  *l  hi«  li^-^l 
tr-Nip^  reiii-u«d  till-  l-alti*'  witli  •'ii  *i  \  .•  r  l!.at 
M.i-  rtU'i*  llt^l.  and  tl.i-  pni-lnnai:-  Trr  :  ■!«  retJ. 
M»>ri!iU-  W.I-   »•■<  i!    :itli  r  r.t;<('iri  •!    :i:    I    )  ■:*.  tti 

ih-:i!|i.  :th>l  l!if  Ilii':i:ih  **  u:\\»-  T\ .":..••   l  !!.••  iir- 

ti-r:-';!-  l-i_*  -1%  iTtijHri-r.  !!••  !••.•.:»  I.  *  in^reh 
fri-m  S*  na  :••  Ital% .  *[■<  M  a  «  .u'.*  :  .it  M;  •  •■■isl.a, 
a!.'l  s:i  tin-  iutt  *'i!j.n.i  r  luatl-  lii-**  *.'\  .-.t.t  t'.c 
I  :ipi!.il  iT»  a!!  till-  •!ul.-  I'f  A!i  orii  i.'.il    i:-..'  ariS. 

Ill-  'I'll-  ki*  lii^pi.iv  « "1  lioT  l»  **  llii-  li"-}  "T  r  hMniir 

•  ■!  .1  p\Mi,ir..ili  •■!•!  iM.ifi  t*i.i:i  !l;i'  U\:  t.i-!.-  ra- 
jir..i-«  i.f  o  •jMii^tJ  I  his'l.  Hi*  «\\.i!.«r.  h* 
!!.■■  i/?il  !ii  Ki-  il'i«-  li'll  -  i"iu  t  r  ■•!  :'.•■  -i.'i.  m  i.i.  *i 
hi'  iior«iii{  {i^il  in  the  f>  r::i  i-t  a  h!di  k  n-n.ral 


ELAND  49 

stone,  and  the  senators  of  Rome  were  obli^  17  inches;  the  horns  are  nearly  8  feet  long;  the 
to  see  their  hills  covered  with  altars  and  their  height  at  the  shoulder  is  5}  feet,  and  at  the 
iCreets  filled  with  processions  in  honor  of  the  crupper  2  inches  less;  the  length  of  the  tail  ^ 
godofEmesa.    Mount  Palatine  became  the  seat  feet,  and  of  the  dewlap  at  its  base  20  inches. 
of  a  magnificent  temple,  where  lascivious  dances  The  female  is  of  a  pale  sionna  yellow,  deadened 
were  performed  bv  Syrian  damisels.    The  Qui-  with  pale  brown  above ;   below  dirty  white, 
riosl  was  occupied  by  a  senate  of  women,  who  with  a  cream-yoUow  tinge ;  the  figure  is  more 
gnvely  discussed  matters  of  toilet  and  ceremo-  delicate  and  elegant  than  that  of  the  male,  the 
usL    In  a  mystical  fancy  about  the  sun  and  limbs  are  more  slender,  the  mane  is  shorter,  the 
BOMi,  he  married  the  Carthaginian  priestess  of  dewlap  narrower,  the  tail  less  tufted ;  and  the 
tlM  moon,  which  was  adored  in  Africa  under  horns  are  straight,  slender,  somewhat  spiral  at 
the  name  of  Astarte.    He  abandoned  himself  to  the  base,  with  a  rudimentary  ridge  on  the  spire. 
tlie  wildest  pleasures,  but  neither  a  rapid  sue-  The  young  are  of  a  tint  between  reddish  orange 
enrioQ  of  wives,  nor  a  long  train  of  concubines,  and  yellowish  brown.     This  is  probably  the 
nor  the  art  of  his  cooks,  could  satisi^  his  pas-  lai^gest  of  the  antelopes,  equalling  the  horse  in 
BOOS,  or  save  him  from  satiety.     Weariea  at  height,  and  weighing  from  7  to  10  cwt.     It 
Ingth  with  playing  the  part  of  a  man,  he  de-  ranges  the  borders  of  the  great  Kalahari  desert 
darad  publicly  that  he  was  a  woman,  wished  to  in  herds  varying  from  10  to  100 ;  rare  at  pres- 
be  dresased  like  the  empress,  chose  a  husband,  ent  within  the  limits  of  Cape  Colony,  it  was 
and  worked  upon  lace.    His  cruelties  were  as  found  in  abundance   in  the  wooded  districts 
great  and  as  fantastic  as  his  follies.    Having  of  the  interior  by  R.  Gordon  Cumming.     The 
tX  one  time  invited  the  patricians  of  Rome  to  flesh  is  most  excellent,  and  is  greatly  esteem- 
a  dinner,  in  the  midst  of  the  repast  he  opened  ed.    When  young  and  not  over-fed  the  eland 
tiM  doors  and  let  in  upon  them  several  furious  is  not  easily  overtaken  by  the  capo  horses ; 
tigert  and  bears.    The  patience  of  the  populace  but  in  good  pastures   it  grows  so    fat  that 
and  soldiers  being  exhausted  by  his  vices  and  it  is  easily  run  down ;  it  is  said  that  when 
l^ranDT,  a  sedition  was  about  to  break   out,  pursued  it  invariably,  if  it  can  do  so,  runs 
when  Elagabalns  was  induced  to  adopt  as  his  against  the  wind,  which  gives  it  an  advantage 
ooQeague  nls  cousin  Alexander  Severus.    Al-  in  outrunning  a  horse.    The  hide  is  very  tough, 
•zander  cherished  the  rigid  manners  and  prim-  and  mu/ch  prized  for  shoes  and  traces.    Like 
itive  usages  of  Rome,  and  quickly  became  the  other  antelopes,  it  seems  to  be  independent  of 
fivorite  of  the  army.     When  Elagabolus  sought  water,  frequenting  the  most  desert  localities  far 
to  withdraw  from  him  the  power  which  he  had  from  streams  and  rivers;  except  in  the  breed- 
grantefL  or  even  to  compass  his  death,  the  prro-  ing  season  and  when  pursued,  tlie  males  gen- 
torians  broke  out  in  mutiny  and  killed  the  em-  erolly  keep  in  groups  apart  from  the  females. 
peror  and  bis  mother,  and  threw  their  bodies  Another  species  of  the  genus  hoselaphus  is  the 
uto  the  Tiber.  B.  eanna  (H.  Smith),  called  bastard  eland  by  the 
ELAXD,  a  name  applied  by  the  colonists  of  colonists  to  distinguish  it  from  the  prece<ling 
ihit  cape  of  Good  Hope  to  the  impoofo  (fiosela-  species ;  it  is  smaller  than  the  eland,  of  a  dark 
fhu  oreas,  H.  Smith),  an  antelopean  ruminant,  brownish  gray  color,  with  a  white  space  be- 
Raemblim^  the  bovine  group  in  stature,  shape,  tween  the  fore  legs.    The  name  of  eland,  or 
dewlap,  and  high  shoulders.    The  general  color  elk,  is  improperly  applied  to  this  as  well  as  to 
above  is  a  grayish  yellow,  with  rusty  and  pur-  several  other  deer  and  antelopes,  by  the  Dutch 
pUih  shades  shining  through  it;  the  lower  parts  colonists  of  Africa  and  the  Indian  arcliipelogo, 
cream  yellow ;    the  forehead  with  long,  stiflEJ  and  apparently  indiscriminately  to  any  liollow- 
yeilowi^  brown  hairs ;  face  brownish  red,  chin  horned  ruminant  of  large  size ;  the  animal  called 
white,  eyes  chestnut ;  a  slight  brownish  yellow  eland  by  recent  travellers  and  hunters  in  south 
Biaiie,  along  the  back  becoming  reddish  brown ;  Africa  is  in  most  cases  the  first  described  species, 
nuzle  black  ;    hoofs  brownish  black,  e<lgcd  and  probably  sometimes  the  second,  as  both  are 
•bove  with  brownish   red  hair ;   the  tail  is  found  in  the  same  districts,  though  the  herds 
kownish  red,  with  a  tuft  of  yellowish  brown ;  do  not  intermingle.    These  animals  are  gentle 
tba  mane  of  the  dewlap  is  yellowish  brown,  and  readily  domesticated ;  but  though  strong, 
peaeilled  with  brownish  red.    This  is  the  color  the  shoulders  do  not  possess  that  solidity  which 
if  the  male,  which  has  a  small  head,  a  neck  renders  common  domesticated  cattle  so  valu- 
taptnng  above,  but  bulky  toward  the  chest ;  able  to  the  agriculturist.  Tlie  late  earl  of  Derby 
tte  body  is  thick  and  heavy ;  the  limbs  elegant  in  1842  received  at  his  extensive  menagerie  at 
md  ilender ;  the  eyes  are  full  and  soft,  and  the  Knowsley  Hall  2  males  and  a  female  eland,  the 
ision  of  the  face  is  gentle  and  ovine :  the  first  brought  alive  to  Europe ;  the  female  pro- 
slope  slightly  back  from  the  crown,  oeing  duced  several  calves,  but  the  whole  stock  died 
.  thick  at  the  base,  with  2  spiral  turns  hav-  from  improper  pasturage  except  one  female  born 
k^  ca  obtuse  ridge,  and  the  upper  f  straight,  in  1846.    In  1851  a  fresh  supply  was  received 
•ppfring  to  a  point;  the  ears  are  long,  nar-  from  the  cape  of  Good  Hope,  which  he  bcqueath- 
»w,  and  point^  hairy  on  both  sides ;   the  ed  the  same  year  to  the  zoological  society.  This 
Inr  is  rather  thin,  except  on  the  neck,  mane,  herd,  2  males  and  3  females,  rapidly  increased, 
dewlap,  and  tuft  of  tail.     The  length  from  nose  and  several  were  distributed  by  sale  to  different 
""       of  tidl  is  about  10^  feet,  the  head  being  parts  of  Eo^iaud,  whoso  uncultWated  \aai(i^  i<^- 

VOI*  TIL — 4 


50               ELASTIC  CURVE  ELATEBIUX 

wmblo  the  park-Iiko  cnnntrr  of  th«  African  donrrofalofijt  vircinadoof  it,  whenrai6p<^ndcd 

home  tif  th^  aiiitnal.     I^inl  II ill,  of  IIawV>ton^,  at  oiu'  <'iiil  and  tH  i«ti*U,  to  unrtiil  itn-lf  aini  ri-tnni 

8hn»|Hihirc,  tji>t  attoinfiti'tl  tlit-ir  naturali/Jilittn  to  its  fontiiT  poMtHut.     A  thrt*a«l  i»f  rla}.  inAd« 

in  hii  fiti'n>ivc  purk,  aiid  im  Jan.  7,  ls59,  hy  fnrriiij;  tho  mfi  nub^tanoo  tlin»ii^li  a  »iiinU 

killed  the  fir^t  viand  f.ir  ttio  Xa\Av  which  Ijad  hnlo,  niaiiifi-sitA  tlio  Munc  itruinTtr.     In  ch«M 

been  l'ri><i  in  England  ;  tlio  animal.  Ti  years  oltl,  and  many  uthi-r  inataiiroa  tlio  furco  i-itrrtcd  bj 

vci|r!ied  vihvn  li«  fvll  1,1 7A  Ilrt*..  "  hu^>  aa  a  tho  |iarti(-K!4  to  rf^rain  their  fonniT  ponition  of 

•hort-hiirn.  hut  with  Ixmo  nut  half  tho  pizo.**  c«ini!ihrinni  rarriv»  t hem  hark  to  thi^  point,  ami 

Chuicv  partt  (»f  tho  animal  witc  fkT\od  at  tho  the  force  n4it  U-inf^oxiH'ndiHl  tliv  ni'ition  i%  rrm- 

tahlet  of  ij-ievn  VitUiria  aitd  tho  Frfn<-li  em-  tinned  in  the  Kanie  di relation  till  the 

p«ror.  anil  tn-fure  i*ruf.  Owi-n  and  meinUni  uf  hveonie^  tiNi  ffPi-at,  and  thus  the  |iartir)efl 

the  xooKi;:ii.J  HM*iety -.  it  wa^  fuuud  to  n>Memhld  drawn  alt^rrnattly  in  one  and  the  other  dirve- 

beof.  w;th  u  vcniiMiu  flavor,  with  a  fineness  «tf  ti<>n  with  cnuf.t.intly  diminiNhing  furre,  prodn- 

flbro  and  a  dtrlieat-y  of  fat  placing;  it  hi^li  on  tlio  cin^  a  horit-^  uf  vihrati«)ii.s  ;  tlnis  musical  m>ancU 

liftt  of  ih'tiro  and  nutri(ioii!i  articles  of  foml.  arc  prinlurrd.  the  pit4-h  dciiending  Q|K>n  th« 

It  M'em'i  |<n>hali!v  that  thit  animal  will  he  ox-  ^reat^-r  ur  K'N.t  rapifiity  of  tlie  \ihrati«mJL     B7 

t«u«i%fly  ruiM'd  ill  Kn^'land.  and  add  an  iui|Mir-  the  applieation  of  ttM»  frreat  fiirr«\  ur  by  too 

tant  iti-m  ti*t!;f  national  Ifill  of  fare.    It  iamui  h  frreat  strain,  Uie  partielcn  <*(  a  i^'Iid  Iwidy  WMJ 

til  he  ri'irrtttvd  that  we  ha\e  n'l  plnco  in  the  hv  di^platvdaiidlind  theireiiutlibriam  in  a  n«v 

Uuiird  Stau^  %ihi-re  similar  exjierihuntd  in  in*  arran^'mi-nt.     Thin  may  oeeur  with  a  vi*ibl« 

trodurini;  new  aulmaU  may  be  proMcutcd  on  a  reparation  of  the  partirle^  an  in  a  hreakiay 

lari^*  N*aif.  apart  of  the  body  ;  c»r  it  may  bi*  maile  apparent 

EI^X.MU*  CrUVE,  tho  curre  ar«^nnutl  bv  a  bv  tho  manifr>t  indi>iN>sition  of  the  Uidr  to 

■traiirht  ^prin;;  of  uniform  thit-kne^<<  i^hiu  tho  c*hun;;e  from  itn  m-w  Mato.     A  win*  or  indjl- 

•nd»arvb:i*j;:ht  forcibly  top' thiT.    It  embnuvd  lie  liar  thuH  hont  In-yond  itA  limit  of  rlai*ticitjr 

a  Tarivty  if  appi-aranceA,  Mmplo  wave?*,  4iv«:r-  i^  Miid  to  have  "  taki-n  a  M't.**    Theamoaut  at 

lapping  wtt\*%  afiirureof  ei|;hl,  retrot;radeluoi'«  elti.*ticity  in  UnUi-js  or  tho  force  they  will  miH 

or  kink«.  ordinary  UKi|«*,  and  tlie  circle.     Tho  witlmut  |M.-nnanvnt  alteration  <  if  »tnicture,  niajr 

fundauirrt.-U  law  or  e«iuation  of  the  curve  ia  U- i*xpri*oM-il  by  tho  immbor  of  |Hiunda  weijrfat 

that  the  ci  rvuture  of  each  |»oint  U  diro«-tly  pro-  to  tho  Hjuare  inch  tlioy  will  U*ar  without  beinf 

p>rtional  t"  iisi  di»tauc«  fn>i:i  a  certain  fttrui^cht  rruohoil.  or.  at*  pro[Mii«i'd  liy  hr.  Thomaa  YoonfFi 

lino  on  whiih  the  curvati.re  i*  u-t**;  h>  that  **  by  tho  uiiifht  of  a  certain  column  of  the  aabm 

wlicu  tho  curve  crosi^es  thn»  line  it  rovenea  tho  iiuli>tanci',  uhirh  may  W  di-nuininated  the  ■!«- 

Uirrctiiiii  of  i!^  rurvature.  dulus  of  ittt  elasticity,  and  of  which  the  weight 

KI.AH  III  rV  liir.  fXaiBw.  to  drive,  tudraw ).  i«  furh  that  any  ai  Id  it  inn  ti»  it  nuuM  incrraao  it 

Whrn  I  «  ilii- nppIioatii<n«*f  anoxti'rnul  fiiroi  ilio  in  the  Kune  propurtiun  a.^  tho  wrti;ht  adtlod 

partiili-'  *'i  A  tnitly  arc  diMurU-d  from  i!io  »tate  wouhl  thiTttn  by  it.^  pro^*uro  a  p'>rti«in  of  tbo 

uf  equilit-riiiui  in  Kiliiih  thoy  wi>ro  IkM.  uiitl  a  sub^tanro  uf  visual  diameter.    .  .  .    The  hvi|(fat 

ch&iiK'o  ••!  {••rill  in  tliiTi-by  inilu4-«>«!  in  tho  IhnU,  of  tho  niixlulu^  i^  thi-  ^aIIll■  fur  the  »axne  »ab- 

tiio  loiiilt  I.'  s  ff  tii«'  ptirtii  U-n  tiirot!ain  tht  ir  fur-  Manco.  \k  liuiiVi-r  il<  l>roailth  i^iA  thirkne«A  nxAj 

nivT  »tAi«-  :k!.d  rv*turv  thotiri^'inal  lurm  i^tcrtiud  be  :  fi>r  atnio<*phiTir  air  it  i^  al-uut  A  milea.  arid 

alafkiiciiy     '1  ho  fi.ino  i«  muro  litarl}  |i«rfiit ac-  for  htiil  ni-arly   1.r«uo."     l'I.i*i  m<Hlulu4  ur  m>- 

Oi*rdin|r  b<  :1m- linio  roi}uiri-4l  to  n>'ain  tho  prim-  etf.cii-nt  uf  ola»tir it  1  ha*  l>4*«u  ditonnimNl  hj 

itne  f<«n:i.  aftt-r  th«*  c«-««iitiuii  uf  tho  dii^turlunt;  eX|K-rinuni  fur  a  ri«n>idirabp-  i.iifnl»or  of  •ub- 

furrv, appr>iu«  hrikthatoX|Hnd«.d inpriMliwin;* t!itf  htani'o*.      It   i<»  an   inipurtant  iliineni    m   tb* 

rhaxi^o.     1  lit-  air  aiidpaiH'«t:i!jibit  l!io  pr>>{*«Tty  ph}fii-al  pru|^*riii-'i  *•(  b<it!;i!«.  ajii)  nin-t  br  dnij 

n;or«  iMfht  ;ii  than  any  f:li«rr<>ul*«tanro».  b»t  iiu  c-uii«idt  rod  in  in\r«Ti^*atiiit;  tl.r  otrinirth  of  ma- 

biidir^  aff  uiti%roth(  r  dotli  iiiit  m  it.     A  ball  of  ttTial**,  tho  M'lln^v^ot  Ii\driNl\nbiiiit  «,  pncumal* 

(ltt^«v  \\'*r}.  ^Tl«!.  or  uihtT  hunl  malLriul.  tot  fill  U%,  Asc. 

U\m,*u  a  »Mi— -'!i  hard  Mirfari-.  rt  Im-ui.'S  trnni  tho  KI.ATEIkH'M  ((*r.  fXatvw.  tiM!rivo\  adraalie 

U*nd<^i(  }  I  !  fho  partuio!*  t'l  ri  !iirnlu  tho  Inmi-  purt:ali\o  mt-ilii  iiif.  priparnl  irutii  tho  Juire  uf 

ti«'!t  %2u -t^j  i:it  UiV  !vt«  fru!ii  11  ]ii«  h  t!it  \  li.i%o  ihv  ttn*tm»nlir*t  ilitftrtntn^  *tr{\f  ^\U\  t,T  •^\uir\' 

bn  11  f>ri  •  il  :>%  tl.i- M<>«.     If  thi  haril  «.irtai  t- )•«•  in;r  ciii-iihi!ptr.      l!ipp>*«'rnti-*  applud  the  nam* 

coii-ro>l  w  .*'«  A  li'iin  ttttklMi:  of  ••oitit-  \:^  ill  "lib-  |;oiivral!%  ti«  any  .11  *.:\v  pur.:^-      It  i^  unrrriaia 

•taiiio.  t-r  •  :  •  .:.  thr  iF;iprf»<i>iii  ]•  :*.  ii|h.;i  tii'«  ,:i  HhilLirtho  nanio  u.i<  tri^*n  !••  tho  plant  from 

d »!-&!••  a  :!..*.'•  i.iiv  uf  thi-  bail.  aMl  (In*  i«  fi>  iiid  t!.o  1  uri>>u«  pri'jH  rt\  U  l«<iit;ii.,r  I"  thi  fruit  c*f 

ti*  l"- •>':<••'■  r  a«  •••:•!  I  :.ir  III  t!iO  hi  .^'i  it  if  t!.(  f.dl.  N  ;>.iratiii,r   wlnii  r'.|<«-  fruMi  tin    itno   and   di*- 

F!u:d«  :<  .-u.<  "S  tjiuiitfl.t  tu  U*  ir.i  •'iiipri«><»iMi\  chararii.j  i:«  jiiho  ui.d  m«.i!«  t].ri>iiA;!i  an  ••|«rn- 

aad  i«  !.'«  ■^■i•  u;!,\  mt  l^ttir.  havt  *t«n  prii\i«i  by  in^  al  U-.*-  (■:im-.  lk  In  r<-  it  w  a^  :«l!rt<  ^o*!  tu  tho  f.mt 

thr  r  !;•«:.:..■  ;.:•!•;<  Kr-U-d  til  Ih- •  ••iiiiTcMiMt  111  ataik.  i>r  fri'Mi   tl.i    ai'Tn'ii  uf  tin    iiifduiDo    prr- 

pr-ij-'f*',  •.  '.i.  tl.*-  fiirrc  tstfttd.  ui.d  «  hi  ii  ri-  p.-iriil  frmu  i!  u|hiii  Jhi   li-wiN      Thi*  nn-^lw  bo 

Iir%«<!  I'!'  i  '•  >•  ;ri  li.ty  nturi.iii  .ntiniiiiatt  ij^  to  i«  a  tort  Iv'ht.  puUoruh-nt.  ai.d  |ia!o  %tlli.i«i«h 

thr.r  f<>r::.»  :  ''.-u'.h,  .   !.tXi<ft'  t.'it  t  iii:kv  ^n- ri ^'ariliil  |;rti  n  ••diiiunt  dt{MiMttd  fr<>!L  (i:«  ji.i 'o.      TliO 

ai>  fuir:...:..: '. -.t  r«>|  or«  lilt  i.:«i>f  {•«  rtti  li 'a*t.«  '.;i,  iji::iiiT,t}  i«  %«  ry  fiiia^l,  uri1%  *'•  i:T.kiu%  iN-ir:^  ol*- 

ti.i-:;i:ti  •     '  •  t  •  jk  \ir«  -!.,;!.!  t  it«  M.     'I  !.•   *'.*%■  tatntti  hv  i'bittt  rbiitk  fri>iii  4"  •  i!i  uniU  r*.      A 

uy  «'/ :.  '.  >;:  tuKiai  iv*i  u  »ho«^u  I  >  the  t4U-  do»c  of  (  of  a  grain  of  tho  gmuinc  art;c!«. 


ELATE  ELBE  51 

howeTer,  purges  violentlj;  larger  qnantities  ex-  are  employed  in  the  mines.  The  qnarries  of 
cite  nAUsea  and  vomiting.  In  dropsy  it  is  high-  granite  in  tlie  8.  W.  part  of  the  island  appear 
Ij  recommended  from  its  tendency  to  produce  also  to  have  been  extensively  worked  by  tiie 
e(H>ioas  liquid  discharges.  The  plant  is  largely  Bomans.  The  commercial  relati(xi8  of  the  isl- 
cmcirated  in  the  south  of  Europe  and  in  some  and  are  almost  confined  to  Leghorn  and  Mar- 
parts  of  England.  The  stem  has  been  seen  4  seilles.  The  Imports  consist  chiefly  of  grain. 
iBcheswidc,  with  a  thickness  of  only  half  an  inch.  catUe,  cheese,  and  manufactured  articles,  and 
When  the  fruit  separates  from  the  stem,  the  the  exports  of  the  above  named  and  a  few 
jnice  is  said  to  be  thrown  sometimes  a  distance  other  articles.  Ancient  ruins  are  stiU  visible 
of  20  Tarda.  One  incurs  some  risk  of  injury  to  in  various  parts  of  the  island.  During  the  mid- 
tbe  eyes  in  walking  among  the  vines  at  the  sea-  die  ages  it  was  ruled  by  various  Italian  princes 
ton  of  matnrity  of  the  fruit.  The  puice  thus  and  chiefs.  In  1548  Charles  V.  ceded  the  ter- 
naturally  expelled  is  inferior  in  quality  to  that  ritory  of  Porto  Femgo  to  Tuscany.  Afterward 
afterward  expressed  from  the  fruit.  From  a  the  island  was  successively  governed  by  Spain, 
bushel  weighmg  about  40  lbs.,  and  worth  from  Naples,  and  the  lords  of  Piombino.  From  July, 
7f.  to  10#.  sterling,  about  half  an  ounce  of  the  1796,  to  April,  1797,  it  was  in  the  possession  of 
medicine  is  obtained ;  but  if  the  expression  is  the  British.  It  was  then  ceded  to  France,  and 
etrried  too  far,  the  product  is  of  inferior  qual-  imited  with  the  new  kingdom  of  Etruria.  The 
itj. — 8ee  article  by  Mr.  Jacob  Bell  in  "Phar-  treaty  of  Paris  in  1814  erected  Elba  into  a 
BMoeatical  Journal  and  Transactions,"  Oct.  sovereignty  for  Napoleon  I.,  who  resided  there 
1850.  from  May  4, 1814,  to  Feb.  26,  1816,  when  he 

FTATTT  (in  Josephus  Ailane^  in  Roman  ge-  embarked  from  the  island  with  about  1,000 

ography  Elane^  now  Ailah),  a  seaport  of  luu-  men  for  France,  landing  at  Cannes,  and  march- 

mea,  of  great  celebrity,  lying  on  the  shore  of  the  ing  triumphantly  to  Paris.    During  his  brief 

eastern  or  Elanitic  gulf  of  the  Red  sea,  now  sovereignty  Napoleon  introduced  many  improve- 

caQed  the  gulf  of  Akabah.     It  was  a  part  of  ments.  and  caused  a  good  road  to  be  built  uniting 

David^a  conquest  from  the  Edomites ;  was  a  Porto  Carngo  with  rorto  Longone,  a  small  for- 

pUee  of  great  importance  in  Solomon's  time,  as  tress  and  harbor  on  the  E.  coast.    In  1815  Elba 

the  port  in  which  he  built  and  fitted  out  his  reverted  to  the  grand  duke  of  Tuscany,  and  its 

dups  for  importing  gold  from  Ophir ;  was  cap-  affairs  are  now  administered  by  a  civil  and  mili- 

tored  by  the  revolted  Edomites  m  the  reign  of  tary  governor  (in  1859  Col.  Edoardo  Facdo- 

Jorazn,  after  having  been  in  the  possession  of  nelJe),  who  resides  in  Porto  Ferrajo. 
the  Israelites  150  years ;  was  retaken  by  Uzziah,        ELBE  (anc.  AlbU\  a  large  and  commercially 

who  fortified  it  anew,  peopled  it  with  his  own  important  river  of  Germany,  rising  in  the  Rie- 

nbjects,  and  restored  the  trade  to  Ophir ;  was  sengebirge  of  Bohemia,  near  the  frontier  of 

afterward  taken  by  Resin,  king  of  Damascus,  Prussian  Silesia,  and  passing  into  the  North 

who  in  his  turn  was  deprived  of  it  by  Tiglath-  sea  between  Holstein  and  Hanover,  tlirough 

Fikser,  king  of  Assyria,  from  whose  time  it  was  Austria,  Saxony,  Prussia,  Anhalt-Dessau,  Hon- 

never  recovered  by  the  Jews.     Elath  adjoined  over,  Mecklenburg,  and  Hamburg.    It  is  about 

E&oii-Geber ;   and  Akabah  now  occupies  the  650  m.  long;   is  known  at  its  source  as  the 

■tc  of  one  or  both  of  these  ancient  towns.  Labe ;   originates  in  a  number  of  springs  on 

ELBA,   the  Ilva  of  the  Romans  and  the  the  western  slope  of  the  Schnee-Koppe  (snow 

^thalia  of  the  Greeks,  an  island  in  the  Medi-  summit),  oneof  thepeaksoftheRicsengebirgo; 

tciranean,  belonging  to  Tuscany,  from  the  coast  runs  mainly  in  a  N.  W.  course;  is  navigable 

of  which  it  is  separated  by  the  strait  of  Piom-  from  its  confluence  with  the  Moldau,  and  has 

biao ;  length  about  18  m.,  and  greatest  breadth  but  a  very  slight  inclination,  its  bed,  40  m.  from 

13  m. ;  area,  about  97  sq.  m. ;   pop.  in  1858,  its  sources,  being  but  658  feet  above  the  sea. 

23,026.     Its  outline  is  irregular,  the  mountains  Its  cliief  affluents  are :  on  the  riglit,  the  Iser, 

which  traverse  the  island  rising  in  some  parts  Black  Elstcr,  Havel,  and  Spree;  on  theleft^  the 

to  a  height  of  above  8,000  feet,  and  being  in-  Moldau,  Eger,  Mulde,  Saale,  Ohre,  Jotze,  Bme- 

dcDted  by  deep  gulfs  and  inlets,  so  that  its  nau,  and  Ostc.    Joscphstadt,  KOniggrutz,  Lcit- 

Ireadth  in  some  places  does  not  exceed  8  m.  mcritz,  in  Bohemia;  Pima,  Dresden,  Meissen,  in 

ThA  loil  la  fertile,  but  only  a  small  portion  of  it  Saxony ;   Torgau,  Wittenberg,  Magdeburg,  in 

if  ander  tillage.    The  vallevs  abound  with  fi-uit  Prussia;  Lauenburg,  Hamburg,  and  Altond,  aro 

tnea,  bat  they  are  not  well  cultivated,  and  the  the  chief  places  [situated  upon  its  bonks.    Its 

frnita  are  of  inferior  quality,  excepting  oranges,  channel,  between  Hamburg  and  the  sea,  will 

Among  the  azmnol  products  of  the  island  and  admit  of  the  passage  of  vessels  drawing  14  feet 

111  waters  are  about  1,700,000  gallons  of  red  and  water,  at  all  times,  but  is  much  encumbered 

Wiuta  wine,  4,000,000  lbs.  of  marine  salt,  6,000  with  sand  bars  and  shoals.    By  means  of  its 

tol,000  tons  of  tunnies,  sardines,  anchovies,  and  own  waters  and  those  of  the  numerous  canals 

fitter  fish,  and  18,000  tons  of  minerals,  chiefly  branching  from  it,  the  Elbe  places  all  N.  W.  and 

lioiL  for  which  the  island  has  always  been  central  Germany  in  connection  with  the  sea- 

edrt»rated.     The  iron  is  found  in  a  mountain  board.    Wood,  stones,  fruits,  and  earthenware 

■ear  JEUo,  on  the  E.  coast,  about  2  m.  in  circum-  are  the  chief  articles  of  export,  which  are  ox- 

facnoBy  500  feet  Wgh,  and  yielding  from  50  to  changed  for  com,  salt,  and  colomal  prodxicift. 

15  per  cent,  pure  metal.    About  BOO  persona  Its  nsLvigaiion  was  in  former  times  m\x<:itx  oomr 


62                       ELBEBFELD  ELDING 

plicated  hy  the  ro(rnlAtiiin»  of  the  <aXoA  ihron^h  fncroMfnl  expedition  afpunst  the  nritish  in  EmI 

which  it  rnnv    hiiico  1^21  t}ii>o  liavo  U'cn  Florida  in  tljc  Miniintfr  and  antuuin  of  1777; 

piiii|iliruHl,  aiid   the  ciitiro  rivi-r  i^  nnw  o|>on  was  activi-ly  onf^^^-'<l  near  Savannah,  and  cap- 

lo  \i*«'M'l!4  (if  all  the  a4liaront  r«ii]iitrio<i.     Au;*-  tured  Of;lothor|K*>  fort  at  FriHlerica,  in  1778; 

tria   rvlimiuii^hcd  thv  fitilniiiinn  KIIk*  dm-ti  in  and  dii^tiuguUhed  hitu^-If  during  CainphelKa  At- 

lKa2.    Ill  Iho.*)   IlaxHtvcr  a^NiIi-tHil   t!io   EHh)  toi^lc  npon  S:ivanna)i   in  I>ec.  177H.     lie  eom- 

dat'it  li'vii  d  ai  Stodi*  fir  all  ^h\y9  and  ^'iknI^  en-  niandod  a  hri^^ido  at  tho  battle  of  Hrier  CtmIc, 

t«riu);  liarburK  K'award.  ainl  \urioii^  ci>iil'vr-  whoro  ho  was  tiikon  priMnor,  March  3,  1779; 

encim  haw  hinco  Uvn  hrlil  iW  tho  ptiqHiM'  nf  and  after  bi-infircxchanf!i.Hl  he  went  to  the  nortli, 

liringinfT  at h tut  a  tutal  al*i>Uiii»n  of  the  diK-<.  Joined  the  forces  nndi-r  Wa!«hington,  and  took 

The  llaiiMveriun  rhaniliT  in  Kt'i  vuteil  airraiit  |»art  in  tho  luittlo  of  Yorktown.     At  the  clow 

i*f  nioiifV  fur  the  iinpriivi-iiu-iit  of  tlif  inivitfa-  of  tho   war  he   receivfd   the  coniniiwion  of 

tiuii.    1  ii«Tt«  are  »ti'iiiiiUiui'4  on  the  KHk.'  U*-  majerpMioral,  and  in  ITt^  he  was  elected  gor* 

twitrn  MupK-burK  uxid  IlanihurK,  and  lM-tw«fn  cnnirof  <ie<»r|iria. 

lM.-<t<l«-n  and  tlu*  M>ur«'c  nf  thi'  river  in  liultoMiia.  KLHECFi  or  Ki.B<xrr,  a  French  town,  in  Um 

EIJiK]tKEI.I^  an  iinjiortttnt  manufacturing;  department    uf   Seini'-Infcrivure,  on  the  left 

town  of  Khcniith  PniMiia,  adjoininf^  Kannon,  15  hank  of   the  Seine,   4  m.    distant   from    tlie 

ID.  E  from  I>n«iBehhirf,  and  connit-t^d  by  rail-  Tuurville  Ntation  i>f  tho  Tarin  and  Roaen  nfl- 

wa J  with  tliat  aiHl  moHt  other  lYu-ibian  town!! ;  way;   diMonii*   from  rarid  7H  m.,  and    froa 

pop.  in  lSu5. 41,(»bu.    The  river  Wnpper,  which  Konen  13  m.;  pop.  about  lU.OOO,  exclasiTec€ 

flowithruu^rh  the  town.  preMrutu  advaiitafre^fitr  about  1*2.<mhi  workmen  from  ai^oiuing  TiIlflMa 

bleach injr.     Linon  bleach vrii*s  wi-re  in  (»{>eration  empUivod  in   tho  f^rttirios.    Almuat  from  tbe 

here  as  early  as  the  Kith  century.     Manufacto-  foumhitiou  of  the  town  in  tlie  0th  centnrr  the 

rieauf  liiivn,  woollen,  rotton,  »ilk.s  lace,  ribbon%  inhabitantM  disfila^ed  frreat  skill  and  indnatryin 

Ac,  were  p-adually  e^^tablidhi'd,  and  have  since  tlio  manufacture  first  of  taiiestry  and  afterward 

tlie  IHth  century  attained  to  a  hi^h  dei^reo  of  of  wiioUvn  clotli.     ('ull>ert  senactmentjin  16k7 

perfection.    Tho  dvcin^  of  Turkey  nxl,  which  promoted  tho  pnis|ieritv  of  the  town,  which  wag 

was  tir»t  attempt^  in  17m».  \*  another  promi-  mtemiptoc!,  however,  by  tho  revocation  of  th* 

nent  pursuit  at  ElU-rfirld.    Iju^*  f|iiantitii'S  of  etlict  of  Nante.A,  whon  many  of  tlie  mannfae" 

yam  are  annually  s«nt  hore  fn»m  iin'at  Hritain  turors  enii»fnito«l  and  Rottli-d  in  Ley  den,  Koi^ 

and  otlier  countries  to  lie  dyed.    Tho  annual  wirh,  and  Ixi(x*i»ter.    The  indnatrr  of  the  pinet 

Talue  <»f  the  pxMli  luanufaciureil  in  Kllicrfeld  did  not  fully  recover  from  this  sliockand  tram 

exceed!!  $ll,<Ai0.i>oiK    Tho  r.honiUi  East  India  the  ci»miH-tition  of  HoI}^um  until  lb16.  The  an- 

com|MinT  and  a  company  fir  working  mino!i  In  nual  pnidurt.%  whii-h  thfu  amounted  only  to 

Mexico  had  tlii-ir  iK*at  hi- re  fur  a  numlier  of  ah«iut  2'i.o«m|  piei^es  (of  Cn  vards  each),  oon- 

years.    ElbcrfvM  is  rich  in  charitable  and  edu-  prise«l  in  1s5h  aUiut  7u,(HiO  iiiecec.    There  are 

catiuual  in»titutiunH,amouK^'hich  are  a  frynina*  S^mi  fnrtorii-^  mostly  worke*!  by  «team  power, 

aium,  an  industrial  »chiiul,  aiitl  a  k:1io«»I  in  which  25  dvi-iiii;  o»taMi^hment<*.  and  10  de|MttA  of  wool, 

tlie  hitfhvr  braiichi-*  uf  wi-aviiig  are  taught.  of  which  alM>ut  t;.(HNi,<)4M.i  ll>^.  are  annually  n^ 

El.ltKlIT,  a  N.  K.  ci>.  of  (ia.,  M-parated  fnim  quiro«i.  Thoaniiunl  n|rtn'e;rate  value  of  tlie  total 

F.   Carol ir.a   by  Savannali    rivt-r,  bounde«l    S.  itn.Mldrtion  i*  citimati-d  at  |10.<»*ni.(jimi.     The 

and  W.  by  Iimail   rivvr,  and  drained  by  sev-  Ui*<H'riiitiun  vf  frood?!  protliiivd  iurludes  doulde^ 

eral  small  crt^-k«  ;   ar^a,  614  im{.  m. ;  puji.  in  twilli^  and  wator-priN>f  eloths,  zcphrr\  faacj 

IMii,  Li.lt'o,  uf  mh<«m  0.44(i  were  p-lave*.    Tho  doth^  billianl  tablo  doth.and  HannvL     Nearly 

■uriace  i.^  hillv,  and  tho  nuI,  partirularly  near  4*)  i-!itabIi*»hmonti  nn-ivtil  niedaU  at  the  Parii 

the  riviT\  i^  frftilo.     Tho  iirodurtionA  in  1^.00  indu<itnal  exhiliiliun  uf  1nV>.   Th«rt«  are  i  an* 

Wore  t'U.iH'.fj  Irjiihi-ls  of  Indian  mm.  TM.l'^^t  of  nnal  fair««,  drrivinic  inifHtrtani'o  fn>m  tho  Kile  of 

oaii,  f4.7T7  of  swt-^t  |>i>ta(«HM,  and  H.5f».*i  Ifjili-e  clt>t!i,  tho  ixtt>ti«>ivo  tnid««  in  W(ni1,  ami  alv>  in 

of  rotiim.     Tbtrv  wrru  a  ni:mlier  of  milU  and  ca!?l«',  chinuwan',  and  hiniiory.   KlU'ufoin taint 

fartfrii^,  S<*  t-hurthiA  aiid  l/i"S  pupiU  att«'iid-  2  tt«jthic  olnirrLiA  courtn  nf  law,  ai.d  vark^oa 

ing  public  (whiMiln.     NcMr  tiie  Savannah  ri\^-r  wli'MiU  ainl  •  h:iritab!i' iii->titntioni. 

are  N<vtral  miiArk.nMv  artifi«'ial  fiitiinpK  ^'Me  KI.IiIN<t.  a  *^'»I**irt  t«>wn  of  vA»tt-m  Pniiai^ 

of  whn  h  i«  4-<  tir  iio  U-*  t  hii'h  aul  ha<«  a  lar^*is  on  a  rivrr  of  tiiv  mimo  r:nrno.  anil  fii  tlie  lier!in 

erdar  fHMiiin^  « in  it*  summit.     'Ilio  county  was  anil  K--iii^'^N  n*  rnilwav.  :<4  m.  K  S.  K.  frica 

naim^l  m  l.tmiT   of  >aniiiil  KlN-rt,   fomur!/  l^aiit/if;  {Hip.  :!4.f*"«i.     h  i4<^»inpu«od  ('f  tl.c  fU 

|(tiTrniiT  if  lh«*  Rfato.     Valuo  of  roal  i-^tate  in  and  now  tiiwn^iind  ^'Vi-riil  ^uburb^  i«  •urr«^v.nd- 

1h54,  |1. '••■'•  .SU.     t'upitol.  KlliTtoh.  e«l  by  niiufi*  «a1:«  and  r:inipart«.  un*!  c*>nU:De 

KI.IiKKI.  >kiiT  If,  an   Anii-rirnn   oflWr   i»{  H  I^rntoMAKt  •  hnri-!i«  4.  1  ('A'.l.olir  ai.d  1  MrM:«'0« 

tho  rrt.'!uti'in,  iMirn  in  Scirh  Cnrnlina  in  174-(.  ito  cLurrh,  a::'!  1  Avn.v '•"••.     Anii^nf:  i!»pai!ie 

dinl  in  .Viianiia)i,  <«a..  Nov.  3.  17***^.     l!o  wm  biuMinr*  t.^o  11:' 'tit  rciiiarLabb*  i«  the  rharoh  of 

eni^a^^tl    ir*   rou.mrn  iol  punmiis  in  S.iv<innAh,  Notr«*  l*ai!.<-.  a  »!ruiti:r«*  «>f  the  14th  cor. tsry. 

whi  rr  l.r  !••  ■  xtii*-  a  iiK'mU  r  'if  lltr  ^Mif-r.i]  ri<rii-  A  mllr^o  !•  t.fi-b-d  h< Tt  in  l'i3«i  ba^  a  library  vf 

nr.t:««  i'f  ^afiiT.  ai.il  iu  Kib,   177»"»,  ri'i«;\*««l  a  1\«'»hi  \i.!':i:it'«;  ax^d  ani>i;i);  it*  l».  r.i  vi^'.oM  e^ 

eoniiTiwi.iiii  a*  !••  n'lLiint  rt  lone  I  frcsn  t!.o  a«-  (^iT>i  ^firnvrit*    arc    H'Vtral    «';ido«io<l     !•/    Mr. 

icmbly  of  iit^'r^\3L     lie  wa-i  |  rom*!!*."!  t«i  the  Kirbard   i'>i\^Io,  a   Wi-allhy  En^u^hmaa.    who 

v/  cuJviuJ  ui  iLo  MWo  jrcAT;  kd  na  uu-  tuuk  up  Lis  rvaidcuco  in  Elbin|{  in  1^10  acd 


ELGESATTES  ELDON  £8 

died  in  Dantzio  ia  1821.    Elbing  has  manTifito-       'EJjy'ER,  an  orereeer,  rnler,  or  leader.    The 

torws  of  sugar,  potash,  tobacco,  soap,  chicory,  reverence  pidd  to  the  e^d  in  early  times  was 

litriol,  leather,  and  woollen  fabrics.  Its  marl-  doubtless  the  origin  of  this  title,  it  being  used  as 

time  trade  is  very  active,  its  exports  being  its  a  name  of  office  both  amongJews  and  Christians. 

own  mannfactures,  and  its  imports  grain  and  Hacknight  thinks  it  was  applied  in  the  apoetolio 

wisA.    This  place  owes  its  origin  to  commercial  age  to  cdL  whether  old  or  young,  who  exercised 

fftabCshments  founded  by  colonists  from  Bre-  any  sacred  office  in  the  Christian  church.  Elders 

men  and  Ltibeck  in  the  18th  century,  under  the  or  seniors,  in  the  ancient  Jewish  polity,  were 

protection  of  a  fortress  constructed  by  knights  persons  noted  for  their  age,  experience,  and  wich 

of  the  Teatonlc  order.    It  was  early  admitted  dom ;  of  this  sort  were  the  70  whom  Moses 

ioto  the  Hanseatio  league,  placed  itself  under  the  associated  with  himself  in  the  government  of 

procection  of  Poland  about  the  middle  of  the  Israel,  and  such  also  were  those  who  afterward 

llkh  century,  and  in  1772  was  annexed  to  the  held  the  first  rank  in  the  synagogue  as  presi- 

framnn  dominions.  dents.  Elders,  in  church  history,  were  origmaUy 

ELCESAITES,  a  sect   of  Asiatic  Gnostics,  those  who  held  the  first  place  in  the  assemblies 

fbooded  in  the  reign  of  Trajan,  a  branch  of  the  of  the  primitive  Christians.    The  word  presby- 

Jewisb  Essenes,  kindred  to  and  finally  confounded  ter  is  sometimes  used  in  the  New  Testament  in 

with  the  Ebionites.  A  Jew  by  the  name  of  Elxai  this  signification,  and  as  interchangeable  with 

or  Doesu  is  supposed  to  have  been  their  founder.  wntaKorros ;  and  hence  the  first  meetings  of  Chris- 

Iheir  most  distinctive  tenet  was  that  man  is  but  tian  ministers  were  called  oret^yfrna,  or  assem- 

amasB  dT  matter  in  which  the  divine  power  is  blies  of  elders.   Elder  and  elders,  with  the  Bap- 

eoneealed.    They  were  tenacious  of  their  oaths,  tists,  are  terms  used  to  designate  ministers  of 

&vored  early  marriages,  and  rejected  the  Penta-  the  gospel  generally.    With  the  Presbyterians 

tcieh  and  the  epistles  of  PauL  they  are  the  officers  who,  in  conjunction  with 

ELCHE  (anc.  /?t>i),  a  town  of  Spun,  prov-  the  ministers  and  deacons,  compose  the  church 

inoe  of  Valencia,  13  m.  S.  W.  from  Alicante,  8  m.  sessions,  representing  the  church  itself,  conduct- 

W.  fhxn  the  Mediterranean ;  pop.  22,800.    It  ing  its  discipline,  and  aiding  in  the  promotion 

isnrdled  on  every  side  by  forests  of  palm  trees,  of  the  interests  of  religion.    They  are  chosen 

and  has  been  named  the  city  of  palms.    The  from  among  the  people,  usually  for  life ;  are 

duef  industry  of  the  place  is  employed  in  the  generally  set  apart  to  their  office  with  some 

cnkare  and  exportation  of  dates,  which  are  in-  public  ceremony ;  and  their  number  is  different 

ferior  to  those  of  Barbary.  m  different  churches. — ^It  has  long  been  a  mat- 

ELCHIXGEN",  a  Benedictine  abbey  of  mo-  ter  of  dispute  whether  there  are  any  such  offi- 

£3Bval  celebrity,  founded  In  1128  upon  a  steep  cers  as  lay  elders  mentioned  in  Scripture.    On 

Bonnt^n  in  Bavaria,  7  m.  from  Ulm.    Amid  the  one  side,  it  is  said  thnt  these  officers  are  no- 

ihe  massive    buildings  which  composed  this  where  mentioned  as  being  alone  or  single,  but 

^bey,  the  church,  which  was  destroyed  by  always  as  being  many  in  every  congregation ; 

lightning  in  1773,  was  especially  distinguished,  that  they  are  mentioned  separately  from  the 

In  its  place  another  has  been  constructed  in  an  brethren ;  and  that  their  office  is  described  as 

even  more  ancient  style  of  architecture.    The  being  distinct  from  that  of  preaching,  he  that 

abbey  of  Elchingen  gives  its  name  to  2  villages  rulcth  being  expressly  distinguished  from  him 

■tnated  3  m.  apart  upon  opposite  sides  of  the  that  exhorteth  or  tcacheth.    On  the  other  side, 

moontain.  ThebattleofElcbingen,Octl4,1805,  it  is  contended  that  the  distinction  alluded  to 

was  one  of  the  most  brilliant  episodes  in  the  Aus-  does  not  refer  to  different  orders  of  officers,  but 

teriitz  campaign  of  Napoleon,  and  gained  for  only  to  the  degree  of  diligence,  faithfulness,  and 

Ibrshal  Key  the  title  of  duke  of  Elchingen.  laboriousness  with  which  they  discharge  their 

ELDER    (samhvcut    Canadensis,    Linn.),    a  duties  and  fulfil  their  ministerial  work;   and 

dwvy  shrub,  well  known  from  its  numerous  that  the  emphasis  in  such  passages  as  1  Timo- 

flat  cymes  of  white  flowers  appearing  in  June,  thy,  v.  17,  is  to  be  Ifdd  on  the  word  "labor," 

to  be  succeeded  by  heavy  black-purple,  crimson-  not  on  the  word  "  especially,"  as  though  tho 

jiieed  berries  in  August,  and  overtopping  the  latter  were  intended  to  distinguish  between  two 

wild  reeds  and  bushes  on  the  borders  of  fields,  different  classes  of  elders,  one  superior,  in  some 

Ok  account  of  its  long  and  spreading  roots  it  is  respects,  to  tho  other. 

sonetimes  troublesome  to  tho  farmer.  A  whole-        ELDON,  John  Scott,  earl  of,  lord  chancellor 

•one  sndorlfic  decoction  is  prepared  from  its  of  England,  born  in  Newcastle-upon-Tyne,  Juno 

flowers,  which  are  carefully  gathered  and  dried  4,  1751,  died  in  London,  Jan.  18,  1838.    His 

hi  the  purpose ;  the  fruit  is  much  esteeme<l  by  father  was  a  man  of  respectable  fortune,  en- 

■ime  in  the  manufacture  of  a  sort  of  wine,  while  gaged  in  the  coal  trade.    Jolm  was  taught  in 

Aepith  of  the  stem  furnishes  excellent  pith  balls  tho   grammar  school  of  his  native  town,  by 

lor  electrical  experiments.     There  is  another  the  Rev.  Hugh  Moiscs,  and  in  May,  1766,  in- 

^Mdes  (iSl  ptihens,  Michaux),  which  has  a  scar-  stead  of  being  apprenticed  to  the  coal  business, 

ik  frnit,  folly  ripe  at  the  time  the  former  is  in  as  his  father  had  designed  him  to  be,  he  was  sent 

Uoaom.    The  flowers  of  this  are  handsome,  of  to  liis  brother  William,  afterward  Jjonl  Stowell, 

agraenish  or  purplish  white,  borne  in  thvrse-like  who  was  then  a  tutor  at  Oxford.     He  was  enter- 

ipifceaL  The  plant  is  weU  worthy  of  cultivation  ed  a  commoner  of  University  college,  was  choaen. 

vbcie  it  is  not  found  growing  wild.  to  a  fellowship  in  July,  1767,  took  bis  bac^eW^ 


M  ELDOK 

degrfc  in  Fi*b.  1 770,  ^no<1  the  rhftncellnrV  prizo  tho  fknioTui  West  mi  D9t  or  scrutiny  raw,  an«! 
of  jtSit  for  AH  KnKliah  y»ru!io  oway  in  1771,  in-  down  thv  primuplo  which  hadMncc  pA!w&tl  into 
temlinirall  Uio  whiloto  tikeordt'm,  bntthiHiiUn  law,  **  that  iho  i>!vrti«m  mu«t  be  final! r  rluacU 
iron  rkanffid  in  177*2  br  lijh  ninninj;  away  with  bi'fnro  tho  rv!urn  nf  the  writ,  and  that  th«  writ 
Hint  t-llixAlH'ib  Snrtt.'ir*,  tho  4lanKht«-r  of  a  New-  must  Xm  returned  on  or  before  thi*  dar  ppecifirU 
eartlo  banker.  He  w'a*i  niHrrinl  At  liltickshiL-K  in  it.'*  ili<4  tir^t  ofliciid  apiKiintment  wa«  U»  tba 
in  Scut  land.  Sow  21*.  Thi*  bndi-*A  family  fur  a  chaxuvlliir-liip  of  tlio  county  |»alatine  and  bUh* 
vhilo  rofuMrd  t<»  tee  h«T;  but  ab«»nt  the  U-^iu-  oprir  of  Ihirham,  in  17A7;  and  in  June,  17^8, 
ninff  of  the  next  year  the  nun  of  X2,rHMi  woii  lie  wais  made  solicitor-p'neral,  and  rereirrd  the 
■ettled  ii|Min  ea<*lt  of  the  vnunK  ron|ilo  hy  their  boniT  of  kni^ltthttinl.  Si-nrrely  had  be  onteml 
rcf»peetive  (larentis  and  tlie  newly  married  pair  Dfion  hi^  new  ortire,  however,  when  tli«  great 
went  up  to  Oxford,  wliere  .Kdin  wa^  t<i  ttudy  political  vrWi^  ariMng  out  of  the  king^  im^nitj 
fur  the  law.  He  wait  admittc^l  of  tho  Middio  throatenetl  to  turn  liim  and  hi«  party  adrift. 
Temple  in  1773.  intending,  bo  we  Vi-r,  to  enter  tho  Mr.  Tit  t  pro{iO!(i-d  to  confer  limited  |>uwen  M 
chnn*b  if  a  c«ille|{e  livinfc  idiould  fall  vacant  dur-  recent  u]^in  the  prince  of  Wale*»  by  aet  of  par- 
ing the  year  of  grace  for  which  ho  wad  alIowe<l  liament,  and  thi-H  measuru  tho  .solicitor  wannl/ 
to  retain  bin  fellow. ••hip  after  murriaire.  Tho  upheld,  adviH-ating  the  use  of  the  great  ftcal  ia 
annivvrMiry  of  hi'k  marringo  dei^trured  hi.4  laiit  the  king^smime,  andbr«>achingadi*ctrine  wbicb 
bo|M.'  of  eccleAiaf»tii*al  prefennont,  and  he  tlienro-  virtuully  plai-e«l  ^uprenle  jiower  in  tbc  bands  oC 
forth  bent  liit  whole  mind  to  the  profe*t»ion  which  tho  |ien(on  i«  ho  hel«l  the  seal  f\*r  the  time  being. 
circumManccn  seemed  to  have  forciil  u|Hin  bim.  The  bill  wax  htop|M>d  in  iti  puiiiiago  by  the  kiDg** 
In  1774-'5  be  wan  a  tutor  in  rniver»ity  ctdlege,  recovery,  bnt  the  line  of  action  then  Liid  down 
wliere.  Iiowever,  be  pmbably  did  no  more  than  dictatvd  tfie  cour*io  of  ibo  ministry  at  a  later  p«- 
puperintend  the  law  tttudie.s  of  !»omo  of  the  meiu-  riotl.  In  1793  Sir  John  wa.s  made  attorney-gviH 
bi'Ps  and  at  the  umo  time  be  obtaine<l  the  t\h-  cml,  and  as  kuch  c« inducted  tho  famous  stat4 
pointnient  of  vice-i»rincipal  of  New  Inn  ball  triaU  tif  17'J4.  in  which  be  wait  oppu»ed  toErs- 
and  vice  law  prufesMir,  hU  duties  being  to  kiue.  Scot  tfuiUd  to  obtain  a  con  viction,notwiilk* 
mad  the  lectures  written  by  bis  BU|>crior,  Sir  standing  a  ^|M•ech  of  9  hi»uri»*  duration,  and  wai^ 
Kobert  Cbambcni.  Ik*Mde  the  laithful  i^tudy  of  moreover,  exiM.K'd  to  c«jnMderab1o  bodily  dan- 
Coke  uiHiu  Littleton,  he  read  and  ri' mem  Ik- red  ger  from  the  «-.\citcd  populace.  In  July,  1799, 
all  tlio  re|N>rt«.  riving  at  4  in  tho  morning  and  on  the  death  of  Sir  Jumi*ft  Kyre,  bo  obtained  tb* 
reading  until  late  at  night.  In  177>'>  be  r\'mt>Vi*d  |Mi>t  of  chief  ju.«tice  of  the  cummon  ideas,  and 
to  Ijoudi^n.  where  an  eminent  c^invryancvr,  Mr.  with  it  the  rank  of  Jtaron  Kldon  «*f  Kldon.  bia 
I>uane,  ttM^  bim  into  hi^f  oilice  without  the  cu4-  title  Uong  taken  from  an  c^ttate  which  bo  bad 
touuu'T  (w\  and  in  Feb.  177(».  ho  wan  called  to  purch:iM:d  in  ilic  cuuntv  of  l>urbain.  Shortly 
Die  bar.  In  after  life  be  lovi-d  to  i^jieak  of  tho  after  the  f41rm.it ion  of  '^Ir.  Addingtou**  Uiinia- 
difHcidttei*  of  hi«  early  career;  but  in  trulJi,  nf-  try,  in  l^oi,  hi>  iK-came  lonl  chancellor,  receir* 
ter  a  shorter  perind  of  inaction  than  falU  to  tho  in^  bin  apjNiintnicnt,  it  in  Ktid.  dint*t]y  fri'U  tb« 
lot  of  ni'M*.  young  law^vm,  he  svenif  to  have  king,  who  wa.4  plen^^-il  to  intru«t  the  great  seal 
risen  iteadily.  and  hii  fortune  wast  made  by  his  U*  one  wlkn<.e  anti-Catholic  zeal  accordevl  st.i  well 
fjuni'Qs  argument  in  the  ca.«>e  of  Ackruvd  n.  with  the  nival  nentiment*.  lie  contrib*;led  to 
f*mith»«'n,  which  l/>rd  Thnrluw  di-eidetl  in  hU  tho  overthrow  of  Mr.  Adtlington  and  the  furu- 
favitr  on  ap{M*al  in  March,  17^0.  In  the  full«iw.  ation  of  Titl's  ^ec•lUil  ailnuui.»tratii>n,  in  which 
ing  Tear  he  still  further  advanci-«l  his  priMiK-i-ts  bo  retained  hi^  tiflit-«*,  but  he  re«igiu*d  it  wkvn 
by  his  display  of  ability  in  the  t  lit heroi*  elation  tho  wlii,;^  cime  into  iKiwer  under  Mr.  Fox  and 
case,  which  he  undcrt4M>k  in  the  abM'mc  of  other  I.<)r«Uirenvil!e.  in  Feb.  l^oG.  He  wa<i  an  activ* 
r«*aii«rl.  at  a  few  hour^*  notice.  A  plan  which  lie  member  of  the  op|MiHition,  and  with  the  porpuan 
bad  rntertaint'il  of  ietthng  in  Newca-^tle  m'a«*  now  of  breaking  down  tlie  >»  big  cabinet  by  enlUUnf 
abandoueil.  In  June,  17 *».'(,  tin  tlie  fonnation  sympathy  ior  the  iirinceM  uf  Walea^  be  i«  is^ 
vt  the  ciialitii-n  ministry  of  Fox  and  I.i»rt|  North,  tMisi'd  to  have  pnNluccd.  in  ctug unction  m  itb  Mr. 
Le  was  on«>  of  !«rtral  j.mior  ci>un«M-l  « Im  ni-ro  Feriwal,  the  fum<»n!i  "Il<Nik,"  who»e  origin  waa 
calkd  nithin  tlie  bar,  and  a  f<-w  d:i}-i  afttr  ho  Milongamrstvry ;  but  it**  publication  wa«  »t>>|H 
wa*  made  a  U-nrhvr  %.*(  hi*  inn  of  i-i>urt.  Tho  |mn1  wht  n  tiie  toriesi  came  int«i  |io»er  bv  the  cry 
influrucv  of  l^jpl  Thurl.iw  pp<-urol  !i.m  a  seat  of  "danger  tu  the  church,"  and  on  April  1. 1807, 
in  the  hfiu«e  of  cummons  as  rcpri^'i. tattle  of  I^rd  Kldon  t4Hikhi4<«i«Ht  again  u|h  in  the  wu«<Usck. 
I.ord  We\mot:th*«  Ntrongb  of  Wi-itMy,  uml  cji  Huw.isnow  at  tlie  hi-ight  i»f  fa%or  andinliocncw; 
Itrc.  f*\  17^5.  he  dehvcnd  hi«ii:aii!t-ii  nimvi  h  in  hi;*  intimate  rehtiou^  with  the  king.  noIis«  than 
o|i|4Hiti*-n  to  Mr  Fox't  \lMi  Ii^ha  bill,  but  with  bin  otiicul  |HMitiun,  gave  him  a  nbare  in  tbe  ad- 
little  «M<  re**.  Snitt,  in  faiC.  «.-««  ni«  orator,  and  niii.i«trati'>n  such  u%  no  chanci*Ilur  bad  rxyit^ed 
though  }v  aftcr11a.1l  »(»i.Li*  nith  i:r«.M-:.  i->|-."  f«irniany  yi-ar^;  antl  lb«Mi^htheaK«€'rt:oiiiif  IxTd 
cially  o.'i  bvnd  •iUiHition^  and  priivtd  a  |io«rrful  Itrougham  that  he  did  thne  fourth*  of  tlio  gur- 
uemtirr  of  the  V*r}  part v,  he  i.ever  aojuircd  r rn i u^  of  t It v  cciun '.ry  for  a  whoK* generation  may 
tl<o  faMic  of  a  ir-d  tleltutcf.  ( >n  the  at-<'«'i^*ion  Im>  rX4gg%-rate*l.  it  i«  ci-rtaiu  that  at  timr«  «tca 
of  Mr.  Fi't,  in  March,  ITM,  be  cafiie  int.i  par*  thi- king  «aanot4irioi>}y  iikcfini|>«.leiilhe  pitt  t^^e 
l:an«<iit  a^TAin  as  a  m<-mVr  fur  Wck.hir,  hut  in  gr^al  M'al  U>  um*»  fmui  which  bi«  nior><  timid 
Uf^  fu^uniis^  jcmr  hm  aupjA^ridd  Mr.  Fox  in  aaaociitca  drew  back,  and  in  |*arLam«ut  the 


ELDON  ELEATIO  SCHOOL               55 

sererast  strictares  were  passed  npon  his  oon-  him,  and  he  had  the  reputation  of  being  one  of 
duet.     When  the  recovery  of  the^ng  became  the  most  entertaining  story  tellers  of  his  day. 
BO  longer  probable,  Lord  Eldon  began  to  cnl-  Li  his  "  Anecdote  B^k/'  a  sort  of  autobiogra- 
tiTate  the  favor  of  the  regent,  snddenly  took  phy  compiled  in  his  old  age,  he  does  little,  how- 
aide  against  tlie  princess  Caroline,  and  bought  ever,  to  snstain  his  character  as  a  hnmorist,  and 
vp  as  many  as  possible  of  the  few  copies  of  the  shows  a  lack  of  literary  culture  not  surprising 
**  Book**  which  had  got  into  circulation.    In  in  one  who  from  the  age  of  22  read  nothmg  but 
the  ministerial  intrigues  following  the  aasassina-  law  books  and  the  newspapers. 
tkm  of  Kr.  Percevfd  he  was  the  secret  adviser  ELEANOR  of  AQurrAnnE,  queen  of  France 
of  the  prince,  and  the  real  author  of  Lord  Liv-  and  afterward  of  England,  born  in  1122,  died 
cn»ool*8  administration,  which  lasted  with  slight  March  81,  1204.    She  was  the  eldest  daughter 
diangesontil  the  death  of  that  minister  in  182T,  and  heiress  of  William  IX.,  duke  of  Guienne 
A  period  of  15  yeara.    Lord  Eldon's  devotion  to  or  Aquitaine,  and  was  married,  Aug.  2,  1187,  to 
his  ^dear  young  master"  was  not  without  re-  Prince  Louis,  who  in  the  same  year  succeeded  to 
ward.    On'  the  death  of  George  IIL  he  was  con-  the  throne  of  France  as  Louis  YII.  She  was  gay. 
firmed  in  his  office,  and  by  his  subsequent  part  in  frivolous,  a  lover  of  poetry  and  art,  and  could 
the  matter  of  the  proposed  divorce  he  earned  the  not  sympathize  wiUi  the  ascetic  spirit  of  her 
dignity  of  Viscount  Encombe  and  earl  of  Eldon,  husband.    She  accompanied  him  on  the  second 
which  George  IV.  conferred  upon  him,  July  7,  crusade  to  the  Holy  Land  in  1147.  At  that  time 
1831.    Bat  with  the  introduction  of  more  lib-  he  complained  of  her  preference  for  other  men, 
tral  Tiewa  than  had  hitherto  ruled  the  nation,  and  on  their  return  from  Asia  they  were  divoro- 
LordEldon's  influence  began  to  wane.    Though  ed,  March  18,  1152.    A  short  time  afterward 
rtiH  honored,  he  was  less  and  less  consulted,  she  bestowed  her  hand  upon  Henry  Plantagenet^ 
The  ideas  which  he  had  brought  with  him  from  the  future  Henry  II.  of  England.    This  alliance, 
the  previous  generation,  his  uncompromising  which  made  Henry  master  of  Eleanor's  vast 
hostility  to  reform  in  law  or  parliament,  his  firm  possessions  in  France,  produced  pernicious  and 
itand  against  Catholic  emancipation,  his  coercion  protracted  wars  between  Franco  and  England. 
of  the  press,  were  no  longer  the  principles  of  She  bore  him  many  children,  but  his  infidelitiea 
the  government ;  and  when  Mr.  Canning  became  and  neglect  changed  her  love  into  hatred.    She 
iidnkter,in  1827,  he  resigned  the  great  seal,  and  incited  her  sons  GreofiOrey  and  Richard  to  rebd 
was  aooeeeded  by  Lord  Lyndhurst.    He  never  against  their  father,  was  arrested  in  1174,  and 
again  took  office,  though  he  showed  on  several  remained  in  confinement  until  after  Henry's 
occasions  a  readiness  to  do  so ;  and  in  1835  he  death  in  1189,  when  she  was  released  by  his  suo- 
withdrew  entirely  from  public  life,  taking  with  cesser,  Richard  I.,  CoBur  de  Lion,  who  placed 
him  a  large  fortune,  the  legitimate  fruit  of  his  her  at  the  head  of  the  government  on  his  de- 
poittioa.    As  a  lawyer,  Lora  Eldon  ranks  among  parture  for  the  Holy  Land.    She  negotiated  his 
the  greatest  who  have  ever  adorned  the  bench  marriage  with  the  daughter  of  the  king  of 
or  bar  of  England.    Without  a  mind  of  the  high-  Navarre,  and  went  to  Germany  with  his  ransom 
eat  order,  and  little  versed  in  the  civil  or  in  for-  from  captivity.    She  afterward  retired  to  the 
eign  codes,  he  was  unsurpassed  in  knowledge  of  abbey  of  Fontevrault,  and  surviving  Richard, 
^a^flwh  law  and  in  subtlety  and  acuteness  of  in-  lived  to  see  him  succeeded  by  one  of  her  other 
tdlect;  but  his  habitual  hesitation  in  deciding,  sons,  John  Lackland,  the  signer  of  Magna  Char- 
boside  proving  ruinous  to  suitors,  encumbered  ta.    She  was  a  favorite  personage  with  the  trou- 
the  court  of  chancery  with  a  vast  arreor  of  badour  poets  of  the  day,  and  appears  in  a  verv 
emses  which  was  often  the  subject  of  parlio-  different  light  in  their  works  from  that  in  which 
meatary  animadversion.    Hence,  according  to  she  is  represented  by  the  French  and  Norman 
Mr.  H.  Twiss,  his  biographer,  it  was  in  the  chroniclers. 

eoounon  law  courts,  where  he  was  forced  to  ELEATIC  SCHOOL,  a  group  of  Greek  phi- 
decide  without  delay,  rather  than  in  the  courts  losophers,  beginning  with  Xenophanes  of  Col- 
of  equity,  that  he  gained  his  greatest  reputa-  ophon,  whosettledinElca  or  Velia,  a  Greek  coi- 
tion. His  opinions,  from  the  study  bestowed  ony  of  southern  Italy,  in  the  6th  century  B.  C, 
rthem,  are  of  the  first  value,  but  they  are  and  whose  principal  disciples  were  Parmenides 
expressed  in  confused  and  obscure  Ian-  and  Zeno,  both  of  Elea,  and  Mclissus  of  Samos. 
nege.  As  a  politician,  he  was  distinguished  Some  of  the  ancients  also  ranked  Lcucippns  and 
if  adroitness,  tact,  and  a  boldness  strangely  in  Empedoclcs  among  them,  which  has  led  seve- 
eontrast  with  his  hesitation  on  the  bench ;  but  ral  historians  of  philosophy  to  distinguish  two 
Is  was  not  a  great  statesman,  and  knew  little  Eleatic  schools,  one  of  metaphysics  and  the 
of  teeign  politics.  Ho  had  a  horror  of  innova-  other  of  physics.  But  apart  from  the  radical 
tioB,  looked  upon  the  reform  bill  of  1831  with  difference  which  separates  the  doctrines  of  Em- 
■BDcied  fright  and  amazement,  and,  with  a  pedocles  and  Loncippus  from  the  system  of 
momdfondnessfor  political  prosecutions,  boast-  Xenoplianes  and  Parmenides,  there  is  no  evi- 
sd  that  he  had  caused  more  actions  for  libel  in  2  dence  that  the  latter  philosophers  were  at  all 
years  than  had  taken  place  in  20  years  before,  associated  with  the  former.  It  can  only  be  af- 
ffis  demeanor  on  the  bench  was  courteous  and  firmed  that  they  were  all  contemporary,  and 
aflkble.  His  domestic  life  was  eminently  happv  that  the  writings  of  Parmenides  probably  con- 
■nd  Tirtnous ;  his  good  humor  seldom  forsook  tribated  to  tho  modificatiou  of  lonlasi  \^«aa 


56                      ELEAZAR  ELECTOR 

wroofslit  hj  Tjiuri|i|ii|4,  and  t«i  tlic  rliAnjrc'fl  in  onlor,  and  on  Aamn^s death  wm  railed  to  Um 

tiio  MMrzii  iif  i*Tt!iu^i>rA!>i  made  hy  KiMii«'iliit-lc*.  di»rinty  uf  hi^li  phc<(.     HiA|Kintitirat«  wa.«roD- 

Tbo  iCi-iiiTiil  Npirit  ot' tliv  M-liiNil  iiiuv  l>o  ditinvd  U'liiporury  with  tlie  iniUtur/  ipivvminrnt   of 

as  ori  AtuiMpi.  |Kr}ij»{i4  t}ii'  tir<>t  I'wr  iuaiK-.  t«>  Ju-huo,  aiid  the  Inxik  <»f  Jcrthiia  cli»«c«  «'ith  aa 

refiT  all  m  u-Mtv  i**  i!iv  al'"'i*luti'  aiiil  \*\irv  idfiu  account  of  Win  death  and  hurial. — Elkazj^k,  bob 

of  till'  r«.aMiri.     Thiro  aro.  ai-ionliii^  to  tho  of  iKwhi,  waMoiivof  l>avid'43  ini^htv  men.  who 

Elvatio,  tWM  kind;*  cf  kunwUd^v.  tlmt  «)ii(h  Mimti*  the  Phihstino^  till  hi*  hand  wan  wrary, 

CNiim-^  UtM"  thriiu^h  tin*  k'H^v.  mid  thut  whirh  and  who  with  2  othi-ni  broke  thrimch  the  Phi* 

Wc  i>wi*  t>i  tht.'  n-a!M>ii  ik!<iii«'.  T!u*  'M-ifUri'  «  hi«-h  h>tini>  h<i«t  to  hriitK  to  Pa\id  a  draught  uf  watar 

U  euniii-t"^- 1  tif  (he  ftiniuT  i-*  only  an  illu^ii>n,  from  liin  native  lU-thlvhem. 

for  it  i-ontuiii'^  ikothin.;  trut*.  tix^**!.  anil  diiraMe.  ELECAMPANE,  the  riNit  of  the  plant  inutm 

The  only  i'«  rTttin  tn  iciue    in   t!iut   Vi  Itirh  vim-*  A^/rnium,  a  liaiidMinie  nhrub,  wliirh.  introdorad 

nothing  to  llti*  MiiM.-,  anil  all  to  i!k*  n-u-on.  into  Aniericu  from  Eun»|>e.  i^  now  rrminion  m 

Childri-a  ;uiil  t!ie  untjiu^'ht  mar  tK-lii-Vf  in  the  our  ^aniens  and  i;ruws  wiM  in  meatlown  and  bj 

reality  of  M-n-iMi'  a|i{<-uranci-!«.  )iut  the  pliilo»-  thr  mailsiiii*!^  in  the  northern  Ktate^.     The  rooi 

0|'herwjiiim.ikithe  louu'iationuf  tliinfr<«*.hiiulil  should   tie  du^  in  autumn  and  of  the  Mrond 

a|i|K*al   only    t<i   tho   Tvm^tu.     The  re   are   two  year'if  growth.     It  baA  an  a^rreeable  arumatie 


iirim-i|ile««  in  nut u re,  on   the  one  Mile  tire  or     oilor  wlieu  driiil,  Mtniewhat  like  that  of  c. 
ii^hU  ai'd  on  the  other  ni^'lit  or  tliirk  iind  heavy     phor,  and  ii**  ta*ite  when  rhewed  i*  warm  and 
matter.     Tiiex.'  priniiiiU**  aredi«tin(t  but  not     bitter;   water  ami  aleohol  eitrart  it*  peculiar 


aeparate  :  thev  at't  iii  o>neert,  pUunt:  t•ll^'the^  pr«tiKTtie.4,  the  latter  nlo^t  reailily.  It^ 
a  lN*r|ietnal  anil  univer*>id  part  in  the  world.  arfVird  the  ve^- table  priiiciple**  alaiitina  t»r  is* 
The  wtrrld  i^  Uiunili-d  by  a  rirele  of  Iii;ht  an  by  iiline.  reM*nibIinf;  >tari*h,  ami  helenine,  which 
a  pnile.  und  i-  dividi-*!  into  li  |»art^  in  t!ie  ren-  forni'*  b>nt;  wliite  (*ry»taN.  The  |Niwdercd  rooi 
tral  one  of  vkhiili  mi-e<<M(y  rei;;n?*  Niven-i^'n.  ur  the  dee(H-tii»n  in  water  i^  UM-d  in  nirdicino 
Tlie  »Ian*  are  l*ut  eonileiiMii  Are.  an^l  the  earth  a«  a  lonii*  niid  ^tinmlunt.  It  in  prescribed  in 
i»  the  darkest  and  hea\K-<*t  of  all  lMH!ii«.  It  i.H  chri*nie  diM-ii!ti-<iof  the  lunt;;*. 
ruund,  and  plod  ed  by  it^  ow  n  weijlit  in  ilie  eeii-  El.ECTi*lC,  or  ruiMB  EiBtTOR  (Ikurfuni)^ 
tre  of  (he  Mnrld.  Men  are  born  of  tlie  earth,  in  the  old  (lerman  emtiire,  the  title  uf  tboM 
wartueil  by  t!ie  ^Aat  ray-,  axid  thoUk'ht  i^apro*  princes  whu  enjoyed  tho  privilege  of  cUctiaf 
dui  t  of  or«:iUii2atii»n.  From  t}ii«  c-iimniintrlin);  (kur<n)  the  emperor,  or  ratlier  the  kin^,  far 
of  fire  and  earth  hu\e  U-tfun  all  tlie  tliin;:^  whii  li  tlio  ruler:*  of  the  liennan  empire  Were  uriirinall/ 
our  MMiM-^  fih>'W  n^  and  whirh  will  iMime  time  ad  ^U(h  «inly  kin^c^.  I'mler  the  Car!oviu|pai» 
peri»h.  I{.it  in  all  the^-  ph\Mral  phenomena  t)i«  Kuvvmnieni  wa>  hereditarv*.  After  tbeirci- 
tiiere  i«  no  true  M'ieitiv.  Kea«<>n  In  the  exriu.  tinelion  tlie  mu»t  |K>a'rr!ul  prinee«s  toch  a«  tbo 
aive  N'iiri-e  of  certHinty.  and  reason  roiK-ei\eii  duke-i  of  the  liavahaiis  Saxona,  Saabians  Fran- 
and  n«-<vni/e<*  a*  (rue  iiotliin;;  but  al'Mihitf  be-  cuniaiin,  and  I^itharinpan^,  were  acrnatunMd 
iu^,  U-itiir  lit  i(-^l!'roti<*iilireii,  that  In  a«*  di-^n*  to  curne  to  ati  under^tandiiijc  n»  tuthe  one  tub* 
Ka^ol  fr«>iM  v>ery  piiTti*  ular.  llt-i-tinf:.  arnl  |*it*  K'leeted  frum  anionir  their  !iuml>er  tu  rule  nrcr 
U)iab!>-  I  iTi  ':!u-taiii  «■.  m>*>lilirutifii.  or  a4'i'id«iit.  all  the  (iennari  trilii^.  Tii'n  wat  done  withiait 
Tliu*  e\«  ry  \\nuj:  mIiuIi  Itiks  ei*  r  |i«-|*un  to  (>«-,  anv  »{  i*<*itir  hiw.  the  electon  U'ing  dimply  pow- 
every  t]i::i^  a  !«:i-}i  i.<*  «UM-ipt:'hle  of  <  haitk'e  or  errulentiu^h  (oet)nt4-<«t  any  eliTtion  ma*!e  a^Tunat 
inod:ii«  at;ii:i.  «>t'  birili  or  d<'<«triii-!Mn.  ha-«  no  tlieirail).  Hut  in  th«*  (*ourM.*of  lime  the  elvcto- 
TeritaMe  ei>ttnre;  it  i«  ni>t  bi  in.',  but  «tiily  ral  pri\ile^e  iK-i'ame  a  rifcht  inherent  in  rrrtaia 
a|*iN  arfi::i-e.  Ite«:>b«  Uin^\  in  l\t\^  "m  n^*  of  (be  territ«irial  i*<i»M-^.«ion«,  vi«. :  the  an-hbudiof-rica 
Wi*rd.  tl.i  ri-  i«,  fti«i>p!;nt:  t>i  tbe  Eleain^  only  of  Ment/,  Treve^i,  and  IViht^rne,  and  tlM»  priori- 
hot  hiiip:!  :«*«<.  an>i  a*  tin*  i-  bit  the  niyati-in  of  p:d:tiettuf  the  Talatinate,  SaXony.  Hrandcnburf, 
all  t). .!.,;«.  •  Tie  ran  n«:(lii  r  atf'.rni  it  ni^rib  uy  it.  and  lUtl.einia.  The  inoumlH'nt*  of  the^  prio- 
IWin.;  i«  rt>  rr::i].  ui.i  !ian;:i  :i*>!e,  m  !•'<  xi«:ixi( ;  It  <ipali(ie4  arteil  a«  cUrti>rH  fi>r  the  liriit  time  ill 
ha«  ntitl.tr  ]•&«*  t.'ir  f.iiiire.  n«i(!i«r  p.irtt  n^T  12<if>,  when  they  rhoM*  Itiehard  ctf  C\>mwalL 
li:iiii«,  ni-L;!i>-r  t!ni«..*:i  irir  Miiie*<i<'n;  it  i^  A  t'en(ury  later  their  eieluMve  pritdep'  waa 
tlirn  an  B!>--!iite  i;i>.!«.  an>l  «\er,\  th^iv  *•'*«'  ii  Kunrantetd  to  them  by  the  'Miolden  linll  '*  Id 
but  an  ii!ii"i>-n.  Tl.u*.  the  Eiiaiii'  ^w!eiii  i!«  -  I'VIh  an  >^\U  tleitoratu  w af»  e»taL>lL<»he«l  fi>r  tho 
Die*  t^«*  data  liri..«^iil  b>  tlie  m  n-><  •.  di  niti  ]*al.'»tinate,  who^*  ri^rhtA  had  btvu  tranikferr«d  to 
the  p  iHTt^! I /«!•>•!. 4  an«l  aN»:r.M-;i>*n«  «  hii-h  (!.!•  Havana  diiring;  the  «{•>  >eani*  war  :  it  Ini^ame  ez« 
r«-a*«*i.  fii«i!i!»  uiM-n  »:!•  li  i!a!a,  ami  ntlirni'*  ofdv  tinrt  in  1777.  In  Ki'.*J  the  durhvof  liruntwiek- 
tii4.^>  iii^t  •^.bri  i<!rA«  « itii  h  rin.~'n  ••Mi «  ^''b  !y  iJinebunr  aaA  raivM  to  the  raiik  of  an  tler- 
fii  it««!f.  a:i!  «!.i<  S  it « tii''!*>i  *  in  ii«  o|>«  ruTi"!.-^.  toraie.  Whin  the  liennan  empire  wan  tot  trnn^i 
Tfie  n  «Tii;  i«  a  |  ai.tl.t  :«"i.  ni  Xi  ifpLoite^i  re-  to  ii«  ruin  in  oaiMi^nrnri*  uf  tbe  war»  witii 
w*n»l  !iu»-t^  •  M<  :.•!•«!  i^at'  r;ui  .»:-.«]  •\'.r.i'ia\  p.tn-  r«.  vol-.it'.oi..'iry  Fraure,  t!je  eleetoral  rolle^r^  waa 
ihi-  ^m  I  f  >j-'.!.  ■•.*.  Ml!  in  I'aniM  :.:dt  «  ap]  rou*  !i-  riitin  ly  rein«i!il!i-,!.  Tin- et«  Ie«ia!*tiral  elt-«';i«ra 
iU^  X\.r  «!  .*:r<.;a!  ••!.  i^i-tii*  {>Ai.;*.«  t«r:i  «•(  F:i  !itt-.  ha^il'^*  b^t  ti.eir  i-oSM'^«ifn«  i^n  the  left  )>ank  of 
KI.K.V^AK  Mi  '■  .  (i'«l  1*  )i*\i'  .  t!.e  i..tM.i-  i'f  the  lliiine.  ^  m«  uUr  prinrt.-*  were  miM-l  t  •  the 
■rvrrol  ai.i-.if.t  lb'  :«  «  ».  T)ie  u.--'.  ii<  :••!  of  m:ik  o(*  ttiiri<r\  x'lg.  the  mar^ra%e  of  HatU  r., 
the:*:  «  a-  il.i*  M  -  :i  •■:'  Airi'ii.  «!.••  In  Id  in  bi«  tbe  duLe  of  Wurti  ni!H-r«f.  an^l  the  land^ra«r  uC 
lalLtr'i  Jifili:nv  the  u%«.r».^'h:  if  the  LL\ili<.al  lleMC-Caw«l;  bi^ide  lhe»e,  the  grand  duk«  \d 


ELEOTBA  ELEOTRIO  FISHES  67 

Tisscanj,  hATing  been  made  arobbishop  of  Saltz-  Tbe  vengeance  of  the  guilty  mother  and  her 

burjr  and  afterward  of  WUrtzburg,  was  recog-  aocomplice  threatened  death  also  to  Orcstos,  but 

nlzed  as  an  elector.    But  when,  in  1806,  the  Electra  discovered  his  danger,  and  sent  him 

emperor  Francia  abdicated  the  German  crown,  away  to  King  Strophius  of  Phocis,  who  had  him 

the  electoral  system  came  to  an  end.    Bavaria,  educated  with  his  own  son  Pylades.     Orestes 

SaxoDj,  and  WOrtemberg  became  kingdoms  (the  had  hardly  attained  tlie  strength  of  manhood 

eUctors  of  Brandenburg  had  been  kings   of  when  Eloctra  sent  secret  messengers  to  him 

PnssA  since  1700) ;  Baden  was  a  grand  duchy ;  urging  him  to  undertake  the  duty  of  vengeance. 

and  the  elector  of  Ilesse-Cassel  was  deprived  of  With  his  friend  Pylades  he  came  in  disguise  to 

his  dominions,  which  were  afterward  incorpo-  Argos,  made  himself  known  to  his  sister,  and 

rated  in  the  new  kingdom  of  Westphalia.  Thus,  slew  both  .^Igisthus  and  Clytemncstra  in  the 

fi)r  6  years,  the  title  of  elector  had  no  legal  ex-  palace.    The  guilt  of  matricide  awoke  the  Furies 

isteBoe,  until  it  was  revived  after  the  downfall  against  him,  who  stung  him  to  madness,  and 

of  the  king  of  Westphalia  by  the  elector  of  pursued  him  over  the  earth.    On  the  shore  of 

HcsK^Cassel,  now  the  only  prince  bearing  that  the  Taurio  Chersonesus  he  was  about  to  be  sa- 

title.    The  prince  electors  enjoyed  not  only  the  crificed  by  the  priestess  of  Diana,  his  own  sister 

pririlege  of  choosing  the  German  kings,  but  also  Iphigenia,  who  was  ignorant  of  the  relationship. 

that  of  subjecting  them  to  certiun  stipulations  According  to  some,  the  report  even  reached 

md  conditions,  which,  in  many  cases,  were  so  Greece  that  he  had  perished.  Electra  in  despair 

ending  as  to  leave  the  monarch  scarcely  a  rushed  to  the  oracle  of  Delphi  to  learn  the  par- 

diadov  of  poifer.    By  the  **  Golden  Bull  *'  the  ticulars.    At  the  same  time  Orestes,  Pylades, 

electors  are  called  ^  the  seven  columns  and  pil-  and  Iphigenia  arrived  there.    A  casual  word 

hn  of  tight  of  the  holy  empire,"  also  '*  the  having  at  the  last  moment  revealed  Orestes  to 

Bwmbers  of  the  imperial  body."    It  was  one  of  his  sister,  Electra  was  about  to  hurl  a  firebrand 

their  privileges  to  offer  their  advice  to  the  em-  into  the  face  of  Iphigenia,  when  her  arm  was 

peror  whether  he  asked  for  it  or  not    They  stayed  by  Orestes.    Electra  became  the  wife  of 

were  also  entitled  to  all  royal  honors,  except  the  Pylades,  and  the  mother  of  Medon  and  Strophius. 

title  of  migesty.   The  electors  had  each  a  special  Her  story  has  been  treated  from  various  points 

function  in  the  administration  of  the  empire  or  of  view  by  almost  all  the  great  tragedians^  by 

the  impcnal  hoosehold.    Thus,  the  elector  of  u£schylus,  Sophocles,  and  Euripides  among  the 

Mentz  was  arch-chancellor  of  the  empire,  chair-  ancients,  and  by  Racine,  Alfieri,  and  Goethe 

tun  of  the  electoral  college  and  of  the  diet ;  the  among  the  modems. 

cfcctorof  Treves  was  lieutenant  arch-chancellor        ELECTRIC    FISIIES.     The    extraordinary 

ffl(rGermany;thatof  Cologne  the  same  for  Italy;  modification  of  the  peripheral   extremities  of 

the  elector  ofBohemia  arch-cupbearer;  the  elect-  nerves  by  which  electricity  is  geuerfttcd  and 

or  of  the  Palatinate  orch-dapifer  and  licuten-  discharged,  is  found  in  4  genera  of  fishes,  and 

Bt  of  the  emperor  in  the  Rhenish  provinces;  in  no  other  class  of  the  vertcbrnta.    Tlie  best 

&e  elector  of  Brandenburg  arch-chamberlain ;  known  of  these  fishes  will  bo  described  under 

the  elector  of  Saxony  arch-marsbal  and  vice-  Torpedo  ;  a  second,  the  gymnotus  or  electrical 

naident  of  the  diet ;  tliat  of  Brunswick-LUne-  eel,  has  been  already  mentioned  under  Eel  ;  the 

KTg  arch-treasurer.     The  electorates  created  other  two  will  bo  briefly  alluded  to  here,  as  there 

dw^y  before  the  dissolution  of  the  empire  had  is  no  common  name  under  which  they  would 

not  yei  been  endowed  with  special  functions. —  properly  come.    The  3d  electrical  fish  belongs 

h  the  political  system  of  the  United  States,  to  the  family  of  siluridcB,  and  the  genus  mal- 

tieetcHrs  are  chosen  by  the  people  of  each  state  apterurus  (Lacep.).    The  M,  elertricus  (Laccp.) 

to  elect  the  president  and  vic43-president.  Each  differs  from  the  common  siluroids  in  having  no 

sate  diooscs  as  many  electors  as  it  has  members  anterior  dorsnl  fin  nor  pectoral  spine ;  the  skin 

xa  the  two  houses  of  congress ;  and  these  elect-  is  naked  and  scalclcss ;  there  is  an  adipose  dor- 

onmeet  at  the    capitals  of  their  respective  sal  fin  near  the  caudal;  tho  vontrals  arc  just 

ntei,  on  the  1st  day  of  January  next  after  the  behind  the  middle,  and  the  anal  occupies  about 

dection,  and  cast  their  votes  for  president  and  half  tho  distance  between  them  and  the  rounded 

vice-president.     These  votes  are  then  sealed  up  caudal ;  the  body  is  stout,  tho  tail  thick,  and  tho 

md  carried  by  special  messengers  to  Washing-  head  short  and  conical;  the  lips  are  fleshy,  with 

tot,  where  they  are  opened  and  counted  in  tho  6  barbels ;  5  villiform  teeth  in  each  jaw,  iiono  on 

fRKDce  of  both  houses  of  congress,  and  tho  the  vomer.    Tho  fish  attains  a  length  of  18  or 

iHolt  proclaimed   by    the    president  of  the  20  inches,  and  is  found  in  tho  Nile,  Senegal,  and 

ttte.  other  rivers  of  northern  and  central  Africa ;  tho 

CUCTRA  (}n  Gr.,   the  bright  or  brilliant  color  is  cinereous  or  olive  above,  spotted  and 

)),  dangbter  of  Agamemnon  and  Clytem-  irregularly  marked  with  black,  whitish  below ; 

sister  of  Orestes,  Iphigenia,  and  Chry-  anterior  nostrils  tubular.   Tho  existence  of  a  fish 

Hthsnis,  was,  when  her  father  departed  to  the  with  benumbing  powers  in  tho  Nile  has  been 

Xrajaa  war,   confided  with   her  mother  and  known  for  more  than  800  years,  but  Geoflroy 

Inther  to  tho  care  of  iEgisthus.     Clytomnos-  and  Rudolphi  were  the  first  to  give  detailed  de- 

tai  yielded  to  the  addresses  of  her  guardian,  scriptions  of  tho  electric  organs.    Yalcnciennes 

■d  when  after  10  years  her  husband  returned  describes  these  as  forming  on  each  sido  of  the 

to  Greece  he  was  murdered  in  his  own  house,  hodf,  between  tho  skin  and  tho  musdcs^  ^  \^i^ 


58                 ELECTRIC  FISHES  ELECTIUO  UGHT 

U}-('r«  of  fi{H^n;:T  riiluUr  tis«<iio  uniting  together  in  connection  trith  mnscle  is  followed  by 

A!iiiill  ii •£1-11^1' »hai>t-l  I'oiU  tUit^^l  Willi  f^clatiiious  cotitractiun.    Tlie  electric  like    the  mi 

fluid,  un«l  G  »*r  luore  tine  l«>niritiiilin:il   iiu'in-    powi-r  is  ei)iauMt4Ml  bj  ciercise,  and  recori 

branc*:  i'ttiii!>iriiii;(  the  Knu-tt:ro  of  thoM»  or-  D>'nivt;  both  arv  increaMtl  by  energetic  reipi* 

f;an*  in  i\n*  loqic*!!!  an«i  ):?''""•  it u\  and  rL-roiv-  ration  and  circidatiim,  and  l>oCh  are  exalted  bj 

iii^  tli«>  ni  r%ii(i«  iiitliK-nro  U'th  fpiMi  tho  InttTul  the  action  of  atrvcbnine,  which  prtMlacee  tilaaio 

lirafirh  lif   r!ti*   ra^u^  axnl   from   tho   vvntr^il  n  m  tract  ion  of  the  inuscIcA,  aiiu  a  rapid  looei^ 

braiiL'iivoff  thi^-pKiiil  niT\0'>.     The  shock  pven  ninn  of  invuluntary  clvctric  diAcharfca.    Tte 

by  tliin  f-h  i<<  i^tiiipArativflr  fi-eldi',  tho  di^-  phononiona  diAjdnvcd  bjr  these  fifthcs  aAird  BO 

«-!.arf.v  t.ikin^  \Anro  when  the  head  i?4  tfinrhc«l;  irroiind  for  the  ujiinion  that  nervous  inflncpoa li 

ii4i  >'h>M  K  i-*  fi'lt  whtn  tiio  tail  \n  grasjH^d,  a«  t!io  idontiral  with  elect ricit v ;  the  former  is  noBora 

el«-rtri<*  I'rcan^  d<i  ip«t  cxtoihl  t>»  thi<t  part;  in  identical  with  the  latter  than  it  is  with  Bift* 

p\ii:;r  a  ^!t-•«'k  the  t.iil  i<  nitrvi'd,  as  if  the  iiius-  cular  contractilitr  ;    the  contractilitj   oC   tte 

cleA  wt:u  ui tiv«'.     Thi;*  ti«h  i^  niurh  esu>enivd  nlll•^'Io  resitles  in  its  fibre,  and  the  electriet^  is 

a«  ftHxI.     The  Ara!>*i  call  it  rfuA  (thundcn. —  cem-rati^d  in  the  battery  of  the  fish ;  bolhav 

Thf  4ih  elfctrieal  fi«h  Udon^r^  t«i  the  urdvr  yt^-  bnaight  into  play  Uinmgh  nenruus  inflneiic«i,bai 

fiij/h.iMi,  faiiiilr  JUt'ioutuLp^  aiA  frenuH  Utrtio-  neither  residei  in  or  is  a  pntperty  c»f  theiMm^ 

c/"n  fl'iiv.i.     7 lie  n|i|K'r  and  Miider  jaw«i  an*  di-  Tho  phenunienri  of  heat,  electricity,  and  pbfl^ 

^idiil  Itv  a  nii-di.in  suture,  hi  that  tlu-y  M-ein  to  phorencence  within  the  animal  body  depeod  ca 

have  '2  toth  aifve  ai.d  2  bcl>iw,  inn  if]  Pirated  chemical  actiouA,  which  take  place  in  the  n» 

with  tl.f  J3«4;  in  ui^^t  of  the  «iH'eie4  of  tho  tern  juit  a<»  they  wonld  in  the  chemist's  Umh 

pMiu*.  thJ  h^ly,  tiivpt  t!ie  hiad  and  \ii\\^  is  ratory,  mudifli*d  always  by  the  mysterious  rital 

ri-ndort-d  rtit:^h  hr  •«;  imi  nia<le  eri-etile  l»y  tho  principle.  To  show  the  energy  of  the  eledrkiqf 

i;i!lsii>in  of  t!u*  »kiii.  or  n!iti:r:i!lr  en-rt ;  but  in  thu^  frenerateil,  it  may  be  stated  Uiat,  ii  i  (irilJM 

t^e  fUHTtrir  oi-t  i-ii^  (  T.  tU^-'ricu*^  WU'T%^*\\)  t!ie  to  F:iraday,  the  shock  of  Uie  electric  eel  iatmil 

Klin  i«  dt^tiiute  iif  ^i•inl•^  in  e«>nft>nnity  with  to  that  uf  15  l^eyden  Jars  of  3,5(iO  si|uarB  inuM 

till*  a^'LiiniMfd  I:iw  that  ho  eiivtrio  lishi'i  have  of  nurfaee:  it  is  not  suri»ri»ing  thai  a 

ci'.hi.T   f -;»Ie4  or  'piiioH:    the   butly    ii   brown  uf  thei^  nhould  prostrate  a  horse. 

aUiVf.  Vi-lliiw  nn  thv  biih-A.  i«*a-»:iven  Ulow,  and  KI.KCTUIC  JJiillT.     Thu  lumiooos 

v.iricd  wi:!i  rt^].  ^<rt-en,  and  white  ^piiL!*.     It  at-  ance  has  bwn  provt-nl  by  \s\t  iHirid  Brewi 

tain^  a  ii-r>;:(h  of  7  nr  S  im  hi-i,  and  i^  found  in  be  of  the  baiue  nature  with  all  other  UghlMM* 

the  Ia;:iMi:.!4  t>f  the  Parifie.     l!4  vh-t^tric  |ioWi'ni  gards  the  proiicrties  of  polarization  and  mB^B 

are  «*iinipar:«(ivil\  fi*i'Mc. — TSie  niit^t  ehnrui'ter-  and  double  refraction,  and  he  con^iden  thai  IM 

i«tir  feature  i^f  a)!  the^o  l>a:tiTii<i  in  their  en(*r-  spark  is  a  tiaine,  con^iitting.  like  all  other  flana^ 

ino'i«  ^t:;-pty  if  niTvn'.:'*  niattrr:  the  tUvtrio  of  ineandeMreut  niol«rulrs  in  a  state  of  niuli 

orgin-  •;•  :i«-ruto  tin- cK-<  trii'tiy.  v^hi^'h  ii  ren-  suUliviiiittn,  yirt  Iwing  producible  in  a  Taraaa  H 

dert-d  tt4  !:\i>  t'V  nt*rvii!i<i  iiit^ot-nro.     In  tho  tt*r-  would  sevm  not  to  be  the  etTect  uf  c«>mbi 

N-dn  t).i-  "th'N'k  i^  hi.-«l  riM'^uvitl  whi'n  one  hand  A  most  intenne  and  steaily  rlectric  light  is 

H  I'I.ukI  i>!i  tlir  bai-k  uM'i  tl^e  Kther  «^n  the  ah-  e*!  Inrtween  two  (lointA  of  coke,  forming  the 

d"*:i>  ri  •'Mill-  fi-h  :  in  thf  ^'MMnittuii  the  intcn-  of  a  liattcry,  and  brnught  into  c\o^  proiiato. 

».iv  of  t}.i>  »h.«i-k  14  in  i>r>«iNirti>-n  to  the  len;:(h  Fpim  itii  great  l»rilliancy  and  cheapnesa  tUi 

of  ;!ii    li-!i  iii>]'id«^l  Urwei-n  the   handi ;  ae-  light  would  MH*m  to  be  well  adapted  fur  ID' 

tii.-il  r.i;  !.k.  t  with  till-  t'lnnd'-k  i-«  i.<it  i*-M-ntial,  nai inn,  especially  for  lighthouses,  and  if  ia 

a«  it  i«w<'.l  kn-'wn  hy  the  Ni*.-ipn!itan  fl-her-  dMe(*<l  iutd  miiu-A  it  wuuld  certainly  prova 

i:ien  tlia:  theMi'K  k  i«f«-!t  whi-:i  MuttTi^d&fthfd  mo»t    |Miwerful    illuminating    Agvnt«    wi  ~ 

n\-ii  It.  t)ic  «!(Ttrie  rurrt.'it  |':i-«ini:uji  along  the  tending,  like  other  lighta.  to  contaminata 

strcr.m.  tl.f  eip-iii:  luin;;  r>inipIe*.«M  thnmtfh  the  purity  c»f  the  air.     The  difficulties  which  il 

earth  t<>  t!.f  vi-titral«iirfA'-i* 'if  the  ti«h  ;  tin*  dur-  fvre  with  tliis  application  of  the  electric  UshI 

sal  ••:r!'.wc  i^  alHay*  |i-Mitivo,  ami  tSe  ventral  are  wholly  of  a  ini*ehanieal  nature,  and 

i:r;a!:xt-.      1  !.at  thii  i^  tlio  «ariie  a*  r>in)im<n  many  ei|»i'dientj  have  been  devised  to 

r!i«!ri.  .Tv  hA«  Utn  khown   ly  M.-itl«Mirri  anil  tlieni.   the  sppsratus  in  still  too  cumbei 

Farad^v  ;  it  r.  i..*.  r«  thf  m-*  lih*  inat;ii«lir.  ajid  andc«ist!y  fur  ordinary  uie.     One  of  th« 

de«  <'Tr.]->-'*4  i-hifr.:- a!  cxnij'otiniU:  \*}  it  heat  iJ  pal  ob«tai-les  to  Ik*  overcome  is  the  coo 

ei"hc*i.  :tr:d  tijfi  1'- tr.r  «;i^rk  i^  •dtainctl.    Hie  separation  of  the  charctial  or  citke  potnti^  M 

ci'-itin::  i.>*r^f4  t«-rTMi!iatf  m  l><"p4,  oa  in  the  thew  are  slowly  mnsumed.     .\  practical  appA* 

111':^  .:!.ir  !i^-;ii*.  aii>l  thi-y  Ari««-  like  iii«>!<>r  nerves  cation  wa4  made  in  the  year  1h54  uf  the  eb^ 

fr«  ni  tJ.i*  ai.!.  n-ir  trait  •/  iSr  e-ird  ;  th*-  rire|»-  trio  light,  by  l»r.  WatJoii  of  the  "Electric  Towiff 

tN'ri  ariil  I  ••:!%•  }Ati'<«  uf  i:i:;>r^<9*i<>fi«,  and  tho  Light  and   i.*<>h>r  i'iim|iany,**  to  facilitate  tht 

^•■1  ;:::jr\  lu  «.  « j.i.  ^i  r^-^*:!!*  i:i  tiir  shiM  k.  are  uf  o|>vratiHn<«  (xinne<'tnl  with  the  erection  vt  ite 

thr  Aj*:.!  i.jt'-.rr  an  I  r>!Ii-w  **.i>  sann'  ii«iirN»  a*  m^w  hridgi' at  Wciitminster.    Tngi%e  light  lotht 

in  n.  :•>  .i.iri-.  riira  l.<'f.«  ;  a  <i.^  i^i>*ri  «>f  l^l•  rlrr-  wi-rknivn  ciiiplo^e^i  during  l>iw  tide  at  night,  hs 

trii"  !.•  rii-«  a!  r!  <  :r  ••n^in   a*r>  «r«  all  \->Iiii!ary  ina  l«*  u*e  ^f  an  apliaratuv  eitmputnl  to  haretht 

•h«h  k*.  *':t\  an  irr.:':r.<i:i"f  !hfi  niNxf  tliiTiTxes  i!! animating  i^twur  of  7'i  Argand  burners,  or  of 

in  •    ?.::•€-:>••;  w.*:.  :) rj.ia  'i%  {-V.^mv^l  hy  an  inarly    l,«i<c>  wax   randle%  placing  it  oa  ite 

i::M  !u:.t  uv«   «-!•-  *r.-  il.*>  ^  nve.  Ju«(  a-t  an  irri-  bitik  of  the  rivi*r  aUiut  2<KI  fevt  ui^tant  ! 

/J.'. '£1   t'f  tsv  tiiJ  if  a  ili%.d(d  nioU'r  nerve  the  working  stage.     I' {Jon  this  46  man  wen 


I 


ELECTBIO  TELEGBAPH  ELECTRICITY                   59 

«g«d  in  pile  driTing.    The  battery,  placed  2,000  rapidlj  made,  and  with  every  new  step  gained 
foet  off^  was  fitted  with  72  cells.    The  reflector  the  subject  assamed  a  greater  importance,  ex- 
«Md  was  that  Imown  as  ChappoisV    The  light  tending  in  unexpected  directions,  so  as  to  em- 
diSbsed  oyer  the  stage  was  more  brilliant  than  brace  phenomena  of  the  highest  interest  to  man, 
that  of  the  brightest  moonlight    It  was  fully  and  linking  itself  with  departments  of  physics 
aa  manageable  as  that  of  gas,  and  is  said  to  be  with  which  it  was  before  supposed  to  have  no 
fimiahed  at  the  lowest  cost  of  gas  (which  in  relation.    Thus  these  investigations  have  con- 
London  is  very  lowX  a  considerable  profit  being  tinued  for  more  than  200  years  to  attract  the 
ittafised  from  the  application  of  the  residuary  profound  attention  of  the  ablest  philosophers ; 
pcodacts  of  the  battery  to  the  manufacture  of  and  at  this  day  no  subject  is  more  worthy  of 
eolora. — ^According  to  the  recent  experiments  their  study,  or  opens  a  more  promising  field  for 
of  IL  Edmond  Beoquerel,  made  under  favor-  original  research,  than  the  boundless  ranee  of 
aUa  qrcqmaitances  with  a  battery  of  uno  and  electricity  in  its  many  departments.    As  acvel- 
jJ^*^"'"",  the  least  cost  of  the  electric  light  oped  in  animal  bodies,  it  has  already  been  treated 
compared  with  that  of  some  other  means  of  in  this  work  in  the  article  Animal  ELEOTRiorrT. 
iBnmination,  may  be  thus  stated.    Using  as  a  (See  also  £el  (Electric),  Electric  Fishes,  and 
glndard  the  light  of  850  sperm  candles  of  best  Torpedo.)    In  the  present  and  succeeding  ar- 
qiHKtj,  tides  it  will  be  treated  :  1st,  in  its  ordinary 
&■  east  of  Mtf  fM  at  $1  SO  per  1,000  cable  fe«t  was..$o  85  exhibitions  ns  produced  by  friction,  heat,  &c. ; 
1        ^  ^^^  •^?  •*  VJ^.  p*'  \T 2  S  2d,  under  Elbctro-Dynamics,  in  the  form  com- 

*  gteari—  cMidles  t  S3  eta,  per  lb.  **  3  58  __^  ,                  •      i  v     ai.                     i        •       i     4.  • 

•  WBZ  eaodks  at  58  eta.  per  lb.     •*  8 13  monly  recognized  by  the  name  galvanic  electn- 

••        ciectrie lifht                         " 068  city;  8d,  as  connected  with  magnetism  in  the 

Ai  tfaa  osaal  prices  of  gas  in  the  Umted  States,  form  called  Electro-Magnetism;  4th,  in  the 

tha  dcctric  light  under  present  expenses  of  the  application  of  this  branch  of  the  subject  to  the 

bittery  is  a  more  costly  method  of  illumination,  useful  arts  in  Electro-Metallukoy.    Atmos- 

Imt  may  itill  be  much  cheaper  than  candles,  pheric  electricity,  with  particular  reference  to 

(Sea  EuccTBO-DTNAauos.)  the  experiments  of  Franklin,  will  bo  more  fully 

ELECTRIO  TELEGRAPH.  See  TsLEORAPn.  noticed  under  Lightnixo.    Electricity  as  de- 

XLECrSICITY.    In  the  article  Amber,  it  veloped  by  magnetism  will  be  treated  under 

has  been  already  remarked  that  electrical  phe-  Magneto-Eleotricity. — The  prominent  elec- 

Bomena  were  first  noticed  in  this  substance  by  trical  phenomena  are  exhibited  by  very  sim- 

the  ancients,  at  least  as  far  back  as  Tbales  of  pie  experiments.    A  glass  tube,  dry  and  clear, 

ICktcs;  who  lived  in  the  7th  and  6th  centuries  when  rubbed  with  a  warm  silk  handkerchief,  at- 

bdbre  the  Christian  era.    From  the  Greek  word  tracts  light  objects,  as  slips  of  paper,  gold  leaf,  a 

loramber,i7Xrjrrpoi',  the  name  electricity  was  ap-  feather,  or  a  pith  ball  suspended  by  a  silken 

|fied  to  the  obscure  force  which  produced  these  thread.    The  property  thus  developed  is  called 

effects.    As  the  substance  gave  its  name  to  the  electricity,  and  the  body  in  which  it  is  generated 

ibcfiomena,  so  the  most  obvious  of  these,  the  is  called  the  electric.    The  light  body  attracted, 

■operty  of  amber  when  rubbed  of  attracting  after  remaining  in  contact  with  the  glass  for  a 

0^  bodies,  gave  the  name  with  the  Arabs  of  few  seconds,  and  being  then  shaken  otiT,  is  no 

ivaft^  or  *' catch- chaff,"  to  the  fossil  gum ;  and  longer  attracted,  but  on  the  contrary  is  repelled. 

it ii by  no  means  certain,  as  suggested  by  Sir  Da-  But  if  the  light  body  be  touched  with  the  finger. 

Til  &ewster,  tbA  the  Greek  name  itself  may  not  it  is  then  placed  in  a  condition  to  be  immediately 

ifrom<XjcM,toattract,and^p((,  ahairorfila-  attracted  again  by  the  glass.     A  stick  of  resin 

or^jMov,  aleaf.    This  singular  property  of  or  sealing  wax  rubbed  with  dry  flannel  will  be 

was  regarded  merely  as  a  curious  isolated  found  to  produce  the  same  result  as  the  gloss 

te;  nor  were  the  phenomenon  of  crackling  tube;  but  if  the  two  electrics  be  applied  one  on 

Mks  emitted  in  removing  the  clothing  from  the  each  side  of  the  suspended  pith  ball  or  feather, 

Wj,  and  the  exhibition  of  animd  electricity  ob-  and  at  a  short  distance  from  it,  the  light  body  is 

■md  in  the  torpedo,  considered  as  matters  tliat  observed  to  be  attracted  toward  one,  and  when 

isridprove  of  any  considerable  interest  or  impor-  repelled  to  be  instantly  attracted  by  the  otlier; 

!■«  to  mankind.   Not  until  the  investigations  of  and  thus  it  will  continue  to  fly  backward  and 

kGObert,  of  Colchester,  England,  made  about  forward  between  the  two,  nntil  the  excited  con- 

fttTsar  1600,  had  any  progress  been  made  to-  dition  of  both  bodies  disappears.    The  elcctri- 

%mcfaicidatiDg  or  classifying  these  phenomena,  city  excited  by  glass  is  tlius  found  to  bo  of  a 

ffaddmg  to  their  number.   He  found  that  a  large  different  quality  from  that  excited  by  resi n.    M. 

Kited  like  amber  Du  Fay,  who  made  this  discovery  in  1738,  dis- 


of  substances  were  excited 

If  ftiction  and  attracted  light  bodies,  that  their  tiuguished  these  by  the  names  of  vitreous  and 

-'^  of  doing  this  was  greater  in  cool  dry  resinous  electricity,  which  names  still  continue 

than  when  the  air  was  warm  and  moist,  in  use.  Dr.  Franklin  gave  the  name  of  positive 
that  many  other  substances  were  apparently  electricity  to  that  called  vitreous,  and  negative 
Aant  in  this  property.  The  publication  of  to  the  resinous.  These  are  now  sometimes  rep- 
lb  e^Mriments  directed  the  attention  of  other  resented  by  the  symbols  +,  plus,  and — ,  minus. 
lUaaofphers  toihe  subject,  and  this  soon  became  (The  theories  of  Du  Fay  and  Dr.  Franklin  are 
■a  of  the  most  interesting  and  popular  fields  more  fully  discussed  in  the  article  ELKCino-MKOt- 
tf  identific  resefurch.    Kew  discoveries  were  nstism.)   If  the  silk  used  to  rub  the  glass  \>Q'^t^- 


•e&tedtoiheplthUn,itwnibefoimdtoaetlike  tequentlj  hMidt  1       1st  of  cUetrici  or  ii 

iheresin;  ana  the tUonel med  to  rob  this  wfl]  bo  tori|  is  shellac  or  i     haps  gotta  psrdia^ 

Iband  In  the  same  wst  to  poMess  the  same  kind  which  follow  •oiuor,  vue  resina,  solpbnr,  wa: 

of  eleotricitj  as  the  glass.    Heoce,  In  the  derel-  glass,  miciL  gems  aod  rariooa  miDtrala, 

opmoit  of  elecCricttjr  by  fHctioo,  one  kind  is  wool,  hair,  feathers,  paper,  baked  wood,  4be. 

foimd  to  be  produced  in  the  electric,  and  the  a  costing  of  moistare  upon  these  reodeni 

other  in  the  material  used  as  a  rubber,  and  the  ooodactors,  as  a  coating  of  wax  or  rMioow 

same  quantity  of  electricttjr  in  each.    In  the  nish  upon  the  snrfiu^e  of  the  bodies  das* 

mnltttiide  of  bodies  which  may  become  electri-  conductors  deprires  them  of  their  charaets 

cally  excited  by  being  rubbed  together,  it  b  not  property.    An  example  of  the  immense  i 

always  obvious  which  will  possess  the  ritreous  ences  which  are  found  in  the  capacity  c 

and  which  the  rennoua  electricity.    The  nu-  rarious  conductors  to  oouTey  electridtT  h 

merous  experiments  that  hare  been  tried,  how-  resented  in  the  comparison  of  iron  wire 

ever,  seem  to  have  dereloped  sotne  laws  which  water,  the  resistance  to  be  oreroome  in  n 

determine  this  result    Oi  two  bodies  thus  ex-  through  an  inch  of  the  fluid  being  Iboad 

dted,  that  whidi  radiatea  heat  most  readily  as-  to  that  experienced  in  trarenring  400,00 

aomes  the  positiTe  electricity,  and  the  other  the  times  the  distance  of  the  wire.    The  Tel 

negatircL    SUtct  rubbed  upon  lead  b  positiTely  of  electricity  alooff  good  conductors  has 

electrified,  but  if  upon  iron,  which  radiates  heat  variously  eitimated  by  difEsrent  experimei 

better  than  silver,  it  takes  negative  electricity,  some  making  it  to  exceed  that  of  lij^t  i 

and  iron  the  positive.    But  thb  may  be  reversed  passsge  thrmigh  the  atmosphere.     The 

in  bodies  of  neariv  the  same  radiatins  power,  dple  of  the  movement  b  as  obscure  in  tK 

in  case  the  one  radiating  best  b  heated,  and  its  case  as  in  the  other,  as  b  oar  knowledge  < 

aorftce  b  quite  rough.    Bnrfsoes  which  are  un-  nature  of  the  forces  themselves.  In  a  row  d 

•veil,  so  tllat  the  oarticles  are  considerably  dis-  balb  suspended  near  each  other  the  exe« 

tnrbed  in  the  ruboing,  incline  to  take  the  nega-  electricity  contained  in  one  b  transmitted  l 

tive  electric!^ ;  thus,  when  a  rough  and  a  smooth  next  by  poceptible  movement  of  the  pari 

ribbon  are  rubbed  across  each  otW,  the  former  b  As  the  distance  which  separates  the  panic 

negativelv  and  the  latter  positively  electrified.  A  diminished,  the  capadty  of  rapidly  ooavi 

blMsk  ribbon  nibbed  upon  a  white  one  becomes  electricity  b  increased ;  but  when  the  par 

negative,  the  suriaoe  probably  being  more  rouffh.  are  brought  into  contact,  no  movement  d 

— ^In  the  experiment  of  touching  the  pith  ball  with  kind  b  apparent  to  the  senses.    60  it  b  pei 

the  finger,  its  dectrical  property  b  found  to  be  that  the  mind  faib  to  coticei  ve  the  mode  by  1 

instantly  removed,  so  that  it  becomes  indtfibrent  the  particles  of  air  transmit  the  shock  bet 

in  its  attraction  either  to  the  gUts  or  the  resin ;  the  electric  cloud  and  the  earth,  or  those  of 

touched  with  a  metallic  rod  held  in  the  hand,  tallic  wire  through  a  long  line  of  it,  at  the 

the  same  effect  b  produced.    But  the  ^aas  or  it  msy  be,  of  more  than  100.000  miles  in  1 

resioous  rods  do  not  thus  strip  it  of  its  dectri-  o«»d  ^  time. — Various  machines  are  in  m 

dtr.     A  difference  in  bodies  is  thus  noticed  as  generating  and  collecting  electridty  by  frU 

to  their  propeny  of  conducting  electridty,  and  A  common  form  of  these  b  a  hoUow  cy] 

a  distioctioo  b  established  between  those  which  of  glsas  made  to  revolve  upon  a  horiacmcal 

are  good  and  those  which  are  bad  conductors,  against  a  ctishion  or  rubber  stuffed  with  hi 

It  b  ihb  facility  of  rapidly  conducting  away  wool  and  covered  with  soft  l#ther.    A  iU 

electridty  that  prevents  many  solid  bodies  from  oiled  nik,  attached  by  one  edge  to  the  ru 

being  regarded  as  electrica»  though  all  of  them  paases  from  thb  over  the  upper  soriace  e 

nuLj  be  made  to  develop  dectrictty  by  fri^on.  cylinder,  upon  which  it  rests,  the  object  of  1 

A  metallic  rod  or  tube  provided  with  a  handle  bto  prevent  the  dissipation  of  the  vitreous 

of  glass  or  resin  may  be  made  like  the  ^aas  tridty  as  thb  b  carried  over  from  the  n 

tube  to  develop  electricity,  its  escape  wing  by  the  revolution  of  the  cylinder.    The  si 

checked  by  the  non-cooductiog  glass,  which  b  b  furnished  by  means  of  a  chain  attached  I 

said  to  insulate  the  metal     Bodies  which  thus  rubber  and  leading  to  the  fioor  or  to  the  t 

act  as  poor  conductors  are  called  insulators,  but  The  rubber  b  tlius  not  insulated,  and  the  1 

the  dijtfii^ion  )ietwee&  them  b  only  in  degree,  oos  electridty  exdted  in  it  b  not  ordinarily 

fihellar,  atuber,  resin,  glass,  brimstone,  dec,  may  lected  for  experiments,  as  is  the  vitreous.    1 

be  called  either  good  insolaturs  or  poor  coiidoct-  effected  by  means  of  a  smooth  metallic  cjl 

om    The  same  bodies  alio  differ  in  their  con-  placed  upon  a  solid  glass  W,  and  extd 

ducting  propenv  by  slight  changes  in  their  paraUel  with  the  glsss  cylinder  and  abo 

compudtMHi,  and  bv  change  in  their  stmcinre,  mches  from  it  on  the  side  opposite  to  the 

such  as  b  caused  by  change  of  temperature ;  ber.     lu  ends  are  hemispherical,  tliat  no 

thus  glass  b  made  a  conductor  by  being  heated  tricity  msy  be  lost  by  escaping  from  sharp  • 

to  rsdoees,  and  vegetable  bodies  are  changed  to  It  b  hoUow,  as  weight  aod  tolidity  are  1 

Doa-coodocton  by  being  deprived  of  their  moistr  service,  electricity  at  rest  occopjing  oelj 

vre.    The  metab  are  the  most  perfect  conduct-  surfaces  of  bodies.    Thb  portion  of  the  1 

on,  aod  then  follow  charoual,  graphite,  sdine  ratos  b  called  the  prime  conductor.     The 

and  animd  fluids,  ores,  water,  snow,  animal  tricity  dis(*hsrged  from  beneath  the  oiled  a 

UmIsc^  ^ka    The  worst  oondnoCor,  which  ouo*  recdved  upon  roetallio  pointy  a  row  of  « 


ELEOTBIOITY  61 

project  like  the  teeth  of  a  rake  from  the  side  of  chines  are  sow  generally  constracted  in  this  man- 
dM  eoDdactor,  and  point  toward  the  glass  cjlin-  ner.  The  dbk  is  set  upon  a  revolving  axis  in  a 
an  ineh  or  thereabout  below  the  silk  flap,  frame,  the  cross  piece  of  wood  over  the  npper 
derelofpment  of  electricity  is  greatly  in-  edge  of  the  disk  supporting  a  donble  robber,  De- 
ed by  the  application  of  an  amalgam  paste  tween  the  two  parts  of  which  the  edge  of  the  disJc 
to  the  snrfikoe  of  the  rabber,  and  also,  as  Dr.  revolves,  and  another  pair  of  similar  rubbers  are 
Tsaday  recommends,  by  impregnating  with  it  secured  upon  the  base  or  platform,  and  by  a 
the  alk  fliqju  It  is  made  of  1  part  of  tin  and  2  screw  are  made  to  press  between  them  the  lower 
of  merenry,  nuzed  with  tallow  or  lard  to  form  edge  of  the  disk.  A  flap  of  silk  passes  from  each 
a  aoft  paste.  A  better  preparation  is  to  melt  2  rubber  in  the  direction  of  the  revolution  of  the 
OB.  of  zine  and  1  of  tin  in  a  crucible,  and  then  disk,  covering  each  side  of  it,  and  extending 
m  6  OS.  of  mercury.  It  is  to  be  well  nearly  one  quarter  of  its  circumference,  where 
in  a  box  until  cold,  ground  to  powder  in  it  meets  the  collecting  points  of  the  prime  con- 
>,  and  then  mixed  with  lard.    The  paste  ductor.    This  is  secured  to  a  strong  glass  sup- 

be  thinly  spread  and  occasionaUy  renew-  port,  which   projects   horizontaUy  firom   the 

od.    The  glaas  cylinder  and  all  the  apparatus  frame  on  the  side  opposite  the  winch  or  handle, 

■Bit  he  kept  dean  and  free  from  dust,  and  its  and  then  bends  around  like  two  elbows  so  as  to 

iAoBocy  will  be  increased  by  some  method  of  present  an  extremity  to  the  surface  of  the  disk  on 

heqana  it  warm  and  dry,  as  by  making  the  two  opposite  edges.     The  arrangement  is  va- 

yriraratffi  which  support  the  rubber  and  prime  riously  modified  in  different  machines.     An 

eoadactor  boUow  iad  open  at  the  bottom,  the  enormous  machine,  with  a  plate  11  feet  in  diam<« 

itod  being  made  double  so  as  to  admit  a  small  eter,  was  in  the  Panopticon  in  Leicester  sauare. 

daoiiol  lamp  under  each  pillar.    By  such  a  con-  London.    The  quantity  of  electricity  developea 

fcifnce  the  machine  may  be  made  to  operate  increasing  with  the  size  of  the  plate,  the  pow- 

■liifrctorily  in  a  state  of  the  atmosphere  which  er  of  this  machine  is  probably  greater  than  that 

wder  ordinary  circumstances  is  unfavorable  for  of  any  other  ever  constructed.   Dr.  Ilare  of  Phil- 

te  ezlubition  of  electrical  phenomena.    As  the  adelphia  contrived  a  very  neat  form  in  which  the 

dwiUititj  is  excited  by  turning  the  cylinder,  its  disk  was  made  to  revolve  horizontally.    Other 

fimmce  is  immediately  indicated  in  the  prime  substances  have  been  used  instead  of  gloss  for  the 

wodnctor  by  the  divergence  of  a  pair  of  pith  disks,  as  pasteboard  soaked  in  copal  or  amber 

ItDs  fOflpeDded  by  a  conducting  thread,  as  one  varnish,  and  coated  with  the  same ;  wood  has 

tf  SneDfihHn  a  curved  wire  fastened  to  the  also  been  made  into  disks,  and  gum  lac  has  been 

tap  of  this  conductor.    Excited  by  the  same  applied  in  the  same  way.    A  machine  of  great 

load  of  electricity,  they  repel  each  other.    By  power  was  made  in  Brussels  of  a  web  of  var- 

■muting  the  kiiuckle  to  a  brass  ball,  which  nishedsilk,  25  feet  long  and  5  feet  wide,  revolv- 

■  eomiaionly  attached  by  a  stem  to  the  con-  ing-upon  two  wooden  cylinders  covered  with 

imsoFj  a  spark  is  drawn  from  it  which  is  both  woollen  serge.    As  the  cylinders  were  made  to 

MB  and  felt.    "When  highly  charged,  a  succes-  revolve  by  the  exertions  of  4  men,  the  silk 

im  of  sparks  may  be  taken  off  with  great  passed  between  2  cushions,  each  7  feet  long 

apifity  to  any  either  neutral  or  negatively  ex-  and  2  inches  in  diameter.    These  were  covcrea 

dhd  body  brought  near  to  the  knob ;  or  if  with  the  skins  of  cats  or  hares,  and  could  be 

Acre  be  points  or  sharp  edges  upon  the  con-  made  to  press  more  or  less  upon  the  silk.    Tlie 

Atttor,  the  electricity  will  be  seen  escaping  into  sparks  produced  by  this  machine  were  15  inches 

Af  air  in  brushes  of  faint  light.    The  electric  long,  and  no  one  was  inclined  to  receive  one  of 

ia  accompanied  by  a  sort  of  explosive  them  except  upon  the  shoulder  or  elbow. — 

with  a  display  of  considerable  force.  Phenomena  have  been   frequently  witnessed 

produced  in  water  contained  in  within  the  past  few  years  in  New  York  and 


■Uit  w 


it  when  produced  in  water  contained  in  within  the  past  few  years 
aitoQOg  glass  tube  to  burst  this  with  violence,  other  places  in  the  northern  portion  of  the 
ktbis  and  its  zigzag  dartings  it  exhibits  its  re-  United  States,  a  notice  of  some  of  which  by 
ce  to  lightning,  which  is  in  fact  the  same  Prof.  Loomis  may  bo  found  in  the  "  American 
enon  upon  a  largo  scale.  It  is  accom-  Journal  of  Science"  (vol.  xx\'i.,  July,  1868). 
with  heat,  and  appears  sometimes  in  one  Persons,  especially  children,  wearing  dry  slip- 
Bother  of  various  shades  of  violet,  blue,  pers  with  thin  soles,  and  a  silk  or  woollen  dress, 
red.  and  yellow,  and  is  sometimes  a  in  a  warm  room  heated  to  at  least  70°,  and 
white.  From  the  discoveries  of  Dr.  covered  with  a  thick  velvet  carpet,  often  be- 
ASnieri  of  the  transmission  of  infinitely  small  come  so  electrically  excited  by  skipping  a  few 
—  "~c  particles,  when  a  spark  is  produced  be-  times  across  the  room  with  a  shuffling  motion, 
S  metallic  bodies,  and  of  a  concave  in-  and  rubbing  the  shoe  upon  the  carpet,  that 
km  made  in  each  of  them,  he  concludes  sparks  are  produced  on  their  coming  in  contact 
the  beat  and  light  of  the  spark  proceed  with  other  bodies ;  and  on  their  presenting  a 
L  the  ignition  and  combustion  of  the  parti-  finger  to  a  gas  burner  yet  warm,  the  gas  may 
Ai  of  ponderable  matter,  and  that  these  are  be  ignited.  Sulphuric  ether  has  been  thus  in< 
•|HiBeCed  in  opposite  directions.  For  the  glass  flamed,  and  in  dry  cold  weather  sparks  half  an 
%Cid^a  circular  disk  of  plate  glass,  J  or  f  of  inch  in  length  have  been  given  forth  by  young 
Ifcfadi  thick  and  2  to  8  feet  or  more  in  diameter,  ladies  who  had  been  dancing,  and  pulverized 
Eubfidtutedf  and  the  most  efficient  izui-  resia  has  been  thus  inflamed.    Eleclncvly  \& 


C2  ELECTRICITY 

fiUn    p-rcrtito-l  \>T  ih(*  %uiim  r^n;in;*  fntin  i^fotinrl  tn^iMlif^oront.  Arcon]inf;ai«t)ioM"tJaBb 

Ixti'.fp*  iinpir  ,;in{r  ti{«>»Ti  )i:inl  su^.^i am ■•■<*,  an  in  thut  of  r(H»liii^  ur  nf  hvatiiif;.     The  eflVrct  a  n^ 

l»Av«:Rjr  t!triMi::h  In-nt  iri>n  t;l^l•^  iiliirh  t*-nm-  |m>m:(1  Uil»oi>wingUi  thu molecular rhmnicewblih 

nito  in  jit*  i>r  Mnall  iiriHt'i'sui'  Uix  u4«ihI.  TIif<io  tho  tnotal  csiK'ni'tirvsliy  cbangv  of  temprratvik 

rccvivc  'iiii*  kill'!  lif  «.\rtrii  itv  \un»t  runiiiiniilr  Other  t-ItH'triCAl  iilii*iioinvnA  have  niil<i<nHqHh 

tiiv   ttc;:iiti\i  I.  Aiitl  t!i**  iN-ili-r,  if  in^ulntfil,  h  W^n exhilutei!  by  tliin  mcthtiil  of  vicitation,  aili 

foiiinl  til  I  •■  ( !inr^i-l  u  itli  t^o  o'Jicr.  T)ii<i  otVcrt,  tht*  prtJiIuctton  of  ••parkif  viviMo  in  the  dajligjh^ 

Boor.ii:.^'  t<i  tliv  itiVf>!i^-Hthi:i!(  i>f  I  'r.  Farmlav.  ii  the  (U'ruiii|KHiiinn  of  wati-r.  &r.,  cause  Ihufciv 

i*i(Jiirf<!  ]>y  till*  fr:>-tiiiri  nf  (!io  ]iurtii-li.'«i  of  wator  of  cloctridtv  tulni  now  rcgan)e<l  as  noC  <liflM|g 

in  t!.o  •-li-.iiii  i:{rtin  th«'  tliM'liarjiiir;  tuV*-.     A  from  that  f^cnv rated  by  mure  familiar  ncChod^ 

mji-hi:ic  hii/»  i-Mn^tru'^Ntl  for  tfu-    {I'lvu-i-hnic  T.'te  i-K-ctrir  etiiiirk  wa*  olitaiiie<l  by  Prof.  IIcvj 

iii^^.diti-'ti  i:i  I.iiii«iifi.  M  it*i  a  UiiU-r  b'%  t\xl  Iimg  nnil  IVof.  Whi*nt^ton«*in  I'^nT  with  aamaO  eyll^ 

niu\  '■:  iv\'\  i]. a- 1  liter,  of  tin-  0>riii-h  I'onu,  with  Oriculbiindleof  S-lclomcnLHof  hiionuthaDd 

t!io    Tirf   t!ir\!n>tr   in   iIp*  I'liiUr.  from    which  inony,  |  of  un  inch  in  diameter,  and  )  uf  an 

•I*:irk.«  nre  •■'.Tairii-il  *J'J  ir.i*}ie<«  long,  ami  tki  lar^o  lon^*. — Klertririty  i^  than  obtaine«l  by  T 

and  ra|>i-l  in  thrir  •<t>ri-r— inn  as  U*  :ip;»car  like  a  mrthodi',  and  in«ulated  iKidies  may  be  obAr]|ii 

riintiiit:> ■!:«  fl.i!n>.>.    <  *ne  of  tluM.'  MWalu*tl  hydro-  with  it  by  l^ein^ bron^ht  in  contact  with  ihceiM" 

c'livtrii*  nia<'!.ini*-«  hre*  b^vn  i'Mii«:nk''.oil  at  tlio  durtur,  either  din.*i'tly  or  through  a  chain,  wlv^ 

fui  ii!:y  of  y'  ii  ii.-o  in  Tariv     It  is  pro>idc«l  with  (Tothercondui'tii-ft  N^dv.   IiMleeditainflacoeail 

H'i  jitf*  for  the  ( ^1  Lift*  «-f  the  ^teuni.     The  cjiarks  felt  u{Min  NNlif;*  arouna  that  are  nut  in  contMl 

ft  inn  bfL  h.-iiit  yi-*  of  tiro  by  tluir  raiiid  hUoc«.*<-  with   the  elertritud  conductor,  an  U  fthoWB  by 

BJoTi.     Karh  •jiiiric   i-  aUmk  a  fimt  in  K-nj^th,  brintrin^:  neir  to  this  an  iuMdatc**!  metallic  bod|f, 

aii'I  !K\ir:i!  im  !i-«  in  l>rinilth.     Elei-trii-ity  ii  a«  a  cylinder,  u|>4 in  wliich  K'Veral  iiain  of  pw 

ni<<ri-iver  i|i'Vi-!"Jn.>1  dirin^  i!ie  ehan;;rik  whifh  balU  are  !tu«iK*ndiMl  by  linen  threa«l*(.     An  W^ 

b> •<!.«-«  tinhr;*'!  in  niec}.ii!iti-.tl  structure,  and  in  trieul  ixcitenient  i«  acen  by  the  divergent flf 

otiit'r*  ]>rt-liitM    by  rhi-niiiAl  action;   us,  f^r  theM*  balU  !•>  l»e  iinme«liatFly  inducrfl;    aad  ft 

i\.ki!i;>!>\  Ml.ih  •>f:]]i!i*ir.  wax,  and  other  iMHlic^  will  l>o  f«Mind  that  thoKe  Mi«|iended  acrcaa  tte 

Lt\rr  U.t.k'  iiii-I''«l.  ntiirn  t>»  a  «"!id  »tate  on  end  nearest  the  prime  ciindurtor  are  afftctll 

c  •••iii>^'.  «\}.i:i  k'..-«<  ur«-  di^niTitfed,  anil  va|N>n  i»ith  the  opipo^ite  elei-tririty  fnim  that  of  tks 

bre  e>"!vrl .  fri<tii  t).e  leavt-Hof  li>ii:^  |>l»nt4  ail  condni'tttr,  and  thl'H^  at  the  renint^  eiKl  bj  tks 

tlif^y  diM!)/:i::<*  i'\\pMi  anil  rar^H>iiir  ai'id  ;  and  Baine  eKi-trieity.     Tlio  eliTtricity  that  waa^ii* 

a!-«i  fr>  111  ih-ioiiii-^inj  >r;:i-t:il>!v  niattt-rs.     Ah  i«cvnt  in  tho  bo*ly  thn»  ap|K'fln  to  hare  Maa 

rapul  :iio:i'<n  nnd  friit;  ^n  develop  it.  the  fallinjc  di«tiirl-e«l  bv  its  proxiTnity  to  another  h^gh|f 

<•!  r.iin  n:iil  h.iil  a:id  th<-  bhiwin*;  of  the  wind  (h:ir^i-il.  an«^  tliat  i-ortiim  whieh  «a#of  an  o^ 

may  |.r< ■••!.•  e   il    in  the  et.i<rn)i>M«  ({'lantttifs  in  ]Ki<kiti-  nalun*  to  the  di*itnrbing  aironi  i«  dimWB 

whieli   ii  i«  ^'i-n* Tiitiil  in  thi*  utriiii<«|ihere.  and  ti»wuril  it,  mIjiK'  lliiil  of  the  Kinie  nature  ia 


by  v\aj.ira:i'  :i  *t;*.l  ni":v  in:»y  Ite  dt.\e)tr|>i-d  by     jkIUJ.     Ihtwrmthe  two  txtrt-niitii-*  i« 

till-*-'  i!!;»  •;'J.' ri-*  n.!!-.:triii».     Ai  an  vxani^>lc     where  no  eKftrii-al  »■  \rite!!:«".t  i-nli^iilayi^l. 

of  the  a!:i>>-i!.l  ^"Tiii^iiiii-*  |>ri**!(ii  cil  ill  I':,- utnMi**-     iiheiioriifnon   ii  r.illid  eln'triral  induct  inn.     || 


|ih*n'.  ii  J*  •':.k!i-l  Ui  l.i\i:  k'-t'-nr'i  "  Travi!-*  in  1*  !:|Kin  tlii-i'rinei|tli'  tliat  tho  apfiaratu*  fori 

Ni':*h  Afrit  V  •]•    I ^Ci  that  the  hut  wtiii!  Hhirh  Ici-tiii^  and  rituiiiin^  lar^'e  t|uai.titie«  ef  eltctll* 

bli •  i\ » ir.r II. L*  !'<-•! ^^  m  :k^iii«ii\«  ril.rdi -^vrt  from  rity  !<«  ba<>i-i1.     T!te  Ui»"-i  n\ii\\']v  form  of  It  la  A 

i.i-rih  !••  «<'if!i  "1^  ill  «.i'  ti  aii  c!>i-trii*  Mute  t!iat  ynuv  of  k'*-i*'>  co:itt  il  fU  Uith  ^ii!f4  with  tin  fc^ 

a  I  :.i:'  h  ••!'  •  >!r..  It  fi-a!  .•  r^,  },•  \.\  a  lew  »-eoiiiii  w::}i  t!ie  txr^ptiiin  uf  a  niarinn  of  an  inch  Ift 

a;.*:;!!  «t    it.  1*^      Ik-*   :l^   -rr-ii/lv   <  liarL'fd  &•»  if  wi^lth  all  arfiind.     ( >:.e -ide  of  ih:«  iH-in^r  |Jaeat 

:4!t  rf.r-1  t<i   -i  }-"-Ai  r:  .1  «  M  t-*.:ti':i!  iii:iihi!j«*.  and  upt>:i  i^iiiiK'ii'ndiii'tin^Uidy  r>irnmunii'ating  widi 

I  ]  •«;  *' th«*u'!-. nn' ^!>*r  !i.i:ii]  \«  :!li  a-h^rprraikliii^  thi>  tithir,  ami  t!ie  orhrr  ^idi*  l«>in^  c«>nnecMA 

K  •'.:?.•!  "   Itv  II  ]i:'!<'  l'ri<  !:••!>  :h<  f  irof  thi-  n..ir.tle4  witii  the  i  hrtr,:M  «<  nilmtiir.  the  latter  Mde  b  Ik 

Worn  :  y  :hi-  l  /.\t"*/.\»*  '••a  a  !i;ri:iiiitiiiiu|ipvar-  ■Hlfthurk'ed  Mit!i  tin- 1  h  rtriii'.y  of  the  roodiiclai^ 

a:.  ■        It  ;«  j>r'»!i:>>«!  i  \«  :•   bv  t.  e  ni<>tiiin  com*  w}.i!e  the  :ni  t:i!!:<-  •-  a!ir  ii  i;n  tlie  othi  r  mJ*  b^ 

nn:M-M;i-!  i'l  ri- ;:(.!?.  n':d  ;\r\\  *>!ii^'\«itht!iehund  i-I'M'-o  at  :he  -  t:iuti*i:i-t  hAr)^.iI  u  ilh  the  fk|ip«Mili 

ca  :»4  <•  »jijr'i.  ■»  ii!.il  <1'.-!:t.'  '.  »  t%\  ■•.;i?j..li-  t'»  \n:  efi.lT-  e!«.'trii'i!,*  .   Uy  tl.i'  l;i«  ihod  ih.ir;:\'«i  of  <  liTtrid^f 


t»«I      I»r.   II     ifci-r  .■'••^■r-.  •  d  Mii-.Iir  |>!iei.«i;:i«;ia     ninv  bf  u.«iMini'..:«i  j -••]»«  tI:i'Ma!  to  the 

d  :r:i«;  :i  <-  •■«  •>'■ -nii  ••:!  iU'ii  N«v:«  in  1*'2>'),  t!iO     of  n:t-t.il!.''  "V.rfu'.*  ».     T!.e  |>nn>  4  niay  be  mnk^ 


!!■    '.'..  1'^  I  ii-".'./ .1  !;i--i':;:««niii !  iri  ih>' :iir.  arid  jbtd  i:.  i;'.nilKr.  u:.it  iiia'!- t«»  r.it  an  one  by 

t'T".    '..  .^  !h."  1.1  r  "f  Tlr*'  ::h  tid-r*  of  lu^  T-'*'"*/-  t-ftJij^  ar!  !)ie  if.-::!.i:»^l  «r  ui-jnt  ri«tir^bTA 

!>■  ••.I.—   :■  .I'.'!' rf.i -- 'A  .r-'.-^-iIth*  "amt^ilTrt  t^  pi-  I  r.!:'!i:i  ••■r  \*  .'Ii  t)..i'.  r  n.iiiiit.i -at^nx  vllk 

o;.  M-  :;t  II:  *.  m  w.  17»  7     -H:..i!  w:^^  *i'.\>ii"KA  tin*  j  riine  «•.'!. •;  '.•  t.-r.  avd  »!'.  t"  r  olht-r  »un 


t.t  ^m-  :.  :■.     i!:..r  •.•ifi!  T;  ••!  «Ii«!r.«:!v  »  ;i*  fir«»l     bv  '^j-i.ti.!  r  ;:■ -••!  .  i'.ib:i!"r  w  ith  that  Ctmtmui^ 
41^  •.-■...;  I. »  It  > -«  !•«'  Ui-^M  r'.i'i.nij  1  naritid  1  y     »  A::  j:  n  :!!i  ibi-  pr^uiid.     Thi'  trndeficy  i^ 


I*;. I   « >,  r«'i.!  t'le  :*.■  rr  ii  vlt  ■v.-al  •■■irn  :i!.      It     !w  •  •  In  !rii"it!r*   ll.i*    »' rTiiir:lnl*t|   i»   to 

i«I  r  -1  .  el  u  h.  :i  » -.v  i  j  i.  •  ,m  ..f  nii'.il  j  .ii.o!  t.-     t.  ,:.■:* »  r,  :i::d  t!.S  thi-y  d..  iii<>!.)nia!>ctit:«!y  w^fS 


i:.-^h.  r  I*. '-"i'J.  I  .'i-:*  afi- In'ft?- d 'T  I  •  ■  !•  d -: .  •  f  "f  a   i«  [  .!;:t'.l:j/   n<«>Ii:M:i    it   j  ri-»«-nlr«!    t»i 

V  <.').•.'    :.-.      II  o  .  IT.  It!  i'.:i?..i'.  *!j%  i!*  j  ri--^  T'.f  i  'i;  ninn  nict!.» !  if  Ti  ^T.-nniT  thrir  r^jtiilik* 

er.    .\\  I  ,.  ;'v  !hi' irisvu !.-   i. •••!!•■  ti  i!<  \  .j!4  ri'.ni  \%  \\  ii  i  a!.-  I'f  a  *!■•;.!  »ire  i-r  r***!, 

/">  oi  ..'f/A.^*. ;.<>/..     The  directiuu  uf  the  current  a  nietoll.c  ki.vb  at  ca-  h  ci.d,  the  wira  b^-nt 


ELECTRIGITT  63 

tuned  hj  a  binge  to  the  proper  earvatore,  and  its  under  snrfoce  the  solid  earth.    THienever 

MHiiigtbrovigfaagiaashandleybj  which  it  is  held,  cither  the  stratum  of  clonds  above  or  the  earth 

TUiitcaDed  a  discharging  rod.   A  chain  will  ef-  below  becomes  charged  with  one  kind  of  elec- 

feet  the  kame  porpose,  or  the  discharge  may  be  tricity,  the  opposite  kind  is  induced  in  the  other, 

tikeQthroiightfaebodybjpresentingonehandto  and  the  same  tendency  is  manifested  of  these 

cadi  warhce  of  the  glass ;  and  if  any  nomber  of  two  electricities  to  rush  together  and  neutral- 

poMMia  Join  bands,  and  the  two  at  the  eztremi-  ize  each  other,  as  is  observed  in  the  electrilied 

■ent  a  band  one  to  the  upper  and  the  other  coatings  upon  the  glass;  and  if  with  our  im- 

lower  sorfaoe  of  the  glaasw  the  shock  will  perfect  apparatus,  covering  a  few  square  feet 

'  r  pMB  throogb  them  all.  Instead  of  panes  of  surface,  we  can  produce  effects  so  startling, 

it  m  ibnndmore  convenient  to  use  wide-  we  may  the  better  appreciate  the  terrific  pow- 

id  fAan  bottles  or  jars,  which  are  coated  er  gathered  upon  surfaces  adapted  for  accumu- 

Uda  and  oat  nearly  to  the  top  with  tin  foil,  lating  electricity,  extending  over  areas  of  many 

•re  called  Leyden  jars,  from  having  been  square  miles,  and  charged  by  the  action  of  the 

naed  by  Ifoaschenbroek  and  others  at  Ley-  most  powerful  agents  in  nature.    A  particular 

m  1746.    A  coTer  of  baked  wood  is  fitted  quality  of  this  natural  electricity,  common  to  it 

one,  and  through  the  centre  of  this  a  and  the  machine  electricity  generated  by  fric- 

liMTiwI  penifMi  nr  nrl j  tn  tnn  bnttnm^  im'tb  irhirih  tion,  is  its  intensity,  or  its  property  of  violent 

i  eonaecia  br  a  short  chain ;  its  upper  end  ter-  action.    In  this  it  differs  from  the  electricity 

in  a  brass  knob  2  or  8  inches  above  the  generated  by  the  galvanic  battery,  which  is 

A  number  of  these  arranged  together,  distinguished  for  the  mildness  of  its  character, 

knobs  at  the  top  being  connected  by  while  the  quantity  is  remarkably  large.    The 

a  chain,  and  the  outer  coatings  being  natural  electricity  obtained  by  friction  has  been 

bcoogfat  into   communication  with  each  compared  to  the  heat  developed  in  a  bar  of  red- 

r  by  good  oondoctors,  constitute  an  elec-  hot  iron,  while  that  produced  by  chemical  ac- 

kMbitttery,  and  this  is  charged  from  the  prime  tion  is  more  analogous  to  a  larger  quantity  of 

floodaetor  bj  connecting  one  of  the  knobs  with  caloric  difiused  through  a  vast  body  of  water, 

k.    With  a  battery  of  this  kind,  the  metallic  The  common  electricity  also,  after  being  accu- 

of  which  amounted  to  225  square  feet^  mulated,  has  the  property  of  remaining  for  a 

jed  bra  powerful  deotricsl  machine  con-  considerable  time  m  an  excited  condition,  and 

by  Van  Marum  at  Haarlem,  Holland,  for  this  reason  has  been  called  statical  or  re- 

dboekBofflocIi  power  were  obtained  that  apiece  posing  electricity,  in  contradistinction  to  that 

tf  boxwood  4  inches  long  and  4  in  diameter  was  generated  by  the  battery,  which  exists  only 

KBt  tpart,  and  the  report  produced  was  so  loud  while  it  is  evolved,  and  for  this  reason  is  termed 

■  to  Stan  the  ear,  while  the  flash  dazzled  the  current  electricity.     In  most  of  the  instances 

i|a  with  its  brilliancy.    The  heat  generated  in  which  electricity  is  applied  to  useful  purposes 

VM 10  intense  that  a  small  iron  wire  about  yi^^  the  violent  shock  is  not  what  is  required,  but 

tf  as  inch  thick  and  25  feet  long  was  fused  into  the  feeble  and  continuous  action  of  the  galvanic 

nd-bot  globules,  which  scattered  in  every  di-  current.    It  is  consequently  in  the  description 

nctkxL  A  piece  of  tin  wire  y^  of  an  inch  thick  of  this  form  of  electricity  that  the  practical  uses 

lid  8  inches  long  disappeared  in  blue  smoke,  of  this  agent  will  be  treated.    One  use  of  the 

^oboles  of  melted  tin  at  the  same  time  falling  machine,  however,  may  be  noticed  in  this  place, 

^oa  a  piece  of  paper  and  repeatedly  rebound-  When  a  shock  is  passed  through  strips  of  gold 

^    ICagnetism  was  also  developed  by  the  leaf  placed  between  slips  of  window  gloss,  the 

Aoek,  so  that  polarity  was  given  to  steel  bars  gold  is  melted  and  driven  into  the  pores  of  the 

rfi  inches  in  length,  nearly  \  an  inch  wide,  and  glass.    On  this  principle  metallic  colors  are  im- 

Aof  an  inch  thick.    The  machine  which  pro-  pressed  in  ornamental  figures  upon  silk  or  pa- 

■iBid  these   effects  was  constructed  of  two  per.    The  design  is  first  cut  out  as  in  stencil 

of  glass,  5  feet  5  inches  in  diameter,  set  plates  on  a  piece  of  thick  drawing  paper,  and 

tbe  same  axis,  and  provided  with  8  rubbers,  this  being  laid  between  a  piece  of  gold  leaf  and 

cf  which  was  about  15  inches  long  and  2  the  object  to  be  impressed,   and  the  whole 

wide.  Bodies  40  feet  distant  were  sensibly  placed  under  a  weight  and  the  shock  passed 

d  by  the  electricity  excited  by  tliis  ma-  through  the  gold  ledj  portions  of  this  are  pro- 

and  pointed  wires  28  feet  distant  directed  jected  through  the  lines  of  the  design,  and  fixed 

_  \  tbe  conductor  were  tipped  with  a  star  of  upon  the  ground  intended  to  receive  them.    By 

feift;  and  when  ametdlic  ball  communicating  the  shock  various  chemical  compounds  may  be 

iKthe  ground  was  presented  to  it,  a  brilliant  decomposed  and  gaseous  mixtures  8ei)arated, 

of  light  2  feet  or  more  in  length  darted  and  their  elements  made  to  assume  now  coni- 

vlu  a  adgzag  motion,  throwing  luminous  binations ;  but  these  plienomena  are  better  ox- 

_»  of  K^t  into  the  air.— It  is  interest-  hibited  by  the  battery,  and  will  therefore  be 

to  observe  the  close  relation  between  the  described  in  another  article. — Statical  electrici- 

oC  i^asB  partiaJly  covered  with  metallic  ty  is  developed  in  some  cases  by  other  agencies 

and  the  arrangement  of  the  natural  as  well  as  by  friction,  as  by  pressure  and  heat. 

'  e  perfectly  conducting  atmosphere,  The  mineral  Iceland  spar  is  especially  remark- 

_  _ing  to  the  glass,  overlaid  with  the  able  for  the  electrical  excitement  occasioned  in 

ofdoads  of  vapor  and  touching  by  it  -when  &  rhomh  held  in  ono  hand  by  il^  \*v«  o 


64  ELECTRO-DYNAMICS 

owMi^ito  t-Asc^  !•  tr.TifliH  Tip^n  two  of  il*  pnr-  prmont  the  former  is  Ibo  comprther* 

all  1 1  tiw-i-^  )*}  x)iv  tiiik'i-r->  tif  t)if  cihcr  hiin«l.  IW-  which  incliiJo*!  whtttcvcr  b«:Iong«  lo  ih 

in^' tli«M  !tili)  niiir  tlif  •-innll  iifrillc  of  tho  rlor-  rnl   current  KenvratiMl  by  thu  voUua 

tr<i^-«'|H-  dill  ii}«truM.riLt  !■•  ti>  hi-ri-Mtt-r  ni*tu'i-<]),  battery,  the  thcniio-elwtric  circle  tT  i!i 

thi>  luiiH  ral  i«  ^-hown  I**  !•«•  vxiitol  by  vitmnir*  iiioirnct.  I'dJiT  thohvadii  TiiKKMik-Kir 

tlirtritl!v.  A  ntiinU  r  of  ■•tbt-rrr\Ma]!(.  SLN  tbiiir  Klu-tk(»-Ma<]Nktis\i,  aud  Mai.neto  K 

rpur.  ti>]>:i/^  in'u'iK  arm:*  tiiif,  A'c.  all  «>f  «  liirh  tt,  tlio  last  two  will  Iw  re«|ivrtivoly  t: 

ar«  r:i|iaMf  iinxiiik' <  1*  .'kViil  iiitti  l:iii)in:iMi}aiji.  Tho  dift'ovcry  of  thid  form  of  ricotr 

ffot   tltf  ^atiii-  pr*>|>«rty.     Thf  i  It  i-tricity  thiiii  bocii  rt-fcrri-d  tt»  in  tlio  article  Am  Mi 

«]«*vili •{■«••  I  !ift'«  U-tii  fti'-iml  to  ri>iitiiino,  ns  ihh  tkicitt.     It  is  iiiaiiifi*ste«l  in  tlio  ihi 

tii-«i!  by  lliiay,  fur  11  tbi^-*  without  ili*>{K-rMiin.  tion  of  f>ub>tanci'4  uinm  each  otlu-r; 

^Vhi  n  !w>i  ■>nf  «!;U)rf  <  Are  i<rc«-Kil  t'icitlur.  tho  exliibiti-U,  it  ii  true,  unlcssi  Hiu^ht  l'i>r. 

fit  I  trii-iiy  i«  «!•  \«'l>i|ii'il  only  i*ri  thi.ir  Mji.trA-  iJiaiiifi-<ct!,  even  when  it  is  ik>  fi'«'b!o 

tii'ii.  uikI  in  i>tii*  it  i^  vi;n**iii'«  and  in  tho  I'thi-r  vKrtrical  vxciti-mcnt  pnxluretl  i<i  itAfi.! 

rf«>in>*i>.     K'n  trii-ity  i-^tniiutl  by  hmt  ii  ti-  tion;   witiu^.H  the  hlitrht  h\nH:k  U*  iK 

hibiti*!  u:«i>  \'\  A  \»ri«tvi*f  iiiini-raK  iiitd  i-^fK.-  ti?«tFue,cauMM(;Mi(Mvucuntractii>n,  whi-i 

ciallv  \'\  r!ii'  I  r\  «!al  ff  tucnnalifjc     Whi-ni'\cr  eiit  im-tal!!  iilucvtl  ouv  bvltiw  and  tho  otK 

hf  tiiiipi  r.itnrv  rliaiiji"'.  ihttririty  U  ixcitid  the  ttaipio,  or  afrain>t  thv  inner  ftsirtui 

in  it.   ui  ■•rici:iil  ff  thi*  |Ki«i!ivo   and  in  tlio  lip,  arc  bniii^ht  in  contai't  at  tficir  i-i!^ 

othiT  ff  ti.f  iHv'utivo  kiinl.     If  tho  rhan;!i'  of  Miliva  in  this  cohb  acts  chuiiiii'iilly  i.; 

tt-iiifit  r:iTiiri-  \*  rapitlly  priHl-:rvi!,  tho  vb-rtri-  metal,  prtKlucing  in  the  one  iim-t  Htfr* : 

city  i«  oi :!)'.•  it  lit ly  iiitc-tiM' (•  I  utrr.i«-t  li^dit  U^liot  oUii  or  no^nitivo  olertririty,  anti   in  t! 

ti»  ihi*  *i:rfaiv  nf  tho  rr*  *tii!.     Whon  the  crv*tid  vitreous*     Tho  funiier  i-*  aniilMjuiM  tn 

i«  ajlonktil  (••  (••*'!  :itA«-r  l>«irik'  hvat«-d,  (h«>  rUt*-  Wr  in  the  dortrica]  niachiui',  uii^l  i-  ( 

trit-iTy  ilc\i  l<i{H  •!  at  c.ii  h  ritrrinity  in  tho  op-  gi'Merutinf^  plate;  tho  othi-r,  uii«wirii: 

tMi»:!o'iif  t!iiit  iiiui;iu-*>sd  during  tho  boat  in  l*. —  prime  con  juctor.  iri  callo«l  I  ho  conibi*:. 

In  r»»ii'l'i«  W'.'.j:  i  \iNriiiK-iii*  in  ibitricity,  a  vu-  Tho  prouto«tl  ctloct  in  priKluceil  xiht-n  il- 

n«-t,^  iif  i;iMr>inu-iti«  h:ivf  \m%n  intriNliici^d  in  pM>d  ci>nductopt)  the  one  itf  rapiiily  u> 

CiaiiM-i-ti'-n  H  itli  ll.o  ii::ti-!iin«-.  •^•1110  i*f  wliirh«  an  by  tho  fluid  which  wots  thoni.  and  th«-  o 

cK«  tri»iiit-t«  r.  rlrilriiplii«rM-,  ibrtnrMvijM*.  Ao.,  a  nature  tube  lir^atTor [«•«).   Twn  *:i'"I.  j 

may  priijH  r!y  U>  n<i(iri-«l  in  their  alphaUtioal  adlo«l  a  frulvnnie  pair ;  tho  torni  <-!• !;.« 

p!a<v  ill  ihi'«  ikurk,  t!ii*M.rh  fir  tltrir  full  di*  plied  M»niotinio*tto  thepair,  or  moro  k*<  i 

Khptii'M  lf:f  n  iwliT  niu*i  l^Mik  ti»  hihio  of  tho  <ineof  thoolatc-^.  Th«'yarocontn)cii!y  «•! 

maiiy  :iM*'  ••{•iriul  triafi'**^  r.{Min  t))i?«  ^ubji-rt,  and  one  of  i\ip|ii'r,  silver,  or  pl.it:iii:!it. 

aiM>>:ik'  «].:•-*)  !!::it  bvSlrhavi'l  nri-wa^ti-r )i>>ldH  are   inimirM.Hl   in  wutor  niiinl  uitii  • 

an  iiiii">r*.iiit  vaiX,  anil  tis-  fiiriii^hotl  nio^t  of  arid.    Thoy  aro  allowi-il  tutouth  k-:v  h  i* 

the  iiia*«  r:;i".- !".»r  thf  II. any  1  oiiipilali'in*.     Tho  aU»vethoiiurfaivi>f  the  tin  id.  or  i  !.<•:«  ai! 

Trtntf  *.'#•  V'^frfri^i'r    th"»ri.j\f  ft  %ij'pfufUt€  ly  touching,  a  w  iro  of  aiiy  h-iik''li  i:.:»y 

(I*uri%  l"*'*    .'•-►  ••!  M.  A.  Ik  l.i  Ilivv  pre^nt-*  from  lai-h  ai  a  otuMnctii;;  n.LiIiiim. 

the  -  ii  ii  ••  •:.•-'.  *  "i!ij'%  T.  ]\  \'.i  it*  hiti  »l  di  vel-  whii'h  iho  i-Ici'tri>.-al  cum  nt  i-  traii"!!..: 

opriii  ii!->.  :iii-l  ill   iT*  iH'Xir:!!  dii;ir?i!»tnt«i.     An  iln  ctK'^-t*  are  deVeb»jn-d  u  :th  i!jo  ^,4!;l 

KMk''>i«h  rrti.-'.i?i.-n  ••!'  it.  by  I'.  V.  WaiLi-r.  F.  at  their  extninitios  or  tlto  in.'.,*  if  1 

H.  S..  mr.'I"!  •■  A  Tr.  :iii«M-  i,?i  Kbetriiity  in  when  brnu^ht  into contart,  a- if  ti.e  i:; ; 

Thf-ry  a:.'!    rr:w!:ri'."   Ln-*  Uxii  pul'li-f.i  •!  (3  of  tho  2  plates  Wero  theni«*Ni-^  Ir--::. 

\i'.-.  ^i'».  I  "is'b'M.  I-'- i  "'•••I.     S-i'  al-'  Kura-  ther.     |{y  the  cont<irt  U-ii:^'  itTi.tfl  .1 

day  ■«  "  Ki;-i  :mn  Jstikl  K«  »<  .»r.  li.Hi.iiKleilrii  i!\''  onlinary  cai^aL-ity  i^  prHlin-*!  in  t!.i 

(.J  i..'»  H...    |...i,i!..|i.  j-u  ':.:.i.  of  acting  uiMin  the  /im*  pbi:-*,  «!.:!•  : 

KI.K«'I  K* »  1»YN  A.VIIl'*i*ir.  ijA#rr^io».  ftnd»or,  ap|ii*am   t<»  l^o   pro|-irtii'n.ilIy    jr.  St!, 

ani!  ^iMitAii.  {■••wtTi.    1  l:o  Lin-I  i>f  e!«-ctri«-ity  do-  w.iter  U  deitinii'OM.th  ii^  i*\y^*:.  i.;.. 

icb'l^d  {■>  1::>  ti<>n  may  U*  Ltpt  •j'lii  •H.t'itt.  a<4  ar-  t}:o  riuf*,  tho  re<»ii!tiric  oxiih-  1  f  m  !.:•  i 

rum^:ri!«  •!  :ri  thr  I.«'}(!en  ;ur,  aii'!  at  any  time  l*o  Nilve«l  by  the  Milpliuhi*  a-  hI  n*  a  ->..;  ) 

ma^iv  !■•  r::  iT  iU<  ii.*(Aii:!\  i:-*  iii*.4-:.«:ty  of  aa't^'ii,  the  hyilr>ik''-n  apiii-ar^  in  iiiiit:i!i  !-■:'  :  it 

a«  %\i*  li  tt  *  ilriiMiiti'ik*  I  "Mi!^  r  i«  i  \{-bf<k<l.    Iict,  Mirftue  of  the  nt  hi  r  plaU*.      Tht^'O  I   .( 

M    d*  \i!  s«  '1    ^  ^    I  ^<-"  i>  .d    n-'ti*  n,  vlec-trii  i!v  tiiiUullv  inrreik'H*  in  »i/o  and  «<^a:<   !  • 

in   U.f   fi  r!:i   i.f    a  r«i:i-*a!.T    1  ■irrefil  mar.iN^ii  f:MV.    The  elei  trii.ly  i*  ^^pJ•«■**■l!  1.   N  »: 

otS.tr  ir-;-r!.'*;    ar.!   :•*  « 'ri' t-  art*  e\}iil-::>  •!  oT   tho  /iht*  pl.ite  or  tlut  m--!  ft- !•  '.  ■ 

oljv  il'.r.!  „•  t'.-   !'••*!  of  t!..- 1 'irri  ii!.  di-apj^ar-  Mtil.  aii«l  t«ipi*'  t!Toi:,:!i   tho  l!...«l   f 

ixiiT  iri-:^!.*.!)  I'll  1:*  t  f^.vtt.-r:.  a«  (?.i-  li;:h:  if  t!io  ti>  lh»  ropjKTor  ni«  tal  li'<\<t  A!'ir!i<l  !  1 

*un  i»  1— t  »hin  il*  r^y-  are  tiiS  .'1 «  p'.etl.    K!"-  ai.-l  (hence  thrM'.:/!*  wh.i!i\tr  i»»i. ■!■..■  : 

tn.»-«iyriar  .  *  i*  l!.f  r.a!.n»  a;:-!i^d  t.i!h>  *'ra:iih  tt-riH.^-d  l^twn-:*  liso  ut-j-^r  i-^-rv   •.  •  : 

i»f  Iho  N  :i  n-e.   in  .  ••ri'.r-nl. •::::• '•••n  !■•  ili'ir*-  (!.at  ff  !!••• /iuc  pla!*-.    TSe  r.ii-   p!.4l* .  ■ 

Thr  d.»!  fi.-*;-  n   i*  I..  !.  ! -.wex.r.  a  ni!i-Iai'..  rr  j  v. .•*■;..';.  u;.  ■  ..  ...f  •     .-  ^•.■\  r  .    ,■  -. 

or.r  ;  a'.d  »N:»  !^i'  f  .I'uri' •  ?  t:.!- *  .b'.li- aiTii.l  r   .••.-■':  it     !■    %«.     »    •»  •t-#-  ;•■•■     -i 

g'ir^/*isc0  t*/  M  li:urv  vlALt  i'l{K/»;tUiQ.     i>ut  at  |.r\».iAr  u)*.:^  u.«  •t.iif. 


ELEGTB0-DYNAMC9  65 

to  be  the  BOVToe  of  the  electricity,  is  called  posi-  in  this  arrangement  has  been  called  the  electro- 
tire,  and  the  copper  plate,  which  receives  the    positive  metal,  and  copper  the  electro-negative, 

cmreht,  negative.    Some  suppose  two  cnrrents  terms  which  have  merely  a  relative  significa- 

are  excited,  which  pass  in  opposite  directions,  tion ;  for  if  potassium  were  sabstituted  for  the 

and  others  believe  that  the  excitement  is  not  of  copper,  or  platinmn  for  the  zinc,  the  electrical 

the  nature  of  a  current  at  alL    If  the  circuit  is  properties  of  the  metals  would  be  found  re- 

oompletef  no  evidence  of  this  action  is  apparent  versed.    The  following  table  presents  the  met* 

except  the  rapid  oxidation  and  disappearance  als  named  in  the  order  in  which  they  stand  to 

of  the  anc,  and  the  production  of  the  hydrogen ;  each  other  when  used  for  electric  plates,  with 

bat  if  this  be  interrupted  by  the  smallest  break  or  the  acid  mixtures  usually  employed,  as  water 

by  the  interposition  of  a  very  fine  wire,  the  with  sulphuric  or  hydrochloric  acid.    The  most 

piaang  of  the  current  is  manifested,  not,  as  with  positive  is  the  first  named,  tho  most  negative 

themachineelectricity,  by  the  quality  of  tension  the  last.    Each  one  is  positive  to  those  which 

which  enables  it  to  leap  across  l^e  non-conduct'  succeed,  and  negative  to  those  which  precede  it. 

ing  ur,  with  an  explosive  spark,  or  to  pierce  an  Those  furthest  separated  would  consequently 

interposed  card  or  other  poor  conductor,  but  produce  tho  highest  electric  excitement : 
intense  heat  is  developed  at  the  points  where         i.  Potassiam.       d  i^wi.  lo.  Silver. 

the  current  is  partially  obstructed.  If,  however,         J-  ztnc  7.  Copper.  n.  Antimony. 

T  .  i       •       V  i.1  1*.'   T  J    J.V  8.  (^admlom.  8.  Bbtnuth.  12.  Gold. 

the  number  of  pairs  be  greatly  multipued,  the         4.  Tin.  ».  NickcL  13.  Platinum. 

electricity  then  approaches  the  character  of  that         &>  iron- 

generated  by  the  friction  machines.  TThen  a  fine  This  arrangement,  however,  is  not  constant  with 
wireof  a  poor  conducting  metal  is  used  to  form  a  all  fluids,  nor  always  with  the  same  fluid  at 
part  of  the  circuit,  this  is  immediately  oxidized  different  degrees  of  concentration,  or  at  differ- 
lad  disappears  in  vapor.  If  the  break  is  closed  ent  temperatures.  A  number  of  pairs  being 
bj  bringing  the  terminating  points  in  contact,  arranged  in  succession,  and  tho  zinc  plate  of  one 
brilliant  sparks  are  produced ;  and  if  points  of  being  connected  by  a  good  conductor  to  the 
coke  or  dense  charcoal,  such  as  that  made  from  copper  of  tho  next,  and  so  on,  tho  whole  may  be 
boxwood,  are  used  for  the  poles  or  electrodes  of  made  to  act  as  ono  pair  with  increased  effect, 
the  circnit,  a  continuous  hght  of  intense  brillian-  Enlarging  tho  size  of  tho  plates  also  increases 
cy  is  enutted,  even  if  the  poles  terminate  in  a  the  power.  Yolta's  arrangement  was  a  pile 
Tacnam,  and  to  some  extent  also  if  under  water,  of  disks  of  copper  and  zinc,  ono  of  tho  latter 
thui  evidencing  that  it  is  not  the  offect  of  combus-  being  placed  at  tho  bottom,  upon  it  a  cloth 
tion.  In  the  passage  of  the  current  tbrougli  most  moistened  with  some  ncid  liquor,  separating  it 
eompound  fluids  in  which  the  plates  are  immers-  from  tho  co])per  above,  on  wliich  rested  another 
ei  the  fluid  is  decomposed,  ono  of  its  elements,  as  zinc  disk,  then  tho  wot  cloth,  copper,  zinc,  and 
the  hydrogen,  appearing  at  tho  negative,  and  the  so  on,  the  uppermost  disk  being  one  of  copper. 
«ther'  as  the  oxygen,  at  tho  positive  side ;  and  Two  wires,  ono  from  each  extremity  of  tho 
&e  same  decomposition  is  eft'ected  ifl  instead  of  series,  meeting  together,  complete  tho  circuit,  and 
3iQiner?ing  tho  plates  in  the  compound  fluid,  tlio  electrical  action  is  excited  throughout  the  whole 
conducting  wires  anywhere  on  the  circuit  are  series.  On  the  su[)position  of  tliero  being  two 
etch  made  to  terminate  in  it,  but  not  in  contact  currents,  the  electricity  developed  by  the  chem- 
with  each  other.  In  this  case,  however,  it  is  tho  ical  action  of  tho  acid  upon  tho  lowest  zinc  plato 
TOe  attached  to  the  copper  which  is  acted  upon ;  renders  this  positively  excited,  and  tho  proximate 
■ad  that  attached  to  the  zinc  (now  the  negative  copper  nej^tively  so.  This,  in  actual  contact 
pobbecauseit  receives  tho  current),  which  gives  with  another  zinc  plate,  tends  to  impart  to  it 
tf  the  hydrojren.  This  is  the  arrangement  used  directly  its  own  kind  of  electricity,  but  tliis  zinc 
ht  effecting  decomposition,  and  tho  interposed  disk  also,  being  itself  positively  excited,  trans- 
Teasel  in  which  the  compound  is  placed  is  caUed  mits  the  nojrative  electricity  to  tho  next  copper 
fte  decomposition  cell.  It  is  in  reference  to  tho  with  an  additional  charge  of  its  own  creating ; 
ihenomena  which  take  placo  in  this,  that  bodies  and  thus  the  negative  current  goes  on  accumu- 
tn  distinijnislied  as  either  electro-negative  or  lating  toward  tho  uppermost  copper  disk,  while 
deetro-positive  ;  or,  according  to  the  nomen-  tho  positive  electricity  accumulates  in  the  same 
ditare  of  Prof.  Faraday,  as  anions  or  cations,  manner  in  the  other  direction  at  the  lowest  zinc. 
lbs  former  in  the  decomposition  tend  to  tho  Tho  conducting  wires,  like  those  of  the  electrical 
node  or  positive  pole  of  tho  battery,  that  pro-  machine,  by  coming  in  contact  restore  the  dis- 
M^ng  from  the  copper  plate,  and  the  latter  to  turbod  e(iuilibrium,  ono  electricity  neutralizing 
fte  cathode  or  negative  polo  of  tho  battery,  tho  other.    Tliis  original  arrangement  is  called 

&ft  CkTUODE.)     Hydrogen,  the  alkalies,  and  the  voltaic  pile.     It  was  modified,  however,  by 

metals,  appearing  at  the  negative  pole  of  tho  Volta  himsolt'  by  the  substitution  of  a  liquid  for 

kttery,  are  cations ;  oxygen,  chlorine,  iodine,  the  inoistcned  cloth ;  and  the  plates  being  ini- 

^vine,  and  tlio  acids  generally,  tend  to  tho  mersed  in  this  on  the  sanio  principle  of  their 

«ber  pole,  and   are  called  anions.    But  this  arrangement  in  the  pile,  the  ai)paratus  is  called 

i.  ilHfication  of  bodies  must  not  be  confounded  the  voltaic  or  galvanic  battery,  the  latter  uamo 

irhh  their  division  into  positive  and  negative  having  reference  to  Galvani,  who  discovered 

tith  reference  to  their  action  when  applied  in  this  kind  of  electricity,  tliough  he  kncAv  notliing 

ft«  buttery  to  excite  the  electric  current.    Zinc  of  this  modo  of  developing  it. — \\t  lias  \)Vi<iii  V)l- 
voi*  vn. — ^ 


(M  ELECTRO-DTNAMICS 

rr«dj  BtAUM  that  by  inrrmin^  tlio  number  or  Ite  cxtcntloil  onW  to  nhnrt  dinUncc^  uid  thca 

•IMA*  »f  the  |>Iatv4  till'  f'ltM-tririil  t'tTiTt.4  urc  auj{-  tliroiif«h  the  h(*^t  comlurtnnt;  but  if  the  cnrrtoi 

rm*iit«d.     It  ii»  itiit  u  iiiatttT  nf  imhtlVrfin'o,  hnw-  tiv  intvrruptt'il  by  the  inti'rfNMtitiun  of  fine  wirt 

r\i*r.  which  iif  thr%f  nifNli!*  it  ailti|it4-il.     It  ifl  (if  |NHir  ouniiiictintr  nmteriiiL  &«  irttn,  ^eel,  or 

fuum!  that  iiirroiviiii);  the  aroa  of  a  >tn^*lc  |iairof  plHtinum,  an  extra«in1inary  di-);r%*e  of  livat  UcW- 

fiUlr4a4l«lAiiit)iL'ra|»aiityofp*iuTatii)f;ht'atevon  Vt'hi|if4l.  A  n'uiurk able  bat tvry  nf  thi»  dt-ft*ri|»- 

n  ai^atiT  ratio  than  the  incrt'OM.'  in  the  Mirfaro  tinn  «  as  t'l^^t  niaiK-  by  I>r.  I  lure  nf  I^tiilaiMpbil^ 

of  the|*lato\  ami  at  th«' Miiu'tinK'nin|;ni*t«*«eli'c-  with  whifh  lie  fns«-il  a  nunifitT  of  »ul»«tanr«« 

iririty  ia  uutw  thi*rwii^')ily  iK-vi-Iii|ivil;  hut  the  in-  U-ltire  ri'}:ardiil  us  iiifuMhlc,  iiirhiilini;  rharrual ; 

trnaity  ofthfcltttrii  a)l'>iri'oi«ni>t  M-iiMtily  atfrtt-  |>Iatiiiuni  lie  iIi.-M*rilti-il  a<«  running  like  valcr 

r«l,  n<>r  it«  pii«tTi>f  priHldi  iii;:i}i«  iiiifalrhaii^i.-«  uikKt  it<«  at  tiuii.     Kurronv^'nienri'  uf  nKrfn  thm 

in  biMlit  ••  iiiiriiilii*  111  ibTm  the  i-iri'iiit,  whit  h  i*>  a  platfi  wvre  arruit^i'«l  hi  riiiU,  the  zinc  and  cup* 

{iru|H'rt>  hc-Iiiii;:in^  v*  tliat  t*nhilititiii  c\|>rt"^Mtl  i>«'r  lK*in^  ^v]i:iruii-il  by  a  }»|ta«H*  i*(  unly  |  uf  an 

ly  ihi-  t«  rill  iiit«-ii*>ity.  iiinl  nut  to  thi*  other.  lU*-  intli.     Knuii  it-*  {miwit  nf  lirndurinf;  beat  hm 

|M'n<b'iit,  It  i"  NiiiiiMiti'il,  un  •{(luntity.    Km  if  the  f':Uli*tl  tliis  form  of  battiTy  a  raloriniotcir.     StBH 

■iw  of  caih  |iair  of  phitf*  riiiitihur  the  ^anit\  lar  hatt^Ticrt  h:i\e  Mfu'v  liet'n  made  with  an  cs* 

and  their  iiuniU  r  b«*  im  rL-a^Mt),  tho  i>h'i'tririty  |Hi*<*d  afi-a  of  4<mi «i|uare feet.    Hy  r«»nnet*tiiif(  a 

drvi-h<|ifd  i«  niori.'  of  the  niituff  of  that  p>n-  nuiiiluT  of  di^tiiirt  blu't-tfi  of  the  haine  metal  to* 

erati-*)  l>y  t!io  tlniriiul  inailiini-,  whii'h  i-*  «lit-  ^-thtT  liy  a  k^nnI  ronductor.  tho  i-fiivt  ia  ptt^ 

tiiiirui*hi-i!  I>v  it-*  «*harai  li  r  of  iitti-n-ity,  a**  i^  dufiilof  onv  Iar^'«hii't.    IK-at  isalA«>di*vi-lu|iad 

inanifeotol  in  iti  imiUlt  of  pi^iii^  ^h'H'k-.  and  by  inrrfaoiint;  tlti*!»tren^thof  the  arid,  at  leaatop 

uf  |ia«*inK'  l«*  M'liie  fxti-iit  throii,;h  ini|HTfiM-t  to  a  ecrtain  iMiint.     The  chi-nru-al  actiun  thca 

r«indui-:tir«.     It  i^  t!ii«  furiii  of  battery  whirh  irt  pK'ii  on  with  fEfi'ater  nipidity,  anil  a  pruteir- 

eniiih'jbi'il   to  flTt-et   thfiitii'al   dti-onipo^itiitn^.  t imi ate  truant ity  of  I'lcrtr ir it r  i«  iH*t  frve.     ih% 

That  um-iI  hy  Sir  lIiiMi|ihr\  Pa«\  in  t!ie  e\|i%Ti-  dctieit iii-y  of  thi<(  kindiif  vlcrtririty  in  intclidty 

nifnt«  whitii  re«ulf«-d  in  L«  di-*«-overii-<i  of  the  reiidept  it  ni'i'e»!«ary,  whi-n  lite  vlTrct  ia  tu  m 

nu'tallii'  haM-«  of  thf  alka!i(.«  and  earthy  tun-  traxiMiiititHl  a  oin-iderahliMlittanfe.  aft  for  fiiisf 

•i«tf«l  of  'J.iNMt  |i:tir!«  I'f  platv^  with  area.^  i-x*  charh:!':*  untlcr  water,  or  iirnitinir  Mrveral  rhargas 

ptmed  t«>  the  at  lion  of  tiii.-  a>  i«N  aim  Mint  iii^  t^i  at  tiiit'e  in  hla<»tinkr  rtH-ksi,  t«>  atld  a  Mrcund  bat- 

12\(NH«   ^^iiarv    ihi  ht'*.      Vari*ui«   ni>Hli^are  tt-ry  or  to  inrreaM.*  the  nuniU-r  of  the  pain  of 

»hi|itf«l  f<irarrunjin«;  tlu'M'|tlati-'\  hut  the  ]>rin-  idate^.     The  U-»t   ti*ndut'tin^  Uiaterial  ahoaU 

ri|ile  i«  the  •«;iine  m  all.     The  t-ii|i|HT  and  /ine  w  Um.iI,  and  thiA  in  a  wire  «if  lar^*  »i2e.     Tba 

plate*  i>f  i-.M-!i  |air  are  to  U-  briMi.'ht  in  t*«niat-t  nu-tala  lary  ^'reatly  in  their  c*at>aiity  uf  roa- 

dirwil*  i-r  ihr-'U^'li  ilieiin-iliMni  ol  .k -'ii*"!  niet-  dutliiii;  the  i-lntrie    furriiit.     Their   )n»pdr« 

al,  whiit  i!ie  etiiiiMi'iiiii  :k!i"ii  U-twvinthe  /iiii*  tional  %alui*   in  thi^  ri'<i*«.-i  t  i-*  n  |  re<4^-nt«M   in 

an«l  t-<<;*;Nr  ff  ai!j<<iiikii.;  pair^   i*^  lliptu;:!!  t}ie  the  iiiiiiiYtT!i  ri-^iK'i-li\i!y  at-eoniiiabyi:i^  thuM 

a&'id  h  ^li-'r  1:1  «hii!i  tini  are  iintuer-Hil.     The  naliieil  lilow: 

arronjt  111!  ttt  U\.i\   t-i>I.«;«!.  a<  ll:  l!ii    tr><Mj!i  Im:-  y,\*fr,r*^i;^?.rfch     I|i>     !•<  a.  1 '.■■.lu-im,  rark     14 

trr>.  fi  a  tr;!uU-r  I't"  ft  11- !".  rnin!  h}  jartith-n-s  l,*;^  *                           •*»    1  n                             $• 

whii-h  Ml  'h^r  the  »•  ■•!  I.' r  tl.i  i '..  I'.r..  rurr*  nt  ""^                          *"      '*' 

ran  tra\>  :-^  .  a  t-o'i'i-tr  { !  i!>   *t  ::.^  .■jj-"hiI  t'- a  Thi'  i'!A.e    f.r  Vra*-*  i-*   Utw.in   t^pj^r   and 

xinr  |>:.i'.>-  Ik  t  .11  !i  It «!.  u:.!  llie  .  ■  ::.::niniiMt:'n  pll.     In   the   art-- lo    Iii  A-*Ti>it  ii  a  d*- 


U-.n*:    !r..:ii   i!.e    /::*.    t-  tl.e    i.':.j*r   ti.r.-u.'h  t.i-n  of  a  «  heap  hattery   um.I  :ri  S^otlatKt  by 

thr  flu..!       l!e  i-'ij'^r  i-  .  •  :!:i. .':.  l  *\  \  -lip  whi.  li  d;*«!.ar;:i  •  l.a\e  U*tn   ;>ri-!-ii-<t!  at  a  di^ 

•if  uwiM    I  i'v:.j    .wr    ?!.*•    i.ir:.T  .  :.   w  rl»   a  ta:..e  of  :.•■>    Iti^.      A    ^ .  •  :.l    ha!tir>   anbM 

finr  \'v>*    111  x\%'  lit  It  ii!l.  .■ji-*i.l  i.«  »1.:.  h  w.'il!  inrrv  t!.tt?ret?  M:!'.  I'-.r:!..  r      t'a*t  i 


i«  all-:!..:  t..;|^r  y'.y.*.  .wA   •-  "ii.     T!.t  l.k*t     i*  ^^^-tituT.d  i:i  th.ii  f^r  \) ijtrjlate, 

C'l'l-^r  I-  Tj  f.j'.;i.'..  a!t  *  ti  .'.Ii  \'..>.    ?  :-t  .'.:;•    *■»  a  >!'•  ?•  "Hd  :ii«re  ttVii-.n"  :.■•:-»  f-r  j.  i.iratir.j  r 

wire  •'.i!'.  !.  .  :  ::.e  i*:.-.;i-,  t!.  .*  i' :;  ;  \:.i.«- the  tr..  .r.^  iii -iiartst^  t?  .vi  ntS  r  .  ■  |-;*  r  i  r  4il»*r. 

cift  u:t       » »r.  ;••!.  v!  'l  a  !.--■  :^''j  il:\  ili  !  :::r.i  TI.i  i :!".  t !  •  f  t!..   in',  i  *•*  In  V.  .-  !^.i:!  I':!!*  et- 

c»IX  a  :.  .::tr.:  .:!a-«  !iu.!.  ?-  i:ia»    !-•  ar-  h;!'.*i-!  ^>  a  i.iv.I^  r  ■  f  •.!.!.  ri  •'..•  ^  t  \j- rirnrnt^ 

raiitfitl  I'.  •  : ■:.,  la.  !i  i.'l'iiv,;  :i /.:.'   a'.!  .i  »  -■  1.   ^Im   :'.■!   *  f   i.r!-rniti!   In   a  -iark   r«««L 

iMj.jHr  J   .iT. .  i»:i  !.  Af*  ,.-ii..t  ti.l  \%  •!:;■•  "t"  A\  !.•  :i '•:.   «  :r.- .>"  •' i- Vat!.  r%  i*  n:.i*t'  ?.•  tc^ 

mtiftl  »  li.  :'..  .T  .|;-"!:f  j '.it.  -  is.    a.:;.-;!..ri^  ni.i.as- a:.!-.^r*.t  .«!.-•  •■!' a  nn  tal' ■•  i.-.!.  ar.«!  iha 

tuf!. !•;.:.       I  ..-».k«!!.    .irr^.^'.  •:..  :  !   ai-jStil  o;  j- -  ?•  i.l^»  .  f  :'.•;» '.-v!  ■■,-••.  a  rrt  Tai^.*  •ajf- 

l»  \     ::a     I:M  :  .  k-'.a:  k  •  I    :•:.:?:.•   ^'V.Wry,  fi-e  m!..  ^     i-   ..••.!,.!»•:;   r!  ,-   .  T*.  r  »!r% 

the  r  I  .■  a:   !•«;:.  r  ■.:  fci.  .  .*rt    i;  ;  !:..',.:  •  •:;-  ;i  t!.e  Ua!  «  '  !■;•  !.»'.  .*  iTT'-iiif!.  a:  •!   \  -.n*  w  :th  a 

tht  ft:.,  r  tt    1  -  :  !   :,.l  !   ,:• :   '  r.  a:  '.  ".'  :•   .:•.  i  V-ira- :.  r>-      !  ,•»  !  a:;.!  r.  !  -.  -Iwr  ^.^  .".^  <»at 

•i-rtfi  A-i-trt.!.    r.*  i:.  T    *  !:  ■  V  .  '.:  ^  .•:•■  }'i:.  -  •  ■  '-■'••  .*'■  •  '  •  •■»■■'•  -'•■J  *  «?..•«!.  !  j!  !     If  i<M 

all    i^  u»r  .     .■  ».»*  .»:.  !  :    .    ..;pr!'.    .".r  w  ;ri  ;•  :-..i  !•  r     •.  ::;    :.ar.    i:.  .i  r!.- ar. ■!!'.•..!?,.  f 

TJ*rc.;>  Ii.  II  !.:v"!.    '-I  :j:l    -v   \-^r\   ^:'^   ?    '■  d  1?:   a  -S^'.   ;•    '  T.  a:  ■!   •* '■   J-     :r  >  .!ra»r.t.t«r 

•  ithd.:  iT.  X  :■'.!        ."*:  ^t  ::^.  :.!;•- •  :  !  ■'  .  t!  e  tJ.e    t!.-.  »  •.:  a:  '  •:  a'^*  .;r.    .:     V.-!  Ik.    t*  ■■•• 

Miuea«  t:.a'.    ■:  :- t^     '  t      i   :•       V-V'--    ••■i-  •T  .  '•.  ^»  V  i-  !  a::.::.,  r  .  f  •:>    ■   a- k--:.  tV  frx.ra 

ilnK-!«U  ■.'?•*:'»;: »'   ■    •  .'•  i:  •  ■■    ■'••     r  a  i:.  w*- ■  :' 1  <  a:.d  :-■  !.      l»r    W   :\*:.  •  t'^t^tol 

aiai»«  aiiKiUut  ^'1  *",- !-      'i        •        *     :t.  :  •  .  f  a^-   .:   :.rrA'!    ::   jr- \t  v..  :  !    .'    Tl  .■   *  a?:. -i   ia 

Tiii  .r  a*. :.  - 1  ai, ,.  ■  ■;--».  ^u*  -:Iy  1  ?  1  -■,  *«  i  a^j.^  i  ja  L  la^^-  «.  f  :!.*:  i— ,:  :%•  1<  ep- 


ELEOTRO-DYNAMICS  67 

posed  to  one  of  copper.  The  plate  of  the  latter  hattery  may  he  kept  in  action  for  days  together, 
metal  was  hent  round  in  the  form  of  the  letter  For  this  reason  it  is  called  the  *'  constant  hat- 
U,  and  from  the  upper  edge  of  one  side  an  ear  tery."  Its  effect  is  increased  hy  adding  several 
projected  at  right  angles,  by  which  it  could  be  pairs,  and  connecting  them  on  the  principle 
suspended  to  a  cross  bar  of  baked  wood.  The  adopted  in  other  batteries.  Grovels  battery  is 
■crew  bolt  which  fastened  it  to  the  wood  also  constructed  on  the  principle  of  Danieirs*,  but  is 
went  through  a  similar  ear  projecting  in  the  op-  made  much  more  compact  by  the  use  of  plati- 
posite  direction  from  the  zinc  plate  of  the  next  num  instead  of  copper.  A  strip  of  this  is  placed 
pair,  the  copper  ear  lyins  between  the  wood  in  the  porous  cell,  which  in  this  case  is  of  un- 
and  the  zinc  ear,  and  both  being  brought  into  glazed  porcelain,  and  contains  strong  nitric  acid, 
close  contact  by  tightening  the  nut  on  the  up-  The  zinc,  in  the  form  of  an  open  cylinder  with 
per  surface  of  the  bar.  The  zinc  plates  lie  each  a  longitudinal  slit  from  top  to  bottom  for  admit- 
within  one  of  bent  copper,  but  without  touch-  ting  the  free  circulation  of  the  acid  through  it, 
ing  it  in  any  part.  Their  contact  is  sometimes  is  placed  outside  of  and  around  the  porous  cell 
eturded  against  by  inserting  Rtrins  of  baked  wood  in  a  glass  tumbler  or  similar  vessel,  partially 
between  the  two  metals.  As  by  this  arrange-  filled  with  sulphuric  acid  diluted  with  10  parts 
ment  particles  of  zinc  as  they  fell  were  caught  of  water.  The  poles  are  thus  seen  to  be  re- 
in the  bend  and  retarded  the  action  of  the  bat-  versed  from  the  arrangement  of  DanielPs.  This 
tery,  the  form  was  afterward  improved  by  invert-  battery  is  remarkable  for  its  intensity  or  power 
ing  the  copper  plate  and  cutting  out  a  portion  of  of  current,  but  is  objectionable  on  account  of 
the  top,  so  as  to  admit  the  bar  forming  the  ear  the  fumes  of  nitrous  acid  generated  by  the  re- 
ef the  zinc  plate.  The  slip  of  copper  cut  out  action  of  the  hydrogen  upon  the  nitric  acid,  the 
was  also  bent  to  one  side,  to  take  the  place  of  gas  developed  at  the  zinc  penetrating  the  porous 
the  copper  ear  of  the  former  arrangement,  and  ceU  in  its  progress  toward  the  negative  plate, 
eoimect  with  the  next  zinc  plate.  There  were,  Bunsen's  battery  differs  from  Grove's  in  the 
however,  still  other  defects  of  serious  conse-  substitution  of  a  cylinder  of  a  dense  form  of 
qcenoe  attending  the  operation  of  the  battery  carbon  for  the  platinum.  The  coke  which  ad- 
in  an  these  forms.  Tlie  surface  of  the  copper  heres  to  gas  retorts  answers  an  excellent  pur- 
was  diminished  by  the  bubbles  of  hydrogen  pose.  The  form  of  a  hollow  cylinder  maybe 
which  collected  and  adhered  to  it.  The  capa-  given  to  the  coke  by  preparing  it  from  pounded 
city  of  the  water  to  take  up  the  sulphate  of  zinc  coal,  and  it  may  then  be  used  for  the  porous  cell 
dimmf.«hed  with  the  quantity  dissolved,  and  the  by  filling  it  with  nitric  acid  and  sand.  Oatside 
chemic.'d  action  thus  constantly  grew  weaker,  of  it  the  zinc  cylinder  is  placed  in  dilute  sul- 
The  action  of  the  copper  was  also  lessened  by  the  phuric  acid.  The  coke  is  improved  by  soaking 
fcillection  of  a  film  of  black  oxide  and  of  other  it  in  a  saturated  solution  of  sugar  and  calcining 
imparities,  and  by  the  reduction  to  a  metallic  it  a  second  time.  Smee'sbatlcry,like  the  trough 
•use  «>f  a  pfirtion  of  the  sulphate  of  zinc,  the  lat-  battery,  employs  but  one  fluid.  Its  peculiarity 
t^r  causing  local  and  contrary  currents  of  electri-  originally  consisted  in  the  use  of  a  negative  plate 
citj.  The!?e  defects  were  corrected  in  the  battery  with  a  rough  surface,  this  having  the  property 
rfProf.  Daniell,  of  which  an  account  was  publish-  of  shedding  the  hydrogen  bubbles  as  fast  as  they 
c4inlS36.  The  zinc  in  this  was  separated  from  form.  The  metal  employed  was  silver  coated 
the  copper  by  being  suspended  in  a  porous  cell,  with  platinum  deposited  upon  it  in  a  pulverulent 
vhich  contained  the  diluted  acid ;  and  this  po-  form.  Platinum  foil  is  sometimes  used  instead 
IWB  cell  was  placed  in  an  outer  vessel  of  cylin-  of  silver,  and  the  name  is  retained  with  the 
dricsil  form  made  of  copper,  which  acted  as  the  method  of  arranging  the  plates.  A  strip  of  the 
negative  plate,  and  contained  a  solution  of  sul-  platinum  is  suspended  with  two  zinc  plates,  one 
l^kite  of  copper  with  an  addition  of  about  ^  of  on  each  side  of  it,  from  a  wooden  bar  extended 
Rlphnric  acid  in  excess.  The  zinc  was  a  cylin-  across  tlio  top  of  a  tumbler  or  similar  vessel. 
dxical  rod,  and  the  cell  originally  used  was  the  The  plates  are  kept  very  close  to  each  other  and 
laQet  of  an  ox.  In  this  arrangement  the  animal  exactly  parallel.  The  two  zinc  plates  are  con- 
Bcmbrane  admits  the  passage  of  the  electric  nected  together  by  a  clamp  passing  over  the 
corrent,  but  checks  that  of  the  sulphate  of  zinc,  wooden  bar,  and  the  conductor  from  the  plati- 
Ihe  hydrogen,  too,  no  longer  collects  upon  the  num  plate  passes  through  the  top  of  the  bar. 
flaK>er,  but  spends  itself  in  decomposing  the  By  keeping  the  plates  in  close  proximity  the 
iB^ihate  of  this  metal,  uniting  with  the  oxygen  electric  current  is  rapidly  excited,  but  it  is  nc- 
cf  the  oxide,  and  setting  the  copper  free.  The  cessary  to  prevent  the  platinum  foil  from  being 
■^nric  acid  eliminated  at  the  same  time  pene-  brought  into  connection  with  either  zinc  plate 
taftes  to  the  zinc,  keeping  up  the  strength  of  the  below  the  surface  of  the  fluid,  as  may  happen 
aixUire  in  the  porous  cell.  The  copper  result-  from  tlie  accumulation  of  hydrogen  bubbles 
Sqf  from  the  decomposition  of  the  salt  of  the  upon  it,  or  from  its  being  drawn  by  any  other 
■etiil  is  found  to  cohere  upon  the  surface  of  the  cause  to  one  side.  This  may  be  eflccted  by  glass 
Bflntire  plate ;  and  this  is  the  principle  upon  beads  attaclied  to  its  lower  edge,  or  by  its  being 
vfich  the  art  of  electro-metallurgy  is  based,  kept  in  place  by  a  weight  or  other  means. 
Bt  keeping  up  a  supply  of  crystals  of  sulphate  In  all  these  arrangements  it  is  found  that  the 
■  eopper  where  they  can  be  dissolved  as  re-  consumption  of  the  zinc  may  bo  greatly  re- 
fBved  in  the  upper  part  of  the  solution^  the  dacod  hy  the  application  of  mercury  to  \l&  b»\xx- 


68  ELECTRO-DTNAMICS 

fcrc,  tn  IL4  to  form  sn  nmnl^m  over  Iniili  f:iro!».  |M»li*)ie«l  f:ire  of  the  next  |il)ilo.    TIjo  interpnifd 

The  nu-tiil  \*  not  then  hu)>ji-tt  t<i  tli^^'lvf  in  tt.i*  air  mtvo^.i^  \hv  nuiiit  comluctur,  aDil  i  ivrtru-iiy 

cliliitdl  nrit]  \i!ii*n  the  rirniit  i.h  ndt  rmiiplitt';  i«  tlfV^lopiil  M-ii-iMy  iiith  tltc  ii««  of  G*i  to  80 

bnt  wheiu-viT  thi*  ai'tii»n  of  tho  hnt^i-rv  ii  vv  plat i- 4,  the  {loliahe^I  fur«  ni'tiii^*  a-  tlio  2-<>?itiTe 

qiiirid,  and  the  ri>inniiiiiit';itii  11  h  fi>nni*il  hf  and  the  ntis^'h  an  tliv  nv;;ati\e  tU-nunt.     \l» 

Cwcvn  the  |>laio«.  the  zinr  !•«  nttar-Lc-il  hy  the  ai -'ul  thnui:h  two  nu-taN  are  nMially  einpli>}  i-J  f  t  gvA« 

the  fame  a^  if  110  applicatii'n  «<f  iiivnury  hail  rr:t!ii.{?  ^oltnir  (Ii-rtruity,  miv  aim  v  1.235  >A* 

been  mmlv  t«>  it.4  »urf:ii'i.'.     llu*  zini*  !•«  aiual^^-  BWir,  |>ro\iihi]    tliut   dirti-riiit   portions  t-f   ii 

matrd  hr  n:Miif:^  it  « iih  iii«rriiry  aAcr  it  has  uri-    in   ri>ntlltiiin!i  to   he   ditn-rently  act«>l  oa 

been  rh^annl  with  dilnttil  Milplnirir  ariil.     It  it  by  thr  ii'iil.     The  c-KTtriral  fXiitruunt  i«  pio* 

reroninicndcM]  hy  mimio  to  nii\  the  dilutnl  arid  diirol  with  a  ^in(^Ie  i»hite  foriUi-«l  in  port  uf 

and  nu-rrurv  inji'ilivr  in  a  tial,  and  thiii  apply  ra-t  and  in  part  of  roiKd  zinc;  or  if  une  por- 

the  niixturr. — The  preo4*nro  i-f  a  lluid  i;- not  i<-  tion  of  a  phitu  «'f  copper  or  of  zinc  i»  co^ 

■vntial  !••  priM!ihv  vultaii*  %h*<*trii  :t\.     \Vhut  in  roih  il  nitd  t lie  other  i.n  rU'iin,  a  cumnt  !»  jir\^ 

ralh'd  the  vkrtrii'cnhinin  t-r  dry  plIi*.  tiptt  niaile  diuvil,  the  nurface  ma-t  rv-adlly  artv^l  i*n  bviny 

bv  IWlirtii^  in  l'^«>.'>,  and  itii]>roviiI  and  hniii^'ht  t!ie  (.-vm-ratin^  plate.     Truf.  Karad^iy  al'*o»hov» 

Into  uotitv  hy  Ik'  Km*  in  1^1".  ]<  mn-ifnictiHl  nf  that  a  jilato  pr^^M-ntin^  a  uniform  furf'are  m^f 

di»k«  of   z:ni*,  CfpiHT,  and   jrilt    pai^r,  ralhd  U>  nia<Ii' to  dcvoltip  fliTtrical  ezritwiw-nt  when 

Putrh  pujM-r:  it  may  U*  U-sa  than  an  inch  in  ditfort'nt  {Nirtioni^of  it  arc  exiKiTH**!  to  the  artioo 

dianicti-r.     \Vith  a  i-i'lunin  of  uwiv.y  hiMidrod  cif  two  flu id.i  which  dilfcri-ntlv  atftrct  it.     Tliva 

smupH  p:Ivf!  u{N»n  oni'  anoilur  a  \:!>ratiiin  of  a  an  eU-ctric  current  ht  pnNluL*i'«I  uhi-n  a  plate  of 

brasi!*  ball  i«u«{»fnilitl  fiy  a  f^ilk  thrvail  ha*  h«-«'n  tinr,  iron,  orcop]M*r  is  jiiit  ii:t«i  a  timm.1  which 

cootinuttl  U<tW(i'n  two  !n!U  inoulatid  andr<in-  hasi  Win  partially  til Ivtl  with  a  ^tn*n^  M'!atiaa 

nertt.-4l  one  « ith  varh  jniU*  of  the  mlnn.n  s**  iM  of  »(ilpliatv  of  cop|K-r,  and  U]Min  thi^  a  lay^r  of 

tu  ki-<*p  a  rontii;na)  riiijm^  for  nearly  ^1  ii)oiit!i-(.  diluto  Milphurii*  acid  ha:»  Wen  carvfuliy  adi2«d. 

I>e  I.nr  caiiMtl  apt-iitltilnni  thrii  to  vibrate  with-  The  M>!]<liate  of  r«»ppi-r  in  Kj1uti«>n  will  l«  d^ 

out  Ki>ppiuk*  for  i:i>>T\*  tlian  !!  yi-ar-*.     With  an  oi>niiHi<k-4l,  anil  nirtullic  ciip|Mr  will  K*  prvcipi- 

apparatu<i  of  *Jo.inii)  1^^.11].^,  «if  ^i!vi'r,  zinc,  and  tatcd  ujnm  the  |N>rtiiin  of  thv  plate  in  contact 

d«*ublo  dM'4  of  wri!in;;  |  a|fr.  Mr.  Mn;:i'r  oh-  with  it. — Tlio  prf!4t'iii-e  of  a  current  t«f  voltaitf 

tainol  niin!:tc  l<ri;;h!  hparL%  ainl  (  hari;i*il  a  I.«.'y-  elivtririty   i*  iiidicatvd    by   in»trumfi.t4  called 

den  Jar  in  !•>  inin.iti"*  «i:h  Mir1!ciint  vIiM-trii'ity  (nI^aiH»-ciiiif*i  i-r  pilvanonieti-r*,  thi*   principto 

to  CAUM'  adi-:urri'e:iMe  ^!.•H*k,  titj^Tforato  thirk  of  \ihit  h  i-  the  tvndcnry  of  a  nt.*i(rni  tic  need]* 

drmwin^:  pa|i«T.  and  to  Ui^»  auv  inch  of  plati-  to  turn  fruni  itn  north  and  roiith  dircitiou  wb«a 

nuni«irv    ,  .'.  ■    of  an  iirh  in  dt.init-tir.     The  tho  lU'i-Tric  cnrrt-nl  i^  mnt  throi:;;h  a  ci^npcr 

quality  I'f  l!.e  (Itririt-ity  ma<  w!..i!I%  that  of  wire,  ^\  hit  h  pa^M-*  over  and  UJidirtl.r  nic«llr  ia 

the  niai}iir>e,  nnd  ift  th:it  orliiiurily  di'Vili>{t-d  one  ^r  a  iiuiiitivr  of  tnrn'«.     (S-e  KiEtTKO-MaA- 

by  the  p-li'.     In  I*«rj  I'r.'f.  ZamlH'ni  of  Vi-pina  M:ri-M.)   The  more  nniuepius  the  tun. «.  pruTid* 

pr«Nln«-.d  a  ni>Nl.tii>l  t'i>nii  of  tM<^  pile,  u^iiit;  i->l  tl.e  wire  L«it|' >:/e  prop irtiiin.tl  to  tLei{uantitjr 

2.IHH  di«k*  of   *i^ir  pajir.      Kaeh   ii!ii*iint«tl  of  lUt  tru  ily.  the  ni-in- «Hii*iMy  j- the  niollu  ai- 

»ide  ^«a*  riv«  r^il  wirh  a  luvi-r  i>f  M  i-k  nxide  "f  fe«-;e«I ;  and  in  ordi-r  that  the  m  ire  m.ty  !v  ei>CB* 

inai-.;:aiii  •«-    nnd    hoiu-v.     The   fit-iile   of    the  iiai  llv  urraiijeil.  mi  :i<t  i]i>l  tu  Iran«>n:iS  thecuTTvat 

ei'lTiiiiTi   Ha*   r.iat."*!   with   ^^^il   hn-.  aiid   the  thr-ii^rh  i:.- ^..!..  tt«  tl.e  uilji-i:..!.;:  I.v. er-.  it  i»  in- 

whi>!f  «:i«  encli>*eil  in  a  ho!!i>w  lir.-!««  i-% Under,  sulat^d  hv  Uic^  Huiiiid  :ir>>i:i.d  y^.'Ai  ^ilk.     Tb# 

Ik*! H ten  tWt»  i.if  thr»f  ri>!iM!in'«   a  l':ilanctil  ne«"  needli*  ilevia!!"-  !•!  one  or  tin-  oti.i T  -idf  AC\*ora* 

dltf  w.i^  fi'Wt.il  III  ^ihra'e  ri>!i'.;ni:'>i>!r  :  and  at-  In,^'  \>*  l!ie   d.reitinn   in   whi*h   the   c-.;m*:it  b 

te:Mp!«  lirrf  nia^Ie  in  titTMairy  wA  V.u/.mA  t-i  ir:ii.M:iit!eil.  i-r  unordin;:  to  wl.j.  Ji  c:.I   of  th^ 

apply  il.l«  a-  a  n:oti»e  |-.«iir  f-r  i!-^L^  and  wire  i- c.>iiiie<  !eil  uith  the  ]N..i*;\e  1  r  niyatiTe 

wattht-.  1..!  t'lo  n:>>^irtji  rit  »a«»  f-'-nd  V*  It?  |"«le  of  tin- l;*;!ery.     Ity  rfni.ei.  T.i.;: :«  »*r:ul!:a?«d 

t'»>  :rre^i;!.ir  t'*  adtiii*.  nf  th-.!«  a;*;!)  :i:i>in.     Ik)  circle  ui;h  the  ntidle,  the  ank«<ui.t  ■•:'  dtiiatida 

la  II. ve  n''-fii!:ii  rui-i  b.4  a  K-r.rv*  f.»ri:i  nf  thii  may  N«  made  !.i  n.ia-cre  the  |»*'i«er  t»f  l\.v  eltf^ 

appam!(.i  «l:*k«  *'i   I>'i;'-'i  /  M  ar.<l  if  P::!'-h  trie  rurrt  nt,  a^d  the  ii,«trni::i(it  i«  thin  a  f^I- 

nl\«r  pv-r  •fj'-k  tivi  th«  r  1  .' k  t»  1  v  k.  :4!i  1  TannTKeli-r.      rr^f.     Tarailay    nuliid    ai.t.thtfr 

ami.iV'l  •.!  '.l.^i  a  •!'.%•  r  fi«e  l.«  ■:!••  n  1  .•  !i  rrinc:j!i- t.«  the  i;:i;i.-Tire:i:i  i.t  of  tin    r!i«!r:c;!y 


pilil   f  a*  e.   the    p**!"*"'   Mpfir:.?:*/   t?  e  Kh  I.i!  ii'  by  a-' 1  rtaiiii:..:  tl.i*  i^naMtv   i  f  V  a!i  r   ilti" 

faii-4  if  1  ui  !j  ]mt.     \  *irv  tt..-  *.'.k  ••■  rd  p:«-  |»<Hiidl*  l!  e  v'.. « trii- riirrti.:      Tl.i-  he  «i.J  hj 

pr»."at.-!  »;:!i   \:in..'}i    *.r\.i  i-i  •v.r*'  tl."  |:.- a*  :r.iii:  tin-  l%i!ti.:tn  a:.d  I'x;.^:*  ri  t  \i-Iio^ 

tis^k*  t- ■.••-.«  r.  and  ?!.!•  r-'.T  :i   :•  j  I..^.  ■!  in  a  iii!i:i*i  he  1    liei'n!   ii;  a  i:r;ti!:a!«  ■!  ir'i'*  ti:**, 

tu:^«  I.I  \.»r:  .-':i  !?!.*•  a:  ■!-•:;!•■  r:.  il'ttmi^n  u-ttl  a-  al-".!  i.!.*-*   f .  r  i    !Iitr.!;r  ^-aei  •.     Tt« 

r-!« .  f  :'.  -..?;,.        Pi"  !■  ».  r?::  -'.  I'.-k  !•  J  !:irtil  i»  iTi  *  i-f  t\e  I  irti  r*    «:■!!;..•  1:.  !«•>  |  !a*..n^ni 

t:;»i  ?i  a  •■  .r  .    ;■  •  .rf  »■  1  .  a*  •!   a  M\>'.\'..'-  *-rii!i  » Ii  *  !r— h  "«  ^\  1  ri  ii.Tn  iln    «!  :i.r  ■■:/h  !h«  •  ;  J- *ita 

ttr.    .f.aV.^'  ::.  a  *  i..  .1  v:  ;.'..   '.  »  jr-  -■•  s.j-  :.  •.!..•  ^i  !•  *  .f  t!  .   r  ;' .    i.i  ar  tl  1   l-.!!  ■■.  .  ii.  !  \  r.-s^bl 

1:;  j-^r:  i- -r.      Iv-n-  ./.■•■   .v  ■■••..  r..    •.  !i    ;..;.  l:»ar*;.  in  1 .  :  •...  :.     Tlie  ti.*  e.  !;:'i  •!  ^  ■.■!!  w  a!<r, 

l*'ii  I  a-   '.!'.'.•.'.  r   r   •:^\.  \'  ■  :    ."•..■  a  *•  !!a  ..•  <  r  i*  ./er  :.<  :■!  .!  .!»d  \*  .!li  "  .-I  !■.:-.     '..:!.  »  \*  IB- 

I  ■.■.•.;!.!  .r  !iw  ♦■«:;:  I -,..;  •.  1  •' 1  ":\::.f  u  ij.  \»  rTi  d  1  ■^l  r  a  r.  ■• ;  !  .    •  •:  :?   •  -.:  1   t!  ..  !,  a&d 

ar  ■!  -<■•  ar  .!..■.  u*  !'  i  *    .r-   :.rr  .•  .-.  •!   :•.  ;i  •:■  -j/'i     a»  i\  ••  ^•  1 ;!i    :.  1  .:.  t-  •   »;;-';  *'■  *•  *'  '•  r 

«'//.y  jb!^..:    /^    if  b:.    IL!  ^.    !r.  lii    '.Le   opj-^ai^.^  u.d  waa  tl.^;  iaC\-d.      The  rwr:..vi  wf  tl..*  »L^uld 


ELECTRO-MAGNETISM  69 

not  be  aH'iwccl  to  desoeml  below  the  ends  of  the  manifested  by  varions  electrical  phenomena. 
vires»  m  the  beat  then  developed  might  cause  The  second  hypothesis  supposes  that  all  Uie  elec- 
ta explosion  of  the  gases.  This  apparatus  was  trical  phenomena  are  produced  by  the  disturb- 
named  by  Profl  Faraday  a  voltameter.  It  has  anco  of  one  highly  elastic  fluid,  which  i>ervadea 
been  modified  by  using  two  tubes  set  in  a  large  the  earth  and  all  material  bodies,  and  which 
eork  side  by  side,  and  opening  below  into  the  Is  able  to  move  with  various  degrees  of  facil- 
Tiesael  containiog  the  fluid*  The  wires  are  made  ity  or  not  at  all  through  the  pores  of  sub- 
to  terminate  near  each  other,  one  under  the  stances  of  different  kinds  of  gross  matter, 
mouth  of  each  tube.  Into  the  tube  over  the  which  arc  hence  considered  either  conductors 
positive  wire  oxygen  only  is  evolved,  while  the  or  non-conductors  ;  that  the  atoms  of  this 
other  receives  only  hydrogen  in  quantity  double  fluid  repel  each  other  with  a  force  varying 
that  of  the  oxygen.  Other  forms  of  voltameters  inversely  as  the  square  of  the  distance ;  that  the 
have  also  been  devised,  the  principle  of  which  atoms  of  the  same  fluid  attract  the  atoms  of 
was  the  determination  of  the  amount  of  heat  gross  matter,  or  some  ingredients  in  it,  with  a 
developed.  This  was  estimated  by  its  effect  in  force  varying  in  accordance  with  the  same 
eaoang  the  elongation  of  a  wire  of  platinum,  or  law ;  that  the  atoms  of  gross  matter  devoid  of 
m  cazmng  narrow  slips  of  metal  laid  up  together  electricity  tend  to  repel  each  other  with  a  force 
to  twist  still  more  or  to  untwist  by  their  un-  inversely  as  the  square  of  the  distance.  When 
equal  expansion  or  contraction.  any  body  has  so  much  electricity  combined  with 
ELECTRO-MAGNETISM  and  Magneto-  it  that  the  self-repulsion  of  its  atoms  is  just 
EucTBXcrrT  are  branches  of  science  which  balanced  by  the  attraction  of  the  same  atoms 
treat  of  the  phenomena  belon^ng  to  both  elec-  for  the  unsaturated  matter,  then  the  body  ia 
tricity  and  mognetisnu  In  our  article  on  elec-  said  to  be  in  its  natural  state.  80  long  there- 
tricity  we  have  given  an  exposition  of  the  facts  fore  as  all  portions  of  space  contain  their  natu- 
of  this  branch  of  science,  independent  of  any  ral  share  of  the  fluid,  no  electrical  phenomena 
hvpotheslsas  to  the  causes  of  the  phenomena;  are  exhibited;  but  if^  by  means  of  friction, 
bat  our  account  would  be  incomplete,  and  it  chemical  action,  heat,  and  other  agencies,  to- 
woold  be  almost  impossible  to  present  a  proper  gether  with  the  interposition  of  partial  or  non- 
view  of  the  branches  above  mentioned  in  the  conducting  substances,  the  electricity  is  accumu- 
qnce  to  which  we  are  limited,  were  we  not  to  lated  in  one  portion  of  space,  and  rendered  to 
give  some  idea  of  the  generalizations  which  the  same  amount  deficient  in  another,  then  two 
have  been  invented  to  explain  the  phenomena,  classes  of  phenomena  are  manifested  :  1,  those 
and  to  express  the  laws  of  their  mutual  connec-  called  statical,  such  as  induction  and  the  conse- 
tion  and  dependence.  It  must  be  recollected  that  quent  attraction  and  repulsion  of  light  bodies, 
trience  does  not  consist  in  an  accumulation  of  due  merely  to  the  accumulation  or  deficiency  of 
fie^  bat  in  a  knowledge  of  principles,  and  it  is  the  fluid ;  2,  dynamical,  or  those  which  arise 
impossible  to  arrive  at  a  full  comprehension  of  from  the  transfer  of  the  fluid  from  the  place 
tbwe  principles  without  expressing  them  by  where  it  is  redundant  to  that  where  it  is  in 
means  of  some  hypothesis  from  which  logical  deficiency.  Our  countryman,  Franklin,  is  justly 
deductions  can  be  made,  which  will  enable  us  at  celebrated  for  his  discoveries  in  science,  but 
inj  time,  independently  of  mere  memory,  to  his  claims  to  philosophic  genius  rest  particu- 
aj  what  result  will  be  pro<luced  when  the  larly  upon  his  conception  of  this  theory  of 
eondicions  are  known,  or  in  other  words,  which  electricity,  which  bears  his  name,  and  which, 
win  not  only  present  to  us  the  relations  of  with  slight  modifications  and  additions,  is  still 
known  phenomena,  but  enable  us  also  to  pre-  sufficient  to  express  the  connection  and  relation 
diet  the  occurrence  of  those  which  have  not  of  the  multiplicity  of  facts  which  have  been  dis- 
b«i  observed.  Without  hypotheses  of  this  covered  since  his  day.  However  different  tlie  two 
kind  no  extended  and  definite  progress  can  be  theories  at  first  sight  may  appear,  their  math- 
uade  ia  science.  It  should,  however,  always  ematical  expression  and  the  deductions  from 
W  borne  in  mind  that  they  are  the  provisional  them  do  not  difiTer,  provided  that  we  adopt  the 

Sres&ions  of  the  generalizations  of  our  know-  modification  of  the  latter  proposed  by  J5pinua 

;e  at  a  given  time,  and  that  we  must  hold  and  Cavendish,  that  matter  devoid  of  electricity 

Ives  in  readiness  to  modify  or  even  abandon  repels  matter;  an  assumption  not  inconsistent 

vhen  we  meet  with  facts  with  which  they  with  the  attraction  of  gravitation  and  chemical 

decidedly  inconsistent.  Two  hypotheses  have  action,  since  wo  may  refer  even  these  to  the  same 

proposed  to  account  for  the  phenomena  of  cause.  The  theory  ofDu  Fay  was  generally  adopt- 

tlcctricity :  one,  tliat  of  Du  Fay,  known  by  the  ed  by  German  and  French  savants,  because  it  was 

Mme  of  the  tlieory  of  two  fluids,  and  the  other  first  discussed  by  tlicm  in  a  mathematical  form. 

tgr  that  of  the  Franklinian,  of  one  fluid.  Accord-  The  theory  of  Franklin  was  afterward  devel- 

flg  to  the  first,  all  bodies  are  pervaded  by  two  oped  mathematically,  and  with  the  modifica- 

daitic  flnidfs  the  atoms  of  each  repelling  those  of  tions  we  have  mentioned,  is,  we  think,  more 

tbe  sanie  kind  and  attracting  those  of  the  oppo-  readily  applicable  to  the  facts  of  the  present 

BSe  kind.      When  the  two  fluids  arc  togetlier  in  state  of  the  science  than  the  other.     It  follows 

aqoal  quantities  in  the  same  body,  tliey  neutralize  from  the  theory  of  Franklin  that  if  electricity 

"    other;  but  when  sep^irated  by  friction  or  bo  communicated  to  a  sphere  of  conducting 

means,  their  attractions  and  repulsions  are  jnntter,  nil  tho  fluid  will  bo  found  al  l\v<^  fixa- 


70  £LECTRO-MAGX£nSM 

fare,  b<^oan«o  carh  Atom  rcpiUtho  other,  aiul  war  )it  tlio  imlnrtit^n  o.  «  pnworful  mAcnK, 

the   Miito   iif  i-<iuili)iriuiii  will   l>o  tliul   «if  an  aiul  at'l  or  wan  1  brink  the  bar  into  tmo  iiiroM, 

equal   tli<*irit*utitiri  at  tho  rirruiiitVrxiu'o;    tho  eu«*h  half  will  vxhiliit  a  n<»rth  and  !>outli  pul« 

ati*iii<i  are  iirfvonti-il  fruiii  ll^iii,:  ii>t'»  ^pmv  |iy  of  equal  inu>iMty  ;  aiM  if  wori»utiiiUf  ti»  breftk 

the  iiii|i-t'i*iitliii*tiii^  iiioiiuiu  of  air  in  whirh  the  carh  picoo  iiitu  twn  nihiT;*.  hnwevL-r  far  the  d&* 

pIiilN*  t'Xiot'*.     In  likv  luaiMK-r  it  f**lliiH!*  fmni  vi-tinn  may  l*i*  rontinui-*!.  the  K'une  nr^^ult  will 

AH  applit  atiiiii  **(  thr  law  tif  uttrai-tii>n  invrfM-Iy  W  {TiHluriti.  iianivly,  a  {niIo  at  vach  tnc]  nf  earh 

M  thf  >'i)'i:iri-  «if  (ho  tliMaiirr,  tliat  « lirn  a  ImhIv  |*iri  r  antl  a  neutral  |Niiiit  in  tho  uiiiMle.     Frun 

ha^  K"*^  th:ui  it4  natural  ^haro  nt'cltt-tririty  t}i«*  thi^i  oS{>i*rinirnt  we  iiift-r  tliat  tho  |>«ilarity  of 

di*tioi«-n«-v  niu^t  oii«t  at  tho  *iurfa<*o.    Jurhar;r«'il  ncuriiftiMH  rvnult^  iHini  tho  cU'Vi-Inpnivnt  nf  the 

c«*n4lui-ttir'4  nt'i-loii^'uloil  I'linii^,  thf  ili«trihutii)n  inriLriiotio  {mwrr  in  oaoh  atinii    vf  thv  niaaa; 

of  thr  tluii]  will  U-  Kri-^ttiT  at  thr  twi»  vitri-iiii-  whilr  if  tin*  ^anlo  oxfHTiniont  U»  mutle  with  an 

tio4.     Thf  I'hrniinifna  nf  tho  I^'ViK'n  jar  aro  olortriral  ntniliifti>r,  thnl  is  if  it  U*  M'paratcd 

roanlilr  «Iv4i^i't4l,   anil   all   t!u*  fai't:*  rniini-rti-il  intu  two  imrt!*  whilo  uikKt  tho  intluonrv  of  tb* 

with  it  may  hf  All! ii-ipat«-tl  «>vt'n  with  nunit-rioal  oxcitoil  Uhly.  o:ii-li  half  will  vxhihit  a  rhar)r» 

cxartUf^.   hv  till*  aiipliratifn  nf  thi<*  thoiirv.  nf  tmlv  nno  kind  tif  olrrtrioitv.     liv  rnnsider- 

•  II  ••  •• 

ll'lti-n  a  rriluntLiin  y  nf  ih'i-triiity  i^  thrown  iin  iu;r  th*-rrluro  that  ilootriral   runilurtii^D   pro- 

ono  oiiK-  I'fa  pain*  <>f  triad's  tho  rfpuUion  nriin;;  tlurctl  hy  a  hiMlily  trai)!«fi-r  uf  tho  iluiil  frmntiiM 

tliri»u^h  ihi*  k*!*!*"*  will  i!ri\f  •■tra]Miriiiin  of  I  ho  i-nil  of  tho  roiiiluotor  ti>  tho  othi-r.  an«l  limiting 

natural  rh. t-tri>-iiy  on  tlio  nthcr  •>iili\  tho  uri-  tho  lii^turhaiioo  in  niairni'tiMn  to  tho  partirl«« 

•aturatiil  ni:itt«r  of  wliio!t  will  ntirai-t  tin*  trro  of  pri>o'«  iiKLltt-r,  a  inathi'inatii-al  txpn-^tiitn  i£ 

rlvotririty  thr-'un  "ii  tho  lir^t  ••i«h*  und  thu-t  nio-t  tif  tin- plii-iionirna  know  n  pri-\ii*U4  ti>  ths 

Doutrali/o  it^  rrp'.jUi\o  «  hrr^rv  :  anil  in  thi**  war  diM-oVfrv  ot'  ( K-ritni  wa-i  ohtainrd.     i^ttli  rkc- 

■n  ininii-nM*  atiii>uiit  of  iKitrii-itv  ran  U-  »■'-  trii-itv  aiiu    mairiioti^m  woro   !»••  ili*MiiiiLar  fai 

runiulatctl   in   a  «iii:ill  ^pa•v.     \Vhrii  the  two  Ninif  partiouluritliat  thoy  ciintiiiUttl  to  !•«  fttnd- 

•urfarrt  art-  j"in«-tl  liv  a  t'i'n«!ut-tiiii;  rirouil  a  it**!  a'^diotinot  l«ranr}M*««of  sM-ifinv.    T hi*  fort  bad 

diM-har^r  tuLi-<t  I'laiv  w  Itli  ^Trat  iiiii-ii'>ity.  U'*  \**tn:  Uxn  notioitl  that  di^'haru't-^  of  lichtninf 

rau«othr  ri'.ii'l  oil  t!ii'  rljur^vil  *iiili*  i^  im|Nlir<l  fri*i{U«.-ntly  piw  jMilarity  to  hari  of  ptrvL  aoil  kA 

through  tlif  t'lri  i:it  hy  tho  ri-piil-inii  «if  it<»  itwn  miiho  raM*<»  ri'ior-fil  tho  timriuor*?*  roiii|iu!u».    A 

at«4n\  anil  Ih*i  :ii:.<>  i:  m  uitr.u-tfil  to  tho  othi-r  H-rii-^<il\>x}H*rintriit^tiiiiiiitaivtli«-'^itroi-t««trw 

•ido  l>y   tlio  uii«i»Tiirutiil   liiaTTtT.     If  an  iii-u-  iiiaih*  liy  Krunklin  and  othiTt  !•}  pa«*ni.;  i^iorLa 

lattil  roridui-ti>r  in  thr  furin  of  a  hm^  ovlitiiii-r  thrmi^h  darning  noiilli*:«.     Thv  n-'^uliv  wrt*  ui- 

witli   rii'.in«l  1M41N  hi'  hri>u»'!it  noar  a  rhar;rrd  (dii-faoiitry,  ninci.'  tho   noo^Uo  wa^  »<Mi>ftUD«a 

rondurTiir.  t'U!  ii>>t   wiihiii    •'.riLiii;:   diotanro,  iua:;iiftiZ(-d  in  ono  diri-rtitin  and  Ninu-tinit^  ia 

the  natiir.il  ri«i'trioity  nf  tho  firiiuT  will  ho  tho  othor,  and  fniiitoiitly  nut  at  uU.  « ithout  anr 

roiM'lUil  t'l  t'lo  t  iri!ii  r«  ml .  tlio  ond  luaror  tho  apparent  change   in  the  ronililinu^.      ludted, 

rharp-iMx-lv  Will  hi  ill  u  si.kii- ot'ih'lii  itM-v  of  orilinnrv  tloitrititv  wasi  not  favorahlo  tu  \hm 

cliTtrn  iiy  or  {.••;:ativi  1\   1  !t-i  fririril.  whilo  tlio  Ntndy  uf  tho  ri»iini-oti«in  uf  oWtrioity  and  mac* 

furthi  r  i-inl  w  1'.!  U-  ill  a^Tatt  if  rodiindanoy  or  Urti-iii,  ^inl■o  tho   phonoiiii'iia  whirh   Nlon^  to 

p«wit!%i-!y  o!>-i  !ri;;i-«l.     I'Htwt-tn  ilif  twi>  0111I4  iMith  nro  oxhihitoddiirin;!  tho  ojiitibunnco  uf  aa 

tlioro  w  I'.l  ho  a  jH.iii*.  w'.iih  will  )•<•  n>- itral  or  oln  inoid  rurri-nt;  and  in  t'lo  1  aM-  uf  thr  dkfr- 

in  it«  iiaitiral  «!.i!i*.     Tho  iiiT«!:oi!\  i>f  this  ao-  char^-  of  a  I.o}doii  jar  tho  tr.ii:*fir  i«  *«*  iit*tan- 

tion  dini:ri>hi  ^  r.i|'i>!l\  wit!i  t!ii'  «li<^taiii-o.  par-  taiionU!!  ttiat  wv  aro  only  uhlo  !•>  ^tiii]}  «!?r<:ta 

tirnlarly  in  tho  faM*  whi-rr  t!io  i-\li:.drii  al  rmi-  whirli  ha^o  takon  plaro,  without  Uiii^  ahir  to 

durtor  i«  »hi>r*.  atid  tho  « \i  titil  Uilv  1-  Mnall :  niako   anv   olMirvnti>>:i4  ««  tu  tin-  ni.ii  nir  m 

but  in  tho  r:i*<-  f>f  aini>i<p!torii'ul  i-hitriiiii.  in  wliiih  thoM*  roi^-.iliit  ha\o  U-on  prodii*-i-d.     Tbia 

whh  h  tho  I  liar;;o  i^  i>ri  tho  «:irf:M'o  of  a  liir;*o  wa«  tlic  Miiiilttioii  «if  tho  «oionro  up  t*<  the  winter 

rhfU*!.  t}io  in>hi>'tuo  ai-::><u  tako-*  phii'o  thr*iM;;h  uf  I'^l^'^'V  whon  Trof.  <  K-r!«!<d  of  i'Mp*.iiha|:ca 

K'Tor  d  miio«i>f  iTiTt  rvi'!iirij  ^]iui'o.    Anattint|t  put  a  ni-w*  iiitorn»^a:ion  to  iiaturo   h>   a«kinf 

wa«  ni.bdo  )>y  .K;  inu-.  ri-o***'!!.  an*!  i-thiT'*.  to  wliat  would  tako  pluoo  in  nirard  t>>  a  nia^-rtia 

ajqdy  tho   Kimo  h>pi>*.]iiii«  !•■  tlto  phriifiui  na  no«-«Ilo  whon  t!io  twi>  ihiU"*  ot  a  fralianio  hattrrj 

of  nia«:rt«  Ti«t:i.     Ik'.mi-ou   thr<^*   ai.il   !hi>«4'  of  wiTO  joinitl  t^ptlior  hy  a  I'oniluitiii^  Win      Ha 

flortrii  :!.«    a   «!riL.ii^    art  iji*j\    w  a*   i>S«>or\i*<l.  fouiul  tliat  wh«>ii  t!io  w  iro  wii>  hrtiii,:hl  p.ir&I]«l 

F>>r   ttarnph-.    !-'lif^    wh;<!i    aro    iI;->  iui!:k:!y  to  and   noar  t!io   ni*i-iih'.   tho  lat:«r  ttbdvii  to 

c!«^'tnth«I  a!tr.v't  oa^  h  o!ht-r.  tifiM*  w  !.:•:-.  nr\f  turn  at  rii;ht  anjh*^  to  tho  fonnor      Thi«  wa;»  a 

■imdarly  i!«*tr:l:o<I  ri|il  1  ai  h  o'.'i*  r.      I;i  hko  now*  ro<ult.  uidiki'  atiV  phcuonu  iic^n  Ufi>rodi»- 

manni-r.  tw>i  •.iM-'.ar   ]>"'.*■•*  it  a  iiia»-(  it   rt|nl.  co«vro<i.     iViiiuUH  to  thi*.  tho  «-t<ti!'i<-!ioi.  bt^ 

and  tV'i  i!.««i*ii:!4r   !•••!•*  attract  1  a*  h   I'thi-r.  tWi*ni-loririi-i(%  and  n)A;rrit  ti>ni  had  Ik^  n  f>«f*j|H«t 

AjTain,  if  tho  iiiTth  !••  -I-  if  a  ii-a/ii*  t  )•«  ^rMii,:!it  in  tho  a:t.i!ot?y  of  thi»  |N>!ur-.t,«  <•:  thi  two  irdf 

nrar  an  unii..i^Tii*..2t«l  'ar  i-f  ••  :t  ir><:i.  t!ir  n^ar  of  a  in:u;nttii-  tiar  and  tin-  twn  t  itntii  t]o«  of  a 

and  rih'.hit*  fc.':!:.rrri  |-  !.ir.'\  a;..l  tho  fiirthi  r  palvaiiii-  ho!li-ry,  U»th  **i  wh:«  h  i\?  li  .:»-J  p<'.ar- 

cml  n«  r!hor:i   i-;.4-.!v.    a:t,  ari  r.!!v    >iinilar  i-i  itr.     An  ari-i-unt  of  thi^  rt  vurka' !f  tii*«'%>\crr 

Use  ro*uI:  of  t!ii   a-  t<  :i  in  t:.<  t-iar-pli-  wi*  havi-  wa4  puhli«hrd  m  all  par*.<  if  !ii«-  1 .%  ili/td  »i*rU^ 

ltt«l  |:i*on   if  ol«-!r.Rl    i:.  !:].  I.  .:i.     1  hi-ro   i«  an^l  r\L-ryw  hero  iXiitfd  t!i<' i:.!i  ri  •:  ot  tux-:^  %>t 

bowo^i-r  tli:- ri-!!iA-VaM-   il  rf- r*  1.1 -.  tlj.*!  if  wo  h'u  in-o.   It  w  a«  ri-}<rafid  ni  lli./laiid,  t'r.in.r.  and 

'ftiie  a  j'itxi-  vi  Lfcrdi:iii*il  »li.xl  m  the  aaine  Ovniiany.     The  addilioual  lad  w  a*  di»cu%cml 


ELEOTBO-MAQNETISM  71 

hr  Ango  in  Franco  and  Davy  in  England,  that  right  angles  to  the  length  of  the  cylinder  on  op- 
the  wire  joining  the  two  poles  of  a  galvanic  bat-  posite  sides.  If  this  cylinder,  the  several  spires 
tvry  while  the  latter  was  in  action  was  capable  of  which  will  represent  the  pieces  of  money, 
<tf  imparting  magnetism  to  iron  filings ;  bnt  the  be  supported  horizofttally,  so  as  to  turn  fredfy 
person  who  seizod  on  the  phenomenon  with  the  as  a  magnetic  needle  moves  on  its  pivot,  it  will 
greatest  avidity,  and  who  in  the  course  of  a  few  take  a  north  and  south  position  when  a  power- 
moDths  developed  the  whole  subject  to  such  an  ful  current  of  galvanism  is  transmitted  through 
extent  as  to  elevate  it  to  the  rank  of  a  new  the  wire.  .Nay,  more,  another  cylinder  formed 
Kience,  was  Ampere,  of  the  French  academy,  of  like  spires  through  which  a  current  of  gal- 
He  discovered  an  additional  fact  which  gave  a  vanism  is  passing  will  act  upon  the  first  precisely 
key  to  all  that  had  previously  been  found  by  his  as  a  magnet  would  act  upon  another  magnet, 
coatemporaries,  namely,  that  two  parallel  wires  Indeed,  so  long  as  the  galvanic  current  is  pass- 
transmitting  currents  of  electricity  in  the  same  ing  through  this  helix  or  spiral,  it  exhibits  all 
direction  attract  each  other,  while  similar  wires  the  properties  of  an  ordinary  magnet ;  but  they 
transmitting  currents  moving  in  opposite  direc-  immediately  disappear  when  the  current  is  in- 
tio&s  repel  each  other.  On  this  fact,  combined  terrupted.  To  deduce  from  his  theory  the  al- 
with  the  hypothesis  that  all  magnetic  action  most  infinite  number  of  facts  which  it  involves, 
consists  in  the  attraction  or  repulsion  of  elec-  Ampdre  first  considered  the  action  of  currents 
trieal  currents,  he  founded  his  celebrated  the-  on  currents.  Starting  with  tlie  hypothesis  that 
ory  of  electro-magnetism,  which  gives  in  a  the  attraction  and  repulsion  were  inversely  as 
Bo^e  sentence  a  generalization  from  which  the  square  of  the  distance  between  the  element- 
all  the  known  phenomena  of  electro-magnetism  ary  parts  or  smallest  portion  of  the  currents,  he 
tsweU  as  ordinary  magnetism  can  be  deduced,  deduced  matliematically  the  consequence  that  the 
This  theory  is  based  upon  one  fact  and  one  force  of  a  current  of  considerable  length  acting 
hypothcaa.  The  fact  is  this,  that  currents  mov-  on  a  single  element  of  a  current  would  vary  in- 
ing  in  the  same  direction  attract,  and  moving  versely  as  the  simple  distance ;  and  this  he  was 
in  opposite  directions  repel,  each  other  ;  the  enabled  to  verify  by  experiment  by  suspending 
hypothesis  is,  that  the  magnetism  of  a  bar  of  a  bent  wire,  through  which  a  current  was  pass- 
steel  consbts  in  currents  of  electricity  revolving  ing  so  as  to  be  free  to  oscillate  under  the  influ- 
at  right  angles  to  the  length  of  the  bar  around  ence  of  a  single  element,  which  was  ingeniously 
each  particle  of  the  metal.  In  order  to  give  as  effected  by  doubling  a  piece  of  covered  wire  in 
mach  precision  to  our  ideas  as  is  possible  with-  the  middle  of  its  length,  thus  ^ .  "When  a  cur- 
oat  the  use  of  diagrams,  let  us  suppose  a  num-  rent  was  passed  through  this  double  wire,  the 
ber  of  shillings  or  cents  piled  one  on  the  other,  portion  of  it  which  went  to  the  point  of  bend- 
aad  cemente*!  together  so  as  to  fonn  a  cylindri-  ing  and  that  which  came  from  it  neutralized 
ctl  column  or  rod  8  or  10  inches  in  height ;  and  each  other,  and  the  residuary  effect  tlierefore 
kc  US  further  suppose  that  on  account  of  some  was  that  of  a  single  point,  whicli  gave  a  result 
moleoalar  action  a  current  of  electricity  is  per-  exactly  in  conformity  to  the  deduction  from  the 
petnally  circulating  in  the  circumference  of  theory.  After  proving  experimentally  this  fun- 
ttch  piece  of  coin,  and  that  the  direction  of  damental  principle,  he  was  enabled  by  mathe- 
the  carrents  is  the  same  in  the  whole  series.  If  matical  reasoning,  principally  of  a  simple  char- 
W6  further  suppose  that  the  column  is  standing  acter,  to  deduce  the  resultant  action  of  the  most 
•a  end,  and  that  this  motion  is  contrary  to  that  complex  forms  of  conductors  upon  conductors. 
of  the  sun  an«l  contrary  to  that  of  the  hands  of  Among  many  others,  the  following  important 
a  watch  when  placed  face  upward,  such  ar-  deductions  immediately  flow  from  the  premises 
rangement  will  represent  the  hypothetical  mag-  assumed.  If  a  current  of  electricity  be  sent  in  the 
sec  of  Ampere,  in  which  the  north  end,  or  that  direction  from  A  to  B  through  a  straight  con- 
vhich  turns  to  the  north,  is  uppermost,  and  ductor,AB,  of  indefinite 
consequently  the  south  pole  undermost-.  If  length,  ]>laced  for  exam- 
tbese  postulates  be  granted,  instead  of  loading  pie  horizontally,  and  a 
the  memory  with  an  almost  infinite  variety  of  current  bo  sent  down-  A 


D 


Asconiiected  facts,  we  shall  have  at  once  a  gen-  ward  through  a  termi- 

enlisation  from  which  all  the  phenomena  can  nated  conductor,  0 1),  perpendicular  to  the  for- 

be  deduced  at  pleasure  in  a  series  of  logical  mer,  the  latter  conductor  will  l)e  impelled  paral- 

eorollaries.     If  this  theory  be  true,  or  if  it  be  lei  to  itself  along  the  length  of  the  horizont^dcon- 

eren  an  approximation  to  the  truth,  it  will  fol-  ductor.     This  effect  will  bo  due  to  the  fact  that 

low  that  if  currents  of  electricity  be  transmitted  on  the  right  side  of  the  short  conductor  the  ele- 

ttkroogh  an  arrangement  of  the  kind  we  have  ments  of  the  two  currents  are  moving  in  oppo- 

dcseribed,  the  phenomena  of  ordinary  magnet-  site  directions;  the  current  in  the  short  wire  is 

im  will  be  exhibited ;  and  this  anticipation  will  approaching  the  point  F,  while  the  current  in  the 

be  realized  if  we  coil  a  piece  of  copper  wire  horizontal  wire  is  moving  from  this  same  point, 

eorered  with  silk  into  the  form  of  a  corkscrew  and  hence  on  this  side  repulsion  will  take  place ; 

■pind,  forming  a  cylinder  8  or  10  inches  long,  while  on  the  left  hand  side  of  the  short  wire 

■Dfd  if  the  two  projecting  ends  not  included  in  the  two  currents  are  moving  toward  the  same 

the  spiral  be  passed  backward  through  the  cyl-  point,  and  therefore  attraction  will  bo  exhibited ; 

and  made  to  project  from  the  middle  at  and  under  the  influcDCO  of  these  two  iotcQ^VIti^ 


72  ELECTR0-3[AGKrnSlC 

•hort  cone!  nctor  will  more  parallel  toil  !«o1ff mm  the  thcorr  of  Atnpt-rc,  and  might  hAT«  been 

right  t«i  U'ft  nliin;*  till.'  hnriznntAl  riiii«Inr{t*r.    If  dodiuvil  (mm  it.     A  l>i*aiitifiil  ilIu!4ration  of  tbt 

the  i]irft'«*tii>n  of  thr  t  tirrnit  :n  rithrr  of  the  two  iihi'!Kiimnaot'torn"itriul  iiiitimetiMn  was  fintci- 

Gondnr;or>  U*  ri%crMil.  tin*  riiiiti«in  of  tho  Mmrt  lii!>iUtl  l>y  ]*rof.  lUrlow  of  Wm^Iwich.  EngUnd. 

cundiKtnr  will  nl^i  bo  n-ViTHnl.     If,  in«tcu(l  uf  llo  iin-imri'il  a  wiKMleii  glulio,  into  the  Mirfac* 

the  (ihi»rt  ruinlu'-tnr,  niu'  in  Uu*  fi»riii  of  a  rin^^  of  wliicli  a  long  conductor  waHlturicf)  in  aMiinl 

bo  frci-Iy  hu*|ii>tiili>«I  over  tI.>o  lung  condurttT,  gnniw  oxtonding  with  many  tnm^  from  polo  to 

with  tho  plane  of  tlu'  hittvf  ii' Ti*-*:  tlio  fortiiiT,  ]Hili>.     Tliin  globo  wan  aAcrwanl  cuvcrvd  with 

the  cnrrcitt  p:iK<H-«l  thMi:;:h  this  will  &*>i.>nd  t»n  lini^iT,  on  which  wen*  drawn  the  cnntim-ntiiaml 

one  M'io  of  the  ring  and  di'><vnd  «'n  tlio  otli^r.  (Kv:in'«.   When  a  MiuUl  dipping  needle  wa5  pUc«d 

Thervfor*-.  the  one  hiIo  will  t«-nd  to  ui**\w  tii  t!io  ovi-r  thin  apjuiratu^  and  a  current  of  galvanism 

right  and  the  other  t<i  thi*  l^f;,  aiiil  tho  p'«rilt:Uit  rent  thnmgh  the  conre:de«I  cimductor.  the  De«- 

ftcliun  will  Ik'Io  t>rin;;the  phino  ^f  thi'ring  pur-  die  n-^sutneil  a  direction  hiniihir  to  that  which 

allel  to  the  horiziintul  current:  in  whirli  va*^  woiiM  he  duo  to  an  analogoiv  piRtition  un  tb% 

the  current  in   t!if  li»wrr  part  of  the  rin^  will  eartli'sMirfni'c;  and  hince,  in  all  ca«ie5,  the 

be  moving  in  the  Mime  diri'ftion  as  the  enrri-nt  dh-  ti-[i«U  ti»  urranL'v  it'«i'If  at  right  anglr^ 

in  thf  I«>n;;  wire.     Now*,  hinre.  armrding  to  tho  thv  dirtrtinn  of  tlie  current,  hy  a  pn»[KT  MfHj 

theory  of  Ain|xTi\  rnagncti^rti  dciK-nd^  ujKin  rnr-  nient  of  the  conducting  wire  in  the  gnH)ve  th« 

rent •» uf  t'U'i- 1 rii'lT y.  i:  fulli I w<i  that  them. vneti.«m  variation  of  the  niinlto  at  c-vrr^- {niint  of  th« 

of  the  earth  n^ultn  fr«-Tu  rurnnt-*  of  vKctricily  earth's  Aitirfaco  coidd  Ik»  accurately  repre^ntcd. 

reTo1vin^«i*ntinuBlly  fr«'!n  e:i<t  til  w'tM.  lU-nce,  The  expl.in»tii»n  of  all  the  plieiiomena  of 

if  a  condurtor  l«e  U  nt  inti»  the  f'*riu  of  a  ring  dinary  mtignttiAin  readily  flnwii  from  the 

or  hoop,  anil  frcvly  Ml"* ;>!■(> •k'll,  it  will  urrangc  it-  principle.^.     Wv  have  htati-d  thut  if  a  m 

•elf  c&«t  and  w'e«t.     To  in«uro  tlie  Mirri-ss  of  ue  hrokfU  in  twn,  eurh  half  l>e<'imit*4  a  f«iiarat« 

thiii  c-z{««Tinunt,  the  hnon  should  he  furtiu'il  uf  m:L;:t:vt.  eziiihiiing  north  and   »tii:th    polaritr. 

m  lung  wire  cuvvnil  with  Mlk  anil  milcd  into  If  the  hyiNitlutical  mmrnct  which  we  have  &• 

the  form  of  a  ring  !^>  u  to  imdiiply  the  net  inn*!,  lunt  rated  hy  a  pile  of  hhilling^  he  hrukvn  in  tb« 

Bach  a  ring  tunv  U*  ron^idi  ntl  as  (inc*  nf  the  fume  way,  lucli   part  wi!l   iK-cume  a  iieparat* 

diftka  reprt'««'nt<-4i  hy  the  ^hillill;:'*  in  the  hyjn^  nKi;:nct;  the  two  tndA  of  the  two  part*  which 

thrtiral  ma;rtict :  and  Mncf  t-ach  di«k  niakii.;;  up  wore   prrvinn>ly    in    contact  will   attract  earh 

the  wholi*  h-n^th  of  the  TinI  wnu'.d  ho  ^:^kilarly  other,  U'cauM)  the  currents  will  be  rovi>!ring  in 

acted  u|<oit   hy  tlie  cnrn-nts  of  tho  varth.  tlio  the  Kinio   direction,  hut  if  we  turn  the  other 

Azi«  (if  tlie  rtni  Would  a««unu*  a  nurth  aiid  ^«<u!)i  cntl  of  one  magnet  to  tliC  ^ami•  end  of  the  other, 

diret-iion  if  left  frc^'  tu  ninvc,  t!ii:K  arfu riling  an  rcpuNion  will  vn-uc,  herause  tho  currents  are 

ezpUnatiun  of  thi<  f:i4*t,  ^o  Ion/  cii!:<«ii!iri-d  an  revolving  i:i  disfiTcnt  dinrtion^.     Ity  a  littio 

nitiniate  i>i.»,  of  the  din  i-t;vo  projirty  nf  the  rvtlir!i<in  it  will  not  W  ditfii-ult  to  explain  i»r  to 

needle.     l.ct  i:^  return  n;::i!n  tu  tin- tu  t:  !ii>fiho  aiitii  ip:it«*  tho  m-tion  of  the  two  ni.ijnetf  OQ 

long  li*'ri/<i;:tal  riii;dni'!Mr  on  till' ohxrt  {m  rpi  n-  earli  nther  nniler  any  aivtuinrd  e>'n«li!:on.     Iq 

dicular  cni*.     If  t!.r  forim  r  he  !•■  i:t  in!<i  a  h>ir-  ail'iptin.*  t!ti'<  h^pothe^^,  i*.  i«  not  i-ei  i  -.%^ry  to 

ifontnl  iin  !•-,  then  it  i<»eviih  !■.?.  r>i>(ii  tl.i- riMoxn-i  ro::ti-niI  f..r  the  aMuul  ext'«ttnt-e  I'f  tlertrical 


ha\i' h- fi-re  fc'ivi  n,  !ha' tlie  ^K'-r:  i  iiiil':i  r.ir,  lurrin:-  in  the  mn/net  or  iven  in  the  tarth. 

movini;  {*•  r;N-tM.iriy  r>>nis'!  it  p!ir^[!il  t"  i:^!f  ^r  It  i<*  «ulfi>  lent  to  a^'*<  rt  that  all  tlie  pivul.ar- 

retainin,:  ii<|Krpi  ndi<n!ar  ;>••«;!  ion,  w:!!  d"H-riLK.<  i!u<«  if  iLc  knuwn  pliinornen.!  «>f  t:i.v*neti»m 

a  cin  le.     Th»*  may  It*  -h^ittn  exp  rirnenia'.ly  are  |  ni  :-iIv -m  h  as  wtiuM  ri -nil  fr'*r.\  an  a^ 

by  lien>!tn;;  a  pii-»"i'  <if  w  iri-  into  i].v  I'.rrni  of  rin  ikTjj*  l.i^ri'  if  furreM*  mii  h  a*  .\nip«  re  ha*  *rip- 

rj,  ant!  ••xj'|Hir!:n/  tl  ver!ir;i!!y  ii:i  •Ii..  ptiin!  i.f  ptt-«i!  to  e\i*t.     It  i*  pr«'la!!e  tliat  m  the  j.h<^ 

a  |H r|*i  bilii  lilar  wire  w}:ii'!i  titi  li»'!.!ly  i:.t>»  a  n"ii.i  ;ia  of  in^uriietioni  a  n:"!i-c'.:l:u' i!i«tr:i  utino 

»4irktt  fi  tht'  ur.iKr   •':•!••  i>f  the  ir.:il>!!><  t  f  !ht»  of  th>'  A-rA   t:kke^  plac**  which    :•«  ana]<%:'"t"  to 

arrh.      If  the  |w<i  cn<!4  i>f  tfii-*  !••  !i:  wiri*  ihn  iha*.  m  a  wire  tran-niitting  a  r'irrt ::!.      Ii:i!i'«'d. 

inti»  a  riri  'il.ir  h:^«in   of  u>r*  i.r\  !!.rt>':^!i  tlie  we  k;i>iw'  tl:al  ut  tlie  tnuriit-r.t  of  in:\.*Tii  t:^:!.^:  a 

middle  of  which,  ••jrri'iin-h d   hy  a  ^v.1-*  tiiU*.  h.ir  tif  in»n.  a  n'ulec  .!art  !...?::>•  i*  j  riNl-.r.^l  in 

thr  »uj>|x  r!:ii;:  {tintii!  wire  p.; ,  and  if  a  lh>*  iiutal  ff  f^'::V.>-ii  !it   ir. :%;;•>. *\  ti* '.p.-**.*  a  m'D- 

|Kiwcrftil    I'lrft  r.t    of    g:i!\.iiii-i:i    !■*•    »•  :.t    rip  mMi*  ^-itjiid;  a  f.i- !  w!::ili  w  a*  fir-l  in!..td  hy 

through  thi«  w  nv  i!  will  il,-. .  :j.l  i^.n- u'h  the  rri..'".   rL.irlt-   d     P.i;.-*-  if  W  adm.^Vr:.   -It  t« 

leg*  iff  the    J  ii.rii  the  i:ii  ri  -irx  ;  h:.<l   if  a!   t?ie  an  u.Ur*  -:i:  ^' fact  in  '.!.••  hi-ti-ry  i-f  ^4i^t•  t.  thai 

aaini*  tnni»  a  |-iwi  rfil  I  "iTi  I.' !-■  I  i-M  ■!  t^r'-'./li  di-ii-^t  r:**  1:1  t-i.e  1  r.»:!i  li  !H.r^o  V*  '.hrnw  i  ^'.t 

a  ring  i-r  !.••«  •■  i-  :■«!■:.  \-  r  p^  i  #•!   h-r:.-.  .nlAily  on  1  ?!ii  r  I  r.i:.i!ii-*.  and  in  ir-.v.y  ca-i-*  :•  :::-:  i-h 

around  It.  a  mpid  rta!:' ::  I  :  !).•     \f  r?.;rlw.r.'  i:.-Ti;::ie:'.I*  h*  wh.. !»  »«!.i:;*  f.^i  d- !.■  i.'c  !"  iio 

wiU  lake  p!  41 « .     N"»"  "i:  '"■  rii.ti:t.'  ^i"::-..  n'-c>  rJ-  ttTiT"  :.-,!«.!  Iv  «r!:ri.,rir  niiat.«  \i..i\  \^  w   ■'..:• 

iag  to  ihe  v..*"  ry  Wi-  hi.  ■■  a!  •;  ltd.  i-  ?:•.-!»  in  1 .1  aij-I  itieii-^irii!.     Sn  n  t^V.^r  t'je  i'..«»i  %«"i  i-f 

rarrrnt*  "'f  rl«i*r.r.:y  ri\.!v  '  /  ;.'  r/i.t  »'„■'■  h  i»i  •-!..!.  I'r-f  N  hwi  .-jtr  of  in  ::!i »:  v  r   1   -r^l 

to  the   ifiv'J*',  if  a   ir.»uv!-*.  •■  •!   I  ir    !■•■  i:.!r»-  a  I- ■!*,:»'.'«■  w  .:!.  ».!k  .ir:  1  •  ■    !^'l  .•  i:;'--::.'  '>  n\ 

doceil  wi»'i»   th."  I -.11.- ; . '  if   •*.!    ^%r.:  r..- .  %..f  u  r.  -  rai;«"'* .  w.!l..:.  w^  .  :i  h.   *>:«sr..:-i  \\ 

ducti>r,  a«i".  !ir  r<  *ari  i:    •  ■■:;  w  .!i « :.- :.•      T..*  i*.*  .1:.*  ^f    a  f:*  ri«   of  ^•.'\   a    IiU'.»'.      Xk*',  . 

fact  wa«  t  r«:  •^■•H:l  •  i;- r.'iii  •  Viiy  ^l  Mr.  V.ii-  VI  ■  » :.  a^«r>  r"i  1  *  !•■  <-:rT%:.'.   it  »!■*::;.:.*   » -» 

•daf.     It  u,  Lt.'Wi-\«.r,  a  1> y'l' ^  i..  :.v^u«:ax'  v(  •-.:;:  ihn  -..-h  iLi*  co::Jui:.-r.  «M-h  :-.ru  tf  ;:.v 


ELEOTRO-MAGNETISM  73 

vire  acted  on  tbe  needle  to  turn  it  at  right  form  in  which  it  is  ordinarily  developed,  t.  e.  in 
■ngles  to  its  own  direction ;  and  in  tliis  way  the  direction  of  the  greatest  length  of  the  hody, 
13  instrnment  colled  the  galvanometer  was  pro-  or  at  right  angles  to  this  length.    lie  iinds,  for 
dneed,  by  which  the  most  feeble  galvanic  action  example,  wlien  different  substnnccs  nro  made 
in  the  form  of  a  current  is  exhibited.    It  has  into  bars  and  suspended  by  means  of  a  fibre  of 
heok  before  stated  that  Ara^  and  Davy  dis-  silk  between  the  poles  of  a  powcrfal  electro- 
eovered  that  the  conducting  wire  through  which  magnet,  that  they  arrange  themselves  ^dth  tlio 
a  gtlvanic  current  is  flowing  is  capable  of  in-  longer  axis  in  the  direction  of  tlie  polo  or  witli 
dodng  magnetism  in  iron  filings.    They  also  the  shorter  axis  in  the  same  direction.    Bodies 
ihowed  th^  a  discharge  of  ordinary  electricity,  of  the  former  class  are  called  magnetic,  those  of 
▼ben  made  above  or  below  a  sewing  needle,  the  latter  class  are  called  diamognelio.    This 
pve  it  definite  polarity ;  and  in  this  way  the  prox>erty  is  even  possessed  by  gases.    (Sec  Dia- 
reifiOD  of  the  fiuluro  of  Franklin  and  others,  icagxetism.)    An  electro-magnet  even  of  im- 
idM)  had  attempted  to  magnetize  steel  wire  by  mense  power  can  be  magnetized,  unmagnetized, 
opSanary  electricity,  was  explained.    In  these  and  remognetizcd  in  an  opposite  direction,  by 
ittempts  the  electricity  was  sent  through  the  instantaneous  changes  in  the  direction  of  the 
length  of  the  needle,  instead  of  across  or  around  current  of  the  galvanic  battery.   Tlio  largo  mag- 
it,  as  the  theory  of  Ampdre  would  indicate,  net  wo  have  mentioned  as  at  Princeton  can  bo 
]£r.  Sturgeon,  in  England,  was  the  first  to  con-  loaded  with  several  hundred  pounds,  and  while 
itract  an  electro-magnet,  which  consisted  of  a  in  this  condition  may  bo  so  rapidly  unmagnet- 
pieoe  of  iron  wire  bent  in  the  form  of  a  horse-  ized  and  remagnetizcd  with  the  opposite  pulor- 
shoe,  insulated  with  a  coating  of  sealing  wax,  ity  that  the  weight  has  not  time  to  commence 
orer  which  was  loosely  coiled  a  few  feet  of  its  fall  before  it  is  arrested  by  the  attraction  of 
copper  wire.      When   the   current  was   sent  tho  reverse  magnetism.    This  sudden  change  of 
tuoogh  the  latter,  the  iron  became  magnetic,  polarity  afibrds  a  means  of  producing  mechani- 
ud  exhibited  in  proportion  to  its  size  a  very  in-  cal  movements  of  considerable  power  through 
tense  action.  The  first  person,  however,  who  ex-  tho  agency  of  electro-magnetism,  which  have  by 
hibited  the  great  power  of  the  galvanic  current  some  been  considered  as  a  rival  to  steam  power. 
b  producing  magnetic  effects  was  Profl  Henry  of  The  first  machine  moved  by  this  power  was  in- 
Washington.     He  found  that  by  surrounding  a  vented  by  Prof.  Uenry  immediately  alter  his  ex- 
luge  bar  of  iron  bent  iqto  the  form  of  a  horse-  periments  in  developing  electro-mngnctisin,  and 
ihoe  by  a  number  of  coils  of  wire,  so  connected  an  account  of  it  was  published  in  the  '*  American 
»ith  the  battery  of  a  single  element  that  the  cur-  Journal  of  Science"  in  1831.    It  consisted  of  an 
Katia  each  wire  would  move  in  the  same  direc-  oscillating  iron  beam  surrounded  by  a  conductor 
tien,  a  magnetic  power  of  astonishing  magnitude  of  insulated  copper  wire.    A  current  of  electri- 
»a!d  be  produced  with  a  comparatively  small  city  was  sent  through  this  in  one  direction, 
gilTasic  apparatus.     A  magnet  constructed  on  which  caused  one  end  to  be  repelled  upward  and 
tiiis  princii>le,  now  in  the  cabinet  of  the  collcgo  the  other  attracted  downNvard  by  two  stationary 
of  New  Jersey,  will  readily  support  8,500  lbs.  magnets.    The  downward  motion  of  the  one  end 
border,  however,  to  produce  a  maximum  efiTect  of  tho  beam  near  its  lowest  point  brought  tho 
of  this  kind,  it  is  necessary  that  great  care  bo  conducting  wires  in  contact  with  tho  opposite 
taken  in  the  insulation  of  the  wires,  that  thero  poles  of  tho  battery,  which  produced  the  reverse 
be  ao  cutting  across  from  one  wire  to  another;  motion,  and  so  on  continually.    In  a  subsequent 
od  fur  this  purpose  the  ends  of  two  wires  in-  arrangement,  tho  velocity  of  motion  was  regu- 
teaded  to  be  soldered  to  the  positive  polo  of  thfi  lated  by  a  fly  wheel,  and  clcctro-mafrnets  substi- 
bittery  should  project  together,  while  the  two  tuted  for  tho  permanent  magnets  at  first  used. 
cads  intended  to  be  united  to  the  negative  pole  Prof.  Ritchie  of  the  London  university  after- 
c(  the  battery  should  also  be  associated.     If  the  ward  produced  a  rapid  rotatory  motion  between 
aagaetic  power  of  tho  iron  is  to  be  developed  the  two  legs  of  an  inverted  liorse-shoc  magnet 
by  means  of  a  compound  battery,  then  a  single  in  a  i)iece  of  iron  around  which  a  current  of 
loDg  wire  may  be  employed  instead  of  a  num-  electricity  was  made  to  revolve,  and  thcmagnet- 
ler  of  short  ones.     Tho  power  of  tho  electro-  ism  reversed  at  each  semi-rovolution.     Modifi- 
Bagnet  depends  on  the  following  conditions:  cations  of  these  two  forms  of  the  apparatus  havo 
flo  the  energy  of  the  current,  tho  dimensions  since  been  made  in  almost  every  part  of  tho  civ- 
nd  form  of  tho  iron,  the  nature  of  the  iron —  ilized  world.    A  large  electro-ma*?notic  engino 
ttt  softer  the  better — tho  perfect  insulation  of  wasconstructedbyProf.Jucobi  of  St.  Petersburg 
ttt  wire,   and   tho  proper  adjustment  of  tho  by  which  a  small  boat  was  propelled  at  tho  rato 
kagth  of  tho  wire  to  the  intensity  of  the  bat-  of  several  miles  an  hour.     But  tlio  largest  and 
tery.     By  means  of  an  electro-magnet  of  tho  mostetlicient  engine  ofthis  kind  was  constructed 
knid  we  have  mentioned,  the   instantaneous  by  Prof.  Pago  of  Washington,  at  the  expense  of 
development  of  an  immense  magnetic  power  tho  U.S.  government.  It  exhibited  sufficient  pow- 
h  ^rodaced,  by  which  discoveries  have  been  er  to  propel  with  considerable  velocity  a  railway 
in  regard  to  this  nysterious  agent,  of  the  car,  and  afforded  the  best  moans  which  has  yet 


interest.  Prof.  Faraday  has  shown  by  been  presented  of  estimating  tho  comparative 
ft«  application  of  this  instrument,  that  magnetic  cost  of  the  application  of  electricity  as  a  motivo 
property  is  possessed  by  all  bodies,  either  in  the    power.    From  all  tho  exporiincuU  w\uc\v\va\^ 


74  ELECTRO-METALLURGT 

bcoD  mnilc,  it  appears  that  thongh  tho  electro-  tical  impcirtancc  ww  attarhed  tr>  the  op< 

inafrnotic  {Hiwvr  run  bo  applktl  with  lo!««  Ium  in  lie  hail  obM*rve<l  that  a  r«ip|K.T  efin  ii<>^i 

the  wa}-  nf  ctrt'ctivtf  wurk  than  heat  by  mean*  of  nc^rative  plate  of  the  hattvrj  UT.inio  iin 

the  Mi-arii  eri^iue.  ji'C  thiM'4Mit  of  tliv  material  \*y  with  a  lavor  i>f  rop]H'r  tU'riviHl  fr«*in  th 

which  it  i«  ^I'ni'rati'il  i;*  so  great  that  it  eannol  tion  nf  t>]iie  vitriol  in  wliicli  it  wiis  iiiit 

Im*  vt'«ini  mi  it-all  r  fiiipl<iyi'J.     Aerunliiig  to  the  antl  tlial  i'Vitv  niark  iifNin  the  ruin  mu> 

i'i]H>rinunt<^  nf  I>f<ipntA  one  {Nuiiitl  uf coal  in  fcrred  in    n'Vor<K.'   U|Nin  the  iu*w   hi\ir 

burning;  «K-viliip4  a^  Hint  h  hi*ut  an  G  |ioun(li  of  whfn  at  antitluT  time  a  slip  of  thr  *>.tnu' 

zinr  ;  i-unM'iiUiiitly,  umli-r  tho  s:inie  ctmditions  whirlt  he  ii^'<l  f^r  thi*  nrgativc  plate.  !ia 

C  tiim*»  u-  ii)U«  h  |hiwiT  i*  *\vvv\i*\*vd  from  the  to  Ito  pnitiTtftl  hy  a  tVw  ilropsi  «if  Viu-iki> 

burriin:;   nf  an  k'*\'\:\\  wciprhl  of  Che  former  at  ri^rcivin;;  the  nirtallir  iK-|HiMt,  it  omii 

frtifn  lli:tt  of  ttio  hittiT.     S\iw  tite  ]i<iwcr  of  the  him  ihut  a  plute  mi^ht  hv  l\in*  fiitirr!v  <-• 

fttcani  tUL'iiie  i*  prtMhictil    by  \Uv  lMtrniri|r  of  and  any  iK-^ikMi  1*^' rut  thronsli  tlio  i.triii 

cual  in  itir.  wbiU*  tti:it  of  tho  i-loi-tro-nia^ni'tic  the  cojiikt  Ik-  il«'|HiMtiil  only  en  thv  11  n 

«U|rint*  i<i  «!t- Veil ^iK'tl  from  the  oxi«hit ion  or  burn-  ex|HiSi'iL     lU*  MiiTft-tlfil  nn  tryin;;  thv  < 

iug  tif  ziiir  in  ai-iJ;  and^inrv  riialaiHlairaretho  nu-nt,  the  rnp|H*r   plute  U*in^  imnirrM 

»impl»  priMh:i-t<4  of  nature,  while  zinc  and  acid  Kktnrutiil  hohitiun  nf  fulphato  nf  ritpit 

n«*)utri'  urMi' !.i]  pripamlion  at  tbe  cxpi'nse  of  ronneetcil  by  a  wiro  with  a  bur  nf  /:i:t-. 

|M»w«T.  It  ni(K  l>v  i'Vidi'iit  from  all  the»e  conoid-  wax  pla<vd  in  a  diluto  Hihitiim  nf  *>;i!|>l: 

eratam^    iliut   iiti-;rM>ni.i^nLti.»m   cuiinut  coin-  wnIx    Thin  wif«  contuinf*!  in  a  lar^ri  u.  .* 

|K't«!  utih  ^tl•allt.  ultlinugh  it  nmy  bo  applitHl  In  whirh  (it-t  htwvr  fXtmnity  iK-ini;  ib*«<4ii 

ftonie  c:i^-^  ulu-ro  tl.v  vi{K*nM.*  of  materials  \a  (Niroun  MnpiH-r  nf  plu>ti-r  nf  Turi^i  yM\n 

of  KTiiiidarv  i-niiMiIi-ratinn.   Kli-etrtt-magnetiitm,  duri-d   into  llu*   hulpliate  k*(  i-np|H  r   *< 

for  fxaiM|iio.  i^  applied  with  nuuh  »ucce!«i  in  AlMiut  the  >atiie  timv  Trnf.  .Im-ubi  nt  St    ] 

railing:  inin  nfiiTaiinii  |MiWt'r  at  a  dintaiRV,  as  In  hurg  wa.«  conducting  a  Minilur  r1.L«^  ■>!'  « 

the  (-.1*1'  nf  tliv  vUciro* magnetic  tclcgrapb,  in  ex|K-rinu-nts  un  ai'munl  nf  wliltli.  prt* 

giving    ^i^lullani••»u4  niutiun    to  the  hamK  of  Mniilar  ri*siilt.<*,  wils  publi«hf«]   in   Ki.u'' 

cIiieL»  MtiiAifU   in  ilitlV-ri'm  partu  t»f  a  city,  in  \*^'M.     Thi:*  dri-w  Inrth  a  h'tti  r  fn-i!.  M: 

rava^urii]^  very  niinutv  (xirtiuns  of  time,  and  Jnrdun,  a  printer,  nbirh  \ia:4  puMi-lifl 

in  brinpii;:  into  ai'tii<n  the  p4«wir  ni-oeM^ary  to  *'  Mvehaiucn'  Mairu/itu*"  of . I  urn-.  •!«  *<  nV 

ring   al:ina  In-IK. — Tor  an   eX|H><iitinn   of    tho  method  of  obtainin;:  iinpri-^Hii iris  friti;  t:i 

ftcieiititii-  prinriplei  of  <Iei'tr(»-tna;;ueti!im,    we  platen,  matri«v!«  fmin  tvpi  \  i&:r..  iti.>i  «u«-, 

WnuM  refi  r  to  Ik*  Mnntferrand'!t  work  on  the  other  appliratinn;*  nf  thr  »anii>  prixi<^-, 

•ubjert.  traii»ia!«il  fp'm  I  lie    French  hy  I*n'f.  tuining  ra^tn  fmni  a  plaMtr  «>urr:ii  • .  u:i 

Cuniiiiiiii;  iif  Cambrtil^e,  Kiigiund;  and  for  va-  **f  niuking    mi'!:i!iir   tiiU-<t  hy    pr>  <   ;  >.i 

riiiu«  ii';:ri.iiiii^  ntiKli!ii*aliun!«  of  apparatus  and  iiitrtal  arniiml  a  >Air«*,  anil  tin  n  iIU«>  i\.: 

lulere<»tiii;;  l\x*i'*  nf  ibe  N-ieiici',  In   Nr.  I'age'd  out  by  lieat  nr  Mimr  HiUfiit  Hk  !•:<  1.  l.i- !.•• 

|»a|HTB  i'l  t!ic  *' ATii«-rii-an  Juurnal  of  ScifUce  u|Hin  the  nutiT  fnutin^'.     ^Viili  «(■.•  Jt  mi 

and    Art."     iSt-i*   MA«iNni!«M,    ui:d    MauNKTi>-  durtinn  the  art  wu^  HiN.n  tukt  n  up  ^  >  \r 

Ki-xtTUP  tTi  I  nu-n,  uimI  rapiilly  |»t-rlVi  t«-<!,  •!.•  t!i:i*.   .'   . 

KI.K*   1 1:<  >  Ml.  1  Al.I.riKiV.  Kic«T»(»TTi'i\'o,  exluiMvrl^  appliedlniiiinisttr  in  nc'*  .:t  ' 

ca!K-«l   !■>    t'li-    Kricih    f^nirau-fhitfir,  the  art  (jf  wa\«tiilhi' v  aiit^nf  iiiaitkind.    li.i-ii:; 

of  iHp:tr 'I'.ii:^  fl.e  irn  t:iN  frnin  tbi  ir  Mihitii*n4  ori^inailv  i  Tiipin}  iil  i«  dl••1ill;:lll■•^l  •!  :l*  i! 

■III!  il>  |Mi«.!i:ij  li.i  ;i)  111  imiIhI  I'liriii  )*y  iniaii«i  iif  pie  fnriii  nf  tlie  dfi-nn.{Hi«iii^  l-:it!i  7\.  w. 

!)■•'  i-!ii  t:.>-  I  .:rrt  I.?.  i  \ritt-il  b\  ili%*  ^ttltuii'  but-  thet-lei  tri**  nirri  lit  i«  L'<'nrrutfd  int!  t  h^> 

Xvry  nr   l::;v-*  t*'*  ■•  ••r-r  limi  luiu-.      1  be  nbjti  t  K'l  w  biF*  in  tlie  Imlal  1- •lipn'-iln!        \'  \* 

in  In  n'>!ai:i  in  u  liit !  :t!!ii  Uwraii  t  X:i«'t  Ctipy  **(  prn\«d   by  Ni;b«titiil!ii^  f<<r  I  lit*  ii.i'.i  r  vi 

Aiii  •i':r?..ii-.  n*  ••!  tl.^  iiiipr««'*iiiii  iiiaile  in  wax  glar«4  niicnf  nn^rta/i  d  |Hiri  i  Ki:i)  nr  i:;r:! 

f»f  bii  •  rij::i\  in^*.  a  jw*'  nf  I)!-*',  a  iiii'ilal,  c>*iii.     mhii-h}»taiiiUiiitfti-t  i-iitri-nflli !t>ri  %! 

Ai-.s!i<    r:.!i!.,;  nf   utitih   iiiiprt  «<»i<iii   in    irutal  «e«M-l,  aii>l  (-••litaiii«.iM  ll:i- Milpbwr.i  n- :  !  > 

pr<^b.<t-i  •111]  !:•  .itt' I'l  thi'  iTi^'iii'd  artirlf.  nr  with   I'J  nr   !'•  titini  iT«  iMi.:!.T  •?'  %«  .! 

may  jr^«ii  U-  i:-^-!  a^  a  ni"ij!i|  i>ir  nbiainiii^  in  rim*  plat**  *u»|h  ndnl  by  n  br.i»-«  \\:r«-  ^ 

m«irf    fi*!*-;!*    riiiT.i!   ia»!«   •■!    tin-    •>aiiie.       I'ln'  ih-rnl  In  H,  tin-  u  ire  i  "ir^  .lii:  nvi  r  i-.t   '.  • 

Hit  t.U  T.ii    ii!«-i    !•«■    prt  t  :p.:a!>-*l  >-•  a*  !••  a«l-  iitiX  at   it*  ntln-r  « i.il  tin'  obji  •  t  I"  ^m    . 

hi  ri-  \m  r:  1  !!.•  iit!y  i.Jmi!i  t)i«-  «iir!'.» f  nbj«  i-t«,  wliu'h  i^  bMii;;  f:ki'<-  tn  f.it-r  Uitli  !?.•■  .*  r  ■ 

fil!n  r  li-r  :)it  p'.rjH.M-  ••t'i*rii.i!:*rit!iii*;.  ktri-ii^tli-  NiilbtT  ibi-  niif  »  ;t]iin  tb«-  i^-ri  ';*  i  *  *  r  ■; 

tti.li;:.   •■.-    ;■!  i'!t  1  l.:.i:   Iri.in   i!.t!V  ri  lit   aA*rli!«  *•(  tin*  n)ijrrt  witlh'-iT  •,ii:Ii*  t'»«*ibi  •  j!  •  **  ^1^ 

«  !i.iii;i-       '1^:«  br  iiii  b  i<f  tiii-  art  i«  i.illi'«l  « 1«  r-  tht-  /ilie  i^  di«*«>I\t  •}.  alniiit  t^.i    «.i!i.*    .»:  .• 

Irii  p!.**i!i^»  ar"!  •■!••  !rt»-i:i.diii/.     1  In- di*i'ti\«  ry  n^ppi-r   i«   "^p-irat*!!   u:jd   ibj-".'«'i    '.j« 

that  I  ..  :  I  •  i'.,:Iil   ^«■  !i...«  •li;-  *:i*'l  *--■!»  f-l-  t  b  •  trn-in  ;:aljM'  p"b.      li  t«  :»'N  :.•  ^.\*.'i.' 

btWiit  iJ.Jit  •  !  :).i-  v-i*.t.,-  |..*.t.     W  I'lLi^tnii  I'xat-  r.<  ar  ibe  po.lit  vi  l.«  Ti  t!;i-  %»  rn  i«n!:  .•*<«! 

vti  n'.\*r  wir'i  •■•{.|>«r  *•'}  lbi«  n.i  :]tnil  in  \**'*\,  nbj<i  t.  an*1   tlirrif<iro   »•■  •>!•#:!•!  ).ik%t    < 

aitd    It:  :/T..i:.  ;.:   ib  ••r.ltti    III  l**"'i    111*   irldili;'  (f  ti.t  m*  |Mi;i)t»  nf  atfai  bllu  t  !.  itl  d  .i'.!  '.} 

SS  k.i%t  r  ;,•-!. 4. «  .!i  !!if -:4ii.i'  ii'.u.'iiit  r  .   but  ;t  »  ai  «Iiiiti<r4   "•^miiM    U    ibiiii'Ml^.*    jri!««!»- 

I<>*1   \:i.\.i    Mr      l.'.oiii.vt  >pt  :i.  t  r   i-f   l.i^irj---!  cnaliiv  i-f  %;ir!.i*!i.  a*  r.I-»  t!.- •*  !-•:!•' 

iumul-  }.im  t  i;«ir.2:tiLiU  in  1:*J7,  that  any  prac-  uljcct  mbii  h  it  ii  nut  d«-:>i^'Uid  toin^i  r  « 


ELECTBO-HETALLUBGY  75 

precipitated  metal.     As  the  sulphate  of  cop-  fiftce  these  objects  a  little  distance  off  toward 

Mr  folacion  would  soon  be  reduced  in  strength^  the  other  side  of  the  trough.    The  rod  being 

tt  is  well  to  keep  a  bag  of  crystals  of  this  salt  connected  with  the  zinc  plate,  and  the  copper 

npended  in  the  upper  part  of  the  solution,  the  with  the   platinum  of  the  battery  by    brass 

kwer  portion  always  retaining  more  strength  wires^  the  circuit  is  complete,  and  the  depo- 

thui  the  upper.    A  convenient  substitute  for  sition  immediately  goes  on.    A  battery  of  nov- 

tiui  arrangement  is  to  take  a  tight  wooden  box  el  construction  is   described  by  Prof.  Jacobi 

ff  troo^  and  divide  it  by  a  partition  of  some  of  which   an  account  may  be  found  in  the 

poroos  material,  as  a  thin  board  of  sycamore,  article  GaltanopUutie  of  Uio  Diction  naire  dea 

Dto  two  parts,  in  one  of  which  the  copper  so-  arts  et  d^4  manufactures.    It  is   called   the 

ktioa  is  placed,  and  in  the  other  about  the  pile  of  Prince  Bogration,  and  surpasses  all  oth- 

■me  quantity  of  a  solution  ofsal  ammoniac,  with  ers  in  the  regulxurity  of  its  action,  its  extreme 

fiee  crystals  of  the  salt  to  supply  the  waste  simplicity,  and  the  little  care  it  requires.  It  will 

cnsed  by  the  action  of  the  zinc.    A  plate  of  continue  in  operation  more  than  0  weeks  with- 

this  metal  is  suspended  by  wires  soldered  to  its  out  attention,  demands  no  skill  or  experience 

edge  and  passing  over  a  stick  laid  across  the  in  chemical  manipulations,  and  costs  a  mere 

top  of  the  box,  and  so  adjusted  that  the  plate  trifle.    Jacobi  thinks  its  discovery  must  havo 

rinQ  face  the  diaphragm  or  partition  and  be  an  important  effect  upon  the  art  of  reducing 

Very  close  to  it.    The  object  to  be  coated  is  sus-  ores,  and  throw  light  upon  many  obscure  sub- 

paided  upon  another  stick  parallel  to  the  first  jects  connected  with  industrial  operations.    A 

qr  the  same  wires  passing  over  it.    The  appa-  flower  pot  or  any  such  vessel  impervious  to 

EttBS  should  be  left  several  days  for  the  opera-  water  is  filled  with  earth  saturated  with  a  solu- 

tm  to  go  on ;  but  there  is  no  objection  to  tion  of  sal  ammoniac.    In  this  a  plate  of  cop- 

titing  out  the  plates  occasionally  to  observe  per  and  another  of  zinc  are  placed  a  little  dls- 

kov  It  proceeds.    In  electro-plating,  constant  tance  apart,  and  wires  are  attached  to  them.    A 

■odon  is  recommended  to  insure  uniformity  of  voltaic  pair  of  simple  form  is  thus  obtained, 

iqwation.     The  probability  of  obtaining  a  de-  which  may  be  kept  in  action  for  months  or  even 

posit  of  eqnal  thickness  is  increased  by  having  for  years,  if  the  earth  is  occasionally  moistened 

As  sor&ces  of  the  two  plates  perfectly  parallel  with  the  solution  and  the  zinc  plate  is  removed 

to  each  other,  and  of  about  the  same  size  and  when  it  is  at  last  worn  out.     It  is  well  to 

rikspe.    The  tendency  is  for  the  most  prominent  leave  the  copper  plate  for  a  few  moments  in  a 

points  to  receive  the  greatest  thickness  of  metal,  solution  of  sal-ammoniac  before  putting  it  into 

be  object  of  the  partition  is  to  keep  the  two  the  earth,  and  let  it  dry  until  a  decided  oxida- 

■its  i^art  while  the  electric  current  may  pass  tion  appears  upon  its  surface.    By  uniting  sev- 

btdj  through  the  diaphragm.    The  zinc  salt  crol  pairs  a  constint  current  is  obtained,  long 

fleDtrated  in  the  process  is  also  prevented  by  it  continuing  and  perfectly  regular  in  its  action, 

from  going  to  the  negative  plate  and  incrusting  which  may  be  employed  for  various  purposes ; 

tUi  with  the  reduced  metal,  as  it  is  disposed  to  do  as  for  example,  to  reduce  metals  to  their  most 

vhen  only  one  vessel  is  used,  thus  checking  the  malleable  form.  Jacobi  mode  use  of  a  battery  of 

flperatiun  or  interfering  with  the  production  of  24  pairs.    He  recommends  that  the  vessels  con- 

iperfect  mould.   Cohesion  of  the  precipitate  is  taining  the  pairs  should  be  carefully  isolated. 

prorented  by  a  previous  application  to  the  object  The  subject  is  strongly  commended  to  the  atten- 

of  a  thin  layer  of  some  greasy  substance,  and  tion  of  those  engaged  in  electrotyping,  not  mere- 

I  removing  all  that  can  be  taken  up  with  a  ly  for  its  economy,  but  for  its  entire  freedom  from 

finen  rag.    A  much  better  method  has  been  the  noxious  vapors  which  are  given  off  from  bat- 

ised  in  this  country  of  first  applying  a  coat-  teries  requiring  tlie  use  of  nitric  acid. — ^In  the 

fag  of  sUver,  and  then  washing  this  with  an  use  of  the  batteries  the  metallic  deposition  is  ob- 

\_    rieoiiolic  tincture  of  iodine.    This  prevents  co-  tained  in  different  conditions,  which  vary  with 

f   faMOQ  of  the  metallic  surfaces  without  interfer-  the  intensity  of  the  current,  the  strength  of  the 

i    fa|g  in  the  sliji^htest  degree  with  the  process  of  acid  solution,  its  temperature,  &c.  To  obtain  tho 

-:  mftmlyon.    But  in  plating  or  gilding,  the  great-  copper  in  a  clean  metallic  state,  the  solution  of 

\,  .Mlcu«  is  required  to  remove  by  boiling  in  cans-  the  sulphate  must  be  acidulated  with  sulphuric 

"  dkali  and  thorough  washing  every  trace  of  acid,  and  bo  kept  well  saturated  by  constant 

,  and  render  the  articles  perfectly  bright,  supplies  of  fresh  sulphate  of  copper,  or  by  suffi- 

form  of  the  battery  usually  employed  in  ciently  large  copper  plates.    There  should  also 

ring  requires  two  vessels,  in  one  of  which  exist  a  proper  relation  between  tho  zinc  and 

ric  current  is  generated,   and  in  the  the  acid  which  act^  upon  it,  and  the  object  to 

r,  which  corresponds  to  the  decomposition  be  coated.    If  the  zinc  plate  be  large  and  tho 

,  the  articles  to  be  acted  upon  are  suspend-  object  very  small,  the  copper  is  likely  to  be  of 

^ilsithe  metallic  solution.    A  Smee^s  battery  brittle  texture,  or  it  may  be  deposited  in  the 

eoQTeniently  be  used  for  generating  the  cur-  form  of  a  powder  if  tho  difference  bo  consider- 

asd  a  wooden  cistern  to  contain  the  solu-  able.     If  the  sulphate  of  copper  solution  be- 

gf  sulphate  of  copper.    The  objects  to  be  comes  nearly  exhausted,  or  the  electric  current 

led  are  suspended  from  a  metallic  rod  rest-  is  disproportionately  strong,  or  tho  positivo  * 

[fat  i^on  the  two  ends  of  the  trough  near  one  pole  disproportionately  large,   the  copv^r  \a 

^■fe,  and  m  copper  plate  is  suspended  bo  as  to  likely  to  be  separated  in  the  form  oi  t)^  \>W^^ 


76  ELECTRO-METALLURGT 

p'twiltT,  witli  tli<»  pf»l]i*rtion  f»f  mnrli  liyiln^frcn  hi*}\*r cniirairitl  upon  tlii*  worV  i«  of  unr-r 
iipcii  tin*  iii^atni'  pluto.     Thi-«  t«n«lrni*y  inn}"  iiirn*ii»n».     Tin-  lUTLiiipnMtinn  rill  N  a  • 
Vr  t'irn«ti>l  Ny  ••lu'iir  aniitluT of  tlu'  fulliiwin^  <»f  wihkI.  12  iV-ct  in  It-n^'tli,  2  ftfl  in  »:il:l 
iiii-aii^  a-*  rii-iiiiiriu'riili(l  liy  Siiuv.     Tlio  intrii-  Jl  frt-t  do*.p.     It  mtitaiii^nlMiiit  ft:i«»;.;il\.»> 
h'lty  i>r  <|uuti:iiy  nf  iltt'  tiatt^ry  may  1h'  Khm'IuiI;  fii-iiIiiIato<l  M»1iitiiih  «if  >uIp)iuto  of  r«ip|i«  r.  * 
tla'  iiivativt*  |HiJt*  may  U-  im*rr:iM:tl«<r tho  pi»^i-  U  kipt  fnr  yi*:ir^  of  iinif>inn  Mn i;;r?!j   I 
ti\i'  r«ili:ivi)  in  ^iz«•;  tlir  miImiiihi  may  U*  Nitu-  slu-it^  «»f  roi»|HT  mi*>|k-ii(K«1  in  it  fj  pf- 
raUil.  iir  i:  iiiav  l-i.-  rriHli-rul  Ij«  iiiral :  or  lastly,  iiuh  Mir  faro  i*ip«»M-4j  fur  tin.*  rrrtpii'ii  -f 
th«*  tiinpi-ruturi*  ma^  t»i' IiiHi  TitK     Tlio  pnN*i-.«d  tallii*  ciKitintr.     Thv  (ilji-rt:*  tn  )•«■  (M-i-fr>< 
Mil-' i*i«U  !h  >:  u!  a  tiiiipiraiiirf  tiiit  !>i«'i'r  than  aro  plui-vil  in  X\iv  Milntion  in  tlir  «%••!. 
Cm.     I>\  priiiH-rly  ri-^iilaXiniftlirniKTation.rop.  taki>n  out  in  the  morning.     Tln-y  art- -i.*j 
pi-r  plati<t  tii:L\  l^c  ohiainnl  huitaMv  f^r  printing  on  1tra>a  umU  whirli  \'w  acrno'^  tlic  t<>p  • 
en^Tux  lIl^•^  fri.m.  wliirh  will  wvari^uit*a'*wi'll  an  c-i-tfrn  ;  or.v  t-ml  of  laHi  n»«!  »••  tiinn  il  »■ 
thf  ori;.'iiial  luctal ;  I'lit  till*  mvilitNla'^niiw  prac-  ri^'lit  an::lr«>  ii*  form  a  ^Imrt  fiN>t.  uli*.'^ 
tiM^!  i-  iii>t  to  ol>t.'iin  thi*  h!io1i-  thirLnf>f«  of  into  a  rhannil  of  mtrrury  that  ixtcii'N 
llie  pli*!!-*  \'\   tJii'  *li"»  trotypi'  o|i<>ratii>n,  fi.ir  a  the  oiitiT  ftl^«  of  iht*  ci-^tfrn.     Thi-  V.» 
>try  i!ii:i  >'irf;iio  nf  mppcr  i*  ^utliriiiit  to  pn-  forinvil  !»y  tnrnimr  ovtT  th**  upyn  r  ii*.i:» 
^lTVl•  tl.i.'  ( x:ti  t   iniprr^*ii«>n,  ami  tlii<i  'i*  more  liroad  ^lu-ct  of  cnjifHT  tliat  i«  attji'l.^-i!  i 
(■ri»iioiiiifalj\    1*arki-il   with  hoiiif  clirap  alloy.  hi<Ic  of  t!io  riMiTn.  anil <-xtinilslHyon«!  :t 
An  intVrii>r  i|ua]ity  of  t\|N.*  nu-tal  answers  ihii  olhrr  ristfrn  fonnin^  thi*  battt-ry,   «:  1 1 

{tiiqHi««- It  r\  vtll;  it  nulti  rr.idily,  am]  may  wimv  ^hi■i•t  of  rop|HT  i^   apain  tiirTuil 
•t*  inailo  to  r«ihcrtf   |o  tlit-   rop|»<T  farin;:   hjT  inako  HiiiitlitT  <'hann%*I  fi^r  mi-n*nry  iiiin  i 
►imp!*  {Miurir.;!a  layvrof  it  ovirthothin  ^l^i•^.■t,  thi*  jmi1«-<  t»f  thi*  zinc*  platr<«  art*  iniri-iljw 
wh:i-h  i«  lui'I  ilut  n|Nin  it*^  faiv  on  a  »iiHNith  hard  ono  siiU*.     Tho'«%*  of  thr  pIatini/«-t1  rop{ .  r 
Hirfiifv  «:|Min  uhii  h  it  i«tiniily  ^tfurvdhy  vhiMic  intf  the  othtT  |hi1v  irf  tht-  l«alt«ry  «hj    ir.t 
^!ip••  of  r>t«-i-l  ritiinlin^  from  i!-*  vthj^v  to  a  fixi'tl  othir  4*orri'*<iMin«Iin}f  rhiiniifl  of  iim  n  i:r,%  • 
oljii  t  a  IittU'  alniic.     The  \ku\  of  the  (*i»ii{iiT  oihi-r  si«li' of  tlu*  hattcry  <'i*«ti-rn.  thr*  i:i:!.  y 
mure  r«a<Ii]\  uniii<»  with  tht>  allov  if  it  ha**{Ki*n  fonnrctittn  \<  maiU-  in  the  Kimi*  n-.ni.r.«  r  ••! 
pr<-\iou<lv   ii«a!«-il    with    tin   hy    iHiiiriii);   thi<4  hiile  with  tho  «livom|M«Hitiiin  ri-ll.  oiiitr 
nietal   wliin   mi-ltnl   owr  iti   Mirfuri'.  h,*  the  riMUMantliii;;  with  one  fiM.t  in  tl.i*^ « !::i:  :.• 
•heel  t*  ht-M  in  an  inrlineil  poMiinn.     It  i^  thi4  |Hirtinfr  the  *>heet«  of  eupper  whii  h  arr  <:.- 
pri*rv*>.»  wliirh  i*  employetl  in  elittfoty pillar  the  v*\  in  t!ic  h«ilutiiin  to  t-ompli-te  the  « i:*  i:i 
paiTe*  iif  thi*  Work.     Kv«Ty  paje  of  tyin,*.  after  f»rni*h  the  metal  for  the  dep«»!-it.     T?  <   t . 
It  \i-j,n  tH'iii  u»<-ii  f  ir  furni-hiii.;  [>rtNit\  U  im-  !•«  ('onMrui't(.il  wit)i  plate- «>f  amalL"kTi  a:*- 
pr»**««!  i:p'tn  u  Mirfa*  e  of  wax.     TIji*  i«  then  alternatin;:  witli  oiiu-r-i  of  phit.i.:.'*  >!  •- 
iii\t  tkI  w  :!!i  pl:im!ii4;u  in  t'liif  |>owiIit,  and  all  ea<'h  platr  mi  a«urin^  loy.  14  iinlii  •    !'>«>■ 
till*  ••Mpi-rif'i'in-  jMiwiliT  1^  Mi'iinotriir  ('ru-he*!  <Iown  in  |:nHi\i-<»rut  «in  i-iii-h  ^idei-f  t!  •   i  . 
awav    111   :m    apparali:^  iiiiiotrnt-Teil   witli   tine  their  low^-r  eilk'*'-*   not   riaihir.^  wt:!    :. 
tir;i*li«  •  f«<r  ili:4  piir|i'^'.     l\y   the  application  ini'hi-'<itf  the l*ottoiii.     Ai'ci'nliii^!'' r}  <  .-.; 
of  i!..i  r-i!i<Iiii  ;iit/  iiii'liiini  i\rry   {Hirlitin  of  of  wi>rk  \>*  !••■  done,  tin-  innnU  r  •?   )  i.- 
tlie  wai  !.!■  i*  !<•  i:jai!i- •  npiil-lf  of  rei  I'ivin.:  tin*  r^durid  iT   inrri-a-M-il  ;    !•*  i.r   'Jo  i.i  ,  .,  ! 
Ttiati: .;  •■!'  fi'pp-r.  whin  the  eaki*  i*  enriri'lei!  ordinarily  in  n*^-.     The  arid  *nip!i>«!  a 
l>\  wir.'  ar.d   -:i«pt-iiiltd   hy  it  tn  the  n^]  eon-  fXi'itirii;  liipiid  i«  the  t-ornm«<n  «-ilpl  w 
nit  te>I  With  ihf  /:!je  platt-of  thi-  Lattery.     Tho  — A  \ar;ity  nf  Mi)i«tani-e*i  are  iJi. ]•'•■..  -i  ^ 
inelal  a«  it   i«  dei'«i<»i!i-i|  i  nt«  r<i  ii:t<>  tho  tiiott  wax  r>r  ohtairiiii^  miiiiliN  of  i:)i'!:i'.-  n:.'\ 
iniltllte  depn  oolfl.^   ainl    retaiii^   the  mi>»t  deli-  ^mall  ohjee t- f'tr  eU-i  triiT\pn.L".      K'>  ■    • 
rat«-  markiii.'^  a-*  d>t:ni-!!y  a*  tln-y  apfM-ur  in  mmle  l^y  m>ltiii;r  ^«%iT:d  lir:.!-  *•  I-''*-  ■ 
t!i<'  wa\.     1  !i<-  pa.v  of  t\|i>  I't.Ti.:  tfiMM  diipli-  ninth.  5  of  |i  ad,  ami  .'i  of  tin.  i^wi  '.'.  a*:..;  *• 
rati-*!,  tl.o  nil 'i.'i-r*  tliat  ii-nij-ii-ifl   it  are  at  thi»pnr|H.*f.     Ariother  fi>iMeB!!i>;.  :;-•  i: 
litn  rty  t.i  if  il..'r.!'Uiid  f'T  the  ••  inhinution  of  Fn-m-h  fur  tlieir'-'drA*^  ir.oii!.I*ii  \  *.•:-  •  f  •• 
n«-w   pa.**  •  .   a:.'}  t!i-:4  a  --'.n;:!*-  f>>Mi)t    nmy  ho  itf  l>i»mi:th,  4  of  tin.  •%«rf  K:id.  nrni  1  i>l' u:  t  : 
kept  in  •••[•! -t.iiaJ  !:«•  fi>rih«-  »<  ttii  j  iipof  MrieH  The  iniilal  14  mI  in  a  Min  k  of  Wi-t^!.  a:   !  ; 
of  Wiirk*.  i-i   w  hi.  !i   (I'pi.^  I'r  « 4!.Tii>-i«  nuM  Ik?  the  mel.1l,  wliiih  i- iM.n.-i-*l  in  a^l.-i!'- «  ^-  v 
»tr*:rk  i>*rii<tl.>}  are  w  ar.t.  •!      T?i>-  i!in  »h«tt4  witli  ikMiio*!i  rnrtr:«i^e  i  a|n  r.  i«  on  t!  ■   ]•  . 
of  ■•'p{i«  r  arr  hai  kid  w  I'.h  a  kiiid  i-f  t\]i-  nn  tal,  Httini?,  tlii*nie<!.d  !«•  l.iii!  \.]-n.  i:.  aid  ^rr  ■  i 
and  thr  p'.a'.i  ■•  art-  t!*»  -i  plai.id  '■{■••n  the  idt'i  *  tly  m>.i4 fairly  toimj  ri^*  jt»*':r!".ire    l!  .i-  \ 
at.d    ha*  k    \\    •harp    ki.i\t-.    \\    wh.>h    tl.i  r  M  fonnvd  or.   the  ^nrIll•  e  i-f  the  allt^ .  r. -i 
ari-  }  Ti.  1,'hi   in'.i  j  ri-;-.  r  -!•«!■«■  a!id  tl.:iki:i  — .  li«  ^k:nl1nl-<l  ot!"  wiili  the  nl^"*-  of  a  1  .i*^'. 
H-irTrf*%l  ■■•.^»    >    pr^'irri'l    In    tin-    i-ril.i.ary  tiro!  r«n*  i' ai»-i  enipli-y  id  for  t-.«   •.■>■■  • 
ini!li>«l  I-:"  •!. -!.•!%  J  :'.»-.   ir  luki!..:  a  e.vT    in  •(•••««■;  iii<il   pitr.i    |irili.i   1*   fi«:i  •!    T      .-• 
t%;i-  Tiiita]  •■!  ').*   in. J  ri..^:fn  i-f  a  pa/i-  of  t>p'?  i-iiitid  U>T  it.     Tin*  latli-r  !■•  ^'ftiii-tl  i*  'I  - 
inoilr  r,   jl-i-^irof  I'ar.-.  f  r  thi-  ri  i-ir.-t  t!  at  p  r-t!ure  of  N.ihnp  »  ;i*i  r.  and  pri --i-il 
t!.»  •!•  ri«'T%  •■«   !•  iin're  •  i^'in  ?  t'l  ill  ft  ■!*,«!■•*  ^  i:edu!,  whi«h    I*   ""rrt  iindiil  wi::i    r.    :. 
fji-f  jrt— y.l  •>  t  •>,arp  an  ontLru*  ttf  ih*-  I»!!ir*,  r.m.     \V!i.  n  ii-'tl  ih*-  uuV.a  pi  r* ! -^  .*  f  -.t 
ai  ■!   .•  K  •*•!■. r.i'-h   th:in  !J.«- 1  ■«;  ji  r  fni**il  •  !•  f.  the  pr-i—  i*  \\*V.  ]-*'t'.  'riin-l.  !■«  \.a\-   t.  .  ■ 
i/" 'Tji/t.    T^^chatur^  tniyl*'}K^\'}' il*v  I'TiuUu^  an  admirallu  ii:  pre.*>>iun.    Ihn  U  tri.^:«^. 


ELECTRO-HETALLUBGT  77 

the  wax  to  render  it  susceptible  of  receiviDg  the  dissolved  in  a  solution  of  cyanide  of  potassium^ 

metallic  coating.    Powdered  zinc  is  sometimes  and  this  is  the  fluid  used  in  the  place  of  the  sul- 

mized  with  the  fine  plumbago  to  increase  its  phate  of  copper  solution  employed  for  the  dopo- 

Qooducting  power.    The  zinc  is  melted  in  an  sition  of  copper.    But  a  more  convenient  mode 

inm  ladle,  and  when  just  ready  to  take  fire,  a  of  obtaining  the  solution  is  to  connect  a  plate 

few  pieces  of  iron  are  dropped  into  it.    AVhen  of  silver  with  the  jwsitive  pole  suspended  in  a 

cold,  the  mixture  is  easily  pulverized. — ^Elec-  solution  of  cyanide  of  potassium,  and  allow  the 

trocypiug  may  be  applied  to  the  preservation  of  current  to  pass  until  the  silver  begins  to  deposit 

Tirioas  delicate  objects  by  coating  them  with  a  rapidly  upon  the  negative  pole.    To  insure  the 

BKSailic  deposition.   Insects  and  delicate  flowers  cohesion  of  the  silver  upon  every  portion  of  the 

ve  made  conductors  by  dipping  them  in  a  weak  surface  exposed,  the  latter  must  bo  thoroughly 

nlutioQ  of  nitrate  of  silver,  and  then  precipitat-  cleansed,  which  is  best  cflocted  by  boiling  the 

iBgthe:$ilveraponevery  portion  of  them  by  ex-  articles  in  an  alkaline  ley,  then  dipping  them 

pofiore  to  the  vapor  of  phosphorus,  or  sulphn-  into  nitrio  acid,  and  finally  scouring  them.    The 

Toos  acid  gas,  or  even  to  the  action  of  the  light  copper  wire  is  then  attached  to  any  portion,  or 

OloChafdifferent  kinds  lias  thus  been  coated  with  wound  around  the  body,  and  this  being  again 

a  metallic  covering,  and  lace  has  been  beautifully  dipped  for  an  instant  in  nitric  acid  is  then  sus- 

£and  ornamented.   A  sheet  of  copper,  precip-  pended  to  the  metallic  rod  which  connects  with 

)d  upon  a  surface  of  morocco  of  any  desired  the  zinc  plate  of  the  battery,  its  surface  opposed 

piteni,  may  be  nsed  for  embossing  the  surfaces  to  a  plate  of  silver  connected  with  the  other 

of  other  skia<9.  Copies  of  daguerreotype  pictures  pole;  after  being  in  the  solution  a  few  seconds, 

hire  been  taken  by  this  process.    A  conducting  and  receiving  the  first  coating  of  silver,  the 

wire  of  broad  surface  being  soldered  to  the  back  article  is  taken  out  and  rubbed  with  a  hard 

of  the  picture,  and  the  portions  not  intended  to  brush  and  a  little  fine  sand.    It  is  then  replaced 

k  coated  being  covered  with  wax,  the  plate  is  and  left  for  several  hours  in  the  solution,  when 

ytt  into  the  solution  of  sulphate  of  copper,  pre-  it  acquires  a  coating  as  thick  as  tissue  paper,  of 

ady  as  if  it  were  a  medal  to  be  electrotyjied.  a  dead  white  silver.    It  may  be  then  polished 

Ihe'depo«t  is  removed  when  sufficiently  thick,  with  a  hard  brush  and  whiting,  or  burnished. 

ad  the  copy,  which  is  wonderfully  exact,  is  The  hardness  of  the  silver  varies  with  the  power 

cftenfoond  to  present  a  softer  and  finer  expression  of  the  battery,  a  weak  current  depositing  silver 

flUD  the  original.     The  face  of  the  picture  may  of  very  soft  quality ;  but  if  the  battery  is  too 

be  gilded  by  subjecting  it  to  the  action  of  a  powerful,  or  the  silver  plate  forming  the  ])Ositivo 

f9rj  iveble  electric  current  in  a  weak  solution  of  electrode  is  very  largo  in  proportion  to  the  arti- 

CTiDide  of  gold  and  potassium.    In  applying  clo  to  bo  plated,  the  silver  is  apt  to  bo  precipi- 

tbe  process  to  the  incrusting  of  fruits,  leaves,  tated  intlio  form  of  a  black  powder;  with  due 

iiid  similar  organic  substances,  for  the  purpose  proportions  between  the  power  of  the  battery 

rfprK«r^-ing  their  forms,  either  in  the  metallic  and  the  work  to  bo  accomplished,  the  silver  do- 

ibell  deposited  upon  them  or  by  making  use  of  posit  may  bo  of  the  hardness  of  tiio  rolled  or 

Ais  as  a  mould  for  restoring  the  object  in  solid  liaramered  metal.    Any  desired  thickness  of  tho 

ftmn.  the  body  is  tirst  covered  with  the  plumbago  deposit  may  be  given  according  to  the  time  tho 

Cwder.  and  a  pin  is  inserted  at  one  extremity  operation  is  continued.    A  plating  as  thick  as 

which  it  is  supported  upon  the  wire  of  the  ordinary  writing  paper  consumes  from  IJ  to  1^ 

bsttery  connected  with  the  zinc  plate.   Tho  pin,  oz,  of  silver  to  the  square  foot  of  surface.    As 

ifter  the  ojieration  is  completed,  is  withdrawn,  before  mentioned,  tho  silver  is  more  equally  de- 

■kl  through  the  hole  it  leaves  the  fluids  of  the  posited  by  keeping  the  articles  in  motion  as  tho 

friit  maj  be  expelled  by  heat.    Bronze  statues  process  goes  on.     The  silver  is  rendered  harder 

m%  made  from  the  hollow  plaster  casts  obtained  also  by  the  motion  as  well  as  by  intensity  of 

fam  the  original  model  in  clay ;  these  casts,  battery ;  and  thus,  though  only  the  pure  metal 

^rhkh  may  be  in  several  sections,  being  coated  is  deposited,  it  is  rendered  as  durable  as  the  al- 

Vkh  plumbago  powder,  and  exposed  to  the  sul-  loy  used  for  silver  coin. — The  solution  employed 

fbate  of  copper  or  a  bronze  solution.    The  sec-  for  electro-gilding  is  prepared  by  digesting  tho 

floBS  thus  obtained  are  fitted  and  soldered  to-  chloride  of  gold,  obtained  by  dissolving  the 

■afto',    and    electrotyped    over   the    soldered  metal  in  nitro-nmriatic  acid,  with  calcined  mag- 

YaatL — Electro-plating  is  tho  covering  of  or-  nesia.    Tho  oxide,  which  falls  as  n  preoipitate, 

'"  ■     br  the  electric  current  with  a  coating  of  is  washed  by  boiling  in  nitric  acid,  and  is  then 

•.  '  It  is  very  extensively  practised  for  giv-  dissolved  in  cyanide  of  potassium.   The  soluti 


_^ ^  perati 

if  a  rery  thin  coating  of  tho  more  expensive    gilding  copper,  and  for  gilding  silver  it  should 
iL     The  solution  of  silver  has  formerly  been    bo  still  higher.    Tho  battery  must  be  formed 


«hlBiiied  by  di^solving  the  metal  in  dilute  pure  with  the  positive  plate  of  gold,  and  tlio  negative 

c  acid';  distilled  water  is  afterward  added,  may  bo  of  iron  or  copper  in  a  porous  vessel  con- 

the  silver  is  precipitated  as  a  cyanide  by  a  taining  cyanide  of  potassium.     Tlio  same  atten- 

Son  of  cyanide  of  potassium.     The  silver  tion  must  be  given  to  having  tho  surfaces  to 

fMipitate,  being  collected  and  well  washed^  is  be  gilt  thoroughly  cleaned,  except  that  \AiQ  m^ 


78  ELECTRODE  ELECTROMETER 

of  nitric  arid  U  ditiponved  with.    Ifetallic  snr-  <nnMrr«,  to  9cc).    Tlie^c  terms  are  cfien  q«i 

farcM  that  «Kt  not  r<*aihly  rcroiro  thi*  dvp^Ntit  sTnonvmou*,  t(ionf«h  the  former  iit  |>n>|ierl; 

of  goIiL  a!«  t!ii>iici  (if  inm,  ^twl.  lead.  Ac.,  may  name  of  nn  itKtruineiit  for  nieamirinfr  tlie  ii 

fipit  l*e  niutol  with  a  thin   lai'cr  of  rofipt-r,  hit y  of  the  elivirical  excitement,  and  the  1 

up  in  which  the  irohl  i^  tlion  (fe|M>«>ited.     The  of  one  for  renderiufr  it  ap^uirfnt  by  it^  vt 

M»lution  should  r-iniain  Mitlicient  pild  todeiH»«it  Tlie  toniicm  halunccof  C'oulomh  admiraMj 

all  th.1t  i<«  rt'<juiriil  at  once.     T!ie  value  of  the  )>inc9   the   rei]uirement«   of  both   in<mm 

material  vrnpl'ivcd  i«  wry  triflinir  inisiin|iari!««in  but  a  (rreat   mimlKT   have  U'cn  contrive 

with  tlie  ctfi-rt  ]irudur«.'d.     A  »iUvr  thiinMe  re-  l>oth.  and  of  (rrititer  iirett'n-iion<i and  CMinpl 

cetvri  onir  A  or  ti  i-vntV  worth  of  fri>ld ;  a  com-  whirh  it  will  not  be  necessary  tode*«ril»e.  A 

mon  »i/4.*d  watch  ca<4',  thinly  cmt^Ml  within  and  fine  bravi  wire  is  su»|>ended  from  a  tixed  f 

heavily  without,  re«]iiin-4  only  fnun  2o  ^'rains  to  and  kept  strvtclivd  by  a  rmall  weight  atu 

a  |ii*nnywL-i4rhi,  or  a)M»ut  the  \a!ue  of  a  dollar;  to  it.**  lowvr  extremity.     Near  the  weipht  i 

and  a  |i«-nrii  caM*  fp'Tu  3  to  5  fmiiiis  or  \vs3  than  mvdlo  i*  attU4*hc<i  to  the  wire  in  a  horii 

Su  ct'nt^*  Worth.- -The  apfilicatinns  nf  thiii  niw  |N>sition.  one  of  the  ends  of  which  \*  a  cun* 

and  interi-^tidf:  art  are  already  wonderfully  de-  or,  and  the  other  a  non-conductor  of  etectr 

Tt'l«i|K*d,  and  itH  practire  ^ivv^  einploymtnt  to  A  grailiiHtetl  arr  is  arranire<l  around  thi*  cir 

many  thou^.imlHof  Wurknu-n  in  thelarKe  platini;  ference  of  the  plas*  %'i-;^*^.*l  in  which  tlu*  nee 

and  other  elertnt-inetallurpc  i*staMi»hmentji  of  fru-'iK'ndi-*].     The  »mall  InkK.  the  eKvtrii-i 

our  citie«  an*!  nianiifat'turiu);  ttwui*.     The  fac-  which  id  to  lie  determined,  Itein^  let  dowi 

ini:  of  printers*  ty|K-4  with  ctipiier,  now  lan^rly  Nde  of  the  veH*iel,  causes  the  hwincinj;  ith] 

prartiM-d,  trehlen  or  ({uadnipIeM  their  durability,  diverj'e  or  lie  attractml,  and  the  amount  o 

liut  it  it  by  no  means  probable  that  it^  most  val-  movement  is  mea>un*4l  by  the  numbi*r  of  de 

nahle  u«cs  are  yet  diM'uTvrv<).     In  France  tho  upon  the  arr  passe<l  by  the  index  on  the  < 

possibility  of  applying  its  principle  to  the  sejia-  bite  end  of  the  nei*<lle.    An  iniitrumeiit  hxn 

ratii»n  of  metaU  fnm  their  oreA,  haH  been  siTi-  constnicied  in  which  a  force  et^ual  tn  dJ, 

ouf^ly  t*«»n!iiidere«]  liy  M-ierititic  and  practical  men ;  a  (rrain  cansetl  the  needle  to  travern*  the  « 

and  when  more  ccoiioinira]  modea  of  exciting  cirrumferenre,   so   that   a  mo  v  erne  1. 1    \f 

thtf  electrir  current  an*  di-velofMHl,  it  is  pnibable  de^eo    indicated    a    force   not    grexter 

that  thi^  ni'i«Ie  nf  reduciht:  hotiie  uf  tho  oresi  ^i  i«a«§b  of  a  grain.      For  an   in.»tri:n)ei 

may  U*  sur«v4«fully  prartiMTil.     It  hasevenbe^n  delicate,    tho   su*>pcnding  wire   Is   of   «-xt 

thought  |>us«il'le  ti»  apply  a  coating  of  con{»cr  in  fineness  and  con»idera!iIe  length.    Tho  prii, 

one  vheet  ii|Min  th*.*  iHittoni  of  a  »hip  by  this  adopted  for  detenu ining  the  relation  \<t 

method,  or  to  re«t>  're  old  sheathing  by  adding  to  the  eliM'tric  forci*  and  the  (^nantitie^  of  el<  t-t: 

it«  thii-Ln«-««  withojt  removing  it  from  the  vea-  in  NHJii'^  was  to  take  two  jK-rfet^tly  similar 

hi:  and  it  hi«  Uen  prii|k<i^*d,  as  a  more  e<*o-  duct '.ng  balls,  and  aAer  charging  t in t*  .iimI  i! 

DuiiiicalnietJiiMluf 1 1 titait.iiig thee Icetric current,  mining  its  elTivt  n|Hiii  the  b.tlaiicr,  brir.g 

to  em  pi' ly   tho   m:ipu-ItH>fli>i-tric    rnaehine,    in  C4»nt:M*t  w  ith  the  nn«'hargt-d  ball.     The  an 

whirh  thi«  {Niwrr  i^  geueralol  by  the  cunsump-  <if  eK-rtririty  Is  then  ei}M!iIly  dtiidtd   Ut 

tiou  of  eht-.ip  fut-l  in  nihiiiiig  a  Ktenm  engine,  the  two,  whirh  may  lie  prti\til  by  tfting 

in-itead  nf  the  ni'Tcexi'v  n«:ve  rinc  in  the  v«iltaic  (H|ual  etfeetH  U|Hin  tho  balanre.     <  >ne  «'f 

liattery.     II.:*.  in   the  e\|H-rtnient4  of  Mei^^r^.  may  then  U*  maile  to  give  up  h.ilf  it**  rli  rt: 

Klkin,:tiin  and  Ma^iu,  of  r»:rm!n»;h:ini,  England,  ti>  another  |K*rfi-etly  MMiihir  unt-harg^ii  b.tl! 

wi:h  tlie  roiiiniAiiil  of  a  m.ngitilicv-iit  machine,  h>  the  (jnantity  iriay  lie  (otitiniully  ri*!:;i-i 

and  (*f  •tram  ]««wvr.  the  rurn  nt  w;ls  found  to  Ui  known  pro^Mirtinns  to  any  de«ire«l  «.i:«i:t. 

t4j«i  cn*te3'ly  to  admit  of  piml  w  frk.     Machiiu^  elei'tric  nei-dle  uo^tl  a*  an  cl«itrfv*«  ■]»••.  t^  a 

cif  the  "Ame  con^trui  titm  havv  Ui  m  introdu(-i*d  bar  of  home  noi).ciin'lurting  ^ul'«t.in<  f,  ^np 

into  New  Y«'rk  and  appliisi  to  practical  o|iir a-  ed  u|Min  a  fioint  like  a  magnetic   ii*t  •!]«', 

tion!i  in  «*I«t  t riMpI.it ing.  liearing  t;{K>n  one  extremity  a -an.ill  !-•>!%  *  hi 

KIJClTKoWKMtr.  i^Afrr^mr.  and  o^ff,away1,  with  a  ki.onn  eleetrii-ity.     Id-nnitt*  g*  It! 

a  U*nn  appliv^!  by  I'ruf  Faraday  to  the  surfai^e,  ele<-tn*M*o|K',  whirh  i^niuchu^id.  L*fi.*i-'.«i- 

whether  «*f  air,  water,  metal,   or  other  hub-  thin  htri|Hi  of  p*ld  li-.if,  fi^teued  in  tVv  i  ri. 

ataiice.  by  whuh  eliviririty  poMH-s  into  or  out  nu-tullie  rifl,  which  ]i.i«m*h  thrtugli  i).**  lm 

of  other  nit-tlia.     It  rurre^fxiitiU  wirh  the  {xilc  a  bill  gK^-,  and   liTniin.i*.i*'<  aUi^i*  in  a 

ctfthe  k*al\ani('  batt^'ry. — I 'ndiT  another  deriva-  knob.     TImm*  htri{M  of  gi>bl  leaf  bur*:.  :>i;  i 

li(jn  fr*:n  i;Af«r^»,  and  fi^'f.  like,  the  term  hat  ci-ntre  of  the  U'.l  gt.iK«  will  div<  r;:i>  whic 

al««i  \mru  emph-viU  to  desiiguato  bodies  which  b««lT  eliviricullv  e\t'itoI  is  br>!;i:!i?   !.•  nr 

L<,<«'«ime  cl««-:rii-  hko  nniUr.  con:a<*t  w  i^h  the  bra^  knol>.    It  i«  wi !'.  t>* 

KI.Ei1'll<  »1.Y>IS.  KiXiTLfiiTTCMtr.  ^\§rrpom,  two  rondiictlng  Inhliv  in  *i:cli  a  I"'-  !.  r.  i 

and  Aim,  III  A^t    frtvl.   teriiiN   whiili  Were  Intro-  Ik-11  ghl^kS   that  e.'Lih    »trip  ff  p*'.d    li  .if   MJ 

du«-r«l  by  I*ntf.  Far.i>l:ky.  aXi-l  appliol.  lli«*oni' to  a:riiii«>t  c>i;o  cf   tliem.   si.d    tliiu   i!.'>«  1  ar^ 

dti-tifT.|ii.<»iti«>n  pri"l:i«td  by  thet-Io  trii^rurrt-nt,  eleitrn'ily  ;  fir  iilherwiM*.  if  they  r«v.i-  ;:i 

and  the  f  !hi  r  !'<a  l-«!y  vi-^-eptible  uf  dir«.vl  de-  t.ii-t  with  the  non-oiiidm  !*iig  ^l-i"^  a*  t).c 

C«iriij--;!i<*i  i::  thi<»  milliter.  %er^*i',  ttit  ir  tviuli  nry  it  to  rtinain   st*.  ih* 

Kl.K* 'IK*  iMFrTKII  Mir.  (>X««T,in».  ar:d  firr^iov,  it.      I'Ke  on^jiMi   i«  p.irti>-i:'.ar}v   i.i'!:<««I   i! 

MDi-s».int,  Lliu.iim.iw. on     (tir.   i}X«rr^Mv,    and  prect-ding  articles  treating  on  eivi-tric-a!  »i:b, 


ELECTROPHOBUB  ELEONORA  (ov  Este)               79 

ELEOTROPHORUS  TGr.  nXrirrpor,  and  0cp«,  mitted.    Although  this  number  is  very  small  in 
tD  bear),  a  convenient  form  of  an  instrument  comparison  with  the  almost  infinite  variety  of 
frr  obtaining  and  holding  small  quantities  of  materialsubstanceswhichoccur  in  nature,  or  are 
deetricity  for  a  considerable  time.    It  consists  produced  artificially  by  man,  it  will  doubtless 
of  a  llat|  smooth  cake  of  resin,  made  by  pour-  eventually  be  greatly  lessened;  allanalogy  tcach- 
■f  the  snbstance  when  melted  into  a  wooden  ing  that  the  really  essential  elements  of  mat- 
Boiild  in  which  it  may  be  allowed  to  remain ;  ter  must  be  very  few.     Thus  far,  however,  the 
■id  abo  of  a  disk,  either  of  brass  or  of  wooa  number    of   elements    has   been    continually, 
flofiered  with   tin  foil,  its  diameter  less  than  though  slowly,  increa<)ing  tlirough  the  discovery 
tint  of  the  cake;  its  edges  should  be  rounded,  of  new  substances.    The  latter  have  occurred  in 
A  cltss  handle  is  inserted  into  the  middle  of  the  most  cases  only  in  extremely  minute  quantities, 
dUc  at  ri^t  angles  with  its  surface.    The  sur-  and  in  but  few  localities ;  some  of  them  have 
bee  of  the  cake,  as  it  lies  upon  the  table,  being  hardly  been  seen  by  any  one  excc])t  their  dis- 
nbbed  or  beaten  with  the  scin  of  a  cat,  is  soon  coverer.    The  properties  of  many  have  not  as 
cliHged  with  negative  electricity.    If  the  disk  yet  been  thoroughly  studied.    Such  are  view- 
b  tMn  laid  flat  upon  the  cake,  touched  with  ed  with  suspicion  and  distrust  by  chemists,  and, 
As  filler,  and  then  tidsen  off  by  the  handle,  it  is  until  authenticated,  merely  tolerated  on  the 
fDNBid  to  be  charged  with  positive  electricity,  so  list  of  elements.    The  great  mass  of  the  matter 
m  to  give  a  spark  like  the  prime  conductor  of  of  wliich  the  world  is  composed  consists  of 
fte  deetrical  machine.    By  renewing  tlie  con-  about  80  elements,  the  remaining  31  being  of 
iHtit  is  charged  again,  and  the  process  may  comparatively  slight  importance.    The    term 
le  repeated  hundreds  of  times,  the  resin  often  simple  or  undecomposablo  (better    undecom- 
Muniog  its  electricitv  for  many  days.    The  posed)  substance  is  often  used  synonymously 
Mitive  electricity  in  the  disk  is  developed  by  with  element    In  popular  language,  fire,  air, 
■deedoii.     If  the  disk  is  left  insulated  without  earth,  and  water  are  sometimes  called  elements. 
friffiing  the  finger  or  other  conductor  to  it^  The  last  8  are,  however,  compounds,  while  the 
■D  dec^icity  is  developed  in  it,  except  a  slight  former  is  an  appearance,  occasioned  by  the  devel- 
Moare  chance  received  directly  from  the  resin,  opment  of  light  and  heat  which  attends  chemi- 
BECTROTYPE.  See  Elkctbo-Metallttbot.  cal  combination,  &c. — For  a  complete  catalogue 
ELECTUARIES,  a  name   retained   in  the  of  the  elements,  see  Equivalent. 
S£nhar]^  pharmacopoeias  for  mixtures  of  me-  ELEMI,  a  resinous  exudation  from  a  number 
iKODal  sabstances,  generally  dry  powders,  with  of  trees  in  different  parts  of  the  world.     Com- 
tipr  or  any  sweet  sirup,  to  render  them  more  ing  from  so  many  sources,  the  substance  known 
flOBvenient  to  take.   Conserves  are  similar  prep-  in  common  is  by  no  means  of  uniform  character, 
■etions,  the  saccharine  portion  being  intended  and  the  trees  which  afford  the  gum  are  very 
to  preserve  the  other  ingredients  mixed  with  little  understood.     That  from  Holland  is  siip- 
Ihcm.  The  word  confection  is  now  in  use  in  the  posed  to  be  from  the  Dutch  East  India  posscs- 
pkannacopoeias  of  the  United  States,  London,  sions,  and  the  product  of  the  cwiarium  hah 
wui  Dablin.  to  include  both.  samiferum  of  Ceylon.     Tlie  Manila  article  is 
gr.FVRVT^  Chemical.    In  the  present  state  believed  to  be  the  product  of  the  canarium 
flf  edence  this  term  admits  of  no  very  precise  commune;  that  of  0.  album  or  arholahrea  is 
ddfinitioxi.     In  general,  the  word  element  is  ap-  used    in    the  Philippine  islands  for  pitching 
vfied  to  any  substance  which  has  as  yet  never  boats   and   vessels.    The    Brazilian    clemi   is 
■eoB    decomposed  into  constituents  or  trans-  from  the  idea  icicariba;  the  idea  is  a  genus 
into  any  other  substance,  and  which  dif-  separated  from  amyris^  to  which  the  elemi  is 
in   some   essential  property  from  every  commonly  referred.    The  Mexican  is  said  by 
known  body.    Several  elements  indeed  Dr.  Royle  to  bo  from  a  species  of  the  elaphri" 
under  two  or  more  allotropio  conditions,  t^m,   which  he  names  clemi/erum.    The  resin 
states  they  exhibit  different  properties,  is  imported  in  various  shapes,  and  in  different 
modifications  are  however  mutually  con-  colors  and  degrees  of  consistency.    It  was  for- 
ivrdble  into  each  other,  and  are  regarded  as  merly  much  employed  in  plasters  and  ointments, 
■ere  varieties  of  one  and  the  same  substance,  but  is  more  used  in  Europe  than  in  this  coun- 
Aa  Dov  used,  the  term  element  does  not  possess  try.    Hatters  make  use  of  it,  and  it  is  in  somo 
fe  Wttj  degree  the  absolute  signification  at  one  demand  for  varnishes  by  coach  painters.    It  is 
^     attached  to  it  by  the  ancients,  none  of  the  one  of  the  ingredients  of  pastilles  burned  as 
Lts  now  admitted  being  regarded  as  true  incense.    It  has  been  resolved  into  two  resins, 
T  principles  of  matter.     It  is  indeed  not  one  amorphous  and  one  crystallizable,  for  tho 
ible  that  some  of  them  may  belong  to  this  latter  of  which  the  name  elemine  has  been  pro- 
bat  of  this  nothing  is  known.    Provi-  posed  by  its  discoverer,  M.  Baup. 
^HBeUy,  all  substances  which  have  hitherto  re-  ELEONORA  of  Este,  an  Italian  princes?, 
.^toed  erery  method  of  analysis  that  has  been  whose  name  is  associated  with  the  love  and 
L  to  them — all,  in  short,  which  cannot  be  madness  of  Torquato  Tasso,  born  June  19, 1537, 
pmd  to  be  compound — are  called  elements,  died  Feb.  10,  1581.     She  resided  in  Ferrara  at 
Gt  Biay  readily  be  conceived,  the  number  of  the  brilliant  court  of  her  brother,  Alfonso  II., 
bodies  is  constantly  changing  with  tho  of  which  she  and  her  sister  Lucrezia  were  tho 
of  science.    At  present  61  such  are  ad-  most  accomplished  ornaments.    Tasso  ec^Qina  \a 


80             ELEOXORA  (ov  Toudo)  £L£PUANT 

havo  pftnroivoil  an  arJi-nl  pa«inn  for  Elo^nora.  pivln?  tft  tlio  lioa«l  the  woll-knnwn  a-j- 

Biiil  tn  !i:i\i'  aJiIri««c(l  to  Iht  Hnnc  of  liU  iim-t  -.urarity;  this  tli'm^li  fur  Mi]N<riiir  !•■  tl 

forvrni  t  :rii-iiiii\  l«»tln»  tliMi'Vvrr  nf  nhirS  tho  iIk*  itilM-r  j»ur!iyi|»'riii*  ha*  (hiu)itl«-!i<«  Ua-i 

iM-r.M-fiiiiiii'*  !•■  «  Lii'li  111*  i%a,«  Mil-jfrtctl  l>y  Al-  r:itctl  fn>in  tlit.*  {hm  iiliar  rraiiiol  furrnati>>ii 

Um^i  ^^K^v  v.i  part  iw  nUi).     Itut  tlu*  cviiliiiro  animal.     Thi*  L'ro:it  cK*  vat  ion  of  thi*  fri.:i 

oil  (lirMilijiri  i«itiiitlii  tifi^.    Tln-ri' wrro  M-vi-ral  jriim  i1<k"*  not  ari-o  from  any  ini-ri-a'^- 

otlii-r  I.i'lsfH  of  t lit*  iiutiii*  of  KI«'<*tii>ra  whom  ininial  cavity  or  ('•>rri-'*|Htn(liiiir(l«'Vti<pT:. 

Ti.^Mi  I  •  1-  iir.iU-«! ;  a»,  for  iiiotaiuv,  Klin  iiiora  San  hrain,  liiit  tli-|KtiiI«  nn  thi*  pri*at  •H|>iir.kr. 

\  ii.tii-.   till*   lK-aiitiful   t'ouiit«!*^  of  SiMUfli:!,  in  tin*  tuhK-t  of  i)m> -kull.  ami  lUv  i\ti->-: 

iihii*^'  |»r.ii»«-  ho  %k  rulo  iliuniiiii;;  %'i'r<H!<.     Ilow-  hirji-mnit  *ti  the  fmntul  >inn«H-\  atr>>r«l:« 

i>v«r.  iiM-i  Mii.Tup)irr!«  a;;rix'  in  ]M>intiti(;  to  tlio  ph-  *i|iatv  fiT  tlio  )>ri;;in  of  thf  nm-H-Ir- 

|iriiii««-<  K!t-itni<ru  :k«  tho  lo^ly  of  hi^  ^I•l-ciaI  .-uhi-  trunk:  tlto  uppt-r  jiiw  ha:4  a  ^iniihir  «tr 

ratii>ii.     IhiM' fir  iho  |iriniv44  ri'«'i{>ri>(*atc<I  hist  fi»r  tho  ai'i't>runiiHhLtii>ii  nf  thi*  i-itMri:it>i:« 

alfi-i-Mun  i«  n>>t  ■  !•  arly  e«>tuhli'»}ii-il,  uii<l  tho  prr-  iit  l>«>tlt  ru^'^  Mrvn;:th  Bn«l  Mih«Iit4  ari*  i>!i 

FU!iJii!':*Mi  ih  tli.ii  !>!io  iravi:  him  o:ily  fricmloliip  wiThi*nt  tiHi  mnili  wi-i^rht.     Thi*  ni-arljk  im 

ami  pifiji^ul  Mmp.iihyin  ri*t:irn  for  hU  love,  difular  fai-ial  linvof  thoi-lophunt,  thiii,  lU 

}^hi*  u  :l->  n*  v4  r  iiiarriftl.  i»n  tiio  ^i/i*  nf  tlio  fmntal  »>inii>H"*.  thi*  «Iii 

KI.K*  »Ni  »11A  tiF  T'li.EiM*.  i!.in;:ht«  r  €»f  PotiT  <f  thi*  hmu-*  nf  ilu*  no-^*,  ami  thi*  vt-rtici 

ofTt'!ii!<*.  M'lTiiy  I'f  Nuplfo,  Nirn  in  lo'2*\  wasi  tii>n  nf  tlu*  liiaxillary  ami  inti*rtik;i\ill:ir\  1 

marrinl  ri  K>-IH  ti*  i'i>«iiiii  J^*  Miiliri.  atU'rwiml  ari«l  tho  rraiiial  «-a\ity  «icrupit"«  hut  a  ^ina 

)rra::il  «i'ik<- t'f  I'u'~i*aiiy.  fifu^ht  with  ;!ri*ul  hravi*-  of  t  lit*   hra^t   at   it."  ]H««t«rt(ir  rciitral    i*- 

ry  ui;.k!:.»i  l.ir  )ii)«hamr!t  i-hfniii-%  i*apturi-il  tho  1)>i'  iM-ripitul  hum*  fnrntt  thi*  |N.<.tirii>r  » 

chit-f  ••(  chi'n  ililippij  Siri'//i>.   afti-rwani  ac-  tho  ^kuU.  ami  a4lvam*i'4:il<Mi  un  t^  it- i:p;<« 

coinpuiili**!  ('••«?ii>i  in  tho  war  hctwti-n  tho  «-ni-  faiv:  tlio  i)arii*tal<4  aro  vurly  (-■■tiMitiilat^-*: 

|K-r«'r  Char^f*  V.  ami  Franoto  I.  of  Franco,  ami  tn  oat  Ii  otht-r,  an<l  ti»  tho  tciniHiraN.  f>>r! 

%i'a«  ait;%«!v  i-ii^*a^<-<I  in  tho  takiii^r  ^^f  SivnniL  Hiliil  Inix  ;  tho  «thni«>ii1  i*  lar;:i>.  a::i!  thf  • 

In  tho  ia'.sr  part  •»!  hi-r  hfo  >»ho  wa;*  ili<in;:ui'«h-  ami  ^urfa('o  of  t!io  crilirifurin  phiti*  iril* 

«*«I  fi^r  !.•  r  iu>iii  (••u**  patrmiaiToof  U'ttori,  thu  fluu  <li-li«'ato  or;;an  of  pnivll  :   tlio  pphii  «>.!   i 

art-,  ar.'l  w.irk*  nf  i  harity.  Hat  intornally.  Iiut  it-*  i»  ll-«  :iro  innrii."':- 

EIJ-J  >Si>KA  Tlll.l.i-lZ,  aUautifuI  rortu;;noM»  Vfl.i|.«-il.  vm  r«»ai!iiiiL*  laru"«!>  ujN.n  th»   ^. 

Wonun.  U<r:i  in  1^>*M.  dii^i  in  14>i!i.  thcilau;!htor  tho  **ku!l.     Tho  tn-th  rmi-i^t  ft  2  \*:ij  « 

c»f  a  i^'-iT  i:i>!iIoman.  wa«  niarru-il  in  \'A6  to  a  lu-k^  uno  in  i:u-h  iiiti-rniaiilhiri  |n>i.i-,  a 

p-iith  man  i<f  t'lrtuno.  hut  of  ]o*>sam  iont  doMvnt,  lar^v  and  nimpiMinil  ninlar*  in  i  a^  Ii  j:t« 

a:.4l  II.  4*  !i  hor  «<ipiri«irin  War*,    ilo  brought  hi' r  piTmuiiint  tu*k*,  uhii-lt  an*  m««ii-!r'.=  ;«  i 

t*'  '.)if  •  •!  irii'f  I.i-i-in,  win  TO  ronlinami  I.  ft,-ll  in  i»-ith.  ari-  prt-*  i-ihil  h_\  '2  -mall  A*  •  iil'.--  ;■• 

Iii\r  Mirlt  :i<  r.     >!.•••!«■  ItiMil  li^'iinnii.j  his  nii«-  uhiilt  niakf  tht-ir  ap|H'araiii  •■  UtHiti:  \] 

Us"".  I  t.l  l»i  <  .I'uo  !.!■•  will,  :,i*.  r  ha\i(i;r  U-cn  K-  ain!  Tth  niiin:h*>.  rardv  ti«  ml  'J  \ut  ?n  •  .v  1 

f;u!l«  i!.'.>r>i>!  f.-nm  .'.ir  Ir. -*•:&:. il.     I'tiil  hi-r  hi-art  and  i  nf  an  iii'-ii  in  diaiiii  tiT.  aiid  ;irr   «S* 

w.i^  a*  !.!•!••  ni!i  .-1  -ii.l  in  ?.i  r  •n«ii|hI  ii«  it  )i:id  f'»ro  tin*  'Jd  year,  ihiir  r«Hii*  Inn.j. .  r.-.-Ii 

Iki;:;:.  !..  :  :"r-:  i;i.i;r..i.'t .     >:ii*  fill  in  hivowi:h  al'-i»r!H.il ;  ul-.nt  'J  tii't!.!!.«.  iif^t  r  ().*   i..  A 

a}t»  i:./ <  ■.*-:i  1 »!:  ii'.!- M;an,  I>.»n  Juan  d'Andoi-  arr  *!iii!.  tin*  prrniaiu  !il  li-L*.  w!i:-  !.  .ir* 

ri>.      !t«  r  :  ri  !•  :•  ;i<  ••  :'•  r  li::n  ruid  hi-r  tvraniiii'al  aU'd  tn  thi>  iniuT  '»u\v  *'\  ai.*l  U  iiiml  i:.i  f 

i!i*pt-..*...;i  pr>«i  :•!•!  ^:r*  .^\  di«i  iiiitt'iit  and  li'd  ti)  {•iiTii*  t!ii-  {.Mm   u  h*  ii  aU'iit  aii   ii  ■  !•  !  >'... 

hi  r  I'W  ri!.r.'«.    At!*r  tin-  *\*  ath  i.f  tho  kinj.  Ju-r  ^rrnw  lr.«m  Iht-  ha^i-  ihiriiij  l\t*  \\  1  .!■'.•   ..ft 

fa^f-r.ii-  » .1*  ^-^^.i-^.liaS  •!  *'»  thi.*  kilij^'*  l»pi!!|.  r,  aiiMiial.     T!io  liininr  Ii-i-lh  ii.-i-   ri  ■!  .i:  pl.i 

till   i...'.i:  '.*■  I»fi..'i  f.ii  I  1 ».  1  .  ft.  l.;sJi.  w  ho  u*irp.  t!ii  :r  -i/i-  and  thi-  it«inpl«  \il_^  i.M':»  .r  -.■-•;. 

Ill  :I«o  p.-' ■■•  •::;::»•  !.!.      Ki'-'-:  "fa  U  !-'"':.*hl  tlit*  a^-  thiro  i*  !!••!  iiinri-  fl.aii  I'lir  w 'i-  .\} .  '  r  ?  .*  < 

i^i'-:..!:- •■  •  :'  .'nl.n  I'f  (  a-'.h.,  wliM   h.i*l  niarrii-d  li:t'!.^.  in  u«o<>iii  .!•  h  "tdi- iii«  a<  1.^  im  .i!  •  :.t 

lU.i^r.x.  v.i- .'^Iv  I  Ijild  -iio  i.ail  liiriu'  to  Fi  pli-  tin  v  ari-  fHi^r.i'.tU  in  p-iv'T^i  —  •  ?  ■'.■-:•• 

i;a:.'l.     .T.  ;..,  I  .i  i.H  i  hi  r  t»  In.'  J  lacid  in  a  i"«in-  a:  ■!  T"rirj.iTi-':i,  -n  .  •  •  ilin.:  *  .v  h  •■!!.•  :    .'.•• 

\i :.:  :■.  *•  ■.»  '..  \%  III  rr  *!;••  il.i  il.  lal!* .  f  i-ti  a'l  i-!  \  i  r!..  all*  a*  in  •■'h* .'  i:;.i*;. 

KI.KrilWI"  *•/■'.■.*.  I.!.'.  ■.  f!.i-«'t.Ijk  i  x>'.:iij  1*1  •  "rd.!!.*  t'.  Owi  T).  till"  iijtl.ir- ari  —   •    ■ - 

p:-'*-.  ».  ,  1:.,M  J  .1  ;.*«!ir!f:*.  hr.- ijhr  li-rw  :ird  nit?.l  #  .n  !i  j.i»  ha*  !...■:•  * 

--.1   I  !.  ;).i:iT.  a: -1    i!-  i«.:i-  •■■!»■  '•.  ^-r  'Jt  i:i  :il!.      F'-r  li.t-   ijijriijS    .  •  !.j 

t..k%  111.*  i. .«  >]    Ii  :!m- pr«-' •  d-  t!.i-  "'r';- V:-.-   :ir,d  ih  %•  !i>pMii  r.t   «■!   !'■     : 

I  !..■  I  !■  p!..i'.:.  !;.•  l.irj.  <•!  Ihi- r.  .1  !i  r  i- i.  •.  ?r.  •!  I-i  i»,i-  /'m«  » ■•    •'    ••* 

:r   .;  .1'    ■  ..!-.:   i»  !r.'!:i  !.;:.«•  t'j-.  . '.  ar.-I  »••  I'.i-  •■«»•;...:. .^■r.i;  :,%       ■'  « 

.     ViS  il  S  r  !.:•  i-  !•  .!  ^>  •..  .■  !!"!!*••  'i-    :j'.  •  -  -a>  !.i  ri    !l   i!  ■   .    .    !  - 

'.  •  .     .  *  !i.   !..!•  r.  :.-i' r- «1  ! :.;■■-.  !   .■;    i   s   ah'-*t  i-:  tr.i'.-i-*-     w 

■    !    r  :.  -   ,!i;;  .'  ■  /  a;  |«  ir  |    **•  ""  ••*  •••  •  •  ■.•  ■  r  .\*''}.  ■  !a«  .■■   •  "        «  ■ 

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I 


ELEPHANT  81 

■re  alwftTg  subjected ;  the  constant  wear  of  the  this  resemblance  is  continued  in  the  leg  and 
grinding  surface  keeps  it  in  order  for  mastica-  tarsns ;  the  os  calcis  is  very  large  and  promi- 
tkm ;  the  miinner  in  which  the  enamel  is  ar-  nent ;  the  metatarsus  consists  of  5  bones^  the 
rmged  on  this  snrface,  after  the  ivory  is  worn  external  one  being  imperfectly  developed ;  the 
down,  enables  the  anatomist  to  refer  a  tooth  toes  are  also  5,  each  consisting  of  8  bones,  ex- 
cither  to  the  Asiatic  or  African  elephant.  From  ccpt  the  outer,  which  has  one,  all  encased  m  the 
the  oblique  position  of  the  molars  in  the  jaws,  thick  skin,  the  division  beiug  indicated  only  by 
the  anterior  portion  pierces  the  gum  first,  ana  the  projecting  extremities.    The  bones  of  the 
may  be  quite  worn  while  the  middle  and  pos-  elephant  may  be  easily  distinguished  from  those 
tenor  portions  are  slightly  or  not  at  all  used,  of  other  quadrupeds ;  they  resemble,  except  in 
10  that  these  teedi  diminish  in  length  at  the  size,  the  bones  of  man,  particularly  the  cervical 
Hme  time  that  their  depth  is  worn  away ;  as  the  and  dorsal  vertebra),  the  shoulder  blade  and  pel- 
aterior  grinding  surface  becomes  useless,  the  vis,  the  femur,  tarsus,  and  the  bones  of  the  me- 
not  ifl  removed  by  absorption,  enabling  the  tacarpus  and  metatarsus;  so  that  it  is  not  but- 
tooth  to  be  pushed  forward  by  that  behind.  The  prising  that  even  anatomists,  ignorant  of  the 
tiaks  are  formc^i  of  ivory  and  enamel,  the  for-  elephant^s  skeleton,  should  have  mistaken  their 
mm  making  the  central  and  by  fieur  the  largest  recent  and  fossil  bones  for  the  remains  of  gigan* 
portion ;  the  tusks  exist  in  both  sexes,  but  are  tio  human  beings.    The  food  of  the  elephant  i» 
■DiDer  in  the  females  than  in  the  males ;  they  entirely  vegetable,  and  must  be  immense  is 
■ometimes  measure  9  feet  in  length,  and  weigh  quantity,  and  the  digestive  apparatus  is  accord- 
9nsr  SOO  lbs.  the  pdr ;  this  great  weight  is  kept  ingly  largely  developed ;  the  stomach  is  simple, 
Ib  pliKe  only  by  the  tight  embrace  of  the  socket  of  a  lengthened  and  narrow  form,  its  caroiac 
nd  sarronnding  parts,  explaining  the  abnormal  extremity  being  prolonged  into  a  pouch  of  con- 
fircctionofthe  tusks  produced  either  by  sudden  siderable  size,  its  internal  membrane  divided 
nd  violent  or  by  gentle  and  long  continued  into  thick  folds  and  transverse  wrinkles,  and 
pRKore.    The  lower  jaw  is  massive,  and  pro-  its  muscular  coat  very  thick ;  the  small  intes- 
jowed  in  frt>nt,  where  the  extensible  lower  lip  tines  are  voluminous,  and  tiie  large  of  enormous 
kScmgated  into  a  triangular  deeply  concave  size ;  in  a  moderate-sized  animal  the  intestinal 
organ  for  receiving  the  extremity  of  the  trunk,  camd  was  60  feet  long,  the  small  intestines  being 
The  qnne  consists  of  7  cervical  vertebrss,  20  88  feet,  the  caecum  li,  and  the  large  20i  feet; 
doraal,  3  himbar,  5  sacral,  and  from  24  to  26  the  circumference  of  the  1st  being  2  feet,  of  the 
caodals :  the  number  of  ribs  is  19,  and  in  some  2d  5  feet,  and  of  the  last  (colon)  6  feet.    The  gall 
necimens  20,  of  which  5  or  6  are  true.    The  bladder  is  situated  between  the  coats  of  the 
thoracic  cavity  is  very  large,  the  ribs  being  con-  duodenum,  and  is  divided  by  transverse  parti- 
tinaed  back  nearly  to  the  pelvis,  of  great  size  tions  into  4  compartments ;  the  spleen  is  4  feet 
nd  width ;   the  sternum  is  long,  compressed  long.    The  heart  resembles  that  of  the  rodents 
kterally,  and  somewhat  prolonged  in  front,  in  having  3  vena)  c^va)  opening  into  the  right 
The  liiabs  being  designed  more  for  strength  and  auricle,  2  above  and  one  below,  and  the  Eusta- 
loGdity  than  speed,  tlioir  bones  arc  thick  and  chian  valve  is  furnished  with  a  rudimentary 
Ivge :'  the  shoulder  blade  is  wide,  its  posterior  superior  division.    The  brain  is  small  in  propor- 
mar]^  much  the  shortest;  and  the  spine,  beside  tion  to  the  size  of  the  animal;  in  one  7i  feet 
the  acroTnial  process,  has  a  broad,  sickle-shaped  high  the  whole  organ  weighed  but  9  lbs.,  and  in 
prominence   extending  downward   and  back-  another  9  feet  high  the  internal  capacity  of  tho 
ward ;  there  is  no  cla\'icle,  as  the  approxima-  cranium  was  only  854  inches,  being  less  than  8 
tion  of  the  limbs  toward  the  centre  of  gravity  times  tho  weight  of  the  human  brain,  and  less 
k  Becessary  to  support  the  weight  of  the  body,  than  4  times  the  capacity  of  the  Cauc4isian  skull ; 
Ike  humerus  is  short  and  massive,  the  ui)per  the  convolutions  are  well  marked,  and  the  cere- 
extremity  hiiving  a  flat  articular  surface  with  helium  is  proportionately  very  large ;  the  6th 
hilje  protuberances  for  the  insertion  of  the  mus-  pair  of  nerves,  which  supply  the  trunk,  are 
dcs  of  the  shoulders,  a  strongly  ridged  shaft,  enormously  developed.    The  trunk  of  Uie  de- 
ad ft  palley-like  lower  surface  for  the  forearm,  phont  is  an  elongated  nose,  but  is  chiefly  an 
admitting  only  of  flexion  and  extension ;  the  organ  of  touch,  though  capable  of  being  used 
•Btcmal  condyle  is  very  extensive  upward,  for  smelling ;  it  forms  a  conical  mass,  4  or  5  feet 
~     radius  and  ulna  are  permanently  pronated,  long,  gradually  tapering  to  the  end,  which  is 
both  enter  into  the  formation  of  tho  elbow  provided  with  a  thumb-like  appendage,  endowed 
wrist  joints ;  the  8  bones  of  the  wrist  are  with  a  most  delicate  sense  of  touch,  and  capa- 
■nnged  in  2  rows,  and  the  5  metacarpals  are  ble  of  picking  up  a  needle ;  it  contains  a  double 
Aort  and  robust,  5  fingers  being  attached  to  tube,  strengthened  by  membranes,  extending 
ftem :  tho  fingers,  however,  are  concealed  by  up  as  far  as  tho  bony  nostrils,  just  before  which 
fte  thick  and  overhanging  skin,  with  the  ex-  they  form  a  sudden  curve;  the  true  nasal  pas- 
■fCionoftheends.    The  pelvic  bones  are  large,  sages  are  provided  with  a  valve  by  which  the 
ti  accommodate  the  powerful  muscles  to  which  cavity  of  the  trunk  may  be  cut  off  from  the  nose, 
ftaj  ^ve  origins ;  the  ilia  are  broad,  rounded  a  provision  rendered  necessary  when  the  animal 
■tcnorly  and  concave  toward  tho  abdomen ;  takes  fluid  into  the  former.    The  great  bulk  of 
Ae  femur  is  simple  in  shape,  comparatively  this  organ  is  mode  up  of  transverse  and  longitu- 
resembling  considerably  that  of  man ;  dinal  muscles  bo  arranged  that  the  trunk  ma']] 
vol/,  vn. — 0 


82  ELEPIIAKT 

be  dongatod,  tbnriened,  ruined,  and  bent  in  anj  The  ii«iia1  hcifrbt  is  from  7  to  10  fi>ct«  that  of 

desired  direction,  with  all  the  )irvi'iMi>n  f>f  tho  tin*  fi'iiiul«."i  Ai'mtt  (irtwoIcM;  i»i>ii'iuu-n4  are  oa 

baman  hand.     ThoU{{h  tho  tnink  h  r:i|ial>Io  uf  rrronl  ntiiMiK'rably  lari;vrthan  thK  !K«iiie  hav* 

perfumiing  the  inii!»t  dolirmte  o|H.Tatiun\  it  i.i  in»r  a  K-npih  nf  15  fvet  and  a  hi'i^ht  nf  over  11. 

alxi  an  orvnn  of  jprvAi  i&tronfrth  and  a  wi^apun  Tito  peril  n1  nf  (ceMatitm  i<«  alHiut  S*i|  ro^mlba; 

of  the  m<»t  funiii'hiMo  character;  with  it  (he  tlic  nfw-horn  aiihnal  i*  3  fvvt  hi^h.  vitb  all 

animal  ti'br^ t}i(  hranrhcs frt)mtn>iM  in  it« ^farch  it-  ?hiim'<  piTfi-ct ;  ciiickin;;  \*  piTfonnf!  hy  iJm 

for  fiM.id,  (x  rf>>n!i«  tho  h«.•avie^t  ta«k4  forhi^  hu-  Mh>:itli.  thi*  tnink  lK.>inf;turiu><l  back,  and  i«  ru»* 

man  own  or  and  defends  hiuiM.'Iffntm  his  Muall-  tliiiu'd  U»r  a  iieriml  uf  nvurlv  2   ji-ar^.     Th» 

er  eDeniiL-»;  with   it  hv   iiitm«luciii  futnl  anil  votin;;  tprow  rnitidly,  iKiug  4  fvi't  hich  in  iIm 

drink  into  Lis  ni'iuUi,  which,  fruiii  the  ^hortni'S^i  t!d  }i-ar,  and  arc  haid  t«i  W  f*iu'k)ed  indiAfrimi- 

of  bia  iici-k,  !if  cannot  brinj;  to  the  £T«)Und  ;  br  nntrly  dy  ajiv  frtiiaK*  in  the  hinl;  tber  aiti^ 

btfpirint*  :hn>n^h  tlie  trunk  he  tills  it  with  waur,  maturity  at  aUnit  tho  ajre  f»f  30  jvws  and  2iT« 

which  ho  d IK* harp.' 4  into  hL«  mouth  i*T  in  re-  cvrtuinly  fi»r  15<*  yoar?*,  and  iirobablj  fi>r  SOQL 

freahing  !*}i'iwor4  uwr  hu  back.     So  imi(«*rUtnt  Tlio  wt-i^ht  of  a  fuD-erown  oivphant  i«  fromS 

la  tbii  or^'an  that  tho  aniiiial's  firit  oi't  when  in  \**  5  ton-;  ono  kopt  in  l^indun  tor  many  yeai^ 

danger  i^  to  raise  it  alnivc  his  hfrnl ;  when  hunt-  botwi-vn  10  aiitl  11  fi'ot  hif;h.  CMn!»iimo<l  «laalj  S 

ing  the  ti|^r  or  other  wihl  animal,  ho  carrii-s  tru^**-^  of  hay  an<l  abuut  2CK)Ilri.  of  cam»t4  aaA 

It  high  in  the  air  ;  any  wo'.md  of  it  bo«.'iu4  to  frr^h  \fp-tAhlrsdrinkinfffr«im  AO  to  N)  galloM 

render  him  holpK-M*  ;  in  ordinary  caacfi  he  rare-  of  wuitT ;  thi*i  tino  >|KrinK'n  co^t,  on  hi«  arriwl 

Ir  luot  it  to  htriko  an  object.     When  cri>i>ing  in  Kn^lami  iu  isir»,  ink)  guinea**;  ho  |>erfoniMd 

deep  rivtTB  tJje  l»Lsly  is  deeply  immersctl,  and  in  iiantoiuime- at  tho  theatre- for  Mveralvran; 

respiration  ran  be  carried  on  with  only  thu  tip  ho  wif«  .-uhjiit  to in-rioiru'al  fits  of  rage,  iiuriv 

oftho  trui.k  abovQ  water.    Tlie  m-u^  of  Muell  i:»  one  of  wliich  it  wa.s  deemed  ni*re*!^ry  to  kifi 

■cute.  thoUp^h  not  resident  in  tlio  trunk  pn»iier,  &i  him.  whieli  wa»  done  by  t!io  diK-hari^'  into  hi* 

la  indicated  by  tlio  extent  of  tho  froiitai   and  IhhIv  of  about  ISO  ritio  balK  an«l  hy  *eTenI 

BiAxlUarr  »iiiU4es  communicating  with  tho  m>!H.';  aevero  !•  word  and  lamv  thni«it!^.     Th(»ngh  tte 

the  f^iht-noidal  »inuM.«  aru  al-«>  of  unu.*ual  di-  eleph:uit  will  hrL-e*!  in  caiilivity,  thi-  ^uitplj  fcr 

mention*.     The  h^'inm  vf  hearing  is  al^o  acute,  doim-tio  and  warlike  pnr|Hi«i>s  niu*t  Ifi*  Kr|it  up 

ai  it  *houM  !ie  ft»r  an  animal  living  in  tltick  liy  h untinir the  wild  an imaU and  retbicing  than 

woods  and  jung1i•^  in  which  vi-ion  can  hardly  to  •n-rtiiudo:  the  favurite  way  in  India  ia  to 

detect  thi' appriiaA*h  of  an  enemy;  tho  ear  cum-  capture  the  wild  by  the  aid  of  tamo  animal^ 

municates  «itli  vxten-iro  U-ny  coll s  and  tho  e-iwrially  female •&;  the -i* display  a«  much  trearJi- 

external  aundo  i*  lar^v  to  ci*IUrt  the  Miunds  ery,  ini:enuiiy,  |ifrM'%t-ranco,  and  ri>uraffe,  M 

and  coiivev  them  to  the  twnpiumm.     Tlie  lyo  ditl  o\erhuman*H.*ductrtiM-omp.nx'*  tlto  d«*<rue- 

U  tmall.  \'M  i«  «ell  prMtected  l>r  thick  litl- and  tinn  of  a  viit'.m.     FMlInuim:  in  thi-  track  ci 

a  liii-t-.t&t:::*;  iiii-inhrane.     The  mu^-uhir  \\ -teiii  the  nmle  wild  animals,  the  wily  f«  male*  m%)T« 

la  of  lUin.i  I  -H*  >rr«n,:ili:  and  the  li^ame!iinm  gradually  ton  aril  tin  ni.  ^Tazin^  uith  '.he  f«m« 

nurliir.  w''i'.i!i  «':p{M>r:4  tlie  heu\y  hea*!.  i^  4>f  coinpLuvney  aiul  iiiiliiren n<'o  a»  if  they  wcrt 

iinc.<i:itiii':i    -.'••and  tirmm  *•-.-- Eleji^iaiit  4   in-  iidiabitantu  of  (lie  f>»re-t ;  while  the  femalr!» 

bahtt  tl.e  !r<;-.>al  fure*'!^  cf  A^ia  anil  Atrir:i,  caj*''iinirama!i*.  the  h:ii:tt  n*  rai:ti>iu«*!y  appn 

li*inj:  ii;  tri-'j-:  thiiu,;h  ortt-n  deMnirti\e  to  and  fasten  hi«<  le^*<  hy  n •{•<"•  ti»  tn  e*.  tl.e  fi 

trots  &;i<l  «•>;••.  .illy  (•*  ea<'i-!..-irMio  plx'.t-,  they  di-tr acting:  tho  at!entii<n  of  the  int«niltnl 

arr  4U;i  t   ii:.l   ::i  Tfeii^ine   uiile«^  at:a«-ke-!   hy  tivo,  and  e\en  a— iMin^'  in  Mndintf  the  rorda; 

man   or  i>::;i  r  o:.:?:::^!^;    t^iiv   prefi^r  ^\iilua-  the  female-^  then  lea^o  him.  m  h«  n  he  ha»  dl^ 

teret!    rt,:-i.«.  ui.ire   a   lar»:e   ht  nl  nuiv  frc-  covered  hi^  ei>iMli:ion.  t«>  ^*'nt  hinuvliu  rag* 

qarnt!\  U- -••:<  ;:-:.i!i(l  hy  n .!!.«•  n]. I  iiin!i\  keip-  ti>  hm  own  e\lKiu-fii*n  ;    further    rtdi:ro!    hf 

ing  in  the  -^,:i'U'  ilurif:/  midiiuy  and  !Led;n»r  at  h'ni«*er  and  tliir-r.  he  will  imniii  aiii>w  himself 

mon..ri/  ari!  i  '.«:t!i:)?.  easily  b!ari!ir>l,  tliev  re<  ti»  U*  letl  !>y  lii-  treat  liiTfUi  r<impanion»  tti  ttA- 

tire  !••  tl.i   v..^M>«  ai  t*..*  appr^aih  i*i'  ni.ip..  V::t  tit>;i4  app«<inteil  f>r  tLo  trainin;*  of  ehphaati^ 

ifp:ir«ue*!  M  .!'.  !<:r:i  ni.d  atTaik  him  ui:}i  !*.e  « !.•  r«'.  at^er  a  f <  w   nn-nthV  ili-t-ipline.   he  b#- 

grea?!-*"   f;r%.     « t-.lv  'J  ^ji,!;,  ,  nre  de*i  riV«  il,  cun  »•<  ijuiie  d»H -.le  aii*l  r\intent«l.     Ihcro  art 

tho  A-.a!.«'    sr  •!    !l.i«   Ainean   e!tp!..i:.!.     llio  \:i:l"ii4  i.ilur  ni'-^Ie"*  lY  taking  elephant*   by 

A*iat:r  I ;.  J  ■■  .r.'    /  V;  h*is  /u  it^':M,  K'u\.\  «  \!«  !:-  fi  male  decjn,   l'\  *tra!;i^im.  and  hy  driiifi^ 

»j\t!»  <!i-:r:'  :••■!  n^i  r  S.  l:.<.\  an*!  t!.e  K,  A-:-  Kl^p!»an!\  l-'th  A*ia?:i-  aiid  Afriian.  frojuectl/ 

atir  i-1ai.  1-.  !.:k«  i.:i  •■•■!••:  ^  h«-a«l.  r.  .::•  a-.  *•  :'  r.  -  l^'ire  in  the  h:-ltrv  ol'thr  warsff  the  Cir««ka 

brad,  ar:*!  *'•   ■  '   «:.«  i  !'  t\i   ;i:'-!'ir«  ]>ri  •<i.:.:..:  a:.d   Ki'ti..*!!.-.     I'.kr.i}-  III.  had  a  *u\x.\  r.^mi^T 

tra;i«Mr4-  .•   !   !.»•.■,•  r.I^*.  •.   thi-i  .ir-»ar«- *::  ail  ot' thi  :ii  in  h'.<  » .ir  a^'i.!.-!   Ahiaitdir;   iN^nw 

rf^ri.por^-i   vi  ".  !'   ■  .•  i-:"    !?  e  A*r.':ui  •'J- «  •>.  of  Iii-lia  hn*  i/ht  a  l;.r,'i- i.uiriU'r  inl«»  the  f^cU 

Tljr  •kn  :•  '. ..'  *  \'.  1  !  ..  L.  vr:t.L!«<l  u}-  ..'.  !*.••  n.T.::.-t  thi*  f:ii:te  r^'n  j..i  ri-r.    N  U  ucu-  had  hua- 

Irf*.   r,i.-k.   ;•.•.;   '  •.  1*".   !:.!■  in  :i.  r  i!  i  -'.   r  i-  a  «!r'  :<>  uf  tin  t:i  in  hi- nrn:y  a!  tiie  i:rva'.  ba:t!ei^ 

bn.»:.;»h  ,t-^   :     \-     \  -  ::..  :.!ti«  <  wirh  I.^-I.'.i  r  lp-:v     r.*rrh::*  *f  Kj'-.n:*.  Ha:;ni^al.  a:i>S  Ad- 

»!■■?■•.   I  ■:.'•»•     :..     :.'-  :.rc  \.M  r  ir* !;  -^  .  :; ;  ;.■»<  !.•!••  the  liriat  Tn^.'-t  witii  vlepha::!*  afa;iist 

ti*«'  ha:r«  ir-  :.  ■*  a'  i   :.,•  !.  ii.  •'   *'  »;r.'l;ir  !  **\  !!.r  K>ir:Mn\  »h<»  lh»  iu-nIm--  nr^^n  matlo  uae  cf 

Otr   litfti!.   r;  I     !.it   *.:.%•'  .'t    t'^<.  !hi'   X..i.''«  if  t!.' *:i  in  l!.i  :ri  ii::ip:i;/ik-.  a:.d  aliHti  \hil':l«^  thcfS 

w}.;rh  are  m<  :\  N  ;  •  :.ii  tho  t  utautvua  iU%^!o|'C.  at  *J«eir  l'Uhl;c  ihow  ^  triuuipha,  and  C\-U.ball  %d 


ELEPHAirr  8S 

▼Sd  animals  in  the  theatres.    In  the  ancient  In-  ish  evergreen,  the  *'  speck  hoom,^'  which  forma 
dhn  empires,  elephants  formed  a  necessary  ap-  very  dense  jungles  in  CafTraria,  utterly  nselesa 
pendage  to  the  royal  retinue ;  they  were  used  on  account  of  its  pithy  hranches  even  for  fuel ; 
for  shov,  for  warlike  purposes,  and  for  carrying  this  is  a  favorite  food  of  elephants,  which  25  years 
hardens.     In  the  East  at  the  present  time  ele-  ago  frequented  this  region  in  large  herds,  whose 
phants  are  employed  for  transporting  haggage,  paths  are  still  discernible  on  the  hillsides,  and 
dragging   artillery  over  difficult  places,  and  whoso  hones  are  seen  bleaching  in  all  directions, 
otherwise  in  connection  with  army  movements,  From  this  selection  of  food  they  are  not  so  in- 
bot  withont  entering  into  the  actual  mancQu-  jurious  to  the  vegetation  of  a  district  as  would 
rres  of  battle;  they  exercise  their  strength  and  be  supposed,  quality  being  more  requisite  than 
^gacxty  in  lifting,  dragging,  and  pushing  with  quantity.    Most  of  the  native  tribes  hunt  them 
tkeir  leather-protected  foreheads.    When  the  more  for  their  flesh  than  their  ivory,  the  latter, 
dephant  gets  under  full  headway,  his  speed  is  until  the  advent  of  Europeans,  being  of  little 
ea^iderable,  and  his  momentum   overcomes  value  to  them  except  for  rings  and  ornaments; 
■&  ordinary  obstacles ;   though  able  to  carry  the  flesh  is  much  relished  as  food,  and  the  in- 
B  izumense  weight  on  a  level  surface,  he  is  li-  temal  fat  is  highly  prized  for  domestic  and 
lUe  to  totter  and  fall  backward  when  forced  medicinal  purposes.    They  hunted  them  with 
■pooosderable  elevations;  a  strong  animal  can  light  javelins  of  their  own  making,  overpow- 
travel  50  miles  a  day,  with  a  burden  weighing  ering  them  by  numbers.    A  few  white  hunters 
iton.    The  anecdotes  illustrating  the  docility,  like  Gordon  Gumming  would  soon  exterminate 
Action,  sagacity,  irritability,  capriciousness,  this  noble  animal.    This  species  is  wilder  and 
ad  revenge^l  spirit  of  the  elephant,  are  in-  fiercer  than  the  Asiatic  elephant,  defending  its 
■merable.  and  may  be  found  in  various  well-  young  with  great  courage,  and  furiously  attack- 
kaown  books  on  natural  history.    The  natural  ing  the  hunter;   though  not  domesticated  in 
aemies  of  the  elephant,  beside  man,  are  the  ti-  modem  times,  it  probably  might  be  as  easily  as 
|cr  and  the  rhinoceros,  and  the  nasal  horn  of  the  other  species,  were  the  same  pdns  taken  to 
the  latter  often  proves  a  more  formidable  weap-  tame  and  train  it ;  it  can  hardly  bo  doubted  that 
on  than  the  trunk  and  tusks  of  the  elephant ;  the  elephants  used  by  the  Carthaginians  in  their 
the  nght  of  even  a  dead  tiger  is  enough  to  ex-  wars  with  the  Romans  were  of  African  origin. 
dte  most  elephants  into  a  transport  of  fury. —  The  length  of  the  male  tusks  is  from  6  to  8  feet, 
The  African  elephant  (^.  ^/r{<^nu«,  Cuv.),  ge-  and  their  weight  from  60  to  100  lbs.  each; 
nns  lifzodonta  (F.  Cuv.),  has  a  more  rounded  Gumming  mentions  a  single  one  in  his  posses- 
head,  a  rather  convex  forehead,  enormously  long  sion  1  Of  feet  long,  and  weighing  173  lbs. ;  the 
cars,  and  cheek  teeth  with  lozenge-shaped  di-  price  which  they  bring  in  the  Eoglbh  market  is 
Tisions  of  the  crown;  the  generic  name  of  F.  from  $120  to  $160  per  112  lbs.  according  to 
Cnvier  was  founded  on  the  last  characteristic,  quality.    Such  is  the  terror  which  these  animals 
It  inhabits  Africa  from  Caffraria  to  the  Niger,  have  acquired  from  the  persecutions  of  man, 
firing  in  similar  localities  and  with  the  same  that  a  child  will  put  a  herd  to  flight ;  they  are 
Banners  as  the  other  species.    The  males  at-  very  difficult  to  hunt,  from  their  hiding  them- 
tun  a  height  of  over  12  feet,  but  decrease  in  selves  in  the  most  remote  and  inaccessible  for- 
ue  north  of  20'  8.  latitude ;  the  tusks,  how-  ests,  going  often  20  miles  by  night  to  water. 
erer.  are  larger,  according  to  Livingstone,  as  "When  at  ease  they  sleep  on  their  sides,  but  when 
yoa  approach  the  equator ;   the  females  are  liable  to  be  disturbed  they  sleep  standing ;  their 
■BsQer  than  the  males.    Under  the  tropics,  ani-  gait,  when  natural,  is  bold,  free,  light,  and  grace- 
nals  as  well  as  men  decrease  in  size,  though  ful.    Gumming  gives  an  interesting  description 
food  there  is  most  abundant ;   such  climates  ("  Hunter's  Life  m  South  Africa,''  vol.  i.,  p.  804) 
nem  unfavorable  to  full  animal  development,  of  the  manner  in  which  the  Bechuanos  cook 
l&e  natives  estimate  the  height  of  this  species  the  feet  and  tnink  of  the  elephant  in  hot  earth 
bxdoabling  the  circumference  of  the  impression  and  sand.    In  his  experience  from  5  to  30  rifle 
■ide  by  t lie  foref[K>t;  this  is  tolerably  accu-  shots  were  necessary  to  kill  an  elephant,  and  the 
ate  for'adolt  animals.    In  the  most  favorable  best  place  to  direct  them  is  just  behind  the 
Imlitxes  the  African  elephant  is  considerably  shoulder ;  it  is  useless  to  aim  at  the  front  of  the 
hvfer  than  the  Asiatic ;  but  toward  the  eqna-  head,  as  the  chances  of  a  ball  penetrating  the 
the  female  African  is  about  as  large  as  tho  brain  from  this  direction  are  very  small.    The 
male.    The  car  of  the  African  species  destruction  of  these  noble  animals  for  the  pur- 
ient  to  distinguish  it,  being  often  more  pose  of  supplying  the  world  with  ivory  must  bo 

5  feet  long  and  4  feet  wide,  3  times  as  immense ;  whenever  the  regions  inhabited  by 

kqps  as  that  of  the  other  species ;  it  descends  them  shall  be  occupied  by  agricultural  tribes,  the 

^OB  the  legs,  and  is  frequently  used  as  a  sledge  animals  must  retire  and  finally  be  exterminated 

ft  the  cape  of  Good  Hope.    From  the  ancient  by  the  inability  to  obtain  sufficient  food ;  when  it 

Mat  it  is  evident  that  this  species  was  known  is  remembered  what  a  quantity  of  vegetable  food 

^the  old  naturalists,  and  it  has  been  justly  herds  of  elephants  require,  it  must  be  evident. 

"-**  that  Aristotle  knew  it  better  than  did  Buf-  that  man  and  such  large  herbivora  cannot  coexist 

It  seems  to  be  a  dainty  feeder,  selecting  the  in  tho  same  districts. — Many  species  of  fossil 

HtsX,  fruits  and  vegetable  matters  contain-  elephants  are  described  from  tho  drift  of  Exviop^ 

kg  logar,  macilage,  and  gum ;  there  is  a  dwarf-  and  Asia;  tho  best  known  of  these,  the  £.  prv 


S4                    ILXPHANTA  ELEpnANTIASIB 

mifffniui  (Car.),  will  bo  tn^ateJ  in  tho  articio  Siva,  who  alw  holds  in  his  han«l  a  c»bni  d«  e»- 

lUMMttTii,  which  \*  the  coninioii  name ;  their  |K'11o.    Sevvrol  other  fipirefl  of  Sim,  ime  i/  Um 

remaiDJi  liive  livon  abundantly  found  inSiU^ria,  4-fiired  liraliiua,  anil  one  of  the  double  dintj, 

and  ftMil  ivory  from  this  H<>un*e  haii  been  lui  half  nifde,  half  female,  called  Vir^.  fonncd  bj 

important  oljwt  of  trade.    The  fo^il  elephaitta  the  union  of  Sivm  witli  I'arrati,  are  ako  to  \m 

of  Europe  rt-M'nible  mi>st  the  A'*iatie  f(|)eiMvsi,  itei>n.    There  are  2  smaller  excaTationn  on  tbs 

bat  Xhey  were  more  bulky,  with  lar^rer  tu!ik^  £.  and  W.  slnpcii  of  tho  hill,  similar  to  the  0«al 

narrower  teeth,  and  with  the  skin  covered  with  temple,  and  lille«l  with  repri-^ntations  of  Uiih 

hair  and  wool  to  enable  them  to  dwell  in  cli-  doo  deitici*.     But  what  U  most  remarkable  ii^ 

mates  colder  than  any  in  whicli  the?«  aniinids  that  althou^^h  most  of  tho  aubjecta  cif  fhiw 

are  now  found,  though  not  in  a  climate  so  ri^'or-  licuIptun'S  aro  evitlvntly  Hrahminicai,  and  tim 

ona  as  that  of  Siberia  at  the  present  time,  wliich  tfrnph*!!  wvro  pn>liably  dedicated  to  Sira.  tbfffv 

would  l»o  unable  to  funiLth  tho  necessary  w^e-  is  at  K-A'M  one  figure  which  api^eam  to  be  thai 

table  fo«id.     Foeidl  bpe4*ivs  re^'uibiin^  the  Afri-  of  Kuddha.     Xo  record  cif  the  origin  of  thm 

can,  and  others  with  mastodon-like  tei*th,  have  shrines  can  bo  found.    The  general  opinioD  d 

been  found  in  the  Himalaya  mountains  bv  Caut-  Europeans  who  have  examined  them   is  thai 

ky  and  Falci*ner.     The  fossil  eleiihant  ot  Ni>rth  tliey   date   fn>iu   a  iK^riod   suli»equent   to  tte 

America  is  said  by  I'ruf.  11.  li.  ibU^ferH  (**  i^ro-  birth  of  Christ,  |)erhaps  as  lat«  as  tho  Mi  «r 

ceeding!!  of  the  I^^tton  SN*iety  of  Natural  llii-  10th  century. 

tory,"  Vi>l.  v.,  \K  iZ)  to  oi-eur  ul»ove  the  drift,  in  £LEriIANTIASI8.     Under    this    coniWM 

the  superficial  defMriiits  i>f  a  distinctly  later  a^ ;  name  two  entirely  dilVerent  dt<teases  are  cumpi^- 

it  must,  llierefore,  have  been  contem|N>niry  with  bended :  t\  .IimAuwi,  elephant  Kg,  or  Rarbadoi 

the  ftMsfvJon  ffigauUuM  ;   indeed   their  bones  leg;  and  A*.  ^fViPcorii/n,  eleiihant  »k in, or  tubcffm- 

and  teeth  hare  been  found  side  by  side  in  the  )ar  elephantiasis.   \.  El€j'\tMnti*uUArabumyiiw§ 

marsliy  alluvium  of  liig  lione  Lii-k,  and  the  two  deH'ribed  by  HliAzes  in  tlie  Vth  century ;  it  pff9- 

animals  must  have  been  ex tenniuaie<lt««ether;  vails    extensively    in    IhirbudiH,   wh^ce    tk» 

from  this  one  of  two  conclusion;*  mu-^t  be  do-  name   Barbados  leg;  it  is  K*minon  in  IkciD»> 

rived  :   either  the  drilVs  are  not  of  tho  samo  rara,  Cayenne,  and  Brazil,  in  the  S.  W.  part 

MKK'lia,  or  eUethufonsil  elephants  of  the  two  re-  of  tho  island  of  Ceylon,  and  on  the  Malabv 

gions  niuiit  be  dilVerent  »|»et:ics,  coa^t  in  India ;  it  i^  S4»metimes  found  in  Ci 

EI.EPI1ANTA,  or  (iakai-oui,  a  small  island  and  tho  Anurias  in  (Spain,  and  rKxasiooal 


of  Brittrh  India,  on  the  E.  side  of  iiombay  bar-  rmlic  cans  are  met  with  throughout  Europe 

bor.  aU>ut  h  m.  from  tlie  mainland ;  hit.  Itt  57'  Amerir:L     Notwithstanding  it.^  name,  tL«  <li^ 

N.,  long.  7:r  E.;  circumference  aUmt  5  m.    It  e&M^  is  not  contine<l  to  the  log,  but  may  attack 

Cou»i«t.o  iif  2  hills  with  a  valley  betwivn  them,  alnn'st   any  |iart  of  the  bmly.     The  attAcIt  il 

much  overgrown  witli  wikmI,   but  diversified  u»hereil  in  l>v  markeil  rlpir,  heada*  ho.  i>aia  ia 

with*fi«ime  rici*  !ield:<  and  p:ir>ture!«.     The  inhal>-  the  bai*k  and  linil*^,  followed  by  hint  of  the sii^ 

itauts  aU>ut  I'N)  in  numU'r.  are  envugetl  in  alternatiii;;  with  pn>fu!<o  i>er>pirati<  n,  and  a^ 

ivariug  sheep  and  |>iiultry  for  the  liombuy  mar-  tmdeil  with  liiirnmg  thirst ;  at  the  saniv  lima 

kft.     The  usual  landing  phwv  is  on  theS.  coant,  S4»n:e  part  of  tin*  IkmIv  U'conu-s  rci!  and  swol« 

about  2^141  y.irds  from  which,  rudely  cut  from  K-n.  hut  and  p.iinful.  part  imlarly  along  the  tract 

an  LHihitedblack  riN-k,  wantheli^ure  of  an  do-  of  tho  lynipliatic  ve-ir<'N.     In  a  few  days  tba 

phant,  IH  f(H>t  long,  now  rdlen  to  di*rav,  from  svnipt«im^  Uitii  gineral  and  IiK*aI.  ftuboide,  witk 

which  the  Euro] •eaii  name  for  the  iilantl  in  de-  tlie  exi-eption   that  the  atKvted  part  reinaiaa 

rived.    Eurtherinlatid,aUjut  half  way  nn  the  N.  m-Te   or   le'»4  swollen.     At  irregiiUr  intrrrali 

aide  of  a  liill.  is  a  remarkable  eave  temple  of  un-  hin.ilar  paroxyMiu  rei'ur.  the  alfcctc^l  part  bciaf 

kotiwn  ant iiiuity,  which  ha-*  liint;  U't'n  di-srrt 111  each   time  Kft  more  ^ui>Ilen   and  imlurated; 

by  iu  priests,  ai.d  i^  now  frei^ueiitttl  lUily  by  a^  the  eiilargi-nu-nt  in(-n'.\se\  the  skin  often  b^ 

marriiJ  wnmen  pra>  ing  for  fe*niiidiiy.    The  *p:i-  comes  niugli,  covered  with  scale*,  and  fismvd. 

fiions  entraniv,  (>»  ftt-t  niile  and  1*^  feet  hich,  is  Thedi<*oase  i»  usually  contmed  U^  i-no  |kart  uf  tba 

aopl>ort^<<I  bv  2  nia<»Mve  pilhirs  and  *.*  pilasten,  bo<ly.  thuut:h<-*<'«'aj»ii>nid]y  lioth  leg^  areafft<ta^ 

beiDg  thu<*  liivided  into  3  pasMtfe  ways.     The  The  alfecteil  parts  nf^iii  at  tain  an  eiionx)i»ussijiL 

Interior  breadtli  of  the  cavorn  is  123  fe^t,  and  The  cau«e^  nf  HaHiadi*^  leg  an-  ii'>t  under*tnod; 

Ita  length,  pre-<'nting  a  s«'rmirifcrly  ei.dleM  vista  it*  i^vurrenre  in  partii-nlar  di-tri.-L*  slums  thai 

of  hug%»  «'«'ilamn*  eut  fri»m  the  livirj:  nn-k,  si'mo  b»ral  cauM*4  ha\e  •«»Tn«-:hing  to  do  « ith  iu  pt^ 

of  them  Ir'kt-n  bv  the  P«'rt«»:uei.e.  who  formerly  ductiun.     In  tin*  Wi-t  Indies  the  mgn^A  aaA 

aawcsfcd  the  '\Atdv\,   ii  aUiUt   L»o  fivt.     Tlio  in  Ceyl«»n   tl.e  nnliw  rnfe,  are  alTn  ttd  t&Q^ 


fOoTi^genirally  lUl.  though  n-'i  ft  I  HTf«Tt  plane,     moro  ireipii  iiily  than  the  whitt-i;  and  of  tba 
The  side*  are  e'xravuiid  \i\\**  ri"Mipartmrnt».  a!l     whitri,  the  m^'liA  tht*^*  \^^^TZ\  in  the  c«>outry. 


^  m*-  uther  sunbols  a  human  skull     eK!.i!>ition  of  mrrcnry.     Wht-n  t^e  d.K^a*o  );^a 

aftt  repraacutvd  on  that  of   already  mada  cunsidcrabla  |»ru|p^H|  rust  ia  a 


ELEPHANTIN2  ELEUTHEBA                   85 

positioQ  which  favors  the  rctarn  of  the  blood  fertile  soil.    It  contains  several  ancient  mins; 
from  the  limb,  and  compression  by  means  of  among  others,  the  Nilometer  mentioned   by 
proper  bandying,  are  the  means  most  to  be  re-  Strabo,  whoso  npper  part  was  destroyed  in 
bed  upon.    II.  Bltphantiasis  Grrceearum,  tnber-  1822,  several  dilapidated  temples,  and  a  gate- 
nlar  elephantiasis,  appears  to  have  been  the  way,  as  well  as  numerous  fragments  of  pottery 
fisease  which    daring   the  middle  ages   was  with  Greek  inscriptions.    In  antiquity  Elephan- 
known  as  leprosy;  it  is  most  frequently  met  tin6  or  Elephantis  was  renowned  for  its  (prtility. 
with  in  the  West  India  islands,  and  in  other  Herodotus  regards  it  as  forming  the  boundary 
tzopkal  regions,  while  it  also  prevails  exten-  between  Egypt  and  Ethiopia;    but  afterward 
BTttv  in  certain  parts  of  Norway,  where  it  is  Phyle  was  regarded  as  the  southern  landmark 
known  as  fpedaUhed,    The  disease  ordinarily  of  Egypt    Elephantin6  was  strongly  garrison- 
eommeDces  by  the  appearance  of  dusky  shining  ed  by  the  Persians  as  well  as  Romans  for  the 
qmCs  upon  the  skin,  slightly  swollen,  and  more  defence  of  this  province. 
or  less  insensible.    After  a  variable  period,  ELEUSIS,  in  modern  times  Lessina  or  Lep- 
wlddi  may  extend  to  months,  and  even  years,  sina,  a  fortified  town  in  Attica,  on  the  bay  of 
these  spots  are  succeeded  by  tubercles  or  small  Salajnis.    According  to  ancient  mythology,  it 
tnmon,  sof^  reddish,  or  livid  in  color,  and  was  founded  bv  Eleusis,  a  son  of  Hermes.    At 
tirying  in  size  from  a  pea  to  an  English  walnut,  an  early  period  it  was  conquered  by  the  Athe* 
These  tubercles  developed  upon  the  face  deform  nians  and  became  one  of  the  most  populous 
k  excessively,  giving  it  often  a  fancied  resem-  cities  of  Attica.    Its  principal  importance  was 
Ibnoe  to  the  head  of  the  lion,  whence  one  of  the  derived  from  its  being  the  seat  of  the  cele- 
Bimes  by  which  the  disease  is  known  (/'e{?7i^uMi«)  brated  Eleusinian  mysteries.    These  mysteries 
k  dnived.     As  the  disease  advances,  the  tuber-  formed  a  peculiar  religious  festival  celebrated 
dm  become  inflamed  and  ulcerated ;  the  ulcers  in  honor  of  the  goddess  Demeter  or  Ceres,  the 
ende  a  sanions  fluid,  and  this  concretes  into  patroness  of  agriculture,  and  the  representative 
tiu^  crusts;  the  bones  become  softened  and  of  the  procreative  power  of  nature.    Originally 
■kered  in  form.    In  the  progress  of  the  disease  these  celebrations  appear  to  have  been  some- 
tike  gastro-intestinal  mucous  membrane  becomes  thing  like  modern  thanl^sgiving  festivals,  but 
nvdved,  and  tubercles  make  their  appearance  afterward  a  symbolic  meaning  was  attached  to 
in  the  pharynx ;  the  sense  of  smell  is  lost,  sight  them,  and  they  became  the  vehicle  of  a  secret 
k  weakened,  and  the  touch  blunted.    In  this  science,  conducive,  as  was  believed,  to  eter^ 
▼retched  condition  the  patient  may  continue  to  nal  bliss.    They  consisted  in  dramatic  repre- 
erist  a  long  time,  unless  cut  off,  as  is  commonly  scntations  of  the  myth  of  Ceres  and  the  rape  of 
the  case,  by  some  intercurrent  disease.  In  a  sec-  Proserpine,  hor  daughter,  by  Pluto,  and  would 
end  form  of  the  disease,  E.  aneesth^tica^  patches  seem  to  have  been  intended  to  propagate  the 
of  ta  irregular  shape,  sometimes  slightly  elevated  belief  in  the  immortality  of  the  soul,  and  to 
i2x>Te  the  surface,  appear  upon  the  extremities,  give  an  ideal  moaning  to  the  coarse  fancies  of 
of  a  tawny  color ;  in  whites  they  are  lighter  the  popular  religion.      The  great  Eleusinian 
thsa  the  rest  of  the  surface ;  in  the  negro  they  mysteries  were  celebrated  at  Athens  and  Eleu- 
me  dry,  shining,  rough,  denuded  of  hair,  and  sis  in  the  latter  half  of  September  and  the 
faBeosible.     The  hands  and  feet,  and  then  the  1st  of  October;  they  lasted  9  days;  the  lesser 
flxtremitie^s    generally  become    swollen,  stifl^  took  place  at  Agraj  on  the  Ilissus  during  the 
tnd  nninb ;  ulcers  form  on  the  metacarpal  and  spring.  Except  to  murderers,  barbarians,  slaves, 
ttetstaraal  articulations;   these  enlarge,  pene-  and  afterward  Epicureans  and  Christians,  the 
tnte  tiie  joiiit,  and  finally  amputate  the  toes  admission  to  the  public  performances  and  re- 
nd fingers.   As  the  disease  advances,  the  pulse  ligious  exercises  was  free  for  all ;  but  in  the 
i€3  slow  and  the  bowels  constipated ;  some-  secret  allegorical  representations  none  but  the 
it  in  complicated  Avith  the  tubercles  of  the  initiated  were  permitted  to  participate,  and  they 
variety ;  in  other  cases  the  lobes  of  the  were  bound  by  solemn  oaths  never  to  reveal 
the  wings  of  the  nose,  and  the  lips,  bo-  what  they  had  seen  or  heard.    The  unity  of 
i  thick,  hard,  swollen,  and  ulcerated.     The  God  and  the  immortality  of  the  soul  are  supposed 
pBitient   U  listless,  and  his  intellect  enfeebled,  tohavo  been  the  secret  doctrine  of  the  mysteries. 
nd  in  this  condition  he  may  live  many  years.  In  1858  a  Greek  schoolmaster,  named  Vlastos, 
~     caases  of  tubercular  elephantiasis  are  un-  discovered  at  the  village  of  Hagi-Constantioa 
n ;  it  appears  to  bo  hereditary ;  but  the  an  inscription  upon  an  old  marble  slab,  con- 
prevalent  opinion  of  its  contagiousness  is  taining  rules  and  regulations  for  the  celebration 
BDt  foond  to  agree  with  recent  observations,  of  the  Eleusinian  mysteries,  but  nothing  was 
Of  its  proper  treatment  little  is  known,  and  learned  from  them  about  their  allegorical  mean- 
itai  cmce  fally  developed  it  has  hitherto  seem-  ing. — See  Uwaroff,  Essai  sur  les  mysteret  d'Eleu- 
ii  incanible.  »w  (3d  ed.,  Paris,  1816),  and  Preller,  Demtt^r 

KLEPHAl^TINfi,  or   ELSPnANrnrA  (Arab,  und  Persephone  (Hamburg,  1837). 

imBer€t'tl-Sag,  "islet  of  flowers,"  or  Jeziret-  ELEU  TIIER  A,  or  Alabaster  IsLA^^),  one  of 

^Jjfvan),  an  island  of  the  upper  Nile,  about  the  largest  of  the  Bahamas,  and  the  principal 

1  mile  long  and  \  m.  broad,  at  tho  foot  of  the  fruit-growing  island  of  the  group,  in  lat.  24** 

Ue  cataracts,   opposite  ^Vsswan,  tho  ancient  38'  N.,long.  76^  9'  W. ;  area  about  100  sq.  m.; 

•            It  is  formed  of  granite  covered  with  a  pop.  in  1851, 3,400.  It  is  of  irregular  shape,  long 


ELEUTUERIA  ELGIX  axd  KINCARDINE 

nd  narrow.    Tlie  9o\\  U  fertile  and  the  climato  was  a  bi:'h«>|i%  !ioo ;  it^  cat!ii*<Iral  was  fijun«!«d  la 

•grwablo.    Tlie  rljicf  M.'ttlciiiviiti«  am  at  Guv-  12*24,  and  wa4  ImriicU  in  Juno,  139i.i,  l*j  Alciaa* 

«nior*H  njirU>r,  Om  Co%'i*,  Wreck  Sound,  and  dvr  Scuart,  couiinonly  railed  the  wulf  of  Hadt 

the  CumrnL.  mn-h.     lU^hop  Barr  ^fon  ailcr  crcctvd  in  iu 

ELErTIlEKIA     ((ir.    fXfv^f^Mo,    froc^lunOt  Mead  a trrui-ii'onu  church  with  3  tow c-r».     Abool 

ununt;  tho  aiiriwit  (irvckft,  a  fcatival  couimvni-  tho  voar   ITitiS  the  privj  council  ordcrvJ  lb# 

orativo  <if   dflivoranro    fn>m    tho  urniiiit  of  load  to  l>o  htrittiiod  from  tlie  rituf  and  aoid  to 

XerxiA.*    It  yk-tki  in.-titutitl  altvr  tho  l*uitlo  of  luuiutain  the  Miidivnt  of  the  n*gvut  Murray.   Th« 

P]ata«a  (47'J  li.  C),  and  colohraied  annually  at  uoMv  utruttnrc  hat  uvi-rvlnce  been  falling  pic«^ 

that  pLtfv  iu  tho  month  MainiacU.rion.  nc^ly  nual  to  dcs^tructiou.    The  grval  ccutraTlowv 

eorre«|Hiiidiu^  t4i  ciur  Strpivnihvr.    At  tho  duwn  and  ^ftiro,  I'js  iwi  hifcli,  fell  in  1711.    Tho 

of  day  a  |inM-f:«Hi(»n  marohtd  throU);h  tho  tuwii,  chant vr  huu»o.  a  U*autiful  )iiece  of  architcctiii% 

ni  tito  head  of  whii'h  truni|icti'r»  tlvw  tho  ^'ifi-  in  tliv  hhu|ie  of  an  iM'iuf^on,  with  agroiited  rtM^ 

Bal  for  battle.    At  midday  a  cliariot  wa!i  drivt-n  aui'|>orti*d  by  n  hund9ome  nilunin  iu  th«  ccntrO| 

towartl  the  altar  cri»wucd  with  ui}rt]v  and  va-  and  olaUirutoly  urnaiuontcd,  b  i>till  entire.     Aft 

lions   fpirland*s  and  leading  behind  it  a  black  laio  ad  the  U*i,'inning  of  tlie  lUth  century  Elpa 

bnll.     Iu  front  of  the  altar  the  arohfMi  of  I'lata'a  lioro  much  i>f  tho  antii{uated  look  of  an  old  co* 

immolati'«l  tho  bull  tu  JupitiT  u::il  Mercury,  cle!>iu^lical  town,  but  it  in  now  peatly  ckanc«d» 

culii^'i/t^l  till*  )uTot-A  who  had  fallen  ut  I'lata:!,  New  hoUM.-!i  aitd  ^trooti  have  taken  tho  |iUc«if 

and  ftpriiikled  thv  ground  Willi  wine.     Krery  the  old  ;  asskinbly  rooms  have  Ui-n  fitted  op; 

5Ui  year  the^*  MiUiunities  were  atti*nded  by  a  neat  moilern  church  has  U-en  built;  and  too 

eonto»:%  •  !ia{'leL«  lK.*ing  the  reward  of  the  \  ictorii.  streets  are  well  ^we)lt,  drained,  and  lighted  vilh 

ElAilN.  a  t*iiy  of  Kauo  to.,  IIU  on  l>oth  banks  gas.    Gray's  Inippital  or  infirmary,  an  inatitniMa 

c#  Fox  river.  42  m.  N.  W.  from  Chicago;  iMip.  emlowed  with  i'20,OiM),  occupios  an  elevataA 

in  lSo<),  *.*,:i.'i9;  in  18oh,  about  4,0mo.     ItLta  bite  in  the  we-ttern  part  of  the  city.    Anoq>bao 

pro»|ierou!i  t ratling  place,  U-ing  situated  at  tho  aj^ylum  horv  was  endowed  with  £70,000,    lo 

junction  of  the  I: ox  river  v alloy  and  tho  Galena  connection  with  UantF,  CuUen,  liiverary,  KiiH 

and  Chica^  unit  in  railn>ud<*.     It  has  2  wevkir  tore,  and  IVterhead,  Ugiu  rvturni  oue  mcmbv 

Bew»f>a|ivr  ulTu'eis  a  bunk,  3  hotvK  a  gri!*t  mill,  to  lliu  hoUM*  of  rommons. 
adi»tillrry,  a  carriage  fartory,  2  man ufoi  tori es        KLiilN  ANnKlNTAIlUINE,  Tuomas  RBrc% 

of  agricMltural  impleinenu,  and  M'Veral  schools  7t!i  I'arl  nf.  «  Itriti^li  nobleman,  burn  July  SflL 

and  ai*a*!i*inie<i.     It  vasseliled  in  1^*:*^.  17i'*'i,  dietl  in  Sari's  N«*v.  14,  1^4l.    He  mam 

ELGIN,  a  S.  \\.  ixiunty  of  I'auada  West,  on  »«iiiie  time  at  t!ie  uhi\erMty  of  St.  AiMir««*|^ 

tbe  N.  shore  of  Like  Erii*.  tra\erM-tl  by  Otter  stu«lieil  law  in  TurU,  and  ha\iii;;  pur^ui-d  mil^ 

cnx'k,  and  Uirdered  by  theTliamt"4  ri^er;  area,  tary  •^tiidu'i  in  (irrinriiiy.  iMered  the  anny  aod 

about  7i"»  ^\.  m. ;  |iop.  iu  Ki2,  l!\41'«.  piM.*  t«i  the  r.iuk  i>f  if^iuru].    11  i^  time,  Ikiwctct, 

EI.4i IN.  formerly  MtiiiAi.  a  muritimu  co.  in  w:iA  ih'MU  pu'-^d  in  ili|'l«in:atir  enipltivmeai^ 

the  N.  of  S«'iit]and,  U»-.iii'Uil  N.  1>\  Moray  frith,  .\tii  r  huMri,;  Uku  iittru-tid  with  mi^Mons  to 

titrndifi^'  40  m.  frfia  N.  to  >..  an>I  h.i\in^  a  liru-MlH  iiml    Uerliii.  in    17 'J'.*  ho  wai*  Mht  aa 

brt'a«Uli  t'f  lV«>ni  h  !•»  'Ji  ni.;  aria.  ^4ii  •».}.  m. ;  en\«>y  eYtr;wrdiii:ir>   t^  C'«>ii.<*tai.tI[ii>]'Ie,  whco 

pop.    i!i   l^M,  liW5'J.     It   l.ai  a  ei>a-»:  Iiitc  (>f  tin- i^h'a  «H-«-urtitl  t<i  him  cf  reo'-uin.:  Irxm  tiOM 

aliont  It^i  M^  on  wbirh  are  u  few  Miiall  harSur^.  and  t!io  Turk-  und  reiiii>\iii.:  (••  Liu'WumI  tho 

H'ith  the  e\i«*piiiin  tif  »inu*  bruLen  m.i«M*^  «»f  celi-lirute*!  H--ii!i<li;rf'«  uliit.S  are  (.••w    in   tha 

rvK'k.  the  surf;ii'e  in  thi^  «{'aarter  i^  n«.ur!y  U-vel,  lirilt^h  naiM-ijin.  ui.d  bejkr  l.io  liunu'.   I  in  his  ^9f 

but ir.land  it ri^«iut'iiiill«.  in(vr»iH*rs<-«l  aillifir-  h'>:iii-  he  pa— >«tl  intn  I'ruiire.  whiri.  Na}^*WuO 

tiit>  vallev\  and  diver.^ifii  tl  by  luke^.    The  Si>ey,  del.i:iird  l.:!ii  u<»  a  li«<«t:i;;e  mi  the  riiptun*  of  tha 

Lonnie, and  I'mdhoni,  the  tir»t  aiid  Ia.«t  of  w Liih  |>\-ai  i-  «*f  .Vniiei.o.    lie  u a-  r«  Wn^ d  \u  1n*«*i, 

contain -AlnioT  I,  are  the  c-liief  ri\er«.      Matu  aiid  paoM.-d   the   ri^t   ft   hi-*   hfe  Hithf.il   pi.hlkC 

frcc«t«ine  are  the  oi.iy  VAluable  niMKT.d'*.     Tho  pli'Viiieiit.    Ho  u  a*  a. ^uti  h  rrj  ri 'H.i.:a:i\«>  |i« 

duuale  i«  MiiUI  and  dry  ;  the  ^*i\  of  the  hi«  lands  fi»r  .Vt  vvaT'*.     Iu  l^l•'  I.«'rd  l.'.^iU  pul>;i>h«^ 

Is  general!  V  ft-r  tile,  sihI  the  hili«f:irni-h  puftlurnce  dt  I'l-nee  of  l/.t  «<»liili:it  a  4ttt    \iii;iiie.  eutitltd 

ftir  blaik  iVmI  nheep.  rattle,  and  lii<r«i:*.     Tiio  **  Menioraii«luiii  mi  tiie  >iilj«  •  t  •<:'  tli«  (larl  of 

Staple  proline  tilt!  I  i*  wheat,  but  oat«.  |K>:Attv<(,  Kljin't   rur-riiTH    in    liretre."-  Jwb*    Hat't'^ 

ana  t'trnip«  ari<  nl«o  ^"n^wn  e\tt-:ioi«el\.     I.i-ki  hth  <  arl,  nui  nf  the  pri-***!}!!:;:.  a  Itr.'.i^h  »tatci^ 

than  )  of  t!iv  laiid  i.-*  culti^ate^l.  and  t.'ji  re  aru  maii.   l>«.rii  .luh    *J'>.   1**11.     H.'*  »ti;d:««  «cra 

■tdl  Iar,^*    uneiM  IifM'J   tra«-t*.     0<rn,  w!.>k<-r,  )i  ^"in  u*.  Kti':i.  m.il  « •'!tipl(t««!  u*.  ni:i«trhujT^ 

fish,  antt  timUr  ari- tlie  luiM*  itiiiHirtAtit  I  \|i«'rt.<«.  <>il><rd.  uhci    l.v  wa«  t;rai:ua%d  *:.  l^^'f.     Bo 

The  nMuity  I*  t.^avi  r«t.Hi  ly  »  nuniU  r  i>f  «:i"»<l  «ai   aitvrw^knl   iIkNiI  ii'..i'\\   it  M«rti'n  «v4- 

rooi<s  but  ha* fi«»r Altai*  and  nil  rai*. WAV*.    1  h:i  f  lt;;e.     He  i>>ii:iiit  in-id  \.v,)-\.t  l.lt  at  fiif  i/ tho 

town*.  K!|fin,  Korre*,  K««huU*r>s  and  ll'jrirJn-:^!.  nn  •!.*■*  r#  «'f  |.vl.amtii;    :-r    >•  s.tiiarnpti'O   Ul 

— EiuiN.  a  riyal  pafIiAiiirn!.irv  anil  n.Miu  .}  .il  l***!,  but.  »  re  tin-  wnr  wa*  n.:,  ••.ic%»^»^  tO 


buiyh  aiid  ritT.  t-a|<it.il  of  the  idmvi*  rt«i:nty.  mi  tin-  I:!li-  &:■•!  i  •••ale^  «<!'  hi*  l.i!!.*  r.      Iu  the 

tha  S.   bank  lif  the  l^»i«ie  ;  |H»p.  uf  niUMr.pal  rte«!!ii;:  \i  nr  !«t   w  :ki  a*>|««>M.ii  d  i;>>w  r:i<>r  uf  Ja* 

barfb  in  I'd.  •.H;.7.     It  i*  nurpa!***-*!   h\  f»w  n::i.- ;i.  nn«l  wa-.  pn.in.r.d  in  l-J*'  l"  tl.»  m*yrm 

citiM  i4  ?voilAiid  m  liir  number  aiid  in!ire*t  rvjn. :;*:!.!,•  a'ld  1 1-  rii!ive  p.-:  I  l"ir»»M  ri..  r  cvo* 

aC  iti  ancknt  moouiiKUia.    In  foruKr  times  it  croi  of  C-inada.    I  bd^?  Li*  admixiuiralAwi.  Cao- 


ELGm  MARBLES  ELI                           87 

idA  pused  from  the  ferment  of  recent  insnrrec-  mnns  of  the  Parthenon  and  Erechthenm ;  beside 

tMRi  into  a  state  of  tranqniUitj.    Through  his  numerous  inscriptions,  including  that  commcm* 

cneffj'  and  diplomatic  skill  the  negotiation  of  orating  the  Athenians  who  fell  at  Potidioa ; 

tiie  reciprocity  treaty  with  the  United  States  urns,  &c.,  taken  from  various  parts  of  Athena 

was  brought  to  a  successful  conclusion  in  1854,  and  its  neighborhood.    The  first  instalment  of 

ifter  which  he  resigned  the  office  of  governor  of  those  treasures  of  antiquity  arrived  in  England 

Canada,  returned  to  England,  and  received  the  in  1808,  and  excited  a  feeling  of  admiration  and 

appointment  of  lord  lieutenant  of  Fifeshiro.  delight,  not  unmingled,  however,  with  indigna- 

Ib  the  spring  of  1857  he  was  appointed  minis-  tion  at  what  was  considered  the  Vandalism  of 

ter  plenipotentiary  to  Pekin,  immeiliately  pro-  Lord  Elgin  in  removing  them  from  their  origi- 

eeeded  to  the  East,  was  present  at  the  tak-  nal  resting  place,  or  with  doubts  as  to  their 

ing  of  Canton,  and,   in  conjunction  with  the  artistic  value.    It  was  said  that  ho  hod  spent 

mnch,  socceeded  by  vigorous  measures  in  re-  much  time  and  money  in  procuring  indifferent 

daring  the  Chinese  to  terms.    After  signing  a  Roman  marbles  of  the  time  of  Hadrian,  and  the 

treaty  with  the  Chinese  commissioners  at  Tien-  project  of  purchasing  them  for  the  nation  waa 

tBD.  Joly  26, 1858,  the  conditions  oC  which  were  strongly  opposed,    l^rd  Byron  is  said  to  have 

highly  favorable  to  the  British,  he  sailed  for  carried  his  feeling  on  the  subject  of  tlio  alleged 

Japan,  boldly  entered  the  harbor  of  Jeddo,  depredations  of  Lord  Elgin  to  such  an  extent^ 

from  which  foreigners  had  always  been  rigidly  that  on  a  visit  to  the  Parthenon  he  inscribed 

exdnded,  obtained  important  commercial  priv-  in  a  conspicuous  place :  Quod  non  fecerunt 

flegies  for  his  countrymen,  concluded  a  treaty  Goihi,  hoc  fecerunt  Seoti.    Among  those  who 

with  the  Japanese,  Aug.  26,  and  in  May,  1859,  urged  upon  government  the  purchase  of  the 

retonied  to  England.     Lord  Elgin  has  been  marbles  was  the  painter  Haydon,  whoso  style 

twiee  married,  his  second  wife  being  the  daugh-  received  its  direction  fh)m  the  contemplation 

ter  of  the  earl  of  Durham,  former  governor-  of  them,  and  to  whose  earnest  pleas  with 

general  of  Canada.  men  in  power  was  partly  attributed  the  o£fer 

ELGIN  MARBLES,  a  collection  of  ancient  of  £30,000  for  the  entire  collection,  made  by 

trdptores.  chiefly  taken  from  the  Parthenon  at  Mr.  Perceval,  the  premier,   in  1811,  whicfau 

Athena,  now  deposited  in  the  British  museum,  however,  was  refused.    In  1812,  80  additional 

They  derive  their  name  from  the  earl  of  Elgin,  cases  arrived  in  England^  a  number  of  valuable 

wha  while  British  ambassador  at  Constantino-  marbles  having  prcviou^y  suffered  shipwreck, 

pie  in  1799-1802,  procured  the  permission  of  and  in  1815  Lord  Elgin  offered  to  make  over 

(he  Porte  to  take  away  from  the  ruins  of  an-  the  collection  to  the  nation  for  a  reasonable 

cieat  Athens  "*•  any  stones  that  might  appear  sum.    In  the  succeeding  year  the  purchase  was 

interesting  to  him,"     With  the  aid  of  a  corps  effected  fur  £85,000,  the  actual  outlay  having 

of  artists  from  Italy,  and  at  his  own  expense  exceeded  £50,000.     The  services  of  Lord  Elgin 

(the  Briti«li  government  having  declined  to  fur-  in  bringing  within  the  reach  of  artists,  as  well  as 

ther  the  undertaking),  he  succeeded  in  the  course  in  preserving  from  the  ravages  of  time,  these 

of  10  years  in  detaching  from  the  Parthenon,  masterpieces  of  anticjuity,  are  now  fully  appro- 

or  in  excavating  from  the  rubbish  at  its  hose,  ciated ;  subsequent  events  having  shown  that, 

abundant  specimens  of  the  various  descriptions  had  ho  not  removed  them,  the  greater  part 

of  sculptures  with  which  it  was  ornamented,  would  have  been  long  since  destroy eil.     In  the 

These  consisted  of  3  kinds :  the  colossal  statues  war  of  Greek  independence,  and  especially  in 

OD  the  tympana  of  the  pediments,  tlie  metopes,  the  last  siege  of  Athens  in  1826-'7,  the  Partho- 

ai^  the  frieze  around  the  cella.    Of  the  first,  the  non  suffered  very  serious  damage.    The  Elgin 

Elgin  collection  contains  statues  or  fragments  of  marbles,  executed  by  Phidias  or  under  his  di- 

ttatoes  from  both  pediments,  those  from  the  rection,  exhibit  the  highest  development  of 

Ctttero,  on  which  was  represented  the  birth  Greek  art  in  the  maturity  of  its  splendor.     As 

flf  Minerva,  being  the  best  preserved,  while  types  of  beauty  they  have  never  been  suqjass- 

tkose  representing  the  contest  of  Neptune  and  ed,  and  even  in  their  present  fragmentary  and 

l&Bcrva  f*tT  the  pi>ssession  of  Attica  arechicHy  mutilate<l  condititm  they  afford  models  of  form 

torsos  an«i  fragments,  procured  by  excavation,  which  the  utmost  efforts  of  modern  art  have 

Of  the  92  metopes,  it  contains  15  from  the  S.  not  been  able  to  equal.     Many  costs    have 

aie  of  the  building,  representing  in  high  relief  been  taken  from  them,  of  which  the  free  acad- 

tke  combats  of  the  Centaurs  and  Lapitha?,  and  a  emy  of  the  city  of  New  York  possesses  a  set. 


from  another  now  in  the  Louvre.  The  and  under  their  influence  a  national  school 
riikbs  from  the  frieze  of  the  cella,  representing  sculpture  has  been  established  in  England. 
hlow  relief  the  great  Panatlienaic  procession,  ELI,  judge  of  the  Hebrews  immediately  ho- 
ve the  most  numerous  and  the  best  preserved  fore  Samuel.  lie  was  of  the  race  of  Aaron,  and 
tfaUthe  specimens  in  the  collection.  In  addi-  officiated  as  high  priest  and  judge  during  40 
ttn  to  those.  L>rd  Elgin  procured,  from  the  years;  yet  ho  lacked  the  power  to  discipline 
niiis  about  the  Athenian  Acropolis,  the  colossal  his  own  family,  and  a  train  of  woes  befell  Jiim 
ftacue  of  Ricchus  from  the  clioraL'ic  nn>nument  and  his  house  during  the  latter  years  of  his  life, 
tf  Thra-fvlln*.  one  of  the  caryatido-*  from  the  His  piety  was  exemplary,  but  his  indolence  was 
pie  of  Pandrusus,  a  portion  of  the  frieze  a  source  of  calamities.  After  a  bloo<ly  and 
the  Erechthenm,  and  fragments  of  the  col-  disastrous  battle  with  the  Philistines,  in  which 


gf-TAft  ELUAH 

hift  two  ponn  wrr«  »laiD,  an<l  the  arV  cif  t}ic  I^rd  ally  cxhibitctl  in  the  long  butoiy  of  the  glote 

Wfri  raiituriNl,  Kli.  whvn  hcnrin;:  t!ic  ]a>l  ni'W.\  duriii};  5hurt  poriotU  of  thsturlianre  which  Me- 

f«U  hock  fr<itii  hi  A  chair  and  hruko  his  neck,  at  ccviK'd  the  iiii>ro  ostcndL><1  |)eriiid4  of  repofc,    b 

Um  aire  of  i^*^.  the  lattvr  wero  dv|KK«it«.tl  the  HNliinvntonr  rocks 

ELI  AS.    Km>  Kujah.  of  thi>  ]Kt*u1iar  tyi»e!i  of  the  |K*riuil,  inurganie  ami 

£1.1  AS  LKVITA  <nth.  JTttlrri^  tho  I^viti*),  or^^Auic,  aud  every  chaii^  to  another  »erica  of 

a  Icarmnl  rahhi  and  Ilihriw  author,  Uirn  at  nxTk:*  «-art  evidourvd  hy  the  fonnation  uf 

Keu»(ndt  in  Franrnnia,  or  a«'i'orilin);  tu  9**\iw  in  4»f  niuuntuin^  having  a  diffiTent  direetkw 

Italy,  iu  147:!.  du'<l  in  Vi-nii'c  in  IM'.i.     II«*  wa.h  tho«o  which   preoi-deil  Uu'tn.    Further, 

teacher  of  llihrt*  w  in  I'ailua  fn»in  \U^^\  to  \Ti\\*\  Mrntinetl  nuk»  uf  the  laiuv  i>iN)ch  miut  har«  th» 

wh«.*n«'tf  h<*  wont  to  Vviuro  and  Mib<««*i|iivntly  ti»  Nimo  direction  itr  htrike.     He  described  In  tht 

It^inii*.     Ill*  !•  ••a  all  h in  ]ir(i(M-rty  in  tho  Kirk  of  la-t  t'diili>n  of  \M  wurk  the  feature!  of  no  loi 

B«mit'  liy  tho  Fronrli  in  lo'JT,  hut  i'nj>i\od  a  ri-|».  tlinn  {'5  syhtem^  of  mountains ;  ami  the  CacU  bn 

Qtation  fi»r  loarnint;  and  H»«ial  «]ua]itif4  wliirh  collertvd  addoiUargvly  to  tho  geological  knofw^ 

hK-«1  liiiii  to  numlior  hi«hop4  and  iVLrdinids  edp*  of  tho  day. 


nniun^hi*ii*u|iiKandniailohi<«MMiity  HiM^ht  hy        KKIJAII,  u  Hohrew  |irophi't,  whr>Me  hifftorj 

priurc^.     ilo  osivlhtl  a4  a  «Titir,  (rruniiiiariun,  1^  p\«-n  in  the  la*it  ch.'i|itiTii  of  the  l»t  buok  ov 

Ivzii*<»(n'ai>!ii*r,  aitil  ]HKt,  and  his  workn  «iTo  Kin;:4,  and  in  tho  oiK-nin)?  (-ha|itor4  of  the  M. 

trmn^Iatitl  anil  \iTy  wiiKIy  ri-ml.     Anion;;  tlK>u  Atvordinp  t<»  thii*  ho  ^uddi■nly  a|<iKared  before 

werv  K-voral  Ilvhruw  ^raiiiiiiurt,  of  u!iirh  hiii  )\\\\^  Ahnh,  dit'Iarinf;  that  ait  a  |Mini«hment  fcr 

Baik^r  ift  the  iiui-t  ivlohratoil,  tho  It'xiro;;ra]ih-  his  initiuitio!«  m-ilhor  dow  nor  rain  »hoald  Ml 

ical  7"uAAt\  aiiil  tho  *'MiL*4ira  of  tlio  Maifuru,'*  for   yoarii,    until    he  hiniMlf   announctHi   the 

the  Mfuiilunl  iHMik  on  llohn-w  |iunot nation.  chmikv.     Ilo  tiKik  rofu)^>  from  the  wrath  of 

£LIK  1»C  HKArMuNT,  Jean  lUiTt.-.TB  Ar-  tho  kinj;  in  tho  doM-rt,  hy  the  hnM.k  Cberith; 

MAsn  I.oi  lA  I.i:i>N(  K,  a  Fn-nrh  froulo^ri^t,  Inini  and  aftor  tho  drvin^  u]»  4»f  tho  hrouk  be  pi^- 

at  Canon.  CalvudusSopt  25,  ITVtf.     lu  1821  ho  i'oi*ilod  to  Zarv|>hHih,  whoro  ho  was  anpport- 

nndertiNik,  hvi>rdor  of  the  govonimont,  a  wrioii  i*«l  hy  a  |MHtr  widi>w,  ti*T  whom  bin  pre 

of  ini-ta!lur;nt-al  ezplorationiS  and  wa:i  made  on  was  »  jiiiurro  of  Mo-Mnc'^  during  tho  dial] 

hia  rv-turn  in  1^24  a  mining  cn^riuovr.     In  lb2t)  <if  tho  timo.     At\or  droujrht  and  famine  bai 

be  bei*amo  i>roft*viur  at  tho  mIiixiI  i>f  mino<«,  in  do^'hitc«l  tho  country  during  3  yi-nn,  be  reip 

198S  at  tho  collego  of  Franco,  and  enginoor-  iK-nrid  to  tlio  king,  otforing  to  domou*tratc  UM 

in-cbiof  iu  l*^o3.     AiU'r  tho  death  of  Franvoid  %  unity  of  tho  WMr*.irtj»  fif  Haal.    llo  challrnfed 

Arago  ho   wan  made   ftorju-tual  iiocn.*tary  of  thr  iiliilutroun  |irii-*>ti.  K*t>  in  numU'r,  mho  boi 

tbe  acadomy  of  Kionce*.     Na{iuksiii  III.  a|»-  fi>llowo4l  in  tho  train  of  ijut-«-n  Jozl-UL  to 

puinte<l  liini    K*nat«ir.     lie    wari  upiMiinud   in  him  ui*«in  Mt.  C'anmh  and  dttkd  thi-m  to 

1^23,  to^Tfthor  with  hufri-noy,  \o  aid  M.   Ilro-  tiro  full  from  hoavt-n  to  coUMimo  thiir  »a«'rifiee. 

cbant  dr  Vil!ii-r<«  in  pn-iiaring  tho  matorialA  tor  Tho  1«>ng  |>r.ivor4  of  t!io  Ha;dito»  i»&-re  vitboni 

tbe  go<-!i>giia]  map  of  Franiv;  axid  in  thin  com-  mhtc^-,  hut  oii  Kl)jah*rt  hhort  pra.wr  tl>e  fire 

miMi'^n   tlu-y  wt-re  rhargt*d   t«i  vi^it  Mxiglunil,  r:im<*  ihiwn  and  i-onMiniotl  not  <inh  tho  tolloek 

wbero  a  similar  work  waii  in   |irou'To>.'«,  and  at  hut  tlio  altar.     Thr  |K«>iile  in-tunily  ina.<««md 

tbe  Mni«  tinn*  tu  examine  tho  mot.ilhir;:ii*al  o;»-  tin*  priiM-,  aiul  thi-n  Kiijali  |tromi»c>«l  an  end  to 

eratiut;«  t}irro  practi<«Nl.  and  colKvt  full  d«- tails  (ho  fatniiio.  and  ttioro  i»uh  an  ahundant 

tlie  knowIi'«ig^*  of  whii-h  might  aid  in  dovvlup-  Hut  ^*'^K^n  I  h\%o»ring  rr>ongo  fiT  tl<o  do^tj 

ing  thr  •>.'iiMo  hranrht'4  of  indu-^try  in  Frnnro.  tion  of  tho   prii^t-i.    Klijali  a,:ain  tKil   to  the 

Tho  ro«iilT«of  thoir  invvMitratioh^  wiTo  |>uMi*h-  miMi  ria -"i  of  Mt.  lIofL-li  imd  liid  hiniM-lf  in  n 

cd  by  Iiufri-Qov  luid  r.lit'do  llvauniont,  in  a  work  cavi  rn.     Thi-n  hi*  «:i.4  oonini&nd<*d  ti>  retnn 

entitM    IVy.i^r   mrt'iUunjijur  ru  AnyUUrrf  and  uiii>int  Hn/m  1  king  ovir  S\ria,Jihu  ofef 

(IH27).  ilIii*trato*l  wiih  numtTou!«  plati-s  and  Nratl.  and  Kli^^ha  pr^phrt   in  hi4  o«n  plaeiL 

aftcmard  enlargi-d  with  tho  aid  of  MM.  1/on  On  liit  v^tiy  h«*  foun<l  Ki>ha  and  mado  him  bks 

Ctatc  a!i>!  lVrdi*nnot.     f.Vw  iU*  lUaumont  imvr  di^  :ph',  and  »<•  hf  ai>{Nari-il  again  U-fi^rr  AbolL 

derotfii  l.::ii<N''if  ahn^xt  i-x>*lu>ivtl\  togmlogiral  gui!:y  of  tin*  Mi^-l  i>!'  NaU>tI.,  tho  king  humbled 

reArarrIiO%.  whili*  ou^ra^'cl  u|io!i  tho  prvpar:»tion  hini^  If  and  ri  p  ntid.     Aha/iah,  hi»  M*n.  who 

of  tlje  niap  of  Franco,  a2i>!  puMt«hiil    fr««iiU'nt  Mii*(v«d<*4l  t<»  t!.o  t!iroiio.  fi-'.l  ill,  ai.d  I'lliiab  on* 

pa(trn    in   *.h^    .lnii«j.V«   iht  mtrtfs   and  o:hrr  no-iih  til  to  Iimu  throiik'h   hi4  agvxit^  that  bin 

erifnt.fi"  jiinrnal^     h\  Wi^  \ofirr  tur  Us  $i,»f>  m<s  ^:l■k^l  •<««»•  u:d  mil  in  di-ath.     Aha/iah  wnt  n 

dm  m**fiii'jv.fa  {  InVJi,  }.o  cnd«-avor««I  t'l  pri*vo  cnpi.iiii  anil  Ti  *  arnii-d  ni«  n  t«»  mi/o  FJ;jah :  bol 

that  iv.'i:H.!a:n  •-!ii:!.«  arr  to  l-o  f  Ia-M.^1  nii-<>r>l-  tiro  l'ro!n  l.i  avi  n  onii^uiMid  tho  h.ind.      A  MC* 

Ing  to  :2.«*  d;r<v*iiwi   of  th«-ir   rai:»:t'.  all   th«>M»  ori>l   i<'ni|a:;v   trxt    with    tl.o   ^oir.o   fate.      Ai 

|yii*.g  ]:kra!!f!  ».:h  tho  iiauio  ^rri-a?  •  Iri  !••  «.f  ll.o  lonjTh  Ii.«  r.j'jM  .ircd  |KTwi|.al!y  In-f'-rv  tho  kilif 

MTth.  « !.^r«  \i*r  tht'T  mav  lio  f><t:i.<!,  ha\ii!i;  !•«'«  n  aiid  r*  |x'u!i->i  !ii«  aiiiii>iiiii'«-nuitt.     Wis  mi«a»oft 

Qpltfto!  »  ••l>'.f:i!y   d';ring   the    ^arsn-    g«iil>giral  i«:k«  i.i>\r   a>  •-••n:]>!i«hi  tl.     IK>   i:'..*i4!i'  a  \w\  to 

epiM*!..      i '  *•  ii|l.f\iUk%  hr  C'ltitrini'd,  naftrauM-d  tl.i'    »•  !to«<I    <  f    t^>>   |ro]'h(M   at    lUthrL    and 

by  tho  ?:.•'••*;:<■;•  t  ri'^ulting  froi:i  !h>- 1  •Jii!ra«-tii'n  )«a\i[tj,   iii   i-<':i:|'a::y   «  i*h    111  "ha,  cri»«M.M  tbe 

of  tho  f  r  ;*:   i-f  the  earth   ;:•.  tho  f  .'..rM*  if  ll-o  J«>r'hiL.    !ho   »;.!«rn  i-f   nh.rU   hi*    di\id««l  bj 

•er'.:Iar  ri/r:;^* r a: iirn  of  the  I <l.\r;t-t .     l!ti-«*  ^:-  n  ..* .\  *  shii::   \^;*!i  Iii^  ni:i:it'i«\  ho  was  tokra 

h*nt  r^f*>  la  tlii;j  producc«I  woro  fi.ly  uccapioU'  v.\*   !:•'.•»  hi-aiiU  hy  a  whirls iud,  in  a  cl&ar* 


ELDONATIOK  EUOT                         89 

iot  of  fire  drawn  by  horses  of  fire.    The  date  of  In  these  labors  of  benevolence  he  cheerfully  en- 

t!us  event  is  fixed  in  the  early  part  of  the  9th  countered  both  dangers  and  hardships.    In  one 

eeitarr  B^  C.  of  his  letters  he  says :  "  I  have  not  been  dry 

ELIMIKATION'  (Lat  eHminare^  to  turn  out  night  or  day  from  the  tliird  day  of  the  week  nnto 

€f  doors),  the  separation  and  exclnsion  of  some  the  sixth,  bat  so  travelled ;  and  at  night  poll  off 

puticiilar  substance  from  a  compound,  or  of  my  boots,  and  wring  my  stockings,  and  on  with 

■ome  particaliir  symbol  firom  an  algebraic  ex-  them  again,  and  so  continue;  but  God  steps  in 

prodon,   thns  simpUfyiog  the  compound  or  and  helps."    He  induced  large  bodies  of  Indians 

aprasion,  and  rendering  it  capable  of  further  to  give  up  their  savage  customs  and  habits,  and 

MWTiis  azid  use.  form  themselves  into  civilized  communities ;  led 

EuOT,  JoHX,  commonly  called  the  '^  Apos-  many  persons  to  engage  in  the  missionary  work 
tie  of  the  Indian!;"  an  American  clergyman,  among  them,  and  lived  to  see  no  fewer  tiban  24 
ton  in  Naan^,  England,  in  1604,  ^ed  in  Rox-  of  them  become  preachers  of  the  gospel  to  their 
bo^,  ICass.,  ^y  20,  1690.  He  was  educated  own  tribes.  His  influence  over  the  Indians  was 
at  Cambridge,  was  for  some  time  an  instructor  almost  unbounded.  He  protected  them  in  1675. 
of  youth,  and  in  1631  came  to  Boston,  Mass.,  duringPhilip^s  war,  when  some  of  the  people  oi 
where  he  preached  to  the  church  of  Mr.  Massachusetts  had  resolved  to  extirpate  them ; 
Wibcn,  who  was  then  in  England.  In  1632  he  and  though  he  suffered  much  abuse  for  the  part 
m  settled  as  teacher  of  the  diurch  in  Roxbury,  he  took,  nothing  could  shako  his  faithful  friend- 
vim  he  remained  to  the  end  of  his  days,  ship  for  them.  At  the  age  of  80  he  offered  to 
Bong  impressed  with  the  benighted  condition  give  up  his  salary  from  the  church  in  Koxbury, 
of  the  Indians,  whom  he  fancied  to  be  the  and  desired  to  bo  released  from  his  labors  as 
denendants  of  the  lost  tribes  of  Israel,  and  their  teacher ;  and  when,  from  increasing  infirm- 
the  kgidatnre  having  passed  an  act  for  the  ities,  he  could  no  longer  visit  the  Indians,  he 
fnpagation  of  the  gospel  among  them,  he  com-  persuaded  a  number  of  families  to  send  their  ne- 
BMneed  preaching  regularly  to  them  in  their  gro  servants  to  him  every  week,  that  he  might 
own  laagnage  at  Nonantum,  now  a  part  of  New-  instruct  them  in  the  word  of  God.  His  declin- 
tem.  He  had  acquired  their  language  through  ing  years  were  without  pdn  or  disease.  Mr. 
file  awMtance  of  an  intelligent  Indian  servant  Eliot  was  one  of  the  most  laborious  and  useful 
in  lu5  &mily  who  had  learned  English.  The  ministers  of  his  day ;  his  discourses,  unlike  those 
fat  service  was  held  Oct.  28,  1646.  After  of  most  preachers  of  the  time,  were  direct  and 
irayer  he  addressed  them  in  a  sermon,  in  which  free  from  pedantry,  and  everywhere  acceptable. 
he  stated  the  leading  doctrines  of  Christianity,  In  all  circumstances  his  first  inquiry  was,  how 
iod  applied  them  to  their  condition,  inviting  his  he  might  do  some  good  to  those  about  him.  His 
hearers  at  the  close  to  ask  any  questions  that  manner  of  living  was  very  simple.  He  allowed 
nu^t  occur  to  them.  One  asked  whether  God  himself  but  little  sleep ;  a  single  plain  dish  fur- 
ODold  nnderstand  prayers  in  the  Indian  Ian-  nished  his  ordinary  repast.  He  gave  to  the  In- 
goaee ;  another,  how  could  there  be  an  imago  dians  most  of  his  annual  salary  of  £50,  which 
of  God  since  it  was  forbidden  in  the  2d  com-  he  received  from  the  society  for  propagating  tho 
mandment ;  another,  how  the  Indians  could  dif-  gospel ;  and  it  is  related  that  on  one  occasion, 
far  so  mnch  from  the  English  in  their  views  of  when  tho  parish  treasurer  was  paying  him,  ho 
reHgioDS  tmth  if  they  all  at  first  had  but  one  tied  the  ends  of  tho  handkerchief  into  whicJ^ho 
&tfaer ;  another,  how  came  the  world  so  full  of  put  the  money  in  as  many  hard  knots  as  possmle, 
people  if  they  were  all  once  drowned  in  tho  to  prevent  Mr.  Eliot  from  giving  it  away  before 
flood.  The  conference  lasted  3  hours,  and  was  he  should  reach  home.  Calling  at  once,  how- 
loDowed  by  others  in  which  similar  queries  ever,  on  a  family  suffering  from  sickness  and 
were  propounded  by  the  Indians,  one  of  whom,  want,  he  told  them  God  had  sent  them  relief, 
T«fT  aged,  inquired,  with  tears,  whether  it  was  and  began  to  untio  tho  knots ;  but  becoming  ira- 
too  late  for  such  an  old  man  as  he  to  repent  patient,  ho  gavo  handkerchief  and  all  to  tho 
ad  be  saved.  Eliot  was  strongly  opposed  by  mother,  saying :  "  Hero,  my  dear,  tako  it ;  I 
lome  of  the  sachems  and  conjurers,  who  threat-  bolievo  tho  Lord  designs  it  afi  for  you."  Among 
Med  him  with  violence  if  he  did  not  desist  from  Mr.  Eliot's  peculiarities  was  a  deep-rooted  pre- 
b  labors ;  bnt  his  answer  was :  ^^  I  am  about  judice  against  wigs  and  long  hair,  preaching  and 
tbe  work  of  the  great  God,  and  he  is  with  mo,  praying  vehemently  against  both,  and  attribut- 
10  tiiat  I  neither  fear  you,  nor  all  tho  sachems  in  ing  to  them  tho  evils  under  which  tho  country 
fta  oDimtry.  I  will  go  on ;  do  you  touch  mo  if  suffered.  Ho  had  the  same  strong  aversion  to  the 
JOB  dare."'  A  settlement  of  "praying  Indians  "  use  of  tobacco,  and  denounced  it  in  tho  severest 
VM  soon  formed  at  Xonantnm,  which  in  1651  terms.  Richard  Baxter  said  of  Mr.  Eliot:  "Thero 
VM  Tomoved  to  Natick,  where  in  1 660  an  Indian  was  no  man  on  earth  that  I  honored  above  him." 
Anch  was  organized,  and  the  community  Hour-  All  New  England  bewailed  his  death  as  a  great 
Uted  for  many  years.  Eliot  travelled  exten-  and  general  calamity ;  and  Cotton  Mather  tells 
M^,  making  missionary  tours  every  fortnight ;  us :  "  Wo  had  a  tradition  that  tho  countrj^could 
ibnted  a  nnmber  of  churches;  visited  all  the  never  perish  as  long  as  Eliot  was  alive." — A  list 
bdiaiifl  in  tho  Massachusetts  and  Plymouth  col-  of  tho  published  works  of  Mr.  Eliot  may  bo  found 
and  once  preached  the  gospel  to  tho  in  his  life,  by  the  Rev.  Convers  Francis,  in  Sparks's 
King  Philip,  who  rejected  it  in  disdain,  "  American  Biography."    Among  them  are  ao- 


90  EUOT  EUOTT 

conntA  of  the  pro^n^ss  of  the  |70«pel  amon;;  the  gaired  in  litcnuy  labor,  biit  tlfo  girin; 

Iiidiunf;  the  *'ChrUtuui  Oimiiion wealth/*  pub-  tiuio  and  thuught  to  tho  biisincsi  v(  y 

ll«}io<i  in  Kn^rland  about  1000,  which,  when  re-  tearhing.     IWsiilo  private  pupiK  h«  gav 

reived  lu  MawachuHi'ttA,  wai  rei^nrded  ta  mhIi-  itoud  inntniction  to  cU^nes  of  vounic  i 

tiuui.  M>  much  M)  that  the  governor  and  council  toen,  and  organized  a  chant j  school  for 

reiiuiro<l  Mr.  Kliot  to  retract  its  teachings,  bccauM  ohildren.     lii!!  finit  publication,  a  »ma!l 

oppu^'d  to  Uie  inonan.*hy  of  thvir  native  coun-  produced  in  Ik«ton  in  lc^7,  entitled  *'  I 

try;   an  Indian  grammar  (lOiU);   the  |»salms  from  tlie  II  isttory  of  LilK>rty,**  traced  th< 

tran«Iatv<l  tni«i  lu'liaii  nu'tro  ( U>04) ;  and  a  liar-  of  Arnold  of  ISrescia  and  other  early  lu 

iiiuiiy  i>f  tho  ii'HjieU,  in  Kngli<«h  (l<'i7H>.     II 14  fi»ruierH,ofSavonariiIa,of  Wyclitfe,  and  1 

ffTt-Dt  wi«rk,  liowfier*  wat  the  traiL^lation  of  the  u(K>n  tlio  war  of  the  i*«im  muni  tie:*  in 

JiiMo  into  the  I  !idiau  tongue;  tlie  New  T«.*«*ta-  The  first  portion  of  the  elaborate  work  ti 

ment  waslir^t  pubii^heti  in  Idil.and  tho  Old  in  ho  had  caicdy  dovottnl  himsolC  ap(M-ar« 

IGCii ;  and  b«»t!i  were  iwued  in  sub9e«|uent  vdi-  vol  a.  8vo.  in  New  York  in  1649,  entitle* 

tiohv.    Thid  Wiirk  wui  puliliithed  at  Cambridge,  Liberty  of  Rome.**    A  second  reviwd 

and  wa.">  the  only  Hibleprint«*d  in  Anifricauntua  appeared  in  lio-iton  in  1853,  entitlvd  **1 

murh  later  fiTiLNl.     The  lungv^t  ^ingle  wonl  in  tory  of  Liberty.  Part  I.    Tho  Anrient  IV 

It  is  **  Wutap|K.'^ittuk«pi'«sunniM>hwchtunkijUoh,*'  In  the  sauio  year  wa^  publl«hc«]  in  U 

»igiivfying  "  Litii-ling  di>wn  to  him/'  in  3Jark  i.  further  portion  of  tho  dame  work  in  2  vo 

4<t;  which  illu«trati<*  the  je^t  of  CVitton  Mather,  called  "The  History  of  LiU^rty.     Tart  I 

who  fMiid  he  thuUf^ht  the  Word-*  of  Uie  lan^'nagu  Early  Cliri<<tian!f.*'    The  author  ii  n«iw  % 

intut  liave  Wvu  growing  ever  bince  tliu  di<«|»er-  upon  a  third  part  of  thi^  work,  in  whi<  h 

•ion  at  IlaU'l. — .Uiicd,  irrand'^in  of  tho  pr«.*ced-  treat  of  tlie  history  of  liberty  during  tk 

Ing,  and  mi:ii«tcr  in  Killiu^worth,  Conn.,  b^iru  age<i.    TheJ«o  hi»t4}ries  are  charactci/iii  t 

Nov.  7,  Kt'^j,  dit<d  April  22,  17G3.     He  w:ui  an  depth  and  patience  of  reM^arch,  a  i'hi!u? 

able  and  constant  pn*achvr,  a  botanist,  and  a  metliod,  and  a  reverential  and  rvlig^uu 

sclent itie  ainl   practical  a^^'iculluri^t,   wa«  tho  but  they  arc  not  ]Kipular  cither  in  fa.<^>c 

first  to  iutroduiv  the  white  mulberry  tree  into  form,  and  they  have  not  received  from  t 

Couneetieut,  and  diMTovereil  a  process  of  extract-  eral  public  the  attention  which  their  »u*.- 

ing  in  in  fmiu  ft-rru^nnou*  vond^.     He  was  also  merits  de^^rve.     In  I  Hot;  he  pubii-^heJ 

regarded  a<»  the  fir«t  phv!>ician  of  hiA  day  in  the  ton  **  A  Manual  of  United  State<^  IIi«tory 

colony;  au>l  ^ueh  was  lii-i  hucccsi  in  the  treat*  ISoO,^*  a  cxtrefully  preparo«l  work,  di^tin, 

ment  of  insanity  and  chronic  complaint*,  that  for  tidelity  of  ri'<k*ar<*li  and  CMruKiiie^l  c' 

Le  was  ftiimetimeii  sent  fur  to  Nvwiiortand  lios-  of  statement.     Mr.  Kliot  han  aI<<o  Ucn  : 

'ton.  uml  uu^  more  ext4*nMVelv  con!>nlt«d  than  sioiial  contributor  to  the  |K-riodii-nl  liN-ra 

any  I'ther  pliv^ii  ian  in  New  ICn^'laiid.     In  hi4  the  country,     lie  i;t  at  pri-s^-n:  pr> •fe^^>r 

multiplied  piir*uit^hi^  juilrfiueiit  M-emvd  always  tory  and  political  M'lencv    in  Trimly   > 

PkhI,  Aiid  )ii«  Mil  'V-^  ulrii'i^t  unfailing.  Hartford.     A  man  <'f  eanie-it  n-li^'u  j^  i. 

KI.loT,  .lulls.  It.I).,  un  .\merioaM  clertrynian,  bi*Hove4  tliat  cdui*ntiim    in   Aiiiiriia   1 

b<*rnin  I'Mi^tn!!,  M.-iy  :il.  l?-'*!,  diedthcri*,  Feb.  14,  stronger  infuMon  of  the  religitii:>i  i-!t  u*c 

l*«lo.  Willi  Iji-i! ru- lid  Or.  lU:lknaphocoo|H,Tated  hi*  life,  hiiwritiitgs  and  hit  pr:ictii:J  t*-: 

in(;StuMi*!iiii,ran'i«i:^tainintcthc*'Ma.s>arhuM'tt4  in  his  department,  are  shaped  and  cui^ 

Hi«fifrii*ai  >  x'K-ty/*  tii  till*  publications  of  which  thit  ruling  idea. 

hi?  rontrih'iSiI  liiaiiV  vuhiaMe  pa{ii-r4.     He  wai         ELIOTT,  (.iCnli'tE  .\rrii-.Ti  a,  H-iri.?! 

muih  4n^M/-.*l   in   bi«»;:r3phiral  and  hi»toric.il  fivM,  a  British  geiuTii!,  Uirn  in  >*.ii:b' 

ri-^'arrhi-«.    aiid   in    l>*yj   publivhe'l    hli   well-  bur;;h-hire,  .^'otland.   i!i  171\  died  in 

kui*i«n   "  Nil*"  Kn^rlanil   Uiit,:raphical  I>iction-  Chai»ille,  July  4,   IT'JO.     He  wjis  i- l".;r 

ary."     He  al*«j  pi:Mi<»lii«l  a  numl*^'r  of  senni'u*  the    univep«iiy   of    I^'vdeii,    a:}d   ^nbv> 

on  ditT«-rci!:  ot-i'a.^iiin^  and  BK:\eral  memoirs  of  Mudled  tho  urt  of  w.ir  at  tlie  cel«  brat*  J 

dx*tini:ui«}i(sl  |K-.'^^n«.  of  artiUery  at  Iji  V*  re.     Ho  eiil«.red  :h 

KI.I<(r,  >%>!!  Ki^  nil  ATiu-rlcon  aMttmr,  l^orn  i^h  army  in  ITiiV  aiid  frum  that  \-^ri'/ 

in  lliMtiin,  hi".  2  J,  l'»Jl.  a  "Nin  of  Wi!Iiam  Ha-  the  clow  of  the  7  vcip*'  war  wa-  &«  Mj 

vard  Kiiot,  a:ii|  in':in«l]M>:i  (.'f  Kimnil  Kliot,  hIij  pltiyc«l   at    huine   and   abroail,  hhoM  ir.4 

founded  i!ie  K!i"t  profc**ir-^:ji  in  Har%*ard  cul-  capai'itv  a*  an  ntrhvr  of  »a\.ilry,  i»f  cu, 

K'tn?.     Ho  w.k<«  i;riid(iat«-«l  a*.  Harvard  cullei.***  iu  and   of  th«»   ^!arl'.      Ho   di!»tingui«liitl    1 

183'J.  With  the  hi,;he«t  honors uihi<*«  ia^\  thi'iii^h  greatly  at  Mctliri;;!  n,  and  many  ot}  vr  a<  \ 

one  of  thi*  vti:iii^i  »e  memU  r4.     Ha\  m,;  d»  i>leit  (ii-nnany  an<l  tlie  Netherlnnd*,  at  tlie  hen 

ujMin  a  Iifu  of  l»'i '11  »«■**,  ho  ji.i»vil  'J  ve.ir^  in  a  r«.Ii! -rated  rt.:inirnt  of  li^jiit  hi'r-M-.     \i 

Counting  rxMiin  in  !(«■«!.•:),  miler  b-aViMi;  ci/.h^v ;  ]>kMv  ho  ohtairie.l  the  r.iiik  <>f  *.u-:!tr.a 

but  he  abandiiued  hi«  original  piir|NfM>  at  llto  i-ni],  and  in   I77.'i  w.-l4  Ap|H.t:i!id  g^'^^r 

end  »»f  Ihi*  |N.riud.      The  next  4  year«   were  (iibraitar,  the  dffeoie  uf  whirij  j '..»•.•:  .' 

fkint  by  }.ini  m  f  irtiA^i  tra\il  auii  in  «!u'lu4  than  3  year^  a^'ain*'.  ilio  coi:ibi:.«d  Kre:. 

auroall.     In  Komi\  in  1*«|.\  ho  fornu^l  the  plan  Spanish  fi>r<«-^  w.i4  tlie  chief  iip!>>!'.  *»(  I 

of  writing  a  hiit^fry  «»f  itlnTty.  anil  b<-gan  u;r.<n  ai.d  «-i:«*  *•(  tho  ni>'«t  ru*  tii'<rah!o  evint*  : 

iL  BFor  aumo  }\i>t^  after  h'.«  fi.'.u.'n  he  r^'^idid  tory  Aimal^.     I^-triii;;  (lu*  grand  atia«'k. 

Ift  Jjostoo  or  ill  ibuucdiatv  bcighborhood,  vu-  13,  ll^'iu  several  hundred  pivces  of  Lta^ 


ELIQUATION  ELISIIA                       91 

were  directed  against  the  fortress,  beside  tack  Elis,  but  on  the  first  attempt  fied  iJann- 

the  bfttteries  of  47  ships  of  the  line,  of  10  bat-  ed  by  an  earthquake,  and  failed  in  a  subse- 

tning  ships  of  peculiar  constmction  and  great  quent  attack.    Cyllene  is  mentioned  in  IIomer*s 

ftnngth,  and  of  innumerable  frigates  and  gun-  catalogue  of  ships,  but  of  the  Elean  Pylus  no 

boAta ;    bat  owing  to  the  exertions  of  Gen.  sign  remains  but  the  name,  it  having  been  de- 

Elioct  the  enemy  were  beaten  off  with  immense  stroyed  even  in  the  heroic  times  of  Greece. 

dMtroction  of  life  and  ships,  and  with  but  tri-  Hollow  £lis  is  the  scene  of  the  legend  of  the 

a  k>9s  to  the  besieged.    On  his  return  to  £ng^  Augean  stables  cleansed  by  the  current  of  the 

ha  received  the  thanks  of  both  houses  of  Peneus,  which  Ilercules  made  to  pass  through 

psfiament,  and  was  made  a  knight  of  the  bath  them.    The  Elean  horses,  too,  were  famous  for 

If  George  III. ;  and  on  July  6, 1787,  he  was  bearing  off  tlie  Olympic  prizes,  and  merited 

luied  to  the  peerage  as  Baron  Heathfield  of  the  praises  of  Pindar.    Pisatis,  which  was  the 

Gibnltar,  and  a  pension  was  settled  on  him  and  lower  valley  of  the  Alphous,  had  8  cities,  2  of 

Ui  neeeasor.  which,  Pisa  and  Salmone,  are  celebrated  in  the 

ELIQUATION  (Lat.  eliquo^  to  melt),  the  legends  of  CEnomaus,  Pelops,  and  Salmoneus. 

milled  of  aeparatii^  metals  from  each  other  by  From  the  time  of  the  Doric  invasion  there  was 

mhiiig  out  the  more  fusible  at  temperatures  hostility  between  the  proper  Eleans  and  the 

Wow  the  melting  point  of  another  with  which  Pisatians,  caused  by  the  claim  of  the  former  to 

tiwf  BMJ  be  alloyed.    It  was  formerly  largely  direct  the  Olympic  games.    This  jealousy  gave 

fnetised  in  assaying,  particularly  in  separating  rise  to  several  wars  and  alternations  of  snprem- 

dfljB  of  copper  and  silver.     Lead  was  first  acy.    The  Eleans,  finally  victorious  in  the  50th 

■■ad  with  them,  and  the  mixture  being  then  Olympiad,  destroyed  the  city  of  Pisa.    In  this 

ohAiIIt  remelted  upon  an  inclined  iron  plate,  district  was  Olympia,  the  seat  of  the  most  fd- 

tta  kad  first  melted  and  flowed  down  a  chan-  mous  of  the  Greek  games,  and  the  quatemial 

■I  IB  the  plate,  leaving  the  copper  behind.    The  scene  of  the  most  splendid  of  Greek  assemblages. 

■ifcr  was  afterward  easily  separated  from  the  Triphylia,  the  smallest  and  the  southern  divis- 

hid  by  cupelling.    (See  Assayino.)  ion  of  Elis,  was  separated  from  Messenia  by  the 

£US|  or  Elxa,  in  ancient  Greece,  a  country  of  Keda,  and  was  fertile  only  in  the  interior.    Ilere 

diaPak^ponneBaa,  extending  along  the  Ionian  sea  was  Mount  Minthe,  the  highest  in  Elis,  one  of 

fron  the  promontory  Araxus  to  the  river  Neda ;  the  seats  of  the  worship  of  Hades.    Some  of  the 

greatest  breadth  about  85  m.,  from  the  promon-  cities  tof  Elis  hardly  yielded  to  Corinth  and 

%arf  of  Cbelonatas  to  the  foot  of  Mount  Ery-  Sparta  in  the  magnificence  of  their  monuments 

Bmithnsi,  where  the  boundaries  of  Elis,  Arcadia,  and  temples.    The  Eleans  took  part  in  the  Tro« 

nd  Achiua  come  together ;  area,  about  1,000  jan,  Peloponncsian«  and  the  other  general  Gro« 

^.  m.    It  contained  the  western  slopes  of  the  cian  wars,  and  were  almost  constantly  in  strife 

a#4>#Uti  mid  Arcadian  mountains,  Erymanthus  with  some  one  of  their  neighbors.    They  re* 

Fhoke,  and  Lycseus,  and  though  its  surface  was  taiucd  the  celebration  of  their  renowned  Olym- 

ftr  the  most  part  uneven,  it  had  many  valleys  pic  games  till  A.  D.  804,  when  the  festival  was 

ad  hillsides  of  great  fertility.     Its  principal  abolished  by  the   emperor  Theudosius.     Two 

riven    were    the   Alpheus    and  the  Peneus.  years  later  the  country  was  laid  waste  with  fire 

The  whole  territory  included  8  districts :  Elis,  in  and  sword  by  Alaric.    Again  in  tlie  middle  ages 

in  narrower  sense,  or  Hollow  Elis ;  Pisatis,  sep-  Elis  became  of  some  importance  in  the  hands 

sated  from  the  first  by  an  arm  of  the  Pholce  of  French  adventurers,  and  subsecpently  of  the 

BHKmtains ;  and  Triphylia,  lying  S.  of  the  Al-  Venetians.    But  the  memory  of  its  ancient  re- 

ihent.    Of  these,  Hollow  Elis,  so  called  from  ligious  character,  and  traditions  of  its  cultiva- 

n  being  a  vale  set  in  a  circle  of  mountains,  was  tion  and  largo  and  active  population,  give  to  it 

Aa  most  northern  and  the  most  fertile.    Hero,  its  only  modern  interest. 

ad  nowhere  else  in  Greece,  grew  the  flax  called  E LISA BETG RAD,  Elisavetgrad,  or  Yeusa- 

^^  as  fine  but  not  as  yellow  as  that  of  the  vetorad,  a  fortified  town  of  S.  Kussia,  in  the 

ws,  as  was  remarked  by  Pausanios.    At  government  of  Cherson,  130  m.  N.  from  tho 

fta  time  of  the  Doric  invasion,  Oxylus  led  the  town  of  that  name ;  i)op.  about  10,000.    It  is 

fculiiliii  south  by  the  more  difficult  way  of  situated  on  tho  river  Ingul,  is  tho  capital  of  a 

Aicadia,  lest  they  should  see  and  be  attracted  circle  of  its  own  name,  is  hexagonal  in  shape, 

Ijtharichness  of  this  plain.    Hollow  Elis  never  fortified  and  well  built,  is  tho  headquarters  of 

aoBlnned  more  than  3  cities,  Elis,  with  its  har-  tho  military  colonies  E.  of  tho  Bug,  contains  a 

Iv  Qyllene,  and  Pylus.    These  were  unw^alled,  largo  hospital  and  5  churches,  has  considerable 

■d  protected  only  by  the  sanctity  of  the  conn-  trade,  and  tho  princi{)al  annual  fair  in  the  govorn- 

fej,  which  by   the  common   law  of  Greece  ment.    It  was  founded  in  1754,  and  named  after 

zegarded  as  inviolable,  on  account  of  its  the  empress  Elizabeth. 

■aion  of  the  temple  of  tho  01>*mpian  Zeus  ELISIIA,  son  of  Shaphat,  a  Hebrew  prophet, 

tfaa  hanks  of  tho  Alpheus.    Here,  once  in  whoso  history  is  given  in  tho  2d  book  of  Kings. 

4  years,  all  the  states  assembled  for  re-  He  was  ploughing  with  12  yoke  of  oxen,  when 

_  games.     This  sacred  character  of  Elis  Elijah,  returning  from  IToreb,  called  him  to  tho 

however,  disregarded  durinj*  tho  Pelopon-  prophetic  office.     At  tho  moment  when  Elijah 

a  war  by  tho  Athenians.    Afterward  King  disappeared  from  tho  earth,  Elisha  received'  his 

l|pi  of  Sparta  pressed  across  the  Larissua  to  at-  mantle,  and  was  recognized  by  the  other  proph- 


ELIXIR  ELIZABETH 

ei«  a*  tlx^ir  spirit nal  rhtcf.    TTo  divided  Uia  int^ro9to<1  liimvolf  in  her  education.    TTc 

VftterA  of  tiktf  «TunlAii  l»y  i*ztondiiig  (»vcr  tboin  pumnl  wedding;  htT  to  the  3d  mm  of  Frao 

Ui«*rnU' nf  hiHina^tor,  rondt'ri'<l  t ho  bitter  foun-  of  Franre.     In  her  3d  jear  her  fortunes 

tain  of  .K-rirtH)  ftWi-ot  hy  ra**ttng  Milt  into  it^  clouditt  hy  the  occurrence  of  that  tractM^  i 

curM^l  t!io  c  !)ildri*n  of  lU'thol,  who  nio(*ked  him,  mrnt  her  mother  to  the  KcalToId.     EUzaU't] 

and  worv  de\  ourvd  hy  2  In-urs  pro<licted  the  in  her  turn  declared  illefntimate,  ami  fe! 

victtiry  tif  Johorain  and  Jelio^haphat  over  the  contempt.    The  birth  of  her  only  brother. 

XIoahitt«,  re»tomi  ttie  fortum*  of  u  widow  per-  wanl  Edward  VI., happened  in  IMT.andhe 

bOCiit<'d  by  her  creditor^  tiiwv*\  to  life  tho  turn  public  act  was  to  bear  tho  chrium  at  hu  chr 

of  a  wtiMian  of  Shunain  who  had  pi  von  hiui  bos-  infr,  »he  bcinf;  herself  curried  in  the  arm»  of 

pitnlity,  anil  riir%>d  the  lepni^y  of  Naanian.    Ho  Hertford.     She  wa^  e«lucatvd  by  Ijuly  Hn 

detvMed  all  tlio  prnji-ctA  of  licnhadad,  king  of  HU|)vrior  woman,  and  early  »howcd  talent, 

byria,  againn  Nrael,  caummI  the  Ini^t  sent  to  her  brother  hhe  l>^*camo  attached.     With 

capture  tiiin^'lf  to  lie  Miiittcn  with  blindne^:^  r}'*s  \^i  3  wive.'*  !*he  wan  on  the  be^t  of  t 

and  lia%ing  ^lM»wn  them  how  eai«Uy  ho  could  At  10  years  her  hand  wasoflered  to  the  « 

destroy  thi-m.  dltmi<«cd  thorn,  afitoniahod  at  hit  Arran,  but  refused.     A  marriage  K*twoc 

|iowor  and  moderation.    Samaria  U'ing  rcdnce«l  and  Prince  I'hilip  of  Spain  waa  talked  of  in 

tt>  iitntne  famine   by  bioge,  KlUha  pre<!ictod  The  pri'eoding year  .**he  had  been  re«ton.-<l  t 

iucn-diblo  abundance,  whit'h  was  buddenly  ob-  right  of  »uccei«ion,  but  the  act  de<*lahD| 

taiued  by  the  panic  and  flight  of  tho  Svrian  illegitimato  wa«i  never  repealed.    She  hi 

army,  leaving  thoir  tontt  filletl  with  gold  and  ready  become  very  leanie<1,  under^randini 

I>ruviMon».     He  foretold  the  death  of  IWahadad,  Litin,  Kr%*iirh,  Italian,  Spaninh.  and  netnii4 

and   the  Miri*i-v»iun  of  IlazaeL  hU  murderer,  guages*.    She  tran*ilate<l  a  work  from  the  lb 

Upon   hi*   death UhI   he  wa.4  vij^ited  by  King  and  dedicati'd  it  to  her  lai^t  »tepnu>thor. 

Jouhh,  to  m  horn  ho  iiruiniM.-^!  3  vict4trii»4  over  tlio  puvtry  was  very  go^Nl  for  a  princef«H ;  but  h 

Syrians.     HU  death  is*  tiled  in  the  latter  part  of  voritc  ntudy  wat  hi-itury.     She  U  known  tu 

the  0th  Century  H.  C  shared  the  in'ttrudiun  received  by  b«*r  br 

£I.I\lK(Ijit.r//^,  to  IkmI,  or  perhaps  a  word  from  nonie  of  tho  mont  learned  nnn  of 

of  Arubit*  origin  I,  applied  in  oUi  pharmacy  to  laml.     Henry  dying  in  Jan.  1547  (N.  S.  i,  1 

certain  ox  trait  4  obtain  etl  by  Niiling,  as  elixir  beth  found  herM.'lf,  tiy  Ui-»  will,  tlie  next  p 

of  vitriol,  a  mixturi*  of  hulphuric   acid  with  in  the  order  ftf  »ucce!«Mon  to  Mary,  and  in  < 

•onie  aroniatio  tincture;  imd  in  modern  pbar-  re!<i*ectji  liberally  provide*!  fur.     I.«ird  S^^y 

nia«*y  tho  name  i*  rttaiiuHl  for  various  tincturea  uf  Sudloy,  an  uncle  of  the  king,  efidea\>«r 

made  upof  .•^•voral  ingretliontsi.    The  nlcheuii»ts  got  her  for  hi<i  wife;  but  he  faiK^l.  and  mi 

appluxl  it  to  a  numl»er  uf  wUitionn  thoy  em-  Catliarine  r.irr.  Henry *4  last  wiff,  at  \ih«-ii 

plo.^od  ill  the  transmutation  of  metal**.  ^  KtancoKIiz:ibetli  hml  roicctod  him.     lUr  rt 

KLIZAliETH,  a  city,  cupit;d  iif  I'nion  co.,  N.  were  citntimiid.  and  4io  l>ecamo  tho  pti{ 

J.,  on  K!i£aU*thto\i  n  creek.  2\  m.  l'n>ni  it4  en-  Hc»ger  Am-Ii.hiu,  on  tho  death  of  li^'illiam  < 

tr.-uitv  into  Matt  n  Ulaml  houn«l.  and  5  m.  S.  W.  dxJ.  wlu-n  she  wa.<i  h\.    With  him  »!>c  re 

fnmi  Ni-»  :»rk  ;  jKip.  in  1  **5ri,  n.'.iTh.     It  is  rii:u-  Ijitin  tlie  works  of  Livy  and  Cicero.  mA  in « 

lorly  built  ••»  lii,;li  ground  with  straight  streets  thofk*  «tf  S)ph«M*lo^,  theiwlect  oratit>R<*  «•!  I* 

ffhadid  Hi'.h  treo«,  and  rontaini  a  number  uf  tri«.  and  the  New  To!»t.iinont.     ElizaU  :h  « 

exrclleiit  iMliit,»l^  the  connty  i>liii*vs,  a  bank,  a  »ding  with  her  stepmother,  and  the  fret  iloc 

Ue«»pri{^T  uflice,  several  large  manufactories,  allowe^l  I.onlSi-ynioMrcaU'-^tl  mut*h  ^ap.iiai 

and  1:!  •  hun-lii  «.  \:z. :  1  Ilaptip^t,  3  Kpisropal  3  lt*d  to  her  removal  to  llnttield.     AAi  r  hi«  i 

Meth'Mii«;.  .*(  I*ro<>bWerian,  :uid  2  Koniaii  Calli-  death,  S-ymour  renewed  hii  aciiuaiitta::i-e 

ulii-.     \\-«4l»  ot  3<*o  totiH  ran  reui'h  tlliialfoth-  KIizal»etli,  but  bin  arrant  ainl  exe<*u!t<n  o 

|i«*rt,  "\  m.  frnm  tho  ei:y,  at  the  niouth  of  the  charge  of  trea(«i>n  preventM  the  vir.  f«  * 

crix-k,  aiid  tt*'AT  tho  eUlraiiro  uf  SSaten  Idaiid  design ^.     Kh/«tUlh,  on    hearing  of  hi*  d 

Sound  iu\*>  Nt-w.'irk  bar,  an>!  te^*«l«  uf  30  t4ini  morelr  Kiiiil  thiii  th^n*  h:Mi  4lit>«l  a  niAi;  of  i 

can  anci'nd  to  Kit/aUtli.     Tho  New  Ji>rM.-y  con-  wit  and  %ory  li!:li«  judgment— wt-nl*  »l.:c 

tral  ainl  the  New  V^<rk  and  I'lnlailelphia  rail-  curatrly   d<-^  riln*   tlio   nnn.     lb  r   n  ;>utJ 

foad^  px«*  thruuirh  thi*  city.     It  «a«  M'ttk^d  in  howvvtr,  p^-itfertd  severely,  and  ilie  ixn'^t 

\f»t',y  and  H  :k«  li'itg  the  rapi:.il  and  ehief  t<»wn  i»f  dalou^  frinrie^  were  rurn'nt  rei]Hvti!-K'  )» t 

tiie»:alr.    It  «:i!«fiirnu-rlv  eallid  KIi.MU'tht^iwn.  S-vmour.     It  in  certain  that  ^he  !<>t.r  *\.rr 

KlJZ.\II(mi,  ii«*«i>nd  ipir*  n  r>viianl  of  Eiig-  a  r\*gartl  f  t  \\\*  in*Mnory.     .\n  attai-k  t*^  i! 

land,  an  1  !a*t  m>\i'U  i^n  of  ilio  T^silir  liue,  ilaogh-  endangere<l  Iht  l:fi\  anil  letl  t  •  her  U  :nr  V 

ler  vi  Henry  VIII.  a^id  .Vnno  I(<1>  mi.  U»ni  at  tr\*uted,  !ht*n^h  ^he  was  ni>!  al!o»i^!  t<>  »«• 

the  |ialaco  of  (ir^-i-n«i>  h,  ^e;it.  7.    1^<3.  died  kint:,  whoM*  ulfi^etion  f^r  lit  r  u.\!»  ui.l  rnkcr^ 

March  31.  Ifi'M.     >!ie  «:i«  virtually  maclo  heir-  l.V'l  hho  wa-*  rrntoriil  to  fa^i-r.     M.e  wa* 

rm  pn<sumpti\e  t«>  the  thn>Tta*  imiut«! lately  a^er  rtvar«l<-'*l  a«  N  ing  iu  •«»me  ¥*ir\  the  r^va!  of  I 

IkT  birth.  b\  a' t  I'f  {arl..in'.ent,  t>*  tl:o  fXi-lu«i«fn  and  a«  the  c-Itiif  [K'pMin  in  thf  l'n»!<-«!ai*t  p 

«ff  l.rr  st«trr  Marv.  dM:«:^l«  r  uf  i'.itliahno  «if  a*  y.ir%  wa«  at  the  h«*ad  of  the  i*ath«>.i--«. 

A  rag*  ■  II,  » !ni  »  .t^  twrv  than  IT  }fan»  h«-r  neui'ir.  plan  of  Pudlt^y,  d'.iko  uf  Nt-rtJiuniU  .--aMl.  t 

Tho  k.:i«r,  tbti  .f^h  bi'.ttr!y  di^ip|^'inU*d  in  the  I'lu'le  U.ih  l.-vlif<«  t'nim  the  throne.  a.vil  to  m 

aex  uf  Lhd  daU,  aliuwed  attachiiKnt  tu  lior,  aad  it  for  Ijuly  Jane  Orty,  whom  he  Lad  cauM 


EUZABETH  93 

mzTT  one  of  his  sons,  put  an  end  to  this  rivalry,  ions  for  tho  interests  of  Philip,  "Marj^s  intended 
The  king  was  N(Nrthnmberland*s  tool,  and  was  hnsband,  warmly  urged  Elizabeth^s  execution. 
BoC  allowed  to  see  Elizabeth  in  his  last  days.  lie  Mary,  whose  conduct  throughout  was  not  un- 
■  SDpposed  to  have  been  completely  estranged  kind,  and  who  behaved  with  singular  modera- 
ftom  her.  On  his  death,  the  duke  offered  Eliz-  tion  for  a  crowned  head  of  those  times,  would 
ibeth  a  large  som  of  money,  and  a  valuable  grant  not  listen  to  his  entreaties,  and  soon  gave  orders 
if  landsL  if  she  would  acquiesce  in  the  new  order  for  her  sister's  removal  from  tho  tower.  Eliza- 
of  things ;  but  she  referred  him  to  Mary,  during  beth  was  sent  to  Woodstock,  where  she  remained 
wlwseTife  she  had  nothing  to  resign.  She  did  in  detention  for  some  time,  and  professed  lierself 
BoC  raise  a  force  to  aid  Mary,  as  it  was  not  in  her  a  Catholic.  Tho  queen  was  married  in  July,  1554^ 
power  ^  do  so,  but  joined  her  soon  after  her  sue-  to  Philip  II.  of  Spain,  and  her  belief  that  she  waa 
fOBi  in  1553,  at  the  head  of  a  body  of  troops,  to  give  an  heir  to  tho  crown  had  a  good  effect  on 
Cmt  were  oq  the  best  of  terms,  but  in  a  month  Elizabeth*s  fortunes;  she  was  now  taken  to  Lon- 
they  became  enemies.  Mary^s  stubborn  fidelity  to  don,  had  an  interview  witli  Mary,  and  appeared 
tlie<dd  fkith  offended  many  of  her  subjects,  who  publicly  at  court.  Though  treated  with  much  re- 
k)oked  to  Elizabeth  as  their  future  sovereign,  the  spect,  she  was  not  made  free  until  some  months 
aoMQ  having  passed  middle  life,  and  being  single,  later,  returning  to  Woodstock,  and  sent  thence 
their  relative  positions  were  sufficient  to  cause  to  Hampton  court.  Her  liberation  is  attribute 
amity  between  them,  and  Elizabeth's  refusal  to  Philip,  and  she  was  allowed  to  reside  at  Ilat- 
to  attend  mass  offended  the  sovereign  and  her  field,  but  with  a  sort  of  keeper  in  her  household. 
Cktholic  advisers.  After  much  quairelling,  the  She  was  visited  by  the  queen,  and  went  herself  to 
irineen  affected  to  give  way,  and  attended  the  court.  Tho  object  of  many  plots,  her  life  contia- 
fiMn  at  mass.  Her  object  was  to  have  her  ued  to  be  unpleasant,  aud  at  one  time  she  thought 
li^  to  the  saccession  admitted  at  tho  corona-  of  flying  to  France.  Overtures  of  marriage  were 
in  which  she  succeeded.  The  sisters  made  to  her  from  various  quarters,  but  she  would 
d  each  other^s  support.  The  estrange-  not  listen  to  them.  Philip,  who  now  treated  her 
.  however,  was  renewed,  when  an  act  of  with  marked  friendship,  on  politic  grounds,  was 
pariiameni  was  passed,  declaring  valid  the  mar-  anxious  that  she  should  marry  his  friend  Phili- 
nge  between  Henry  YIII.  and  Catharine  of  bert  of  Savoy,  but  all  his  endeavors  were  fruit- 
Azmgon,  from  which  Elizabeth's  illegitimacy  fol-  less,  and  he  could  not  prevail  upon  his  wife  to 
lowed,  tboogh  it  was  not  set  forth  in  words.  A  coerce  her  sister's  inclinations.  Mary  and  Eliz- 
eon^irary  is  supposed  to  have  been  formed  for  abeth  were  on  good  terms  during  the  last  months 
tbe  overthrow  of  Mary's  government,  and  the  of  tho  former's  life.  The  queen,  anticipating 
aarriage  of  Elizabeth  to  Courtenay,  earl  of  De-  her  husband's  request,  declared  Elizabetli  her 
Tonshire.  Mary  consented  to  her  sister's  request  successor,  shortly  before  her  death,  exacting, 
that  she  might  retire  to  the  country,  but  with-  however,  a  profession  of  adlierenco  to  the  old 
tow  the  favor,  and  ordered  Elizabeth  to  re-  religion.  Affecting  to  feel  hurt  that  her  Cathol- 
Bun  in  the  palace,  and  affronted  her  on  the  icisin  should  bo  doubted,  tho  princess  ^*  prayed 
point  of  precedence.  On  this,  Elizabeth  refused  God  that  tho  earth  might  open  and  swallow  her 
to  go  to  the  royal  chapel,  and  remained  in  her  alive,  if  she  were  not  a  true  Roman  Catholic." 
chunber.  Grave  accusations  wero  preferred  She  declared  that  she  prayed  to  the  Virgin,  and 
•gainst  her,  but  she  disproved  them,  a  recoucil-  on  the  day  before  she  became  queen  the  Span- 
btion  was  effected,  and  she  was  allowed  to  go  ish  ambassador  wrote  to  his  master  that  she  had 
tD  the  country.  Ilere  sho  refused  to  marry  told  him  that  slio  acknowledged  the  real  pres- 
the  duke  of  Savoy,  and  also  declined  the  hand  ence  in  the  sacrament.  Mary  died  Nov.  17, 
tf  the  prince  of  Denmark.  Tho  conspiracy  to  1558,  and  Elizabeth  ascended  tho  throne  with- 
ckvate  her  and  Courtenay  to  the  throne  having  out  opposition.  Cecil  was  appointed  her  prin- 
hceome  known  to  the  government,  those  en-  cipal  secretary  of  state,  and  Kicholas  Bacon 
in  it  rose  in  rebellion,  and  Mary  ordered  lord  keeper.  Tlio  queen  continued  to  conform 
eth  to  return  to  court.  On  the  plea  of  to  tho  Catholic  worship  until  Christmas  mum- 
she  did  not  comply.  Wyatt's  rebellion  ing,  when  she  took  the  final  step  that  placed 
put  down,  and  some  of  the  rebels  accused  her  at  the  head  of  tho  Protestant  world,  by  re- 
W  of  being  in  the  plot,  while  there  wero  other  fusing  to  hear  mass  in  the  royal  chapel.  Other 
dRomstances  that  bore  against  her.  A  royal  changes  wero  made,  but  her  coronation  was  ac- 
iODimission  was  sent  to  remove  her  to  Ixtndon,  cording  to  tlio  fonns  of  Catholicism.  Sho  sent 
vindi  was  done,  though  she  was  very  ill.  She  friendly  messages  to  Protestant  sovereigns,  and 
VM  lodged  at  Whitehall,  Mary  refusing  to  see  directed  her  minister  at  Kome  to  assure  Paul 
W.  The  royal  councillors  wero  divided,  some  IV.  that  no  violence  should  bo  done  to  tho  con- 
l  in  favor  of  her  execution,  while  ^hers  sciences  of  Englishmen ;  but  the  pontiff  mode 
more  merciful.  Finally  she  was  sent  ro  the  only  sharp  comments  on  tho  message,  declared 
r,  ILaotrh  1 7, 1554,  where  she  was  examined,  she  was  not  legitimate,  and  required  her  to  sub- 
fih»  wai  forced  to  hear  mass.  Wyatt  exonerated  mit  her  claim,  as  against  that  of  Mary  Stuart,  to 
hvoQ  the  scaffold  of  being  privy  to  his  intended  his  arbitration.  She  recaUed  her  minister,  whom 
iriieUion,  but  his  language  was  ambiguous,  and  the  pope  frightened  into  staying  at  Rome  under 
ft«e  leems  little  reason  to  doubt  her  complicity  tho  threat  of  excommunication.  A  bull  was  is- 
kAeplot.  The  ambassador  of  Charles  Y^  anz-  sued  against  Elizabeth  soon  after,  though  sho  was 


M  EUZABEm 

not  f  xprcv^ljT  named  in  it.    The  roligioiw  chnni^o  name,  a  man  of  nobl«r  lineaj^  than  licr 

Wi'ia  oil,  thutigli  KIiMkbi't!i  wan  avenw  to  innovm*  Though  abo  waa  entreated  to  acknowledge  Harr 

lions,  and  w  unit  I  have  |trvfi'rre<I  to  iirorvcd  m  Stuart  aa  her  heiress  presnmptiTe,  she  woolid 

alowly  as  to  !ia%-e  i  irtually  kept  thinpi  in  the  state  nut  do  so,  nnd  the  question  was  loll  o|<eD,  to  fhm 

she  had  found  thvni.    ('atludir  and  I'mtestaut  frrivf  of  the  f*cople.    The  ex|iedition  she  sent  to 

aerriee^  wi-re  e^en  Indit'nm^ljr  niixo«l  up  in  her  France  failed.    She  recommended  Iif>rd  IColwK 

Cublic  wurrhip.     Thi4  rould  not  last,  and  13  I hidley  as  a  husband  to  Mary  Stuart,  before  to 

tKhoim  were  deprived  of  their  si-es  by  par*  bad  been  made  eiiri  of  U-icehtiTi  thou|rfa  hte 

liament  for  refusing  to  take  tlic  oathuf  suprein-  object  was  to  marry  herself.     She  was  oflartd 

■TV.    The  church  of   Enpland   was  restored,  the  hand  of  Charles  IX.  of  France,  bat  ihooA 

and  Uie  n«o  of  the  itible  in  Kndiiih  was  \c\pi\'  pleoM^d  «-ith  the  offer  she  would  not  arcepc  IL 

Lsed.    riiilip  v(  S|iain  sou|rht  her  hand,  nnd  Another  suitnr  of  the  hiffhent  rank  waa  tka 

wrote  ti>  hvr  often ;  but  though  she  played  lier  archduke  Charles,  son  of  the  Cterman  emperor, 

caiue  with  much  skill,  England  being  in  a  very  1  Leicester  approved  of  this  match.  The  fun 

oepreMcd  state,  she  would  not  accept  tlio  offer,  of  this  new  noble  were  rapidly   risiofc 

Parlianivnt    formally  acknowledged   her  titio  though  he  and  the  queen  occaskinally  foil 

without  any  aIlu^il•n  to  her  mother  ;  bat  she  they  werb  aoon  reconciled,  and  to  his  im 

never  vindicated  her  mother's  name  and  fame,  gain.    Their  intimacy  began  early,  in  the  dm 

which  has  licen  a  si^rnilicoiit  fact  in  the  way  of  of  Elizaheth*s  oilrenity,  and  lasted  an  til  %m 

tiicise  who  have  sup] K>rted  Anno  I U>Ieyn*s  cause,  eorrs  death.    He  even    patronized    Cecil,  to 

Elizabeth^ii  a>nduct  wus  purely  poHtical,  and  it  whom  in  talent  he  waa  so  inferior,  aa  well  at  ill 

should  Ik3  rei*olIected  tliat  she  hod  ne%'er  Knuwn  solid    influence.    The    intimacy  between   ika 

her  mother  at  a  |>eriotl  of  life  when  it  is  possible  queen  and  the  ear)  caiuied  scandalous  storica  to 

to  fonn  durable  affei^ions.     By  the  treaty  of  Ca-  obtain  currency,  which  had  no  other  fonndafi— 

t«au  Canibrc!>is  (April,  \TiH9)  |ieace  waa  restor-  tliansouie  imprudent  acta  could  fbmish.    Beiw 

ed,  France  ogivc-ing  to  give  up  Calais  in  6  years,  renuestcd  by  Charlea  IX.  to  select  twu  Eq^M 

It  was  not  until  6  iiiuntliM  after  her  accession  that  nobles  to  Im»  made  knights  of  St.  Michael,  tUm 

the  l*atholie  tier  vice  was  fmally  diMx>n  tinned  in  named  Leicester  and  the  duke  of  Norfolk.    Um 

ElixaU'thV  private  cha|>cl.    At  first  slio  would  marriage  witli  the  favorite  waa  expected  dai|f. 

not  take  the  title  of  heuil  vf  the  chunh,  oasum-  Tlio  marriage  of  Damley  and  Mary  Stnait  M> 

ing  that  of  its  goveme^s;  but  at  a  later  peri< id  nored  her;  and  the  birth  of  a  wn  from 

abe  became  leM  diM-riuiiuating,  and  ashcrted  her  union  caused  alann  in  England,  as  showing 

supreniacv  arbitrarily.   Many  princes  and  nobles  the  crown  might  pass  to  a  Catholic.   Parliai 

continued  tu  sue  fur  her  tiand;  and  it  shows  being  summoned  in  Oct.  1666,  one  of  the 

how  different  wai  npiniim  then  frrtin  what  it  acts  of  the  commons  waa  to  votv  that  the  bfll 

now  is,  that  even  a  plain  knight.  Sir  Willlani  for  supplies  should  bo  accompanied  by  ooe  for 

Pickering,  a  in;in  of  giH^l  talent  but  moderate  the  mrttlement  of  the  succe^^iun ;  for  this 

meaIl^  wa.4  mtIou^Iv  h{Hiken  of  as  her  husiband.  U'th  liotly  r%-buked  tliem.  Even  I^icester, 

In  France  the  Kngli-h  tlirono  wa«  clainK'«l  for  schemes  hail  U*vn  traver50<l  by  Cecil,  waa 

Mary,  <|!K-tn  of  N-nts  wife  uf  Frani'is  II.  ;  a  the  leaders  of  the  opiKJsilion  on  this 

fooli-h  prvten^ion,  diMino<l  to  ha%'o  liliMMly  con-  In  November  she  was  waited  ufion  br  ai 

aequer.tvs.    ElizjiUtli  e.-irly  U-?an  that  fty^tem-  titm  frt<m  both  houM'^,  aii«l  entreated  to 

atir  interfi-n-utx*  with  S'ot«*h  affairs  w  hii-h  lai>tttl  or  to  name  a  suerei^jr.    She  endeavored  to 

duriiii;  her  entire  reign,  making  of  S-otlaiui  an  son  them  out  uf  their  olistioacy,  and  aa  to  thm 


£ugli<«h  province   iu  fart,     llio  party  of  tlio  succeviion,  hbo  Mid  they  sliould  havo  the 

refi*nnatii>n   was    i-nnbleil    to    tnuniph    there  of  her  prayers     The  common^  Wfrv  stabborai| 

througli  her  aid.     I'lu*!  IV.,  anewpo{i«.\  ^.night  but  the  dispute  was  cv^mpromi^ed,  tlie  qi 

to  «in  the  •juren  bark  to  (he  church  of  Kumo  taking  half  the  money  without  naming  her 

by  gentle  mefoi**,  )>ut  un«iirri-<dfully.    She  re>  Ci*NS«ir.    At  tliin  time  she  was  dabbling  in 

atureil  the  curreney  to  Merling  value  in  15Co.  a  my.  Mieving  in  the  (jiiackery  of  I>r.  Hvei, 


reform  t!.at  did  uiurh  tt>prttmote  the  prt»«iii*rity  she  hod  con^nltetl  at  thi«  beginning  of  her  Mifli 

of  her  !•u^jv«*t<     Aid  in  money,  arms,  and  nun  for  an  au^piciuus  day  for  her  corunatkMi.    6m 

was  s(-!it  t«>  the  Fnni'h  Ilugnenuts,  and  necret  ma«Io  him  chancellor  of  St.  Paul' a.     ThemwAv 

aaeiitarre  x*t  the  !>•!«  «tantiuf  HoikIl  m.    Whi-n  of  1  )arnley  Utl  to  the  overthrow  of  Mary  6(iMff^ 

the  'jOtvu  I'f  S-ti*4  "MiUjLt  a  safe  passage  from  and  to  her  tlicht  to  England  the  next  Tear  tHiOTt 

~  15fi^).  when  Mie  wa<i  moile  Elixalivths  priscoaL 


France  ti*  l.-'-r  ki:i.;i!oni,  ElizaU-th  n-luiKd  her 
rvqt;i>9t,  u:A  it  i*  U'iie\M  (hat  ^he  endeavore«l  in  violation  t-f  the  laws  of  hospitality  and  tka 
tu  ivi-i/i*  hiT  |<pN  n.  In  l.V'.'t  parliament  en-  laws  of  nation*.  Mar}' submit  t4*«I  her  rate  to  b# 
trrat«>l  t!.e  >{Tietii  to  nmrry,  tlje  i:uc^tion  uf  the  tritnl  by  EiiK'ii*'h  commi<«ioners,  who  vert  ft 
sui'c« v«iii:i  U'ln*;  one  if  murh  ii:!tr«>«t  to  all     parked  btnly.  .and  incapable  of  deciding  ^ostfT. 

The  wrious  intenial  tniublv<t  of  England  ta  tUt 


rloM^'s  of  !ur  *'ul<jtt  ts,  who  bail  n^t  vvt  pit  frie 

frfi.i  thetirn'r«-au<H*d  by  the  war»  of  thf  ri>Mrs.  reign  liegan  with  the  imprisonment  of  Mar^; 

Cu:.i!  >Lstii   fi<r  htr  hand  r«intinue«l  t«>  i^priiig  and  th<ii^*  frum  without  began  to  oaMime  aena- 

np.  !.t  hiiiiie  and  abrooil.    The  nio^t  prr>minenl  ical  rhararter  alM.*ut  the  same  time.    The  aay^ 

F.n.:.:-}.':-.sn  wb<ia*|ired  tnthchomir  wai  Henry  lum  England  afforde<l  to  tho»e  «bo  rted  fra^ 

Fit/oUu,  last  (and  18tii)  cart  gf  Anuidvl  of  thai  pertecution  ia  Flandcn  offciultd  I>paiB.    Aa 


ELIZABETH  95 

bfflish  flag  was  insnlted  in  the  gplf  of  Mexico,  oat  knowinff  the  rilor  features  of  it.  It  was  dis- 
■id  tiM  Eogliih  minister  at  Madrid  badly  treat-  covered,  and  Norfolk  was  exccnted.  The  Alen- 
•d.  The  queen  retaliated  by  seizing  treasure  ^on  marriage  project  was  now  resumed.  Par- 
tktf  had  been  fonnd  in  Spanish  vessels  which  had  hament  passed  a  bill  to  pat  Mary  Stuart  to  death, 
takm  relbffe  in  Enslish  ports ;  and  when  Alva  but  Elizabeth  would  not  give  her  consent  to  it. 
Udaneinoargo  on  Englishmen  and  their  prop-  Meantime,  fanaticism  in  France  caused  the  St. 
«tf,  ihe  arreated  all  the  Spaniards  in  England,  Bartholomew  massacre  in  1672,  which  event 
Bit  even  excepting  the  ambassador.  She  corre-  made  the  English  reformers  clamorous  for  Mary's 
folded  directly  with  Philip  IL,  but  that  mon-  blood ;  and  while  Elizabeth  would  not  consent 
■tk  took  a  high  tone,  and  threatened  war.  The  to  the  execution  of  her  unlawfully  detained 
dnka  of  Norfolk  had  become  attached  to  Mary  prisoner,  she  agreed  to  a  project  for  giving  her 
fatrt,  and  Elizabeth  bade  him  be  on  his  guard,  np  to  her  Scotch  rebel  subjects,  who  were  to 
Hs  vaa  arreated  and  imprisoned.  The  great  murder  her  in  4  hours  after  obtaining  possession 
aortlMn  rebellion  then  broke  out  (1669),  headed  of  her  person.  This  villanous  business  came  to 
W  the  CathoUo  earls  of  Westmorels^  and  notMng,  because  of  the  Scotch  leaders  in  it  in- 
Mthnmberlaind,  but  was  nq>idly  crushed  by  the  sisting  upon  conditions  to  which  the  English 
iiri  oC  Siuflez,  and  800  of  the  rebels  were  ex-  could  not  agree.  Mary  was  still  held  in  confine- 
•nlad.  In  1670  the  queen  was  excommuni-  ment.  In  1676  the  Dutch  offered  tlieir  ffovem- 
cilid  bj  Pope  Pins  Y.,  and  a  copy  of  the  bull  ment  to  Elizabeth,  whom  they  respected  as  de- 
'm  fJMlniiftii  on  the  gate  of  the  episcopal  palace  scendcd  from  Philippa  of  Hainaut.  She  did  not 
rf  Loodon,  bj  a  Gatholio  named  Felton,  who  at  first  help  them,  and  it  was  not  until  1678  that 
■  neked  and  executed.  After  the  failure  of  she  agreed  to  aid  them  with  money  and  men, 
attempt  to  get  up  a  marriage  between  on  conditions  by  which  she  could  not  lose  any 
and  the  archduke  Charles,  it  was  pro-  thing.  When  Sir  Francis  Drake  returned  from 
tbai  ahe  should  marry  the  duke  of  Anjou,  his  voyage  around  the  world,  Elizabeth  visited 
Henry  IH  of  France,  and  last  of  the  him  on  board  his  ship,  knighted  him,  and 
TdoHL  When  the  council  was  informed  of  this,  shared  the  spoil  he  had  piratically  taken  from 
«M  oC  tbem  obeerved  that  the  duke  was  rather  the  Spaniards.  Ireland  gave  her  great  troubles 
jOMg  for  the  qneen,  which  enraged  her.  In  and  the  contest  which  was  waged  tiiere  by  Lora 
tfi^  aa  in  all  her  negotiations  of  a  similar  char-  Mountjoy  was  known  among  the  people  as  "tho 
',  abe  does  not  seem  to  have  been  sincere ;  hag's  war/*  in  bitter  derision  of  the  queen.  Con- 
it  was  always  a  source  of  anger  when  any  spiracles  began  to  multiply  around  her,  natural- 
of  her  innumerable  suitors  saw  fit  to  marry  ly  having  Mary  Stuart  for  their  central  iiguro. 
e  other  lady.  She  opened  the  new  bourse.  The  Jesuits  were  conspicuous  in  these  plotss  in 
MIt  by  Sir  Thomas  Gresham,  in  1671,  and  one  of  which  the  Spanish  minister  Mcndoza 
it  the  royal  exchange.  Cecil  was  now  was  implicated,  and  forced  to  loavc  the  coimtry. 
Lord  Burleigh,  and  made  lord  high  treas-  Many  persons  were  executed  and  others  iinpris- 
Sir  Thomas  Smith  was  made  principal  onecL  Philip  Howard,  earl  of  Arundel,  son  of 
of  state.  Ilatton  now  began  to  attract  the  duke  of  Norfolk,  was  condemned  to  death, 
being  high  in  the  queen's  favor  becauso  and  died  in  the  tower,  after  a  long  imprison- 
rfhii  personal  acoomplishments  and  beauty;  and  ment.  An  association  to  protect  the  queen 
kv  repotation  has  been  assailed  on  account  of  against  *^  popish  conspirators"  was  formed  by 
ha  ftmdness  for  him.  For  his  good  she  spoiled  Leicester,  and  was  converted  into  a  statute  by 
tie  bkhop  of  Ely  of  much  church  property,  and  parliament,  which  actually  prepared  the  way 
vmIb  him  a  truculent  and  blasphemous  epistle  for  tlie  murder  of  Mary  Stuart,  should  Elizabeth 
it  8  fines.  The  French  marriage  project  halting,  be  assassinated  in  her  name.  Though  she  con- 
of  the  aversion  of  Ai^ou  to  the  mature  tinned  to  refuse  the  sovereignty  of  the  Dutch, 
bia  mother  had  the  impudence  to  pro-  she  afforded  them  more  aid,  and  honorably 
his  yonneer  brother  Alen^on  in  his  place,  bamshed  Leicester  to  their  country,  at  the  head 
Elizabeth's  junior  by  22  years,  and  as  of  an  army ;  but  the  distinctions  heaped  u])on 
in  person  as  he  was  morally  depraved,  him  in  Holland  greatly  offended  her.  The  dis- 
affected to  change  his  opinion,  and  the  covery  of  Babington's  conspiracy  proved  fatal 
iBitiaetion  was  resumed.  The  parliament  of  to  Mary  Stuart,  despite  the  fact  that  nothing 
flfl  rezed  ber  much,  but  she  was  beaten  in  her  could  be  proved  against  her.  Tier  trial  was  a 
Mania  to  rule  it.  The  emperor  Maximilian  serious  farce,  and  had  its  appropriate  ending  in 
IL  cnered  the  hand  of  his  son  Rodolph  to  the  the  open  murder  perpetrated  at  Fothcringay 
who  was  more  than  old  enough  to  be  his  (Feb.  8, 1687).  It  is  now  pretty  well  establislied 
Henry  of  Navarre  was  also  placed  at  that  Elizabeth's  signature  to  Mary's  death  war- 
iapoaaL  But  she  favored  Anjou  most,  rant  was  a  forgery,  and  it  is  beyond  doubt  that 
to  his  dread ;  and  it  was  to  avoid  his  it  was  sent  to  Fothcringay  castle  without  her 
fi^^ction  of  her  hand  that  she  rejected  his  knowledge  or  sanction.  Burleigh  was  the  sender 
M  nficions  grounds,  according  to  those  who  of  it,  and  the  forgery  is  sup]X)sed  to  have  been 
Mik  3bB  was  sincere.  Philip  II.  was  now  en-  perpetrated  by  the  order  or  under  the  direc- 
■pid  in  a  plan  involving  the  assassination  of  tion  of  Walsingham.  Elizabeth  was  anxious  for 
linliilh  With  this  plot  Norfolk  and  Mary  Mary's  deatli,  and  sought  to  have  her  privily  as- 
bad  some  connection,  but  probably  wiUi-  sassmoted,  but  did  not  mean  to  have  her  openly 


96  ELIZABETII 

•xcM'atod.    Pbc  feared  iLe  ctTi^ct  of  lo  bold  an  act  her  dabmitUd  to  the  norereign.    Tlie  d* 

oDiiianyaocounU,butnio«tIy  iKTaasoof  ihcten*  of  Henry  IV.  to  abantltm  Ow  Protf»Uii 

dencT  it  would  lave  to  ciK-oiiro^  i\io^  writers  axinoyed  Elizahetb,  and  the  suught  u*  i:ii 

and  «pecuUt<irs  who  then  ar^rued  in  favor  of  fho  hisi  mind  to  remain  Ann,  but  inclRTtual 

ri^bt  of  tlic  iioo|ile  tu  dethrone  and  to  punbh  plot  to  |K)iMon  her  was  detected,  and  hi 

kinirs.    Bhc  aUo  feared  it^  etft-ct  on  foreipi  sor-  |ihysii'iun,  Lc»|iez,  who  hod  l»een  in  In  r  i 

•reifrna.    Her  niinii^terb*  fvar^  wi-n*  of  a  difTi-rcnt  34  jeanf^  was  eXiH'Uti>d  for  his  |iart  in  it. 

character,  and  were  removiil  by  Mary^s  inurdiT.  gious  |ierfiecution.<«  were  now  cuumif 'n,  ai 

They  feared Uiat  Mar}*  would  bur^ive  ElizaU'th,  eral  noted  Puritans  were  put  to  di-aih. 

mail  eitlier  would  succeed  lier,  or  that  her  claiui  war  with  Spain  was  carried  on  with  \'\f\ 

would  cauM  a  soccvssion  war,  the  traditionary  Cadiz  was  taken  in  15'J6,  by  a  fleet  and 

aTvrsion  of  En)r1i<«h  stati'>uivn.    Angry  as  s)io  commanded  by  Ho wanl  of  Effingham  and 

wa^  Elizabeth  dared  ti»  puui«h  no  one  but  sec-  The  latter  wus  now  the  tirinei pal  iiTStn  ii 

retary  I>avi»on,  who  was  only  a  iotA  of  tho  land  for  a  subject,  but  the  infinnitiix  of  hi 

Lifrher   miuUters ;   for  not  only  had   foreign  {>er  prevented  him  from  profit inp  fully  fr 

aj&ira  afiifUuied  a  mtious  a»Dect,  but  tho  killing  iiositionand  the  «iueeu*s  regard.     Titi*  cttu 

c^  Mary   was    uniiuestionably  a  f»opular   act  full  of  intrigui's  and  Essex,  tho  niii?>t  gi- 

with  tho  ruling  clasM-s  ainl  |>iirty.     Tlie  tH>otch  and  imprudent  of  men,  was  the  victim 

|>cople  wore  vnrage«L,  and  gladlr  would  have  who  cho(»e  to  play  ujion  him.     Philip  11. 1 

SBMailvd  their  old  enemy:  but  ttieir  king  had  formed  a  plan  to  place  his dauglitvr on  th 

little  alfectii»n  for  a  mother  whom  he  never  had  lish  throne,  E«sex  wai  sent  toaM>aiI  the  Spa 

known,  and  he  expected  to  Ih;  Elizabeth's  sue-  at  homo  and  on  tho  ocean.    He  ac«^^m| 

ceteor.    The  ctmdition  of  Franc«  let\  no  room  nothing,  which  offi-nded  the  «}Ucen ;  but  h 

for  fi*ar  on  tliat  side;    but  the  iK>]ie  and  the  recovered  her  favor,  and  was  enabli-il  t<i 

king  of  Spain  were  active  enemies.    Sixtns  V.  Burleigh,  until  the  latter  discovered  tliat ! 

•nathemaii/A-d    Elizabeth,  and   proclaimed    a  in  corrcatpondenco  with  the  king  of  Nv 

crusade  again »t  hiT.     PhilipII.  laid  claim  to  tho  Henry  IV.  having  n-Milved;.  bihju  \*ia»\ 

Eoglisli  crown,  a^i  Ultimate  heir  of  tho  houso  Hpain,  to  tlio  anger  of  ElizabMh,  otTi-rvU 

of  Lancaster,  in  virtue  of  his  de?«(*ent  fmni  two  diate  a  geuerul  peace.     Hurlfigh  favore< 

danghtCM  f*f  John  of  (fuunt,  who  had  been  and  Esm:X  took  the  other  sioe.     It  vi 

queens  of  Portugal  and  C*a'»tilo.    He  madeoi»en  consultation  on  Irisli  affain,  in  |he  royal 

preparations  to  eufonv  thi-*  claim,  and  the  |»o(h)  that  Essex  tunu'd  his  back  coikeinptuui: 

rromi*«d    large    conditional  aid.      Meantime,  the  (juei-n,  who  imnuiliati'Iy  htrui  k  him 
>rake  ravaged  tho  c«ia«ts  of  Spain,  preyed  on  head,  and  told  him  to  *'  go  and  \v  l.ai 
hi-r  conmiortv,  and  mado  a  Micco4«ful  attack  on  AtV-r  a  display  ut  r;k«hno<*s and  !•  n.{Kr  i\ 
the  hhipping  in  tho  harlior  of  Cadi/.     Tho  Eng-  K-ft  tho  pri-M*iiri<.     \l'hiU*  otTir:!*  for  a 
li^h  were  not  l>ai*kward  in  [iri^panng  to  moot  ciliatitin   wt-ro  making.  Hurl<  u*h  ilii  !.  .^ 
Philips  att.'U'k.  .Ml  part  ion  C  nlholio:i  and  Piiri-  I.'i'JH.     Six  wo<k<»  bitor  dii-<!  I'liil  p  11. 
tan%  a«  woll  *«  tho  ri>t  of  the  [»ofipK\  fdiowod  rrtunuil  t«»  furt,  and   hlii-rtly  a?:-  r  » 
a  patriotic  ^pirit.     A  lUi-t  of  1*«it  Miil  was  gut  |N.int«-i|  Itml  d<puty  nf  Iriland.  hIihIi  u, 
reailv.  ciiii:ni:iniK*<l   bv    L>rd    Howard   of  Kf-  niiJ^-ruMo  htati-.     Tho  iiMitouiio  gi\«:i  ! 
fiugham,  Itrakr,  Krulii^hor,  and  Hawkins.  Two  li»vo  than  in  an;:iT.  and  «u«  tbr  gift  «I  t  n 
aniiios    woro   raiM.-4l,    nmii taring    o\or  ^i^.^nn)  A  |Militiriaii  raiin-r  than  a  Mat*-Mi.:k:.. 
in«-n.     Tho   Span  Ml   armada    ^aiK-'!    May   :2'.i,  kiiitrhl  rathrr  tli:in  a  M»IdiiT.  K«<m  \  i<i.'.< 
15^"^,   but   a  •kturm    comiu'lU-d   it   to   rolum  ;  tiroly  in  Iroland,  whonro  ho  ri-turnti!  m 
and  it  wxt    ni»t   until    .Tnly  21    that  tho  two  |H,*nni!^Mon  and  onti-riM]  ii|Minthat  ^tranpTi- 
fli-ctn  met,  and  Juinttl  lattlo  near  tho  En;:li«>li  «if  action  tliut  iiiiicd  in  bin  dfuth  i!.  *A.* 
Cl•a^t.     After  a  MTii-4  of  actions  th.it  la^tol  1^  fold,  in  Itlul.     Thofjuiinas  ^tll^v  ol  i!.>  Ti.i 
da}i  the  Sjianiard^  wrri«   uitvriv  n^utol.   the  thor<»unt<"">of  .Viittin;:h:ini  ha<»n«*f>'':i.-la 
elrini-nts  grv.itly  a'««:«ting  tho  Kng!i*>h.     I-111/.v  truth;  nor  i**  ii  truo  thul  tho  gli">rii  in 
Lcth  luTM-lf  !<«  »aid  to  have  origiiiai<-d  the  i*lan  t!io  iiurt-n'"*  lii-t  (!ri}<»  wi-ro  p:i<^^d  i%.i<»  f^i 
of  st'iidin;;  :*ro   ^!l;|•4   into  tho  Sp.tniOi    lii'«-t,  E^m  I'l  di-itt}i.     Sir  HnU-rt  ( Vnl,  a  ^«'n  • 
to  whirh  i:it:ih   i^f  tbe  »uc4*v^«  rY  the  English  bi;:h.  wa«  in  tw  El:. *.'i)  it  h't  ni'i*t  |p**wk4r  tu- 
nas uwin/.     IIk*  ruuntry  iia4  thii'«  dilivin^  t*r.  aiidho  «u«  in  ttirri--p<'nd(nrr  w  .!l.  !l. 
fni?!i  pri-H nt  f<'ar  of  mv.-i»jin.     I AM<'f4or died  in  t^f  S*t»lland.     Tin*  i;!:**?!  MiUpTbl  t«-  1j.i^v 
IS**"*,  alliT  a  tju.krrrl  wiili  th**  i{'ii-on,  *!»•»  had  IV.  \i-it  Imt  at  I»'i\i'r.  hv  Uiiitf  ut  Cwj 
lifon  |irr*fiaihil  b,^  hor  mill  :«ti:«  iii  •!!•.!  rai*«>  liim  hi<   Cii!)t«nt«tl    hiiiiMif    Mith    Mt^il.rj 
to  iho  |x>»t  I'f  I'-nl  Ih-uti-nant  of  England  and  Ho^nv.  hiti  r  tho  duke  i\v  >ullr.  a-*  h:-  a!r 
In-!aiid.     In  1*»-V,  an  rtj^itlition  *fca»  M-nt  to  dtm     Tlit-ir  isiti  r\i»-u<t  i»*ri- inti  ri -:.' .;. 
rlTo4-ttho  IiUr.iti>>nof  Portngai ;  but  thoUpTh  tho  tli<'  llr-l  ^bo  >jN*ko  t>f  tbi  king  «  f  St    '.'. 
army  was  IaimKiI  aiid  mart  bid  l**  tiio  nuburbn  hi-r  mii'ci  •••-•r,  iftb<*.  •^ho  ^.ti^l,  U"  :!••  U  k 
of  l.'t»bun.  tJ*o  ui^dortaking  M/nallr  f.i.htl.     Ai'l  UriM  Britmn.     Tin*  tifli-  or  ^'i'latt-I  m  i! 
in  nun  anil  nu-r.iy  wa*  h  i.i  t«»  il«nr}'  IV.  of  An'tilurvniba-- y  ».i*mi.i  to  r.i.prliiii-ll  *  1 
Erar.i'**,  thm  c«<ntondin7  Mi:h  Spu:n  and  the  and  ua«  woU  rto*  i%«d.     Eli/-i-*«  :■•*«  U*:  ; 
leagtio.  in  1  :•'.»•  »'.il.     A  pariivnoLt  nut  in  l't'.'3,  i:n  nt  nut  in  Oi  t.  I'-ol.     It  m:uK-  jir^^i 
the  cutnxuuiu  alter  st4ne  ooutcution  » itli  tiou   to   thu   oppro<«ivc   mobo|i^.'l:o«  ^h 


ELIZABETH  (of  Fbaxck)  ELIZABETH  (of  Yalozs)           97 

ited,  and  she  frracefnlly  gavo  way.    In  the  declared  incapable  of  sncceeding  to  his  father^s 

J  put  of  1603  (N.  8.)  she  suffered  from  rale;  a  party  was  organized  in  behalf  of  Hemy, 

nnplication  of  eomphunts,  but  the  inime-  brother  of  the  late  count ;  the  castle  was  seized, 

e  cause  of  her  death,  which  took  place  at  and  Elizabeth  with  her  8  children  was  turned 

xmond,  was  a  cold.    She  was  buried  April  out  of  her  home  without  provision,  money,  or  a 

Her  reign  is  justly  considered  one  of  the  change  of  raiment.    After  living  some  time  in 

t  important  England  has  known,  and  her  great  destitution,  subsisting  now  by  charity  and 

oory  is  held  in  deserved  reverence  by  all  now  by  spinning,  she  was  sheltered  by  her  aunt 

sea  of  Englishmen,  and  in  esteem  by  the  the  abbess  of  Eitzingen,  until  a  more  suitable 

id;  for,  in  despite  of  many  faults  of  charao-  asylum  was  found  in  a  castle  offered  for  her  use 

md  errors  of  conduct,  she  was  a  great  sov-  by  her  uncle  the  bishop  of  Bamberg.    After- 

gB.     **The  Elizabethan  age"  is  one  of  the  ward,  at  the  intercession  of  the  friends  of  the 

t  brilliant  periods  of  English  history,  and  deceased  count,  Henry  recalled  her  to  Wart- 

Bumerous  statesmen,  soldiers,  scholars,  and  burg,  and  acknowledged  the  rights  of  her  son ; 

■r  intellectual  personages  who  then  existed,  but  frequent  misunderstandings  and  difference 

iered  for  it  a  place  in  the  world^s  annals  that  of  t^tes  led  her  to  petition  the  count  for  a 

never  been  surpassed.    Of  this  glory  the  separate  residence,  where  she  might  follow  a 

sreign  has  had  allowed  her  far  more  than  monastic  life,  and  give  herself  wholly  to  works 

doe  share,  because  of  the  loftiness  of  her  of  charity.    She  took  up  her  abode  at  Marbux^ 

ftion  and  the  consequences  of  her  actions.  in  Hesse,  where  she  spent  the  remaining  8  years 

UZABETH  OF  Francs,  PnaippixE  Mabib  of  her  life  in  seclusion.    She  wore  beneath  her 

tec,  madame,  sister  of  King  Louis  XVI.,  garment  the  haircloth  of  St.  Francis,  bound 

I  in  Versailles,  May  8,  1764,  guillotined  herself  to  obey  the  orders  of  her  confessor,  dis- 

teii^  May  10. 1794.    She  early  distinguish-  missed  her  favorite  maids  when  she  found  her- 

barself  by  cnarity  and  a  taste  for  serious  self  loving  them  too  well,  devoted  her  liberal 

mita,  especially  botany.     When  the  revo-  allowance  entirely  to  the  poor,  and  supported 

m   broke   ont^  she   shared  her  brother^s  herself  by  spinning ;  she  mmistered  to  the  most 

Is  and  misfortunes,  evincing  in  all  circum-  loathsome  diseases,  and  even  received  lepers  into 

cm  nn&ltering  firmness,  courage,  and  sweet-  her  house.  Her  confessor,  Conrad  the  legate,  ex- 

I  of  temper.      On  Oct.  5,  1789,  she  sac-  ercised  his  functions  widi  the  utmost  severity ; 

led  in  preserving  the  lives  of  several  of  the  and  in  compliance  with  her  own  wishes,  subject- 

i]  body  gnard,  threatened  by  the  infuriated  ed  her  to  unusual  and  cruel  penances.    She  was 

i;  in  June,  1791,  she  accompanied  her  bro-  buried  with  great  pomp  in  the  chapel  near  the 

'  to  Yarennes,  and  sustained  his  spirit  in  hospital  wliich  she  had  founded  in  Marburg,  and 

r  dangerous  journey  back  to  Paris ;  on  June  the  report  of  the  frequent  miracles  wrought  at 

179S,  when  the  populace  broke  into  the  her  tomb  induced  Gregory  IX.  in  1235  to  add 

her  life  was  in  danger  from  being  her  name  to  the  list  of  saints.    IJer  shrine  was 

for  the  queen ;  and  in  all  the  perils  of  for  ages  one  of  the  most  famous  of  Europe,  ri- 

she  retained  her  wonte<l  composure,  vailing  those  of  St.  Thomas  of  Canterbury  and 

thonght  only  of  the  safety  of  her  brother  St.  James  of  Coinpostella.    Tlie  altar  steps  be- 

his  family.  .She  was  incarcerated  with  them  fore  it  are  worn  hollow  by  the  knees  of  pilgrims, 

lia  temple,  bnt  was  separated  from  the  king  and  the  name  of  St.  Elizabeth  of  Hungary  still 

Us  trial  before  the  convention,  and  after-  remains  throughout  Germany  the  synonyme  of 

A  from   the  queen  and  the  dauphin ;  and  all  that  is  sweety  tender,  and  heroic  in  Christian 

If,  although    nothing   could  be  adduced  faith.    Her  life  has  been  written  by  many  au- 

mft  her  except  her  devotion  to  her  brother,  tbors,  Catholic  and    Protestant,  in  many  lan- 

aoBtenced  to  death  by  the  revolutionary  guages.  No  fewer  than  88  published  works  and 
■aL  She  met  her  fate  with  the  patience  13  MSS.  relating  lier  story  are  catalogued  by 
inbvpidity  which  had  marked  all  her  life.  Count  do  Montalembert,  whose  elaborate  and 
UZABETH  OF  HuNGAKT,  saint,  countess  of  enthusiastic  biography  is  accessible  to  American 
riigia,  daughter  of  Andrew  II.,  king  of  Hun-  readers  in  the  translation  by  Mary  Ilackott,  pub- 
reborn  in  Presburg  in  1207,  died  in  Marburg,  lished  in  Now  York  in  1864.  The  best  Prot- 
■niyt  Xov.  19, 1231.  At  4  years  of  ago  she  estant  life  of  Saint  Elizabeth  is  that  of  K.  W. 
bfltrolhed  to  Louis,  the  oldest  son  of  Hermann,  Gusti,  an  edition  of  which  was  published  in 
IpBTe  of  Thuringia,  and  according  to  the  Germany  in  1885. 

an  of  the  age  was  transferred  to  the  house-  ELIZABETH  of  Yalois,  or  Isabella,  queen 

I  of  her  future  husband,  to  be  educated  for  of  Spain,  bom   at  Fontainebleau,   April  18, 

rank.    The  nuptials  were  celebrat-  1545,  died  in  Madrid,  Oct.  8,  1568.     She  was 

■he  had  reached  her  14th  year ;  and  a  daughter  of  Henry  II.  and   Catharine  do* 

the  religious  practices  for  which  she  Medici.     By  the  treaty  of  Angers  (July  19, 

been   remarkable,  she  enlisted   the  1551)  she  was  betrothed  to  Edward  VI.  of  Eng- 

tf  lier  hnsband  in  the  charitable  works  land,  but  the  marric^o  was  prevented  by  his 

lib  flBgroased  her  time.   Louis  joined  tho  6th  premature  death.    By  the  preliminaries  of  the 

■lOi  but  died  before  reaching  the  Holy  Land,  treaty  of  peace  of  Cateau  Cambr^sis,  her  hand 

lib  death  at  once  changed  the  circumstances  was  assigned  to  Don  Carlos,  infante  of  Spain. 

flMeounteas.    Her  infant  son,  Hermann,  was  The  treaty  was  ratified,  April  8,  1559 ;  but  the 
TOL.  VII, — 7 


98          £UZAUETn  CHARLOTTE  ELIZADETU  FARXCSE 

father  of  I  ton  C'nrln«,  Pliilip  TI.,  being  Irft  a  toGcn.C?niinki»w  :  "  She  i<inot  at  all  bfantifuL 

widower  by   the     ihath    <if    hi-*   witV,    (^•:iorn  P(H'ak*>  ahin'^c  iiotliiit^,  nrul  14  prcii  to  f-outinc.** 

Miu*y  of  Ei)(?1a:i'i.  arnl  fa.*<'iij.it«'il  by  a  {icrirait  Tho  inrirria/««  oiTi-njony,  hnwcvcr.  wii.*  |4*rfurin* 

which  lie  hoil  mh:i  of  the  Kit i: eh  {inn<-,.><..  s:i!»-  cd  at  I'Dtxlatii,  Juno  12,  17^.3;  and  TarUle  navft 

fttiMited  hiin^'li'  f'^r  hi-*  sun.     Sl.o  vr:k<i  nnitLil  to  tltat,  *'  witli  tlic  ^^y  temper  of  1^  and  hir  native 

I'hilip.  Fib.   1*,    15«'h»,   tho  niarri.it:'*  i^Tiiin'isy  l«»yni!y  i'Mniml.  hlio  soem'*iiihftve>haiudhcr*rf*lf 

li-in^r  jK-rfMrriii"!  wiili  ^ri-at  >j.itu«lur  at  Ti'Icil'i.  Minv-Mwly  in  iJn.*  princv'b  taste,  and  prowir|r 

She  WHS  liii'.i/.  i!  hy  the  |-t  «.jili»  nf  Sja.n.  nnd  \e»i-Iy  cracifuller  and  U*tter-)iKikin;r.  wa^  an  or- 

Frenrh  a- Will  :«<•  Sii:Lni''h  l>ii-::ra{'her<  are  u:-:.in-  nuiiu-tit  an«l  pleasant  athlition  to  Iii!*  exi^tei.i'v.'* 

iuioiis  in  i>r:i>iii;;  lurU'autv.  aeojnplioiiitiint-s  Krederie  niado  iri-neruiin  proiiMon  for  her,  ami 

and  virt'}!-.     Jii«t   U't'urc  her   di-aih  *'!i<*  w.lh  roniarked  in  hi«  will:  **  I'uriii);  my  whi4«  ivipi 

delivorvd  i^f  a  dai:;;hter,   who  lived  oi\)\  t<i  ho  ^!le  has  never  ^Ivon   nie  the  Bli^hte>t  raiJ»c  of 

l»aptize<1.  mill  u:i<4  hurii-<l  in  tlie  viinei-Mtlin  i^ith  di-<iti^f:irtii>n,   uvA  lur  hi^'h    moral  rharacltr 

thvmi'thir.     diitwingaivuunts  have  U'i:np;v«.'ii  niii-t  in^^pire  ri>iiirt  :iiid  K>ve."      She  was  a 

of  the  rihirii'iiH  hctwii-n  Eiifalieth  an'l  Cirlivi,  lady  of  O'n-idiTaMe  attainment!-,  wrote  Mwral 

but  Mr   IViM-'ti  in  his  "History  of  the  Kei^ii  works  and  distributed  half  of  her  income  auioii( 

of    I'hilip    1!."'    proved    their    (;runnd!L-'*''ne»«.  the  i-oor. 

ElizaU-t!i  ti  'k  a  lively  inii-ri^t  in  l*arli>?*,  and  KMZAlil'TII  CITY,  a  S.  E.  00.  of  Virpnii, 

wait  die] >ly  utVerr«tl  by  hi-*  tragic*  end;  but.  ar-  borlerin:,'   on    ('he>npiake  b.iy   at    the  mouth 

curding  t-*  Mr.  Tre^Hott,  her  feelings  for  him  of  .lanie-i  river,  bo:wtdi.il  S.  by  Ilnmpton  Kuads, 

were  on!v  thi»i' of  kindnt*«i4.  and  N.  bv  Ibiek   rivi-r;  area,  fi"  hj.  lu. ;  pop. 

EUZAllEllU'MAKUnTE.  dueheMof  Or-  in  l**r,ij.  4,5s6,  of  whom  iM4h  wvre  tUrca. 
leans,  Uirn  in  lUi-IelUTp,  May  27,  \C*o*2,  diol  at  It  ha<  a  fi-riile  xii!,  Mil ta bio  for  frraiu  and  liotA- 
St.  I'loi-.d.  Ike.  H,  1722.  She  wa-»  a  daii^'hier  tois  In  I-^-^m  it  pridnit-d  87,2l'5  bu^lwU  of 
of  the  eU-«-:or  i'!i:irlc!i  I.* m in  of  the  I*a!atinate,  Indian  corn,  22.1  ^s  ot'  wheat,  17.754  of  nats^ 
aiid  fo  homely  t!iat  a  duke  of  r<iiirl:ind,  who  ai.il  42.r>T'.*  of  poiut.KS.  The rr  were  :i  tlonr and 
hail  been  Utro'.heil  tohi-r,  refuMrd  to  marry  her.  t:ri»t  inilK  7  ehnn-hi-*,  and  249  pnpiU  atSrnd- 
Afler  int*r:ii-in:*  (.\it!ii>liei*>m  hhe  U'eaino  tlio  in^  pnlilii*  «chiHi!-»  nnd  aradi'inieo.  Tliis  wia 
2d  wife  iNii^.  I'V  1071)  of  I'liilip  I.,  duke  of  one  nf  thi*  H  on^*ii4:iI  fliire^  into  which  VirpQM 
OrKan«,  liri»thi^^rof  Li>ni.«  XIV.  At  tin*  French  wa-*  dividi-d  irt  1<'>:'4.  i'iipital.  II  am  [•ton.  Valoe 
court  idii*  Ifeame  di»tingui'«!ieil  f  >r  her  inte^'risy  t<f  r«.id  e'«l:ite  in  l^o't,  |iV.)4,.'ilO:  in  l^oO,  t^*^*' 
and  inttlliit,  .11  wi-ll  ai  fi>r  hvr  bliiiitni-v»  ami  lM«i.  N!,«iw-ifiL;  nu  ifnTfaM-  of  4i'  i<'r  ci-Lt. 
ecci-ntrii-itv.  >lie  had  a  cordial  hatretl  fur  Ma-  KI.IZAHKTII  Tl  I  Y,  aiii^t  toivn  and  caxiiCal 
dame  de  Vf.iintenon,  and  op|HiM'il  the  marriage  of  raMpiotank  c>i..  N.  ('.,  nn  ]*a«'{Ui»!aLk  n^er. 
of  her  ^on  (t'le  Mtture  rejri-nt)  with  Mile,  de  2i)  m.  tVum  it<i  luontit ;  p<-p.  in  K>iu»:imatrd 
HIoi«,  tho  kink*'^  niiliirul  dan^'liter.  St.  Sinion  at  2.'HH).  It  ]«  nnv  of  tlie  priui  ip.il  tuwn^  in 
givf^  an  :»r:i  :-::•;.' arixiint  of  tlie  vniT;:i':ie  man-  the  N.  K.  part  «*f  t!.i*  •^t.iti-.  It  hiU'*  con. mun lea- 
ner in  wh:i-!i  ^liv.-  d:''p!:iy(.d  hi*r  fei!in^'<4  i-n  tlie  ti>*n  with  Norfolk,  Va..  b\  iiiean«  vf  the  river 
4K*i'.\*>i  in.  \\  -i.ijip::^;:  her  Bi<n  in  t!ti-  fai'o  in  tlie  aiiil  the  Pi^mal  >\v:trnp  eamd.  and  1  xj-irts  lum- 
pr»  ^  nrc  I  f  t!n:  wltt.ile  et»'irt.  Shv  ofli-n  a: tend-  U-r  and  vari-tii*  pri'ilm  i-  tif  the  pili  h  pine. 
Ml^'uli  XIV.  t'»  tlji- rhaM-.  anil  the  kiiu'enjiiVtd  KI.IZ.M»F/MI  F.\KNK>E.  .;ui\n  of  Spain, 
her  wit  arid  «.<rv:;..Liity  and  i**tiirnei!  hirtrutli-  born  Hi-t.  2.'i,  1G'.'2.  dii.d  in  17(*'i.  She  was  a 
ful  f'hara- 1«  r.  Jb  r  pridiIi-<-tii>n  fi<r  ilieCi-niiuu  dauchti  r  of  (  Mi^ardo  II..  print  r  *>(  ]*arr.j:k  and 
lanl:I:af^*  ar.dliti-r.itiiro  i:  itim-miI  the  int^Ti.-ur-i^  of  thednehe^HSuphia  liwroihiaof  Itav  aria- Sea- 
of  Frmi  h  w  st!i  (m  rman  »<•!.•  ilar-.  e-;-*  ^mjuIv  wifh  btirL'.  lb  r  nnLMi(>Iy  uppi  .ininn  nnd  !ieai!«!rt'«x 
I^eibiiitt,  o'it<  «-f  In  r  ^|»eeial  fa^oritr-.  Ilir  ili«pi»«itiiin  ahen.'itt-d  fri-m  hi  r  thi- at!Vrtl*iU>  uC 
rlainiii  to  the  ra!.i!inati*.  ho\ii-\rr,  ]'ro\i  il  dx9-  hi-r  mothi  r.  and  In  r  idniati<in  wa-«  n«.frhetcd; 
a*tr  '14  for  di  rii.nn>,  by  ri--ult;iij  in  t!ji-  div.a»'  bt:tt!iii<*c  whoprfjioMiI  ht-r  a«aion^>ri  tolliilip 
tstion  *>{  t!.  it  «<'-:!i!ry  !•)  the  ariuii  <«  of  I.*>ui4  V.  in  tlie  h>>ii*  *'\  niukii:;:  h^r  thv.r  tf^>I  werv 
XIV.  I  !•>»»  'O'i)  Mie  w  ri'!t' vuri"::-"  niemi'ir?*,  ^Ti-.iiU  dl-sq  p--i;.!i «!.  T^.i*  kin^  of  !*pain  oQ 
which  ha^c  I- I  :i  m  vi  r.i!  t.mis  trand.itnl  and  I'^vuMiinf:  a  u  .  .••■.\i  r  in  1714  ri-Mk*:!!*!  bin:%clf 

puMi-liid   \:\  Fr.i!t«'e.      Ib'r  p  •<*!hjiiii:;<i  Ii-tt- r<»     to   the   ^i.;>!ar: f  thf    Fn  lit  h  pri:ri  m  l^t* 

w«  re  al-' tr.in*!  I'i  ■!  f.--iT:i  !!.•■  (iirmnn,  ar.il  pi:b-  I'r-iii-,  lln'  f.i\t»rlte  if  lii^  lato  U  !»«^f«i  ijui-ra, 

b«htd  bv  M.  <i    I'mtut  1:1  Ki';  i:r.dir  ti.e  t.tlo  ai;d  i!i^iri«l  t.i  f<«ll.iw  hrr  athiie  in  the  chi.4 

i»f  l^*tr^a  I  .*  •■|'*'i  ,ff  it  J  rt:;ut  jutl.itit.r  nf  .1  *<iiind  w  jfi-.      The  priliro**   «i«  le*  tc<d    Lli 

KI.IZAKKIM   < '1[UI>  I  1\  A.  I]!:!!  n  i.f  IVm^-  Klh  t-n  ai  •-•■'iiit  if  hi  r  app.-iri  tit  di««;u;i*.if;i  a:i<«a 

•la,  b  »ni  tn  Hr  ;:i-\vi.  k.  N'.-i.  »».  I7l'i.  diid  .I.in,  f-r  an  f\:i!t««l  |H»-iti<':i.     lint  the  Tir^:  ai*.  i>f  t^«« 

l.'i,  17y7.     ^':'  »  I*  a  I .-::  «i -n  i-f  iiri;:>\«  n  k-  ncw  liUfin  wa.-*  l«»  1  au-M*   ihi'  dl-ni.«*ai  of  th« 

llf«trri.   a   i.i>   e  %•(   thi>  1  ti^;  ri'«i  iif  (ii.rninriy,  prlnot.-^.  a:i<i  "l<i*  ^iMt!!   cn-nfl  a  i'l'iiiphttf  u:a^ 

and  Was  *-!r"'*i.!  *.!  t?.i' f..!i.ri'  Fri  Itr.!'   ihi-  !•  rji  o^cr  }!•  r  M«-.»k;iundtil   l.u-ba:.d   ar.d  o*rr 

iireat.  Map  !j  !■».  l7:-2.     (':»rl\!i.  is:  }..-  h.-:.  rv  :h-  ii:V.i:r'«  i-f  Sp.im.     Ii\  hi-r  .ii!ibiii«>n  a;;d  ii*- 

of    FrwKri-  II..  :.  ! -r  ,    !•••,  1,,  ,),  ^  ril-i  *   l.i .-  a«  tr./-.t  %  a*.. I  ihi*  wTi  at  n  !.•  r.,%  •  nf  hrr  mii.wter, 

l^intfat  t!  at  t.'i.f  "  Ai.  u.-,;  :  !.  :'::i.-.'. -mpli  \..«n.  •!  (  .jr-t.rial  Allr*  ri-iu.  F.':r»-;»*-  »  a^  throu  n  ml*-  ••*  o- 

yMun,r  !.'.•!>■ ."  a?  d  Ir-^'.-r.  ,  «?.■■  w.*.  i-.»::ij»t!!id  f. ".":..     ^;  .»iu  tt.vi.!.  -dijinid  |»»^M^*Hin  of  1*  • 

li»  marry  h-  r  '  >  11*  f.i''H  r,  a?.'.  w!.»i  w.n  f  .•:. !»  T\  •  .^..  :!u^  hi  d  *•(  r.ir::ii  athl  l*iaeci:xa.     i'lr- 

cip|-«.-M:d  to  th«.  n.j:<  !i,  B^d  «.Z  h^r  lu  h:3  Ic-ttcri  hU-,  :u  ).Li  "  lli.<':ury  v(  Fr«l«.ric   lL«   iirrai,'* 


EUZABETH  FETROVKA  ELK                           99 

gires  s  fbll  description  of  her  qnarrels  with  the  an  ardent  supporter.    The  licentious  disorder 

emperor  Charles  Vl.,  and  characterizes  her  as  in  her  court  lasted  till  her  death.    RazumoffskL 

**a  termagant,  tenacious  woman,  whose  amhi-  successively  her  servant,  chamherlain,  and  field 

tioiis  copidities  were  not  inferior  in  ohstinacy  marshal,  finally  hecaroe  her  secret  hushand,  and 

to  Kaiser  Eari*8,  and  proved  not  quite  so  shad-  is  regarded  as  the  father  of  8  of  her  children. 

Qwj  as  bisw" The  foundation  of  the  university  of  Moscow, 

ELIZABETH  FETROVNA,  empress  of  Rus-  and  of  the  academy  of  fine  arts  at  St.  Peters- 
ut,  daughter  of  Peter  the  Great  and  Catharine  burg,  is  one  of  her  greatest  merits. 
L,  bom  in  1709,  died  Jon.  9,  1762.  After  the  ELIZABETH  STUART,  queen  of  Bohemia, 
death  of  her  parents,  her  nephew,  Peter  II.  bom  in  the  palace  of  Fidldand,  near  Edinburgh, 
(1727-^30),  son  of  the  unhappy  prince  Alexis  Aug.  16, 1696,  died  at  Leicester  House,  London, 
and  her  coosin  Anna  Ivanovna  (l7dO-'40),  Feb.  18,  1662.  She  was  a  daughter  of  James 
dioghter  of  the  elder  brother  of  Peter  the  L  of  England,  and  a  highly  accomplished  prin- 
Great,  snocessively  occupied  the  throne  of  Rus-  cess.  She  had  many  suitors,  among  whom  the 
na,  ibr  which  she  showed  little  desire,  the  pleas-  most  eminent  were  the  young  king  of  Spain, 
wes  of  love,  as  she  used  to  say,  being  her  su-  Philip  III.,  Charles  Emanuel  I.,  prince  of  Pied- 
prane  good.  Anna  appointed  Ivan,  son  of  mont,  and  Frederic,  elector  pdatine ;  but  as  a 
Anthony  Ulric,  duke  of  Brunsiirick,  a  child  but  Protestant  Frederic  was  preferred.  The  mar* 
a  few  months  old,  heir  to  the  crown  under  the  riage  was  celebrated  with  great  pomp  in  White- 
totelage  of  his  mother  Anna,  and  the  regency  hall  chapel,  Feb.  14,  1618.  To  defray  part  of 
€f  Biron,  the  favorite  of  the  empress.  Thus  the  expense  of  the  ceremonies  the  kin^  levied 
EUaibeth  was  for  a  third  time  excluded  from  new  taxes  to  the  extent  of  £20,600.  The  total 
the  throne  of  her  father,  but  even  her  freedom  expense  amounted  to  about  £58,000,  exclusive 
wis  now  menaced  by  the  jealousy  of  the  mother  of  the  bride's  portion  of  £40,000.  Her  husband 
of  the  infant  czar,  who  wished  to  get  rid  both  of  was  the  head  of  the  Protestant  interest  in  Ger- 
the  regent  and  the  princess,  and  advised  the  lat-  many,  and  when  in  1619  the  crown  of  Bohemia 
tBt  to  take  the  reiL  Under  these  circumstances  was  tendered  to  him,  she  urged  his  acceptance 
her  anrgeon  and  favorite,  Lestocq,  brought  of  it,  with  the  remark  that  he  should  not  have 
about  a  conspiracy,  which  being  seconded  by  married  a  king's  daughter  if  he  had  not  the  cour- 
tbe  laTor  of  the  national  Russian  party,  and  the  age  to  become  himself  a  king.  Her  entrance 
intrignes  of  the  ambassador  of  Louis  aV.,  tcr-  into  Prague  and  her  coronation  were  mogni- 
rain^ted  in  a  military  insurrection,  the  over-  ficent  pageants,  but  her  sovereignty  soon  camo 
throw  of  Anna  and  Ivan,  and  the  proclamation  to  an  end.  The  imperialist  forces  advanced  into 
of  Elizabeth  as  empress  (Dec.  1741).  Anna  and  Frederic's  hereditary  dominions,  and  into  Bo- 
her  husband,  as  well  as  numerous  other  victims,  hernia,  and  after  the  battle  of  Prague  (Nov.  8, 
vere  punished  by  confinement,  and  the  young  1620)  ho  and  his  queen  were  compelled  to  flee, 
prince  imprisoned  in  the  fortress  of  SchlQssel-  A  refuge  was  offered  to  them  by  the  prince  of 
Mrg,  which  he  never  again  left ;  while  the  sue-  Orange,  at  the  Hague,  where  most  of  her  chil- 
eessive  favorites  of  Elizabeth,  like  herself  desti-  dren  were  born.  One  of  her  sons  was  the  prince 
tate  of  character  and  talent,  ruled  the  court  and  Rupert,  so  well  known  in  the  history  of  the 
EosBa.  Her  vanity  equalled  her  gross  sensu-  English  civil  wars.  Iler  youngest  child,  Sophia, 
ifity ;  but  though  sometimes  exceedingly  cruel  afterward  electress  of  Hanover,  and  ancestress 
ad  barbarous,  she  often  showed  humanity,  and  of  the  present  English  royal  family,  was  bom 
cm  generosity.  Subsequently  some  abler  Rus-  in  1630,  shortly  after  the  birth  of  her  nephew, 
■ns  obtained  the  management  of  affairs,  among  Charles  II.  Shortly  before  her  death  Elizabeth 
thm  BomanzofE^  Bestoujelf,  and  Woronzoff.  resided  for  about  6  months  in  the  house  of  Lord 
Fiter,  son  of  her  deceased  elder  sister  Anna,  Craven,  whose  acquaintance  she  made  after  the 
docheaB  of  Holstein-Gottorp,  was  appointed  heir  death  of  her  husband  (1632),  and  with  whom 
to  the  throne.  A  war  with  Sweden  was  hap-  she  lived  on  terms  of  the  greatest  intimacy.  Her 
ijBy  conducted,  and  terminated  in  the  peace  of  charms  ore  celebrated  by  Sir  Henry  Wotton,  in 
Ibo  (1743).  A  plot  against  her  was  detected  his  famous  linos  beginning:  *^  Tou  meaner  beau- 
ad  punished.       An  army  sent  to  assist  the  ties  of  the  night." 

■HaiHfl  Maria  Theresa  ^against  Frederic  the  ELK,  a  N.  "W.  co.  of  Penn.,  traversed  by 
Qnatoontribnted  to  the  conclusion  of  the  peace  Clarion  river,  its  branches,  and  some  other 
if  AizlftChapelle  (1748).  Having  been  cruelly  small  streams;  area,  about  800  sq.  m.;  pop.  in 
Mortified  by  a  sarcasm  of  the  witty  Prussian  1850,  3,631.  The  surface  is  broken  by  many 
Ifag,  Elizabeth  allied  herself  against  him  with  hills  and  rough  mountain  peaks,  the  principal  of 
iatria  slid  France  in  the  7  years'  war,  and  which  is  Elk  mountain,  in  the  southern  part. 
Iv  armies,  under  Apraxin,  Fermor,  Soltikofl^  The  county  is  occupied  chiefly  by  thick  forests, 
ad  Botorliny  contributed  not  a  little  to  the  dis-  and  lumber  is  the  most  important  article  of  ex- 
tana  of  tiie  idmost  belated  Prussian  monarch,  port.  Bituminous  cool  is  found  in  great  abnn- 
1^  won  the  htMes  of  Gross  Jugemdorf  and  dance.  The  soil  is  better  adapted  to  grazing 
Xmendorf^  took  Colberg,  and  even  occupied  than  to  the  culture  of  grain;  in  1850  it  pro- 
Bvfin.  The  death  of  the  empress  not  only  duced  10,776  bushels  of  Indian  corn,  24,040 
itid  Frederic  from  a  dangerous  enemy,  but  also  of  oats,  26,656  tons  of  hay,  and  81,755  lbs.  of 
to  ^vo  him  in  her  successor,  Peter  III.,  butter.    There  were  8  churches,  1  newspaper 


100  £LK 

office,  and  415  [mpiN  attondinir  pnMic  FohcMild.  pA54iH]  the  porioc]  of  irroatcftt  visor;  in  r*It]  &nd 

llie  crifiiitjr  w&«  ur^raiii/ril  iri  iKt:;,  and  iioxnod  vi^iiroun  atiiiiial'«  tlivy  are  pheJ  in  IVcvrulicr. 

from  Kik  inciiiitaiti.     ('upitnl.  Ki>!p-w.iy.  but  tdudk  atiMnal.i  ioiiictiinvs  rarrj  Uicin  until 

ELK,  a  namv  ppiju-rly  applii-il  x**  t]i(.>  air i no  Mun-h.     llio  l>t  inner  lirtinch  K'^rius  alH>at  9 

division  lift  lie  dcc-r  nriln.-  Miituy  n-i^ioiH.  t<»  tlio  inrhis  from  tlio  base;  tlu*  palin^  aiv  itt^vn  un* 

gcnu«i  ff/<*^  (II.  >n)itli).     In  tlii<4  Lrmu^  tlio  uiiu-  like  nn  the  ri^ht  and  lift  !«iilc«>.  and arv channel- 

slc  M  vt-rr  Iroud,  aiid  ruvi-rcil  u  it!i  li.iir*  except  Kd  irre^rulnrly  i>n  lM»th  M)rf:Mre<* ;  iLeir  rulor  is 

a  iiuiall  b.ire  ^put  in  front  nf  the  n<i->trIU:  the  brtiunishydluw,  with  tlieeiidivvllnwish  white, 

upper  lip  13  4  iiithi-s  I>in;:er  than  the  lower,  and  TUv  i  mi -tor  teeth,  (i  in  the  loiwr  jaw  only,  ara 

answtni  f<»r  prclieii'*ile  MirpDst:*;   the  mrk  is  guukv-like  and  very  white;  the  oyca  on:  blark; 

thickand^h'•^t,  and  the  th rout  >ome what  nt ailed  tht-   no*«e,  fnn-head,  and   u|i|H:r  lip  ye1Iowi«li 

in  both  M'Xe:);  the  hair  i-  i-u;ir<\  thick,  and  fawn:  the  Mdvs  of  tlte  heail  yellow i^h  bniwa; 

brittle;    the   Lind   le^A   h:ive  the  tuft  of  h:iir  the  general  culur  above  \arie:»  f rum  bLickiah  to 

rather  ab«>ve   tho  middle  of  the   U)itatar<iiH ;  ashy   ^Tay ;    KIow    li^'hter,  witli   a  yi-IIowuh 

the  hvni*  in  the  niah-!^  are  broad  and  pal  mated  ;  white  tinfre.    In  winter  tlie  color  'n  darker,  and 

the  tail  is  vhL'rt.     T!ie  u*t9<*  eaviiy  in  ilie  ^kull  in  advanced  atv  m>  dark  a^  to  nu-rit  the  nanM 

Li  Very  lar^^o,  reathin^  po-tcriorly  to  alineover  friven  to  it  by  H.  Smith,  *Mhc  American  black 

the  front  of  tlic  iiit> !:ir'4 ;  the  lon^  intermaxilla-  elk;**  the  ^n-ayish  are  ^aid  to  l>o  the  larpttt, 

rics  dt>  not  reiK-h  Vt  the  very  sh«»rt  mknid?*.    Tho  reai-hint?  a  hei^dit  of  7  or  8  feet.     In  summer 

hurnM  havf  noba*»id  mm,  the  liri^  brnneli  K'ini;  the  hair  i'*  !*hort  and  ;«(jft,  in  winter  longer  and 

eonAideniblv  a^'ove  the  r.-uwn.     The  youn^r  nre  very  eoar>i\  with  a  tine  bhort  woul  neit  the 

not  (ii^otti-tf,  but  ct.ili>red  like  tho  adult.     Elks  ^kin.     M<mko  are  Hot  uncommon  in  the  no rtbem 

live  in  tlie  woikI^  in  the  northern  part-  of  }H»th  partn  of  Maine,  and  in  (\inada,  Nova  So^tia, 

continent%  but  the  Amvr.ean  i:i  by  H>mo  c<in-  and  I^ibrador,  e«i fecial! y  in  m* inter.     In  ^umn^er 

■idercfl  a  di>tinct  F{Kcies  from  the  Kuro]Kuii.  they  freipient  lakesi  and  riven  to  (ras  thorn* 

The    true    American   elk,  or  mon-e  (a^   it  id  selves  from  iuMM't  |Hriits,  aitd  feed  upon  water 

univer!>ally  cdled  here),  aUr  Af/uri'-itnus  (,l:ir-  plants  and  the  teniler  branched  of  o^erhangiof 

dine),  exixi'd.4  all  other  exi-tin^  deer  in   kzo  tr^v*:.     In  the  winter  they  retire  to  the  elevated 

mnd»tren^'th,  and  unitet  tu  ^Teat  i»2>eid  renmrk-  riil^re^  abundantly  pn>vided  with   maple   and 

able  powers  of  emlurauce;  it  is  as  lar^rc  an  a  other  hard-wo«id  trees  •'»  the  twipi  and  bark 

borH*,  htaiidin^'o  feet  hi^'h  at  the  ."houldern,  and  (»f  which  tliey  ftHMl.     Ity  the  eIon^'ate<l  i!p(«r 

neasuriij^  alxiut  7  feet  fri»m  noM)  to  tail;  tho  lip  they  pull  down  the  branehe<,  which  ther 

len^'th  of  the  latter  is  uUmt  afixit;  the  wei;;ht  hold  with  t!ieir  fore  lep*  until  the}  are  ntripf^d 

of  the  hor!i.-i  varic*  fro?:i  4r>  to  7'J  lb<..  auil  that  of  the  twi^'-i ;  the  bark  tliey  peel  off  by  inclod- 

of  the  aniujal  from  ^  to  I 'J  ewt.     The  miHKM.«  U  in;;  it  Ktweeu  the  haril  pad  on  the  r«N>f  of  the 

anawkwanl,  cliim>y.  and  di>p!-i*pi»rtiuned  crca-  mouth  and  the  lower  inrixtrs.     In  winter  tl<ej 

tare,  tliou^'h  from  it"*  ?i/e  it  )H><.x.>«e.s  a  certain  truad  down  tin*  miow,  furmintf  what  ori*  called 

majesty  wlien  Mx-n  amid  tl.i-  wild  M-ei^-ry  of  its  **yanl\'*  in  n!ii<  li  are  fTenerally  found  a  male« 

favorite  haunt<     Tlio  he:ul  i.-*  t«-»  larpe  in  pro-  female,  and  -  lawns;  n*i  the  treen  are  .-tripped 

{lortiun  t"  the  bf.>4ly  for  any  preten-ion  to  the  they  tn-ad  down  fri"-!!  hnow,  aikd  they  are  fond 

pymnietry  u-ually  «e«n  in  the  ib-er  family;  tl;o  of  p'in^  alwav<»  in  the  same  trai  k^.    They  pre- 

lonfT,  fnuid,  and  ino^aMe  upper  l:p  pv^s  to  tho  fer  the  twin's  cf  the  maple,  w  il!*>w.  button W(.H«d, 

face  »iimeH  hat  of  an  e<|uine  expre%>iiin.  ai.d  tho  birrh,  and  a-peii,  and  ^'ra><H.'« ;  in  raptivitv  tlie? 

heavy  ear^i,  more  tlian  a  foot  lon^',  aredei-ididly  will  eut  tl:e  ii*'A  of  di>nK>tir  rattle.     TlioC^h 

vinlni*.     Audub'<a   h3.t>:  "'ihe  h<'a>l  lorriMy  tin  ir  tU-'^h  i:«  ci'arM-,  it  ii  e^te«-mid  by  huuten; 

rvmibl^  u-of  that  of  anenonnout  j:i«  ka^«.*'  11:0  t!ie  noxr  i>r  ntuflle  i.s  a  s|K,-('i:d  favorite,  li«.':3g 

ejev  are  •Ki  p-M.at«-d  and  eoniparati\e!y  ^malI;  rieh,   pIatinou\  ainl  juii*y,  when  roi>ked  like 

nnd^r  the  thri-at  tlure  i-*  in  l»-th  MXe^  a  tufl  ca'.fV  l.iml;  the  hJeak-*  are  juicy,  itti-n  tender* 

of  cuar^*  bristly  hair  att.ir!!*  d  to  a  i>enduIoiiA  but  -iMom  fiit  ;  the  tle^h  of  vvarlirip*  i«  alna^i 

SJi'l.  whiih  Is  niiixt  ri'ii^pxruoiiH  in  thi*}niin^.  preferred;  the  toiipio  is  niuih  rili-hitL.  as  ore 

e  h'inii  oru  f^uiid  in  t}ie  m.ili-o  onh,  and  re-  the  f.itt}  appendafre;*  to  the  lur^*e  inte^tir.ca.  bjr 

quin*  5  \ears  f  r  their  full  deVi!'«;  ni«  nt ;  tl.ey  the  k»t  :i  iijittitei  of  the  liunt^rn,  iKl.oa!«<  c»..n- 

lM.f;'in  V*  sprint  in   April,  and  complete  their  iider  the  n;:irrow  w:irm  from  the  ^!.al.k   U  a«« 

vruvvth  in  July  ;  the  \<  \ear  tht  y  are  aNiut  an  on  exeelUnt  >'jb«ti!nte  i»r  butter  un  their  Irv^d. 

Inrhloi*:;  the 'Jd  year.  4  ur  6  im  hes,  uith  |>«T-  T!ie  nn-iiM.'  tri>t<i.  run*.  arA  j.im|»«  with  frxxl 

baps  a  r'<*limi.-n!arv  piint;  the  Tid  }e:ir,  ab-  ut  *J  i|H*iHl,  pa^-in;;  {hri>uj:]i  »i-e::iir.;:Iy  ini)Hrt  tr^lte 

inchc<s  «a(h  tlividin,;  into  a  roin.d  frk;  in  tho  tniikets  ar.<l  over  bri'K«  n  ^To-.m  I  iKitJinut  ap- 

4th  Viur  t?.ey  lH.-ct>ni>'  |  :u::)a'.«-*l.  \ii:h  abr^'W  i>:ireni   r?V>>rt;    it  fwini!i  ntll,   with   I'l  N    :Le 

ar«t!er  ai.d  ^  it  4  iiiints;  ui.d  lln'  riili  }t:ir  t!iiy  Lead  and  ]-:ir:  of  the  ne<  k  aN'Ve  water;  it  is 

have   2  rniwn  Mi:Ier<«  and  4  «r  u  Jm  ii;*,;  uitvT  never  kvH  hke  the  n  indeer  on  the  lev,  rXOipt 

tL>  or.e  or  two  p,.i:.!*  are  a-Mi-*!  a!:nuxi,v.  up  fri'M  a!-clti',e  iJice**ity ;  when  walkin;:  t-n  ca- 

tu  ai  mnny  a.s  'J^i,  with  an  expanse  si::j<.t:':ies  trinlib  n  -now  its  fit  t  pnemlly  «:t.L  i:.:o  ii  to 

of  bear!}  C  f,.,i  t.i  i!.v  •  it-iije  i-f  the  tip^  wi:!i  th><  jrp'Und.     It-i  ^^nM'  of  *ni.Il  i^  \trT  acJte. 

Ibe  palm  a  f-xit  iiii>le  within  the  |iii:.t-s  ar.il  a  and  en.i!'leo  it  to  i!i  teet  an  i::eny  a!  a  ;r«  xt 

eirciimference  aU<vc  the  burr  of 'J  inihti*.     The  dintaniv;  the  br>-aki:ip;  of  t!ie  Miui!i*t  tw:^  i« 

bor&i  diUiiuUh  iu  auv  after  tbo  ouiinol  Los  KUlicieiit  to  startle  it  liviu  ill  hiding  pUctc.    Tlic 


ELK  101 

pairing  season  begins  in  September;  daring  Oo-  step,  with  a  sonnd  which  may  be  heard  at  a 
tober  the  males  become  furious,  fighting  each  considerable  distance ;  a  part  of  the  sound  is 
other  whenever  thejr  meet ;  thejr  run  noisily  said  to  be  made  by  the  hoofs  striking  against 
throQgh  the  woods,  and  swim  lakes  and  nvers  each  other.    According  to  Hamilton  Smith,  the 
in  pnrsoit  of  the  female ;  at  this  time  it  is  dan-  Teutonic  name  elend  (miserable)  was  applied  to 
geroQs  for  the  banter  to  approach,  as  they  do  this  animal  from  its  supposed  frequent  attacks 
not  hesitate  to  attack  him.    The  young  are  bom  of  epilepsy,  while  its  falls  are  really  attributable 
in  M^jt  the  first  time  one,  and  2  annually  after-  to  its  tripping  itself  up  by  treading  on  its  fore 
ward;  the  females  are  also  very  fierce  in  de-  heels,  the  elevated  position  of  the  nose,  with 
fence  of  their  calves.     The  m^es  are  called  the  horns  laid  horizontally  on  the  back,  pre- 
boUs  and  the  females  cows.    The  proper  times  venting  it  from  seeing  the  ground  distinctly  be- 
Ibr  hunting  the  moose  are  in  March  and  Sep-  fore  it    The  European  elk  seems  to  attain  a 
tember ;  in  the  latter  month  the  animals  are  m  size  equal  to  that  of  the  moose,  measuring  6  feet 
their  prime,  and  in  the  former  they  are  most  high  at  the  shoulder.    The  period  of  life  is  said 
easily  t^en  on  account  of  the  sharp  crust  im-  to  be  about  20  years.    Pennant  states  that  elks 
pc£ng  their  progress  through  the  snow.    In  were  once  nscd  to  draw  sledges  in  Sweden,  and 
noBtin^  them  in  March,  a  few  small  curs  are  that  they  conld  travel  over  200  miles  a  dav;  their 
QMfnl  m  worrying  tbe  animal  and  delaying  him  hide  makes  excellent  leather  for  belts  and  cover- 
iDitQ  the  hnnter  comes  up ;  it  is  useless  to  pur-  ings  for  the  feet.   Though  most  authors  have  re- 
RW  them  through  soft  snow,  which  offers  no  garded  the  American  and  European  elks  as  the 
iin|>ediment  unless  it  be  deep,  when  the  hunter  same,  Agassiz  has  described  the  former  as  dis- 
ean  easDy  overtake  them  on  snow-shoes.    Many  tinct,  with  the  specific  name  lobatus^  from  differ- 
are  ahot  from  canoes  on  moonlight  nights  in  ences  in  the  shape  of  tbe  nose,  the  form  and 
September;  the  hunter  imitates  the  call  of  the  branching  of  the  horns,  and  other  points.    Sir 
BHUe,  which,  angry  at  the  supposed  intrusion  of  John  Richardson  (in  the  "Fossil  Mammals^*  of  the 
a  rival,  rushes  to  the  water^s  edge  to  fight  him,  "  Zoology  of  II.  M.  S.  Ilerald'*)  also  considers  the 
and  meets  instead  the  fatal  bullet  of  his  con-  species  distinct,  calling  the  American  ^.mtMtoa/ 
eealed  foe.    Slip-nooses  attached  to  strong  sap-  he  compares  the  skeletons  carefully,  and  men- 
lings,  bent  down  in  the  moose  paths  to  the  wa-  tions,  among  other  characters,  that  the  breadth 
tar,  win  occasionally  entrap  a  victim.   The  most  of  the  face  at  the  most  protuberant  part  of  the 
exciting  and  most  successful  way  is  to  start  them  maxillary  bones  is  less  in  the  American  than  in 
from  their  yards,  and  pursue  them  over  the  snow,  the  European  elk;  if  they  be  regarded  as  tho 
"When  wounded  and  brought  to  bay,  they  defend  same,  tho  proper  name  would  bo  A,  Americanus 
themselves  fiercely,  striking  with  their  fore  feet  (Jardino).    Tho  name  of  elk  is  applied  in  this 
and  horns ;  they  will  frequently  turn  upon  the  country  to  the  wapiti  {c^rvus  Canad4:nsis,  Briss.^ 
honter  when  not  wounded,  and  force  him  to  fiy  which  should  bo  called  tho  American  stag ;  this 
for  hb  life.   Moose  have  been  domesticated,  and  name  is  also  given  by  tho  British  sportsmen  in 
tKigJit  to  draw  carts  and  sledges,  but  during  the  India  to  some  of  tho  rusa  or  samboo  door ;  so 
ratting  season  they  become  perfectly  intractable;  that  it  is  necessary  to  consider  tho  country  of 
if  necessary,  they  might  perhaps  be  mado  as  the  animal  before  deciding  on  tho  meaning  of 
osefol  to  semi-civilized  man  as  tho  reindeer,  tho  word  "  elk." — ^There  aro  many  fossil  species 
Thdr  geographical  distribution  is  extensive ;  called  elks,  as  tho  fossil  or  Irish  elk  (C,  gigan^ 
they  have  been  found  at  the  mouths  of  tho  Mac-  teus^  Cuv.),  found  in  the  diluvial  strati  of  Eu- 
kense  and  Coppermine  rivers,  on  tho  eastern  rope,  and  especially  in  tho  peat  bogs  of  Ireland ; 
dope  of  the  RocKy  mountains  at  the  sources  of  this  species  was  of  great  size,  with  an  enonnous 
Qk  river,  and  in  Oregon ;  on  the  eastern  coast  development  of  horns,  which,  resembling  those 
tiieyare  found  from  Labrador  to  northern  New  of  the  elk  in  their  broad  palmations,  differed  in 
Ea^and  and  New  York,  their  southern  limit  the  size  and  low  situation  of  tho  basal  antlers; 
•»«wiinr>  to  be  43^  30'.    As  in  all  other  deer  of  in  other  parts  of  tlio  skeleton  it  resembled  most 
cold  and  mountainous  regions,  there  is  consider-  the  stags.    Another  species,  found  in  tho  peat 
aUe  diversity  in  the  size  of  the  body  and  tho  bogs  and  upper  tertiary  of  Franco  and  Germany, 
horns  of  the  moose,  according  to  tho  abundance  seems  to  have  been  a  gigantic  fallow  deer.   The 
€f  fi>od  in  the  places  inhabited  by  them. — ^The  fossil  elk  described  by  II.  do  Meyer,  from  the 
EvDpean  elk  (-4.  malchUy  Ogilby)  was   once  diluvium  of  Europe,  differed  from  tho  living 
fanid  between  the  53d  and  65th  degrees  of  lat-  animal  in  tho  form  of  its  forehead.    A  fossil  elk 
itade,  in   Prussia,  Poland,  Sweden,  Norway,  (C,  Americanus\  allied  to  tho  wapiti,  has  been 
aad  Russia,  but  is  rarely  s«en  at  present  ex-  found  in  tho  United  States,  with  tho  bones  of  the 
ecpt  in  the  most  northern  of  these  countries;  mastodon.    Tho  fossil  «^^rt Mm m??^,  described  by 
fa  Asiatic  Siberia  it  is  also  found.    The  ap-  Cautley  and  Falconer,  from  the  Sewalik  hills  of 
Marance  is  the  same  as  that  of  tho  moose;  the  lower  Himalaya  range,  seems  in  many  re- 
Dom  its  long  legs  and  overhanging  lips  tho  old  spects  to  have  resembled  tho  moose ;  tho  form 
aMliora  thought  that  it  grazed  walking  back-  of  tho  head  and  its  size  lead  to  the  belief  that 
vard.    From  the  great  height  of  tho  shoulders  it  was  clephant-liko  in  the  cellular  prominences 
Aore  the  crupper  its  gait  is  awkward  and  of  its  posterior  portion ;  tho  face  was  short,  and 
Aoffling,  and  when  running  fast  tho  hind  limbs  the  nasal  bones  were  raised  into  an  arch  over 
■t  very  wide  apart ;  its  joints  crack  at  every  the  external  nostrils,  indicating  tho  probable 


102  ELKUART  ELLERT 

cxi^tonco  of  a  tmnk;  wo  mo  the  nppor  lip  of  tnon  oppo«od  to  liim.    In  190t  ho  wfta  appoint- 

Die  tiiiHi^i  vl>ii:;:«tol  u;<*u  into  h  kimluf  ]>r(.h(.n-  cd  fttt<inu-v-);;i'ncrul,  and  in  1*^<''2  lie  ^nowded 

•ilu  priilHii'.M^;  tlio  Ik'IiI  iru4  it]«ii  artiu-d  ui:h  IaihI   Konynii   an  cliii.'f  jii-tico   of  the    king'i 

S  nprt-afiin,;  hl»rn^  ariMrf*  uhuvc  mA  U'twft-n  Wm  h,  on  which  (toi*.aM>.)U  he  wai  cicvatc-i  to 

the  itrhit.o;  tlu*  imJiir  t«-oi!i  nri*  t-ntin-lv  liko  thv  {I'ora^v  a<«  Hariin  KIIi.iiU^n»U(;h.    IIo  rctirrd 

th<>i«*(>f  niminiuits;  tho  uiitinur  fxtrfi!iiiif<i  (i)f  fr^m  th<>  hiMuh  a  fi-w  woi-k.'t  prvriouA  to  hii 

whirli  «';istH  c\'K  in  the  i':ibiiii-t  of  tho  it>i<t<»n  d^-ath.— Ki>WAi:i)  Law,  1>t  varl  of,  an  Knj;!Uh 

focictv  fif  natural  history)  itnlii.iti*  an  aiiiinal  htaicsnian,  Hi^n  v(  tlio  priocdin^.  born  Sept.  8, 

of  the  >izo  f.<f  ularhjif  ricphant.    Tho  a:.itn:il  wos  IT'JO.     IK*  wai   vduratrd  at    Eti>ii   and  at  i^L 

linditnhttillT  a  r;iuinai:t,  i«  ilh  tl.v  pai  liVili-rm  Ji^hit's  rullcp^  Cambr'ul^i*.  whi-ro  he  wad  in'ad- 

charuitipi  of  a  hi.avy  fi>n!).  »h<<rt    nvtk,  and  uati-d  in  ]>«i/*J.     ShiTtly  afterward  ho  iDtorcd 

probably  a  pp.>b<^s<-:^;  in  like  niar.ijir  tlio  ruiiii*  parliament  an  a  nii'ndK-r  fi'r  the  iiow  di^fran- 

Dai:t  n](H-<»o  drparts  from  the  dii-r  fai:i;]y,  anit  chiM-'il  bonni^'h  of  M.  Mic!iaers.     Itiin^  a  tirra 

ftpproarhi't  th'?  parhjdLTMi*  ii-j'*.fiallv  the  t-^ui-  advin-ate  uf  liTv  principles  and  a  flueiit  •►waker, 

OCT  J  in  itH  ntovablo  ibm^rated  Miont,  Iimi,;  cur*',  uinih  tho  ULVi'««ii»n  of  the  duko  i>f  Wellic^-too 

mnd  peniTal  -ItaiH*  uf  th**  head  and  body.  t«t  utiliv.  in  l*»:!s,  hi*  was  app«<inti^i  l^rd  \tWj 

KI.KHAItT.  a  N.  i*>t.  i>f  Ind.,  bfrderlne:  on  ^n!.     Iiurin^  the  aiIniini!»tration  of  Sir  ItoU-rt 

Ifich.,  and  wik'.LTid  by  Si.  JuMph^  ami   Klk-  Teel,  in  ls;i-'.\  he  Uramo  preMdent  i-f  tho 

hart  ri\ers  w!iiih  unite  wit  hi  !i  it:4  b( 'piers;  area,  board  i>f  (tinlri'l  and  firi^t  romnii-riioDLT  uf  Is- 

4C7  Ni.  III.:  I^p.  in  IWO,  IJ.i'.yo.     'Iho  h'lrfaco  dimi  affair^,  an  ftVjre  to  whiih  ho  waa  reap- 

biniKlerati  !\  nni-^iU  atiddiv\r«i7led  by  prairie<t,  iN<ii.ted  in  Sept.  l*»4l,  U|Hin  the  cun-^rxaiiv* 

oak  iipiiiiiv*-.  and  M-veral  !«'n;ul  I.ikesi.     The  Huil  triiitiiph  of  th:it  year.     A  few  wiek^  a()cniiari 

b  fertile,  and  tl^o  pnKlnrtiiinA   in    lN*iit  \\ero  ho  \\a.<*  apiM/inteil  to  Mnvct-d  Liird  Auckland  aa 

87«».U7;J   br.-!ifN   of   Indian   e.  rn,    ITl.TlC   of  p-jw-rnur-jroneral  «'f  India.     lie  arrived  in  i'al- 

wheat,  l>i4.l*4'>  uf  uat^  and  ^.2*^7  t  ^ns  of  hay.  cuita  in  Feb.  1^12,  and  in  April.  1^44,  he  wm 

Thore  Were  10  chtirelies  1  neu«|ai*ir  o!l:i-e,  and  rciulicd  by  tho  board  of   KoaI   India  dirvc:or<| 

l,S<>i   pi:piU  'aitvnilin;;    piiblio    •«i-hiiul.4.     Tho  ronirary  tu  the  \\  i-hes  of  ihu  cabinet.     I>ur;i.j 

count)  Iia«  coninrinication  with  Tuledi*.  (*hira-  hU  adnii:ii<»trAtii'n  S'inilo  wa-i  annei«.d  to  the 

fti,  and  otlier  plai'i-^,  by  tlio  Miclii^'uu  !Hint!ii  ru  Kri'.i-h  dotuinion^^  und  (iwulior  reihi«vi!  Vi  »ul>- 

Bxid    nortiiern    Ii:>liana   railroad,    whivh  pii^.-n-s  jeiiion;    but   In*   w^i^   rh:;rt*cil  with   fxot.^t:^^ 

tlin)U;:h  ilii'^heti,  tl'ie  capital.  -  Kl.kiunr,  a  pi«t  tenderne<^i  for  the  native  triNtp^  tu  the   Iie^-ic«  t 

Tilhuie  anil  towiL-^hip  of  the  abiVe  rounty,  at  t!io  ol'  the  etiiployei-i  in   tho  civil  •H.rvire;  \ii:.t  i»- 

c«»itlui'!ii  I*  i>f  the  St.  .loMph'.f  and  LIkl.art  riv-  .tnin^'  prviclaiiiatii>n<4  whiih  M^med  ti»  «.\nt*li^•n 

ci^,  l*''i  ni.  N.  frt.'Mi  Indiunap*  lin;  |N*p.  of  tlio  iibilatry;  and  vith  oth>  r  tjue^tiur.able  a<  :^  m 

town*!iip  in  l^-'o,  l.«|">3.     It  i^  tho  priticipal  en-  hi:*  otiicial  ruputity.     I 'p"U  h>'«  return  to  Kl;- 

trep'il  I'Tlhi*  eip<  rt*  of  tho  couijty,  l»  ii.;^  t-'iUi-  lainl,  ln-HtVir,  he  was  treatid  an  earl.  aX;  1   la 

atiil  on  the  !in*.' L-f  tiiC  Micbi^'an   M'Titl.ein  mpI  1^4*i  w  ai   appiiiiite'l    tlr>t    l^rd    of   the    atl'.:  i- 

norilurn  Indiana  r:t:Irt>a>L  ami  havii:^  c<>!iir;-.uni-  ralty,  wliirh  iii!ii'e   he  hiM  tor  a  f i.  w    ?L.<:t:^ 

ca!i-*n  by  njiMiL^i't'the  ri\er  witii  Lake  M:<  }.i/an.  only.     lb.  renia'i!i*-d  init  <Y  of!!i'f  i::.*.I  !*.e  I'  r- 

Kl.KH<»I:N.   the  c.i.nty  sMt   of    W-iImclh  inalion  »f  the  I>i  rl-y  eahiiiet  i:;  Kb.  l-*'-*.  w  hin 

C",  ^^  I-..  12  i:j.  N    !>-i:i  tho  liiiniii-*  -la'.o  lino,  he   ajjain   bec.in.e    pre^id«M   if  tJ.v  b..ird  of 

4  in.   W.  I*:-'»;i   Lake   .Mi.  !.i^'ai:,  at  thi-  iun<'*.lon  ri-i.tP-l.       In   the   ^•:l  rtcliii^    Mav    a  di>:iat.  h 

of  tho  Ita-  i:»i-   a!.>l   Mi«^i  "ppi  ai.tl   Wi-  oi,%:ii  from  Lord  Kllen'-i.r.  .ii;?!  l.t  1.1  »rd  i'.k!.7;in^',  ,:'.v- 

Ctflitral  r.i.Ir'»ail-.  al.'d  •■:!  the  .N'.  ^  Jeof  tli^  };;k-  orni'r-;;envral  i-f  Ih-h:i.  >:roi:^';_\    n.ni.Vn.r.at-  TX 

Lo.''n  pra.rii  ;  p  tj-.  in  l"'-'^.  nb-w  l,.%oii.    In  tho  of  tlio  pr  <  lai-irvti-'n  i-f  the  ia!i».r  c  i.:.*.  ..:.:.^ 

•ame  \i  ar  i*.  ha>l  a  larpTi-  nn>I  wi  11  lini^lnd  «->ii;rt  the  i>r>'perty  ot'  the  iMtl^i  <i  of  (^n!,-,  \\a*  i:.a<:e 

h-'-SM-.  >r.i"l,  lire  pro* 'f  I  -^iinry  •■:!;■  i-,  4  i  !ii:ri  !m  ",  p'lhj- .  and  t  !■  it*  •!  >•<  h  aiiitnailvir-:'  ri.  that  .  n 

la.Vi-   rii;!n>ad   bu.ld;l.g^  a:.d  i4'j:;ur<i:iH  .^toreri  th«-  ll!!i   ol'  the  ni 'ntii.  uAi  r  \^[.i!r-.i:i:.^   h»« 

auil  pub!:--  h>>::u.<i.  rour^e  in  a  ^ptcc!t  in   the  h«  ':-e  i-f   !■:«!«.   he 

Kl.l.  ai:ii.;-"«re  i-f  !•  ri/!h  in  ^.iriiM^  I  .ii:r.:rii4,  an:.>'Ut.ied    th.it    ra:lnr   th.'^n    ixj-i-e   h.-*    i-I- 

ii*«  d  'hittly  !  -r  I '.!■!*  ".  I  I..:.-,  -iIV.-.  a::  I  -;t.i.'.ar  Ka,::i«  ■*  In   the  i  •i.-'-.iro  *f  ]>arl. ..!:.•  i.t   !..•    l.*! 

fa:  rii  «.       "J  !ie   •'!   K:  i:'.i-:i    i-*    I'l    i:.  he-.   «r  5  n  »:^'i.«  d  his  « :*:«  e.     Tho«ar!»t  I  »t  r*  \  «^.  1  thit 

quirtiTSi  tho«!:  I'li  :m;-)i  i*7  i:.c!..  ^,  •.  r  il  r^.^ir-  the   ri -i^natioii  had  b«tn  a-ijtid  w.'.h  ri,r\i. 

U-r*  ,   thi-  S...tih  I '■  ■■.7."«»  ii!-h»^.  b-.j*.  a  liMi'.riil  tJiur  !u- f.i;,-iiK  ri -1  thi»  \::\\.   ..'..a 

KI.I.KNII*  »K' 'li'Il.    Ki-i«.u::i    I.\w.  1  ir.-!!,  i'l':h»  ih-pa'.i  ii  prt'.n.iTurr  ji;.d  i:_:'h»  .•  -* 
fhiif  j  :4:i.o  ■?':!. o  •■■•:::  »ffc.' /- 1 .  I.  !i  in  K- ^•-         KI.I.MiY,  Wn  i  mm.  •:.•■•  fth.  -  ^:.».r-«    trhe 

lai:d.  !'  r*i  bt  <ir'-t  "^-lii.- !■!,  '' r  .Vt  rhji-!,  N    v.  Aim  iii  »•»  •'.!  •  l.ir.i'..  •:!  i.i"  i: 'ii  ;•«  :i'i- i..  • .  '.    r*.  .n 

lfi.17:.  ■  .:.!::.  I..  •.!■!..  1  •. ..  I...  I-l»*.    lb  w.^^  N".  wp..rt.  K    1..  1».    .  L'l  i::7.  -hei  :h. -t.  K- ' . 

edi- A?!  i!  ar  !h.    tj.arti  rh  ■;;-   f'- '.  ir.  I  •■•.-i  ■:.,  1'.  1-J".      lb   w  ;ii  pTr.nhia'.t  d  ..:   H.Lr\  .:..       !- 

ai.<!  .»:  **•   !'■  :•  •"'  i-!It,r'-,  <  a-  .1  :.!,:••.  a?.-!  '.:\-:i  b  kV  iM  !7t7.  at.-l  i"..r  a  i.  ;:n*«  r  i  f  }» ..•-   uf\r 

b«-. I. i-ailt  ■!:■■!!!■  !-.ir  •»■■'•.  }f  .k'- ».•?:.:«:.*.;:.  h.-*  h.-  i.  arri.ije.    w].-..h   t^-K    )!..<■    s:.    IT.'-*.  *■  «♦ 

prof  -- ■  v     U.' a^.  i:- ^  a*  a 'u^^,w^  .»■.!•;•  ,',.1  r  i '.■..,:»  d    in    1:..  r-- i!. !.'..»    p\:^..:*    ::.    N.  "  ;    ::. 

w*-.'   !!r»!  «!.^j '..»_*■  ■!  :■•  n  !   .1!  •  i«V'  ri    ;'..•  1:..l!  Hi-  v.  .^.^  ;»!<* .  f  r  y-'rn- I  ::.e  i..*\.i!  ■  !V.  •:  i*   :'. 

of  W.'.rr.n   n.»-*;i  .:•  1:1   IT--*-   •*.   ::i   w:.;  h  u*  f  -1   •.»    ii   llh-le   I-!  i:.:.      I:.   17T"'.  h.tx  .■  1:  I   r 

k*af{i:.p;  i-   .■'•'.  f  r  !!•■■!»:"■:.■  I..   '1.     ■  ■  ;  ■  •!  f'i.--  "J  w  .ir*  i  riw  ■■.*-<  r'.i  1  :ii  . !  rV>  «l"  •  :.»   .  r   •'.   * 

Oca»fuljy  w.:!.  the  i::ji:.vi.'.  U^tw."!  ..:.  i  ?:a:-.i-  ct-'jr^N  he  «.<. iu:;.t:.ci.>i  li.c  I  .'.•■  t;v.v.  lI  t:.v  ...« 


ELLESMEKB  ELLET                        103 

in  Newport,  in  which  he  acquired  eminonce.  raised  to  the  peerage  as  carl  of  Ellesmero.  after 
Th«  era  of  the  revolution  found  him  an  ardent  which  he  retired  from  active  political  life. 
fjinpathizer  with  the  colonies  in  their  stnigsle  While  a  student  at  the  university  he  printed  a 
with  the  mother  country,  and  in  May,  1776,  he  volume  of  poems  for  private  circulation ;  but 
entered  active  political  life  by  taking  his  seat  in  his  first  public  appearance  as  an  autlior  was 
the  memorable  congress  of  that  year  as  one  of  in  1824,  when  he  published  a  translation  of 
the  delegates  from  Rhode  Island.  With  his  **  Faust,"  with  versions  of  popular  lyrics  from 
colleagne,  Stephen  Hopkins,  he  set  his  name  to  the  works  of  Goethe,  Schiller,  and  other  6er- 
tbe  declaration  of  independence,  the  incidents  man  poets.  Ho  subsequently  produced  "  Medi- 
connected  with  which  event  he  was  accustomed  terranean  Sketches"  (London,  1843),  containing 
in  his  latter  years  to  relate  with  great  vivacity,  the  "  Pilgrimage,"  a  poem  which  records  the 
He  remalnea  in  congress  until  1786,  with  the  author^s  tour  in  Palestine ;  ^^The  two  Sieges  of 
cxcq>Uon  of  the  years  1780  and  1782,  and  on  Vienna  by  the  Turks"  (1847);  "  Guide  to  North- 
all  occasions  proved  himself  an  active  and  use-  em  ArchoDology"  (1&48) ;  and  a  number  of 
fill  member,  and,  notwithstanding  a  natural  poenis  and  plays  printed  for  private  circulation. 
diffidence  which  it  required  strong  efforts  to  The  "  Pilgrimage,"  after  having  been  withheld 
overcome,  a  ready  debater.  As  a  member  of  the  from  general  circulation  for  many  years,  was 
marine  committee,  and  subsequently  of  the  republished  in  1856  with  a  number  of  additional 
board  of  admiralty,  he  exercised  considerable  poems.  In  1853  Lord  Ellesmere  visited  the 
raflnence  during  his  whole  term  of  service,  and  United  States  as  British  commissioner  to  the 
the  plan  of  fire  ships  to  be  fitted  out  at  Newport  American  exhibition  of  industry  in  New  York, 
has  been  attributed  to  him.  In  April,  1786,  he  returning  to  England  the  same  year. 
WB  dected  by  congress  commissioner  of  the  ELLET,  William  Hbnrt,  an  American  chem- 
eoodnental  loan  office  for  the  state  of  Rhode  Isl-  ist,  bom  in  New  York  about  1804,  died  in  that 
and,  and  in  1790  was  appointed  by  President  city,  Jan.  26,  1859.  He  was  graduated  at 
Washington  collector  of  Newport,  an  office  Columbia  college  in  1824.  While  pursuing 
which  he  held  until  his  death,  notwithstanding  his  medical  studios  he  gained  a  gold  medal  for 
his  frequent  and  frank  avowals  of  political  a  dissertation  on  the  compound  of  cyanogen. 
principles  directly  opposed  to  those  of  several  In  1882  he  was  elected  professor  of  experimental 
adrainistratioos.  He  retained  full  possession  of  chemistry  in  Columbia  college,  a  position  which 
his  mental  faculties  until  the  close  of  his  long  he  resigned  in  1835  to  become  professor  of 
life,  and  was  highly  esteemed  in  his  native  place,  chemistry,  mineralogy,  and  geology  in  the  South 
not  less  for  his  social  qualities  and  intellectual  Carolina  college.  In  1848  he  returned  to  New 
abilities  than  as  a  relic  of  the  revolutionary  era.  York,  'where  ho  resided  until  his  death.  The 
An  interesting  biography  of  him  by  his  grand-  legislature  of  South  Carolina  presented  him 
son.  Professor  Edward  T.  Channing,  is  published  with  a  service  of  silver  plate  for  the  discovery 
in  Sparks's  "  American  Biography,"  vol.  vi.  of  a  new  and  cheap  method  of  preparing  gun 
EIXES3IERE,  Francis  Egertox,  earl  of,  an  cotton.  During  the  last  5  years  of  his  life  he 
English  nobleman,  born  in  London,  Jan.  1,  was  consulting  chemist  of  the  Manhattan  gas 
I'MK),  died  there,  Feb.  18,  1857.  He  was  the  company  of  New  York. — Elizabetu  Fries 
2d  son  of  the  1st  duke  of  Sutherland,  and  Lummis,  wife  of  the  preceding,  an  American 
notii  the  death  of  his  father  was  known  as  authoress,  bom  at  Soaus  Point,  on  Lake  On- 
Lord  Frxmcis  I^veson-Gower.  lie  was  educat-  tario,  N.  Y.  She  is  the  daughter  of  Dr.  Wil- 
ed at  Eton,  and  at  Cbristchurch,  Oxford,  where  liam  N.  Lummis,  a  physician  of  some  cniincnce, 
he  was  graduated  in  1821.  In  the  succeeding  and  at  an  early  ago  was  married  to  Professor 
year  he  entered  parliament  as  a  liberal  con-  Ellet,  whom  she  accompanied  to  Soutli  Carolina, 
terrative  and  a  supporter  of  Canning,  and  and  with  whom  she  returned  to  Now  York  in 
became  one  of  the  earliest  and  most  earnest  1848.  In  1835  she  produced  a  volume  of 
advocates  of  free  trade.  IIo  also  supported  the  poems,  beside  which  she  published  while  in 
project  for  establishing  the  university  of  Lon-  South  Carolina  "  Scenes  in  the  Life  of  Joanna 
doD,  and  on  one  occasion  carried  a  motion  of  Sicily"  (12mo.,  1840),  "Characters  of  Schil- 
tiiroogh  the  house  of  commons  for  the  endow-  ler"  (1841),  and  "  Country  Rambles,"  and  con- 
aent  of  the  Roman  Catholic  clergy  of  Ireland,  tributed  articles  to  several  quarterly  reviews  on 
Between  1827  and  1830  he  held  various  political  French  and  Italian  poetry  and  literature.  In 
offices;  but  in  the  latter  year  he  retired  from  1848  she  published,  in  8  vols.  12mo.,  tho  "Wo- 

Sliament.  In  1833,  upon  the  decease  of  bis  men  of  the  American  Revolution,"  one  of  her 
»r,  be  came  into  possession  of  the  immense  most  popular  works,  and  the  materials  for  which 
etates  of  the  late  duKo  of  Bridgewater,  and  of  were  derived  from  original  sources.  Subso- 
the  picture  gallerv,  valued  at  £150,000,  which  quently  appeared  her  "  Evenings  at  Woodlawn," 
Wd  been  bequeathed  to  the  duke  of  Suther-  "Family  Pictures  from  tho  Bible"  (1849),  ** Do- 
hud,  with  reversion  to  his  2d  son ;  on  which  mestic  History  of  the  American  Revolution " 
occasion  he  assumed  the  name  of  Egerton  in  (1850),  "Watching  Spirits"  (1851),  "Pioneer 
the  place  of  his  patronymic  of  I^veson-Gower.  Women  of  the  West"  (1852),  "  Novellcttes  of 
la  1885  he  was  elected  member  of  parliament  the  Musicians"  (1852),  and  "Summer  Rambles 
fv South  Lancashire,  and  continued  to  repre-  in  the  West"  (1853).  She  also  edited  "The 
that  constituency  until  1846,  when  he  was  Practical  Housekeeper."     She  is  now  engaged 


I 


104  SLUCOTT  ELUOTSOX 

upon  a  dictionary  of  fomnle  pain tor«  and  MTul^  nal,**  cnntrihntion^  to  philosophical  tocMti*^ 

ton,  in  which  sketches  arc  jrivon  uf  the  winncn  anil  a  few  othrr  MTitinps  hi4  wcrks  are  jct  ia 

artists  of  all  nj^-*  antl  oMintrii*.  inaiiu'»crii»t. — .li»*>r.i-ir.   hrothcr  of  llie  prvccd- 

ELLICOTT,  ANMtcw,  an  American  wtrt^no-  inc,  Imrn  in  IVim^ylvaiiia,  diitl  in  liatATia,  X. 

roeranJeivil  vn/inicr.  iMirniii  UiK*l«i  m.,  IVnn.,  Y.,  in  H2i}.     In  IT'.K)  he  a:toi!«tetl  his  bruihcr 

Jan.  24,  1754.  diitl  nt  Wi-nt  I'tiiiit,  N.  Y.,  Au^.  Amlrcw  in  hivinj;  out  the  city  c»f  WohliiDgton, 

SS,  IS'Jo.      Hit  fathi-r,  having  uiiitt'<l  with  a  aiidin  ITl'l  wu^  ap^n  tint  c«l  t<i  run  the  booxHiuj 

brother  in  the  piirt*h:LM.*  of  a  hir^^f  tr:u.'t  of  \iiM  line  U-twivn  (leurp.i  and  tlie  I'reck  ladiatifl; 

land  un  the  r:itapM*i>  rivor  in  ITTi),  U-f\  Hucks  and  fur  a  lun^  iktIihI,  iMuhniciuf;  the  most  ac- 

CO.  in  1774,  and  hircanie  a  f«iundcr  of  what  is  tlve  {Hirtiim  i>f  lii-*  lifo,  he  wu.'i  cn^raped  in  Um 

now  the  town  of  EllioiU'si  Mi  IK  in  Mairvhtiid,  F4.rvice  of  the  Htillaiid  land  company.     He  wat 

when?  the  vounpi-r  day^  of  Mr.  Kllitott  were  a  ^iknI  uintlieniatiiia!!,  n^iientitie  *»urvvTor.  and 

deviated  tit  tlivMudy  4  »f  till* '<cictice<(  111  id  prat -tioal  an  aMc  tinan«'ti-r,  ktl  a  lifo  of  proat  QM^fuln 

mcchaiiii'-.    Tliim^'h  U:lon^»iii|;  to  thi*  •^•cirty  ^^f  and  i-nterpri-e,  and  wa-^  iiicntifivl  with  the 

Friends  Mr.  Kllio»tt  eomnuuided  a  hattaliun  of  puMie  imjiriiwiui-iit.s  **(  the  htatv  uf  Nt*w  York. 
)far}'land  militia  in  tht.-  rt.*vuluti(«n.     Hid  M-ieu-        Kl.Urt  HT'S  MIM.S,a  pO!»t  vil!.<^:e  and  town- 

tific  attainmint.4  i-arly  attraotod  i»uh!ic  atti-n-  rhip  of  Howard  and  lialtinKire  cue.,  Md.,  on  tiM 

t ion,  arid  ffi >ni  the  rovnliitiou  to  the  day  of  hi !i  PatapMXj  riviT.  10  m.  from  the  city  of  Balti- 

death  he  wai  itnph>yc«l  in  the   fulfilment  of  more;  |H»p.  in  1>^.V>,  lj>.*i'.K     It  was  tint  acttlvd 

tn\yU  confi-rri'd  by  the  gonrral  or  ftiate  p>v-  In  1774  by  the  hrotlicrs  Andrew  and  John  Elli- 

amnu-ntM.     Ho  enjo^ol  tlio  frU*nd>)iip  and  von-  c<itt^  whti:ie  lar^^^  tluuriiif;  niilN  hvre  at  one  tima 

fidencv  uf  Wa.H)iin^ton  and  his  iuirri'^Mfrs  during;  held  prcoeilciKV  in  extent  and  jterfeetiuo  orcr 

llfe.and  maintaini'd  the  uiii<»t  intimate  relations  all  Mmilar  mnnufaeturies  in  the  country.     For 

vitli  Frank!in  and  Kittonh<tU!«e,  of  whom  his  many  years  the  whole  of  £11  ieott*sMdK  and  cz- 

pap4»ri  ri-'Utain  many  int«  ri-^tin^  memorials.   At  tend<-d  tracts  of  c-uuntry  on  tJio  ri%er.  above  aad 

Tarit»ns  tinu-^  he  was  aii|»oint<.<d  C(inimi<«ii»ner  Klow,  wore  kopt  with  ^tUlliod  ext-Ia^irencM 

for  markin;;  part?*  of  tho  iKiundariosi>f  Vir;;lnia,  within  the  family.    In  1^59  nut  uno  of  the  nama 

reuu\%lvania,  and  New  York.     AUiut  17Ni  ho  is  rosidin;;  i%ithin  the  limits  of  the  K-ttlemrnU 

remo\e«l  to  lUItimore,  and  n-pre<«.-!itoilthat(ity  Tho  wator  powor  ii  eirolhnt,  au>l  numerou 

in  the  htatc*  Kvi-hiturt*.     In   17***J  ho  was  a|»-  cuiton  aiid  othrr  t'aetories  are  pntiivUvd  by  it. 

point«*«l  by  I*n-<*idt'nt  M'a*^)iin;rti>n  to  -iiirvcy  the  T!iu  I»altimoro  and  <  >ltio  railnMi]  p.i<v^«  through 

land  lyin^'  Utwoen  Pviin^lvania  and  Lake  Krio,  tlie  village.     It  is  tl.u  beat  of  St.  DiarWt  (R. 

and  durJ!.^  th.kt  yi>ar  he  made  the  t\r<  aioii-  C)  (••lUvo. 

rat«  nua-uri-nii-nt  o(  the  Nia^ra  rivor  fnuii        Kl.I.lt  iTSON',  J<i;in. an  Fn;;Ii-h]ihysii*ian  and 

lake  to  lako,  wi'.h  t!io  hoii^ht  of  tho  falNand  tho  phv>iolo/i<t,  horn  in  London  in  the  lattor  lort 

(all  of  tho  rapt dv     In  17'J<i  ho  Ha.^  iuiplo\o<M«v  of  tho  U<  roniury.     Ih-  riToivo«l  hU  moJical 

tlie  ptvornnit  n:  t>>  hurvov  and  lay  out  tho  l\-*{-  i->hiratl>>n  nt  tho  uuivi-rtity  of  K.tlliihur^h  and 

and  m<.*tro]>*.!iv     In    17**2    ho  wad  m:i<!o  «iir-  at  I'aialiri'Lv.  iin<l  ^u!■M■>{UontIy  at  to  nihil   th« 

Teyor-^'vt.oral  of  the  I'liilotl  Stato",  HUil  iu  17'.'.*!  moi]i«'.il  utid  ^'.TL'i'.d  prai'tii'c  iT  St.  Thonia»^t 

bu  MiiKTi:.t4  n>Kil  ihi-  rtuMruttiiiii  uf  l\»rt  Kriu  and  (iuy\  !ii»«;ii:iU  in  ].-<n>!itn.  of  the  Ul  U-r  uf 

at  IV-«juo  Nlo  -in'W  Krio.  iVnii.).  ai^l  »a«»  i  :;j-  whiih  iii^titJiliiiU'i   In*  Wa^  in  1*^-'J  t:lo«'tc-\l  pht- 

plovo'l  Ul  l.»\ii:^  •■'.il  tin-  towr.oof  Kri«*,  \Varr»:i,  Miia!j.    Su!"H»iUi'nt!y  hi-  U«a!:ie  hi  turiruu  the 

and  Frank r.t).     In  17:*»l  ho  wa»  aji^'jut'-'i  Vy  prai-:i»o  »»f  nioili'  iin*  in  S:.  Thoma>*<i  h*>*>pital, 

Pre*i'lon!  Wa-Lin/tiin  ri-mtni-Mnin  r  i-ii  Uhalf  anil  in  Ivil  w.i- a;i]HU[i:Ld  pri>N-^^iriit*  the  prin- 

of  tho   rnili'tl  Stalon  U!..h  r  tin-  tr»  .ity  uf  S.iii  cipli  t  ari-l   prarti*-o  of  mnliiiin-   and  of  c!ibii  .tl 

l^reii/o   o!   Uf.ti,  to   di.:on:iiiio   tin-    H>u:h'rii  motiii  iijo  in  rni\or"'ity  i"lh-.:r,  l.«indi»n,  in  c^jr« 

boundary  r^-pirntiu^  tho  I'nilod  St:»tts  ttTri*«'ry  m  rti  -n  \i  ith  wl^ii  h  .'l  ^oar-*  lati  r  lu-  -uivvotli^l  in 

from  tho  Sp-ini^h  |i»^«^H*ioii-i.     Tho  rfult-i  i-l'  o^taMi^hin^ja  lio-pital.  wlioii  hi*  r*  "•i^rtn-l  hi^pra- 

this  fcT\i  f,  omlira^intr   a  inriiNl  ,,f  i.i-arly   T*  f*'.-*-.:>»!iipnt  M.  Tlioina^'-i,    A'*  a  !«.•  ti.iiT  ).r  iil»- 

year*,   .ij  ;-oar  in  his  'Jnurual."  prj' I.-ln  d  i:i  tail  id  ^rn. it  popular  it  y.  U'^t  K'^^  f:<<[ii  h>  ^.-onLil 

4l«>.,  «::!»  6  i.iap-*  t rh!!.i<i4!{<M.L,  l"»o.;).     I'li-n  iPiniiiMT  tli.in  fiuui  liis  il..>riiU^h  nia»itTv  of  hU 

the  o.!n|!i!i"n  %•(  tJ.ii  .h  .-m-o  In*  wa-  appointi  ■!  M;^jr't.    Hi-  U'*-  of  pru-^lc  a^  id  m  o^rtaiu  dttn* 

by  (rn.  M»  Ki.in  I  if  lV;in-'\I\  :ir.i.i  -■■r-iary  of  plain;-,  ari^l  «'fitt  In  r  now  roui'du*.  h'i«i\or.  mil 

the  ^tn:<'  IjihI  orfi'v.  \).**  duties  %,(  u  !.:i  }|  \n  p^r-  Hiilimui  }i  ••;'{•< •*>i: Ion  :  .'Uid  in  atlomptmi;  tii  n>- 

fomiod  t.'tlio  ^i.ir  I'v"'.  arid  in  1*»1'J  !io  riM'i  ;V4.|  furni  iKoolil  r>i'<t*ii.«' t  if  tho  hospital-,  ho  ini-Lrr\<»i 

the  |H'*t  of  pr  ft-**,  r  i-f  ma:homa:.i-o  at  Wi -:  t?io  h'>-:ili*y  ••!  iiian>  i*f  ll.o  pnifo^^^iKn.     He«a« 

Point.     In  1*»17,  ^>  ••r-l- r  ».f  i?.o  jr-w  rn'.i  i.t,  thi-  f  mhr  ai.d  -i.'.'M-.jUs.ntly  thi  pn>idoi:t  iJ" 

be  pp'-.tdidtit  Mi>t.tr«  a!  !o  III  .k<-  a-'r.ni.iii,;.  t!.f  jl.r.  ni»l".ri' :d   H'-ioty,  and  iho  pri**.-!!!.!  »  f 

cal  oiivr-kati  ■!:•  {  r  iarr\  \v.j  in;  i  i.'F.  •  t  •"•Tin-  t.f  tl.i-  roVkl  u.iiii  -al  a^.d   i  I.inrk'it'al  k»*  iilT.     In 

lhoart.-*t*.if  ii  oir»Mtv  .  :ti!,.  :.r.    II-i  ..i.!.:.;i  !  l'*.:7  M.o  a!!»:i::"n  i"!'  Pr.   Kliif' •««>:;  ^^  a*  draw  n 

to  ill!  t^o  pfiif'  -i^'r^hip  uf  i:iaT''.t  m:i'!i  <•  a:.il  i   •  .1  t<>  i.i:  phi  :i>*i.\'  :.:i  of  a:.i:ii  ii  r.i:i»:i*-*.!«m.  an*!  tit 

cu|riri04-r'.:i,:  t<i  t*.t   timo  iif  hi«  drilli.      Mr  Y.V..*  tin-   ro|ii;!id  rtrj."\.il   «  r  i*'.!.  » i..t.«'n  cf  «!.:!':."'.!: 

Cot:  »&«•  ari  a>  !.w  Uii-ntU  r  a:i>l  i.'>%f..i  i  :!i>-i  r  *'(  <!4-i.i«*-«  !!iro-i/h  i:<i  a,:^  :i'-,^ .     II.i\iri^  ■ia:.<:;i'«l 

the  .Vnif  r..-.^-.  p!.:'<»«>|ih.t'.»!  ■••i  .• 'i.  ai.  1  !it .:  >  h. :..•"':'  t:<at   lu  :>  !i   uf  u!.  i*.   ho  1.  ,d   ftad   a^d 

lain^  c«»rTi-p.  ■:»■!*  ■  I  f  «  1:?.  tho  K- irr.i  I'-xii'.-s  h*ar»l  u;n'ii  tl.-   -iVji-:  \i.i*  f  »i::;-!od  oti  f^i !,  L« 

of  LnrifjK- ;  hal  « I'Jti  the  oictpu-.:^  vf  hit  "  J^ur-  c%>mn.oiAcd  a  s^-iios  of  ii;H:rin.c:it^  «  LicL  fk«.r« 


EUJOTT  105 

ittended  bj  eminent  soientific  men  fhrni  all  parts  conference  of  1852  ho  'was  reelected  editor  of 
of  the  kingdom,  including  a  number  of  the  med*  the  ^'  Western  Advocate,"  which  office  ho  filled 
kal  facalty,  and  the  stnking  results  obtained  for  another  term  of  4  years,  making  in  all  about 
from  which  conTinoed  him  that  animal  magnet-  15  years  of  editorial  service.  lie  has  also  writ- 
ism  or  mesmerism  afforded  a  certain  remedy  for  ten  a  "  Treatise  on  Baptism''  (1834) ;  *^  Life  of 
lercnl  diseases  previously  believed  to  be  incura-  Bishop  Roberts  ;'*  **  Delineation  of  Roman  Catli" 
btei  and  was  also  the  most  powerful  agent  for  al-  olicism"  (2  vols.  8vo.,  New  York,  1851) ;  and 
Imng  the  pain  attending  surgical  operations.  Ilis  "  Uistory  of  the  Great  Secession  from  the  Metb  o- 
dibrta  gained  many  converts  to  mesmerism  from  dist  Episcopal  Church"  (8vo.,  Cincinnati,  1855). 
theedocateddasses,  whose  zeal  in  his  behalf  was  Dr.  Elliott  is  now  president  of  the  Iowa  Wcs- 
•qnaDed  by  the  violence  of  the  opposition  which  leyan  univer^ty,  and  is  preparing  a  work  on 
a—ilnrt  him.  The  unwiUingness  of  his  medical  **  Political  Romanism." 
eoQcagiaeB  and  of  the  counol  of  the  umversity  ELLIOTT,  Charles  Wtllys,  an  American 
to  allow  the  mesmeric  cure  to  be  applied  to  the  author,  bom  in  Guilford,  Conn.,  May  27,  1817. 
baqxtal  patients  induced  him,  in  December,  He  is  the  6th  generation  in  lineal  descent  from 
183^1  to  sever  his  connection  with  University  Eliot  the  **  Indian  Apostle."  After  some  years 
eoDcge,  an  event  which  made  a  considerable  stir  spent  in  mercantile  life  in  the  city  of  New  York, 
ia  the  scientific  world,  and  since  that  time  ho  he  in  1838-^9  studied  horticulture  and  land- 
has  been  an  indefaUgable  advocate  of  the  oura-  scape  gardening  with  A.  J.  Downing  at  New- 
tive  agency  of  animal  magnetism.  In  1849  he  burg,  and  from  1840  to  1848  practised  those 
was  instrumental  in  establishing  a  mesmerio  pursuits  at  Cincinnati.  Since  1850  he  has  resided 
boi^ital,  in  which  many  remarkable  cures  have  in  New  York.  Ue  was  one  of  the  founders  and 
ban  effected.  A  mesmeric  journal,  called  the  first  trustees  of  the  '^  Children's  Aid  Society" 
'*ZMst,"  was  also  established  by  him.  Dr.  EUi-  in  1853.  In  1857  ho  was  appointed  one  of 
dna'f  principal  contributions  to  medical  science  the  commissioners  for  laying  out  the  central 
ne :  "  Lectures  on  Diseases  of  the  Heart"  (Lon-  park  in  the  city  of  New  York.  Mr.  Elliott  has 
don,  1830),  which  were  delivered  before  the  published  the  following  works :  "  Mysteries,  or 
rqyalcollegeof  physicians  in  1829;  a  translation  Glimpses  of  the  Supernatural"  (1  vol.  12mo., 
of  Blmnenbach^s  "Physiology"  (1817-56),  the  New  York,  1852),  an  attempt  to  refute  spiritu- 
Mtes  to  which  are  more  voluminous  than  the  alism;  *^St.  Domingo,  its  Revolution  and  its 
tnt ;  the  "  Principles  and  Practice  of  Medicine"  Hero,  Toussaint  I^uverturo"  (1  vol.  12mo.,  New 
(London,  1840),  a  valuable  work,  which  has  been  York,  1 855) ;  "  The  New  England  History,  from 
translated  into  various  European  languages ;  the  Discovery  of  the  Continent  by  the  North- 
"Sorgical  Operations  in  the  Mesmeric  State  men,  A.  D.  986,  to  1776"  (2  vols.  8vo.,  Now 
wilhont  Pain"  (London,  1843),  &c.  York,  1857). 

ELLIOTT,   Chables,    D.D.,    an   American        ELLIOTT,   Charles  Lorino,  an  American 

Hethodist  divine,  born  in  Killybegs,  Donegal,  painter,  born  in  Scipio,  N.  Y.,  in  1812.    Ilis  fa- 

hdaod.  May  16,  1792.    In  his  youth  he  be-  ther,  an  architect  by  profession,  removed  to  Syra- 

e&DA  a  member  of  the  Wesleyan  Methodbt  cuse  in  tho  childhood  of  his  son,  and  placed  him 

lodety,   soon  after  began  a   course  of  study  in  the  store  of  a  country  merchant.  Thooconpo- 

preparatorr  for  the  ministry,  and  in  hb  24th  tion  was  altogether  distasteful  to  young  Elliott, 

year  applied  to  the  Dublin  university  for  ad-  who  devoted  all  his  leisure  timo  to  his  favorito 

miaBon,  but  was  refused  because  he  could  not  pursuits  of  drawing  and  painting,  with  tho  cx- 

oonacientionsly  submit  to  the  established  test,  pcctation  of  ono  day  becoming  a  painter.    His 

Having  obtained,   however,  with  the  aid  of  father,  seeing  that  he  was  unfitted  for  a  mercan- 

H^H*^]  scholars,  what  was  equivalent  to  a  uni-  tile  life,  allowed  him  to  study  drawing  and  ar- 

TSBTRty  coarse,  he  emigrated  to  America,  and  chitecture,  though  chiefly  with   tho  view  of 

pnceeded  to  Ohio,  where  ho  was  received  into  making  a  practical  architect  of  him.    Elliott, 

tte  travelling  connection  of  the  Ohio  conference  soon  tiring  of  this  occupation,  went  to  New 

k  1818,    For  the  first  4  years  he  travelled  over  York  and  became  a  pupil  of  Trumbull,  and  sub- 

iKeosive  circuits,  and  cheerfully  submitted  to  sequently  of  Quidor,  a  painter  of  fancy  pieces, 

iD  the  privations  of  pioneer  life.    In  1822  he  with  whom  he  remained  long  enough  to  acquiro 

appointed  superintendent  of  the  mission  a  knowledge  of  tho  technicalities  of  his  art. 

;  the  Wyandot  Indians  at  Upper  Sandusky,  HLs  chief  employment  for  some  timo  was  copy- 

ibseonently  for  5  years  presiding  elder  of  ing  prints  in  oils,  and  ho  afterwnnl  attempted 

tte  Ohio  district,  and  was  then  elected  profes*  portraits,  though  with  no  great  success.    Somo 

K  of  languages  in  Madison  college,  Uniontown,  of  his  youthful  productions,  however,  evinced 

ftan^  where  he  remained  4  years.    In  1831  he  talent,  and  some  oil  paintings  by  him  represont- 

VHKationed  in  Pittsburg,  and  was  subsequent-  ing  scenes  from  Irving's  and  Paulding's  works 

^proiding  elder  of  that  district.    While  serv-  attracted  considerable  attention.    After  about  a 

if  hi  this  capacity  he  was  chosen  editor  of  the  year's  residence  in  New  York  he  returned  to  the 

*PSttsbarg  Conference  Journal,"  and  was  after-  western  part  of  tho  state,  where  he  practised 

«lri  transferred  to  the  editorship  of  the  "  West-  his  profession,  more  particularly  portrait  paint- 

«a  Christian  Advocate,"  at  Cincinnati,  where  ing,  for  about  10  years.    Returning  to  New  York 

kmnained  until  1848.   Ho  again  entered  tho  at  the  end  of  that  period,  ho  established  liim- 

iHdar  wortc  of  the  clergy,  but  in  the  general  self  there  as  a  portrait  painter,  and  has  since 


106  ELUOTT 

Itoon  A  roM<lont  of  that  citjr  or  its  immciliate  fV<*^^  in  pnMic  in  rapport  of  his  p«cnlisr  Ti«^ 

iicif;lilMtr}i(.HH).     llii  wurks  Cl)^^t•>t  almost  I'X-  The  coining' rriol  panic  of  ls:)7  vntsilrd  seriona 

rlu«ivcl}'  of  {iiirtraits,  iiianjr  of  uliirh  nrc  o(  |i«ciini:iry  Insscfl  ujHin  liim,  but  by  cArrful  loan* 

cininrnl  Aiiicrk'uu  «*iti/(Mi%  and  nro  ri'mnrkiibio  nf^nnonl  ho  wari  enabled  in  IMl  to  retire  from 

for  till*  fidi-Iiiy  vf  tho  likonc^  and  their  vipT-  bu-incssuilh  a  rompotenry  and  soUle  at  a  tiUa 

ou?*  r>tli>rln:;.     Sini-o  IMC  Mr.  Kllintt  has  U-vii  noar  ]lum«Io*',  where  he  pa<*tiiHl  the  la^  ytMTB 

a  nKMnl*er  i'f  the  natimiul  afadciny  of  df^i^rn.  of  hi'*  life  injdrasaut  i»eolu>ion.     Since  his  death 

KI.I.I<  >Vl\  KiiENE/Eii.  an  Kiij;li^!i  iN»ot,  born  2  volumes  or  hiji  literary  retnain^  have  ap{i«ared 

At    \(:L^t»<>pm^li,  near  jlolherhani,    Vorkshiro,  under  the  title  of  **  More  Pru»o  aiul  Ycne  by 

Marrh  17.    IT*^!*  dii*d  twiir  Harnfrloy,  Ik-r.  1,  tho  Cum  I^w  Khynier.** 

iM'.i.      Ili«  faihtr,  who  wa.4  employed    in  a  KLLIOTT,  Jws»tt  IMncax,  a  comroodore  Id 

fiiuiidi-ry  iit-ar  Ma*>U»r(.iu^h»  wa-t  a  didin^nter  of  tlie  V.  S.  navy,  born  in  Maryland  in  \7f^%  diad 

what  w an  c.il!t.«l  tlio  liiTvan  tA-r;,  an  o«va.Monui  in  rhilailelphia,  iHrc.    IH,    1845.      lie  entered 

priatht  r.  ui.d  a  fiirrible  |HiIttir:J  tii»eakiT  of  tho  the  K>rvico  an  a  midshipman  in  April,   1906^ 

ultra  r:i<li<'al  tviH.*.     Yi'Un»;  Kllitdi  received  tho  and  wa^  pruinutisl  to  a  lieutenancy  iu  AprU| 

cdu>-uti>>ii  usualiv  nirordi-d  to  Imivh  (if  bis  i-ondi-  ISIO.     In  1^12  he  w&4  Attached  to  th«  ccicb- 

tinn,  but  at  M-hiMiI  wan  ni>trd  for  littlo  el<H«  than  mand  of  Commodoro  Isaac  I'hauncey  at  Sack- 

dalnc»4  and  l.-i/ini*--*.     He  wa'<  unnblo  to  master  etl's  Harbor,  and  was  ncui  by  him  U»  the  nppar 

t!ie  riuli:i:i*n(A  v(  (rrii'niunr  or  arithmetic,  and  hiki-s  to  puri*haso  vc^teI.^  and  make  other  prep* 

ottcn  ;;rati!iid  an  ia'»ti:ii"«i\  c  li>\  o  for  nature  and  aratiiin**  for  tho  creation  of  a  navai  forc«  in  iLosa 

N>litu<lo  by  Moll- II  ra!iibh.'«  in  tho  iiioatlows  und  waters.     While  at  Black  llock,  en^ai^l  in  tlkia 

WfKNliiiiiii*.     ni>  fa:lior«  hearing  of  the>e  va^'a-  service,  2  Kritinh  brif^^  the  l)etr(»it  and  i*Alcd^ 

l>ond  habits  M-t  hiiii  t<»  Work  in  tho  foundiry.  nia,  anchuri-d,  Oct.  7,  1^12,  near  the  opposiia 

lit' was  bo;:inijin^  to  f,dll  into  dLsMpatinl  habits  rhoro  under  llic  ((uns  of  Kurt  Erie.     KiliottroOF 

whon  thv  |»oru«al  i ^f  a  treat ifO  on  btituny,  whU'h  coivml  tlie  idea  of  capturinf?  them.     Fortunatelj 

actidt-nt  ]iiit  into  l.i<*  liai:d.\  revived  hi^  love  of  the  firH  party  of  M-amen  intcndetl  for  the  Uka 

DAlurr,  atid  hi*  bo<'a:jiv  an  induitrinus  col lector  rerviiv  arrived  fnim  the  !<'alioar«l  on  that  ^ciT 

uf  b>>ta.';ical  ^{•o^inl^ll-.     Ho  u1m>  procured  uc-  ni^ht,  and  (len.  Smythe.  the  commanding  nilH 

re»!«  to  a  ^nlail  ht>r:.r\  of  the  oM  divines  and  tary  oflirer  on  tlie  frontier,  ni*t  only  prumpclj 

|N»ets  a:id  in  hia  17th  your  priHluivil  hi:*  tir^t  complied  with  the  re(pii«iti(»n  for  anns  for  this 

published  pivui,  **  Tho  Vernal  Widk,"  a  crude  Fer\ice,  butfurni>hit]  ailetachmeut  of.'iuv.ddim 

imitation   of   Thom-un.      It  wan  fullowed   by  fortheimrpitse.  AUiut  expedttiosi  wj<»or|ranis«d 

**  Ni^'S't,"    "  \V harm  litre,'*   ai.d   otlicrs.      Tho  under  hlUott*s  command,  and  the  vc^mIs  wcia 

AUthor'if  jio^ier*  ini*re:iM*d  with  each  new  work,  boiirded  and  carried  with  !)Ut  ^li^ht  h>M  a  littla 

and  he  luul  the  ^'*^*^\  fi  rtune  to  uttrait  tho  no-  aHor  mi>lnif*ht,  Of  t.  H.     The  lutroii  mouiitcd  i 

liie  of  Si  ithi-y.  t'«  uh«>-e  kind  o!llce'«  he  w :i5  ciiii«,  w iih  a i  rew  of  TiO ;  the C'aK^biniam*'Ut.ted 

acrii.:..m.  d  l>  ri  !'i  r  u  iih  atle'-lion  und  ;;r:Ltituile.  12  u''in«,  bud  had  a  Mnaller  ct^mplemenx.     A^joot 

He  had  im  .u.u  lii!e  \\i'rkf  >1  ^t^;l<l.]v  :i:  thL-lofin-  4n  An.eriia!!  pri^mer^  were  found  en   bc^ard 

diT,^.  w!i[i  h  h;t  l'.ti}iir  h..>l  piiT'  ha-ii  o:i  (Tiillr,  thc<«.'  \e***M  U.     rheruJod«>nia  wa*»  ^hfell  brt»uf;ht 

atid  l.aviii;;  iiurrii  d  m!  u[i  in  tin*  i:i>:i  buoit.i"^;!  nvt-r  ti>  the  Ame:ic.'in  ■>ide,  but  the  Ik'trcit  naa 

on  hi!«  *':\  i\  a>-ci>i.;.!.     A:  '.»  *  \\  :ir<i  nf  n^v  ho  he-  Cfm]MlIed  to  drop  d>>wn  the  rivi  r.  pa.-'^w-c  the 

came  ail  e.irii<  «t  .Khm  .ite  of  thi-  lahnrin^  <'Iu«<*i-%  ltrili'«h  batteries  under  a  heavy  fire,  and  ax.ch 


Thi*  C'^rii  laws  in  p.vtienlar  «!ru>-k  him  »•>  un-     in^  within  reach  of  their  ^un».     In  the  rtd  ihia 
u:«%  and  i:p'>ii  h!<>  •>  .{i^'i'.iiT  t  fail  :ro  in  t't^iuesH     Ve.-«vl  wan  burnoil  by  the  .Xmericansi,  m***!  o# 


/, 


le  attr.'  ute.l  hi*  fii"-:"irtu;,e»  I**  their  inl!:i  sn'o.     her  ^'.uren  having  l':r-l  be«n  removed.     For  thia 
111  1'»l'1   ho  iii.ii!i>  :t!iot}iir  vi  i.t'ire  a<*  an  iri-n     exploit  K!!i<'tt  wa<*  %otid  a  ••wurd  by  cor.| 


inert  h.'iTit  in  SIn:!\ii!,  i\  it:»  a  h  .rriiUtil  cijiiial  In  July,  l^Kt.  ho  isa^  pr«iini-ted  t*-  the  rank  ai 

4'f  i.'!"".    .-ltd    wa*  •MK-n    iml<arktil    iu    a   In-  master  (unim.tU'lant,  ani!  A||<\iintid  tn  the  Ni- 

cra!i\i'  li>:tii  -*.    He  n-iw  ciu:iii:i  Ufid  ht>  w^ll-  a;r.ira.  a  br!,;  nI"  "Jo  j:un*,  un  Ijikc  Krie.     In  I'er- 

kn<>M:i    *'<'.>rn    Kiw    l»li}me«,"    w!.ich    wero  r>'>  liien.tirat'le  i  n^'np-nient  with  tho  Bniish 

wn'.ien  wi:h  t!.i-  -.!,■  |..:r|<>M*  of  j-rm  ::rirnr  t!jo  h-jiiadrfn.  .Spt.  lo.  l*«i:i.  Ulliott  was  **r«nd  m 

re|  4m1  of  li.e  u:<i:>>iio-.;«  lj\\«.     A*.  l':r-!  pii!!i-h-  ciiiiiniaiitl,  ai.d  a  ^'>>!il  modal  wa«  voted  Kim  bj 

c-d  i:i  a  1  f  ul  { .i|  4 ."  .iiA  b!'!i  rwaril  coiln  :«d  i:i  a  ci-n;:rto«  f  r  l.i-coi  iliict  on  the  CHcasiun.     Atiet 

iii:j:!e  \-  I  .!!.e.  •.!..-.    \m^'i'.,^  Ir..  :-!jt  Kiiji'lt  ii.ro  the  liattle  *'(  Lik'-  Krie.  Kllii»tt  returned  lo  Lak* 

n"t;ee.     1  i  •■  '  K.if.!   r,'  \i !.;.  !i  *  :. . .  i.btl.  w  ai  a  Oi.tarlo.  wljtri*  he  ua^  mti\ely  oni|I>'ycU  until 

b«:;/  |<-  m  in  a  *  M/.^r  \-  in.      Ii.  !•*.'.*  a|  |-«an.l  N-iv.  1**1:;,  wIhh  he  w:i*  upin-'isited  to  lliC  ct^a- 


hi*  "\  nla^-e  I\»?r:  if-  h.'ex- .  edii.^*  it;  li  !:k'?-i :»:  y  n.aH'l  ••Ithi- Ont.ifi'i  ^li-'j- »t  V  ar,  i»huh  had  J 

of  \lI-»  pr^Vi-.LSjr  h!'..  rl    :.«.  a-.  1  thi-  Uv  if  Ji.H  UeU  buil*.  :.'.  lhd!imiTe.      Ihi-^i-'vl  waJO&Ctif 

Lr,:«r;ji«K  In  ;•*.:»!. t  .  icim  ;••  •  !  ac.'in)--<  tv  t!ie  *  jnadrf'!  of  ('.-n.n>«K!iTe  iKealt.r  cn:p}oT«d 
e«:i!.  r;  .  f  h;^  w-rL*,  \r\.  .  !.  u;  ;«;»:••!  d.n:  /i!.e  ii,.M:i:ot  AI^»^«  r«  in  l^l^,  aiid  .i^i.-le'l  in  ll»e  rap- 
in  \'  "J  \.  i;-..  u:A  i'Tl'.i*-  lir-'.  i.:]:i  n..vle  »;.  :  «  r-  ti.ri  i  !"  an  Al^v  riue  fri^Mte  «■:!' t'a|-' dv  t»a:t,  IB 
all*  k:.i'\*ii  ;.;a:.y  i*!"  l!.«-  h  .•!.'  :'■»  p'-ui-*  ip-t  i-f  Mar- it.  l"!*^,  he  w  a- pri'Tiio! id  Iu  the  ratk  of ca»- 
an  i  iti^^.vf  !jk  j  .'..ri  a\  .  ]i:,rA^  :•  r.  >■  \*r..!  i  '.!.ir  !:•  n.aii-!*'.:!  ■*«'i!:ii:il>  hail  thee*  mmari'l  of  kjcaJ- 
I-!.:.  ■:  <i  a;;«  ..r«.l  -ii  l).*'  t...-^.  .  f  l.;i  hff.  u:.\  r-':.-*  t-n  !li.-  co:k-l  •■*  Urii.';].  in  the  Wc*!  Ind^l^ 
til  till-  \.k<  he  !•  :.rj:.'itil  •.!  \kr.\-  \ i  r*-  *,  i  !.j.  tly  i.:.  1  iii  !he  Mi-'liurr.-iiii m.  und  of  thr  nav»  j 
fur  tho  iin^rdicJ  prt-s  aiid  uA  uiifreijiei.tly  at  lio-^iiiu  and  I'hiladclphix    lluconduc;« 


ELLIOTT  ELLIS                      107 

k  eommflDd  of  the  Mediternmean  s^adron  did  ^  Agricok,'^  and  published  in  1851 ,  being  among 

lot  meet  the  approyal  of  the  execative,  and  re-  his  latest  expressions  of  opinion  on  politioid 

nked  in  hia  trial  by  court  martial  in  June,  1840,  sabiects.    He  has  contributed  largely  to  the  pe- 

nd  snspensioa  firom  duty  for  4  years.    In  Oct  riodical  press  of  the  Soath.  His  published  works 

IMS,  tbis  period  of  his  suspension  which  then  consist  of  an  *^  Address  before  the  St.  Paul's 

Muuned  was  remitte4  by  the  president    Com-  Agricultural  Society"  (Charleston,  1850),  and 

Bodore  Elliott^s  name  was  much  before  the  pub-  '^  Carolina  Sports  by  Land  and  Water ''  (1856). 

Se  fat  many  years,  as  his  conduct  in  the  battle  Ee  is  also  the  author  of  *^  Fiesco,"  a  tragedy 

«f  Lake  Erie  unfortunately  became  the  subject  printed  for  the  author  in  1850,  and  of  a  number 

flfaoontroTersy  which  lasted  until  his  death.  of  occasional  poems  of  merit,  few  of  which, 

ELLIOTT,  Stxphsx,  an  American  naturalist,  however,  have  been  published. 

ban  in  Beaufort,  S.  C^  Nov.  11, 1771,  died  in  ELLIPSE,  one  of  the  conic  sections,  a  figure 

Oiarieaton,  March  28, 1830.    Ho  was  graduated  bounded  by  a  curve  line  produced  by  cutting 

M  Tile  college  in  1791,  and  2  years  later  was  through  a  cone  with  a  plane,  or  by  letting  the 

cieoled  a  member  of  the  legislature  of  South  shadow  of  a  circle  fall  on  a  plane.    The  discus- 

OvoKna,  a  position  which  he  retained  until  the  sion  of  this  curve  began  with  Plato,  430-347  B. 

Mtabfiahment  of  the  ^Bank  of  the  State"  in  C,  and  was  continued  with  great  zeal  for  about  2 

18U;  of  which  he  was  chosen  the  president  centuries.  No  important  advance  in  the  knowl- 

He  ratained  this  office  till  his  death.  His  leisure  edge  of  the  ellipse  was  then  made  for  about  1700 

hooxi  were  devoted  to  literary  and  scientific  years,  when  the  research  into  its  properties  was 

panRnta,  and  he  cultivated  the  study  of  botany  renewed  and  still  continues.     The  ellipticity 

vilh  enthusiasm.    In  1818  he  was  instrumental  of  the  planetary  orbits  is  one  of  the  immortal 

m  finmding  the  literary  and  philosophical  so-  discoveries  of  Kepler.    The  knowledge  of  this 

rwrtfw  of  Soath  Carolina,  of  each  of  which  he  curve  is  essential  m  the  mathematical  investiga- 

wm  the  president  He  lectured  gratuitously  on  tion  of  many  physical  problems.    One  of  tba 

UiliiTonteecienee,  and  was  for  some  time  chief  most  important  properties  of  the  curve  line 

•fifeor  of  the  ^'Southern  Review,"  to  which  he  bounding  an  eUipse  is  that  every  point  in  this 

eoDtribated  a  namber  of  articles.    In  1825  he  line  is  at  such  distances  from  2  points  in  the 

"  ~  in  establishing  the  medical  college  of  the  figure  called  the  foci,  that  the  sum  of  the  2 

and  was  elected  one  of  the  faculty,  and  distances  is  always  equal  to  the  longest  diam- 

0or  of  natural  history  and  botany.     He  eter  of  the  ellipse.    An  ellipse  may  therefore 

B  the  author  of  the  *^  Botany  of  South  Car-  be  drawn  by  driving  2  pins  in  a  board,  to  mark 

oEna  and  Georgia*'  (2  vols.  8vo.,  Charleston,  the  foci,  putting  a  loose  loop  of  inelastic  thread 

lflll-*S4),  in  the  preparation  of  which  he  was  over  the  pins,  and  then  drawing  the  curve  with 

■rifff^  by  Dr.  James  McBride,  and  left  a  num-  a  pencil  placed  inside  the  loop  and  stretched 

ber  of  works  in  manuscript.    His  acquaintance  out  as  far  as  the  loop  will  allow.    A  second  im- 

lith  general  literature  was  extensive,  aod  he  portant  property  of  the  curve  is  that  lines  from 

MM  thoroughly  read  in  the  scientific  works  of  any  point  of  it  drawn  to  the  foci  moke  equal 

the  modem  French  schooL    His  collection  in  angles  with  the  curve.    Hence  light  emanating 

tiM  several  departments  of  natural  history  was  from  one  focus  would  bo  reflected  by  the  curve 

It  the  time  of  his  death  one  of  the  most  exten-  to  the  other  focus.    If  the  other  focus  were  at 

mrt  in  the  country.    The  degree  of  LL.D.  was  an  immeasurable  distance,  the  curve  would  bo 

conferred  upon  him  by  Yale  and  Harvard  col-  a  parabola,  and  the  light  would  proceed  out  in 

kfea— Stefhex,  D.D.,  son  of  the  preceding,  parallel  lines;  or  light  coming  from  an  inverse 

MK>p  of  the  Protestant  Episcopal  church  for  distance  would  be  reflected  into  the  focus.  Ucuce 

fte  diocese  of  Georgia,  bom  at  lieaufort,  S.  C,  the  parabola  gives  the  proper  form  for  a  tele- 

k  1B06.    Ue  was  graduated  at  Harvard  col-  scopic  mirror.   These  are  the  most  important  of 

lege  in  1824,  and  was  ordained  a  deacon  in  1835,  the  simpler  properties  of  the  ellipse ;  the  higher 

■n  a  priest  in  1836,  soon  after  which  he  be-  and  equally  important  properties  are  scarcely 

iBe  professor  of  sacred  literature  in  the  South  capable  of  expression  without  the  use  of  mathe- 

ChnwDa  college.   In  1840  he  was  elected  bishop  matical  forms.    When  an  ellipse,  instead  of  be- 

tf  Georgia,  and  in  Feb.  1841,  was  consecrated,  ing  traced  on  a  plane  surface,  is  traced  on  the 

KLLIOTT,  WiLUAM,  an  American  author  and  surface  of  a  sphere,  it  is  called  a  spherical  ellipse. 

HBtidan,  bom  in  Beaufort,  S.  C,  April  27, 1788.  ELLIS,  a  N.  co.  of  Texas,  drained  by  Trinity 

Hi  vas  fntered  in  Harvard  college  at  the  age  of  river,  which  forms  its  E.  boundary ;  area,  1,000 

abnt  Ql  health  compelled  him  to  return  home  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1858,  3,212,  of  whom  723  were 

ue  the  completion  of  his  academic^  career,  slaves.    The  surface  is  occupied  by  prairies  and 

for  many  years  he  devoted  himself  to  the  man-  tracts  of  hard  timber.    The  prairies  are  very 

^pOMiitof  his  estates^  and  served  with  credit  in  fertile,  and  produce  maize  and  cotton.    In  1850 

■&  Innches  of  the  state  legislature.    During  there  were  raised  here  28,744  bushels  of  Indian 

fti  mllificatioQ  crisis  in  South  Carolina  in  1832  com,  2,617  of  potatoes,  17,220  lbs.  of  butter  and 

b  held  the  oflSce  of  senator  in  the  state  legis-  cheese,  287  of  rice,  and  200  of  tobacco.    Valuo 

hlB«,bat  resigned  upon  being  instmcted  by  of  real  estate  in  1858,  $545,600.    Capital,  Wox- 

HieoDftituents  to  vote  to  nullify  the  tariff  law.  ahachie.    Formed  in  1849. 

kkM  nnce  participated  less  frequently  in  pub-  ELLIS,  George  Edward,  an  American  cler- 

k  lAin,  his  letters  against  secession  signed  gyman,  pastor  of  the  Harvard  church,  Charles- 


108                      £UJS  ELLISTON 

to^n,  Ma«.,  liorn  in  Doiitnn  in  1915.    lie  was  antbor,  born  in  tbc  latter  part  of  the  U 

(rmcJiiAU'il  Ht  II.irTar>l  colltf|^»  in  1H33,  itudicd  turr.     In  H15  be  beramv  offiriallr  cot 

thc<  •]•>;;.«'  at  tliti  Cainbrid^e  «livinitj  k1ioc»1  until  with  tbc  I^iitiun  misitionarr  !tocivtT.  undvt 

lsi36,  and  aftiT  a  ycar'n  travel  in  Europe  waa  an^pices  in  Jan.  1816,  be  (tailed  with  bi«i 

or<Iainv'«l  in  1 M^  ai  pa-^t' t  of  the  cburrb  Mill  iin-  Poljnctfia.     lie  8(»ent  nearlr  in  jean  in  p 

dcr  bi«  r}.:irj^,  and  prt^vim^Ij  under  the  charge  infr  the  ppiritnal  velfar^  of  tlio  natives 

fif  the  Uvv.  .TaiiK-d  Wblki-r,  nrnr  provident  of  South  Hca  i»lan(L«  (at  one  of  which.  Tal 

Harvard  unlviT^ity.    Ho  b.'i4lti*«*nanindu>trious  enN:teil  the  fin^t  printinfc  prew  in  V*A} 

and  •^uctv^oful  writt-r,  U  tlu'  autbi»r  of  tbo  lives  and  in  1^24  retume<l  to  EniHand  on  acre 

iif  JiiLfi  M:i.M.in.  Anne  lIutdiinMm.  and  William  tbe  illni-s!«  of  his  wife,  sto(»|iinf;  fnr  »<in 

IVnii,  in  Si»:irL*'H  "  American  lliojrrapby/'  and  on  the  way  in  the  United  iStatOii,  whore 

in   1*»<*7  pri!*!l:-hiil  a  vi-ry  elulMinite  work,  tho  ccived    luiicb    nttentinn.     Fur  jtnrne  y^ 

"ILiIl*  CVhtury  **(  the  Tnitariun  Contrvversy."*  was  ernployeil  in  tbe  businetf  of  ibe'  1 

IIeiditi.'<lf<Tatiniethf"C'Iiri«tiun]U*'p:i^tor,**tbo  tni*«(«ionary  soriety   at    b^mie,    and    pu 

re!i/ioU!i  iivw<*[iai<'r  uf  the  \I:i»«acbttM*tta  Uni*  "  Narrative  nf  a  Tour  tbronpb  Owhybi-e  * 

tari;iiis  and  fur  some  year<,  in  r«)nneetiun  with  I^ondon,  182^);    **rolyne^an   luAarrh 

the  llev.  (^triT^re  Putnam.  I ».!».,  be  conducted  voU  8vo.,  1829);    •*Uistnrj'  of  Matla^r 

the  *' Christian  KxamiiuT.'*    He  has  contributed  compiled  fn»ni  infonnation  recvivwl  froi 

I:ir^*  Ir  tu   v:!^!!''!^  poritMlicnl^,   inrludinR    the  M«»(u&rie9  and  ptvemment  d<»cumi*ntA  (S 

•■  Ni  w  Yi.rk  lirvif w,"  tho  *•  Nnrth  American,"  6vo.,  1K39) :  *■  Ilistury  of  the  Ix>ndon  H 

tl;o  "I'liri^lian  Exiiiiiinir,"  and  the  "Atlantic  ary  Society  "(Svd.,  1S44);  '*  Vjllapo  Ixcti 

Mi  tztMy,"  mo>l  fre*pi»-nily  upon  topics  of  Anier-  Puiwry  "  (Svn.,  1S51),  Ac.    In  1^35  LL»  wii 

lean  lii-tiury.     In  lSu7  he  wait  appointi-d  pn.>fer«-  ana  2  year*  later  he  wa.^  marrietl  a  sc-octo 

fi.ir  i>f  dr*etrinal  t!ie<>h*{;y  in  tbe  (  umbrid;re  di*  to  Mi?a  Sarali  Stickney,  with  i»bnm  be  i 

vinity  t^'hu*'l,  and  r^-ccived  the  dojn-ee  of  I>.I>.  for  many  year*  in  lioddoMtun,  lli-rtfur 

frum' Harvard  uiii%-er«ity.     He  U  a  prominent  where  Mm.  Kllis  conducted  a!»i'hfiiil  fo 

]ni.ii.l'ir  of  the  Ma>**acliU'ietts  historical  society.  In  1S5.1  Mr.  Elliji  procet-ilcil  tu  MmWa^* 

antl  3e:ive  in  it<«  antiiiuarian  revanches  and  cul-  tni?i>iouuf  (>t»M.>rvation  fur  tho  Ix>n<li>n  ini^< 

Kitijn-^     In  hii  rclicpout  views  bo  belongs  to  society,  and  after  three  vImIa  to  that  i-^Ian 

the  nil. re  cou«erv:ilive  clas^  of  rnitariaiiii,  aikd  H^ied  an  iitttTe<itin,;  and  vainaMe  wt^rk, 

UiK\:A  a  dv<-ided  <and  airaini-t  tbe  new  rational*  tbe  title  of  **  Three  Vi^its  to  Ma<lapi«car. 

i:.ni.     He  i<  a  ZL-ak'Us  friend  of  popular  educa-  )WS-'5*5,  with  Notice*  ufthe  IVopV,  J 

tiun,  and  has  siNikeu  and  written  much  for  com«  History,  ^e."  ^I^undon,  1959),  of  whuh  2 

xu>>ii  M*h<iuU.    Hi4  publiblivd  sermons  ftddreswS)  lieation^  bave  ap|>eared  in  tbc  rni(i-«l  St 

pan:itlili'!^  &o.,  have  been  numerous  Sailaii  Stukset,  wife  of  tlie  prect  ditj.  a 

ri.I.IS,  (ii:Mi:i«E.  un  Enjrli^h  author,  born  in  liOi  autbureMi,  U»ru  in  the  be^nnini:  ol  tL 

1 74  V  d'.^-d  April  15,  1^1  V     He  comniencc^l  bis  ont  century.  Herpari'iitaU'lonpMl  ti«tho 

litvrury  eari.-i.T  a.s  a  t«rit«*r  uf  pnlitii\il  satire^  of  KriL-nds  amoni^  whom  ^beren-iwil  b*  r 

and  I'tvanio  favMraMy  known  a<«  ari>ntributor  tinn.    Her  tir^t  liter;iry  pnnluction  ^»a5  a 

til    the    *'  K<»!!!:i'h"   and    hub«e>)UvntIy   to  the  tic  wurk  for  the  yt'Utt^'.  entitled  the  *' 

••  A:iii-.TaciiMn/*    T!»e  htU'!y  of  t-arly  En^Ii«h  of  I.ifo;'*  and  bince  bcr  marriaire  in  \<: 

Ii:iT.iV'.ri\  bitwcver,  •.K:enpi»«il  bi^Ifisuro  hours,  ba*  written  many  vulimirsi  dv^uted  tn  ii.e 

aiid  in  17**')  be  prixl'.«'nl  "  SiK*ciinens  of  An-  and  mental  culture  of  her  k^s.     Th<*  pr 

tluMt   K::^*h-h  ritvlry.*' of  which  enlarged  etli'  of  the-^  are:   "  Htjmr.  or  the  In-n  Hulc 

til-::- ai>;'ear>d  iu  l"*'*!  .'LUil  1^11.     A  <-i>iupanii.>n  wi!I-kni>wn   horii.^  entitleil    tbe  *' W.it:: 

Work,  •■  SjH.^  irmn-  of  Ancii-nt  Encli^h  Itoman-  Ki.^'!:ind**  jIKJh),  the  "l)aujrht«-r«»of  K:i| 

Cf,"  appearetl  in  3  v.-N.  Hv.».  in  I»^«»5,  an<l  has  (1M2»  tbe  '•Wi^i-*  of  Enjrl.nnd  "  «l***:i 

hlr;re  U-vn  npuMishi-l  in  IMiu*s  **  Antiijuariaa  the  "  Mot!n.-ri  of  England'*  n^.").  '•  L 

Iji-rurv"  ih'.n.fiin,  1*»4>*).  the   End"  <2  vnU   hvo.,  IhIoi;  *•  Hi  ar 

EI. LIS.  Sib  Hr.M:v.  an  En^rli'.b  author  and  Honu-."  (.1  viK  8vo.,  1»*»h.'ii.,  a-, 

ant:  |p..krv,  Inirn  in  I."rid"n  in   1777.     He  was  nowiHWi  en;rap«l  ni»on  the  pn;  arati-i 

*^h.i  atvd  at  St.  Jiihn*i  ci'Ili-uv,  <  Oxford,  and  in  niw  work  to  UM-aiK-d  "  Mother*  i if  < J r-  at 

I'^o'i  l/<  ranii' orio  I'f  thi*  a-M<4.int  librarian:*  (if  Her   puMicatiiinH,  nuniWrin^  U-tuitr.  1 

thi"  Hrili^h  !nn«^Mm:.     A  n-w  and  e!d:ir;:i.-d  edi-  3",  hn\e  rierii'id  a  l>enifi<*iAl  inf!. :«•:.!> 

tl'-n  uf  UraiiirA  "  I'iipMlnr  .\ntii|uitii4**  wa4  in-  dome^tii*  life  i.'f  lireat  Britxuu  aii'l  i:.«-  1 

feUi-il  '.;ndir  hi*  cart*  in  l^lt,  and  was  n'puln  Statr«. 

lishrd  in  a  <.bia|».r  funii  i:i  IMi.     In  ISlii  bo  EI.I.ISToN,   Ri»nEirr  TTiiimm.  an    F 

»r'»!i'  a  Careful  ni»il  t!  iNirato  intriHlurtir>n  t«»  m'tiir,  U-rn  in  I.ondi>n.  April  7, 1774.  «:.ixi 

tJii-   "hoimwlay  Il*»'.k.  '  and  in  1»*2I  publi^lnd  July  7,   isTl.     Ho  was  i-lufntid  a!    >r. 

a  H-rit-^  *•{  ••<  tri^'iua!  I.f!t»r^  illtwrativeof  Knir-  H'!n»«»h  b«;t  :it  the  h?i*  t»f  17  ran  a«  .iv  ari- 

b«h   History,**  fri>:n  ai:(i>{;r;ip^<  in  the  Hriti«}i  ed  a   thiatrical    eKnijiaiiy  at  lUth,    «S 

in:««  aiii  (  i'>  Vi !«.   •**!».):  a  t^-'-i-nil  M.*rie\  in  4  initio  hi-*  fir-*!  apji-arafir.'  «  n  t!!ej»t.i*««  ir: 

Vi-l-.  in  1*»27;  Mid  a  third,  in  4  vn!*.,  in  l**4d.  I7i»l.     Ki\e  y- .ir*i  la:ir  he  m.-id*-  !.  *  *\r 

>ir  li.  Kllii  ^«a^  friini  lvj7  *,,  ]s5*j  hijkd  libra-  I^>nd'>n,  ut  t}>i*  ILiyniarlvi  thi-.t!re,  and  ii 

r.a!io!!l.v  ltr:!idi  muM.*inii.  bivanie  ]<rii.i*ipal  attur  and  ai-:iti^  n^ira, 

EJJ.IS,  WiLUjui,  an  En^liab  mlaftioDary  and  that  buuM*.    lu  tho  ruece^xliog  year  L 


ELLOBA  ELLWOOD                    109 

•t  Drarjr  Lane,  bnt  after  the  bnming  towns  in  the  state,  and  a  place  of  commercial 

of  tba  theatre,  haying  quarrelled  with  Thomas  importance.    It  is  extensivelj  engaged  in  the 

Sfamdan,  be  left  the  companj,  and  opened  the  lumber  trade,  exporting  every  year  aboat  60,- 

Socrej  theatre.     On  the  rebuilding  of  Dmry  000,000  feet  of  lumber.    It  contains  the  county 

Ijm  he  was  mg^  engaged  as  a  leading  actor,  buildings,  and  in  1859  had  2  churches,  a  high 

ad  recited  the  address  written  by  Lord  Byron  school,  a  newspaper  office,  2  hotels,  2  banks, 

Jbr^  opeoing  night    In  1819  he  became  the  9  saw  mills,  2  grist  mills,  9  lath  machines,  1 

leaee  of  Dmry  £ane,  but  in  1826  retired  a  shingle  &ctory,  1  tannery,  1  machine  shop,  1 

bankrupt,    Sabsequently  he  was  again  manager  carding  mill,  1  pottery,  8  brick  yards,  and  13 

of  tiM  Surrey  theatre,  and  continued  occasion-  ship-bmlding  yards.    Capital  invested  in  manu- 

aQy  to  perform  his  principal  characters  until  factures,  about  $2,000,000.     The  tonnage  of 

the  dose  of  his  life.    ElUston  was  called  the  the  district  (Frenchman's  bay),  Juno  30, 1858, 


of  his  time.    His  chief  merit  was  27,632  enrolled  and  licensed,  and  6,733 

ydiiM  was  the  £Eu;iIity  with  which  he  adapted  registered. 

MnMdftoeTeryTarietyof  characters,  from  the       ELLSWORTH,  Olitek,   LL.D.,   2d   chief 

feraedly  bmnorons  to  the  tragic.    He  possessed  Justice  of  the  United  States,  bom  in  Windsor, 

tm.  iDor&uite  self-esteem,  and  many  anecdotes  Uonn.,  April  29, 1745,  died  Nov.  26,  1807.   He 

m  iold  of  lijs  whimsical  eccentricities.  was  graduated  at  the  college  of  New  Jersey  in 

ELLOBA,  Elobjl,  or  Eloubo,  a  decayed  town  1766,  and  soon  after  commenced  the  practice  of 

«f  HindostaDy  in  Hyderabad,  13  miles  N.  W.  law.    In  1777  he  was  chosen  a  delegate  to  the 

Annmgabad,  and  celebrated  for  its  cave  continental  congress,  and  in  1780  was  elected  a 

ezcavatedfromtheinnerslopeof ahorse-  member   of  the  council   of  Oonnecticut,  in 

iped  hill,  about  a  mile  firom  the  town,  which  body  he  continued  till  1784,  when  he 

cavercs  are  sculptured  over  an  extent  was  appointed  a  judge  of  the  superior  court.   In 

U  Bila  in  length,  and  may  be  regarded  as  a  1787  ho  was  elected  to  the  convention  which 

ndoo  pantheon,  since  every  divinity  of  India  framed  the  federal  constitution,  and  was  aftor- 

Ipi  there  a  shrine.    Host  of  the  caves  are  ward  a  member  of  the  state  convention,  where 

than  100  feet  in  depth ;  20  of  them  are  he  earnestly  advocated  the  ratification  of  that 

1  to  Siva,  and  2  to  the  Trimurti,  or  important  instrument,  which  his  exertions  had 

triuity.     They  are  aU  adorned  with  essentially  aided  in  producing.    In  1789  he  was 

statues  and  innumerable  sculptures  and  chosen  a  senator  of  the  United  States,  which  sta- 

bHKeZIefs.    The  greatest  and  most  remarka-  tlon  he  filled  till  1796,  when  he  was  nominated 

lb  of  these  monuments  is  the  Eailasa^  or  by  Washington  chief  justice  of  the  supremo  court 

pradiae,  dedicated  to  Siva,  and  designed  to  of  the  United  States,  over  which  he  presided 

npcesent  the  court  of  that  divinity  where  he  with  great  distinctioD,  his  opinions  being  marked 

those  of  his  worshippers  who,  having  by  sound  legal  and  ethical  principles,  in  clear 

metempsychosis,  come  after  death  to  and  felicitous  language.    In  1799  he  was  ap- 

eternal  happiness.     This  does  not,  like  pointed,  by  the  elder  Adams,  envoy  extraordi- 

flie  others,  extend  subterraneously,  but  rises  to  nary  to  Paris,  and  with  his  associates,  Davio 

a  htby  height  in  a  vast  excavatiou.    It  is  com-  and  Murray,  he  successfully  negotiated  a  treaty 

fond  of  a  portico,  a  chapel,  and  a  grand  pa-  with  the  French.    This  accomplished,  and  his 

■Ddk    The  portico  is  sustained  by  pillars  and  health  beginning  to  fail,  he  visited  England  for 

Inked  by  curious  sculptures.    Two  obelisks,  the  benefit  of  its  mineral  waters ;  but  his  in- 

0  fret  in  height,  and  2  gigantic  elephants,  sur-  firmities  increasing,  he  resigned  his  ofiice  of 
nnd  vid  support  the  chapel,  which  is  likewise  chief  justice  in  1800.  Returning  to  Connecticut, 
domed  on  every  side  by  statuary.  The  pa-  he  was  again  elected  a  member  of  the  council ; 
|ida  rises  from  the  centre  of  the  whole  structure  and  in  1807  he  was  appointed  chief  justice  of 
^  tte  hei^t  of  95  feet,  and  is  surrounded  ex-  the  state,  which  office  he  declined,  under  the 
ktaaUj  by  mythological  designs  and  sculptures  impression  that  he  could  not  long  survive  under 
■■naentinglions,  tigers,  elephants,  and  fantastic  the  distressing  malady  which  soon  closed  his 
■■■ab  of  all  sorts.    Within  are  42  colossal  days.    He  was  eminently  distinguished  both  for 

^of  Hindoo  divinities,  each  one  the  centre  public  and  private  virtues,  and  his  reputation 

^  !oap ;  and  beyond  this  main  temple  may  was  so  irreproachable  that  in  the  hottest  parti- 

li  seen  others  of  smaller  size   and   simihu:  son  conflicts  his  character  was  never  assailed. 
These  gigantic  works  are  of  un-        ELLWOOD,  Thomas,   a   minister    of   the 

antiquity,  and  seem  to  have  been  exe-  Friends,  a  friend  of  Milton,  bom  in  Crowell, 

1  by  Buddhists  as  well  as  b:r  Brahmins.   The  Oxfordshire,  in  1689,  died  in  1713.  Atan  early 

of  Ellora  is  small,  and  is  resorted  to  by  age  he  attached  himself  to  the  society  of  Friends, 

ns  pilgrims.  thereby  giving  great  offence  to  his  father,  but 

BLLSWORTH,  a  port  of  entry,  and  capital  neither  blows  nor  persuasions  could  induce  tho 

if  fiBioock  CO.,  Maine,  on  both  sides  of  the  son  to  renounce  his  new  sentiments,  to  take  off 

tkkm,  river,  a  navigable  stream,  which  empties  his  hat  before  his  parents,  or  to  address  them 

bto  fteochman's  bay  about  4  miles  below  this  with  other  pronouns  than  **  thou''  and  *^  thee.'' 

[;  tlliiL  the  opposite  banks  being  connected  by  He  was,  like  most  of  the  other  ministers  of  his 

1  Moses;  pop.  in  1860,  4.009;  in  1854,  about  time,the  author  of  numerous  controversial  work^ 
MjnfL    EUaworth  b  one  ox  the  most  flourishing  The  most  considerable  of  these  is  his  ''  Sacred 


no  ELM 

nistorj  of  the  Old  and  Now  Tcstamontj.**    ITo  titr  of  inncl1a(r<^,  of  mnrh  valnc  In 

ftI«o  wriite  a  poem  entitled  DaritUis,  of  which  Hicham  cnniiiden  its  wood  ai  raperior  to 

KiD^  I>avid  wa<«  the  liero.     Hat  ho  U  cliioHj  of  the  white  elm.    The  tree  can  be  nmSSIj 

known  from  t!tc  cirrum*>tanoo  that  he  wa<«  one  grafte<l  ii|M)n  the  white  elm,  and  if  only  for  o^ 

of  tliow  H'lcrtcd  by  tlie  poet  Milton  to  read  to  nament  it  ii  well  worthy  of  cultivation.    Ito 

Lim  after  the  lorn  of  his  «ipht.     Durini;  the  corky  white  elm  (T,  rtirfmota^  Thomas)  hMHi 

rafrine  of  tlie  pla;;ue  in  Lmdon  in  icr>5  he  ob-  branohei  often   l>e«ct  with  corky  ridses;   Hi 

taioed  a  retreat  for  Milton  at  Chalfont,  and  lea  vex  are  similar  to  those  of  the  white  da; 

there  he  i^  saiil  firkt  to  have  9uggc5tcd  the  idea  ita  flowers  are  in  racemes;  it<«  wood  is  tooi^Mr 

of  the  **  TarailiM*  Kc^ined/*  and  finer  frruinod.    The  wahoo  or  winged  eht 

EI.M  iulmu*^  Linn.),  a  tree  f>f  the  natnral  (f*!  alatii,  Mx.)  i^  a  small  tree,  seldom  eioec4- 

ordi-r  ulni'Ut'p,   which  enkbrace*  itomo  of  the  inj^  SOfoet  in  heif;ht,  hasafino-in^ined,  TaloaUft 

noMe«t  and  imM  inipf.»rtant  HiK.Ties  in  the  Unit-  wo4kI,  and  is  to  bo  found  in  VirfHnia  and  sooth* 

ed  Stati'ii.    All  the  plants  belonging  tothisfam-  wanl.    The  English  elm  (/**.  Mtnpettris^  Linn.) 

ily  have  simple,  routrh,  serrate,  unequal-sidetl  wan  early  introduce<l  into  this  countrr,  and  it  A 

leaves;  flowers  tmall.  in  buncIicHon  the  side  of  etntely  tree,  contrasting  finely  witli  tbe  AnMri* 

the  twi^;  the  fruit  cither  a  winged  samara  or  can.     Its  branches,  unlike  that,  tend  npward,  €r 

a  drupe.    Three  fincra  of  ulmactip  aro  found  elite  srtread  more  horizontally,  and  ita  (bliagt  It 

within  the  limits  of  the  I'nited  States.    The  of  auarker  green  andmoro  pleasinic  to  tbecji^ 

mo»t  coitM  lie  nous  of  tlioM)  is  ulmut,  of  which  The  wych  elm  ( r.  montana,  Itauhin)  has  bMi 

we  e<rK*ci:ilIyni»tiro  the  white  or  American  elm  partially  intn>duced ;  it  is  much  cultiTafcedift 

(/7,  simfricana^  I.iun.).     No  tree  can  stiq»a«is  Scotland,  and  goen  by  the  name  of  the  8coCck 

this  ill  the  beauty  i>f  it 4  proporti(»n«.     In  old  chn.     It  ri^Mrmbles  the  slipfH^ry  elm.    The  mIf 

trees  e.«{>e<.-ially,  from  tlie  wiile-rpriMdin^r,  but-  tie  tree  has  a  tnmk  from  20  ti>  6*)  feet  hi|^ 

tress-like  ri>ots  to  the  Willi- rf^preading  branches,  Its  K-aves  arc  obliipiely  lanceolate,  acumii 


tlic  curvaturo  U  beautiful  ami  graceful  in  the    shari>ly  si-rrato ;  its  fruit  is  a  sort  of  pi  am  or 

~         It  hat  at«w 


extromo.     Situutinn  beetQ«,  however,  to  give  drufto  of  a  yellow iith  gn.vn  colur. 

variety  to  the  out  I  i  i.e.     In  wet  pastures  or  hi  mi-  eral  varieties,  con«idereiI  by  some  botanlttt 

lar  plaiv^  a  tail,  hknder  trunk,  crow ne<l  with  a  distinct  spcrii-^,  but  probably  nothing  more 

few  {icudvtit  liiul'S  uiitl  clotheil  nearly  from  the    forms  of  rrl^is  orrUUntala  (Linn.).    Ther  g. 

ground  wit!i   a  fchthory  inve«>tmont  of  small  on  the  poorest  and  most  arid  soils  bat  flooriA 

brancho.4,  whi<  h  are  K-arcvly  more  than  leafy  beitt  in  a  rich  and  moist  ground.     Miclianx  Mjt 

braiiohi-s  of  twi;:^,  i^  a  plca.«iug  object  Krldi»m  that  the  wihnI  of  the  harkWrry  {/*.  cnast(/Sp|ia^ 

overlouki -d  or  cji-nally  n^^rdcd.    'I'lio  ra[iidity  If  x.)  i«  fino-(rraiue«l  and  Ci»mpart,  but  not  hesTj, 

of  the  growth  of  tho  white  elm  ad-ipts  it  toarti-  The   plaiuT   tree   (jfhtnrnt   aq^ntiot,  (tmeHa) 

ficial  planting'  where -hade  is  soon  nivdi-d.  Hanly  has  small  leaver  like  th>  '^>e  of  elms ;  the  riowcft 

to  an  uiiu.-^ual  d^^Ttv.  it  kioo  U'Comes  a  favorite  aro  bonie  in  small  axillarv  rlu^ter*;  the  Anil  It 

nith  the  tree  pl:int«r.  ranging  in  its  di*tribntion  nut-like,     .\ecorilin:;  to  Michaux,  it  grows  oft 

from  S.Ltkatehewari  mh  Hudsitn'sbay  to(reor^a.  wet  b.iuks  in   Kentucky  and  MiUthward.     Ht 

The  >%i>'d  I'f  the  wliito  «1m  U  u<ed  fi<r  making  coUMden  its  w^hhI  as  hard,  strong,  and  proptr 

Lub4  I'f  wliveS.  and  !•«  pre  fern  *•  I  for  that  puriKi<o  for  various  pur]Mi«4-«.     It  has  not,  l.owercr,  beiV 

to  any  i<t!icr  native  w«<o.i.     Y^'kc*  :ire  made  of  put  to  any  u-o  in  tlii^  country,  and  is  so  Htllt 

it,  ai.d  t.t-ar  the  i'<i.\-t  '•Mji  bt(M*k4  arer«in!<*tructod  estecnu'il  an  ti>  havo  reivivin]  no  |»opu!ar 

of  it*  tiMJ?tr.     TiiiJ  whito  ilm  grows  n-a'hly  It  in  worthy  of  n: tempt t  at  cult iv a!  ion 


fn-m  s<  •  d.  V  Lii'h  s!.>'il<)  l»o  H*wn  a.4  «oi>n  as  ward,  and  can  be  readily  propagated  by 

ri]K\  ar.d  may  U'  g.ki!ieri-i!  in  almtKt  any  d«Mr-  it  ii|Min  the  rim. 

ab!tf  (i':aiitity  from  t?je  gruunil  under  the  tree*,         KLM  ACINI'S,  or  T.x.  Maciv.  rtronoK, 

fjc'iij^-  iL«  4ar!y  u4  June.     T!it«  s,-ei]s  >!iouId  l>o  in  th«*  fli^t  by  the  name  of  I!»n  Amid,  an  Ara» 

very  >!:k*litly  (MVervd,   a:id  the  young  plant*  bian  hi'«to.''ian,  b<>rn  in   K;0'j*t  in  1»3.  died  !■ 


r;-e  in  a  ftw  nerks,  when  thev  hhi'uld  lio     Pamancus  in    1'2T3.     \\%^  wan  a  t'hn«tlan, 

wati-^id  and  wei>!<.-d,  and  i:i  «:iccL«vling  !k*;L«oiui  held  at  tho  c-iur:  of  tho  suh.in^  nf  Cairo  tte 

shouM  bo  thinrie«l  c:!  and  trant>pl.inted  t>»  in-  office  i>firfi^  or  M'critary.     lie  wn*te  a  hiiCMy 

sure  lAilI-f  ir!ii«-«l  tn-^^.     In  tran-plantin;;  full-  of  the  Ea^t,  e«>pi-eia!Iy  of  tho  Aral»s,  frum  tM 

grown   aiiil    \i^i>rii';4  ynti;:^   •>{ii--imin.<4  {'*\\\A  creatii^n  of  t!ie  M'orld  tii  his  time,  a  portioa  of 

whi-ro   t!i(y    \.%\*'   ap;><.iro!  •^{•ontanfou-ly,   it  whi<'Ii  m' .as  pul>!i*hid  both  in  Arabic  and  I^IIb 

b  n<  .■•-*''.irv  t.i  fc  c::re  n*  minr  nf  i!io  tli»r«Mis  br  Eni*iiiu».  ht  L«  vib»n,  in  ltV2r»;  tho  I^tiO  Ter- 

r«Hit«  .1^  I  •■•«!^!^\  i.m1  have  !hii:i  ikpr«-:iil  imt  in  siou  wai  ^-o'l  ri-;'r:i;*.ed,  and  wa«  fuUowf«l  by 

laTi^'o  a::'l  »!:•;')••  K>-!f«,  fk ill  pppAFit!  With  pMNl  a  French  tr:i!:-l.iti"ri.     A  e'-njp-^te  r«litioa  la 

inl :   «- irf  v\,<  !e    t.ik'-n    i."t  to  havo    tliem  Arabia*  nnnin^  in   u»o  yunk«::g  tito   Chrj 


t«-.i   d'tj-'.y    <..-.ir.-l.      IJ.o    fj;  p- ry    e!m    ( /'.  of  tiio  I^-vant. 
fultt.  Ml  I  i^  .-v  1:....  h  Mii.i!!i  r  trts-,  with  lar^j^r         ELMES.   JiMr*.  an  Ersli>h  architAd,  bnrv 

a:i  1  I.,  r-  !- .4-.'..f..l  f-'luj.*.  ar.d  » 'ft,  di»r;y,  in  lAmdi-n,  o,!.    ir»,  17"'J.     He   praotiwd  bit 

ru»t\-'.  I. rid  \  .'!•.  »i.t  fii-^  tlie  naii.e  »--:ti»'!i!:ji'S  prufesM-m  in  ll.e  e.irly  j  art  of  his  life,  and  gained 

arpiii^l  »  i"  r-!i!::i,     I;»li-iw,r«  ar.»  ;n  lateral  th.»  silver  mchil   r.i  arr!iitivt::re  at  the  rrytl 

c*U"tir*;  !:.••  ":Aii.ara  :.« lar^'t  rand  iftith  abroailer  academy  in  l**<^t.     Me  was  fir  Mime  time  set^ 

border.    Tlie  inner  bark  contains  a  great  qaan-  veyor  and  civil  engineer  of  the  port  of  Loodtfa, 


ELMINA  ELPHINSTON                    111 

but  loss  of  sight,  which,  however,  he  afterward  was  elected  the  solicitor,  or  public  prosecuting 

partially  recovered,  caused  him  to  relinquish  officer,  of  the  southern  circuit,  an  office  wliich 

the  oflUse  in  1828.    He  has  published  *'  Memoirs  he  retained  by  successive  reelections  until  1836, 

«f  tlie  life  and  Works  of  Sir  Christopher  when  he  was  cliosen  a  representative  to  fill  a 

Wren^  (^to.,  London,  1828) ;  "Lectures  on  Ai-  vacancy  in  the  24th  congress.    lie  subsequently 

dutectore'*  (8va,  1823) ;  *^  General  and  Biblio-  served  throughout  the  25th  congress,  and  in  1839 

graphical  Dictionary  of  the  Fine  Arts"  (8vo..  was  made  president  of  the  bank  of  the  state 

18M);  **Oa  the  Law  of  Dilapidations"  (rojal  of  South  Carolina,  which  position  he  held  with 

8tou,  18S6) ;  ^  Treatise  on  Architectural  Juris-  credit  until  elected  in  1850  to  €11  the  vacancy  in 

pmdenoe"  (8vo^  1827).    Among  his  most  recent  the  U.  S.  senate  occasioned  by  the  death  of  Mr. 

pfodoecions  is  a  work  on  Thomas  Clarkson  Calhoun.    He  died  immediately  after  entering 

(Loodoo.  1854).  upon  the  duties  of  his  new  office.    In  1838  ho 

ELIONA,  or  St.  Gbobge  dbl  Mina,  a  town  was  selected  by  the  South  Carolina  delegation 

hi  Affbantee,  IT.  Africa,  capital  of  the  Dutch  in  congress  as  one  of  a  committee  to  obtain  au- 

•iCUflnients  on  the  Gold  Coast,  on  a  small  bay  thentic  information  respecting  the  anti-slavery 

BMT  Um  mouth  of  the  river  Beira,  5  or  6  m.  movement    He  addressed,  Feb.  16,  1838,  a  let- 

IT.  of  C^>e  Coast  Castle.     It  is  a  large  and  ter  to  James  G.  Birney,  corresponding  secretary 

&ty  town,  containing  a  considerable  native  of  the  American  anti-slavery  society,  enclosing 

popahtion  of  traders^  fishermen,  servants,  and  a  series  of  interrogatories  as  to  the  number  of 

stifieerSi  the  last  being  very  numerous  and  anti-slavery  societies  and  members  in  the  United 

■osdy  held  as  slaves.    There  are  several  coun-  States,  their  objects,  expectations,  means,  and 

tiy  residenoes  and  farms  belonging  to  the  gov-  modes  of  operation.   Mr.  Birney  replied  at  great 

and  merchants,  back  of  which  is  an  undu-  length  in  a  letter,  which,  with  the  other  letters 

eoantry  covered  with  dense  forests.    The  on  both  sides,  was  printed,  and  went  through 

■^  sittu^ed  on  a  low,  rocky  peninsula,  is  many  editions  under  the  title  of  *'  The  Elmore 

atrong;  and  was  the  first  European  estab-  Correspondence." 

oo   this  coast.    It  was  built  by  the  ELMSLEY,  Peteb,  an  English  scholar,  bom 

Fortngiiese  in  1481,  captured  by  the  Dutch  in  in  1773,  died  March  8, 1825.    He  was  educated 

107,  and  finally  ceded  by  Portugal  to  the  latter  at  Westminster  school,  and  at  Mcrton  college, 

■ifioDirith  other  possessions  in  1641.  Oxford,  and  was  graduated  master  of  arts  in 

XLMIRA,  a  post  village  and  township  and  the  1797.    He  officiated  for  a  time  to  a  small  chap- 

CipUal  of  Chemung  co.,  N.  T. ;  pop.  in  1855,  eiry  in  Little  Ilorkesley;  but  becoming  master 

1^189.    It  is  situated  on  Chemung  river,  near  of  a  fortune  by  the  death  of  an  undo,  he  de- 

ttt  moQth  of  Newtown  creek,  and  has  easy  voted  himself  from  that  time  to  literary  studies, 

OBomiaiiication  both  by  land  and  by  water  with  and  particularly  to  Greek  literature.    IIo  lived 

d  the  priacipal  cities  of  the  northern  and  mid-  for  a  while  in  Edinburgh,  where  he  was  intl- 

ib  states.     The  New  York  and  Erie  railroad  matelyassociated  with  the  founders  of  the '^Edin- 

crowci  the  river  at  this  point ;  the  Williamsburg  burgh  Review,"  and  contributed  to  that  period- 

Md  Elmira  railroad  connects  with  other  roads  ical  several  articles,  among  which  were  reviews 

It  Philadelphia,  and  the  Elmira,  Canandaigua,  of  Heyne^s  "  Ilomer,^*  Schweighunscr^s  ^^  Athe- 

■d  Niagara  Falls  railroad  opens  a  communica-  nasus,"  Blomficld^s  *^  Prometheus,"  and  Porson^s 

tkm  to  Canada.     It  is  also  on  the  line  of  tiie  "Uecuba."    In  1816  he  made  a  voyage  to  Italy 

flifimiiH^  and  the  Junction  canals,  the  former  in  search  for  manuscripts,  and  passed  the  winter 

itftiiig  it  with  Seneca  lake  and  the  latter  with  of  1818  in  researches  in  the  Laurentian  library 

fta  osntral  parts  of  Pennsylvania.    It  presents  at  Florence.    The  next  year  he  was  appointed 

wnrj  indication  of  prosperity,  and   has  in-  to  assist  Sir  Humphry  Davy  in  the  unavailing 

■lisril  more  rapidly  tban  any  other  place  on  task  of  trying  to  decipher  some  of  the  papyri 

Aa  New  York  and  Erie  railroad.    It  is  well  found  at  Uerculaneum.    After  his  return  to 

bloot,  and  contained  in  1859  the  county  build-  England  he  published  editions  of  several  of  the 

hp;  9  churches,  viz.:  2  Baptbt,  1  Congrega-  Greek  tragedies. 

^    d,  1  Episcopal,  3  Methodist,  1  Presbyterian,  ELOCUTION.    See  Oratobt,  and  Voice. 

1  Roman  Catholic ;  1  daily  and  2  weekly  ELOHIM,  one  of  the  Hebrew  names  of  the 

offices,  numerous  good  schools  and  Deity,  the  plural  of  Eloah.    The  name  is  also 

^  5  grist  mills,  10  saw  and  2  pianino  applied  to  angels,  princes,  judges,  great  men, 

^■9^  1  manufactory  of  edge  tools,  2  of  soap  and  and  even  to  false  gods. 

•■ilea,  4  of  coaches  and  wagons,  1  of  woollen  ELPHINSTON,  James,  a   Scotch  gramma- 

1  car  factory  and  repair  shop,  3  breweries,  rian,  bom  in  Edinburgh  in  1721,  died  in  Ilam- 

jacea,  3  machine  shops,  4  tanneries,  gas  mersmitb,  Oct.  8,   1809.     He  studied  at  the 

VMfcL  fa;.  Elmira  b  the  seat  of  a  female  college  university  of  Edinburgh,  became  tutor  to  Lord 

MAb  of  accommodating  800  pupils.  Blantyre,  superintended  an  edition  of  the  *^  Bam- 

ELICORE.  FnASKLDr  Habper,  an  American  bier"  in  his  native  town,  and  in  1751  opened  a 

JhHrier  and  politician,  bom  in  Laurens  district,  school  at  Kensington.    He  was  a  zealous  advo- 

I  id,  in  1789,  died  in  Washington,  D.  C,  May  cate  of  a  change  in  English  orthography,  and 

It  1B50.     He  was  graduated  at  South  Carolina  published  several  works  on  the  subject  wliich 

itf^Si  in  1819,  subsequently  studied  law,  and  exposed  him  to  great  ridicule.      A  translation 

Jl  mi  waa  admitted  to  the  bar.    In  1822  he  of  MarUal  (4to.,  1782)  was  no  better  received. 


112                 ELPUINSTOKi:  ELSIKORE 

IIU  prinripal  wnrk^nrc:  **  French  nml  Enplish  which  he  was  mado  lord  high  chancellor  of 

Lani;iiapi«"  (2  \oU,  rjiiio..  175C);  **  (ItliicatiDn,  fH?otlam1.     He  was  callvd  to  take  part  at  tto 

a  Totfin'*  (I7(*3j:  "Kiiifhoh  I.-inpiiA;:t''*  (i  voU.  c«)n>iiation  of  James  I\'.  in  1-188,  aad  wae  ioK 

ISiiiti.,  1T(i«i»;  **  l*n»privty  aHrt-rtamcd  in  hiT  inL*d  lately  aft  or  M-nt  a:i  an  aubaiMador  to  tte 

IVturo"  (17m>);  PorttF  sintehtioMi^  iMtini^&c,  euiK.Tur  Maximilian  to  nefrotiate  a  marriaft 

(171*4);  **KitU' YvAT*' iVrr«'*<|Hin<linro,  Inplii-h,  between  the  kin^r  of  Scotland  and  the  ctnp** 

French,  and  Ijittin,  in  \'rvz;c  and  VerM\   U'-  nir*n  daughter ;  and  on  his  way  he  coodndea  A 

twcen  4iiMiu<v«eA  nv  houth  S'Xc^  and   James  tri'uty  of   alliance  between  Scotland  and  tte 

£li'liin«t«in"  (H  vi»N.  I'Jmo.,  17*.*4^  ttatet*  of  Holland.    At  his  suggeetion  the  ^op% 

Kl.rillNSn  >.%{•:.  (iKi'Ki.e.     S.'e  Keitii.  granted,  in  1404,  authority  for  ttie  fomidAtiea 

KI.rilISST(»Nl'l,  MiM  >T«Tr.ii:T.  4th  M>n  of  of  Kin^^H  colU-^o  in  Old  Aberdeen,  which  wet 

Johu,  llthnaninEI|ihinMphiMinKngIi>hbtAte4-  crvcti-d  in    1500.     IIo  wrote  the  Hree  of  th* 

inaniind  hi<itorLin,  b<»nialN)iit  17^».  He  entered  Sci^ttii^h  saint!*,  a  work  which  has  not  FMckei 

tliv  service  of  the  Kast  Iiidiu  ci>nii»anr  at  an  our  times,  and  a  historr  of  tH'otland,  whieh  b 

early  age,  wa.<i  made  ao^i^tiuit  to  the  judge  of  still  prffterved  in  the  liodleian  library  at  Oa» 

lienan*^  ro'^  rapidly  to  tlio  |K>^t  of  ri■^ident  at  funl.     After  tiiu  defeat  and  death  of  JaoMalY. 

I\iiinuh,  and  in  l*^**J  waM  M-nt  ait  ariibu«'<:uh»r  at  Flotlden  he  was  never  sc*en  to  ffliile,  and  Ui 

cxtradrdiiiiiry  to  the  Afghan  court  at  C:iImn»1,  death  has  bven  attributed  to  grief  at  that  A^ 

whero   he    MU'ceidvd    in   n  including   a  treaty  aster. 

agniu^t  the  Frvmh.    The  (»>i-rthrow  df  the  Af-  KL'^IN'ORK,  or  EisiNirR  (Dan.  27r2fiafi9% 

ghan  munar«-h   in  the  same  \car  rendori-d  the  a  maritime  town  of  I )enmark,io  the  bailiwick flf 

com|iA«*t  iuo|KT»tive,  but.  a.4'  the  fruit  of  tliii  Fredi-riksborg,  Inland  of  Swiand,  SA^  m.  N.  & 

mi««Mi>n.  Mr.  KIphiiiHtone  puMi-hcd  his  valuable  from  i*«i|»enhugcn  ;  lat.  Oti^  2  11"  N.,  long.  11* 

*' Account  of  the  Kinpliini  i>fl*ubul  and  it4  l)e-  ati'  41i '  E. ;    iki|i.   about  H,(ioo.    The  towB  ii 

{•endencivH    in    IVrsia,    Tartury,    and   India,**  built  on  the  nurrowe!»t  part  of  the  loond,  hm% 

(4t«i.,  l.uiidi.M,   1^15 1,  which    has    U-en  twice  but    .'^    ni.    in  width,   o|i]H»ite  the  Swa&k 

reprinted,     lli't  rondurt  u:  I*i>omaIi  during  the  town  of  IleUinirlKtrg.    It  commands  the  priMA» 

truubld  with  the  i»ii<*hwa  in  1>*17  wa.4  highly  pal  pa(is.iae  bi'tweiu  the  C*dtt4-gat  and  the  iialll% 

praise^l.     Ho   intHwlucod  many  rcfitrnn  in  his  and  is  the  sp«it  u here  the  houml  iTiirs  (ahallA 

district,  and   in   Oct.   1S18,  wan   nanunl    giiv.  ed  in  lho7)  were  fnnnerly  |»uid  by  all  fcnipk 

C'moruf]i«»njb.'iy.  on  a*>M:niiiig  whiih  station  he  veiuelii,  except  tho<*e    of    Swe«len,   narigatfaw 

addn'M4'dti>thc(\dcuttagiiVi  rnnunt  .1  "Kc|K>rt  that  channel.     The  town  is  sub*»tAntiaIljrMa 

ontlicTcrritorivscuniiuiTodfrom  thclVi'ohwa.**  irregularly  built  on  gntund    rising  gradnalllf 

llii  Idii'ral  |io1iry,  care  vi  educntiitn,  and  Mudy  fntni  the  hhoro.  withuno  nmin  Mn.-ct  eroesed  hf 

of  the  wi-ii':iri*  of  t lit*  rativi'4,  urc  citniinondvil  by  uthcnt  at  ri:*ht  angles  and  eitntuin^  2  rhiirrha% 

Hi«hop  Hi^ir  in  his  *'  linlian  Journal."      Mr.  a  town  hall,  a  high  m  hu«»l.  an  intiniiary,  a  ~ 


l'Upliin'«ti>ni>  ri-tin-d  from  t!ie  Indian  M-rvi'^e  in  j'it:d,  a  theatre,  ami  n  cemetery  l»eautifuIlT  MM 

lh:2i\  fU.<l  nn  bin  dt']iarturc  fur  Kn^'lund    the  out.     The  harUir  i«i  little  more  than  the  sbeltir 

citizen**  of  lUmibay  i>rt^iiird  him  with  a  kt-  atlunU-d  by  a  w^MNlen  pii^-r.  but  the  roadstead  b 

\ ice  of  plate,  and    foun«!id    in  hii  honor  the  exci-lli-nt  and  i^  generally  crowded  viith  Teaalk 

iiL-aitutitm  in  It«>Mi!i.-ir  uhiili  liears  hi*  name.  Adj:u*ent  to  it,  on  t!ie  N.  K.,  on  a  tongoa  of 

lu  1*^11   he  ppxliirttl  hi^  "  ni>tiiry  of  Iiiiiia;  land  running  out  into  the  k-.i,  i^  tlie  raatle  of 

the  Hind'Nt  ami  M.-i)h*iiiet:in  rerimU*'  r2  vuN.  KruitUir;;  (Crown  casilei,  built  by  Fr\.'«!erie  IL 

bvi». I.  a  thiril«*«!itiiin«if  wi.i<  li  apfN.ir^d  in  l^t'^.  alMiiit  loHo.     Modern  forlitication<»  hare 

KI.rHIN>li»NK,  AViiiiwi.  a  >CMirh  pnluto  mhlt«i  to  it-*  ».trengtl».     It  if»  now  chiefly 

and  fttnte^mnn,  Uirn   in  <•!:ls^tw  in  M:i7,  dii-d  a  pri'^in.     (*ari»lino  MatibLi,  «{ueen  of 

in    l^Lnburirh,    <i*-t.   'Ji,    l'il4.     He  was  edu-  VII..  wa<i  imprlMmifl  here  until  the  interfc 

rated  at   t!te  university  of   (tla-^itw.  ri-<vi\id  «»f  her  brothi-r.  <fii*rge  III.  i>f  KngUnd.     Ul 

the   divroe  of  M  .\.,  appli«d  hiniM.-!f  to  theo-  the   ca-tle   urv  cu^-mates  ca|»able  d 


livii'al  ^tu•!il-^  iitid  ^  a-  l>'r   i   ^ear*  ret  tor  of  l.iiufi  men.     Acconling  to  a  |N>pular  tJ 

Kirkmiihael.  in  (i!a-gow.     >il'M*«)Uently.  uhilo  Holger   I^nn'^ke,  the   legendary  h«ro  of 

Mud>tng  in  VuT\\,  he  attra>'tid    the  attention  mark,  riMiIcH  in  one  of  Uie  subterranean  vi 

of  t!i««  ui:i\i-r«.'.}  l>v  the  ix'.tnt  ami  variety  uf  In  the  ci»urtyard  of  the  CA«>tle  i^  tlie  lightboSM^ 

hi4   K-:ir)in/.  .vhI   na^   api'oirit*  il    t>i   tlic    pro-  sh<iwing   a  tiietl  licht  ll:i   feet  above  tbe  MB 

fc«^>r«}.i:*  i-f  ri\,]  at.il  ra!iun  law.  fir-t  at  I*aris  K*^«l.     A  ^li<«rt  distance  N.  \\,  of  tli«  towa  b 

and ailtrw.ir«l  ai  *  'rleai.*.    AJ:»  r  re^idini;  \>  vt  .irs  the  paLttv  nf  Mariei  ly»t  \ Mary**  delight), 

in  Fram-i*.  lie  ri-:un:<-i  t**  .*^>  ••t):kml.  w:u  made  a  ntval  ri-*!dince.  but  now  in  private 


ree!i>r  of  till'  iinivir»iTy  at  (?  1. !>•*.:•  iw  and  otVii-ial     tio:i.     Ni*nr  by  i"*  nIiowd  a  pib'  of  rocka, 
or  rii'i:ni;«<:«rt   <>f  *J  dl••4^■^-^.  atnl  ;it   tlie  K.iii:e     neoii^lr  callid   the  tomb  of  Hamlet^  of  1 
tir..e  w:i«  «-.i!.i  •!  t'l  a  *«-at  in  pariiiit:irnt  and  in  t!it*     st<ir\.  a.**  tfld  by  Shake ofieare,  Elftinorw  It  tM 


.";•  V  r.>T;i :!.     llf  mttli**}  a  nii-utideP^taiidiu;*  ^^•-rtl•.     KNinoro  enji»y»  a  pHi^I  fureign 

Utui.-t  .lami-«  III.  tif  S-.>t!and  ar.tl  I«>iu%  Xl.  M'"«t  of  tlie  ni.nri:ime  nations  have  cooeal 

0*   Ir^iiii*,  te:-d  prt  vrtittd  a  uar.     Ilr  ua<«  mailf  si'Vira!  Hriti*)!  invreantile  hoUHtk  hart* 

li-h"p"f  K'"^-  aUv.*.  H**'*.  a:^<l  iia«  vh'i«— :id  ln-re.     l.<«H'aI  imlu^trr  i^  movtly  en^raired  la  tkt 


in  a  M'T.nd  iii]<!i>i:ia'.it'  m:"*i"n  i't  arraii;;:!..;  a    rviining  of  »ugar  and  bratidy,  priotiug 
truco  betwevu    Scotland    and    Fn^laud,  alter    ti»hin^,  &c.  A»  the  principal  cotrnnnniraltoa 


SLSSLER  £LY£S                        118 

i  Sweden  flood  the  continent  passes  fhrongh  sq.  m.  in  extent    It  yields  annnally  upward  of 

port,  fiKilities  for  trayel  are  abundant.  100,000  tons  of  salt,  the  collection  of  which 

I  eommnnlcation  exists  with  Copenhagen  giyes  employment  to  10,000  persons.    In  the 

idaingborg.     An   extenave   manofacto-  hottest  season  the  crystallized  salt  along  its  banks 

*  anns  is  in  operation  at  Hammerwolle,  and  on  its  sarface  giyes  it  the  appearance  of  a 

s  saborbs.    Elsinore  was  erected  into  a  yast  sheet  of  ice  or  frozen  snow.    It  is  nowhere 

in  1425 ;  was  taken  and  burned  by  the  more  than  16  inches  deep. 

I  of  L&beck  in  1522,  and  again  in  1585  by  ELYAS,  a  fortified  frontier  town  of  Portugal, 

tisn  EL    It  was  enlarged  by  the  Dutch  in  the  proyince  of  Alemtejo,  10  m.  W.  of  Ba- 

■ta  in  1570.    The  castle  was  taken,  Sept.  dajoa,  on  a  hill  near  the  bank  of  the  Guadiana; 

S8»  by  the  Swedes,  under  the  orders  of  pop.  16,460.    It  is  an  important  stronghold, 

Wrangeil,  bat  was  restored  to  the  Danes  haying  an  arsenal,  and  spacious  bomb-proof  bar- 

10.    It  faOed  to  preyent  the  passage  of  the  racks.    The  fort  of  La  liippe  on  a  neighboring 

li  fleet  under  Sir  Hyde  Parker,  with  Nelson  hill  is  deemed  impregnable.    The  town  itself  is 

I  ieoond  in  command,  in  1802.  poorly  built,  and  many  of  the  yenerable  Moor- 

BBLER,  Favnt  and  Thebxsx,  two  sisters  ish  buildings  which  line  its  streets  are  crumbling 

rated  as  dancers,  bom  in  Vienna,  Therese  in  to  pieces.    It  is  supplied  with  water  from  a  dis- 

Fanny  in  1811.    Fanny,  the  more  famous,  tance  of  3  miles,  by  means  of  a  fine  Mooridi 

Htmcted  in  the  juyenile  ballet  corps  of  the  aqueduct    During  the  peninsular  war  in  1808 

lese  theatre,  and  at  the  age  of  6  made  her  ap-  Elyas  was  taken  by  the  French  under  Maraud 

DM  on  the  stage.  Subsequently  she  receiyed  JunoL  and  held  during  seyerd  months. 

letioos  ih»n  Aumer,  and  a  marked  influ-  £L  VES,  genii  of  uie  northern  mythology, 

Don  her  general  ssthetic  culture  was  exer-  forming,  according  to  some  classifications,  with 

if  Baron  Friedrich  yon  Gentz.    The  two  the  undines,  salamanders,  and  gnomes,  groups 

%f  who  were  inseparable,  gaye  performances  of  elementaiy  sprites  identified  respectiyely  with 

plea  for  some  time,  and  in  1830  made  their  the  water,  fire,  earth,  and  tan    The  elyes  are  of 

abearance  at  Berlin.   Here  the  public  had  the  air,  and  haye  been  more  widely  receiyed  in 

IB  some  measure  prepared  for  Fanny's  the  faith  and  poetry  of  Europe  under  this  name 

by  the  account  giyen  of  her  by  Gentz  than  under  their  Hellenic  name  of  sylphs.  They 

I  friend  Rahel  Yflfnhagen  yon  Ense,  but  are  capricious  spirits,  of  diminutiye  size  but 

Mtical  conceptions  of  her  art,  and  graceful  preternatural  power.     Their   stature  is  less 

ice,  fkr  surpassed  all  expectations.    Hence-  than  the  size  of  a  young  girPs  thumb,  yet  their 

id  her  career  assumed  the  character  of  a  limbs  are  most  delicately  formed,  and  when  they 

of  trimnphal  oyations.    Vienna,  which  will  they  can  hurl  granite  blocks,  bind  the 

sen  so  slow  to  appreciate  her,  soon  joined  strongest  man,  or  shake  a  house.    They  are  di- 

sneral  dliorus  of  enthusiasm.    While  en-  yided  in  the  sagas  into  good  and  bad,  or  light 

at  Berlin  she  made  occasional  excur-  and  dark  elyes,  the  former  haying  eyes  like  the 

to  Lmdon  and  other  cities,  and  in  1834  stars,  countenances  brighter  than  the  sun,  and 

Mdied  France.     The  sisters  made  their  golden  yellow  hair,  the  latter  being  blacker  than 

ppearanoe  before  a  Parisian  audience,  Sept.  pitch,  and  fearftilly  dangerous.    The  elyes  ordi- 

La  tempSUy  a  bdlet  adapted  from  Shake-  narily  wear  glass  shoes,  and  a  cap  with  a  little 

i%**Tcmpest,"byAdolpheNourrit.  Fanny  bell  hanging  from  it.    "Whoever  finds  one  of 

•eelTed  with  much  applause,  and  consid-  these  slippers  or  bells  may  obtain  from  the  elf 

■litied  to  the  same  rank  with  Taglioni,  who  has  lost  it  any  thing  which  he  asks  for.    In 

i  file  bead  of  her  profession  in  Paris.    She,  the  winter  they  retire  to  the  depths  of  moun- 

IV,  fiiond  an  occasion  to  eclipse  her  celo-  tains,  where  they  live  in  much  the  same  way  as 

I  riTal  in  the  Spanish  cachucha,  a  dance  men,  and  in  the  first  days  of  spring  issue  from 

I  Ae  introduced  for  the  first  time  in  the  their  grottoes,  run  along  the  sides  of  hills,  and 

af  Le  diable  hoiteux.    This  was  received  swing  upon  the  branches  of  the  trees.    In  the 

M&pons  applause.  The  noted  Dr.  V^ron  morning  they  sleep  in  blossoms  or  watch  the 

IhtfAis  hana;  Jules  Janin  was  in  ecstasy ;  people  who  pass  by,  but  at  the  evening  twilight 

Hlie  yoong  Pole  glorified  her  in  Lettres  d  they  meet  together  in  the  fields,  join  hands,  and 

fifirfa  published  by  him  at  Brussels ;  Paris  sing  and  dance  by  the  light  of  the  moon.    They 

toed  bar  inimitable.    In  1841  the  sisters  are  generally  invisible,  but  children  bom  on 

\  flia  United  States,  where  they  met  with  Sunday  can  see  them,  and  the  elves  may  extend 

it  noeev,  and  afterward  reaped  another  the  privilege  to  whomsoever  they  please.    In 

ilcffliM  and  glory  in  Russia.  In  1851,  after  England  and  Scotland  they  were  subject  to  a 

;  %  WW  farewell  performances  at  Vienna,  king  and  queen.    The  islands  of  Stern  and  Bu- 

MiCirBd  from  the  stage  with  an  immense  gen,  in  the  Baltic,  are  especially  subject  to  the 

iLflldnow  rendes  at  a  villa  near  Hamburg,  king  of  the  elves,  who  rides  in  a  chariot  drawn 

■nr«  who  retired  at  the  same  time,  con-  by  4  block  horses,  and  whose  passage  from  isl- 

L  AptO  25,  1851,  a  morganatic  marriage  and  to  idand  is  recognized  by  the  neighing  of 

Maoa  Adalbert,  of  Prussia,  and  was  en-  the  steeds,  the  blackness  of  the  water,  and  the 

ladder  the  title  of  Frau  von  Barnem.  bustle  of  the  great  aerial  company  who  follow 

RUT,  a  aah  lake  in  the  government  of  in  his  train.    The  elves  sometimes  become  do- 

^      "    70  m.  £.  of  the  Volga,  and  180  mestic  servants,  and  would  be  valuable  as  such 
TOL^  TIL — 8 


114                     ELWEB  £LZEYIB 

if  the  J  were  Ims  tuWj  offended  and  leas  d«n«  mtrketi,  and  aevenl  bcncTolant  inftitatioiu  and 

gcroiu  after  taking  oflcnce.     As  lunK  afl  their  icbuob,  amons  which  U  a  grammar  trlioolfuaDd* 

caprkii  are  gratilieil,  their  fixxl  and  drink  reg*  ed  by  Henry  Yl  1 1.     It  ii  the  capital  of  a  di- 

niarlr  Ivft  at  an   appoitititl  place,  and  no  at-  Tision  of  Cainbridgethire,  called  the  **  Ule  of 

tempt  made  to  iolerfere  witli  tlicir  freetloro,  Ely/*  separated  from  the  real  of  the  ooonty  bj 

tliO  faniiture  ii  iure  to  bo  du»ted,  the  floor  to  the  Onse.     This  district  ia  included  in  the  ra- 

be  iwfpt,  Htid  every  chamber  to  !•«  i>erfi*ct]y  claime<1  marth  known  afl  Bedford  LeveL 

in  order.     Hut  the  brtHbern  (rrimm,  in  their  ELYMAIS,  in  the  Hiblo  Elam,  now  Larittaa, 

JjtuUch€  Sagfn^  have  chronicled  the  misfortunes  a  province  of  Susiana,  now  Khooaakan,  in  Per- 

of  many  a  vouiig  girl,  who,  having  calle<l  an  elf  to  sia,  a  moantainoas  region,  watered  by  the  Ca- 

her  aid,  rvfieiited  loo  late  of  having  otfended  it.  heuii  (Hob.  Ulai),  and  inhabited  by  a  people  of 

Tlie  brviwnio  of  Scottish  tamo  is  one  of  these  Semitic  descent  ((reneais  z.  2S).    The  people 

domestic  clws.  of  Elam  appear  as  bold  and  rude  moantaia* 

EL  WES,  Jony,  an  Eng1i!>h  miwr,  bom  in  eers,  skilled  in  archery,  and  are  often  tncti* 

Bouthwark  about  1712,  died  Nov.  26. 17S9.    His  tioned  in  connection  with  aome  warlike  ei* 

own  faiuily  name  was  Mcggot,  but  he  vxdianged  pedition,  from  tlie  battle  of  Chcdorlaocner,  im 

it  for  that  of  liis  uncle,  from  whom  he  received  the  time  of  Abraham,  down  to  the  cooqncei  of 

a  lar^ri'  111)10 ritancv.    At  an  early  |»eriod  of  his  Babylon  by  the  Medes  and  Persians.    In  Isaiah 

life  he  attcndi-d  Westminster  school,  and  be-  (zzi.  and  xxii.),  we  see  them  marchinc  wHk 

came  a  ptod   dawical  scholar,  tliough  at  no  their  mighty  quivers,  with  chariots  and  nor—^ 

auliMHjUint  {icriiid  was  he  ever  seen  with  a  book,  to  fatal  sieges ;  in  Jeremiah  (zltz.),  we  see  their 

He  was  Kiit  to  iieneva  to  complete  hU  educa-  bow,  their  chief  strength,  broken ;  in  EaekM 

tiiin,  and  tliere  di^tinguislied  himself  as  one  of  (zxxii.),  we  find  there  among  tliose  inhabitHrta 

the  l*ol  Jekt  riders  in  Europe.    After  returning  to  of  the  nether  world  who  had  spread  their  terror 

Englanil  he  U-pin  to  inaulge  in  gambhng,  fre-  aimmc  the  living.     (See  ScaiAVA.) 

quenting  the  nun^t  noted  gaming  iMmMs,  and  sit-  ELiSU'M,  or  Eltsiax  FiBLoa,  amoof  th* 

ting  up  u  \ut\v  niglits  with  the  most  fai^hionable  Greeks  and  Itomansi  the  dwelling  place  cif  tha 

and  pr« 'filtrate  nu-n  of  the  time.     After  thus  blessed  after  death.     While  the  oriental 


making  or  lu^in^  thousands  he  would  g%t  to  tlie  most  other  {teoples  sought  this  abode  in  the  vp- 

cattle  market  at  Smithfleld  and  dii^pute  with  the  per  regions  of  the  bky,  the  Greeks  placed  it  ■ 

butchero  f**r  a  ^hiiling.     He  next  took  to  hunt-  the  west  on  the  ends  of,  or  beneath,  the 

Ing,  oiiil  hi4  stable  (»f  foxhounds  was  considered  where  the  sun  goesdown.    According  to  II 

the  bei>t  in  the  kingdom,  yet  ho  kept  but  a  sin-  Elysium  was  a  plain  on  the  ends  of  the 

gle  servant  to  attend  to  all  liis  cows,  dog^  and  where  men  live  without  toil  or  care,  where 

li«irf<«<i.     Krutu  his  parsifiioniou!i  mode  of  life  his  U  neither  snow,  nor  winter  stornuk  Dor  raiaa; 

fort u 111'  rai'idly  i11creaM.1l,  and  when  worth  half  where  the  h>vely  and  cooling  zei»hyrs  blow  ■■• 

a  ii;ill;i'ii  iio  refuM.*d  to  ai*cept  a  seat  in  parlia-  ceaningly  with  light  murmur,  and  where  dwell 

meiit  ni.V-«  «»n  tlie  exp^e^s  stipulation  that  he  Khadamanthus,  who,  in  the  upfier  world,  waatlsa 

stiould  U'  briMight  in  for  nothing,  and,  owing  to  Ju^testof  men.    The  iKisit  ion  of  Elysium  changed 

pe«'iiU:ir  «-ir(-uiii«tani*«.'^,    was    a4*tuallr   elertcd.  with  the  prt^gress  in  geographical  knowleun^ 

Hill  nii-^rlv  liahits  iniTi.'aM.*d  with  hi*  fortune,  priKvedingfurther  and  further  to  the  weaL    a^ 

and  dun  Li.'  tlie  latter  years  of  his  lifu  he  aban-  siod  speaks  of  the  ha{»py  isles  of  the  oceaa,  aaA 

dohid  gnin.ng,  hunting,  and  e\ery  e(»mfort,  and  other  writers  i>up|Kt!ied  it  to  be  aumewbera  la 

died  t.*.o  i'iiH«i«fM>r  of  Xkmi.ihhi,  aAcr  having  the  .\tlanti(\  till  Pindar  and  the  later  poeu 

aafTi-n  d  grmtly  fnitn  fear  of  |Kivertv.  it  U'ueath  the  earth.     According  to  the  1 

ELY.  a  iit>  I'f  <  ainhridgt'^hire.  I'Iii;;Iaud,  on  desicriptioni^  the  nieaib  of  Elysium  3  timee  i 

an  rni!i:>-iiic  tiiMr  the  <>uh\  16  m.  N.  N.  E.  from  vear  brought  forth  the  most  beautiful  flo 

(*ain! ti'Ik'*  .    l^'p-   in   I^ol.  6,17C.     It  mnsi^u  Yhe  inhabitanls  enjovcd  the  reward  for 

Iirinri{iaiS  of « 'I.I*  Mreet,  and  run  tains  many  (iM  virtues  on  earth,  and  whoever  liad  S  fimes  re* 

»uild:fi,:«      It  i«  tho  •^Mt  «>f  a  bifkhiipric  whi«h  siMt-d  a  teniptati«ui  to  do  evil  attAined  to  ihii 

ws«  fo-i:.>lid  111  ll'>7.     Itf  cathedral  i-i  a  spk-n-  aUide.     A  ni-\er-Mming  sun  shone  npoo  thtm^ 

did  fir:.-  fiire,  I'lilt  in  siircefw^ivi-  ce:iturie«,  and  and  melancholy  was  removed  far  away. 

iirr^ii'.:^  a  »:i.k'ular   niiiture  of  the   Saxon,  air%  fnttrrant  and  tinted  witli  purple. 

Norm  ill.  A' A  larly  English  »t>Ies  of  arihiti-r-  softly  frtiin  the  ^a.  the  flowers  were  tw 

tiirr.     '!!.••   clinrrhtd   of  St.  y.ir}  and  of  the  into'wrealhs  for  the  dwellers,  peaccfol  wav^ 

Holy  Tm-  .ty  aro  ai-»  remarkablv  U  th  for  their  lew  river«  flowi<4t  by,  and  hone  race^  faBM% 

agr  sjnl «;  !i  tii!iir.    A  f.mioUM  rouveiit  wo*  fouiid-  mu%ic,  and  con  vvr»«at  ion,  occupied  the  boors.  Ae» 

r*\  !••  r«  a'~<  :t  f-T't  bv  Ethein'^la,  wii'e  «*f  t>«w\,  ording  to  Homer.  nh»!amantlius  akMM  raled 

kHvof  N'l  r:liuniU-rUn«l,  and  slit*  tH*eamcit4  timt  Ely«ium,    l>eing    admitted    there    on    pereliw 

abU««      It  wa^'lti'triiirid  by  the  I>an«*s  in  h7'^,  gritunds  a«  the  representative  of  the  idee  ef 

and  l'^>   \i.ir«  later  wa«  rebtnl:  \^^  Etlielwi»id,  ju»iice.     HvMod  kn4»ws  Elysium  «Mily  by  the 

lii*)ii';>  of  W.iit  lit^trr.  who  ploixM  in  it  moiiks  name  of  the  isles  of  the  Hleaaed,  where  Kroaei 

iii*t«ai!  •/  1  ':i.«.     KU  hai  iin|H>rtA;.t  ntoiiufac-  nili\  and  the  Titans  and  otlier  Homeric  hereaa 

turr«  of  •  i':!.i  nware  snd  to^ai  •  o  pij^t's,  cxtcn-  dwcH 

•111*  iTanli -.•   iti   i*«  «iiihit%,   i!.o   prtnlure  of        ELZEVIR,  or  more  pn»perly   Eiastub  er 

«hii!i  u   H  lit  to  the  lioiidou  aitd  Cambridge  Elsstiui,  the  name  of  a  Coouly  uf  I>atch  prial 


ELZEVIR  EMANUEL                    115 

en,  established  at  Lejden,  Amsterdam,  the  16tli,  and  17th  ccntnries,  than  in  the  clearness 

Higae,  and  Utrecht,  in  the  16th  and  17th  cen-  and  beauty  of  their  type,  the  excellent  quality 

tones,  and  who  for  nearly  a  hundred  consecu-  of  their  paper,  made  in  Angoul^me,  and  in  the 

tive  yean  were  distinguished  for  the  number  general  elegance  of  their  publications.    The 

and  elegance  of  the  publications,  especially  the  texts  of  their  editions  of  the  classics  were  not 

editions  of  ancient  authors,  which  issued  from  founded  on  or  collated  by  old  manuscripts,  as 

their  preasL — Louis,  the  founder  of  the  fisunily,  were  those  of  many  of  their  predecessors,  who 

bom  in  Lonvain  in  1540,  emigrated  to  Holland  were  scholars  as  well  as  printers,  but  were  gen- 

iD  1580,  in  consequence  of  the  religious  trou-  erally  reprints,  and  were  sometimes  pirated 


and  also  engaged  in  the  business  of  a  bookseller  name  Elzevir  applied  to  a  book  has  become  a 

and  printer.     In  the  latter  capacity  he  is  said  to  synonyme  for  typo^phioal  correctness  and  ele- 

have  prodaced,  between  1588  (when  the  Bntni  gauce.    The  Elzevirs  printed  sevex^al  catalogues 

Ehmweantm  QwBUumwn  ae  BetpoMumum  libri  of  their  works,  but  the  best  account  of  them  is 

dm^  the  first  book  bearing  the  imprint  of  Elzevir,  to  be  found  in  the  Notice  de  la  collection  d'aU'- 

appeared)  and  his  deatii,  150  works.    He  is  saia  teure  Latine,  Fran^aii,  et  Italiens^  imprimee  de 

to  OiTe  been  the  first  printer  who  observed  the  format  petit  en  \2mo,  par  lee  Elzetier^  in  Bru- 

distuictiQn  between  the  vowels  %  and  u  and  the  net's  Manuel  du  libraire  (Paris,  1820),  and  in 

cameponding consonants^' and  0.    Ofthe7sons  B^rard's  J5wa»  bibliographique  eur  lee  iditione 

ofLoQi%5followed  the  business  of  their  father,  dee  Eleevire  (PariR^  IS22),    See  also  Pieter's 

TIL  :Matthku8)  who  was  established  at  Leyden,  Annalee  de  Vimprimerie  EUetirienne  (Ghent 

vhere  upon  his  death  in  1 640  he  was  succeeded  185 1-52),  in  which  the  number  of  works  printed 

by  hia  son  Abraham ;  Lons  (II.),  who  in  1590  by  the  Elzevirs  is  stated  at  1,213,  of  which  968 

ckablisbed  ft  printing  house  at  the  Hague,  and  were  in  Latin,  44  in  Greek,  126  in  French,  82 

£ed  there  in  1621 ;  Gillbs,  who  was  in  business  in  Flemish,  22  in  oriental  languages,  11  in  Get- 

at  the  Hague  and  subsequently  in  Leyden ;  Joost,  man,  and  10  in  Italian.  Their  imprint  was :  Apud 

Tho  settled  in  Utrecht ;  and  Bonatentube,  bom  Ehsetirioe^  or  Ez  Offieina  EUetiriorum  or  Eueci" 

ia  1583,  died  in  1652.    In  1626  the  last  named  riana ;  and  frequently  the  title  page  of  their 

catered  into  a  partnership  with  his  nephew  books  contains  a  device  of  a  blazing  wood  pile, 

AiBAHUf,  the  son  of  Mattheus,  at  Leyden,  emblematic  of  their  name,  compounded  of  tU^ 

which  terminated  only  with  their  deaths  in  alder,  and  ^uur^  fire. 

16«,  within  a  month  of  each  other.     They  EMANCIPATION.    See  Slavery. 

veie  the  most  distinguished  of  the  family,  and  EMANUEL,  an  £.  co.  of  Ga.,  bounded  N.  by 

from  their  press  issued   those  numerous  ex-  the  Ogeechee  river,  and  S.  W.  by  Pendleton's 

fuite  little  editions  of  the  classics,  as  also  creek ;  area,  about  1,000  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1853, 

BOM  on  history  and  politics  (62  volsi  16mo.),  4,883,  of  whom  1,009  were  slaves.    The  princi- 

oJIfd  by  the  French  Lte  petitee  republiqxiee^  pal  streams  which  intersect  it  are  the  Great 

wish  which  the  name  of  Elzevir  is  now  most  Ohoopee  and  the  Oannouchce.    It  has  a  level 

iniliariy  associated.     The  Livy  and  Tacitus  surface,  and  a  sandy,  unproductive  soil.    Tim- 

of  1684,  the  Pliny  of  1635,  the  Virgil  of  1686.  her  is  abundant.    Cotton,  grain,  and  potatoes 

Md  the  Cicero  of  1642,  are  among  the  best  of  are  the  chief  agricultural  staples,  and  in  1850 

thdr  prodnctions.    The  business  was  carried  on  the  county  yielded  559  bales  of  cotton,  121,874 

6r  two  years  by  Jan,  the  son  of  Abraham,  and  bushels  of  Indian  corn,  2,259  of  oats,  and  49,889 

DAnBt,  the  son  of  Bonaventure ;  afterward  by  of  sweet  potatoes.    There  were  17  churches, 

hm  akme,  and  by  his  widow.    Louis  (III.),  son  and  202  pupils  attending  public  schools.    Value 

•r  Louts  (II.),  founded  the  Elzevir  printing  es-  of  real  estate  in  1856,  $684,872.    The  county 

ttfabment  at  Amsterdam  in  1688,  entered  into  was  organized  in  1812.  Capital,  Swainsborough. 

aMTtoerahip  with  his  cousin  Daniel  in  1654,  EMANUEL  (Port.  Manuel)  I.,  king  of  Por- 

wfidi  lasted   10  years,  and  died  in  1670,  at  tugal,  called  the  Great,  and  the  Happy,  bom  in 

wUch  time  the  reputation  of  the  Elzevirs  had  Alconchete,  May  8,  1469,  ascended  the  throne 

MKlked  its  highest  point     Among  their  chief  upon  the  death  of  John  II.  in  1495,  died  in 

piUieatioiis  are  Uie  celebrated  New  Testament  Lisbon,  Dec.  13,  1521.     He  was  the  son  of 

tflCSSu  a  series  of  Latin  classics,  the  Etymolo-  Duke  Ferdinand  of  Viseu,  grandson  of  King 

ffaM  Linguee  Latince,  and  an  edition  of  the  Edward  of  Portugal,  nephew  of  King  Alfonso 

ikrpuB  Juria.    Between  1664  and  1680,  the  V.,  and  cousin  of  John  II.    His  father,  accused 

~   '  of  his  death,  Daniel  carried  on  the  business  of  conspiracy  against  John  II.,  was  slain  by  the 

and  in  that  period  published  152  works.  latter  with  his  own  hand.    Emanuel,  bearing  the 

the  last  of  his  family  who  excelled  in  title  of  the  duke  of  Beia,  was  educated  in  Spain, 

J,  although  his  widow  and  Pikter,  grand-  where  he  married  Isabella,  daughter  of  Ferdi- 

of  Joost,  carried  on  the  business  fur  some  nand  and  Isabella,  and  heir  to  the  crown  of 

J*. — ^The  merit  of  the  Elzevirs  consisted  less  Castile ;  after  whose  death  in  1498  he  married 

their  learning  or  criticsJ  abilities,  in  which  Donna  Maria,  her  sister.   He  received  the  king- 

a^  were  inferior  to  the  Aldi,  the  Stephenses,  dom  from  his  predecessors  in  a  state  of  pros- 
others  of  the  celebrated  printers  of  the  15th,  perity,  and  by  his  activity  and  sagacity  raised 


IIG  EMBALMING 

Portoffil  to  her  most  brillUnt  point  of  power  their  incan,  according  to  Gtrcilaimo,  **  perfect  aa 

and  glory.     He  »i|rnalized  the  beginning  of  his  life,  witliout  so  mach  as  a  hair  or  an  ejebrow 

reign  by  punning  with  an  ardor  surpaaung  that  wanting.''    In  the  great  temple  of  the  mid  at 

of  all  hit  prvdooe«i»n  the  long^tiiught  pa«age  CazA.*o  their  bodies,  ranged  on  one  aide,   and 

by  sea  to  India.    Mainly  under  his  patronage  thoeo  of  their  queens  on  the  other,  sat  clollicd  in 

were  made  the  voyages  of  Vadco  da  (iama,  AI-  their  former  princely  attire  npon  chairs  of  gcdd, 

baqoen]ac,  and  l'«dro  Alrarvx  de  Cabral ;  in  their  headfl  inclined  downward,  covered  with 

his  reign  (itia  became  a  Purtuguose  settlement,  raven  black  or  silver  gray  hair,  and  their  hands 

and  liruil,  Uie  Moluccas*  dsc^'wcro  discovcrvil ;  placidly  crossed  over  their  bosoms.  (PreacoCt*s 

tlie  commerce  of  the  Indies  was  o]>eDed  to  Tor*  ^  Oonquest  of  Pern,**  vol.  i.,  p.  83.)  Expoenre  of 

tngal,  wealth  BccumuUtcd,  and  a  spirit  of  enter-  the  bodies  to  the  exceedingly  dry  and  oold  air  of 

pnse  took  |iOMeMion  of  the  nation,  which  could  the  mountainous  region,  it  was  thooght  br  Gar- 

Dow  boast  of  a  brilliant  succession  of  navigators  cilasso,  was  sufficient  to  preserve  these  bodiea 

and  generals.    Lew  successful  were  EmanueKs  without  recourse  to  the  artificial  processca  adopt- 

eilbrta  for  conquest  in  Morocco^  where  dearly  ed  by  the  Egyptians.    These  have  been  partis 

Girchased  victories  secured  no  lasting  gain,  olariy  described  by  Herodotus  and  DiodonsSi^ 
e  lealousdy  devoted  himstelf  to  Uio  interesta  nlua,  and  the  accounts  of  the  former  e^iedaDj 
of  the  Uoinan  Catholic  church,  sent  mission-  have  been  regarded  by  most  antboritiea  aa  pff»- 
aries  on  board  all  his  fleets  to  convert  whatso-  seating  an  exact  exposition  of  them.  Some,  bow- 
aver  peojile  they  might  discover,  and  sought  to  ever,  question  the  adequacy  of  the  prooeasca  thna 
reform  the  character  of  the  Portuguese  ecclesi-  given  to  account  for  the  resulta,  and  atata  Ihaft 
astics  at  home.  Ho  persecuted  the  Jewa,  ban-  modem  experimenters  fkil  entirely  of  aoeecaaia 
ished  the  Moon,  and  mtroduced  the  inquisition,  endeavoring  to  perform  the  operation  by  thdr  la* 
Though  he  ruled  2u  yean  without  convening  the  at  ructions.  The  account  given  by  llerodotna  (iL 
cortea,  his  home  administration  was  marked  by  8G),  is  as  follows :  **  There  are  a  set  of  men  In 
Justice,  and  he  gave  oompletuness  to  the  institn-  Egvpt  who  practise  the  art  of  erobalming,  and 
tions  of  his  kingdom  by  publishing  a  code  of  make  it  their  proper  business.  These  persom^ 
laws.  He  succeeded  in  remaining  at  peace  with  when  a  body  is  brought  to  them,  ahow  tba 
all  £urtj(ie,  and  even  presicrved  a  difficult  nen-  bearers  various  models  of  corpses,  made  in  wood, 
trality  toward  Francis  I.  and  Charles  V.  He  and  painted  so  as  to  resemble  nature.  The  raosft 
was  a  patron  of  men  of  letters,  and  himself  tlie  perfect  is  said  to  be  after  the  manner  of  him 
author  of  memoirs  of  Uje  Indies.  He  was  thrice  [Oiiiris]  whom  I  do  not  tliink  it  religioas  to 
marrii*d,  his  hitt  wife  being  Eleonora  of  Aua-  name  m  connecti4>n  with  such  a  matter ;  the 
tria«  sifter  of  Charles  V.  second  sort  is  inferior  to  the  flrtt,  and  lesa  cosi- 
£MH.\LML\(r(Gr.^X<ra^Mw,  balsam  or  balm,  Iv;  the  tliird  is  the  cheapest  of  all.  All  this 
from  the  rrT»iuous  subBtaiices  empluyeii  in  the  tiie  emhalmeri  oijtloin,  and  tlien  ask  in  which 
o|ierati'jn),  thu  proccM  of  preserving  animal  way  it  is  winlied  that  the  corpse  should  be  pre- 
bodies  from  c«)rrni>tion  by  introducing  ontuieptic  paml.  Tlio  Ivorers  tell  them,  and  having  coo- 
aulMtances  into  the  spaces  lefl  vacant  by  the  re-  cludwl  tlioir  bar^in,  take  their  de|karture,  while 
movolof  1 1 iv  internal  part 4.  Tlio  art  whs  eiten-  the  enibalmem,  lefl  to  themselves  proceed  to 
aivtfly  pratti<««.«d  by  the  ancient  >Igyptians,  and  the  their  task.  The  mode  of  embalming,  accocding 
mummies  fnund  at  thii  day  in  their  sepuMires,  to  the  most  perfect  process,  is  the  following: 
where  tliev  liave  hun  for  B.OtJO  years  or  more.  They  take  first  a  crooked  piece  of  inm  and  with 
testify  to  tilt,  iierfertion  it  had  reat-hed  in  those  it  draw  out  the  brain  through  the  nostriloi  thna 
remote  jivriiNK  With  them  it  was  not  limited  gt<ttingrid  of  a  {Kirtion,  while  the  skull  isdeand 
to  the  preservation  of  human  bodies  alone,  but  of  the  rest  by  rin«ing  with  drugs ;  next  thej 
no  reptile  a|i|«ean  to  be  so  moan  as  not  to  liave  make  a  cut  along  the  flank  with  a  sharp  Ethx^ 
bcvn  held  Kirrv«i  and  worthy  of  this  care  of  its  pian  stone,  and  take  tmt  the  whole  contents  o^ 
remain* ;  and  whvii,  in  oiMition  to  the  countless  the  al»domen,  which  they  then  cleanse,  WMhiog 
bodies  of  human  bi.'ing<i  still  to  be  f«»und  in  the  it  tliorouglily  with  palm  wine,  and  again  fr«» 
places  where  tliey  were  dt.-|i««tted,  are  rvcktmod  qnently  with  an  infu«iun  of  pivundcd  aiumotiek 
the  millions  of  d^>ir«,  apv«,  rnM*«nlilv!i,  catfl,  ibiiH-Si  Af^cr  this  they  till  the  cavity  with  the  pcrvsa 
bulK  nxus  f*tws  &«ps  dec,  of  more  than  5<)  bruii^^d  myrrh,  with  cowia,  and  every  other  aiirt 
species  in  all,  it  i^  a  matter  of  wonder  whence  of  spicery  except  frank incvn^te,  and  sew  up  the 
wens  obtained  all  the  resins  drugn,  Bpici*«,  Jkc^  c^fiening.  Then  the  body  U  place«l  in  natrum  ftir 
which  art-  dmcribe*!  wt  e*i«*ntial  to  the  proce*Hi.  7u  days,  and  c^ivered  entirely  over.  After  the 
After  Egypt  1>«rjuno  a  K«iman  province  the  art  expiratii>n  i^f  that  sjiace  of  time,  which  must  not 
continued  t*»  he  |trai'tiM«l,  and  was  adopti<d  to  l>e  exceeibtl,  tlie  liodv  i^  washed,  and  wrspred 

-     '  -         of  fine 


extent  by  the  Itomaitf  thtim'ielves.    Among  n^ind  fn>m  liea«l  to  f<M»t  with  lianJagrs 

Otlier  rwev^  a]w>  the  same  practice  has  in  former  linen  cloth,  i^meared  over  with  gum,  which  is 

times  prevailed ;  or  at  lemut  a  mod  ideation  of  it  u^ed  generally  liv  the  Etfvptians  in  tl^e  |>lAr«  nf 

designed  to  protlocv  a  similar  result ;  such,  ftir  glne,  and  in  thiti  state  it  b  given  bock  t»  the 

exam|4e,  as  drvin^  tiie  ImmIic*  of  the  deaiL  relative^  who  eqclo^  itin  awimtlen  coi^  which 

Thia  was  prubaMy  the  cutftf im  of  thi«  (ffuanche*,  they  have  ha«i  moile  fur  the  purptw.  shspfd 

the  fomirr  inhabitants  of  tla*  Canary  inUndo.  into  the  (i^rt  of  a  man.     Tlien  fastrr/'nc  the 

The  andant  Peruvians  pr^iacrved  the  bodies  of  case,  they  place  it  in  a  septtlchnl  chamber,  op- 


mfBALvmg  embabgo  117 

right  against  the  waD.  Sach  is  the  most  co^ihr  ing  suffered  the  slightest  change,  it  was  rar 
my  of  embalming  the  dead.  If  persons  wiw  liUle  deformed,  and  easily  recognised,  althoogn 
to  avoid  expense  and  choose  the  second  pro-  the  flesh  had  become  as  hard  as  wood.  A  pro* 
eess,  the  following  is  the  method  pursued :  cess  has  been  introduced  into  France  bjr  JT  N. 
STringes  are  filled  with  oil  made  from  the  cedar  Gannal  of  iniecting  a  concentrated  solnUon  <^ 
tree,  which  is  then,  without  any  incision  or  dis-  sulphate  of  alumina  into  the  veins  of  the  body, 
embowelling;  injected  into  the  abdomen.  The  which  is  employed  for  anatomical  preparations 
p— age  bj  which  it  might  be  likely  to  return  is  as  well  as  for  embalming.  Dr.  Ure  states  that 
stopped,  and  the  body  laid  in  natrum  the  pre*  a  solution  of  chloride  of  mercury  and  wood 
scribed  nomber  of  aajn.  At  the  end  of  the  vinegar  is  most  efficacious  for  similar  uses.  He 
time  the  oedar  oil  b  allowed  to  make  its  escape;  is  also  of  opinion  from  the  statements  of  Pliuy, 
aad  audi  is  its  power  that  it  brings  with  it  the  that  wood  vinegar,  the  antiseptic  virtue  of 
whole  stomach  and  intesUnes  in  a  liquid  state,  which  is  in  the  creosote  it  contains,  was  the 
The  natnim  meanwhile  has  dissolved  the  flesh,  essential  means  employed  by  the  ancient  Egyp- 
aad  BO  nothing  is  left  of  the  dead  body  but  the  tians  in  preparing  their  mummies,  and  that  the 
skin  and  the  bones.  It  is  returned  in  this  con-  odoriferous  resins  were  of  inferior  consequence, 
ditioQ  to  the  relatives,  without  any  further  M.  Falconi,  in  a  paper  read  to  the  French  acade- 
feroiible  being  bestowed  upon  it.  The  third  my,  states  that  after  a  series  of  experiments  made 
method  of  embalming;  which  is  practised  in  the  with  different  salts,  he  finds  that  sulphate  of 
of  the  poorer  dasses,  is  to  dean  out  the  in-  zinc,  prepared  of  different  degrees  of  strength, 
I0B  with  a  dyster,  and  let  the  body  lie  in  na-  is  the  best  material  An  ij^ection  of  about  a 
the  70  days,  after  which  it  is  at  once  given  gallon  would  perfectly  well  preserve  a  dead  body, 
to  those  who  come  to  fetch  it  away."  Both  with  as  is  proved  by  the  preparations  belonging  to 
the  Egyptians  and  Peruvians  the  same  practice  the  anatomical  cabinet  at  Genoa.  Bodies  so 
ia  mM  to  have  obtained  of  preserving  all  the  prepared  preserve  all  their  flexibility  for  40  days. 
*»t— ■"•!  parts  extracted  from  the  body  in  vases  It  is  only  dter  that  period  that  they  begin  to  dry 
dspositea  near  the  mammies.  Dr.  Cormack  of  up,  still  preserving,  however,  their  natural  color. 
London,  who  has  recently  investigated  the  sub-  Chloride  of  zinc  and  sulphate  of  soda  are  somo- 
jaot,  is  of  oi»nion  that  the  essential  part  of  the  times  used  also. 
process  was  the  application  of  heat  to  the  EMBAKKMENT.  See  Dncx. 
bodies,  which  were  filled  with  some  form  of  EMBARGO  (Sp.  embargo^  an  impediment), 
bitamen.  By  this  means  creosote  was  generated  a  public  prohibition  forbidding  ships  to  sail, 
wad  diffused  throughout  all  tissues  of  the  body,  generally  adopted  with  a  view  to  impending 
snd  this  method  was  never  divulged,  while  the  hostilities.  In  1794  the  American  congress  laid 
pther  operations  may  have  been  practised  the  an  embargo  for  60  days  upon  all  vessels  in  the 
better  to  conceal  this,  as  well  as  to  add  dignity  ports  of  the  confederation.  This  was  said  by  the 
lad  mystery  to  the  art. — ^The  substances  found  opponents  of  the  measure  to  be  done  to  obstruct 
in  mummies  are  altogether  of  a  resinous  nature,  the  supply  of  provisions  to  the  British  forces  in 
and  the  tissue  is  impregnated  with  resinous  the  West  Indies,  then  engaged  in  hostilities 
mitter;  but  this  and  the  wine  said  to  be  em-  against  the  French  republic.  But  the  embargo 
ployed  could  not  preserve  the  animal  substance,  most  famous  in  American  history  is  that  intend- 
All  parts,  and  the  linen  used  for  enveloping  the  ed  to  countervail  Napoleon^s  Berlin  and  Milan 
body  in  folds  sometimes  of  1,000  yards,  bear  decrees  and  the  British  orders  in  council.  On 
tilt  marks  of  heat ;  the  bandages  are  commonly  Dec.  22,  1807,  on  the  recommendation  of  Presi- 
ndooed  almost  to  tinder.  The  object  of  the  dent  Jefferson,  a  law  was  enacted  by  congress 
RBI  with  which  they  were  smeared  may  have  prohibiting  the  departure  from  the  ports  of  the 
neo  to  produce  creosote  by  the  calcination  to  United  States  of  all  but  foreign  armed  vessels 
vUeh  they  were  subjected.  Bitumen  also  ap-  with  public  commissions,  or  foreign  merchant 
Bssn  to  have  been  employed  in  a  liquid  state  for  ships  in  ballast,  or  with  such  cargo  only  as  they 
ffliDg  the  cavities  of  the  bodies,  though  no  men-  might  have  on  board  when  notified  of  the  act. 
fioa  ia  made  of  heat  being  applied  to  effect  its  All  American  vessels  engaged  in  the  coasting 
jpoomDOsition.  The  cost  of  the  most  expensive  trade  were  required  to  give  heavy  bonds  to  land 
■tthoa  of  embalming  was  a  talent  of  silver,  their  cargoes  in  the  United  States.  This  embargo 
about  £137  lOtf.,  or,  according  to'Oolmet,  about  was  repealed  by  an  act  passed  Fob.  27, 1809,  and 
£W0;  £60  was  a  moderate  price. — ^Th^nard^s  taking  effect  March  15,  1809,  except  so  far  as 
^Ghemistry"  contains  a  description  of  a  meth-  related  to  Franco  and  Great  Britain  and  their 
•d  employed  in  recent  times  by  Dr.  Ohaus-  dependencies;  and  in  regard  to  them  also  it  was 
Mr.  The  body,  thoroughly  emptied,  and  wash-  to  take  effect  after  the  conclusion  of  the  next 
•d  in  water,  is  kept  constantly  saturated  with  succeeding  session  of  congress.  A  8d  embargo, 
nre  snblimate.  The  salt  gradually  com*  laid  April  4, 1812,  was  superseded  by  the  decla- 
with  the  flesh,  gives  it  firmness,  and  ren-  ration  of  war  against  England,  June  18,  1812. 
it  imputrescible  and  incapable  of  being  A4thembargowaslaidbyact  of  Dec.  19, 1818, 
d  by  insects  and  worms.  The  author  prohibiting  all  exports  whatever,  and  even  stop- 
that  he  had  seen  a  head  thus  prepared,  ping  the  coasting  trade;  fishermen  wore  required 
i  for  several  years  had  been  exposed  to  to  give  bonds  not  to  violate  the  act.  This  was 
alternations  of  sun  and  rain  wiUiout  hav-  repealed  4  months  afterward. 


118  EMBER  DATS  EMBOSSING 

EMBER  DATS,  ccrUin  (Lir.<i  net  apart  by  Uie  punishable  criminallr,  except  io  tb«  cas«  *4  a 

church  as  early  a>«  the  3«1  c«ntury  for  the  pur-  common  carrier  who  shouli]  break  open  a  ca»k, 

pose  of  prayer  auJ  fasting.     They  are  the  Wed-  bale,  or  packa(^  of  goods  And  appropriate  a  part 

nesday,  Vriday,  and  Saturday  after  the  1st  Suu-  of  the  o«>uCents,  or  should  carry  on  tlie  entire 

day  in  Ix^nt,  after  the  fvast  of  Whitsunday,  after  cask,  bale,  or  packa|»>  after  it  hftd  been  brought 

the  14th  (if  September,  and  after  the  13th  of  to  it«  destination,  which  apprupriatiua  or  carry - 

December.    The  wctiks  in  whii  h  tliese  day 4  fall  ing  off  was  held  to  be  larceny.    To  remedy  this 

are  called  ember  week?*.     The  name  is  probably  defe4*t,  various  statutes  have  been  enacted  vhere^ 

of  Anglo-Saxon  derivation,  iiivauing  the  circu-  by  the  embezzling  of  the  gooditof  a  master  by 

lar  days,  and  in  the  canims  they  are  termed  the  a  servant,  or  by  a  clerk  or  person  employ  c^ 

^iMfu^r  anni  Umporii,  the  4  canlinul  seasons,  provided  such  servant  or  clerk  had  the  custody 

8omc,  however,  have  supposed  the  name  to  be  of  the  g«KNls  was  made  felony ;  so  of  a  goest  is 

taken  from  the  ancient  custom  of  using  ashes  ait  inn,  or  a  lodger  in  fu middled  rooms,  carrying 

or  em  ben  in  conne4'tion  witli  fasting.  off  any  of  the  effects  which  he  had  poaaesntoo  of 

EMBEZZLEMENT,  the  wrongful  appropria-  for  use,  it  was  declared  to  be  larcecy.  Severe 
lion  of  the  goods  of  another,  differing  from  lar-  penalties  were  als«)  enacted  against  enibezzle- 
ceny  in  this,  that  in  the  case  of  embezxlement  ment  by  clerks  in  the  poi^t  office,  or  by  brvkcrik 
the  property  is  in  the  piMMeMion  or  control  of  bankers,  attorneys,  ikc,  of  any  moneys  or  va!- 
Uie  wrong  doer.  It  was  therefore  not  an  indict*  uable  securities  placed  in  tlieir  hands  for  sail 
able  offence  at  common  law,  and  the  owner  of  keeping  or  any  s[>eoiaI  purpose.  In  the  ataU 
the  |iriiperty  embezzled  had  uo  other  remedy  of  New  York  tliCDO  provisions  have  been  adopU 
but  a  civil  action  for  damages,  or  in  some  cases  cd  with  tome  am|»Iitication.  The  embezzling  c^ 
fur  tlie  recovery  of  tlie  i>ro|*erty  itself.  Thus  if  property,  or  the  converting  of  it  to  his  own  lu^ 
a  man  hired  a  horv»  and  fraudulently  sold  him,  by  a  clerk  or  servant  of  any  private  person  or 
If  the  sale  was  made  in  the  usual  course,  i.  f.  oo-partncrship,  or  by  any  officer,  agent,  derk, 
in  market  overt,  and  there  was  nothing  to  or  servant  of  an  incorporated  company,  wbidi 
put  the  purchaser  upon  his  guard,  the  sale  was  shall  have  come  into  hi«  possession  or  ondtf 
Yalid,andtheownerc«iuld  only  recover  damages  his  care,  is  made  punishable  in  like  maUMT 
against  tlie  man  who  had  committed  the  fraud ;  as  larceny.  It  is  also  enacted  tliat  a  carrier 
but  if  a  horse  had  been  stnlen,  although  it  shall  be  punishable  for  embezzling  goods  in  the 
should  afterward  have  been  sold  in  market  overt,  maifs  without  breaking  the  package,  box,  ke^ 
the  title  did  not  pass,  and  tlie  owner  could  re-  liefore  delivery  at  the  place  of  destination,  in 
claim  hi.H  pro|>erty.  It  has  never  been  settled  like  manner  as  if  he  liad  broken  such  pack- 
by  a  )Mi»itive  rule  of  general  ap[>licatit>n  what  age,  in  which  latter  cA<ie  he  was,  as  befurv  mec« 
would  bo  sufficient  notice  to  the  purchaser  in  tipned,  liable  at  common  Uw.  (See  2  Itev.  StaL 
the  case  nf  a  fraudulent  bale  of  pro{ii-rty  in-  67^.  <*i79.) 

trusted   t)  another.     Any  circumstance '  th.it        EM HLEME NTS,  a  term  applied  to  the  gn^w* 

should  have  put  him  u|>«*n   imjuiry  wnuld   Ihi  ing  crujis  of  laud,  when  the  estate  of  a  tea- 

derniiHl  fijuivslent  ti>  actual  notice,  antl  in  iurh  ant  f<>r  life  has  expire<i  by  the  death  of  t!.e 

a  caM  the  »ale  would  not  be  deemed  h.>htt  jidt.  tenant,  or  when  an  e*»tate  at  will  has  Xk-cix  de- 

Whenever  there   are  circum*>tani'es  indicating  termined  by  the  les*(»r.     In  eitlier  caw  the  r'» 

that  Uiere  is   p<i^«^*>«ii*n   without  prii|»erty   i<r  blements  beK»ng  to  the  tenaiit  or  his  legal  rv;*- 

only  for  a  s|M*rial  )'ur]iL><ke,  as  in  the  case  of  a  resi*ntativea.    But  when  the  estate  is  determiiMd 

pawn  briber  or  t-omniou  carrier,  the  nilo  would  by  tlie  leano  itseIC  as  when  there  it  an  estate  for 

applv  that  the  purdiajHrr  takes  tite  ri^k  of  any  a  term  of  years*  the  rule  is  otherwise' ;  Uit  the 

frauii  that  mav  ber.immitti-d  by  tlio  Miller.     S>  law  does  not  relieve  a  nian  from  the  cuoae 

in  cmftCA  of  sale  by  the  owner,  but  of  non-com-  ijuence«  of  hU  own  voluntary  art. 
pliance  with  the  condition*!  of  lale  by  the  ven-         EMlK>SSINCr  {Vr.  &*«sar,  a  prt>tu)^raace\  the 

dee,  a  difficult  iiiie»ti«in  sometimes  ari!M«>.     Act-  art  of  pri>ducing  raided  figures  upi>n  |>Ia&c  uu* 

nal  delivrry  of  the  pn.>i>erty  to  the  vendee  with  face^  as  ut»on  leather  fur  N wik- binding  ;  cpoo 

the  intention  of  gi\iii4  liiiu  the  «iwnerMiip.  evcu  pa|>er,  as  ftLaint*e<l  envel«)[*es;   upon  wolhS  ta 

if  lurh  dehviTV  va^olitained  l>r  frauilulent  rep-  architecture,  and  hronre,  de**.,  in  sculpture,     la 

resentatii«n%  or  if  a  fraud  wa^  committed  by  nnt  the  two  laj>t-name<l  art\  according  as  the  £g- 

paying  for  the  prfpiTty,  if  the  price  wa«  pays-  ures  are  nmre  «>r  Icm  prominent,  they  are  said 

ole  on  delivery,  •till  Iran *ferii  the  rit;ht  of  prnp-  to  be  in  ii/M,  f.-i/i.'o,  ur  ^<i«ai  rtl^eeo.     Varioos 

erty  s<i  far  that  the  fraudulent  vend«-e  can  make  molh««lA  uiul  macliines  are  in  u<k'  for  pn«iur:cg 

a  valid  salo  \n  ani»ther  |icr*iin  who  i^  ignorant  this  effi*ct.     I>«*ather,  |^per.  axid  the  teitil*  fab- 

of  tho  fraud ,  but  the  own*  r  will  ha^e  the  right  ricsare  emlK^M.'d  bv  |>o»erful  pri'S«ei,  furciiLe^ 

to  neclaini  the  prM|M.*rlT  fri>ni  the  vruih-e  him-  with  die«.  which  give  their  pattern  to  tiieohicvi 

aelf  so  long  ai  it  n  in  hi«  {HMMiM^itin.  du^cm  a  to  be  euilK»«MH].     The  previ  nf  Me%*rk  R  \U^ 

daim  bj  rreditim  of  the  vtniK>9  nhti'^M  inter-  and  Co.  of  New  York  i«  uf  ^ery  Muipleand  p4*«* 

Tene.      Thus  although  fe!i*>n   pro;i«-rty  couM  erful  conj»truction.     The  |m»ii«t  i^  a|fpUrd  k  i  a 

be  rrrlainie«l,  in  wl.ine  hainU  ft«>t-v«r  it  shituM  trea«lle  to  straighten  a  l*ent  anii,  a^  in  tbe  old 

be  fouiul.  vet  in  the  ca^  of  rinlirzilrnienti  which  fi»nn  of  the  printing  prenrf^  and  the  hands  of  the 

was  in  fart  a  greater  nffcncu  than  Urconv,  th«  (^iierator  are  thus  at  hli-rty.     >!eaui  i«  in'.rv^ 

ownership  might  be  lust ;  nur  was  the  olfender  duced  to   keep  the  plate  at  the  tcxu|H;rature 


ElIBRAOEBT  EMBBOIDEBY                 119 

foosd  most  suitable.    A  veiy  ingemoos  method  see  also  xzzix.  &-3,  &c.)   It  is  probable  that  the^T 

of  embooring  wood  was  introduced  in  1824  by  acquired  it  in  Egypt,  where  it  was  commonly 

Mr.  J.  Siraker  of  London.    The  pattern  being  practised.  They  f3so  made  an  embroidered  coat 

drawn  trpon  its  surface,  the  parts  intended  to  of  fine  linen,  and  a  girdle  of  needle-work,  for 

be  in  r^ef  are  sonk  by  the  application  of  a  Aaron.    The  Babylonians  were  celebrated  for 

blnnt  steel  tool  as  deep  into  the  wood  as  they  the  beanty  of  their  embroidered  draperies,  bnt 

are  intended  to  appear  raised  above  the  surface,  this  art  seems  to  have  been  very  generaUy 

care  beins  taken  not  to  iignre  the  grain  of  the  known  among  the  Asiatic  nations.  The  women 

wood.     The  sor&ce  is  next  planed  or  filed  of  8idon  had  acquired  great  celebrity  for  Iheir 

down  to  the  level  of  the  depressed  portions,  skill  in  omamentol  neeSe-work  long  before  the 

The  wood  then  being  nlaced  in  water,  the  com-  Trojan  war ;  and  the  Grecian  women  at  a  later 

piiJMijJ  parts  rise  ana  remain  permanently  in  period  attained  to  such  a  degree  of  perfection 

tibeir  original  podtion,  and  the  work  is  finished  m  this  accomplishment,  that  their  performances 

by  carving  as  ordinarily  practised.    A  method  were  said  to  equal  the  finest  paintings.    The 

of  toftening  wood,  so  that  it  shall  receive  im*  Phrygians  were  supposed  to  be  the  inventors 

pKMJons  from  iron  moulds  into  which  it  is  of  this  art,  and  by  them  it  was  probably  first 

forced,  has  recently  attracted  much  notice  in  introduced  into  Greece.    In  later  times  the 

Fuia.    Hie  wood  is  softened  by  steam,  and  Moguls  were  celebrated  among  all  the  eastern 

•oow  inmdients  are  added  to  increase  its  due-  nations  for  the  splendor  of  their  embroideries, 

tiB^.    The  bass-relief  imnressions  are  said  to  be  their  floors,  as  well  as  their  walls  and  couches. 

■hanand  permanent,  ana  to  project  from  4  to  being  covered  with  fabrics  richly  wrought  and 

5  mufimetres.    The  art  is  named  xyloplasty.  inlaid  with  gold  and  precious  stones.    At  the 

EMBRACERY,  an  attempt  to  influence  a  ju-  great  exhibition  of  1851  the  finest  specimens  of 

icr  by  any  nnlawfiilcondderation,  as  by  private  modem  embroidery  were  from  Turkey.    Em- 

inflnimce  or  by  bribery.     This  was  a  criminal  broidery  upon  canvas  with  the  brilliantly  dyed 

oflfenee  at  common  law,  though  the  punishment  wools  of  Germany  is  much  practised  by  the 

has  been  prescribed  by  different  statutes  in  £ng-  women  of  America  as  well  as  of  Europe.    The 

knd.    The  term  is  not  used  in  the  statutes  in  the  variety  and  delicate  shadings  of  their  colors  fhr- 

United  States,  bat  the  offence  itself  is  subject  nish  every  tint  which  can  be  required  for  the 

to  a  penaltj.    In  the  state  of  New  York  the  at-  imitation  of  the  most  beautiful  objects  in  nature. 

tempt  to  corrupt  a  juror,  referee,  or  arbitrator,  The  Chinese  are  at  the  present  day  the  most 

by  a  gift  or  gratuity,  is  punishable  by  imprison*  indefatigable  embroiderers,  and  their  work  is 

meat  in  the  state  prison  for  a  term  not  exceed-  always  executed  with  the  greatest  neatness  and 

ing  5  years ;  and  so  also  the  receiving  of  such  regularity ;  but  among  the  French  and  Germans 

gift  or  gratuity  by  a  juror,  referee,  or  arbitrator,  the  art  has  been  cultivated  with  wonderful  suo- 

ii  punishable  in  like  manner.  cess,  and  furnishes  not  merely  a  pretty  occupa- 

EMBROIDERY,  the  art  of  working  silk,  tion  for  the  ladies  of  those  countries,  but  gives 

vocdlen,  cotton,  or  linen  threads  with  a  needle  the  means  of  support  to  a  large  portion  of  the 

bto  woollen,  muslin,  or  other  fabric.    It  is  of  population.    In  England,  Scotland,  and  Ireland, 

two  sorts  :  embroidery  on  stufls,  with  colored  also,  it  is  carried  on  to  a  great  extent.    A  roa- 

threada,  sometimes  with  the  introduction  of  chine  was  invented  in  1834,  by  which  one  per- 

flsld  azid  precious  stones,  which  is  done  on  a  son  was  able  to  execute  the  most  difficult  and 

loom  or  fiame,  chiefly  for  tents,  curtains,  hous-  intricate  patterns,  using  180  needles,  all  kept 

IiMi,  &c« ;  and  embroidery  on  muslin  or  some  in  motion  at  once.    It  was  supposed  that  this 

44irnf^  fabric,  with  linen  or  cotton  threads,  would    entirely   supersede   the    old-fashioned 

ftr  the  female  dress.     The  latter  is  worked  methodof  hand  working,  but  in  1857  one  house 

iitber  by  a  pattern  drawn  upon  the  fabric  it-  in  Glasgow  is  said  to  have  employed  upward  of 

tdt,  or  by  stretching  it  over  a  pattern  drawn  80,000  men  and  women  in  Scotland  and  Ire- 

OB  paper.   Tents,  which  are  so  much  used  among  land  in  the  embroidery  of  muslins,  all  the  work 

tba  wandering  tribes  of  the  East,  are  often  being  done  by  hand,  as  the  machines  failed,  or 

liddy  adorned  by  the  embroiderer.    A  tent  of  proved  too  expensive.    Over  50  firms  were  en- 

a  late  king  of  Persia,  said  to  have  cost  £2,000,-  gaged  in  the  business,  and  about  £750,000  a 

OOQL  ^  was  embroidered  with  burnished  gold,  year  was  paid  in  wages  to  females  in  the  west 

■tMifnil  with  precious  stones  and  diamonds,  in-  of  Scotland  and  in  Ireland.    From  a  paper  read 

tHipersed  with  rubies  and  emeralds  set  with  before  the  society  of  arts  in  London  in  1859,  it 

ra  of  pearls ;  and  there  were  painted  there-  appears  that  certain  difficulties  which  seemed 

gpedmens  of  every  created  thing,  birds  and  almost  insurmountable  in  embroidering  by  ma- 

aod  towns,  cities,  seas,  and  continents,  chinery  had  been  overcome,  and  the  manufae- 

and  reptiles.'^     The  art  of  embroidery  ture  was  successfully  conducted  in  the  estab- 

praotised  at  a  very  early  period,  as  we  find  lishment  of  Messrs.  Houldsiworth  of  Manches- 

i  mention  made  of  it  by  both  sacred  and  ter.    The  machine  was  an  improvement  on  that 

acdBuia  writers.    Instructions  were  given  to  the  originally  contrived  by  M.Heilmann.    Apanta- 

Habnwa  for  embroidering  the  curtains  for  tiie  graph  was  used  to  copy  th^  pattern  to  the  scale 

tabtfoade,   with  such  magnificence  that  wo  required.    Each  machine  was  usually  worked 

kave  reaaon  to  suppose  that  their  knowledge  of  by  8  young  women  and  2  girls.    The  advantages 

tta  art  was  very  great'  (Exodus  xzvL  1-81 ;  of  its  use  were  the  rapidity,  accuracy,  and  ex- 


120  EMBRYOLOOT 

ocIlcDoe  of  work  In  tbe  production  of  repetitions  tinction  bctircen  ovipnrooji  ant]  riviparou^  aai- 

of  tbeJcbign  in  bordera,  flounces,  and  tnmrain^  mab  was  alfo  sujipojiod  \»y  the  anrienti  to  iodi- 

for  drcsgi*%  and  the  perfect  embroidery  of  a  pat-  rate  a  fundamental  ditferenco  in  their  m«Ml«  of 

tern  on  eocb  Hide  of  the  fabric,  especially  useful  generntion.   In  oviitaroua  animals  the  eg^^  were 

In  window  curtAin.%  table  covert,  and  trimmings  known  to  bo  produced  bj  the  female,  and 

for  uuhol.otorv.  fecundated  bv  the  male,  after  which  the  f  oong 

EmHKYOLoOV,  the  study  of  the  mode  of  were  hatched  from  them  by  incubation.   In  dm 

formation  and  dereloiiment  of  the  animal  foptus.  Tivi|mroud  si)ecie9  the  embryo  was  thou|rht  lo 

The  process  of  our  Knowledge  on  this  subject  be  produced  by  a  mixture  of  the  male  sfierm 

baa  been  marked  by  several  well  defined  epochs,  witn  the  fluids  of  the  female  generative  organs; 

oorriS|>onding  with  the  successive  discoveries  of  some  thinking  that  the  material  ftir  the  body  of 

as  many  ditfcrvnt  investigators.    Though  many  the  embryo  was   supplied  by  the  menstnial 

Important  fwcu  beiiring  upon  ombryulogy  were  blood,  others  that  it  came  from  a  kind  of  fesnala 

known  to  tho  earlier  anatomists  and  physiolo'  sperm,  or  seminal  fluid  secreted  by  the  femaU 

gists,  thoy  were  often  mibiuterpreted,  and  their  organs.     In  1051  Dr.  William  Harvey,  in  Us 

true  relations  consequently  mistaken.    Aristotle  book  on  generation,  first  announced  the  UdL 

and  his  followers   recognized  three  different  that  there  is  no  esiential  difference  in  the  raoda 
modes  of  giiieratiun  as  occurring  among  ani--  of  generation  between  oviparous  and  riTiparooi 

mals,  viz. :  oviparous,  vivii>arous,  and  spontane-  animals  but  that  *'  all  animals  whats<»ever.  ersa 

ous  generation.    Ovi[iarous  generatiim  was  that  the  viviparous,  and  man  himself  not  excepted^ 

form  in  which  tlie  female  |iarent  produced  eggs,  are  produced  fVom  ova.**    But  though  the  tnich 

fmm  M  hich  the  vouug  were  hatched,  as  in  most  of  this  opinion  has  since  been  amply  confimadi 

fiah,  reptiles,  and  binl:*.     Viviparous  generation  and  its  expression  {i^mnt  animal  ex  ore)  has  i 

was  tluit  in  which  tho  young  were  discharged  passed  into  a  physiological  aphorism,  yet  it 

alivo  and  fully  formed  fn>m  tho  body  of  tho  mit  intended  by  Harvey  precisely  in  tbe  a 

parent,  as  in  quod ru|Hrds and  tho  human  species;  which  is  now  given  to  it.    Uarver  never  i 

while  sjKintaneous  or  equivocal  generation  was  tho  un impregnated  eggs  of  the  qaadmpedSi 

that  in  wiruh  certain  animab  of  a  low  order,  did  he  have  any  idea  of  the  real  stmctura  aad 

such  as  worms,  insci^ta,  paraf^ites,  maggoty  &c.,  function  of  the  ovaries  in  these  animals;  aad 

Were  supposed  to  be  pHMluci-d  s|Kjntaneously,  in  stating  the  opinion  that  the  young  of  tba 

without  parents,  from  tbe  soil,  tho  water,  or  vivipara  and  of  man  acre  produced  friim  egip^ 

decaying  animal  and  vegetable  substances.    ISy  he  only  meant  to  say  that  after  sexual  inlcr> 

the  pntgress  of  investigation,  however,  the  last  course  and  conception,  the  first  thing  produced 

mode  of  generation  was  shown  to  be  much  leas  in  the  uterus  was  not  tho  embryo,  but  rather 

fro(|Uent  ill  i'j  occurrenco  tlian  Ari!»t(ttle  had  resembled  an  egg;  and  that  the  embryo  waa 

supiK>M.'d.  Tiie  firtit  advance  in  this  direction  was  afterward  fomu'd  from  this  by  the  process  of 

maue  aU>ut  the  end  of  tlto  17th  eentury.  when  growth.     In   1672   Uegnier  de  (iraaf  showed 

Itedi,  an  Italian  naturali<  studied  a'ith  care  tho  that  the  ovaries,  in  women  and  in  female  qnad- 

guneratiou  and  metamnrpliojies  of  insects,  show-  rupods,  were  filled  with  globular  vevtcles  visi- 

ingthat  many  wurnis  and  maggots,  iuhtead  of  ble  to  the  oyo,  MmiLir  in  appearance  to  thecfifl 

be inicpr(»dui*ed  with* >ut  parentis  Were  in  reality  of  birds   and  fl&he*.     The^  vehicles  he  pn^ 

Latched  from  vgg«  laid  by  jierfect  insects,  and  nounccd  to  be  tgg<;  and  tho  organs  in  which 

that  they  afterward   U'caiue   traiKfnrmed,  by  tltey  were  found  then  ttnik  the  name  of  ovarian 

tho  priM-e^s  (if  gruwth,  int4>  similar  forms.     Ho  A  ci-ntury  and  a  half  l:&ter  (1H27)  ill.  ErasC 

also  in  1(>K1  ^hiiwvd  that  m«r^  iiara«itic  animals  von  liaerdiK  >vcred,  by  the  micnncope,  tlic  nsal 

were  pni\ide«l  with  M'XUoI  orguns.  and  pnNlui^  egj;  *»(  the  human  female  and  of  the  vivt|iaro« 

their  3<mn^  in  tlie  same  manner  with  other  and  animals,  which  iscmtained  in  the  interior  of  tha 

larger  h)K-tie<i.    Valiiinii'risoi'n  afterward(170<J)  %-e^icIe4  of  Di*  Graof.    Thene  eggs  w^rv  ah<ywa 

extended  the  oWrvations  of  Iti'«Ii.  and  upplii-d  to  exist  in  the  (ivariesof  virgin  females,  as  weO 

tho  same  c<tnclu'>it>nj  U*  other  spiH-ii*s  uf  ins«i-ts,  ai  of  thi»M^>  in  whom  wxnal  intercourse  had  takea 

and  ti»  the  para^ittfH  inhabiting  vegetables.     In  placi' ;  and  it  was  accordingly  demonstrated  (Kat, 

this  way  the  number  of  fiK*<'iL-s  in  which  spun-  m  a!I  animals  and  in  man.  the  egg«  are  fomed 

tan«^ti:'>  ^rneratii<n  was  r%vsMe<l  as  iKi^sible  nr  originally  in  the  otarii^  of  tho  female,  indcf^to- 

probable    grailually   dimini^hiHl,   as  ziN.li>gii'aI  den tly  of  tho  mule ;  and  tliat  these  egg«  ars  a^ 

scitMici*  Ueaine  miire  extrndod  and  m«>re  a^-cu-  terwanl  fi'<*undate<1,  anddeve]nitedintiieml>ryaa 

ralo;  uiilil,  in  ls.'l7,  Schultxe  demuUfttrated,  ly  Aui'ther  iin;K>rtAnt  discovery  remained  to  rom- 

bis  eifNriMientA  UjMin  tlie  infunrria,  t.Sat  even  pU-tv  our  km* w ledge  on  this  part  of  the  aabjerl, 

these  niiiTt»«iNipic  axiimalcul«*s  are  nrvt-r  prvH  vi/.,  that  i>f  the  i»|»«intanei.iiis  ri|>ening  and  dis- 

ducr<i  in  mtfiatiyiu  wliere  their  gi-nns  neither  choree  uf  t!ie  egps,  in  qnatlnipvtU  and  in  maa. 

ciivtcil  Ik'Ttc  uiT  rouid  i;ain  arreM  from  with-  N«!-grier,  Pi^uchi't,  and   HlfechffT  demfrfistrated 

out.    Stm**'  t*ien  it  has  Uvn  generally  ac'know!-  (IM^VJ-':^)  tliat  the  eggs  of  thr  female,  origin 

edged  by  p!iTiiiithvi«tBtltat  s|Kintaue«.>us  genera-  a!Iy  priHluritl  in  the  ovarie«,  ri|»en  and  are  dis- 

lion  is  a  thing  unknown  in  nature,  and  that  tlio  cLar^'t*d.  indrperidmtiy  of  sexual  intcroNirse,  aft 

sup|i«  ar*!  iri«laiuvs  i if  its  tn-rurrence  are  oi.ly  certain  reg\ilar  {«eriiid«*:  anil  that  the  imprvgna* 

eases  in  i»!.trh  (he   rral  prorrts  of  generation  tion  of  these  egg«  by  the  malt*  s|»enii  h  a  sab- 

Las  not  Ux'U  sufficiently  luy  estigatcd.    Tho  dis-  sequent  proci-^s,  taking  place  after  the  eggs  ha^  • 


EMBRTOLOGT  121 

left  tlie  orary  and  entered  the  Fallopian  tubes,  and  complete  the  development  of  their  rarioas 
Tlie  origin  of  the   embryo  accordingly  takes  parts.     At  the  same  time,  the  remainder  of 
place  in  the  same  manner  in  all  classes  of  ani-  the  blastodermic  membrane  becomes  more  con- 
Bab,  Tiz. :  from  an  e^,  which  is  produced  in  densed  and  organized,  forming  the  integument 
the  OTmry  of  the  femade,  discharged  thence  at  and  muscles  of  the  chest  and  abdomen  ;   and 
certain  definite  periods,  and  afterward  fecun-  tiiese  portions  finally  unite  with  each  other  in 
dated  by  contact  with  the  spermatic  fluid  of  the  front,  forming  at  the  point  of  junction  a  Ion- 
male  ;   and  the  only  real  difference  between  mtudinal  or  rounded  cicatrix,  known  as  the  um- 
OTipcroiu  and  yiyiparons  animals  is  that  in  the  bilious.    The  aJimentary  canal,  formed  in  the 
former  spedes  (ovipara)  the  fecundated  egg  is  interior  of  the  abdominal  cavity,  is  at  first  en- 
diadiyged  fh>m  the  body  of  the  female  and  tirely  closed ;  but  two  openings  are  afterward 
dcponted  in  a  nest^  or  other  suitable  recep-  formed,  one  at  the  anterior  extremity  of  the 
tade,  In  which  it  is  afterward  hatched;  whue  body,  the  other  at  the  posterior.    These  open- 
in  the  latter  (vivipara)  it  is  retained  in  the  ings  become  the  mouth  and  anus.    In  frogs, 
body  of  the  female,  and  there  nourished  during  tritons,  and  some  kinds  of  fish,  all  these  changes 
tiia  development  of  the  embryo.    The  egg,  at  take  place  i^er  the  eggs  are  discharged  from 
the  time  of  Its  discharge  from  the  ovary,  con-  the  body  of  the  feooale.     In  birds  and  tur- 
rfrti  of  a  globular  vitdlus  or  yolk,  surrounded  ties,  the  segmentation  of  the  vitellus  and  the 
by  A  membrane  termed  the  vitelline  membrane,  formation  of  the  blastodermic  membrane  are 
In  very  many  instances  this  becomes  surrounded,  ^ready  &r  advanced  at  the  time  the  eggs  are 
wbik  paaang  downward  through  the  Fallopian  laid.    In  the  lizards,  most  serpents,  and  some 
tibet  or  dncts,  with  a  layer  of  transparent  al-  kinds  of  cartilaginous  fish,  the  development  of 
bimdnoos  matter;  as  for  example,  in  the  eggs  the  embr3'o  takes  place  partly  while  the  egg  is 
flf  firogi^  tritons,  dec.    In  other  cases,  in  addition  still  in  the  generative  passages  of  the  female,  and 
tD  the  albaminons  matter,  certain  membranous  partly  after  its  expulsion.    In  a  few  species  of 
eoverinss  are  deposited  round  the  eg?,  of  a  fib-  serpents,  and  in  some  fish,  the  embryo  is  com- 
noft  and  calcareous  texture,  as  in  birds  and  the  pletely  developed  within  the  egg  in  the  body  of 
Kily  reptileai    In  all  instances,  however,  it  is  the  female,  so  that  the  young  are  finally  brought 
the  vitdlns  which  is  the  essential  part  of  the  forth  alive;  while  in  all  the  warm-blooded  quad- 
egg;  and  that  from  which  the  embryo  is  direct-  rupeds,  as  well  as  in  the  human  species,  the 
]j  prodoced. — ^The  first  change  which  occurs  fecundated  egg  is  also  retained  in  the  uterus 
gftsr  the  impregnation  of  the  egg,  is  a  spon-  until  the  embryo  is  sufficiently  developed  to  be 
ttteoos  division  or  segmentation  of  the  vitellus.  bom  alive. — In  the  frog,  the  eggs  are  deposited 
Tbe  vitellus  divides  successively  into  smaller  in  the  early  spring,  in  some  shedlowpool,  freely 
ud  smaller  portions,  in  such  a  way  as  to  pro-  exposed  to  the  light  and  air.   Immediately  after 
daw  at  last  a  multitude  of  minute  flattened  their  expulsion  the  albuminous  matter  with 
bo£esoroells,  which  are  attached  edge  to  edge,  which  they  are  surrounded  absorbs  water  and 
md  which  form  accordingly  a  continuous  mem-  swells  up  into  a  tremulous  gelatinous  mass, 
bfue,  which  is  called  the  blastodermic  mem-  which  floats  near  the  surface,  with  the  eggs  im- 
brue.   In  eggs  which  have  a  large-sized  yolk,  bedded  in  its  substance.    The  formation  of  the 
u  those  of  the  birds,  lizards,  and  turtles,  the  embryo  then  goes  on  as  above  described,  and  the 
formation  of  the  blastodermic  membrane  be-  young  animal,  at  first  curled  up  in  the  interior 
gins  at  a  particular  spot  on  the  surface  of  the  of  the  vitelline  membrane,  soon  raptures  it  and 
ntdlns^   termed  the  eicatrUula^  and    thence  effects  its  escape.    The  body  is  at  this  time  of 
ipRads  in  every  direction,  so  as  to  enclose  grad-  an  elongated  form,  terminating  behind  in  a  nar- 
f/Stf  all  the   rest  of  the  yolk.    But  in  those  row,  compressed  tail.    The  integument  is  cov- 
vUeh  are  of  minute  size,  as  in  quadrupeds  and  ered  with  vibrating  cilia,  which  produce  a  con- 
fte  bnman  species,  the  whole  vitellus  is  con-  stant  current  of  fresh  water  over  the  surface 
verted  into  the  blastodermic  membrane,  which  of  the  body.   Respiration  is  performed  by  gills, 
iftcr  its  formation  encloses  only  a  small  cavity  situated  at  tlie  sides  of  the  neck,  which  are 
IDsd  with  transparent,  watery  fluid.    The  bias-  at  first  exposed,  but  afterward  become  covered 
todermic  membrane  then  becomes  variously  al«  by  a  fold  of  integument.    The  muscular  system 
teed  and  developed  in  different  parts,  so  as  to  is  very  feeble,  and  the  young  animal  remains 
firm  the  various  organs  and  tissues  of  the  em-  nearly  motionless,  attached  by  the  mouth  to  the 
krya    A  line  or  furrow  first  shows  itself,  in  the  gelatinous  matter  around  the  eggs,  upon  which 
thi^est  and  most  condensed  portion,  known  as  he  feeds  for  several  days.    As  he  increases  in  size 
tbe  primitive  trace.    This  indicates  the  future  and  becomes  stronger,  ho  abandons  the  spawn 
ion  of  the  spinal  column ;  and  the  different  and  swims  about  freely  in  the  water,  feeding 
of  the  vertebrsa  gradually  grow  around  it,  upon  the  juices  and  tissues  of  aquatic  vegetables, 
a  chidn  of  cartilaginous  rings,  with  The  cilia  with  which  the  body  was  covered  dis- 
B  and  oblique  processes,  which  envel-  appear.    The  alimentary  canal  is  at  this  time 
opt  tbe  primitive  trace  or  furrow,  and  convert  very  long  in  proportion  to  the  size  of  the  w1m>1c 
It  into  a  dosed  canal,  large  and  rounded  at  the  body,  being  coiled  up  in  the  abdomen  in  a  spiral 
extremity,  or  head,  but  narrow  and  form.    During  the  summer  lungs  are  developed 
at  the  posterior  extremity,  or  tail.    In  in  the  interior,  and  the  young  tadpole  frequcnt- 
the  brain  and  spinal  cord  are  formed  ly  comes  to  the  surface  to  take  in  air.    But  the 


122  XMBBTOLOOT 

gOli  alio  MQtiiiiie,  tnd  tre  ftOl  tlie  moit  tetir*  of  hatrhinf,  or  tre  thrown  off  whm,  tbo 

orgmni  of  r«fpiraiion.    Toward  the  end  of  the  animal  leaves  the  egg.    With  tartleai  for 

aeaaon  antertor  and  potterior  eztremitiet  or  ple,the  eggs,oonsiftingof  theTitellQa,all 

linibe  begin  to  grow ;  the  posterior  ipronting  ex-  and  thell,  are  depositCKd  in  aa  ezeaTation 

temallj  from  each  tide,  in  the  neighborhood  of  earth  or  tand,  and  allowed  to  hatdi  In  th> 

the  anot ;  the  anterior  remaining  concealed  an-  nations.    In  birdS|  they  are  placed  ntoi 

der  the  integument^  Jost  below  Uie  sitaaUon  of  nests,  formed  of  twigi,  leaTW,  and  fihn 

the  gill9.    The  tadpole  passes  the  winter  in  thia  there  kept  constantly  warmed  and  pvotec 

transition  state.    The  next  spring  the  longs  in-  contact  with  the  bodr  of  the  female  ] 


crease  in  siie,  and  the  giUs  oecome  leas  active    This  process  Is  termed  Inenbatloo.  and  i 

"b>T  kcMHng  the 
ities  are  liberated  from  their  confinement  by  a    temperature  of  104^  F.  and  proridiag  1 


as  organs  of  respiration.    The  anterior  extrem-    imitated  artificially  by  keeping  the  egi 


mptare  of  the  integument  which  coTered  them,  regular  supply  of  fresh  air  and  a  proper  i 

and  both  anterior  and  posterior  grow  rapidly  in  tion  of  the  atmospheric  moistore.    During 

aiie  and  strength.    The  tadpole  at  this  timei  bation  the  eggs  of  the  common  fowl  lose 

therefore,  has  both  fore  and  bind  legs  and  a  tail.  cent,  of  their  wei|^t,  of  which  11  per  4 

The  tail,  eariy  in  the  summer,  bMomes  atro-  doe  to  the  exhalaBoo  of  motstore.    Th* 

phied,  and  finally  withers  and  disappears  alto-  absorb  oxygen  and  exhale  carbonic  add. 

Ether;  while  the  limbs,  and  especially  the  hind  segmentation  of  the  Yitellos  and  formal 

js,  grow  to  a  disproportionate  size.    At  the  the  blastodermic  membrane,  and  of  the 

same  time,  tbe  lungs  attaining  their  foil  derel-  ot  the  embryo,  take  place  for  the  ma 

oproent,  and  the  gUls  finalW  disappearing,  the  according  to  the  plan  already  describe 

tadpole  b  Uins  eonrerted  mto  a  perfect  frog,  yariatioos  present  themselTes  which  ms 

capable  of  living  and  moving  upon  the  land  as  process  more  complicated.    The  vitell 

well  as  in  the  water.    The  tadpole  swinu  by  example,  instead  of  being  entirely  sum 

the  tail  and  breathes  by  gills,  while  the  frog  by  the  abdominal  walls,  Is  divided  into  tf 

swiou  by  the  legs  and  breathes  by  longs.    Sim-  tions  bv  a  constriction  dtuated  aboot  ita  i 

ultaneously  with  these  changes,  the  alimentary  One  of  these  portions  reroalns  outside  On 

canal  becomce  very  much  shorter  in  proportion  men  of  the  embryo,  thooch  still  connecU 

to  the  rest  of  the  body,  and  the  frog  becomes  it  bv  a  narrow  neck,  and  by  blood  vssseh 

camivoroos  in  its  habita,  living  prindpallv  upon  ramify  upon  ita  surfooe.    This  sac,  coota 

insects,  which  he  b  enabled  to  capture  by  the  portion  of  the  viteDus,  b  called  the  no 

gTMt  development  of  hb  muscular  system,  and  vesicle.    It  sopplies  the  embryo  with  d 

the  rapidity  and  suddenness  of  hb  movementa.  roent  daring  the  whole  period  of  incul 

—The  process  of  development  of  the  embryo  for  immediately  after  the  egg  b  laid  th 

consists,  accordingly,  in  the  successive  formation  men,  which  b  at  first  gelatinous  in  coosi 

and  disappearance  of  different  organs  which  are  begins  to  liquefy  near  the  upper  surface,  i 

adapted  to  different  modes  of  life.    When  these  liquefied  portions  are  immeoUtely  absorb 

changes  take  place  after  the  jounf  embryo  has  the  yolk.    The  yolk,  therefore,  grows  lari 

left  tlie  ecg,  as  in  the  case  of  the  frog,  and  pro-  more  fiuid  thsin    before,  whlie  the   a) 

dnoe  marlced  alterations  in  the  exter^  form  of  diminishes  in  aoantity,  and  loses  its 

the  bod  V,  they  are  termed  transformations  or  portions.  The  blood  vesseb  of  the  embry 

metjunorphoies.    Thus  the  egg  of  the  butterfly,  ifying  over  the  surface  of  the  vitelJus  a 

when  first  hatrbed,  produces  a  caterpillar,  or  urobilieal  veside,  in  their  turn  absorb  th4 

larva— an  animal  with  a  worm-like  body,  slug-  tious  finids  from  it,  and  convev  them  i 

gish  crawling  movements,  and  no  sexual  appa-  interior  of  the  body,  to  be  used  in  the  fur 

ratos,  but  fbrnished  with  largely  developed  di-  of  the  tissues.    At  the  end  of  incubati 

gestive  organs  and  a  voracious  appetite.    Thb  albumen  has  disappeared  and  tlie  umbtlic 

condition  b  succeeded  by  the  papa  slate,  in  cle  has  much  diminished  in  siae,  while  tl 

which  the  animal  changes  its  skin,  losing  the  of  the  chick  has  increased,  at  the  exp^ 

legs  and  bristles  which  were  its  locomotory  or-  both ;  but  the  umbilical  veskle,  contain 

gam,  and  becomes  motionless,  nearly  insensible  remains  of  the  volk,  still  cxista,  and  b  e 

to  external  impreesioos,  and  stont  feeding  alto-  within  the  abdominal  walb  when  the 

gether.    I>aring  thb  period  anoilier  integument  leaves  tlie  egg.     In  quadrupeds  and  the 

grows  uodemcath  ths  old,  with  new  legs  and  species  the  umbilical  vesicle  b  much  sm 

wings;  and  when  the  skin  b  again  changed,  the  proportion  to  the  body,  and  leas  impoi 

animal  appears  as  a  perfect  insect,  or  inuigo,  ca-  fonction,  than  In  birds  and  the  scaly  r 

pable  iji  rapid  and  sustained  flisht,  ornamented  In  the  human  embryo,  tlie  umbilical  ves 

with  brilliant  colon,  provided  with  different  ways  very  small,  disappsan  soon  afl<r  ths 

sensory  and  digestive  organs  and  a  weU  devel-  the  third  month  of  gestation.     In  the  ef| 

opsd  teinal  apparatus. — I ntliose  instances  where  fowl,  certain  accessory  membranes  or  eo 

the  hatching  of  the  egg  is  a  longer  process,  sim-  begin  to  grow  around  the  embryo  at  ai 

liar  changes  to  the  abuve  take  place  while  tbe  period.    The  first  of  these  b  the  amnion 

embryo  b  still  retAined  in  its  interior.     At  the  is  formed  by  a  double  fold  of  the  blasco 

same  time  certain  other  organs  are  funned  in  ad-  membrane,  rising  up  aboot  the  e<lgee 

ditioo,  which  either  disaf^tear  before  the  time  body  of  the  embryo^  so  as  to  sorrouod 


XICBRTOLOGT  123 

kind  of  ctrcmnTallfltion,  or  embankment    Bv  size,  and  performs  a  very  important  function, 
eootiniMd  growth  these  folds  at  last  approach  during  extra-uterine  life.    In  the  ruminating 
Mcb  other  and  meet  over  the  back  of  the  em-  animals,  cows,  sheep,  goat,  deer,  dec,  it  forms 
lirjoi,  forming  by  tbeir  union  and  adhesion  an  an  elongated  sac,  taking  the  form  of  the  uterine 
mtoring  membrane,  or  sac,  which  is  the  am-  caritj,  and  lying  in  close  contact  with  the  lin- 
]ik».  The  amnion,  therefore,  is  a  membranous  in^  membrane  of  the  uterus.    The  cavitv  of 
MiTdope,  which  is  closed  over  the  back  of  the  this  sao  communicates  with  the  cavity  of  the 
cmbc7«^  but  which  remains  open  in  front  of  the  posterior  part  of  the  intestine,  from  which  it 
abdomen.  Aboot  the  same  time  a  vascular,  mem-  was  originally  developed,  and  receives  the  secre- 
hnnona  diverticulnm  grows  out  from  the  all-  tion  of  the  Wolffian  bodies,  and  afterward  of 
BMntaiy  canal,  near  its  posterior  extremity,  and  the  kidneys.  Its  exterior  is  covered  with  a  large 
ing  from  the  open  part  of  the  abdomen  number  (60  to  80)  of  tufted  vascular  promi- 
opward  over  the  back  of  the  embryo,  nences,  which  are  entangled  with  similar  eleva- 
tho  amnion,  and  just  inside  the  shell  tions  of  the  uterine  mucous  membrane,  called 
lb    This  vascular  outgrowth  is  the  cotyledons ;  and  the  blood  of  the  embryo,  wliile 
It  increases  rapidly  in  size,  growing  circulating  through  these  bodies,  absorbs  from 
^vard  and  downward  in  every  direction,  untu  the  maternal  vessels  the  materials  requisite  for 
St  finally  envelopes  completely  the  body  of  the  its  nutrition.    In  the  pig,  the  allantois  is  nearly 
wmbrjo  and  the  umbilical  vesicle,  taking  the  smooth  on  its  external  surface,  merely  present- 
fhea  of  the  albumen  as  it  is  gradually  absorbed,  ing  transverse  folds  and  ridges,  which  lie  in  con- 
md  fining  the  whole  interior  of  the  egg  shell  tact  with  similar  inequalities  of  the  uterine  mu- 
wfthacontinaons  vascular  membrane.  Thefunc-  cous  membrane.    In  the  carnivorous  animals 
Horn  of  the  allantois  is  principally  to  aerate  the  its  middle  portion  is  shaggy  and  vascular,  and 
Uoodoftbe  embryo,  by  bringing  it  into  close  con-  entangled  with  the  bloodvessels  of  the  uterus, 
iMtwith  tlie  porous  egg  shell,  and  thus  allowing  while  its  two  extremities  are  smooth  and  unat- 
tta  abaoqktion  of  oxygen  ana  the  exhalation  of  tached.    In  the  human  embryo,  the  amnion  is 
cvbonie  acid  and  wsiery  vapor.    Toward  the  formed  in  the  same  manner  as  already  described ; 
latter  poiod  of  incubation,  the  aUantois  becomes  but  the  allantois,*  instead  of  constituting  a  hol- 
T0T  dooely  adherent  to  the  egg  shell,  and  the  low  sac,  with  a  cavity  containing  fluid  and  com- 
ibsU  itself  grows  thinner,  more  porous,  and  municating  with  the  intestine,  spreads  out  into 
man  fragile ;  whence  it  is  believed  that  the  a   continuous   flattened   membrane,  the   two 
a&mtois  also  serves  to  absorb  calcareous  matter  layers  of  which  are  in  contact  with  each  other 
from  the  shell,  which  it  conveys  into  the  interior  and  adherent,  leaving  consequently  no  cavity 
of  the  body,  to  be  used  in  the  formation  of  the  between  them.  It  extends,  however,  quite  round 
booeo,  the'  ossification  of  which  takes  place  the  foetus,  enveloping  it  in  a  continuous  vascular 
aboat  this  period.    When  the  chick  is  suffi-  membrane,  which  here  takes  the  name  of  the 
ciently  developed  to  leave  the  egg,  usually  at  chorion.    The  chorion  is,  accordingly,  the  same 
ttecnd  of  the  21st  day,  by  a  sudden  movement  thing  in  the  human  species  as  the  allantois  in 
it  strikes  its  bill  through  the  end  of  the  at-  the  lower  animals,  except  that  its  cavity  is  ob- 
taaated  and  brittle  egg  shell,  and  by  inhal-  literated  by  the  adhesion  of  its  walls.    It  is 
lag  the  air  and  continuing  its  straggles,  finally  covered  uniformly,  at  an  early  date,  with  tufted 
titrieatea  itaelf  from  the  cavity  of  the  shell,  villositios,  which  become  entangled  with  the 
kaviog  the  allantois  adherent  to  its  internal  mucous  membrane  of  the  uterus.    But  during 
■riboe.     The  bloodvessels  of  the  allantois  are  the  3d  month  it  begins  to  grow  smooth  over 
torn  off   at  the  umbilicus,  which    afterward  the  greater  portion  of  its  surface,  while  at  a 
doaes  np,  and  unites  by  a  permanent  cicatrix,  certain  part  the  villous  tufts  grow  more  rapidly 
^Another  important  change  which  takes  place  than  before,  until  they  are  finally  converted  into 
k  the  development  of  bi^s  and  quadrupeds,  a  thick  vascular,  spongy,  and  velvety  mass  of  vil- 
la addition  to  those  presented  by  frogs  and  losities,  which  penetrate  into  the  uterine  mucous 
is  in  the  formation  of  the  urinary  appa-  membrane,  and  become  adherent  to  its  blood ves- 
In  fishes  and  batrachians  the  urinary  or-  sels.    This  organ  is  then  termed  the  placenta ; 
are  two  long  glandular  bodies  situated  on  and  from  that  time  forward  it  serves  the  foetus 
tade  the  spinal  column,  which  are  known  as  an  organ  of  absorption  and  nourishment,  its 
tiie  Wolffian  bodies,  and  which  remain  per-  bloodvessels  imbibing  from  the  circulation  of  the 
ant  throughout  the  life  of  the  animal,  no  mother  the  albuminous  fluids  which  it  requires 
Udiieys  ever  being  produced.  But  in  birds  for  growth  and  nutrition. — The  amnion  in  the 
^oadmpeds,  the  Wolffian  bodies,  which  are  human  species  is  at  an  early  period  so  arranged 
'  rat  Tery  large  and  important  organs,  disap-  that  it  closely  invests  the  body  of  the  embryo, 
daring  the  progress  of  embryonic  develop-  while  between  it  and  the  chorion  there  is  in- 
,  while  the  kidneys  are  formed  at  the  same  terposed  a  thick  layer  of  soft  gelatinous  mate- 
and  gradoally  take  their  place  as  urinary  rial.    During  the  2d  and  8d  months  the  cavity 
la.    inie  kidneys  are  accordingly  substitutr  of  the  amnion  enlarges,  by  the  accumulation  of 
fiir  the  Wolflian  bodies  in  these  instances,  a  watery  and  albuminous  fluid  (the  amniotic 
y  much  aa  lungs  are  substituted  for  gills  fluid)  in  its  interior,  while  the  gelatinous  mat- 
tbe  development  of  the  frog. — In  many  ter  between  it  and  the  chorion  is  gradually  ab- 
'     of  qoftdrnpeds  the  allantois  attains  a  large  aorbed  and  disappears,  in  order  to  make  way 


Jinn  uir,r  ./urif%  iPATT  .M   nii^rui  mriJacA  \i 

.iH   •:!>  ritn.  uiit    1?   .in    i«*^.nning  if  \ia  Irii 

luiMa    111*   '.  V I   m^unrinKA    miiui   ji    vinx^icc 

T  fa  Mr!i   ••r.;i»r      .V;  "Iiit  ninna  "-in  jur.u  !•»- 

vivni^   •v.i'N-jiivl    n  I  ii;*^  •a'."t/     na  imnmfit! 

*-i.'r/  .  lilrtf*.  w  :.i  ■•;ii(*,  fti  -imc  i  iT*  m.-iiM  j 

ii'.it<T*sS  '.r  -«:i!  jui"-*m»mtd   if  *^rt  ftcLu  liniM. 

7*ii^*t  III'."  •nMr.rj   >3:a  m  w  it»^iu"'*it  uit: nc 

'^lA  »ra  tu'.n!:;;.  ic  -v'lii'A  "i^nirt  inii:fti*iim4f  it  mid 


£i7':r»ii 


>'*'  :.'.'t  'tiradCua 


uui 


lira.  Tr-t.     fw  luxil  -r>HfeMui    f  Ui»  l^BCaa. 

frju  v.it  i.'.«ii:!::iia  %i  lii^  *LM«n:^  uui  thh  tnn- 
roc.  'i<i: •:<::•»  7.-;i*ii  «ii:ni£iCt!«l.  i^til  is  rhu  mom 


IS*:''-*  :a- 
ccrL     Ii 


tvLiV*i  !:7«.a  ui  ova  &iis.  caaLt  ji  A<i>:«:cu:a 
fru-ca  r^;  t>^  •«^  TLen  ats.  Lz  Uie  !as:«r  ;«er.- 
c^  of  jc*Lk:i^:-c.  tw^  c&':r^ral  Art<r.<^  carr*  jj^ 
U.«  U'jod  c-f  the  f  f  :;i«  oQtward  \a  \zjt  ^lyetn"^ 
&ad  oce  caal-il'kc^  rels,  ia  vhich ::  li  necsrzatd  u> 
th«  bodr  asd  tL«  is^rral  Tienccj  45  idea. — TV* 
formation  of  t^.«  blood  acd  bM.v>d  ▼mkIa  ia  :2« 
cmbrro  takes  rlaic^  at  a  Terr  carl;  pwrad.  5ooa 
after  the  produ>~t;«.>o  of  the  l-CaKcoeraic  OfC- 
traae,  K>iDe  of  the  cells  of  which  it  U  ci:^;<m«! 
tivak  down.  aaJ  l^oefy  in  Kioh  a  Tr-ir.rer  at  to 
leave  irrepUar  fpa«>r^  ct  car.vt.  wh:<h  in:«cc- 
late  with  vach  o:ber  by  fh»;acL:  ci-!=jni- :«.*»• 
tions.  Thc«e  canals  are  de«:iced  aSlcr^iri  to 
bococno  t2)e  bKx*d  TeMvls^  the  »trQc:ar«  of  wLl:h 
i«  fR^iially  |H-rt\.vi<.'«i  hy  the  growth  of  £:-r.<:s 
titfue  in  tlirir  walU  aad  their  ixva^^ete  «c:«ara- 
tion  from  tho  neu;hl>«.trin^  parA  In  the  inte- 
rior of  thi'^e  cinai^  or  isuperfet'tir  fomieU  Mvx^l 
vcMel»,  l)ton*  \%  to  W  seen  at  tir»t  oclj  a  trans- 
parent, c«>li»rti'M  diiitl,  hninlin^  in  >iif;<c;>.<  n  a 
fow  lar|^^ n>unili*)i, nui'IeateO  celK  wLuh n^ore 
»Iupn«hlv  to  and  few  as  the  camrnt  of  tie  clr- 
culatini;  fluid  U^gins  to  be  established.  H.ese 
rrlU  d«i  ii«>t  ditior  much  at  this  perii^l  fn.>:a 
th(Mt*  nliirh  ixmMitiite  tlie  general  ma."^  if  the 
nei|:hU>rin|^  tis«ii«*» ;  but  f(R«n  af\c*rwanl  thvT 
be^rin  ti»  U«  tm^liHetl  in  their  appearar.cv,  and 
roiivorti^l  iiilii  iruo  Y*Khm1  fclobales.  Their  snr- 
fai*«  NH-i»inr4  MniH»th,  aiHt  a  rrOdi«h  colon nf( 
niHtCer  is  prtitluivd  in  thtMr  interior,  which  pv^^ 
them  a  tiUf^v  •>iiniUr  to  that  of  the  red  ^«hule« 
of  Ihr  b)ii*Nl  in  the  adult  condition.  The  red 
hlnn\  |;hd>uh'«iif  the  fa*tufl«  howi^vcr,  still  dLflfer 
lniK*iiral  niijN*rtant  partirulan  fr«*ni  th«*««i  rf 
Ihi*  adult,  lliey  aro  cxinMdvrabl)'  lar(^rand 
iii«ii#  i;It»butar  in  «ha|H*,  and  have  also  a  very 
divtitieC  iiuf'h>u^  wliirh  U  wantinff  io  Uie  bloiU 
*  d'ulr*  of  tho  adull,  at  )t*ast  intlie«)uadrui<HU 
tf r  HK  rca«i*  in  numU«rv  alto,  at  this  iime«  by 
•iilanriHis  di«i»i<'ti.  one  ithtbule  l^Cifiiinc  di* 
Blu  twis  whii*b  i«parat«  fhMu  each  uther 


amiliir  Jiiiani?.     la  tiui  way  the  q^j 

'^d  liOi;«t  £i:niUi!!S  3  f-iT*  nc«^T  laCTrt 
*2ii*y  liii.a  3M:ttmif  lir^)  eZ  tw.ld9r  a 
Airni  mil  icmi;mr^  T^uy  &=nsiih  in 
nimi*  ji  lie  iumoa  4as*«cc  aad  the  '^t 
doc^aistt  ind  iinmiaTv  a.  £:ra,  a&d  fe 
2ai-:i*na  iiwrnearv  I»se  ehas^vs  a: 
jisrceit  ::iniir  ^^ui  !&.  acii  U<  the  n 
iiirnif  *Jie  •^ary  zroua^  so  thss  at  the 
'i\v*2L  'iie  jioiTti  xfijccJea  h^re  al;«*iy  1 
ii'.&^j»Cir9  v^:i'^  iiaccfiiah  t^wei  i£  a 
T\A  isiucciii-acxa  of  :be  VU»d  flo^cle* 
U-'*iHi:a  j»  i^r.fwB  whjch  uk«s  t-laceoi 
^misry  j.  T^d  p*»rei:tly  5:med  hASod  ^ 
•rsaae  n  iixinl:«r  .2  sciae  echcr  way.  ^•r.' 
tias  ji:iare<i  ;r  «ini:tj:a  aihi  srowtL  of  n 
—A:  *j:«  '.'me  <:f  -.^.-th.  the  fetal  cm 
nnn.t:a  i2ii  :i:i:r.t:fi  ^  are  rsptoTMl 
jacu  4«3ce«.     TSe  irrbilleal  cord  beii 

m 

mme  ::nM  iiT'ileti  izd  iM.  the  portion  t 
li  wtii  -iM  ^xCQi  six«  ibrivek  a 
^T  ffciiiiseiica  tilicentioe,  whi^ 
as  wljdi  ;z  was  anached  heals  is  a  f 
jcAvvix  a  cicasrlz  c<a  tbe  laiddle  of  H 
sex  viiiirh  ia  ^ersasec:  tLn>ivhuct 

.—The  Urn 


,.-< 


^-*  -Jie  - 


iV; 


^y  a  lsjI  U  ^oidir^or  svroctiu:  pn.io 
:£«  A>4  -.-f  :Le  U.dr.  tbev  are  at  fi 
r^«x=fiirf«i  •ecilAecee^L  withoct  dLstincti*^ 
\Lt  irai:::'.i:j:-c* :  t-ot  they  SQbM«)Ucn:Ij 
S0L-c««KT«iy  d.vided  into  finprn  ai:d  1 
\2jt  <L5<r=c:  ^.  Lzu  of  the  arm  and  !< 
5r««r  extrec.tiea.  dcrin^  the  frea:«^T 
5i"-il  !^e.  are  ^.^rs^er  than  the  h»wrr.  b 
wiT'I  tl-4  l':werri:rLn:i:io*and  the  pel 
faK«r  :L&z  ti.v  arm*  and  *hos!d«-r>*.  ac 
teorce  after  birth  c:3:h  tlie  larpcr  •-•f 
Tie  !:;=r»  ar>^  »r.iall  and  sohd  in  tei:c! 
iinh.  *:-:  ir:n:<-d;atelv  af^vrwanl  iht-i 


\y  t;.e  il^ 


ti-n 


■f  air,  and  r%i*«.:ie 
lar^r  scjrir  of  blcod  than  Irf.-ri'. 
ciLxT  Lar.d,  the  !iver  is  much  Urgvr  in 
th.>n  to  the  rt.^  <.>f  the  l^y  at  an  «-ar: 
than  «sl'9ei;=rn:Ir.    In  M»me  actmal«  it  1 
curing  the  fir^t  part  i»f  firtal  hfe,  l.i  12 
of  the  entire  weight  ('f  the  b«)dy.  and  it 
t J  3  i'T  4  i<T  cent,  at  t!;e  tin:e  of  bsrth. 
harcan  «u!  jcct  it  is  c«}ual  at  birth  to  I4 
of  the  entire  weifrht*  bnt  is  red  need  ic 
ult  to  Icu  tlian  S  |ier  cent,    iirrat  rhai 
(•lace  alfo  durinj;  f^rtal  life  in  the  a:.j 
the  h'^art  and  circulattiry  sy»tvi:i.  as  m 
the  relative  »ixe  and  deveU^pm^'iit  t  f  i 
the  onrins  in  the  l->dy.    TTk-ms  charpr* 
to  take  place  afU'r  birth,  thoU|?h  le^i 
than  l>efi.Te,  and  the  entire  proi*!-**  i-l 
inent  i«  not  repaniod  aw  ci>nipU*te  ut/..! 
vidual  ha.4  rt*a«'hcd  the  adult  ciirKiitiun- 
ainffular  nuidif:cation  of  the  k\k*\v  \t 
I'Uibryobic  develojiroent  aiiK>nK  t!  e  1:1 
liccurs  in  the  marsupial  animaU  t<f  « 
American  opcfMoni  (i/i«//f/*Au  nryisi. 
repn'M^ntative.     In  thes«*  animal*  the 
iinpre^uatol  and  the  furmatitin  of  the 
cviuuvuced  iu  the  naual  way ;  but  af^^  r 


KMBRYOLOGT  125 

a  for  A  eomparetiTel  jr  short  time  in  the  ntems,  tenia,  or  tapeworm,  inhabiting  the  small  intes- 

while  their  development  is  still  very  incom-  tines  of  certain  animals,  sach  as  the  dog.  cat, 

Um  embryos  are  discharged  from  the  gen-  &o.,  produces  an  egg  containing  a  small  globa- 

e  paasagofl,  and  are  immediately  afterward  lar  embryo,  armed  with  certain  hard  spikes,  or 

ntUicbed  by  the  mouth  to  the  teats  of  the  curved  prominences,  capable  of  being  moved  by 

pnni.     They  are  then  less  than  half  an  inch  in  musculur  fibres  inserted  mto  their  base.  The  por- 

E^l^  and  qnite  gelatinous  and  embryonio  in  tion  of  the  tapeworm  in  which  these  eggs  are 

uance.    They  are  protected  by  a  double  contained,  known  as  the  proglotUs,  is  discharged 

of  the  integiunent  of  the  abdomen,  which  from  the  intestine  of  the  first  animal,  and  the 

•  A  kind  of  pouch,  surrounding  the  teats,  eggs,  becoming  mixed  with  vegetable  matter,  are 

MTfiMto  enclose  the  young  and  helpless  devoured  by  animals  belonging  to  other  species, 

ryiML    They  remain  in  tbis  situation  during  as  for  example  the  pig.    Either  in  the  process 

Aaeonmletioo  of  their  development,  continuing  of  mastication,  or  by  the  action  of  the  digestive 

Machea  far  the  most  part  to  the  teats,  from  fiuids  of  the  stomach,  the  external  envelope  of 

they  derive  nourishment ;  and  even  after  the  egg  is  destroyed,  and  the  embryo  set  free. 

become  capable  of  running  about  by  By  means  of  its  movable  projecting  spines,  the 

th^  still,  upon  an  alarm,  take  refuge  embryo  then  makes  its  way  through  the  walls 

in  the  pKmch  as  before.    It  is  not  of  the  stomach  or  intestine  into  the  neighboring 

'  the  younff  embryos,  when  expelled  organs,  and  passing  into  the  cavity  of  the  blood 

dw  utenifl^  find  their  way  into  the  external  vessels,  is  often  transported  by  the  current  of 

»  as  to  reach  the  teats,  for,  notwith-  the  blood  to  distant  regions  of  the  body.    Here, 

_  many  attempts  have  been  made  to  as-  becoming  arrested,  it  is  temporarily  fixed  in 

tfua  pointy  the  animal  is  so  secret  in  her  place  by  the  consolidation  of  the  tissues  round 

_  at  the  time  of  delivery,  that  they  have  it,  and  becomes  enlarged  bv  the  imbibition  of 

I  thoi  iur  entirely  unsucceasfhl. — Among  in-  fluid,  assuming  a  vesicular  rorm.    A  portion  of 

ate  anlmalB  the  egg  is  constituted,  as  a  this  vesicle  becomes  inverted,  and  at  the  bottom 

thing,  in  nearly  the  same  way  as  in  ver-  of  the  inverted  part  a  head  is  produced,  upon 

and  its  impregnation  takes  place  also  in  which  ^ere  are  formed  four  muscular  disks,  or 

_r  manner.    The  segmentation  of  the  yolk  suckers,  and  a  circle  of  calcareous  spines  or 

1  by  repeated  subdividons^  until  the  whole  hooka,  different  from  those  present  at  an  earlier 

I  ia  converted  into  a  mulberry-shaped  period,  which  are  thrown  off  and  lost.    In  this 

oat  of  which  the  embryo  is  formed,  state  the  animal  receives  the  name  of  scohx,  or 

Ufe,  however,  in  the  vertebrate  animals,  the  cysiicercus.     It  remains  in  that  coudition  till 

Mkyo  always  lies  with  its  belly  upon  the  sur-  the  death  of  the  animal  whose  tissues  it  in- 

in  of  the  yolk,  in  some  of  the  invertebrates,  habits,  when  being  devoured  with  the  flesh 

■  tike  articnlata  (insects,  spiders,  crustaceans),  by  an  animal  belonging  to  the  first  spocies. 

ftl  back  of  the  embryo  is  in  contact  with  the  it  passes  into  the  intestine  of  the  latter,  and 

ydk.  and  the  closing  up  or  union  ofthe  two  sides  there  becomes  developed   into  the  complete 

tftte  body  takes  place  along  the  dorsal  line,  tapeworm,  or  atrobila,  similar  to  that  from 

of  the  abdominal.    In  many  moUusks,  as  which  its  embryo  was  first  produced.    The  same 

mple  in  snsula,  the  embryo,  soon  after  animal  is  accordingly  a  parasite  in  different  or- 

Aa  ooimnencement  of  its  formation,  begins  to  gans,  and  even  in  different  species,  at  different 

te  slowly  in  the  interior  of  the  vitelline  sac ;  periods  of  its  development.    Some  of  the  invor- 

,  tiiia  rotation  continues  more  or  less  rapid  tebrata  are  parasitic  at  one  stage  of  their  exist- 

tbe  hatching  of  the  egg.    In  the  inverte-  ence,  and  lead  an  independent  life  at  another. 

» rlannn  the  metamorphoses  or  transforma-  Such  are  the  small  Crustacea  which  infest  the 

I  of  the  young  animal  are  more  frequent  and  bodies  and  gills  of  certain  fish.    In  the  family 

I  striking  thim  in  vertebrata.    In  many  of  of  cutrideay  or  hot  flies,  the  eggs  are  deposited 

ithe  yoong  animal,  when  first  hatched  from  by  the  female  insect,  and  attached  to  the  hairs 

is  entirely  unlike  its  parent  in  structure,  of  horses,  cattle,  &o. ;  from  which  situation, 

I  ^pearance,  and  habits  of  life.    In  the  after  the  embryo  has  become  partly  developed, 

of  insects  many  of  these  transformations  they  are  detached  in  some  instances  (as  in  a»- 

MvbD  known,  and  have  always  attracted  the  trtu  equi)  by  licking,  and  swallowed  into  tlie 

a  of  the  curious.    Frequentlv  the  young  stomach.    Here  the  larva  is  set  free,  and  at- 

ia  passing  through  several  successive  taches  itself  to  the  mucous  membrane  of  the 

^lons  in  which  he  is  adapted  to  dif-  stomach,  nourishing  itself  upon  the  fluids  ob- 

es  of  life,  necessarily  changes  his  tained  from  this  source,  and  gradually  incrcos- 

;  and  being  found  accordingly  in  to-  ing  in  size.    After  a  certain  period  the  larv^ 

rent  localities,  and  presenting  at  sue-  leto  go  its  hold,  passes  through  the  intestine,  is 

Intervals  corresponding  differences  of  discharged  with  the  fosces,  and  assuming  the 


occurring  in  the  course  of  embryonic    which  the  struoture  and  organization  of  the 

_^ _at,  are  termed  migrations.    They  are    young  animal  are  adapted  to  different  modes  of 

Ary  marked  in  parasitio  animals.  Thusti^e    ezistenoe,  and  in  w&ch  different  organs  and 


r . ,. . .»      -••  *•  ti.ir' -  *   .^ri*— » '.I  •  ■  *  T -»» .4  T.f  •  I m :*•«  hjri  *•»'-,  :*a'-T   4iiifi»n«l.     Aldunifh  tht 

't^....i...   '•'..'.••-..   I^  r.<:..r..    1«4*       *»pa..x::zuL  crct.nivMi  :•> 'j<  t  o.csinerriai  plaei«f  ( 

ri/«'. -.  '.--      *.  l*-''      Vr.  ilvf  /**'.»?»  JTrm-  '.tiaT*  the  ["^rt  iss'^aIj  ami  flhrp-tailAif  J 

fn*f'.  .-1  'i  //n.-.  ijf   fr^-tj»i  ^pw*  ■  "-i    !<«►:■•:■-.  LecoiT^i?  raiT'.ied 'iQ.     Effitlcniaaf' 

lUrK^^'K^M  §\r  K:  ^'--^ri'ti-i  ^.^   •p.<iinmi/^**<s  ihrrfigrh    the    hi£ii^   c^   P 

•^•■*.;*;^-v.?  <^/j  '..rM  fl'^ws-.urj    Pir.*.   1-47,  ihir.< ^  inAiZM  r Tec  V3  th«  Si 

4'i.   '        i'. -r;.t-',  iKr.'i^if  f^ti'i'€  I^  li /^^n\'  mxenl  kkcw^  kwryL  tncjo 

y.BiUf^t  d€  f-.  ••<  '.I'l.*-.  •i -..-.'* J »i^«p  ^*  /^  >j  /3<r.  n-  U  prcsens  in  th«proc«}rtioa  o/  I<«i 

<//J ' i</  r.  '/^j  It*! r.\ rr.  \f*  *f   €'.   dt    tfJt}-^^*    k *.' RUi « 14  CSC ^      t  S««  BkST L  fOT  •iefCTTpCklQ  of 

'f'ari-     1-47-     !Ji»«  :*•  ^.    T-^i*^  •/•!  d^'tl^-x^'  I:  i»  fvin-l  m  n:etjm*?rpbi«r  rxkik  tifct^ 

fn«r«!   </^    /''.•m'^.^   #!   <//j  •r»4iii>'ii/?rM.  #«/r  mi  L'^re'ilecile   roi'kj.    dk^UjcnitM^  Ac 

frui*'irtt^u"*  ft  I'i^huU p^rv.'dij'wV^'.*.  I'^-'i  :  kr.<  W3  co!r.c  from  ti^  vicieisj  of 

If<  i'M'ff  *if  CK'-m'Tif  t*  d£s  fFwimmi/^rea.  i'k'/<-  ra;  i!^  of    Nev  Granada,,  in  Sn«i 

jte^*i'itume\t  4*  Li  ftror^dti^ u-n  ( A^^'^iUm  A*m  tri-  vL«re  t^er  are  AAi^i  to  be  Ibaxul  Ui  vtiaa  Ib  S 

r/i/-/#    r..ifi/r^//«.   A  Iff.  i"-*4i;    Ku*trir^tt'\^y9-  biaf  k  iLxevti^ne.     I',  m  frt:>cn  this  regioa 

fl/a-.'.i/'Af/  .//J  J^^<r*rAifriri^A^i.j 'G.t^**-!:.  1  <»■! . ;  crl«:tra:c«i  cnrttal  ia  the  cabiaeC  <rf  th« 

jla:!.k.r.    I'rfftr  </■>    K'^f^ifkthtutj  dtr  Sfkiid-  Iiev.^r.*Mrv  if  said  to  hare  becD  obCaincd. 

iri'Vr.  ( Krur.<»«\i  k.  iM^i.  II.  liau'iriiiit.'iit  and  Prru^ian  rmeral^^  were  famuoi  froa  tk* 

Mart  111    >!.    Ai.;rr.    //'i  d*rtU'yjie^»€7.t   d\i  f'X'  of  the  ron«)neAtof  thatcoactrr  b« 

ffij  (|'ar.«.    1  ■*%'•<:    lUr^niioiin   am!    L«n<  kjrt,  v ere  obtaioetl  ia  the  barren  diitrict  o/ Al 

I'er'jUirKrtidr  A'.nfomie u*\d I'hfti»l*>gu iSx^il'  and  «ork«.*ti  br  the  native  artifta  with  tk* 

^-art.  I'^.VJk  Ai::&-«i£.  "  Ijrt  tiir*.-^  ou  O^uiffara-  of  the  ni«ji!vm  la{>i(!arT.     To  thia  dar  a 

tivf  Kt!i''r\'>li>/>  '  r  iii-t'-n.  1M'.M.  an«l  a  Ti!la(re«.*f  Ecoa^lur  are  known  bv  tha 

LMiSl  KY.  Kmma  C*ATfiiKi\K.  an  American  nf  C«ir.oraI«la!i  from  the  abandaore  of 

autiior«.-«<.  Urn  lu  Now*  Y"rk.    >hv  i-  the  il^;^!;-  ffnr.irlv  fnuiM  in  t}jat  reckon.     Mexsco^  il  ikf 

tor  iff  Dr.  Janii-«  H.  Mafilt\v  of  tK.at  ritr.  and  tarie  «^arlr  {i-rittil.  hail   |>nxiucci!  crraiab 

Wi*»marr:t-il  til  Mr.  ha'iitrl  Kriibiirv  in  I**^'*.     In  rare  l-^ajty.  which    were  no  leia  afi 

the  Kiti\*r  ^tvir  •!!»•  i»ubii«h«.<tl  "(>ui«!<>  ari'l  ether  ar.d  h:jh!v  vui:i'.-*l  br  the  nileri  of  tiM 

Piivrrj*."     Snrt*  her  iiiarria;;e  ^\.v  has  wnttva  than  wrre  tlio-e  uf  IVm  br  i:»  inrat. 

XD<'re  |»n»s*.'  tt.an  vi  r%i*,  and  hor  t.i!i-«  1  k»-  hor  ('ortt«  on  h;*  r».iuni  t«>  Eurofie  jtiiCrirvdk  !■ 


ptH-nt^,  !in\c  Un-n  originally  juibiio^f  •!  in  tliv     tlie  d>(MPvtI  nf  5  of  tho«e  mairnlDcent 
col'iinii*  i*f  the  ]K*riiNiir:il  prt***.     <  >f  ;hr««  «i>rne     his  ^knutliful  bride  to  the  iiiieen  of  Charica  V^ 


haVf  ni'ita-.'irt-il  in  a  CMliin'tt^il  fiirr:i.  urjtlcr  th^  a  fc«-Mn/  of  otrantrement  if  thoa^ht   ta 

ti:!r«  of    "Ihf    r»!i[id  <firl  and  oth*r  T.ili«,"  Non  i*ro<luiHMl  in  the  ri'Val  bai«*fn, 

'*(fhni|>M"t  if  ITmiio  Life."  and  '*lV:i;rv4  of  an  linuvurable  influ<*nco  on  the  future 

Eurly   I. i :'•-."     In   1^1'*  «!iv  >ui>('*I<^l  the  letter-  nf  the  i«in<{ueri^r.     Vor  f*ne  of  t]ie«a 

I'tc*^  UtS  |'r<>«o  and  \erv,  t>»  an  il!n«tr.itei}  iritt  ^tAne4  M»ine  (U^nno-ie  merrhants  are  aaid  lo  iMfftt 


It-Nik  «nt.thl    "  V:tture*<i  (lenir   **T  Anurii-an  iTfend  l'«irte4  4«M>*'0  ducat  tw     Ther  liad 

Wiiil  Kl  •wvr«."  and  in  the  »urri-<-ihtifr  vi-ar  pi.h-  tut  by  thi^  oxi^uiMti*  workroan«hip  of  tlM 

U»lit-<1  a  ii'!lt.<'::in  of  Jhh  ntn  ra!!t-d  '*  I^)ie*H  Tif  trtA.  one  in  tiie  form  of  a  n^se;  theiceood  in  Iba 

ken  FloHerv  '     IIi  r  l:i«t  H.irk  i<  "Thi*  Wa'rd'irf  funn  of  a  horn;  the  third  like  a  fi*h,  with  evaa 

Family,  or  drandrntlur  »   I-efji*nd»"  (IM**).   a  of  pol«l ;  tin*  f«.iirlh  wai  like  a  little  Wl,  vilk  a 

fairy  taU*  of  Ilrittany,  |>arJ/  a  traiiklatiuu  and  line  jioarl    fur  tie   tonjric     The  fifth,  wbirk 

partly  or iirinal.  ^'a«  the  nu^t  \a]nat>le,  wan  a  nnall  cup  with 

EMPKN.  or  Fwaiicx.   a    ik*ai«>rt   town   of  a  f>*ot  of  piM,  and  with  4  little  chains  U  fhm 

llanowr,  in  thi-  proiinivi'f  Aurii'h  ithe  furnu-r  MMie  metal  attarlu-U   to  a  larite  pearl  a»  a  bat- 

princi|alit}  «if  E.i*t  FruMand).  nit'iattd  a  lisslo  tiin.     Fn»m   tlicM*  toun^efi  were  pn.d«blT  c»^ 

mIow  the   outfall   of  the   rir«'r  Krni  into  t!ie  t.ii(  ed    the  inagnifirrn!   einerald«  now  in    thm 

lJ0ll        Mtuary;   j"»p.    n.f»<K».     The  h:irUir  i«  r*t}n\  rolle^-tinn  at  Mailrid,  M»roe  of  whirb  ara 

w*  bat  the  rxiad«tead  i*  capable  ofaf(^*ni-  %!at«d  tt»  l*e  a«  larpt*  aa  thi^c  «if  the  dukt  td 

M  %-i>«^!t.     CanaN    int«.-r«%-4-t  the  I»i*vii:i«hirc,  and  of  the  l)nc«t  water.     The  cf»- 

«Biiuu«   diri-ction*:    one   connett*  it  crald  ha*  l«injr  l*****"  hij:hly  r^teemeil,  r«nk\n«  la 

Uiwn  of  Aurich,  and  another  (••|K?ne<l  valiu*  i;ext  t«i  the  diani<ind  and  the  niby      PSiny 

»talc«  that  in  lit«  time  tho«e  of  considerable  aiae, 
whieU  Wire  free  fn»iu  defects,  «cre  iold  at  eDur^ 


.a4A,  at  a  c««ftt  of  |230(>fJ(»»  «ith  t^e 
Another  canal  ia  now  in  coupm:  of 


EMERSOK  127 

prieML    Hie  color  of  the  emerald  is  a  pe-  sitj  he  made  more  use  of  the  library  than  is 
shade  of  green,  different  from  that  of  any  common  among  students,  and  when  graduated 
precious  stone,  and  b  called  by  the  name  was  distinguished  among  his  classmates  for  hb 
ersid  green.    It  has  different  shades,  some  knowledge  of  general  literature.    For  5  years 
Tcrdwris  or  grass  green,  and  some  of  a  paler  after  leaving  college  he  was  engaged  in  teaching 
I.    Tlo&j  all  appear  best  by  daylight^  and  to  school.  In  1826  he  was  "  approbated  to  preach'* 
-^  their  eflect  by  candle  light  they  require  to  b^  the  Middlesex  association  of  ministers,  but 
■■  an  with  small  diamonds  or  pearls.    Emeralds  his  health  at  this  time  failing,  he  spent  the  win- 
an  genanUy  cot  in  the  form  of  a  square  table,  ter  in  South  Carolina  and  Florida.    In  March, 
vith  beTdOeu  edges,  the  lower  surface  being  cut  1829,  he  was  ordained  as  colleague  of  Henry 
kto  ftosls^  parallel  to  their  sides.    Beudant,  in  Ware,  at  the  2d   Unitarian  church  of  Bos- 
Hi  MmirmwgU^  gives  the  value  of  emeralds  of  ton.     He  belongs  to  a  derical  race.     For  8 
fas  oolong  aod  free  from  flaws,  as  follows :  one  generations,  reckoning  back   to  his  ancestor 
of  4  gndos,  100  to  180  francs;  of  8  grains,  240  Peter  Bulkley,  one  of  the  founders  of  Concord, 
ftnas;  of  16  grains,  as  high  as  1,600  francs ;  and  Mass.,  there  had  always  been  a  clergyman  in  the 
hidtas  a  fine  stone  of  24  grains  which  was  sold  family,  either  on  the  paternal  or  maternal  side. 
iljjiCO  fhmca.  He  was  the  8th,  in  orderly  succession,  of  this 
BCEBSOK,  Gcobqb  B^bsbll,  an  American  consecutive  line  of  ministers.    In  Sept  1830,  he 
•iHator,  bom  in  Eennebunk,  York  co.,  Maine,  was  married  to  Ellen  Louisa  Tucker  of  Boston. 
fat  li,  1797.    He  was  graduated  at  Harvard  who  died  in  Feb.  1881.    In  1832  he  asked  and 
Mqpa  in  1617,  and  soon  after  took  charge  of  received  a  dismission  from  the  2d  church,  on 
r  in  Lancaster,  Mass.,  having  for  account  of  differences  of  opinion  between  him- 
previondy  employed  portions  of  his  self  and  the  church,  touching  the  Lord^s  supper. 
terms  and  vacations  in  teaching  district  From  this  period  we  may  date  that  impatience 
in  Maine  and  Massachusetts.    Between  with  fixed  forms  of  belief,  and  that  instinctive 
int and  1821  was  the  tutor  in  mathematics  and  suspicion  of  every  thing  having  the  funtest 
■1  i^ilosopby  in  Harvard  college,  and  in  appearance  of  limiting  his  intellectual  freedom, 
was  dioseo  principal  of  the  English  high  which  were  aflterward  so  con^icuous  in  his 
to  boys  then  recently  established  in  writings,  and  which  have  sometimes  been  ear- 
In  1828  he  opened  a  private  school  for  ried  so  far  as  to  give  a  dash  of  wilfulness  and 
ifds  in  the  same  city,  which  he  conducted  eccentricity  to  his  most  austerely  honest  think- 
1865,  when  he  retired  from  professional  ing*    lu  Dec.  1832,  he  sailed  for  Europe,  where 
He   wrote  the  2d  part  of  the  '^  School  he  remained  nearly  a  year.    On  his  return  in 
Schoolmaster,"  of  wnich  the  1st  part  was  the  winter  of  1833-4  he  began  that  career  as  a 
tan  by   Bishop  Potter    of  Pennsylvania,  lecturer,  in  which  ho  has  since  gained  so  much 
which  was  distributed  by  private  munifi-  distinction,  with  a  discourse  before  the  Boston 
I  among  the  school  districts  of  Massachu-  mechanics^  institute,  on  the  somewhat  unprom- 
ind  New  York ;  and  is  the  author  of  a  ising  subject  of  "  Water."    Three  others  fol- 
cr  of  lectures  on  education,  and  of  articles  lowed,  two  on  Italy,  descriptive  of  his  recent  tour 
ibnted  to  the  periodical  press.  He  was  for  in  that  country,  and  the  last  on  the  '^  Kelation 
ears  pre»dent  of  the  Boston  society  of  of  Man  to  the  Globe."    In  1834  he  delivered 
history,  and  was  appointed  by  Gov.  in  Boston  a  series  of  biographical  lectures  on 
IfWBtt  chairman  of  the  commissioners  for  the  Michel  Angelo,   Milton,  Luther,    George  Fox, 
mdafpal  and  botanical  survey  of  Massachu-  and  Edmund  Burke,  the  first  two  of  which  were 
■tti^  hi  which  capacity  he  published  a  "  Report  afterward  published  in  the  *^  North  American 
tf  the  Trees  and  Shrubs  growing  naturally  in  Review."    In  this  year  also  he  read  at  Cam- 
fti  Ijorests  of  Massachusetts"  (Boston,  1846).  bridge  a  poem  before  the  Phi  Beta  Kappa  soci- 
XKERSOy,  RA.LPH  Waloo,  an  American  poet  ety.    In  1885  he  fixed  his  residence  at  Concord, 
Mlsasayist,  bom  in  Boston,  May  25, 1803.  He  Mass.,  where  he  has  since  lived.    In  Sept.  1835, 
h  lbs  son  of  the  Rev.  William  Emerson,  pas-  he  married  Lidian  Jackson,  daughter  of  Charles 
^the  1st  church  in  that  city;  in  his  8th  Jackson  of  Plymouth.    During  the  winter  he 
OQ  the  death  of  his  father,  he  was  sent  to  delivered  in  Boston  a  course  of  10  lectures  on 
sf  the  public  grammar  schools,  and  was  English  literature.     These  were  followed,  in 
qoalified  to  enter  the  Latin  school.    Here  1830,  by  12  lectures  on  the  philosophy  of  history ; 
Ml  fcit  attempts  in  literary  composition  were  in  1837,  by  10  lectures  on  human  culture ;  in 
eoosisting  not  merely  of  the  ordinary  1838,  by  10  lectures  on  human  life;  in  1839,  by 
as  by  which  boys  are  drearily  inducted  10  lectures  on  ttie  present  age;  in  1841,  by  7 
the  mysteries  of  rhetoric,  bat  of  original  lectures  on  the  times ;  and  since  that  period  ho 
m  recited  at  exhibitions  of  the  school.    In  has  delivered  in  Boston  5  or  6  courses  of  lee- 
Tha  entered  Harvard  college,  and  was  grad-  turcs,  which  are  still  among  his  unpublished 
fliii  in  Angnst,  1821.    He  does  not  appear  writings.    Of  his  printed  works,  a  small  volume 
tsftsf^  held  a  high  rank  in  his  class,  though  entitled  *' Nature"  (published  in  1836),  an  ora- 
tta  wcords  show  that  he  twice  received  a  Bow-  tion  before  the  Phi  Beta  Kappa  society,  with  the 
Ub  frise  for  dissertations,  and  once  a  Boylston  general  title  of  the  "  American  Scholar"  (1837), 
friai  fior  dedamation.    He  was  also  the  poet  of  an  address  to  the  senior  class  of  the  Cambridge 
Hi ctaaoa** class  day. "^    While  at  theuniver-  divinity  school  (1838),  and  the  "Method  of 


mnJ 


I 


1*28  £M£RS0!7 

Nature**  ^1^1).  ront&inod  the  mo^t  promi-  employed  for  the  detect  ion  of  pretenc«  ami  in* 

nent   {h'^'nlinhtio^  cf  his  Fchomc   of   idoa]i!>rn.  iK»!itiiro9.     Mr.  EmorMin's  practical  aiider«tand- 

aiitl  \y  tf.vir  frv!>}iiioM  nnJ  liti'th  of  thought  ing  i<«  K>metiino«  underrated  frnm  the  fact  that 

and  roiiip:i>-t  l'«':ku;y  «'f  eijirr*-*:!'!),  alhirc-d  inanr  ho  never  fn^inps  hx9  thoufrhts  b j  the  tnethudt 

ri':MltT«  ir:t<»  di^M]*U'«.     In  I'^t'i  tho  5i'tifN>l  of  of  ki^io.     He  gives  few  n'aaoiu,  e%'eo  when  hm 

Now  KivIadI  trun-^ciidoiitnli't^  wa^  vutiirifiitlT  15  inueit  rca!«onaMe.     He  doe^  nut  prora,  bat  aa- 

larje   ti«  il«  inir.d   .in  onran  ;   and  a  (jnarterlv  nou neon,  aiming  directly  at  tho  intcUigeoc^  of 

i>ori**«!;>  aI.  lalUxI  tho  **  I'lal*  wai*  MArtc<l.  witK  hi«  reallor^  withont  Htnving  to  extract  a  rclo^ 

if ioo   M jr^.-in't    VaWcr  at  c-ditor,   a*e-'>totI    by  tant  a«.«ent  by  furce  of  argiiraent.     Inright,  noC 

A.  H.  Al  •>!!.  William  II.  (*!.ann:n?.  Mr.  Em-  reasoning.  i«  his  process.    The  bent  of  hts  mifid 

er«  'lu   Thi-f.**!  ire   Parkfr,  (io<>r;:o   Kiplcy,  and  is  tii  idi-ul  laws,  which  arc  porcei%'i'd  by  th«  io* 

o'.hi Ti.     It   Will  |'uMi4hcd   for   4    vcir^,  and  tnitivc  faculty,  and  ar«  beyond  the  provioec  </ 

during  tho    Ix^t   'J   ycani  of   i'.«  c\i«tonco   it  dialivtio^     K'jually  conspicuous  ui  hb  tendency 

ira«  ur.iKr  t}.o  itlitor<!.i:i  of  Mr.  Kt::i'r>«)ii.     In  to  fmUxly  ideas  in  the  forms  of  imaginatinii 

1<\\  tti«*  lir^t  M-rio^  ff  hi^  "  £»:i\<i"  w:l4  pub-  So  ^['iritual  al>strartiun  is  so  evanescent  bat  hm 

ILaIp  d.   Tho  aut!.or  might  prL>udly  .>ar  (if  tho-<%  thuA  transfi>niis  it  into  a  concrete  reality.     Urn 

as  lEsi^^n  Kiiil  of  his  own,  **thAt  tlioir  mat-  K-ldom  indulgi.-s  in  tho  expresbion  of  aenttinent, 

tiL-r  ri<'iM  Hi-iU'  fi»i:nil  in  U^ikO   It  i**  i^ru^able  and  in  his  nature  emotion  seems  to  be  leaa  tha 

that  t).i y  n\tti'J  havo  Win  at  iint*o  witU-Iy  wcl-  i^rtnluot  of  the  heart  than  of  tlie  brain.     Mr. 

Ci>ni''d  .'fc4  a  p«><tivo  a<Miii«>!i  t'*  liti-ratun*.  liad  kmrr<onV  stvle  is  in  the  nicest  liannoBT  with 

it  n«it  ti-(  u  fL<r«<*mo  startling  paratliiio!*  and  an-  tho  characti-r  of  his  thouglit.     It  b  condenMd 

daciiiu«  ^^1t•  ii)l:i:<,  whii*h.  wliilo  t!u-y  wi-re  in  nlm<«t  to  abruptness.     1  k'cafriuoall j  he 

thoolnphi  a]  li-liiT-i  of  the  chases  comproviiou  at  the  e 


dirivt  rii:.t!ii-t  Mith  the  tho<*ln,:ii  a]  li-liiT-i  of  the  chases  comproviiou  at  the  expense  of  cl 

pe^I'li^  wiTo  bi!p{Hirto«l  niiihor  by  foi't^  nor  ar-  and  his  nieriu  as  a  writor  consist  rather  in  ibi 

gutnviits  but  ri-^toil  vn  tho  ••imple  tostimi>ny  of  chuioo  of  wor\ls  tlian  in  the  connection  of  kih 

the  author*!*  inihvidual  con««-i<)u«nev«.     In  1S44  ton  res,  though  his  diction  is  ritalixed  by  tb« 

a  s«.M-i>nd  K-ric«of  o^Hays  was  puMifhod,  cvir:c-  pre!<>nce  of  a  poworful  creatiire  clemenL     Hia 

iLfT.  as  r<^!i;parod  « ith  the  !ir*t.  o<|Tial  brovity  thnu;:ht  dictati*s  his  word,  atampa  it  with  its 

and  In-aiiTy  xf  oxpror<.*i'>n.     In  1^46  ho  collected  own  peculiar  quality,  and  cun verts  it  flva  A 

and  p':'-!.*hed  hi^  {Hfins.    Tho  next  viar  he  flooting  bound  into  a  solid  fact.    The  iingnlar 

visitoi!  Kiifiland  for  tho  p-jr;Hr«o  of  ful flailing  an  l*oaiity  and  intense  life  and  significance  of  Im 

enJa;^!:u^.l '^idolivor  a  sorii*5of  looturos  U'fitre  language  domou»trate  that  ho  has  noC  unlj 

a  ur;;.'!i  of  *ni-i*!.ani(V  in<»;ii(ito:»  and  lUht-r  sini-  something  to  say,  but  knows  exactly  how  loiAj 

ctii'S.     In  1^*.)  ho  ('or.ooti.tl  in  one  voltime  his  it.     Fluency,  however,  bout  of  the  i^oestioo  'm 

**  N:irT:rv"  hiii!  *j  loo*i:rv.s  anil  ii>Uogo  aildre<oe%  a  stylo  whiili  combiitim  ^uch  au4t«-ra  ecL'iKiai/ 

wh.i  h  1 1:1.1  W*n  I tl-v !•■!>!}  i^-Uiil  in  pasi'iphlet  of  wonU  with  tho  determination  to  l^iai!  trtrj 

for:\  '  r  J  ri:.'.'-«i  in  rho  "iMa!."    In  I**'".  '*  Itep-  wi«rd  with  ^it:J  meaning.     Hut  the  great  chaf^ 

re**:;t.i:.*.i"  M- ?i."  a  •nrii*  *f  i:.a-terly  mi-ntal  ai'!erL»iic  of  Mr.  Emor?on*4  intelkvt  is  the  p^er^ 

|N.rtrait*.  ■»  :!!i?-»:n.'  nf  iljo  fo  it'irt**  t.\irr!iar^i.Hl,  ciptii«n  and  si-n!imettt  of  l»eauty.     Su  strong  it 

w;i*  J-  :■■!.-}•  il.     Tii  !h.»  ••  Mrfi'lr'*  of  Margiiret  thi\  that  ho  aivvpts  nuthlng  in  life  tliat  b  mur> 

F'j!!- r  <  •'*■  !i.'"  \*!.:'.h  ^i-jtur' -l  iu  I*''^.  l.e  c«n-  bi-L  unromoly,  hag«/anl,  or  ghastly.     The  fbct 

tr:*-.:*-.l »  •i:i.«ail'::ir;i>.!i'i:.t*.rj  ri  tiiriit-rriti-  i*ni.  that  an  o]iIniiin  doprt-***.-^  iru^tead  of  invignrat* 

I'l  1  *•,"••■  1.1-  I  ':l'i-J.i.il  ••  Eijj!i-!i  Tr.ii:.%*'  a  w.-rk  ir;:,  is  with  him  a  hutlii-iont  ro&Mjn  f»ir  it«  reje^ 

in  ••.:i!i  1:0  -«.i.%«  ar.l  0fi:j'!i.L-!/."»  thi^  t'har:n'-  tioti.   11  I«oIi-ht\  at  ion.  his  wit.  his  reason,  his  im* 

tor.-t!  ■* .  f  *)tv  Kr^vj-?i  v.i\rA  nvA  \k-  ;!••.     Mr.  agi:.Atii»n.  hi*  stvlo,  all  oU^y  the  eontn  tiling  actm 

Kr::or«<ii  l..i«  .i!--i  dr!.viri«l  tiuir.y  ':n2>u*  ::'«\od  of  lt«ai;tv,  whii'!i  !<  at  tho  heart  of  hb  natonii 

a'liri-**^"*  1:1  *!.ivtr\.  w..T::ai.'*  r:,;:.!'',  .-u.d  other  an«l  inMii'.i-tivtly  avoid  the  ngly  and  the  I 


t"l'!  « if  J -i^!..'  iji!*:*-::  ar.il  ho  ban  !irn  oi.e  Tlii">o  {Kirtl'iisof  Mr.  Kmor«<Mi\  writing<i  which 

v(  i\v  i:..''t  ir»'r:.:rnnt  of  the   K- tTircr*  who  ro!.ito  to  pitiloMtphy  afid  rt^iigion  may  b«  eoo- 

ai!'!ri-*   t!  ■•    ix-i-it::*   of    t*.o   ri«'::i!rv. — .\*   a  siilvred  ta*   frjuriiient:irv    c«*ninl'i:l:ons   to   iIm 

wnt.r.  Mr   Etm.  r*.  11  >  i!i-:::'j  :i-}.ol  f -r  a  -ifi-  '"  I'lisK^^-phT  of  t!.o  Inllniio."     11*  ha«  B«>  sy^ 


gu!.ir  V.:.:  n    •:'  {-«  ^.-  irr.:.^'.:.  /.  in  nifh  pru  ti-  ttm.  aiul  ini!<.-«-'l  «]»>ti*n  in  hit  mind  i«  &»■  loial^d 

cal  ai-::>:'*v     I!:h\>:>>:i  t:i!^>  *  a  wi.K»  «wii.;i  w  [!h  r!.arIa:Ar'.:-'r:i.     Ili^  largi«t  gi*nvrali£atiua 

i:i  tJio  T\  il  ::.">■  f  tin-  i !« .iJ :  1  i?  i-*  !  •>  K--*  lir!:i  U  *'  Eii^torni'."     i)n  this  i:iM'n:lahl«  ti.«n:«.  hit 

an  !  ]-■:•-  :ra'.t..:  in  !?..•  *;  *.iTf  *  i  f.iit-.     His  i»lt-  on::roptii«ri»  \.ary  w  iii»  hi^mo<jds  andex;i«nc&0e» 

»*r^ -*::.':.».  I  ■•;*.».■  Ty. .  Ti  i!.:4'.r -Tn  1  ni  *.ara' 'or,  S  ii:etin:«  •»   it  m'»  :!i*  to  l-e  man  who  |4U^  with 

tn  !:.•!.•  .:.■  '  -.  .*.-!   ^r.iTrjr .-'.  n.^Ii  rtir.' ^Ajir.ty.  M*  |.irvii'.a!i:y  in  U-ing  united  to  <«»d;   m>c:«» 

i:id.  V..!' J  a  !"iv   !..ir  k:.'"A\  -]••*  <.f  tJ.r  ?..•:!■.•  "y  ti:ni-*  it  s*eir.^  t.»  l«o  4m^  who  is  imjiorsoiLal.  aoi 

I  i.i*-  •   ''.'.'*.  M^  w).  ar-  *•  1 !  :.m  i-w  l!  i:i  iJ.i  r  win  c-'Hif*  !••  i«or*«>nality  on'.y  in  ma:: ;  and  tJ 


|-iv*tl   r.  *n'.;  ■  V     i »'  ••   •;  '.1  if  !;•  w  ■-!  'M  1*    ri.\l  i-^'**"jri!y  i-r  varillatii  n  of  hi«  m(taphysA*al 
w    r;  ;■»  w  -.»  •:;.     T)f'  \r\'.'..\:  t  trnr.-v?-  I*  r  r.il-     i'.ij*  i*  iiirn-a*«d  by  tho  vivid  and  |»»i;:%«rua- 


i*t  :-  f*    !<••!»  a  ::j.\r.   r.  ••  1  .k-y  i-.  S-  i^«>.w.l  rr«!c   fir:'.?-*   m    whii'h   tJo'v    are    •uorr^viely 

ir.  !   i:"tr*  ;  -rta.*':'!/  lo  th-  «  r.!.*.;*ry  i-.':r^-  1  f  c!-  tl.ed.     tier.i  r:illy.  the  I'.Mino  IWing  is  frit  or 

Kt.  \:\   A'Vii'»      !!.•  ••■  '..!:  .  :.  ••  !.••■  *?ir*'\*  .!fi.  *<  r'-:.- 1  ;vi-l  u«a  lift  iiiipartint;  i ;::! uor.ro  dt^i:.lc:D4( 

i-*  \i\.''    i  Vt   \\-  TMi  \o  u.t.      With  ?  :•::.  ]    -m  -  t.at  .re  ai.d  MiAM,  and  a^  idel: '.:•'&!  with  U-lh.    Ha 

1 1  cr.  «  /. ;»  uot  :^  e:.d.  but  a  laear.'s  aLd  u»u.Al!y  adurcs  the  Spirit  of  Ood  rather  than  Uvd,  tba 


EMERY  129 

rays  of  the  snn  rather  than  the  snn,  and  does  of  the  heavier  masses  are  necessarily  left  be- 
sot appear  to  give  safficient  prominence  to  the  hind.    Some  of  the  blocks,  however,  yield  to 
obyioar  principle  that  the  individuality  of  the  the  hammers  after  being  exposed  for  some  hoars 
Divine  Nature,  being  an  infiaito  individuality,  to  the  action  of  fire.    The  color  of  the  powder 
may  indnde  infinite  ezpansiveness  and  infinite  varies  from  dark  gray  to  black ;  hot  its  shade 
Tiiiety  of  working  in  infinite  self-consciousness ;  has  no  relation  to  its  hardness,  and  is  conse- 
and  that  the  appearance  of  impersonality  comes  quently  no  index  of  the  vsJuo  of  the  article. 
from  the  conception  of  i>ersoiiality  under  finite  The  relative  degrees  of  hardness  of  different 
haman  limitations.  samples  were  determined  by  Dr.  Smith  by  col- 
EMERT,  a  mineral  substance  usually  describ-  lectmg  the  powder  just  coarse  enough  to  pass 
cd  as  a  variety  of  corundum,  but  really  a  me-  through  a  sieve  of  400  holes  to  the  inch,  and 
chaniral  miztnre  of  this  mineral  with  oxide  of  with  weighed  samples  of  this  rubbing  little  test 
iron,  fo  intimately  associated  that  the  smallest  plates  of  glass  till  they  ceased  to  be  further  re- 
fragment  commonly  exhibits  the  two  together,  duced.     The  rubber  was  the  smooth  bottom 
la  some  instances,  when  separated  into  different  surface  of  an  agate  mortar.    The  loss  in  weight 
portions  by  washing  with  oil,  fine  crystals  of  experienced  by  the  glass  plates  gave  the  relative 
eorondam  have  been  detected  by  the  micro-  values  of  the  samples  of  emery.    On  this  plan 
KOpe.    Its  extreme  hardness,  derived  from  the  Dr.  Smith  prepared  a  table  exhibiting  the  differ- 
eoraodma,  and  the  ease  with  which  it  is  ob-  ent  degrees  of  hardness ;  and  making  use  of 
tamed  in  large  quantities,  have  led  to  its  exten-  sapphire  of  Ceylon  as  the  standard  of  compari- 
mn  use  in  the  arts,  for  grinding  and  polishing  son,  the  hardness  of  which  he  called  100,  and 
haid  stonest,  metals,  ana  glass.    The  localities  the  effective  wear  of  w^hich  upon  glass  was  equal 
from  which  it  is  obtained  in  the  Grecian  archi-  to  about  }  of  its  own  weight,  that  of  the  best 
pdiga  and  in  the  vicinity  of  Smyrna  andEphe-  emery  was  about  i  of  its  weight.    This  table^ 
m  in  Asia  Minor,  were  probably  some  of  them  to  wiiich  were  appended  the  results  of  the 
known  to  the  ancient  Greeks  and  Romans,  as  analyses  of  many  samples  of  the  mineral  made 
tibe  use  of  a  substance  of  this  nature  seems  to  by  Dr.  Smith,  was  published  in  the  elaborate 
hm  been  required  by  the  lapidaries  of  Magne-  articles  he  furnished  to  the  "  American  Journid 
m,  EphesQs,  Tralles,  and  Tyre.    In  later  times  of  Science,"  2d  series,  vols.  x.  and  xL    The 
the  island  of  Naxos  in  the  archipelago  has  far-  hardness  of  the  sapphire  as  rated  upon  the 
aabed  all  the  supplies  of  commerce,  uie  mineral  mincralogicol  scale  is  9,  next  to  the  diamond, 
being  shipped  from  the  port  of  Smyrna,  and  which  is  10.    That  ojf  ornery  is  not  necessarily 
known  by  the  name  of  Smyrna  emery.    From  indicated  by  the  proportion  of  alumina,  for  a 
1635  to  1846  the  trade  in  emery  was  a  mo-  part  of  this  may  bo  in  combination  with  the 
Bopoly  granted  by  the  Greek  government  to  an  silica.    It  seems  to  vary  with  tho  water  present, 
Eof^h  merchant,  who  so  regulated  the  sup-  those  samples  containing  the  least  water  being 
dj  tsto  raise  the  price  from  its  former  rate  of  tho  hardest. — In  1855  tho  annual  production  of 
ilOa  ton  to  about  $140.    This  monopoly  was  emery  was  2,000  tons  of  Naxos  stone  and  1,G00 
broken  up  and  the  whole  trade  changed  in  con-  tons  of  Turkish.    Tho  whole  business  was  con- 
nqoence  of  the  discoveries  of  Dr.  J.  Lawrence  centrated  in  tho  hands  of  Mr.  Abbott,  who  held 
finith  of  tho  United  States,  who  in  the  course  tho  contract  with  tho  Greek  government  ex- 
of  his  explorations  in  tho  service  of  the  Porte  tending  for  10  years,  and  had  purchased  the 
finorerea  in  1S47  a  number  of  localities  of  Turkish  firman  unlimited  in  time  for  tho  annual 
the  mineral  belonging  both  to  tho  Turkish  and  payment  of  $55,000.     An  arrangement  was 
Greek  government^.    By  on  arrangement  with  entered  into  with  tho  house  of  Messrs.  John 
Am  bnner,  operations  were  commenced  in  the  Taylor  and  sons  of  England  to  employ  a  capital 
year  at  some  of  the  localities  and  after-  of  £120,000  in  tliis  business,  and  supply  the 
extended  to  others,  so  that  the  price  has  emery  cither  in  the  stone  or  powder  to  all  parts 
been  reduced  to  $50  per  ton.     At  the  of  tho  world,  with  tho  guarantee  of  its  being 
of  Gumuch-dagh,  12  m.  E.  of  the  ruins  free  from  adulterations,  such  as  had  previously 
tf  Ephesos,  Dr.  Smith  found  tho  emery  upon  impaired  its  qualities  and  reduced  its  value, 
ftt  imiiniit  scattered  about  in  loose  pieces  of  all  The  principal  consumption  of  the  article  is  in 
up  to  masses  of  several  tons  weight.    The  polishing  plate  gloss,  and  the  increase  of  this 
to  which  it  belonged  was  a  bluish  meta-  business  causes  a  constantly  increasing  demand 
marble,  reposing  upon  mica  slate  and  for  emery.    The  discovery  of  new  localities  is  a 
In  this  rock  the  mineral  was  found  in  matter  of  great  importance,  tho  few  that  are 
and  in  amorphous  masses,  somo  of  known  in  other  parts  of  tho  world  furnisliing  no 
were  several  yards  in  length  and  breadth,  supply  capable  of  competing  with  tliat  brought 
d  the  weight  of  80  to  40  tons.    The  struc-  from  the  nead  of  the  Mediterranean.  It  is  said  to 
t  of  this  rock  is  compact  and  tolerably  regu-  be  found  near  Peischkau  in  Bohemia,  near  Ekate- 
;  bat  the  sorface  presents  a  granular  appear-  rinburg  in  the  Ural,  near  Miosk  in  the  Ilmen 
Unless  traversed  by  fissures,  the  rock  is  mountains,  and  in  Frederic  valley,  Australia. — 

with  ffreat  diflBculty,  and  attempts  to  Emery  is  prepared  for  use  by  crushing  the  stone 

it  are  maue  in  vidn  from  its  wear  upon  the  under  stamps,  and  sorting  tho  powder  into  dificr- 

L     As  the  transportation  from  tho  quarries  ent  sizes  by  appropriate  sieves.    For  the  most 

iiaa^  on  the  backs  of  camels  or  horses,  many  delicate  uses  of  opticians,  dec.,  it  is  separated  in 

VOL,  vn. — 9 


IM  ""->^^C^^I3  EMIGRATION 


1  trzml  "«■  i'    "  ^  *J  'j'^^^           "  '^  Tx-l-inr  •"»'«"or  called  Connt  Ram  ford  a»  tho  minister  of  Bnrar 

/.-    :,•••■--*     ■  •  '"^'i.  '".  _        — ^.T'rer  •t:lr.;r  jr  •'SE'Lthd  he  hiTin^  Uvn  Inirn  a  suljoot  of  the  Uht 

TQtricr     ""'^^J"..    *      -^r -T  .  r  wircr  ••  r.rxr.fuc  cntwn.      KoniiiTlj  tlio  priuciple  thaS   lio  «» 

i-.ni  »i"'      ■    '   '  ^^'i.     ^               ■'— AT-'i  ^^^.•■■■■r'i  :■•  *Ji*'-  je«-t   mMM  evt-r  cea-*!*   to   owe   a]Iep;iiire 

««ii:  ■•  '  •    ""'^"J^'"",    '*""  ^     f«-^'  -.;*  ■  r  niir-ite^.  h;«  p'ViTnniciit  jin'ViiiKnl  in  Eurune.  and  t 

r  .e  '"      "    '  ■  ;■  .':  "'_"'" —  '--^  •■■*•-/    '  '•:;.;:^.-<i,  :i  <  *ra:  ::c  l«if"ks  of  kni;land  titill  cfiniain  lam*  ft 

n*.tT  .  r  :■  -  ^    *.  .'.          "^  ^  -*-"-.■  "'-  "-  ^"  -  '  i.'a«r-:  i.-  l.oiinj  the  iriMigratioii  of  M.*veral clowc^  cjf  ar 

"•..r..  -         "-''  *  •-'^         "'::-^-«.-  i .. ;  ^i*  i^l  »..-i  :>  iai.-,    l»u:  tliey  have   b<^»ine   ob«olet«.     T 

^cj.-.;         '     ""^^   J^*  *:  ,*-..   :     -.   -^-•r.--.  c  wy»  ^:.rral  r-Ie  in  Kuri»fK-an  coiintrirfl  it  now 

.  .>  •        --     "^  *^      ~         1      -^:-    r.  >,  .c  J    -^-j' ".  i^  all»w  e:=..ratiun.  |  ruvidfd   the  etniirraot   h 

•  -      ■  --                 ""^^            —  -  ::»:"•.  « ■■     HL~r-7  :>♦  filrlllpj  aS  Lis  nM'ijratii>nH  t«>ward   bu  nali 

'^'                    *             "^^             ..  u;-:  •.  '-    :  '»  ••L  *Lxzt .  jvi  :i.v  'jucstiuti  w  ^tiU  mxmMsndcd  wi 

^r  :.-■-:■  '    *  '^    ~  —  "="    :r«  :    .»-•-«  4.—.  «..:^  t_    u  :::a.tj  i  *.-ult.c?.     Tlitf  United  State's  by  ado| 

^.  -i:^-       .  --  '^   '— ^—       " J.  ^  :-.      T-c-  iT:  •_.•:':  ^  j  '  r.  ^.t.-s  a*  citlzvni  without  r(N]uiriDjr 

^^^-     -    -      ■  '  ~        ^— ;  IT..:  r-.ti-jine  .-  r-_-r7  <>:-.-!  ;*:..  '.{  li.cir  didinUMl  from  thvir  oripfi 

i,^-^-                 '  "^              ^  -       li. :.-;  *  •-:  -  i:--r  7  .  7  o:"  1.  --1  -.  r  a^e  iuiplii  itlr  [irnclaiiiUHl  the  m 

^.^     .     ..''■'-                 .  --1   -:    *.tT-'s   :  :  r-r-  :.  r  i.'u   r-.'.  .  f  vij^at  rial  ion,  that  i*  to  »aT.  ti 

^^_  _•.   -  _    "  -"^                -  i.  •  7     ... :      -   »  "i.-'.'7    f  r-:".'.    f  ■-'•«•'";•  12^1:.  to  ch<NiHea  goTemmcni  u 

■^..  -                       —          -     i.-*-.:  -  *j  «■  "C       .--r.  CkT  »  .    :.  ;.«  ir.tct  d^  to  livo.     To  thi«  cite 

^^-    ,                                   -s  :iz:cr  u»  15--  .».   —-•!-  :.;•-•  r^ :  la.-  r.- :  le«n  arknowK^l^ed  by  ai 

^"J            -    .  ■  -;.  £:r  ■T^:^^  »:A:ci\r«;ftGivat  liritain,  and  hT  tJ 

r^t  "'       ^                 ^    .  .:.^  :-«*•;-    -r-/:-rr  -  •::.--  Lii:-.-    :;!  r:*.  :^:x!y.  n« it  legally.     Casetlta* 

^.                       .     -           ...-•;.:.•  rr      :-j.*--^  5^  .  :m  ".r  _-.*^  1  in  which  naturalizc<l  citiM 

—       .      .     "■.     -i^^     J.—  ^-  .-•':  -  r  .:  :.:-:  V   .toi  >:A:cstvvn  th*»«  wIki  cam«  he 

-.    .  •       «  ^^  :   .:      —.■     .--  te  =:  ".'--^  ■  :•  ti.c  will  of  thi-ir  parvnta.  ka* 

'                    .                      *..«?-.».-  •-—  .:  ■    '^-.■-*  -v- :  --■--••r'l.'i.  t-u  irav«.-l!ln);throacrh  tlierrm 

^                              -     .  -^     -.---"  .r.  -e  -■    '—■  :    r  ir-   Y  li;  .-  :..-•.:,  lo  do  military  duty,  or  ha^ 

•  -.     *^    -.  :  --    I  ■••  '.  7  :.^  *Lo:  f^r  i-avin^  failed  to  ilo  io.     TI 

^      ^     •.-:.-.  ^       *  i3-  •• .    :     :'  ".-v  ^'XcmmeLt  of  the  rnite«l  Stal 

.              -n  . '-          •  :j..>*.i»  :  ^  sr^i  :    <i*.L;  (.ak-^  has  liecn  an  un^tlled 

*  ^.  .  ,:    .    »    u..-*  *.-:—.:   1:     :   «>».*:   I'.r.-.^n.     While,  in   I8M.  M 

^.                                       ^   >  <«.  «   u'x.  '.  .*     i:: .  i?  ill-':.  tJ'.n  9«.vrvtAry  of  »tatr,  in  hif  fatnoi 

-^  .-      %  .     .   i  :  a^'f.  A  -^rL*  -Vcr.  »:.•:?> T.^rated  the  right  and  dm 

^/                                     -     ^        ..-*-..     ^.-^  :  '.  .K-  V-.:W'i  S:^e^  •»>  pr«*tect  even  **tnrhi« 

•      't      T.  >-  :.-..*■  ^*:k.L»t   ciioti.  :i*  ah^inf?  fn.m  tic 

.'•--■.::  .-:;» r*  :«i.:.-al  ril.ii:.  Tl^.  in    ISSH  thv    refif 

■       ..4          .-  ■  ■       *^  o  "^    :j:.-.  .•    r  :::c  I'l./.oi  Matr^at  iWrlin  watiK 

.   *         I  .  J.--  -.■ :  ■^>:j.  o:  '  •  ::.o^vvr'jmcnt  in  pmtr^tinffairaia 

'^  1     .               .-^    .  ^  .-»  '..*•■  r.   .c  eLr- .>:K!.:iif  Laturalixed  Amrrirt 

«^-.        I  ■            *.-<*     ;  •      *     "»   .:i    'lie   rr'>-.iAn   artnr.     It   wa«i   b« 

k-Nfc*  ..  *^.  ;•  *.  ii  H  i..  n  .1  :"'rvi;:nt:r  l-erame  nataralisi 

"^                                 . '^  %  •%  -    -*  . :     •  ■(.*  .V  » **  .1  ■-■«   '  :i.:'-«l  >:.»:«.■•»  n i:lii»:;i  ha^inir  obtaixM 

"^                                    «.*.>»..        '•^            ^  .•:'-^-  >r":.'«:.'U '.I  till  M.  :rvi:i  111!!  fiTtncr  |r.»ieniiiie« 

'^                          ^           *        •»;.•*.   :^^   .'•«..    -s  ■<  *  *■•  *.!;:. :i"i  !  >  il.*-  \  p  teiti^n  of  the  Ania 

^'                              '       .               ^"  -  ■*  .    '^■••-  *•"•••  ^'■' ?■■»■' »iit  •i.'.y  wii!iin  the  trrriiury  < 

^     .                               N        1    ^        .     «  I       ^  :    ^-    •  .:r-  1   c  ■   .:."iti   Stale-,  a;:d,  w!.fri    n>tuniir.tf  l4»  h 

m      \              .*-•:■».•    «•  ii-i.  • ..:  '\*   K-^-i.rr.ry  u:  Ocr   ru\iT  nf  an    Amcna 

'^                            .^            ^  •    *  .           •    »..    1    ^  .xai  ',  »-*.•■."♦,    il;.i    4.1    a:     I1.9    I'wn     n-L.       A    dl 

.        .        :•                      .-.*..   ft  v.-   ...  -  '           i- --il    0^  ■■:::;.■  n    «.»f    t!i»'    l-rar^n^c   «*f   tJ 

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.    ,    .    »  ,         1    ,•»     ...■••■.     '.  ::..-.:x!  ?id    v"..i.i    :i    njrird    t-*     hi«    f««m 

*'    ~                  .    .          ,1     .•.*■•  ^               ■  ip'.' -■viv  i    !:.i*    r.v^cr   l»tfen    a:trnipt^— 1 

^  "*  '                                 -«      ■*-  ..V    .    '.  "^     •'  •  *•*"•  i?-^'  r»i:!:i!;t«  ha\c  l*^-n  yrlad  to  k« 

*"*                            »        ^  ^...  .  •  I  .-••*-  .?•••..■■•  A  ;•  r-  ■  M  .  :  :!.,  r  ;^'j  i:U::un.  o«(i«vially  «bci 

.      .             *     .      ••■1.    *    ,    X*     0  •»  '•  Ml  •:.  >..iri  •:.'.r\  i  f  over-{M.puUtii>o  pr 

,    ,».         v.i  .:    *'v    >..-   t'  ^-^  -.      r  .:•.   n.-.v-Ji  M-i.tr. on i':»u  o >ii|rratiilal4 

.          .,  .       ..^.      :.  ^"•■fc'>  *    V  •   '.  r  *•-   :■  :r^    u't-n  the  pr\-.\l    ini(rratti«  frui 

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,,..,,   X     »^x  ».i  <r.->.  -v-  ^-^      .-^        \'%.'  :ii. .  rv  waj»  that  tr  thw  Xth 

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^"*' *  *   ...»              ■».»•»•   o'»*'  ■•'*■'»■      •'■*•'  *■  '  *■  ■' *  *••*"*■  rvmainii5|r   iiiu«t  Hrrr^i^anly  I 

,*•.%*-    *-»      *.\."*    X    ."H  •   .ar-T  tr  iw  i.  * -•  i^*.^!.     lV<^:Ny  tfe  piviiliar  i-'litieaJ  UMl 

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^  .        ■    ..    .•    «.*.%-«  1:  i:"*v«    ■•*  '•  'o  '.i  ■:.  '  ut  i^-nerU  exiiiTifncc  wn*U  lo  prx^ve  thi 

•  .,.,%    »    *  »-»^   i.i*  *   ■■»»."■   tf.i'.^-r..-.  .I'.  J  "^'i'lic  ov*r-pi»pu.alu»n  i«  out  or  tli*  qiM 

'*  1^  v»\«waAMi  .-v^tto^"^  ttf  7^-vi^e  Uva  c^va  la  tho  uoat  dviMtrly  settled  Eompei 


EMIGBATIOK  181 

cocntries.  A  relative  over-popnlation,  caused  nomadic  tribes.  Of  such  corporate  emigration 
bj  partial  and  insufficient  development  of  natu-  patriarchal  hbtorj  records  some  examples,  as 
nl  resources,  exists  in  the  most  thinlj  settled  those  of  Lot,  Abraham,  and  Jacob.  With  the 
countries.  Indeed,  the  lower  the  state  of  civil-  progress  of  agricaltnre  and  the  growth  of  more 
ization  the  more  frequent  is  a  relative  over-pop-  definite  political  relations,  trade,  and  commerce, 
ulation.  This  is  proved  by  the  example  of  the  began  the  emigration  of  single  bodies  of  ad- 
Axnerican  Indians,  a  few  thousands  of  whom  venturers  to  distant  countries.  In  this  way 
may  starve  for  want  of  food  on  a  territory  largo  Phoenicians,  led  by  Cadmus,  and  Egyptians,  led 
en«igh  for  a  European  kingdom.  The  limit  of  by  Danaus  and  Cecrops,  emigrated  to  Greece,  the 
absulute  over-population,  that  is,  of  the  insuffi-  Heraclidte  from  Greece  to  Asia  Minor,  the  Tyr- 
cteccy  of  the  natural  resources  to  subsist  a  peo-  rhenians  to  Italy.  Unlike  these,  the  exodus  of  the 
pie,  may  have  been  reached  in  some  provinces  Israelites  from  Egypt  to  Canaan  was  a  corporate 
•of  China,  but  has  not  yet  been  pointed  out  by  emigration  of  a  people,  on  account  of  religious 
actual  experience  in  Europe.  It  is  a  significant  and  political  oppression,  for  which  modern  bis- 
ect that  the  emigration  from  some  European  tory  furnishes  parallels  in  the  Mormon  emigra- 
coontries,  Rhenish  Prussia  and  Westphalia  £or  tion  to  Utah  and  the  emigration  of  the  Boers 
instance,  is  in  an  inverse  ratio  to  population ;  that  in  southern  Africa.  During  the  historical  times 
b  to  say,  the  largest  number  emigrate  from  the  of  ancient  Greece  emigration  generallv  assumed 
most  thinly  settled  agricultural  districts,  these  the  character  of  colonization.  Many  nourishing 
kaviuK,  relatively,  a  larger  over-population  than  and  powerful  colonies  were  thus  sent  forth  along 
those  in  which  agricultural  and  manufacturing  the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean  and  Black  seas 
pomits  are  combined.  The  monarchical  gov-  by  Greece,  the  relative  position  of  which  In 
cmments  of  Europe  have  from  time  to  time  en-  ancient  history  is  similar  in  that  respect  to 
deavored  to  diminish  emigration  by  oppressive  that  of  the  Germanic  (Anglo-Saxon)  nations 
lam,  and  by  levying  heavy  taxes  upon  emi-  as  contrasted  to  that  of  the  Roman  race.  The 
frants ;  but  of  late  they  have  begun  to  perceive  colonies  of  ancient  Rome  for  the  most  part 
flnt  such  measures  £iil  entirely  to  proouce  the  were  rather  outposts  of  an  army  and  combina- 
dflsired  result,  and  have  therefore  confined  their  tions  of  fortune  hunters  than  settlements  of 
iflbrtB  to  the  regulation  and  protection  of  emi-  men  intending  to  found  permanent  residences. 
pation.  Associations  have  been  formed  in  The  great  migration  of  the  Germanic  nations 
many  European  states  for  this  special  purpose,  having  destroyed  the  Roman  empire,  the  move- 
hi  the  United  States  there  are  likewise  a  nnm-  ments  of  European  society  were  for  centuries 
bcr  of  similar  associations  devoting  themselves  not  unlike  the  whirlpool  caused  by  the  sinking 
to  the  fl^istance  of  immigrants.  The  United  of  a  large  vessel.  Nations  and  races  were  tossed 
Bttted  government  has  passed  laws  for  the  rcg-  hither  and  thither,  and  only  a  few  out-of-the- 
vlttion  of  emigrant  ships  (March  2, 1819 ;  Feb.  way  nooks  and  corners  of  Europe  remained  un- 
t2,l&47'.  May  17, 1848;  March  8,  1849,  &c.).  disturbed.  Charlemagne  changed  the  direction 
Ihe  itate  of  New  York  has  established  a  board  of  of  German  emigration  from  the  south  to  the  east 
fionmissioners  which  requires  a  tax  of  $2  from  and  north.  While  from  that  time  the  inove- 
trery  immigrant,  and  applies  the  proceeds  of  this  ments  of  German  nations  toward  Italy  assumed 
tamion  to  tlic  support  of  the  needy  and  desti-  the  character  of  mere  militai*y  conquests,  their 
tale  among  them.  A  depot  for  all  immigrants  emigration  conquered  nearly  the  whole  country 
arriiing  at  New  York,  designed  to  protect  them  between  the  Elbe  and  Vistula  rivers  from  the 
igufnt  fraud  and  violence,  was  opened  in  1855*  Slavic  race.  A  counter  current  from  Asia,  which 
Smilar  measures  have  been  adopted  or  pro-  set  in  at  various  periods  of  the  middle  ages,  con- 
Msed  in  the  states  of  Wisconsin,  Illinois,  and  sisting  of  Magyars  and  Tartars,  was  successfully 
iGehigan,  the  latter  of  which  in  1859  appointed  resisted,  and  the  tide  was  even  turned  upon 

rts  fuT  the  purpose  of  drawing  a  portion  of  Asia  by  the  crusades  ;  but  at  a  later  period  an- 
emigration  from  Europe  to  the   state  of  other  Asiatic  race,  the  Osmanli  (Turks),  sue- 
Kehigan.  In  1853  the  German  diet  proposed  cer-  ceeded  in  displacing  the  most  decayed  of  Chris- 
Mu  rules  for  the  restriction  of  emigration  from  tian  nations  m  south-eastern  Europe,  while  al- 
Gvmanv  to  America,  but  their  adoption  was  most  simultaneously  still  another  Asiatic  race 
IMvde^by  the  war  bepinning  in  April,  1859. —  (the  Arab?)  was  expelled  from  the  south-west- 
Ik  history  of  emigration  in  the  broadest  mean-  ern  peninsula  (Spain),  to  which  they  had  emi- 
hg  of  the  word  i<s  in  fact,  the  history  of  man-  grated  8  centuries  before. — Individual  emigra- 
lU.     Of  the  earliest  migrations  by  which  the  tion,  as  distinguished  from  the  movements  of 
i^iniamental  features  of  European  history  have  whole  nations,  commenced  on  a  large  scale  af- 
defined,  no  records  remain,   but  numer-  ter  the  discovery  of  America.    During  the  16th 
races  of  them  are  found  by  the  archaeol-  century  the  nations  in  which  the  Roman  element 
ethnologist,  and  linguist.     In  the  earliest  predominated,  Spain,  Portugal,  and  France,  sent 
^(jftna  of  civilized  life,  when  hunting  was  man^s  forth  a  great  number  of  emigrants,  most  of 
fr  ei^  means  of  subsistence,  his  wild  roamings  them  mere  adventurers  who  did  not  intend  to 
|;  'mtr  lerge  territories  could  scarcely  be  called  stay  longer  than  might  be  necessary  to  become 
»Uon,  since  there  were  no  settled  habita-  rich.    The  first  attempts  by  the  English  to  or- 
to  leave  or  to  go  to.    Emigration  proper  gttnize  emigration  to  America  likewise  origi- 
nced  when  herdsmen  congregated  into  nated  in  adventurous  designs.    In  such  attempts 


aa 


acuTLk  m:ir 


m^    n«*n   mil  J 


inn  u  .  b'M 
vir  <•■  i^  •u^ii  •■•niiMi:»*.*t.  7"i»«  .t-i*.:!"-*.  '-iin- 
^«n'.*  i*''  -ki*  «. .'i.iiKtia.iin  ^f*  rTMiu  i**t  t  'iiti 
jBim    iitit    ^.  >     (ifi       A.   JtoiL  -•j.trinui  '^iiiUf^^J 

i^iii.  ^••'ir.  ^  ;'« >  V  irfi^tiUUL  ••r^  «i  a  ui  t^:- 

Art  J-.r  •  ■..•   •>w?    y  -.••■/  ••litf.i.n.     2*tsiiii*.  --in 
l^vi.v.  .-..4  ■  .'.ii  ■^•»Ti    .••  .<.••:   J'.r  utt  iKtwtruMnc 

ci:«ju#  Ai'. :  V  -.-..u  *,..rt  ir. ::<r'-r-a«r  -li-CH  '^ 


^v 


«r    •-.  ...i 


l.-iH 


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«»./j«     r 


31«fl 


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xjL  '.-•rsoa?  J**?  a 


•iMd  .'•••*   V'T«  .    :..--  .-•'tiVri  r>:-tVir*      Mi- 

^A  M^!  ]>/..>. Ar.A  «•:-.  4iitr^:  17  ir%!:i^  *:- 

|jt«t/^ry  WM  ^.-sM  a:.:  >•../-.■•  vr^tc  o-.ci}art«i 
With  t^iAt  nitiiii  ttfTuzz^u-K^i  Af>r  ihii  vu  y 

•f  AfU'TiCAft  iafM-;*..'^:.*  Li»:  '^et^  teAcii  *  *  'Jla 

of  tli«  ii^itJiVr  of  A..>:3  i(Xi:;.i^rrAZ.:«  vcr«  Zi.^ 
kept  untii,  in  r*»riijil.af.'  ti^.iLa^  Act  '^■f  o.r^r>?^ 
of  Mar*  h  '-'.  l-I'J.  f  #.]•■•  u-n  of  ii.c  cjV.cj  -ic- 
gAii  l«i  r«|i«irt  •|fJAn«.Ti»  to  lii*  ^^^matj  •/ *:a:* 
the  iiuiitUT,  iK-x,  ApTi*.  ^':-.  'jf  {lAB^it-r.^D  Arr:-  \:.^ 
bj  At-a.  "IlitTt:  Are.  ljow«\ir,  TK:%^fi^  X.»«i.'c\: 
tlio  Ai-ruru4\r  of  iLc  n  i-irt*  ri^aJe  w  ;•.:.! a  tie 

fimt    lU   or    15    TcAFl   MlCl-cniili,?  tlic  {  a^-eo^j  *4 

Uio  Art.     Mr.  p.  Kttpp  uUciiipti  ^i  j.r  v^  fn-rr; 

the  riK'onl^  uf  mivvhU  M:ttIt.'ru«:Dt.«,  c^tall>:.t'<i 

botwceii  isjootij  lH;iiMh:it  Uic  nuiulivro:  iu- 

miirraiit^  who  urrivwl  during  that   timv  was 

UrRvr  than  that  ^ivrii  in  ttio  (tthcial  rcfufrt^. 

Thu  iixiriii^'rAtiiiri  fnmi  17S4  tn  17U4U^tAtt.*<l  t>r 

Mr.  SainiK'l   liUnl^vl  il*^<>«j)  U*  Lato  Av»rA«.*i'l 

4,000  |H.T  Annum.     I>iiniitc  IT  1)4.  1  ••.<>>••  inimi- 

crmntd  H«*ro  C!«tiinat4-<1  to  Iiaw  arrived  in  llie 

Loitvil  ^tati•^  tut  thi^  waji  an  ex:raurJinanr 

BuinU-r  I'lir  thu  tiino.     Iho  yvarly  Avcmtfv  ui 

Um  iuinii;:rAtiun  during  :2ii  yean*,  I'mm  \1\*^)  to 

\%V\  14  A^ikunu-d  l*y  I>r.  Adain  N.'yl>crt  to  havo 

bevn  lj,<i'Ni.     iiiiriii;;  tlie  Iil  \caPt  fmni  1*«'j6  to 

1816  nicnMve  etni*;rali<>n  to  thu  I'nitod  States 

VAdfri'tludud tiv  thi- iinfrirhilly  ri-laliuna at  that 

titnv  rxi«tiiii:  U-lwts.*n  (iri-al  Uritain,  Kranri*.  and 

the  I'mtrd  >tAtO'« ;  but  iiui>ii  alVr  tho  ri.-** titration 

of  pc'oi-v  it  iK'iCAn  aifain.     I)iirin^  ihv  yrar  \^\1 

OTvr  So.iHNi   ifiinii^ant4  arri%-i-d.     No  tru^^t- 

Vurthy  data  fxi«l  on  the  iminip'i&tioD  i»f  lh<*  *JI 

nth!*  frL^n  Jon.  1,  ]M\  to  S^'pL  ai>.  l^]•^. 

the  Uttor  date  to  Kia.  thu  nuniUT  <if 

pD|^*rAi  and  from  lb5>i  to  1^J*<  thu  total 

r  uf  nA!«svu^i*rs  (natives  of  the  Tnitcd 

included;  arri\ixig  by  aefti  are  officially 

iaifoUowt: 


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u:*» 

i:.7  :  u»  L.rr.  rr  of  a^Ivq  iami^nuct*  who  tf^ 
r.Te*:  :>  '.Lr  U:  .:<.4  ^tA:e»  fnxn  Sept.  30,  ISXIL 
to  Lite.  31.  l-s:>5.  u  4.211G24.     C>f  th«  pnw 
per«  c  z:.:::^  ty  ka  during  the  3  Temn  cttiSii^ 
l>vc.  !>->.  d^sctlr.^  therefrom  t£c«e  ton  li 
tLc  r:;/.etl  >:A:es  as  aIj.)  ihoic  vho 
potacd  tL-v-i^h  the  rnited  SlAt««  to  the 
K»h  \>T\jy  incv<.  iic^  there  rvmaiii  about  ft50> 
A«juli.    K*'jrnAtiuir  the  number  of  umnticnali 
who  arrirt-d  fruru  17^  to  1^19  at  15O,uO0l»  m 
obuin  A  grand  totAl  of  4.912,C24.  or.  ia  roiai 
nuniben.  5.1^" •.(^«i  immi^TADta  into  the  Unilii 
StdUd  fn^ni  17*^  to  J  An.  1, 16^9.     kH  thb  ft«^ 
U:r  A^Mmt  2,6«^>,u*)i>  caino  from  Qrtxl  BriUia 
and  Ireland;  AU>ut  1.6<.n).iKiO  frtim 
< including  the  wliole  of  Tru^tia  and 
SiNi.iHNj   fruni   France:    lOti.OuO  fmai 
Aniorica;  t%i*,iNHi  from  Swedvn  and  K4 
SO.utKJui  from  China;   iii.OOO  from  S\ 
kiid;   3«'>.H(H>  fn,in  the  W«»t   Indies;    IS^OOt 
frt»m  Holland:  16. On) from  Mexico;  8,000  ftva 
Italy;   7.0(N»  fn>m  IWIgium;  6,300  from  Soaih 
Anifrii-a:  a.iN^i  from  Portugal;  1,300  horn  tW 
Axorf"*:   l,<N>u  from  Ku.«ia.     It  will  be  wum 
fntni  tlie  aUivo  table  titat  tlte  emi^ralftua  to 
thtf  Uniti*d  St«t4*«  incnrJMtHl  in  an  ud[ 
cd  i)roiM>riion  from  1^4^  to  1854.     TLm 
owiMfc  in  tho  fir^t  in»tance  to  the 
ino  in  Ireland ;  in  the  Nv^tnd,  to  tlie  rergigtioae 
of  1H4H,  br  M  hich  great  uumben  of  thoee  whoee 
{irofpecla  had  been  blighted  bj  fH^Utioal  oaavW- 


EiaGRATIOH  138 

sioDs  were  indnoed  to  remove  to  the  'vrestem  emigrants.    The  emigrfttion  to  Atifitralia  waH 
continent.    The  ye&r  1854  was  also  the  turning  formerly  for  the  most  port  a  forced  one.    From 
point  in  the  nnmerical  proportion  of  the  emi-  1798  to  1888,  ahont  74,000  convicts  were  trans- 
ffration  from  Ireland  and  Germany.    In  1852  ported  thither.    Since  then  the  free  emigration 
IreLuid  sent  160,000  emigrants  to  the  United  has  gradually  increased;  in  1887,  it  was  2,664; 
States,  Germany  hat  145,918;  in  1858  there  ar-  1888,  6,102;  1839,7,852;  1840,  5,216;  1841, 
Tired  164,000  emigrants  from  Ireknd,  and  141,-  12,188;  1842,  6,071;  1848,28,904;  1849,82,- 
M6  from  Germany ;  hat  in  1854  the  Irish  immi-  091 ;  1850, 16,037 ;  1851, 21,532 ;  1852,  87,424; 
gxmdon  fell- to  ahont  103,000,  while  the  German  1853,  61,401;   1857,  61,248.     The  total  emi- 
incresscd  to  215,009,  and  in  1855  there  arrived  gration  to  Anstralia  from  1849  to  1859  will 
Tl^f  18  Germans  (inclnding  Prossians  and  Ans-  scarcely  fall  short  of  550,000.    The  aggregate 
tiians),  and  50,000  Irishmen.    In  the  port  of  of  those  who  have  emigrated  from  the  United 
STewTorktherearrivedin  1856, 56,117  German,  Kingdom  either  to  British  colonies  or  foreign 
and  43,996  Irish  immigrants ;  in  1857,  86,859  coantries  from  1815  to  1858,  is  given  hy  Mr. 
and  67,106  Irish;  in  1858,  31,874 Ger-  McColloch  at  8,798,529.     Adding  to  this  the 
aad  25,097  Irish.    From  Jan.  1  to  April  7,  emigration  of  snbseqnent  years,  as  stated  hy 
i,  there  arrived  in  the  port  of  New  York  other  authorities  (viz. :  839,524  in  1854,  nearly 
TjlMimmigranta,  against  8,018  during  the  same  200,000  in  1855,  165,951  in  1856,  212,875  in 
p«iod  in  1858.  The  steady  falling  off  of  the  ira-  1857),  we  ohtam  a  total  of  over  4,500,000  emi* 
~- — ion  since  1854  is  attributed  to  various  grants  from  the  United  Kingdom  during  a  pe- 
j  prominent  among  which  are  the  strong  re-  riod  of  43  years. — ^The  emigration  from  Europe 
of  the  native  American  sentiment  against  to  other  distant  countries  than  those  in  which 
tte  soppoeed  deluge  of  the  United  States  by  the  Anglo-Saxon  race  predominates,  has  always 
dena,  and  tiie  financial  crises  of  1854-^7.  It  has  been  comparatively  insignificant,  in  spite  of  all 
been  calcnlated  that  the  number  of  2,500,000  efforts  of  continental  governments  to  push  it  in 
tragnera  who  had  settled  in  the  United  States  that  direction.    Algeria,  in  1851,  full  20  years 
ftom  1784  to  1850  had  during  that  period  been  after  its  conquest  by  the  French,  had  an  immi- 
iweDed  to  4,000,000  inclnding  their  descendants,  grant  population  of  only  65,233.    The  emigra- 
Aiff"Tri"g  this  to  be  correct,  in  1860  the  total  tion  from  France  to  Algeria  amounted  in  1856 
of  that  portion  of  the  population  of  the  United  to  8,564,  and  in  1857  only  to  7,992. — Of  the 
States  which  is  the  product  of  immigration  since  South  American  states,  Brazil  as  early  as  1819 
1784  would  be  near  7,000,000.    iBut  a  close  endeavored  to  attract  emigration  from  Grermany 
edeolation  is  rendered  exceedingly  difiicult  by  and  Switzerland,  but  the  manner  in  which  the 
fte  fiKt  that  the  proportion  of  age  in  an  immi-  emigrants  were  treated  by  the  large  property 
grant  population  is  very  different  from  that  in  holders  frustrated  these  efforts,  although  ener- 
a  natiTe  one,   thero  being  always  among  the  getically  repeated  from  time  to  time.    Still,  a 
flbnner  a  greater  number  of  marriageable  per-  few  Swiss  and  German  colonies  have,  after  hav- 
wma^  bat  also  a  greater  proportion  nearer  to  ing  passed  through  the  severest  ordeals,  obtained 
the  average  x>eriod   of   human  life.     Of  the  a  considerable  degree  of  prosperity.     Among 
total  emigration  from  Europe,  the  largest  por-  these  are   New  Freiburg,  Petropolis,  Leopol- 
tkn  b  identical  with  the   immigration   into  dina,  and  San  Amarros,  all  in  the  neighborhood 
tbe  United  States.    In  a  comparative  statisti-  of  the  capital,  and  containing  altogether  some 
ed  table,   published  by  the  French  govern-  12,000  inhabitants.    Since  1851  the  colonies  of 
■est  in  1859.  the  total  emigration  during  10  Donna  Francisca,  Blumenau  on  the  Itajahazy, 
jean^  from  li848  to  1858,  from  Great  Britain  province  of  Santa  Catarina,  and  Ybicaba,  prov- 
nd  Ireland,  is  given  at  2,750,000,  from  Ger-  mce  of  San  Paulo,  have  been  established.    Em* 
■SByatl,200,000(this  number  is  given  as  1,1 87,-  igration  from  Germany  and  Belgium  to  Costa 
***in  the  consular  reports),  but  less  than  200,-  Rica  and  Nicaragua  (1850),  and  from  Austria 
from  France.    Hence  it  would  appear  that  (Tyrol)  to  Peru  (1857-8),  has  generally  re- 
Lion  is  almost  monopolized  by  the  Ger-  suited  in  failure.    Emigration  from  Germany  to 
nations,  among  whom,  in  this  respect,  Chili  has  been  attempted  with  better  success, 
0veden  and  Norway  have  since  the  middle  of  The  agricultural  colonies  established  since  1850 
fhb  19th  century  begun  to  take  a  place.    The  in  the  province  of  Valdivia  are  in  a  highly  pros- 
Md  emigration  from  Europe  in  1857  was,  ac-  perous  condition,  and  may  in  no  very  remote 
OQtding   to  official  statements,  852,378,  viz. :  time  form  the  nucleus  of  a  strong  German  pop- 
110^600  from  Germany,  99,631  from  Great  Brit-  ulation  on  the  western  slope  of  the  South  Ameri- 
ria,  86,238  from  Ireland,  13,803  from  France,  can  continent.    In  1859  a  joint  stock  company 
Un  from  Sweden  and  Norway,  5,000  from  for  the  establishment  of  German  emigrant  settle- 
Sraserland,   1,734    from   Uolland,  6G0  from  ments  in  the  republic  of  Ecuador  was  organized 
Pdj^iiim    and  400  from  Italy. — Next  to  the  by  German  merchants  in  London  under  favor- 
1Mted8tatei,  the  British  colonies  in  America  able  auspices.    An  isolated  case  of  successfbl 
"  Avsta^ia  attract  the  greatest  number  of  colonization  by  people  of  the  Roman  race  is  the 
pranta.     The  emigration  from  Great  Britain  establishment  of  about  80,000  Frenchmen  and 
^_  Ireland  to  British  America  from  1846  to  Italians  in  the  Argentine   republic  near  the 
IfMT  •veraged  40,000  per  annum.    The  year  of  mouth  of  the  river  La  Plata.    Since  1857  strong 
Irish  frunine  (1846)  drew  thither  i09,680  efforts  have  been  made  in  Germany  to  turn  emr 


184                  EKTGRATION  EMMET 

ignition  in  the  ■aroe  direction,  and  tho  hope  has  born  oat  of  Uiom  states  and  territorica 

^«n  exprcMed  Uiat  bj  tbifl  nicaus  tho  I^  Ilata  ively,  but  within  tlie  United  Siat«a. 

coQDtrj  might  be  i>eniuincntly  acqainnl  for  the  £MIK,  an  Arabic  title,  nieaoinff  prince  or 

German  ra«x\  but  ai  yet  ncarcely  any  thinic  hon  mler,  iriven   in   Turkey   particularly  to  tbow 

been  done  to  that  effect. — In  KurofK*,  Itu^uiia  tbon{j;ht  ti>  be  of  tlie  line  of  Mohammed  through 

wan  among  tho  earlie?it  to  |Krreivo  tho  advan-  hU  dnugliter  Fatima,  and  to  whom,  in  di»tin^ 

tafseft  of  immigration.    iVtcr  tho  (irent  invited  tion  from  all  othorA,  lielonfri  the  right  to  wc«r 

emigrantji  from  all  nations  to  si'ttlc  in  Uu<^ia.  a  green  turlian.     rnf|KTly,  the  em  ire  const  itsto 

Hid   iiUcceiMM)r«  fullowcil   the  harne  pulii-y  bv  with  tho  ulemib*  only  thu  finit  of  the  4  caiue 

granting  premiums  and  valunMo  privilegis,  siuoh  of  the  Turks,  but  their  number  has  so  much  in* 

ai>  exemption  from  taxation  for  a  rcrtuin  nuni-  cream**!  that  they  are  now  estimated  at  ^^  part 

ber  i»f  years  exemption  fn»m  military  duty,  and  of  the  |Ht]»uIation  of  the  Ottoman  empire,  and 

fri-e  homenteailii  tit  cidonii^t-'*.     Indulged  bytheM  they  are  found  in  every  claMi  of  people,  evca 

•dvnntageK  a  lurgi*  number  of  emigrant.'*  from  among  tho  bi*ggnn«.     Km im  who  perform  serTite 

the  I'alatiiiate  !<*ttle«l  in  xmthern  Uu^ia  in  IT?:^.  duties  do  not  degrade  the  green  turban  bj  coo- 

Immetliaivly  after  the  Napole<inic  wan  an  ex-  tinning  to  wear  it;  and  thcne  who  become |Ka* 

tensive  (iernianii*  emigration  to  Kn».*iia  (inelud-  eral^  pahha-s  mini^ten^  or  even  grand  riaei^ 

ing  Tolandi  t«jok  place.    The  total  number  of  al»o  dUiiiense  with  it  on  public  occaaiona,  lest 

Gennatii  who  emigrated  thither  betwi^n  the  they  may  otlend  the  t>uUan,  who  liaa  not  lb* 

Tears  lb! 6  and  lb2ti   is  estimated  at  254Vj(H).  honor  of  m-earing  it,  not  being  of  the  race  of 

The  agricultural  colonies  of  Vieloviith,  in  the  Molinmmed. 

government  of  Tcheruigov,  and  UieU-ndorf,  in  EMl.YN,  Tiioma\  an  English  Fnitarian  A* 

that  of  Voronezh,  a  manufacturing  colony  near  vine,   iHirn  in  Stamford,  May  27»  l<l6t.  diad 

Pultowa,  a  Moravian  settlement  at  Sarepta,  and  July  30.  1743.     He  was  educated  at  Canbridgcw 

a  number  of  German  colon iini  in  the  <.*ritnc:i,  and  at\er  travelling  over  England  and  Ireland 

originated  in  this  way.     louring  the  reign  of  settled  in  lti9i  in  Dublin,  where  he  gained 

Nicholas  emigration  to  Hunaia  ceased  alm(»st  en-  great  reputation  as  a  preacher.    In   1697  kn 

tirely,  but  since  the  ait'ewion  of  Alexander  II.  advanced   d(»ctrinefi  upun  the  snbivct  of  thn 

It  hat,  to  fonie  di^gnv,  ciunmcnced  anew  in  the  Trinity  at  variance  with  thote  of  bis  congf«g!^ 

northea»teru  pruviuces  of  Prussia,  whence  of  tion,  de^-laring  the  Father  pret-minent  over  ihm 

late  a  n>nMderable  number  of  agrirulturidts  have  S»n  ami   Spirit,  and  thus  reviving  Arianim. 

cm  ignited   to  Tohuid. — llie  Austrian  govern-  The  op]>o«itiiin  which  was  excited  against  his 

ment  hold4  out  inducementn  in  order  to  draw  a  obliged  him  to  leave  Ireland,  and  he  published  ia 

portion  u(  the  (lenuan  eniigratiou  to  Ilungar}*,  England  aw(»rk  de<-laring  and  aiming  fa>  juaiiy 

bat  Ml   far  with   |HNir  hurce»4.      Immeil lately  his  opini<in'4.     This  U^tk  brought  ufion  him  n 

after  the  close  of  tlie  Ku*>so-Turki»h  i»ar,  tho  prosecution   for  bla.*>phemy,  and  ho  was  cuQo 

question    was   sericMi^ly  discuj^sed   whi-tlu-r   it  domned  to  the  iienalty  of  a  fine  and  a  year's 

W(»uld  not  bo  |io«4iMe  to  regenerate  the  < >ri en t  imprisonment,    lie  did  nut  |Miy  the  fine,  bet 

by  turning  the  title  o(  we*^tviard  emigratiMn  to  remained  in  priion  *2  years,  and  aAer  his  releftto 

the  lowi-r  I>anubiAnrountriesand  AMaMinor. —  prea«'hed  to  a  Cttngregatii»u  of  hi^  fri«*nds  ia 

Of  Asiatic  nations,  China  furniOie^  tlie  lurgi-<(t  i^^ntlitn.      l\U  charat'ter  wa^  amiable,  and  hie 

nmuU'r  of  emigrantA,  hundreds  of  thou«.uids  life  irrepnuichablo.    IW^ido  bin  theohigira]  writ- 

fif  whom  ikttlo  on  the  ditffreht  i^IaXMN  of  the  ingn,  wlitrh  have  lieen  repulili»hed,  he  left  me- 

Malay  ari-hifN:Iag«>.  the  Hriiinh,  I'utch.  Si»aiii'>!i,  moirs  uf  the  life  and  fti*ntiments  uf  Dr.  Samuel 

mud  I'lanish  colon ie««,  and  al<M)  in  Au*>traJia,  the  i'larko. 

Bandwich  Ulands^  and  C'uliforuia.    The  annual  EMMASTEK  the  tvame  as  Immasiki^  a  11^ 

avt-mge  of  ChineM*  emigratii»n  may  r^*ach  Mime  brew  wonl  M^'iiining  *^  (iml  with  ti%.'^    It  ii 

tW>.tK>ti,  but  mi»st  of  them  do  nut  remain  iht-  Uwd  by  l«aiah  in  a  pn>phi-cy  inhirh  acmtdiag 

maiifiitly  abrtiad.     Tliey  return  to  their  native  to  Mnttli«>w  wai  acoompU^heil  in  Jcmu  i^rul, 

eariintry  an  «4jon  as  they  have  eametl  enough  to  who  i«  thun  di\  iik  ly  rvi-iigniziil  a<*  the  pr^<diclied 

live  t^uifortahly  at  iMime.     We  may  li^re  men-  M«-s«iah,  the  true  Imnianuel.  or  **Ciii«l  with  a^* 

tion  the  i»eculiar  system  of  eniigr-iiion  whifh  KMMKT.    1.  A  N.  W.  ro.  of  Iowa.  U«fd«rinf 

vithin  the  la<  fern*  yi-an  hns  U*;n  rarriod  on  on  Minn.,  inter-ci-ted  by  the  I >vi»  Mi nnc«  rivtr; 

nnder  the  auMiiivs  ('f  the  Kri-ncli  govvrnment,  area.  alHtut  4.''*o  t^^,  m.     In  its  N.  L.  fiart  ara 

vii. :  the  pmfe^nedly  voluntary  emikTatinn  of  n\rnil  •mall  lake«.     It  ha-*  l«ctn  ftmnvd  MAoa 

negroes  fr*jm  the   mib^I  of  Afrira   fn   Fri-nrh  ISTio,  and  va*  nanutl  in  hi»nor  tif  ll««Urt  En- 

colonirw.     It  i«  generally  ron^di-r^-d  that  this  iii  met.  \hv   Irii^li   patriot.     It  i*  not  incl-jdrd  ia 

aimply  the  old  slavt  trotle  in  di-gui^. — That  tl»e  s-iate  cm^n^  of  IsTi**.     II.  A  new  co.  t/ 

emigr'atMrti  which  U  unintrrrupt.-dly  g».ing  «in  Mi«li.,  I'uJIed  al-)  Ti.rM'dagnna,  CiMnprising  ti«« 


rithm  the  trrritory  of  the  I'nitvd  Sial«  »  among  norlhvrn  vxinmiiy  of  iIh-  hiwi-r  firnmMi'A. 

the  different  stat«-'<i  can  »rarcely  be  ron^drred  during  on  Ijkke  Mi«  higan ;  an-a,  abiHit  ?i«»  a^ 

under  the  nam**  heail  with  the  emigrath>n«  from  ui.     It  in  not  inolud«d  in  tlie  riji»us  of  1&5<>. 
Mtiun  to  nation.     Ai-t-^inling  to  the  centu«  m{         EMMET.    Kobickt.    an    lri«h    revolnUubi^ 

1A>).  there  livrd  in  tU-  ditTvrtrit  ■(ati*4  and  t«r-  Kirn  in  Iiublin  in  17n).  hanged  in  the vaDtr  city, 

ritorics  o(  the  (*niim  4.17(i.:i2:i  white  |ii*rM>n4  Kpt.    2u.    Ii!**i3.      He   gniiud   hiirb   iK^rnirs  al 

(fix. :  1319,331  waifet^  and  1,953,8:^  females)  Trinity  college,  from  which  he  «as  nltUBala^ 


EMMET  EMORY                          135 

expelled  for  avowing  himself  a  repablican.    He  embark  in  the  enterprise  which  led  him  to  the 
joined  the  association  of  united  Irishmen,  whose  ecaffuld.    He  came  to  America  in  1804,  rose  to 
object  was  to  separate  Ireland  from  Great  Brit-  eminence  in  his  profession  in  New  York,  and 
ttn  and  to  establish  an  independent  republic,  was  attorney-general  of  tliat  state  in   1812. 
and  be  was  impHcated  in  the  rebellion  of  1798.  While  in  prison  in  Scotland  he  wrote  sketches 
After  the  failure  of  this  attempt  he  escaped  of  Irish  history,  illustrative  especially  of  the 
to  France,  returned  secretly  to  Dublin  in  1802,  political  events  in  which  he  had  taken  part^ 
reorganized  the  malcontents,  established  vari-  which  were  printed  in  New  York  in  1807. — 
oas  depots  of  powder  and  firearms  in  different  John  Patton,  son  of  the  preceding,  an  Amcri^ 
parts  of  the  city,  and  fixed  upon  July  23, 1803,  can  physician,  born  in  Dublin,  April  8,  1797, 
as  the  time  to  seize  the  castle  and  arsenals  of  died  in  New  York,  Aug.  18,  1842.     lie  came 
Doblin.    On  the  evening  of  that  day  he  directed  with  his  father  and  other  Irish  exiles  to  the 
the  distribution  of  pikes  among  the  assembled  United  States,  was  educated  for  3  years  in  the 
ooospirators,  to  whom  he  delivered  an  animated  military  school  at  West  Point,  resided  for  one 
hanngne.    The  insurgent  band,  marching  with  year  in  Italy,  and  studied  medicine  after  his  re- 
dieersioto  the  principal  street^  and  being  swelled  turn.    His  delicate  health  obliging  him  to  seek 
into  ao  immense  and  furious  mob,  assassinated  a  milder  climate,  he  removed  to  Cliarleston  in 
Chief  Justice  Eilwarden,  who  was  passing  by  1822,  and  began  the  practice  of  his  profession. 
in  lua  carriage,  but  heatated  to  follow  their  en-  He  was  in  1824  elected  professor  of  chemistry 
tboaustic  leader  to  Uio.  castle,  and  dispersed  at  and  natural  history  in  the  university  of  Yir- 
the  first  voDey  from  a  small  party  of  soldiers,  ginia,  and  during  several  years  was  a  contribu- 
Emmet,  in  disgust  at  the  outrages  and  pusilla-  tor  to  Silliman^s  ^'  Journal.*' 
nimity  of  the  insurgents,  abandoned  them  and  EMMITSBURG,  a  post  village  of  Frederie 
«ci9)ed    to    the  Wicklow   mountains.    After  co.,  Md.,  in  the  midst  of  a  fertile  and  thickly 
the  £ulure  of  the  first  blow  he  checked  the  populated  region ;  pop.  in  1850,  812.    It  con- 
other  movementa  which  had  been  projected,  tains  several  churches,  an  academy,  an  asylum 
husbandiog  his  resources  in  the  hope  of  soon  for  female  orphans,  an  institute  for  girls,  under 
leaewing  the  revolt.    He  might  have  evaded  the  care  of  the  sisters  of  charity,  and  Mount 
the  porBoit  of  the  government^  but  a  tender  at-  St.  Mary's  college  and  theological  seminary,  a 
tadunent  which  subsisted  between  liim  and  flourishing    institution    supported  by  Roman 
lb  Curran,  the  daughter  of  the  celebrated  bar-  Catholics,  which    in  1858    had  24  professors, 
rirter,  indu<^  him  to  i:eturn  to  Dublin  to  bid  12  C  pupils,  and  a  library  of  4,000  vols, 
her  fkrewell  before  leaving  the  country.    He  EMMONS,  Nathaniel,  D.D.,  an  American 
Tss  tracked,  apprehended,  tried,  and  convicted  theolo^an,  born  in  Kast  Iladdam,  Conn.,  April 
of  h^  treason.    He  defended  his  own  cause,  20, 1745,  died  in  Franklin,  Mass.,  Sept.  23, 1840. 
delivering  an  address  to  the  judge  and  jury  of  lie  was  graduated  at  Yale  college  in  1767,  was 
remarkable  eloquence  and  pathos,  met  his  fate  licensed  to  preach  in  17C9,  and  ordained  pastor 
with  courage,  and  won  general  admiration  for  of  the  church  in  Franklin,  where  he  spent  his 
tlie  parity  and  loftiness  of  his  motives.    His  days,  in  April,  1778.    He  continued  in  the  pas- 
iSite  and  that  of  Miss  Curran  are  the  subjects  of  torate  till  1827,  a  period  of  54  years.  lie  claimed 
two  of  the  finest  of  Moore^s  Irish  melodies. —  to  be  a  genuine  Calvinist,  though  diftbring  from 
Tboxas   Addis,  brother  of  the  preceding,  a  the  tlieological  views  of  Calvin  in  several  im- 
politician  and  lawyer,  bom  in  Cork  in  1765,  portant  respects.    Of  some  of  his  peculiar  spec- 
died  in  New  York,  Nov.  14,  1827.    He  was  ulations,  one  is,  that  there  is  no  such  thing  as 
graduated  at  Trinity  college,  Dublin,  studied  holiness  or  sinfulness,  except  in  the  exercise  of 
mediciDe  at  the  university  of  Edinburgh,  visited  the  voluntary  affections,  so  that  there  is  no  de- 
the  most  celebrated  schools  of  the  continent,  pravity  except  in  voluntary  disobedience ;   and 
tbeii  selected  the  legal  profession,  studied  2  another,  that  God  is  the  efficient,  producing 
ymn  at  the  temple  in  London,  and  was  admitted  cause  of  every  act  of  the  human  mind,  thus 
to  the  bar  of  Dublin  in  1791.    He  soon  became  making  the  will  of  God  the  source  of  all  sinful- 
of  the  association  of  united  Irishmen,  ness  as  well  as  holiness,  while  every  moral  act, 
r&s  one  of  a  general  committee  to  superin-  he  would  claim,  is  at  the  same  time  perfectly 
all  similar  associations,  having  rebellion  free  and  voluntary  on  the  part  of  man.  Dr.  £m« 
their  ultimate  object.    Disclosures  being  mens  was  one  of  the  founders  and  first  president 
to  the  government,  he  was  arrested  with  of  the  Massachusetts  missionary  society,  and  one 
ij  of  his  associates  in  1798,  did  not  deny  of  the  editors  of  the  "  Massachusetts  Missionary 
pforposes,  and  was  finally  conveyed  a  pris*  Magazine.**     He  guided  the  studies  of  some  87 
to  Fort  George  in  Scotland,  where  he  was  theological  students.    His  writings  pubUshed 
2i  years.    After  the  treaty  of  Amiens  in  his  lifetime  were  numerous,  and  his  complete 
was  liberated  and  permitted  to  withdraw  to  works,  in  6  vols.,  edited  with  a  memoir  by  the 
the  severest  penalties  being  pronounced  Rev.  Jacob  Ide,  D.D.,  were  published  in  Boston 
him  if  he  should  return  to  Ireland.   His  in  1842. 
obt^ned  permission  to  join  him  on  condi-  EMORY,  Jonx,  D.D.,  bishop  of  the  Metho- 
n  that  she  should  never  again  set  foot  on  dist  Episcopal  church,  born  at  Spaniard's  Neck, 
British  soil.    From  Brussels,  where  he  passed  Queen  Anne's  co.,  Md.,  April  11,  1789,  died 
flia  winter  of  1802-'d,  he  saw  his  brother  Robert  Dec.  16,  1835.    He  was  graduated  at  Washing- 


L 


186  EHPEDOCLES 

ton  collogp,  yd.,  Rtadiod  hw,  and  wa^  iiilmittcd  middlo  of  tho  6th  century  D.  C.  The  w>n  of  a 
to  the  liar  in  1808;  but  attar  itrartUiii^  a  ffliort  rich  fuiiily,  he  was  inntruclcd  br  the  P\thagD- 
titno  wiih  miccosn  ho  n^-mlviMj  to  dev4ito  him-  rean^.  atiu  was  acquainted,  it  is  said,  with  Par- 
self  tn  thiMnini«>t  rr,  and  cntcn.-«l  the  rhiladid-  menidosAndAnazajguras.  Ukc  his  father.  M«toa, 
phia  M.  K.  ouifi-rcnoe  in  tlie  sprini?  of  lH]n.  tho  louder  of  the  p(»pular  partj  nt  Afn^^^ntoaiv 
From  1813  to  Ih'JU  ho  filled  ^olne  ol'  the  most  he»avedtho  ronublic  from  a  dan)^*rou4  conspir- 
Importutit  MAtif>n»  iu  tlio  church,  includiiif;  ary,  and  rcfuseu  tho  supreme  power  when  it  wm 
PhilaiK-ipliiii,  Haiti  more,  Wa^hiof^ton,  and  other  oiTcred  him.  A  firie^t  and  a  poet,  a  physician  mod 
citieii,  and  wus   wnt  as  a  dolvfrate  to  every  a  philosopher,  his  contemporaries  esteemed  him 

fcncral  innfirenco,  except  one,  from  tho  timo  as  a  pod;  Plato  and  Aristotle  admiri*d him,  and 
0  bei-auic  elipble  until  t!ie  cIons  of  hi^  life.  Lucretius  san^  his  praises.  lie  saved  th«  lift 
At  the  cuiifcrciico  of  is*2u  he  was  clMVf»cn  to  of  a  woman  pluniccd  mto  a  lethanry.  from  which 
|iepre<knt  the  AnK-ricAii  Methodist  church  iu  tho  art  of  other  jihysiciaiis  was  |)owerle3«  to  ra- 
the Briti*>li  coil  fere  til -o,  and  in  lb24  wam  elect-  vive  her.  IIo  blocked  uu  a  mountain  icorya 
ed  iuninr  spent  of  the  Methodist  Uiuk  concern,  through  which  pestilential  winds  were  drivinc 
and  priucipul  Apent  at  tho  ensuing;  cuiil'ereiice,  upon  Afrrigentuiu,  and  at  another  timo  stoppaa 
in  lb2*4.  His  labors  in  this  department  of  tho  the  raping  of  the  plaguo  by  turuinf?  two  nreii 
church  Were  c»f  great  service,  and,  havitif*  through  a  morass.  His  vantty  equalletl  his  ahil- 
placed  the  institution  ufion  a  jiennaiient  bcLsi^,  ity.  lie  amieared  in  public  only  iu  tho  midst  of 
Le  wa4  electi-d  bishop  by  tho  general  ci>n-  a  retinue  of  attendants,  with  a  crown  u|K>n  hia 
fercnce  of  lN:t'J.  Hi<«  presidency  in  aU  t!ie  confer-  head,  sandals  of  brass  on  his  feet«  hi^  liair  float* 
anccA  during  tlie  ^hurt  {Hrrioil  of  his  episM'opato  ing  over  hii  shoulders,  and  a  branch  of  laortl 
was  entirely  !«atififai*tory.  He  not  only  attendi'd  in  his  hand.  Ho  proclaimed  his  divinity  him* 
the  se«> ions  of  the  various  con ference4  f Ailing  in  self,  and  it  was  recognized  throughout  Sicily, 
his  divi>>iiin  of  the  plan  of  eiilscoiiAl  vii«i  tat  ions,  In  acting  his  part  and  spreading  his  iileas  among 
hat  he  entered  largi'ly  into  the  sulject  of  educa-  men,  it  was  his  aim  not  le«s  to  affect  tlie  imagi- 
tioiL  aa*>i^ting  in  the  organization  of  the  New  natitm  than  the  reason.  In  his  old  ag«  he  left 
York  univi-r-ity.  as  well  as  the  Wv*>ieyAn  univcr-  Sicily,  not,  as  has  U-en  said,  to  converse  with  thft 
aity  and  I>iikiu!ion  college.  Healsoilirected  his  priests  of  (Igypt  and  the  magi  of  the  Ea«t,  hoi 
attentiou  to  tlie  improvement  of  tlie  miniitry,  t'l  teach  phiKnophy  in  iireece.  Ho  visited 
and  prepared  a  cour^*  of  study  whicli  has  pmvetl  Tliurium  and  Athens,  sojourned  in  tho  PelopoiH 
oi  grest  !H.Tvico  in  elevating  the  htandurd  of  nesus  and  read  a  |Mivm  at  the  Olympic  gamca 
roini»terial  e<lui\ition  in  the  MethiMli]»t  KpiMs>iial  which  gained  tlie  applnuse  of  nil  ttreece.  Ilia 
church.  He  wa*  killed  by  biink?  thrown  from  his  last  days  were  pa^svd  in  oloiMirily  in  the  Pelo* 
carria;:e.  Hi«htip  Kiniir\*!i  writing**  werem.Hinly  ponne»>us.  Some  ini.igined  th:it  ho  wa-t  trant- 
controvrr*>'u].  Aiuung  them  U-tii;:  "iKTcnce  of  lated  to  heaveu  and  reocivi'd  among  the  gods; 
our  Failtir.-"  (^vo..  New  York.  1*«'27),  and  '*Tho  otliers  that  he  was  drowLcd  in  the  «>ra,  that  ha 
EpiM-opal  r«'nlnivtr*y  Ileviiwid*  ^him.,  Ki^\.  fell  from  hi**  chariot,  that  he  waa  strangled  by 
TheM*.  wit!i  a  lifi-  by  hin  niu.  reuppearid  in  1  vul.  his  own  hand,  or  tliat  lie  phi  n  get  I  into  x^e  cr^ 
8vo.  in  1^41. — Kouci.'T,  nm  of  the  preceding,  sn  ter  of  Etna,  in  order  by  hiding  hU  Innly  t«»  cvr- 
American  ch-rg.vTnaii,  Inirn  in  rhi]uih'1phi.i,  July  tity  his  divinity,  but  that  the  Tolctro  »ubs«^ 
99.  1^14.  diitl  in  H.dtiniore.  May  1\  l'«4'<.  Uo  qnently  U-hhed'  forth  one  of  bin  samlal-.  I>f 
waoi  gTAdiialed  :it  ColuinbiA  college  in  1  **:{!.  anil  all  thise  fuMen  the  l.i«it.  which  ha"*  Uvn  the  uiosi 
•liortly  uflerwaril  coinmenceil  the  *>tiidy  cif  law.  widely  n^t-eivcd,  i<i  thenuMt  pre|Hi«ten*U4.  Tha 
In  1*^34.  ajrtiii  tlie  re'irgnnizatiuu  of  lMi<kin*Min  work4of  KnipiHluclc^  were  all  in  vitm*.  embrac- 
oullege,  he  wa^  falh-^l  to  the  chiiir  of  nncieiit  hm-  ing  trageilie**,  epigrams,  hymns  and  an  vpic. 
goagtA  but  r<  ^:gnl-•l  hi^  profi-<o»><r^liip  in  iv;'.».  The  nio^t  ini|Nirt:tnt  c^f  them  wtn*  tuo  didactic 
in  orb-r  to  mJiriice  the  ministry,  aiid  entered  l>«ii-ni«,  one  ou  **  Nature.'*  trvat it  /  of  o ><•:]. ••!ivt, 
the  Kilficio.-i*  annuul  c<>nferen<v  of  the  Mitho-  pliVMul'vyi  aiuI  {•^y|•hoIogy  all  t<'geth<r;  th« 
di*>t  K;*;«Ciipjl  ihurch.  He  wa«.  howrvt-r.  ia  other  on  "  ruriticationi,'^  treating  of  w.irdiip 
IM'J.  by  t!ie  unaiiinions  re(iUf>t  of  th«*  fm  ulty  and  magic,  and  cuntAining  hi-^  rtli^iu.^^  pr^ 
of  the  r<i!Iep\  PN-tUled.  an  prt»itb'[it  pro  trm.^  cept<.  FragnicntH  only  of  the.M)  rem  a.::,  tut 
during  tho  &!'^-nre  in  KurojKr  of  rre«i'l«'nt  Pur-  tlniM*  of  tho  tnatiM  <>n  nature  are  Mii^lr:rut  to 
bin.  u|Nin  w}ii>h;  re^tignation  I>r.  Kni' ^ry  wa4  give  an  iiiea  of  ilio  plan  of  the  work.  It  e«iQ* 
cho^'U  hi*  fcUiTi-^^^T.  This  otTjre  hr  held  until  si*!*  of  3  b<K>k4:  in  tho  Jlrst,  after  #>!3tii  j  tha 
the  ch-M*  of  hit  lif^-.  Ik'^ido  a  life  nf  hi<«  fatht  r,  Ci>ni!ilion4  of  human  knnwU«lgi>.  he  trt-a^n  of  tha 
he  lert  A  ••  Hi^torr  of  the  Pi«*iphne  €»f  tJie  M«  th-  univcrM-  in  gi  lu-ral,  of  the  foriv^  whirh  j  ruiuot 
odi»t  Kpi^fpalt'iiun  h"i»»vo..  New  York.  I-^IS,  it,  A'i.l  the  elements  whiih  conj|fiM»  it;  in  iJ.e 
revi^^fl  .Vid  bniught  d^iwn  to  IsTm*'  by  tlie  \Kv\.  MM-und,  of  natural  obbctM,  of  p^ant.*  and 


I'.ural  ot'bct 

W.  P.  S!ri<  klnnd,  fi.I*  I.  aiM  AnUnfniiNl.«d*'.\iiu-  niui'*:  and  in  the  third,  of  the  g>*(!«  nrA  il;i 

ly«i*fif  |U.ttir'«  .\na1i>.:y,"  whic!i  wii^roint-I-tfil  thit!g«.  And  of  the  nmjI  And  il«  iit«:i!i« .     Kica 

by  the  Jir%.   Iir-rge  K.  rpHik%  1*1'.  irji:i«i.  in  ph.li>Miphy.  Km|K*«bMK-«  reniAin*  a  j-nI,     A 

1*Ci^*).  Ahd  hr.«  li-«ii  iiitriMluciil  as  a  teit-bf^'k  Ib>rncric  spirit,  an  .\rt«t4>tle  ca!N  I..IM.  !.r  prr- 

lDt4»  rniny  iti«!i'-ili'in«  of  Iranting.  iM>[.itlt-A  Ai:d  di-itU'S  v\mT\  thing,  wA  r"!<f»  l.:r?:- 

KMPKIhk'I.K**,  a  dre^^^k  phii"M»phcr.  I^rn  n-'.f  in  *w»i!ioU  and  mastery,     lit*  di-i-tr-.n  •  1/ 

at  Agri^-ntuni,  in  biciiyi  flour tfthcd  about  Uio  Kiit|ivdocIcs  is  develo|ied  in  tho  "S«.>phi3i,'*  :La 


EUFEROB  EMPETSEMA                  137 

**}ireno,''and  the  "Ph8Bdo"of  Plato,  andintho  up,  Dew  aspirations  arisen;    tho  reformation 
*'  Soul  ^  and  the  **  Metaphysics'*  of  Aristotle,  stmck  boldly  at  the  pope,  and   indirectly  at 
The  best  edition  of  his  remains  is  that  by  Kar^  the  empire.     It  was  at  that  time  tliat  the 
sten(  Amsterdam,  1838),  which  is  famished  with  German  kings,  who  usually  had  been  elected 
admirable  dissertations.  as  such,  exclusively  from  Frankish  or  German 
EMPEROR  ^Lat.  imperatoTf  commander),  a  bouses,  in  earlier  times  by  aU,  but  later  only  by 
title  bestowed  lu  the  Roman  republic  on  chief  the  greatest  princes  of  Germany,  who  were  hence 
oommanders  of  great  annies,  on  consuls  elect  be-  called  electors,  gave  up  their  Roman  imperial 
fore  entering  upon  their  office,  and  often  used  pretensions,  and  were  crowned  in  Germany  as 
by  'vietorioiis  troops  to  hail  on  the  battle  field  a  emperors  of  that  country.    At  their  coronation, 
SQoeessfol  general.    In  later  times  it  designated  celebrated  in  Aix  la  Chapellc,  Augsburg,  Ra- 
the highest  authority  in  the  state.    Casar,  re-  tisbon,  or  Frankfort,  with  great  display  both 
taniing  from  his  last  campaign,  after  tlie  victory  of  splendor  and  servility,  the  emperors  were  ob- 
of  Maoda  (45  B.  C),  and  Ootavianus  Augustus,  liged  to  sign  an  instrument,  called  capitulation, 
after  the  battle  of  Actium  (31  B.  C),  assumed  containing  the  conditions  under  which  they 
this  now  regal  title  in  preference  to  the  odious  were  raised  to  their  dignity.    They  lived  in 
ra,  and  Rome  became  an  empire.    Augustus  palatia  set  apart  for  their  use  (Pfalzen),  in  later 
and  his  soccessors  took  in  addition  the  name  of  times  in  their  hereditary  dominions.    The  wars 
Gnar,  and  both  the  title  and  the  name  (Kaiser)  of  the  reformation  broke  the  ancient  forms  and 
vera  afterward  adopted  by  monarchs  of  other  institutions ;  the  imperial  dignity  became  al- 
itsteiL   When  the  rule  of  the  Roman  empire  was  most  hereditary  m  the  house  of  Austria ;  the 
divided,  the  name  CsBsar  designated  tho  adopted  other  German  states  were  made  nearly  inde- 
MBKtantof  the  emperor,  who  was  himself  honor-  pendent;    Prussia  became  a  kingdom  under 
ed  by  the  title  of  Augustus.    These  titles  disap-  Frederic  I. ;  the  unity  of  Germany  was  virtually 
peired  in  the  West  with  tho  fall  of  Rome  (476),  destroyed.    The  wars  that  followed  the  French 
Dot  were  saved  in  the  eastern  or  Byzantine  em-  revolution  wrought  still  greater  changes,  and 
pire  for  nearly  10  centuries,  not  by  the  virtues  when  Napoleon  had  assumed  tho  impend  dig- 
or  warlike  spirit  of  those  who  bore  them,  but  by  nity  (1804),  and  founded  the  Rhenish  confeder- 
ibe  happy  location  of  the  capital,  by  the  Greek  acy,  Francis  II.  in  1806  changed  his  title  into 
fin,  and    Grecian  bribery.    During  the  cm-  that  of  emperor  of  Austria  (as  such  Francis  I.), 
ndes  we  find  also  a  Nic»an  and  a  Trapezuntine  and  what  was  once  the  Roman,  now  tho  German, 
empire  in  tho  East.   But  all  these  eastern  states  empire  expired.    Its  restoration  was  during  the 
were  swept  away  and  replaced  by  the  power  of  revolutionary  period  of  1848-9  the  favorite 
the  Turks,  whose  sultans,  however,  never  offi-  idea  of  a  party  in  the  Frankfurt  parliament 
daJly  adoptec^lie  title  of  tho  vanquished  Chris<  The  refusal  of  tho  king  of  Prussia  to  accept  the 
tsao  monarchs.    This  had  been  restored  in  tho  imperial  crown  made  tho  sclieme  a  failure.    In 
BKsnwhile  in  the  West  by  Charlemagne,  who  the  meanwhile  several  other  monarchies  of  Eu- 
reoeived  tho  imperial  crown  from  the  hands  rope  had  taken  the  imperial  title.    Russia  as- 
of  Leo  IIL  at  Rome  on  Christmas  day,  800,  sumed  it  under  Peter  the  Great  (1721),  and  the 
ind  was  hailed  by  the  people  with  shouts  of  assumption  was  in  time  acknowledged  by  all  the 
•Dfe  and  victory  to  Carolus  Augustus,  tho  states  of  Europe.    Tho  empire  of  tho  French, 
God-sent,   pious,  and  great  emperor  of  Rome,  founded  by  Napoleon  on  tho  ruins  of  tho  repub- 
the  bringer  of  peaco."    When  the  empire  of  lie,  perished  at  Waterloo  (1815),  to  bo  revived 
this  great  Frankish. monarch  was  divided  by  after  two  revolutions  by  tho  nephew  of  its 
his  grand>on5,  the  title  of  emperor  of  Rome  was  founder  (1852).    On  the  American  continent 
giren  to  the  eldest  of  them,  the  king  of  Italy,  several  empires  havo  been  established,  but  most 
■nd  his  descendants  boro  it  until  it  was  taken  of  them  destroyed  by  revulutions.    That  of 

r2)  by  iho  mightier  king  of  G<?rmany,  Otho  Mexico  under  Iturbido  (1822)  was  ephemeral ; 

And  now  be^n  a  long  series  of  expeditions  that  of  Brazil  is  governed  constitutionally ;  that 

to  Italy,  undertaken  by  the  German  monarchs,  of  Ilayti,  which  was  nominally  constitutional, 

in  order  to  bo  crowned  in  Milan  with  the  iron  was  overthrown  in  Jan.  1859,  and  replaced  by 

crown  of  Lombardy,  and  in  Rome  by  the  popo  a  republic.    The  Asiatic  states  of  China,  Japan, 

vith  that  of  tho  Roman  empire ;  a  series  of  and  Anam,  the  African  Fez  and  Morocco,  are 

tfragglea  between  tho  emperors,  claiming  tho  also  often  called  empires. 

merei^ty  of  tho  Roman  world  according  to  EMPHYSEMA,  a  diseased  condition  of  man 

their  title,  and  the  popes,  claiming  the  same  as  and  animals,  in  which  gases  aro  developed  in 

neoeMOrs  of  St.  Peter ;  between  tho  worldly  or  have  been  introduced  into  any  part  of  tho 

nd  spiritual  heads  of  tho  Christian  nations,  body ;  restricted,  however,  generally  to  tho  di- 

IheOtbos,  the  Henrys,  and  tho  Frederics,  and  the  latation  of  tho  cells  of  areolar  tissue  or  of  the 

Gregorys^  tho  Alexanders,  and  tho  Innocents,  lungs  by  atmospheric  air.     Gaseous  collections 

Gennan   bravery  and   Italian  diplomacy,   tho  in  serous  cavities,  or  in  canals  linod  with  mucous 

■word  and  the  bull,  were  by  turns  victorious  and  membrane,  have  received  other  special  names. 

Tuqaished ;  emperors  were  humiliated,  popes  Three  kinds  aro  usually  described,  which  may 

were  ignominiously  stripped  of  their  dignity  ;  be  called  surgical  or  traumatic,  spontineous,  and 

Germany  was  distract^  and  Italy  desolated,  pulmonary  emphysema.     Traumatic  eniphyse- 

Bnt  new  states  had  grown,  new  ideas  sprung  ma,'though  always  subcutaneous  in  tho  com- 


U8  ESCPnYSESCA 

mcDc«ment,  in   not   iJirays  accompanicti   by  et  upon  and  displacM  tho  heart  and  tba  oUmt 

m'outid  o(  the  rkin;  it  mar  o«Tur  after  Mvvro  lung;  Mich  diMMed  portkms  are  stronglj crep^ 

contusion;!  nf  the  cho«t,  or  after  fracture  of  the  tant,  part  m'ith  their  contained  air  with  difirahj, 

ribs  the  air  cv\U  of  the  ]uti^<i  toeing  runturvd,  and  tinat  Tery  lightlj  on  water.    In  Interlobular 

and  in  the  latter  raw  punctured  hy  the  nrukon  einphyM.*nia  the  distended  vesicles  aasamc  aa 

bi»ne,  with  or  witliout  vxteriial  cotuiuunieation.  irri'irular  form,  sometimes  of  considerahle  sia^ 

In  any  uf  thi*^  condition^  if  tlie  wimiid  of  the  anti  are  situated  Ju»t  under  the  pleora;  tbij 

luuic  l>e  MniJI,  and  e9pei*i.iil>'  if  it  be  ni>t  in  di-  may  bo  made  by  pressure  to  more  onder  tha 

rei't  c«>nm.>«'iion  with  an  oi>eningin  the  &kiii,  the  sentusi  covering  as  far  as  the  next  lubaUr  ^ 

re*>pirLd  uir.  not  I>eing  aMo  to  pa^s  out  fri'««1y,  vision  of  the  organ ;   sometimes  the  enlarftl 

beeotni'd  in  til  I  rated  in  the  areolar  or  cellular  ve^icies  are  not  in  the  subserous  tissaei  bot  Im 

iiMuc,  forming  a  s«>ft  and  crvpitdtiiig  swelling,  the  tUMue  separating  the  lobnlea.  between  whick 

whii'li  may  vxti-m!  ovi-r  a  great  part  of  t!io  they  may   descend   to  a  con»iderabIe   denchL 

b«Hly ;  during  inspiration  the  air  e«eai>CH  into  Thc»e  varieties    are    a^mally  combined*  thair 

the  canity  ot  tlio  rhe^t  thn>ugh  the  wound  in  tyniptomA  are  the  same,  and  the  latter  is  ga»» 

tlie  lunir,  and  during  expinitiiui,  being   com-  erally  C(m;«iderc<I  Uio  consc«}aence  of  the  far- 

pre!«HHl  between  the  liiiig  and  tlie  thoracic  wallfi,  mer,  the  distention  and  rupture  of  the 


It  ii»  forci-il   into  tlie  hubcutaneous  cell.s  the  i^nKveding  to  a  greater  extent.    Laennec 

amount  tending  to  iniTea»<*  at  each  ]>vrfoniiani-o  Fiorry  maintained  titat  pulmonary  catarrh  waa 

of  the  respiratory  aii.    Emphysema  may  arise  one  of  the  principal  cauM^s  of  the  dilatation  oC 

from  any  (Mirtiua  of  the  air  pas9ai:e!i,  and  fre-  the  vesicles,  whicli,  unable  to  free  themselw 

qui-ntly  u«  ftcen  at'comiianying  wounds  of  the  from  the  viscid  mucus  witliout  great   effoc^ 

larynx  and  trachea;  if  the  extenial  wound  bo  of  ncce«4sity  became  enlarged;  Lnab  seems  to 

extensive,  and  the  ojicning  in  thv  lung  or  trachea  consider  that  there  b  some  power  of  artivt 

small,  this  complication  H  nut  likely  to  occur,  dilatation  brought  into  play,  though  he  gives  as 

The  onlinary  byinptom<i  are  painful  constriction  sati»tactory  dvhnition  of  the  agency.     Adadl* 

of  the  rluvt  at  the  injured  part,  and  ditliculty  ting  the  conni>cti«)n  between  einphytfcma 

of  breathing,  which  may  become  aIIno^t  infiU]H  olR^tructcd  bronchi,  with  the   first- nam<«l 

portal  ill',  and  evt-n  produce  de.ith  by  bufloca-  tliors,  there  is  no  necessity  for  making  the 

tioD.    Thv  h Welling  of  einphy?«ema  may  be  dis-  mer  a  direct  consec^uence  of  tite  latter ; 

tingui^hed  from  itfuHionH  of  Huids  under  the  ared  lty  a  pre^ure  gauge,  the  forceil  expi 

skin  by  ixs  crepitation  and  elasticity,  bv  its  not  act  ha^  bee  a  fountl  (  more  powerful  than  cte 

pitting  on  pre**«ure  of  the  lin,;er,  anJ  by  the  act  of  forced  inspiration ;  a«  Ur.  W.  T.  Ciairdaer 

ab-^ence  of  ret]ne<i.s  pain,  aiui  m'eigliL     After  has  welt  ob^rved  (in  his  work  on  bronchitisl 

distending  the  rvllular  ti*^ue  under  the  skin,  the  whenever  viscid  ob»tnictions  are  to  lie  rvmovsi 

air  may  iHnt:r.i!e  U'twci-n  the  muM'los  alt»ng  fruiii  the  air  pasKage^  the  air  ii gradually  el* 

mucous  i-anaN,  ve^KrU,  and  nerve^  to  the  in-  i»elled  from  the  aftected  part  of  the  lung  hf 

uuM  rece*>«<.*<  of  the  <irganism.    The  treatment  expiration,  and  they  l»erome  colb|>w<!  in  pn^ 

C4in*i«i'«  iu  letting  uut  tho  cwntined  air  by  minute  pttrtiim  to  the  oli^truction.     Kmpli}  v-ma  is  iha 

punrtiireM  with  a  lancet,  by  preventing  its  re-  direct  opp«i«»ito  to  broiichinl  colup<&o.  and  Ibt 

aiMi(iiMl:itiun  by  proiK.T  i•and:lge^  and  in  caM*^  indirect  conM.H |uc nee  of  it ;  bocau:^,  whenever  A 

of  eilri  niu  upprr-'^iun  by  parllcente^is  or  in-  iiart  of  the  lung  it  uli>trurted  c»r  cellar ««d  from 

ri^ion  of  the  thoracic  walls;  the  cure  may  Ik)  bronchitis  or  any  other  cau^e.  the  air  daring  tal- 

hastened  hy   aiit:i>}iIo;:i'«tie  niea^un-s  aini   liy  spiratiun  must  ru^h  with  greater  fi>rre  and 

stiiutilattn;;  ai'plicalioni  and  friction^.     In  Ku*  unie  into  the  {portions  still  freely  open. 

to\'V  it  i-*  i;"t  unruninion  for  {Kr9«in4  desirous  chitic    arcumulati«»n    and    coIlaps«    are 

of  MC'iriii^  inmiunity  friMu  military  hervice.  and  c«>mnion  at  the  |>4isteriitr  and  lifwer  |»art  of  lbs 

for  p(:r{H.M'«  tif  menilii-.incy  and  diCeption,  to  lnn;;«s  and  eniphyM*ma  on  the  free  anterior  bar* 

ariitii-Lbiiy  inlLito  with  air  varioui  parU  of  the  der«;  the  einphywmatoiis  ]Mirtions  are  casilv 

surf.tce  I'f  the  {nhIv.  ami  to  pri-tend  that  their  cttn-  iiiriatcd  from  the  bronchi,  while  the  cullapaet 

ditii-n  i«  tliC  r««ii!t  of  chri>ni«*  ur  cuiigenital  di:4-  |Mirtsure  not.     KniphvMtnia  iis  thertfonr.  essesp 

eoM*^ ;  the  treatment  in  t!if«o  ca<H*«  con^iiits  in  tially  a  niechnniral  legion  from  di»:enti«4i  of 

seanni-at:<iu<,  banda^re^,  aikI  t«>nic  frirtiiin*.    At-  the  air  celN.  in  |iriiiM»rtinn  to  which  the  dovoC 

tvr  I  xpi'*ure  to  gr«.at  ruM,  in  ct-rtain  case«  of  in-  bhmd  through  the  ultimate  capillaries  of  ihs 

tinial  p'liMit.ing  antl  t>f  iHiiMin«i-,i«  biti«,  afier  CO-  lunir«  if*  arre.^teil,  cati<iii>g  Bl««tri*t:i<n  v4 

lidiiB  (lit  iihiiiC^aiiil  \arit>u<t -^-vi-reai'i  i<leiit«.  and  «all4,  and  t«-ri9ii»n  au'l  iibliteratii»n  ot  their 

n  del>.ii!..ti«J  rfnilitiiiti^  aivoMi|  ani\-«l  by  gan«  s«'U   In  the  cum*  of  Mr.  K.  A.  (irxiui.  with 

greue.  till  re  «<«'«-a«i'iti:i'.ly  ar:<e4  an  «iiip}jv-<-ina-  p-nital  fi<«*iire  nf  the  strrnutn,  in  the  ry«ur«#  ti^ 

to4»  « •>!ripli4-:ilii<n,  wKit-h  it  tre.it«-i!  in  the  !«anio  pri>liin;:e«l  for citl  expiration,  the  che^t  andabdo* 

niam.i  r  a*  tlie  i  rcci'«!i!ig  varit  \y . — ru!in«inary  men  U'conie  Mnaller.  the  vein^  at  th»*  roiU  i«f  ths 

emphiinnia  may  l>e  eitlier  \:i^  ular  or  ititerlub-  ni-ik  ^vmllen.  the  up|H-r  intemMtal  spaces  <\4i* 

ular.     In  the  tirM  the  ve^irlf^  are  en!ar,;«-«l.  ni^n  vex,  anil  the  figure  aviumct  its  groateat  width ; 

turi'«L  at'd  milled  t«igether,  and  tlic  bnigt.  wht-n  and  u^MiVe  the  pnl<iatile  rardiat*  turiuir  is  a  pri>> 

the  t!.e«t  i%  <»,icnetl,  in.i.)  \fv  mi  diitendi'I,  imto  trui!:iig  ma«s  %iliti  h  iH*nMUPion  slio^s  to  be  the 

es|H«ia!!\  t!if  i)p|<er  h'U-«.  At  u*  pnitrudo  fpini  antrrittr  {Nirtion  of  ttie  npfi^r  Kdie  if  tlic  rrghft 

Us  cav  ity  ;  « luu  oa!y  olc  side  isaflccted,  i:  pre^s-  luii|;.    This  can  throw  little  light  on  the  ofdiaafj 


I 


EMPSON  EMU                         139 

of  emphysema,  thongb  the  cells  are  doubt-  tation  of  the  Deitj,  according  to  the  description 

lea  dilated,  bec&ose  the  protmsion  is  evidently  of  St.  Paul,  Lueem  Beui  habitat  inaccesaibiiemj 

due.  not  so  mach  to  the  obstructed  passage  of  air  and  where  the  saints  enjoyed  the  beatific  vision. 

«r  Mood,  as  to  active  moscular  effort,  and  to  the  EMS,  or  Bad-Ems,  a  German  watering  place 

Talstogof  the  whole  thoracic  contents  by  thedia-  in  the  duchy  of  Nassau,  on  the  Lahn,  15  m.  N. 

nhragm  and  abdominal  muscles  in  a  cavity  whose  from  Wiesbaden,  to  wliich  and  to  Baden-Baden 

Dony  wall  is  deficient  in  front,  where  of  course  it  is  inferior  in  extent  and  splendor ;  pop.  about 

the  free  portion  of  the  lung  would  protrude.  4,000.    It  is  shut  in  by  mountains,  surrounded 

Emphysema  has  been  traced  to  compression  of  by  picturesque  scenery,  and  has  a  terrace  by 

UMDrunchi  by  tamors;  to  the  great  respiratory  the  river  side  serving  for  a  promenade.    The 

cfibiti  required  in  playing  on  certain  wind  in-  Kvrhaus,  a  large  chateau,  formerly  a  ducal  re?- 

ftroments,  showing  the  connection  between  this  idence,  is  let  in  apartments  to  visitors,  beside 

fisease  and  forced  expiration,  and  as  partly  ex-  which  the  place  has  a  number  of  lodging  houses, 

amplified  in  the  above  case  of  Mr.  Groux ;  the  and  a  new  Kursaal  built  by  the  grand  duke 

&po«ition  to  this  disease  has  also  been  cousid-  at  the  side  of  the  Lahn,  containing  a  cafe^  a 

wed  hereditary,  and  doubtless  many  cases  of  so  ball  room,  and  gambling  saloons.    The  number 

oQed  hereditary  phtliisic  or  asthma  are  duo  to  of  visitors  is  about  4,000  or  5,000  annually, 

die  veacnlar  dilatation  consequent  on  spasmodic  comprising  many  English  and  Russians.    The 

bcoDchial  contractions.  It  is  found  in  both  sexes,  revenue  from  the  gaming  tables  forms  an  impor- 

it  all  agea,  and  in  all  constitutions ;  once  devel-  tant  item  in  the  receipts  of  the  duchy  of  Nassau, 

aped,  it  remains  during  life,  sometimes  station-  but  the  duke^s  subjects  are  not  permitted  to  play. 

By«  but  generally  increasing,  with  irregular  in-  The  springs,  which  have  been  famous  bince  the 

tervaJs  of  ease ;  the  dyspnoea  is  sometimes  such  14th  century,  and  are  supposed  to  have  been 

thit  the  patient  ia  obliged  to  sit  up  in  order  to  known  to  the  Romans,  are  used  for  both  bath- 

beatbe ;  slight  causes,  as  a  catarrh,  exposure  to  ing  and  drinking.     The  waters  are   more  or 

Irritating  gases  or  dust,  or  vivid  emotions,  are  less  impregnated  with  carbonic  acid,   have  a 

•affioent  to  bring  on  an  attack.    Examination  temperature  of  from  93°  to  185°  F.,  and  are  es- 

of  the  cheat  will  show  an  enlargement  of  the  teemed  for  their  eflScacy  in  nervous,  liver,  and 

iflected  side  at  the  upper  region  of  the  ribs  and  dyspeptic  complaints,  and  also  in  diseases  of  the 

iaiaroostal  epaceSb    On  percussion  the  chest  ia  chest  and  eyes. 

nrr  sonorous;,  and  the  respiratory  sounds  foe-  EMS  (anc.  Amisia  or  Amisiui),  a  river  of  N. 

ble,'with  ralea  sonorous,  dry,  or  humid,  accord-  W.  Germany,  rising  in  Lippe-Dctmold,  passing 

lag  to  the  accompanying  catarrhal  condition,  through  Hanover,  and  flowing;  into  the  Dollart. 

•1^  the  presence  or  absence  of  cough.    It  is  a  It  is  an  important  channel  of  conjmunicatlon, 

Terr  common  disease,  generally  chronic  in  its  is  na\igable  about  13  m.  by  vessels  of  200  tons, 

utore,  but  sometimes  acute  and  speedily  fatal,  and  is  234  m.  long. 

It  may  be  known  by  the  occurrence  of  dyspncsa,  EMSER,  IIikisoxtmi's,  one  of  the  most  octive 

without  palpitations,  disease  of  the  heart,  aide-  opponents  of  Luther  among  the  Roman  Cutho- 

Ba,  or  fever,  and  often  without  any  signs  of  lie  theologians  of  Germany,  born  in  Ulni  in 

eaurrh.     The  principles  of  treatment  are  to  1472,  died  Nov.  8,  1527.    In  1502  ho  became 

nvd  against  pulmonary  congestion  by  proper  professor  at  the  university  of   Erfurt,  wliero 

depletives,  to  diminish  the  frequency  of  respira-  Luther  is  said  by  him  to  havo  been  among  his 

tioo  by  opium  and  other  sedatives,  to  strengthen  pupils.     In  1504  ho  established  himself  at  Lcip- 

Ihb  weakened  system  by  tonics,  to  relievo  tiio  sic,  where  he  also  lectured  at  the  university, 

obitructed  bronchi  by  emetics  and  expectorants,  and  in  tho  year  following  Duke  George  of  Sox- 

nd  to  avoid  all  tho  exciting  causes  of  catarrh  ony  made  him  his  secretary.     With  Luther  and 

■ad  bronchitis,  the  most  frequent  originators  the  theologians  of  Wittenberg  generally  ho  was 

■ad  assrravators  of  tho  disease.  on  good  terms  until  the  disputation  of  Leii>- 

£MfS<3N,  Willi Asc,  a  British    author  and  sic  in  1519,  from  which  time  ho  made,  in  union 

sitic,  bom  in  1790,  died  at  Haileybury,  near  with  Dr.  Eck,  incessant  endeavors  to  oppose  the 

Hotford,  Dec.  10,  1852.     He  was  educated  at  increasing  influenco  of  Luther  and  the  progress 

Winebester  and  at  Trinity  college,  Cambridge,  of  Protestantism.    The  German  translation  of 

Qpon  the  retirement  of  Sir  James  Mackin-  the  Bible  by  Luther  was  attacked  by  him  us  er- 

became  professor  of  law  at  tho  East  India  roneous,  whereupon  it  was  forbidden  in  Saxony 

ipany's  college  at  Haileybury,   a  position  by  Duke  George.    Emser  then  himself  publish- 

^ich  he  occupied  until  his  death.     Subsequent  ed  a  trani^lation  of  the  New  Testament  into  (ier- 

||»1880  he  was  tho  editor  of  the  ^^  Edinburgh  man,  made  from  the  Vulgate  (Dresden,  1527). 

,"  to  which  his  contributions  were  nu-  Ue  also  wrote  Vita  S.  Bennonis^  as  ho  ascribed 

That  which  attracted  most  attention  to  St.  Benno  his  recovery  from  a  severe  sickness. 

on  Stanley's  "  Life  of  Arnold.^^    He  married  EMU  {dromaius  Notcb  lloUandiof^  Ijitham),  a 

•  only  child  of  Francis  Jeffrey,  who  addressed  bird  closely  allied  to  tho  cassowary,  a  native  of 

lum  tome  of  his  most  interesting  letters.  New  Holland  and  tho  ai^jacent  islands.     Tho 

EMPTREUM,  or  Emptreax  (Gr.  ck,  in,  and  emu  differs  from  the  cassowary  in  its  broader 

Ict^  fire),  a  name  given  by  tho  fathers  of  the  bill,  in  its  head  covered  with  feathers  above, 

ilveU  and  the  ancient  theologians  to  the  high-  and  in  its  smaller  and  moro  obtuse  claws ;  as 

■I  point  of  the  heavens,  where  was  the  habi-  in  the  latter,  tho  cheeks  and  sides  of  the  nock 


140  ENAUOSAURIANS  EXAHKLUNQ 

are  nake«1,  t}ic  \c^  lon^  nn«l  n>bniit  and  protect*    by  discoidal  bones  disponed  like  thote  of 

ed  I'V  (itn*n((  foaIi>s  and  tlio  win^  and  tail  not    reant.     Tlicy  have  been  divided  into  2  |miap% 


apparvtit ;  tho  mid' lie  tfjo  14  the  longest,  the  in-  whose  eharact4*rs  correfipond  alio  to  their  m^ 
niT  the  nhortv^t.  This  bird  was  named  emn  br  Uigical  pofiitiou.  The  ichlhyonaorimns/incliiaiM 
tho  Eng]i^h  niKmi^t*,  who  ctwifoundiHl  it  with    tho  ichthyosaurus  and /^/meaa una)  have  w«f 


the  caMtiwanr  or  emu  of  tho  Mohiccai;  to  dift-  developed  crania,  withttnall  fotHsand 

tingui«h  till' in,  ornitholof^isitH  call  tlie  present  bird  these  have  been  foand  in  the  Jaraioic  and 

New  Holland  t-mii.   There  isimlv  one  s|>ecie8  <»f  ceons  Htrata.    The  other  group,  the  fimoiai 

the  genu.%  living  in  tlie  eurafyplvs  and  casva-  (inchiding  notkcsavruA,  simMauma,  Ae.), 

rina    fiirci-tA   in  tho  Australian  isiland^      Its  tho  cranium  with  very  largo  temporal 

lentrth  U  about  7  feet;    it^i  plumage  is  thick,  and  orbital  and  nasal  cavities;  they  ars  foqat 

and  of  a  brnwnMi  culor.    Tho  feathvrs  are  re-  only  in  the  trianic  strata.    The  first  twog«Mm 

markable  fmm  their  two  central  Bt«m4  being  are  the  best  known,  and  the  most  commoa  la  tte 

nniti-d  at  the  bas4.\  licarinf?  simple  barb  a,  and  strata  of  England  and  (lermany ;  the  itt 

somotiiiK-^  very  bhort  barbule^     Tlie  furm   is  iourt<«  must  have  attained  a  length  of  nearly 

Uiirk  and  hva\  y,  tho  ba<*k  arched,  the  denuded  feet,  and  tlie  pUswmurus  of  more  than  IS, 

neck  of  a  \  iulvt  color,  and  the  feat  hem  on  the  both  presented  forms  most  nnlike  those  of 

head  are  f^^w^  simple,  and  hair-like.    Tho  emu  existing  animals,  though  admirably  adapted  !• 

prvM.*nt4  the  ^lu!^.•^t  analogy  to  tho  ostrich  in  its  tho  circumstances  in  which  they  lived     (8m 

anatomioal  structure;  a  wide  membranous  sao  IcnrnTosAcars,  and  Pi.uioeAcai*s.) 
is  fomiod  below  the  crop  by  a  dilatition  of  tho        CN AMUUC,  Pierrb  VANoaoegrB  DiiL  9%  ft 

cesophsfrui,  wliirh  endst  in  a  slightly  develoiied  French  navigator,  bom  in  Dieppe,  died  in  fiL 

{risanl;  thi*   inte*ti(ifd  canal  is  aUmt  10  feet  Christopher,  W.  I.,  Dec.  1636.      Being  d  wm 

ong;  the  wind|ii{ie  is  very  long,  and  at  its  52d  adventurous  spirit,  he  sailed  from  Di«p|ie  !■ 

ring  o|»on4  into  an  immenm;  mubcular  sac,  whoso  1625  in  a  brigantine  of  8  guns,  for  the  AntiDMk 

ttie  is  not  Welt  aM'crtainod ;  according  to  Wagner,  He  Unded  in  the  island  of  8l  Christopher  on  thm 

the  bones  of  thi>  wrijtt  are  wanting  in  this  bird,  samo  day  with  a  party  of  English  colookllL 

TIte  nativif  of  New  South  Wales  call  tho  emu  with  whom  lie  divided  tho  ii4and,  and,  natu 

parrmbiing.     It  is  a  timid  bird,  running  with  his  death,  held  the  French  half  of  the  c6Umj 

groat  rnpiility,  aud  very  ran-lv  taken;  it  was  with  extraordinary  tenacity.      In  1635  betook 

once  Ciiniinon  in  the  neighborhood  of  Sydney,  posMs.«ion  of  Martinique  in  the  name  of  ik* 

but  rivili/atiun  h:is  now  driven  it  U'Vond  tho  Ling  of  France,  and  founded  the  town  of  8L 

Klue  mountain*.    It  prefers  o{>en  shrubby  places  Pierre. 

and  sandy  plaii:«.     When  puriiuc^l  it  takes  read"        ENAMELLINO,  tlie  art  of  applying  a  coil 

ily  to  the  water,  and  swimn  with  its  UhIv  miMt*  ing  of  vitreous  lubstances  calle<l  enamels  to  n 

ly  •ubiiitT'^iMl.     It  fei'<Non  fruits,  iKTri^A  HMtt^  surface  of  glass  or  of  metal,  and  baking  this  in 

and  varitMi*.  herbi.     The  feiiialo  Liy^it  tir  7  virtr^,  by  a  fusing  heat.     In  its  h(»moliest  apidi< 

in  a  ^1:^*ht  hi*lIow  H-ratched  in  t}io  eartli;  tho  it  is  a  iH»rt  of  glazing,  and  as  applied  by 

ijiale    h:!!*'!!!**    tin*   egg^  and  taki*s  rare  4»f  the  em  methods  to  ornament  and  protect  sui 

briKHl  Kc.'.il  ili«y  can  provide  fur  t}irmhlv«-«;  of  cast  or  wrought  iron,  it  may  be  consideri4 

the  vtiMii;;  are  i>f  a  grAyi«h  oiior,  with  4  bands  simply  a  pnK*ess  iif  Japax.nino.  whirh  see.     B|f 

<if  l-ri^'IiT  ri-'l.     T!ie   tle^h   in  eaten  by  tlio  na-  the  f:u-ility  with  wliirh  colors  might  be  intio* 

tlvfk,  ;irii1  i<»  Nti'l  t'l  hsve  tho  taste  of  U.>ef.  duced  in  tho  vitreous  ifimpttunds  or  apfdied  la 

KN.M.It  i>.\I'IMANS  i(ir.   tvaXior.  nisrino,  them  and  beconu*  fixed  by  a  second  kiaLinctlin 

anil  irut  ,M>[.  n  li/ard  t,  an  order  of  fosiiil  luHrino  art   wui    in  enrly  times    exceedingly  popolv, 

n-ptilrs  f«>i:!iil  in  t!ie  liassio,  triavsic,  and  rr«  ta-  and  in  the  mitldie  ages  it  attained  a  l.iglirr  rank 

riiiU4  «iHich-.  They  pre^'nt  tho  i»trange?«t  fornix,  even  than  it  now  hold^,  a^  one  of  the  tine  artik 

uniting  i:i  their  ^:riii*turo  rharaitfrs  «hii*li  ap-  The  unrieiit  iVrsians  and  Arabians  appear  M 

pt-ar  ut  tirto!  ^-i^ht  iti>-oni;>utihIe.     Thrr  have  tho  have  prurti^r^l  it  ujkui  earthenware  and  pom* 

\rrti  ^^.l•  i>f  ti«hf.  tl.i-  t'vtli  of  crociHiUianN  the  lain ;  and  the  nio<lo  of  cidoring  this  ware  at  the 

Xnttlr  I'f  ]:/.iri!*,  tho  pni!i!1e4of  rt'ta<-enn!i  or  ina-  pre-ont  day  }•■  jiroiKTly  a  process  of  enaiDeIlin& 

riii«*  t::r;!i  <t.  aipI  •Mniie  havo  a  \»ttiji  hnakt-Miko  u  will  Ih.*  nvn  in  tho  detcriptiun  to  tie  given  of 

nr«'k.     M.i!iy  iif  the<to  ci-j'.Litio  iiaunaM4  attaitie<l  thi^  manufacturo.     Articles  of  |H>ttrrT  enaiMl* 

a  !:i  v  *>'«'i  •'^'•d  fri'iit  their  vi-rai-ity  mu*>t  have  led  in  cihirs  are  found  among  the  rains  of  ■•• 

Km  the  terfiT  of  tho  watir«  of  tho  ^'ri»nd-  c'ient  TlieU-^s  and  in  many  of  the  citi^s  uf  Egypt 

ary    t'{«t:..    nftrr    thv>    di*ap{H-ar»tiro   of    tho  are  buildings  ci<n«!nicted  ttf  c-nantellod  bricfcs 

gri'at    •>a*:r'>i'l     t>ht-4    of     tho     iarlHiniftTii>2*i  taki-n  fntin  t!ie  nt ins  of  older  ritirs.     WilkinauS 

lnTi'-!.     W  !•■!  roii^idi  r*  ih.rii  as  ei'mm^  i.*ar-  Mate-*  that  "  it  hiisUn^n  tjuentioniHl  if  the  Egyp* 

c^t   !••  thi*  •ia':riaii«,   thuc^rh  •>»*  dttri  riMit  fr>>>ii  tiann   umler^tiMMl  the  art  of  enamelling  npoft 

ariv  ti:*'.ini;   ^^i**'^    ^   t'*   re'pjin*   tht*  e»t.il>  guM  or  filvi-r,  hwi  wo  might  infer  it  fMcn  AB 

li«hi!.<M.c  i-J  a  !ii  w  onbr.  whi>»t«  priiuipal  r^iar-  expreNkioii  of  Tliny,  who  »ay*:  'Tho  Egypiiann 

af't«-r«    nTK*   b^''i<!H-avo    ^ertel'rn*.    Hi<Ii-r    than  j  aint    their   ^iIvl■r  va***,  ri'pre^enting    Annbil 

loii^.  iA  i'h  !kriii:i.i*  f<i-«<My  ut.iti^l  t>i  the  Um1,i-«;  u|*on  them, the  silver  U*ini*  |iaiutKHl  and  nut  CA- 

coiiii  al  tft!li.  wi'Jiti'it  ra%ity  at  th«ir  haM*.  iin-  graced;*  and  M.  DiiIhi;4  had  in  his  t^MASiion 

piar.t<->!  Ill  »hi>rt   i!i  •  pM'aSfl   a!vi-<!: ;    bvA   4  a  «]irriiiicn  of  (Vyp^'sn  eiiamrL'*      Frv*m  Um 

aLor%  flatt^zied  limit,  uhuse  fir.gvn  arc  furuvU  Eg^ptiaiis  tho  art  Is  suppoivd  tw  have  p 


ENAMELLING  141 

fha   Greekfli  and  afterward  to  the  Romans,  in  some  fine  portraits  hj  Angostin,  and  varions 

Brongniart,  however,  in  his  Traite  dm  arts  ce-  French  and  Englbh  artists  have  since  executed 

fmmicmea^  traces  its  introduction  into  Italy  from  many  fine  portraits  in  tliis  style,  distinguished 

the  Balearic  isles  by  the  Spaniards,  who  de-  for  the  brilliancy  of  their  colors,  and  the  more 

rired  the  art  from  the  Arabs.    The  Romans  in-  valuable  for  their  permanency.    A  piece  of  5 

trodneed  it  into  Great  Britiun,  as  appears  from  inches  in  its  longest  dimensions  was  considered 

TBiOQs  enameUed  trinkets  that  have  been  dug  the  largest  that  could  with  safety  be  under- 

ip  there  with  other  vestiges  of  the  Roman  con-  taken ;  for  with  the  increase  of  size  the  liability 

qoensn.    That  the  Saxons  practised  the  art  ap-  of  injury  to  the  enamel  by  cracking,  and  to  tho 

from  an  enamelled  jewel  found  in  Som-  plate  by  swelling  and  blistering  in  the  several 

lure,  and  preserved  at   Oxford,  which  processes  of  baking,  rapidly  increased ;  but  by 

an  inscription  stating  that  it  was  made  backing  the  metallic  plate  with  one  of  porcelain, 

bT&ectl<Hi  of  the  great  Alfred.    The  gold  cup  the  work  is  now  executed  in  pieces  of  much 

ana  br  Kins  John  to  the  corporation  of  Lynn  larger  dimensions,  even  18  inches  by  nearly  as 

fa  Hormk  shows,  by  the  colored  enamelled  great  a  breadth.   The  process  is  usually  conduct- 

iii—  of  the  fiffores  with  which  it  is  embel-  ed  as  follows.    The  plate  is  coated  on  both  sides 

BAed,  that  the  In  ormans  also  practised  the  art.  with  a  ground  of  white  enamel,  and  on  this  the 

AflHog  the  Gaols  enamelling  upon  metallic  sur-  design  is  lightly  sketched  with  a  pencil,  using 

hem  la  miderBtood  to  have  been  in  use  in  the  red  vitriol  mixed  with  oil  of  spike.    The  colors. 

Id  oentuiy.    As  practised  upon  earthenware  in  finely  ground  and  mixed  with  oil  of  spike,  are 

tka  ityle  called  by  the  Frencn  faience  mnamunc  then  laid  on  as  in  miniature  painting.    By  gen* 

M  imtnlfie,  and  by  the  Italians  majolica  ware,  tie  heat  the  oil  is  evaporated,  and  in  an  cnam- 

It  was  earned  to  great  perfection  in  the  16th  eller's  fire  the  plate  is  next  made  red-hot  to 

OBtory  at  Castel  Durante  and  at  Florence  by  incorporate  the  colors  wiUi  the  enamel.    The 

tka  IratherB  Fontana  d'  Urbino.    Other  Italian  painting  may  then  be  retouched,  and  the  colors, 

dte  adopted  the  &vorite  art,  and  Faenza  be-  again  be  burned  in,  and  this  may  be  repeated 

MOM  iamons  for  the  works  of  Gnido  Selvaggio.  several  times  if  necessary.    But  the  greatest  ac- 

Qt  articles  produced  in  this  style  were  rather  curacy  in  the  first  drawing  and  coloring  is  essen- 

^jtfbdB  of  luxury  than  of  use.     Some  were  tial  for  a  perfect  picture.    In  this  department 

itasb  for  the  tables  of  princes,  adorned  with  may  be  consulted  tiie  work  of  Count  de  Laborda, 

tka most  delicate  sculptures  and  splendid  paint-  Notice  dee  emaux  expoeSe  dane  lee  gaUree  du  Lou- 

imi  There  were  also  vases  of  numerous  forms,  vre, — In  the  ordinary  processes  of  enamelling, 

■naU  flasks  covered  with  tendrils,  figures  of  the  enamels  used  for  tho  ground  are  opaque,  and 

Hints,  birds  of  brilliant  plumage,  painted  tiles,  must  bear  a  higher  degree  of  heat  without  fusing 

Ac,  all  formed  merely  of  baked  clay  covered  than  the  colored  enamels,  which  are  afterward 

nh  an  opaque  enamel  composed  of  sand,  lead,  melted  into  them.    They  are  made  after  a  great 

Bid  tin,  upon  which  the  designs,  in  some  instan-  variety  of  recipes,  according  to  the  uses  to  which 

Ml  those  of  Raphael,  were  painted  in  enamel  they  are  to  be  applied.     All  those   designed 

flolon  and  baked  in.  This  high  style  hardly  out-  for  metallic  surfaces  have  a  transparent  base. 

Sfed  the  artists  who  perfected  it ;  and  from  which  is  rendered  opaque  by  tho  substitution  of 

1540  it   gradually  deteriorated.     Bernard  do  combined  oxide  of  lead  and  oxide  of  tin,  in  tho 

BiUflBy,  by  practice  of  25  years  directed  to  tho  place  of  the  oxide  of  lead  used  as  one  of  its  ingre- 

pradnction  of  a  cup  like  one  of  great  beauty  dients.  Five  ditfercnt  mixtures  of  tho  two  oxides 

ihown  to  him,  sought  to  introduce  the  art  in  are  in  use,  the  proi)ortions  varying  from  3^  parts 

Ymctj  and  his  works  became  very  famous,  but  of  lead  and  1  of  tin  to  7  parts  of  lead  and  1  of 

\aM  m^hod  died  with  him.    llis  productions  tin.    The  two  metals,  in  the  desired  proportion, 

intercstiug  as  true  copies  of  natural  ob-  are  melted  togctlier,  and  the  combined  oxide  is 

in  relief^  and  colored  with  exact  faithful-  removed  as  fast  as  it  appears  upon  the  surface. 

Some  of  these  objects  were  fossil  shells  When  the  oxidation  is  as  thoroughly  efiected  as 

the  Paris  basin.    Of  late  years  the  art  practicable,  the  product  is  well  washed  to  ro« 

!■  been  revived  in  France,  chiefly  through  move  any  particles  of  metal  that  may  have 

ftsakfll  of  M.  Brongniart;  and  in  Berlin  also  escaped  oxidation,  as  these  would  greatly  im- 

fennftifbl  work  of  the  kind  has  been  executed  pair  the  quality  of  the  enamel ;  for  tho  same 

tM.  Feilner. — Painting  in  enamel,  as  prac-  reason  it  is  essential  that  the  metals  themselves 

S  upon  plates  of  gold  and  copper,  can  hardly  should  be  absolutely  pure  and  free  from  tho 

la  ngarded  as  applied  to  works  of  high  art  usual  alloys  found  with  them.    One  or  other  of 

'  the  17th  century.    Jean  Toutin,  a  gold«  the  mixtures  of  oxides  obtained  by  the  method 

1  at  Cb&teaudun,  appears  about  the  year  described  is  next  melted  with  proper  quantities 

to  have  first  made  enamels  of  fine  opaque  of  silica  (pounded  quartz),  saltpetre,  and  a  little 


MknL  and  applied  them  to  portraits  and  his-  borax ;  the  last  gives  greater  fusibility  as  its  pro^ 

V    Meu  Mbjects.    Other  artists  profited  by  his  portion  is  increased,  and  no  more  is  used  when 

I    iMraetiona,  and  several  miniature  painters  at*  the  enamel  is  to  be  applied  upon  copper  or 

I    lijfaad  great  dfstinction  in  this  branch.    The  art  silver  than  upon  gold.     The  plates  are  some- 

I    lAward  fol  into  disuse,  and  was  only  applied  times  chemically  acted  on  by  the  enamel,  and 

I     tavBamenlng  watch  cases  and  rings.    In  tho  if  the  gold  of  the  gold  plates  is  alloyed  with 

I    mltf  part  &  the  present  century  it  reappeared  too  much  copper,  the  effect  of  this  is  perceived 

L 


142  EKAMELUNG 

in  injnrinp  the  appoaranre  of  tlic  onamcl.    For  room.    A  new  coatinir  Is  neit  addrd  prerarad 

makinf?  coKtivU  enaineK  ciilicr  tho  opn«]iic  or  fmrn  1251lis.  of  wliito  Rlau  without  K-aiL  ft5  Ib^ 

transparent  enami'I  M^rven  a»  a  lia$e,  and  with  it  of  borax,  20  1h:«.  of  Mxla  in  cryrUd^  which  hav« 

hi  molto<l  a  snita!>le  profKirtion  of  mtiiie  metallic  bei-n   piilreri2e<l   and  fuM}d  Uigvther.  gnmod^ 

oxidtf  a.4  a  coloring  matter;  for  a  blue  enamel,  c(H>liil  in  water,  and  dricsl.    To  45  H«.  of  tUi 

the  t>pa(pie  is  omnI  with  oxi«lv  of  cnhsLlt;  for  a  1  lb.  of  noda  is  adde<1,  tlie  whole  miicd  in  hot 

preen,  oxitle  of  rhromium.  or  binoxide  of  co|>-  wati-r,  driv«l  and  pounded.    A  portion  of  it  itriT 

pvr;    for  a  violet,   ftertixide    of   man^ne^e;  ed  over  the  other  coaling  whde  it  is  Mill  n  ' 

fiir  a  velluw,  chloride  of  Mlver ;  fur  a  purple,  and  driiil  in  a  etove  at  the  tein|i«ratore  of 

pnr|tle  (if  CiL'«»iiis;  and  for  a  black,  tho  tran^  Inp  water.   The  voAJielia  then  heated  in  a  ■(ova ( 

piirent  enamel  is  u^hmI  with  mixed   oxidi*i«  of  muffle  till  the  (;laze  fuses.     It  is  taken  out. 


cupiK*r.   cobalt,   and  raaiicaneso.      Tho  dilFer*  glaze  powder  i:«  du!*ted  on  tlie  giaxe  alreadrlB 

ent  enamels  bfiii^  pn-p:ire«l   l»efore!iand,  aro  f\ision,  and  it  i^  apaiii  subjected  to  heat.     Tbm 

when  wanteil  for  u«e  crushed  t(»  |MiwdiT.  ami  proce^ri  now  em|>love<l  i^ncceasfnlly  tv  McawiL 

then  kept  at  hand  under  water  in  Vi-«5ivU  wi-U  T.  K.  (iriffitlisaiKi  vo.  «»f  Hinuingliain,  of  eoatfaif 

coveretl  to  protect  them  frt>m  all  impuritii^.  the  interior  surface  of  wrought  iron  ve^aeklkeos* 

The  metallic  hurfact-4  to  U*  c(»ate«l  are  cleaned  bists  in  tirst  brn^hing  it  over,  when  thoroogh^ 

bj  lM)il(iig  in  an  alkaline  M.>I:>tion,  antl  are  then  eleane^l,  with  a  mbition  of  gum  arabic :  on  this 

wa«bc*«l  witli  pure  water.     Tlic  copfKT  al!f»y  in  is  pit>e<l  a  fine  vitreoiia  jiowder,  cunsi*tiDf  fl€ 
c  di 


gidd  miiy  l>c  di^wilvi'd  from  iho  ^url':lce  by  Uiil-  130  purta  of  |K>wdered  ifiiit  glaM,  Sh|  of 

ini;  in  a  ^trt>n;r  !t«>lutiun  of  40  p.irta  of  »alt[H'tre,  l»onate  t4  scnla,  and  12  of  boraric  acid     T 

25  of  alum,  and  A5  of  c«>mmnn  »:dt. — In  the  man-  are  tu  (to  well  mixed,  melted  in  a  glata  maktr^ 

nfacture  of  enaniolK-d  earthen wan\  the  whito  crucible,  ami  piilvi'rized  so  as  tu  paM  thiuogk 

enamt-l  is  prepared  by  nK-Itin;^  Knj  Pi«.  of  Ivad  a  Kieve  of  6<)  hi>les  to  tlio  inch.     Tb«  artirlt 

with  lo  to  5<Hl>«.  of  tin,  and  addim;  to  the  ox-  thn<i  coateil  \*  placetl  in  an  oven  heated  to  frvoi 

ides  thus  obtaitifd  the  Kime  wei;;ht  of  <iujirtz  212^  to  UOO^  t\  and  when  dry  i*  removed  t» 

»and,  and  ^M  IIh.  or  thireal»out  of  common  am  tt her  oven,  and  heated  to  a  bright  rctl  till  tb« 

aalt.     The  i«  hule  UMiig  well  nibbe«l  together  U  glaM  in  iieen  througli  the  aperture  to  be  mcllad. 

meltiH] ;  a: ill  thuugh  ii  may  appear  of  dark  rolor.  It  it  then  taken  out  and  annealed.    A  Kecuncla^ 

ll  afUTwanl  livcMnu'S  white  «hen  rednred  to  p]ir.ition   is  made  if  the  first  prove  ini| 

|Ki«dfr  aiiil  bukvil  UMin  the  uterioiN.     Tlie  pn»-  Cireat  care  in  n-(|uire4|  tljat  the  glassy  pi 


JM)rn«»M'«  if  the  mati-ri.'iU  employed  are  vi-ry  tion  lie  proterti-d  from  mixture  with  forc^ 
vari.tb!e.  a:i«l  otlier  in^'ri'difntjialviareofti.'n  in-  matters,  and  it  i-*  well  to  glaze  the  interior  flf 
tn»itui-rd,  partit.ilarly  oxide  of  manh'TmeM',  tho  the  crucible8U'fi*reuMng  them.  Colored cttUi* 
^iTvci  tif  niiiith  ill  Mnall  ijnantiry  U  to  \ifld  its  cN  may  afterviard  U*  Hpplied  to  the  «urfSar«  of 
uxye^u  U'liuy  rarUir!.i«'i-«iiH  inipTiritit-^  that  may  the  white  roatin^  if  dcitired.  Hy  this  method 
\fO  pri-«*'[it.  and  rviii<>\i-  thr-v  in  tht*  fiirm  of  irnn  plates  have  Ik-cu  made  ti»  imitate  inart4^ 
carliniM"  :»oid  fp'fn  the  iiultedim-"*.  Thei-'l-T-  ami  manti-U  fur  liri'plai'eH,  tables  Ac.  havt 
etl  en.iMv!*  art-  appiuil  by  paiiKinc  th«  iii  \ihen  In-eh  prtMbiccil  in  New  Yt»rk  alnv>«t  ei}ual  fai 
finelv  (:r<>(Hi<!.  tkiA  mixed  ui'h  •xifite  vivr!a'<Io  lK*aiity  to  the  orii:inal<.  There  is  hunwer.  a 
oil.  :i4  tli.i!  I't  -;>:ke  l:«Vfn!i  r.  n|Ni|i  die  white  tenilem-y  in  tho  ptate*i  to  warp  bv  hi-at.  and  fai 
eiiritDi!.  ii'kiiiT  )h  I'lire  i>r  a:'ti-r  th:i  !ia«  InTn  onn*  tin-  rnaiurl  to  M'ale  utf:  and  tJii^  latter  tlrfrct  Ii 
hratol.  :iikd  thi-n  f-ikiii;:  thoin  in.  TKe  uViik  a^HTioiHolijertiitn  tf»  the  c-namelied  imo  rm^kiM 
fur  i!ift.i!!.i-  art.rl'i  are  ni<i:Mi*  ni.vlo  to  »li<io  ute[ioi!o*M>ld  inthol'niie«lStati-s.  ThemctAlaM 
r]i*<H!y  iii:<>  l^e  f':rnai  e.  aiid  f:ir?::o!ii'«l  with  a  the  l' I  i/edi*  not  expand  and  e«*n  tract  t(Vetli«r.** 
Miiall  aMTtire  t!ir'M.jh  wl.ii*i  the  ]iri*^e*4  tif  Sinall  artieU-ii  uf  enamel,  as  Uttle  t^vii  iuil 
the  ii|<«'r:i:i>>n  t::n\  **vMti««r\i •!. — Theettaiiielliiif;  th*-  t:;rure4  of  binN,  A:«*.,  and  al*4i  artificial 
of  i^A":  iri>:i  ••>>k;i:;;  iit«  ?:«.!«  «a«  prai'tiHi-«l  at  are  inado  by  nii  It  in;:  with  the  table  blowpipe 
the  ili'^i*  •r  t'.e  la-t  rei.i.iry,  and  a  nuni^^T  v{  ri>«U  or  tubes  of  enamel  prcfnirvil  f<<r  this  pu^ 
diTfere',:  in'.\t  .re«  of  the  M.iterial^  eini'In.^ed  p'^M'.  and  f»i!ia{-i;i;;  I  hem  by  haiid.  ju«t  as  tb« 
have  ^i;:ie  \kk:i  in  i:-*.  Tlie  i.-h.*  of  had  inti»t  g!:i<»«  Mi^Wer  nork^  with  tuliesaiiil  rutl*  of  glaoL 
be  rari!t.'.!v  u^'sdi-d  i!i  ar!i>-!e«  i-f  th:«  kind.  Artitii  ial  e\e«  are  thu«  nimle  w.!li  in^at  pcf^ 
Ve«M  \*  of  «r>-i:.*:.:  iri>:i  arv  a!^i  treatt**!  \i\  tlie  fet'thni. — Kiiatnellinrof  »latc*t  !••  imitate  tnarfcle 
>ain«  prii  •■*■«:  a:i<l  run  pijH*  fi<r  omveMng  and  niularhite  wa"*  intriNbiee«l  in  Locduo  BOC 
VBitT  :«  :.•!..!: '..v'('"*iv  f'nittH'ti-tl  bv  a  eh  .in  maiiv  lear^ -liiev  br  Mr.  (t.  K.  M.icnu«:  and  th« 
»ihi  io';- en  •i7i>  I  n  ■*.  i.  i^Ie  t^J  atfi-rt  the  purity  ii{>eriiiien«.  tln-n  ijiiitv  novel,  esliibited  at  \hm 
of  the  «.i!  r.  -I:.e  pnti  lit  n^ht  i>f  Me«»ro.  great  r\!.i  hi  linn  nf  IVi  I,  received  hijrfa  pr«ifl«  ia 
1  U'le  of  K:..'!.;t.'l.  i-f  l**  •".».  ct'fi*.»t<'«l  in  the  u-*»  the  re|-irt  of  the  j-ihe*.  and  a  f  r./«»  titrdal  «ai 
•if  t^••  f  <.i  •«  iMgT  ii<nirMni!h>n  and  nittli«Nl  ;  ]t4i  a\i:iriled  totlu  exhibitor.  The  art  wa»fint  prae^ 
\\'.  of  I  al-  .i.*^\  »T>':rid  :!:t>:«  a.'id  5o  1».«.  cf  U*r.\x  ti-i-d  o  |!ii-  I  mteil  Slated  at  \U  ott*n,  and  alaU* 
rtU'iMi  I  ft:i  I  \\\t'\  grii'i' •!.  t-»  W  ir.iied.  f'lv*!.  fr.iiii  Wale**  were  im|H<rtr«l  t*»  U-  u«rd  fi*  thta 
and  /rai!  :.tl..«  i  •••  \-<i.  <  *f '.l.t«.  4**  \\  *.  ar<-  nii\i  •!  piir;>ii-4-.  Sub«<^|Ueiitly  the  »lati  wof  the  Ijehi^ 
«.:li  5  iS».  ■  f  i-'tlt  r*' el  11.  Af.il  /ri.-.;i.'l  in  \*j*vr  rivtr  were  applied  In  ihi^UM*  in  I.*-!i!i:h  Co..  Teiia^ 
to  a  p  ■*>t.^  n^a**.  I'.o  \t«M!.  tir«t  l}.**rii-:.rl:!y  an  1  %rerea!^»*M'nt  t<>  I'|iilaile1p!..a  tnli^tbrreco- 
ftl^mnvd.  n  !.:i>d  w /.i  ai  ••.itin/of  tl.i«  aIn-'mI  j  I'f  aT!>e!!il.  In  Wrnii  fit  t\e  tair.e  b':«'.D«is  isbov 
thlek,  a:.J  left  (^jt  ii  to  harden  m  a  Harm  carrii-d  on  at  We»l  V.VtIvt«.Hi.  « l.i  re  art  cxtea- 


ENAREA  ENOAUSTIO                  148 

sre  qtuuriei  of  aUte,  and  an  establishment  of  and  Jalins  Panlus  (lib.  vii.  et  seq.),  Connt  Caylnt 

the  same  kind  is  in  operation  in  New  York,  called  the  attention  of  the  French  academy  of 

A  great  varietj  of  useful  articles  are  produced,  belles-lettres  to  it  in  1755 ;  and  M.  Bachclior, 

among  which  the  most  important  are  billiard  author  of  a  treatise  De  Vhiatoire  et  du  secret 

nd  oSier  tableSi  mantels,  tubs  for  bathing,  sinks,  de  la  peinture  en  eire^  had  produced  a  picturo 

4e.    The  slsi^s  as  received  from  the  quarries  in  wax  in  1749.    In  1829  M.  de  Montabcrt,  in 

ire  flnt  aawed  to  proper  shape,  then  planed  to  his  Traite  des  tons  Us  genres  dt  peinture,  favor- 

uiform  thickness,  and  rubbed  smooth  with  pol-  ably  noticed  the  process,  and  M.  Durozier  of 

ishing  stones.     The  ground  color  adapted  to  the  Paris  soon  after  announced  that  he  had  perfectly 

marUe  it  is  designed  to  imitate  is  then  laid  on,  succeeded  with  the  method  given  by  Montabert. 

md  after  this  the  variegated  colors.    The  slab  The  ancient  methods  appear  to  have  consisted 

ii  then  placed  in  an  oven  heated  to  200^,  and  in  the  use  of  wax  crayons,  in  which  the  colors 

iDowed  to  remAin  over  night.    In  the  morning  were  embodied,  and  which  were  used  upon  a 

after  cooling  it  receives  a  coat  of  varnish,  and  heated  surface,  the  outline  of  the  picture  hav- 

iiittamed  to  the  oven  till  the  next  day.    Other  ing  been  first  traced.    The  whole  was  afu>r- 

hcatiDgs  and  vamishings  alternately  succeed,  ward  covered  with  a  varnish  of  wax  melted  in 

with  robbing  with  pumice  stone,  and  a  final  and  polished.  The  method  of  Oount  Caylus  con- 

pnl^hing  wiui  pumice  stone,  rotten  stone,  and  sisted  of  rubbing  and  melting  wax  into  the  canvas 

the  hand,  completes  the  process.  or  panel,  then  coating  the  surface  with  Spanish 

EXAREA,  or  Exakta,  a  country  of  E.  Afri-  white,  and  painting  upon  this  with  water  colors. 
ca»  W.  of  Abyssinia,  between  lat.  6°  and  8°  N.  By  warming  the  picture  the  colors  are  absorbed 
■id  kmg.  83"*  and  87°  £.,  15  days*  journey  from  into  the  wax,  and  thus  protected.  Mr.  J.  II. 
the  Nile.  It  is  elevated  above  the  adjacent  re-  Muntz  recommends  waxing  only  one  side  of  the 
^ona,  traversed  by  a  range  of  hills,  in  many  canvas,  piunting  on  t!ie  other  in  water  colors, 
ptrts  densely  wooded,  fertile,  and  watered  by  and  then  melting  tlie  wax  throogh  to  fix  them. — 
■ereral  rivers.  It  is  peopled  by  Gallas,  among  Encaustio  Tilbs  consist  of  a  body  of  red  clay, 
whom  are  found  a  few  Mohanmiedans  and  Abys-  faced  with  a  finer  clay,  which  bears  the  oma- 
■manCluistians.  It  exports  slaves,  ivory,  gold,  mental  pattern,  and  strengthened  at  the  base 
coffee,  horses,  musk,  and  the  skins  of  various  wild  with  a  thin  layer  of  a  clay  different  from  the 
■nim^l*^  in  exchange  for  rock  salt  (the  national  body,  which  prevents  warping.  The  clay  of 
carrency),  beads,  daggers,  knives,  guns,  kitchen  the  body  is  exposed  to  the  weather  for  6  months 
vtensihft,  copper,  and  cotton  goods.  The  capi-  or  more,  and  is  afterward  thoroughly  worked 
tal,  Sakka,  is  a  considerable  place,  not  far  from  over  and  tempered,  and  mixed  witli  other  sub- 
die  bank.«  of  the  river  Kibbe,  and  is  visited  by  stances,  and  at  last  evaporated  at  the  slip-kiln, 
caravans  which  come  from  the  Nile  and  from  From  a  cubical  block  of  this,  formed  in  the 
Goodar  in  Abyssinia.  usual  method  by  slapping,  a  square  slab  is  cut 

ESAULT,  Locis,  a  French  writer,  bom  at  off  with  a  wire,  upon  which  slab  the  facing  of 
Ugny,  Calvados,  in  1824.  After  having  trav-  finer  clay  colored  to  the  desired  tint  is  batted 
Acd  in  various  countries  and  visited  tlie  East  out  and  slapped  down ;  a  backing  is  then  applied 
ia  1853,  he  went  in  1854  to  Northern  Europe,  in  the  same  way  to  the  other  side  of  the  tile. 
His  Constantinople  et  la  Turquie  apfK'ared  in  It  is  then  covered  with  a  piece  of  felt,  and  put 
1895,  and  his  Voyage  en  Laponie  et  en  Norvege  into  a  box  press ;  a  plaster  of  Paris  slab  contain- 
in  1857.  He  has  been  a  frequent  contributor  ing  the  pattern  in  relief  is  then  brought  down 
to  the  leading  reviews  and  newspapers  of  Paris  upon  the  face  of  the  tile,  and  the  design  is  im- 
Vkder  the  nom  de  plume  of  Louis  de  Vermont,  pressed  into  the  soft  tinted  clay.  The  hollows 
and  has  made  translations  from  Goethe's  Wer-  thus  formed  are  filled  with  a  semi-fluid  clay  of 
tl«p,  Mrs.  Stowe's  **  Uncle  Tom's  Cabin,"  and  a  rich  or  deep  color  poured  into  them  and  over 
ftvB  the  works  of  Dickens.  Ue  is  now  the  lit-  the  whole  surface  of  the  tile.  In  24  hours  this 
eniT  critic  of  the  Paris  ConstitutionneL  has  become  sufficiently  hard  to  admit  of  the 

ISiCAUSTIC  (Qr.  n',in,  and  Kavirruor,  bum-  surplus  clay  being  removed,  which  is  done  by 

i^rt,  a  term  applied  to  the  method  of  fixing  placing  the  tile,  still  in  the  box,  upon  a  horizon- 

aolDn  npon  objects  by  burning  them  in.    £n-  tol  wheel,  and  as  it  revolves  applying  a  knife  or 

iBaQing  in  colors  is  an  encaustic  process.    The  scraper  entirely  across,  so  as  to  rest  upon  the 

void  it  most  commonly  used  in  its  application  edges  of  the  box.    The  surface  is  thus  cut  down 

to  Ml  ancient  method  of  painting,  in  which  wax  so  as  to  expose  the  pattern  and  tho  ground. 

employed  with  the  colors,  and  a  coating  of  Tho  defects  are  removed  with  a  knife,  and  the 

■me  material  was  finally  applied  to  the  pic-  edges  after  being  squared  are  rounded  off  with 

to  preserve  it  from  the  action  of  the  atmo-  sand  paper.     The  tiles  are  kept  for  a  week  in  a 

■hare  and  lights  In  modern  use  a  peculiar  kind  warm  room  called  the  green-house,  and  thodry- 

if  tBea  are  ciuled  encaustic ;  and  by  the  French  ing  is  afterward  completed  in  another  called  the 

the  tame  epithet  is  applied  to  preparations  of  hot-house.  They  are  then  baked  like  other  arti- 

id  for  polishing  and  protecting  the  sur-  cles  of  pottery,  except  that  double  tho  ordinary 

of  wood.    The  little  that  is  known  of  the  time  is  given  to  the  process,  and  the  oven  is 

mt  art  of  encaustic  painting  is  derived  from  left  6  days  to  cool  before  the  tiles  are  taken 

nention  made  of  it  by  Pliny  (**  Natural  His-  out.    They  contract  in  baking  from  I  to  jV  ^^ 

',"  Hb.  zzxv.  ch.  xL),  Marcianus  (lib.  xvii.),  their  dimensions.  Tho  process  is  supposed  to  be 


144                    ENCILVSING  EXOBINITE 

nevly  Oio  Hatno  v  that  oini'loTcsI  in  the  mijilla  fium,  of  calcaUtinfr  an  orbit  Mmmed  to  b«  ^ 

Mgvn  ill  Frunotf  auJ  Ln^KiMl  in  making  [uivo-  li|}tical,  he  showeU  Uiat  its  poriud  uf  rtcomaoi 

tueiitf  f  jr  i  hun  !io«.  ami  al^i  fur  tLf  U*autiful  muiit  bo  ab<iut  3}  jcara,  and  that  it  wasi  proba- 

r littery   (m!1c(1   lU-nry   II.'s  ware,   peculiar  to  My  thv  samo  comet  observed  by  Vecniua  fa 

rancc  in  \hv  lOili  cvutury. — The  Krvurh  apply  ITS^.  by  Mian  Ilenchcl  in  1795,  and  bj  Poot  la 

the  tiTni  tnra*.*tie  tn  pri-paratii>n#  uf  wax  umhI  Wi'i.     Ho  calculated  the  effects  of  t£e  ptftor* 

fur  iKili^liih;;  fiirnitur\'.     (St-o  Fkencii  roi.i«ii.)  batii^nii  it  would  czj>oricnce  from  theplaacCarr 

KNi  HASlNli,  or  Chamm).  a  pn)r«.s8  analo-  bodieii,  especially  from  Jupiter,  and  predictod 

gou«  to  that  of  sculpture,  lieiog  tho  art  of  finUh-  ita  return  in  1823,  though  it  would  probably  aol 

log  urnarnoittai  dt-^icn*  in  rai!M;il  work  upon  sur-  be  visible  in  Europe.     On  June  8  of  thai  jcv 

faces  of  ^L«■t■t  tnctal.     When  the«e  tU^igns  havo  it  was  divcovered  at  the  obwrTatory  of  Sv 

received  ihuir  pinerul  form  by  ca*>tinj;,  ham-  TliomaftHri^banc,  f^vemorof  KewSoatiiWAlML 

tuerinj:.  ir  <  it  her  meai:*,  the  work  in  finished,  all  He  predicted  itji  return  in  1825,  and  vHh  each 

but  poii^Ilin^,  with  piinrhei  or  cha>in^  t(K»l^  reap]»earance  as  predicted  more  elements  w«a 

These  arc  i>f  a  irnat  vnritty  of  fthai>es  and  mzi>!S  alTunleil  for  computing  its  exact  orbit.     It  a^ 

fitted  to  ci'rn'^iHmd  with  the  minute  ditaiN  of  peared  a^ain  Oct.  30. 1828,  and  Encka  was  ■£■• 

the  mi>«t   oomph- 1  work.    Some  are  frroovcd  to  fix   its  orbit  as  witliin  that  of  Japlter,  te 

and  chi-i  ki-nvl  at  the  c;:>K  and  Mjme  are  nicely  greatest  distance  from  the  sun  being  4  times  the 

PoUhIkiI.     Thi-y  act  i>:i  a  MUful  sH^ale  liko  the  earth's  distance,  and  its  least  distance  bot  |  thai 

dies  u*A:«i  f"r«!rikiii^  cuins  and  metUI^;  ami  the  of  tho  earth,  and  its  |>eriod  of  revolation  SJit 

BiuaUi.^t  of  tlivm  are  struck  with  hammers  of  vears.     Hy  comparison  of  the  times  of  Its  ca^ 

diminutive  hizc.     In  onler  that  tho  form  of  lier  and  later  apparitions,  Encke  was  aftenrarl 

hollow  ur:I«-Ii-s  may  it«>t  bo  injured  in  theoiiera-  led  to  detect  a  gradual  acceleration  of  its  mofa- 

tion,  thcM}  are  tllUd  with  a  compoMiion  of  ment,  amounting  to  about  2 J  hoars  on  each  rar^ 

melted  pt:«-h  and  bn«*k  du«t  or  msiiu,  or  with  olution.    This  secular  acceleration,  neTer  bclbta 

pit4.'h  ulfue.     llii-y  are    moreover    ftUp|»orted  recitgnized  in  the  movement  of  any  other  cds^ 

u^ton  a  iuiid  \\u'*  like  tlmM*  U!*^-d  by  engravers,  tial  body.  Encke  ascribed  to  a  rasliting  mediaa^ 

llorks  in  oippt-r  and  li.'-a!*^  aro  Mwuvtimes  tilled  m-hich  sensibly  affects  a  body  of  the  aztRiM 

with  lead  !o  give  them  a  tirm  supi>ort  within ;  rarity  of  this  comet,  which  isltransfiarent  to  IH 

but  this  will  not  do  fur  urticks  in  gold  and  centre,  but  has  no  fierceptible  effect  npoo  tha 

silver,  which  mi'lte*l  lead  would  seriou<»Iy  in-  dvn«iT  planetary  bodies.     Resistance  uorlaai 

lure.    The  mo«lels  uihih  which  tho  sand  moulds  tho  time  of  the  revolution  by  giving  mater  i^ 

fur  receiving  objects  intended  for  chasing  are  feet  to  the  attraction  of  the  sun,  which  tli 

prepared,    arc    them*clvi-s   M.>mitimes   chafed  draws  the  I »ody  more  forcibly  toward  itself. 


nearly  to  the  rr<iuiri.-l  forms.     Excollcnt  spcci-    ening  the  major  axis  of  the  ellipse  and  thus  Its 

.■voluti'in. 


mcn^of  (Ij:i.*^'duork  arc  *<irn  in  pitTo^of  anrivnt  orbit  of  rev olut inn.     In  investigating  the 

anuitr.  a:.ii  in  vaM.-«  a!.<l  other  ornament <•  in  guM  turbing  effects  of  tho  planets  U|Hin  titis 

aLd  -•4U\r  plate.     11. e  tll«■^t  beautiful  are  thoM)  of  Jupiter  in  its  aphelion,  and  of  Merrorj  la 

by  iWnv'  niii'i  rtlli:ii.  win)  died  in  lu7<t.     In  its  |H.'rihelion,   ho  was  1«mI  to  sn«piH-t  that  tha 

France  tin'  art  i«  prarti^il  unly  in  <ini'  ^nlaI]  dia*  ma^'i  of  the  farmer  had  been  greatly  underraftad 

triet  "f  r.iri«.  uiid  chii  ;lv  liiDitei]  t>i  tlie  pru'luc-  (.i  faet  afterward  e»tabli>hed  by  Trvf.  Airr)' 

tii'U  (>:'  :!..  rii  hly  wpii:.'}ii  articles  ttf  br«>iize.  and  in  l^:iS  Kncke  proved  that  Ijigrange  Lai 

KNi'KM.    J>iiiA\\     i'i:\N£,    a    (ivnnan    m-  &«4Tiln.'d  nearlv  3  times  too  great  a  bulk  tv  Mcffw 

tn^n••nlt■.^  ^H<rn   at    IIa:nburg.  S'pt.  "IX   ITl^l.  cury.     Encke  s  expUnation  of  the  rsuse  of  tha 

Wvi  fath'T.  a  4  li  r,:\niar..  eilui'ated  him  at  hmne  aecelcratiou  is  not  univenuUly  accepted,  thoQgh 

mjtU   li>-  w.i-   M  ti*.   t'l  t!.e  utii\i'rMty  tif  (i<t-  the  f.tct  it.<^*lf  is  n«it  que^tinned.     I  W-m^I  partis 

tin^-en.      In   l-*lu  ar.l   1^14  he  Krve^l  in  the  ularly  opi^K^i'd  tho  explanatiitn :  lythoKogiMih 

Haii^a'.li  !i,;'.><ij  :iga:ii«t  Napolenn,  anil  In  1^13  a»tn>n«miers  it  is  mure  favorably  retvived.     Be* 

be  cnl-  Ti  il  *.!:e  TrM^-ian    ni:litary  K.*rvl>'e,  but  ^iile  theito  investigations,  Encko  has  imfiroTeA 

ail«Titur>l  :f-i  I  ]i*.i-«l  a  -itnati'iii  in  the  f>^>^'rva-  the  thei>ryof  Vesta,  and  nubrmhf<d  a  new  meCh« 

tory  of  >i*!>ir.:,  iie.tr  (f!!i]i.     J:i  \^to  he  w.os  k.A  ff  c<*mputing  |»erturb.ition\   es^pecially  to 

ap|xi:i.t« «!    tirii:i>r   ••:'  t!.e   ri^^al   it^'««.Tv.itnry  orbi!«  ci*ii>Iderably  elliptical.    The  planet  Ne^ 

at    ]ii-xi.:r,    h!iti    ha«    •-.  iT   ^i[ll-e    r*  tnainitl    iu  tnr.e  wni  di<*i'nvvn'd  St  hii  oW*r\atory  bj  M. 

char;;e  i>i'  :].:«  i':«!:!.::;<i:i.     IK*   i^  the  niithnr  (ialif,  his  aviistant.     Since  1  slo  Kncko  Itas  an* 

of    nia:.,)    lai'iuMe    i:.^.ni->in*  "n    a*tri*nitmiial  nii.iily  puMisihisltite^'A^trononiirU  Year  Um^^** 

su^jl.•-!».  .-I  w'.:- }j  :).••  ni  '•!  ii:ti  re«::n*r  ax.d  im  and   nneo   IMO   **  A^tntnomiral   nK^rratvons 

fMirta:.:  i^k-  th<'  tri.k!iM-«  ] -;l>i;«!ii-«l  iti  the  .1»-  niaile  at  the  Unyal  < 'bservatnry  at  IWTlia."     la 

fr<»M'**i*^>i^  SirKr^  '..'#f.,  :i:  I'm  r!:n.  in  l**:!!  and  \^\'\  he   pulili-hetl  di**ertation«  /A*    formMii 


l^oj,  i.[  -n  ::.e<'->mt*.  'J.en  eaili-d  by  ihi>  name     Ih^fffi^is;  and  in  1*^6  a  trt»atiM»    "On   the 
of  I't :.-,  ::.o  a*!r  -li"'!  •  r  i-f  M.i.'^-illi*.  »!.■•  ili«-     llelati'in  of  .\Htrv»niimr  to  tho  other  S 


€«i«rrt  .1  1*.  .:i  N<  V.  l'>l>«.  l.iit  n"W  InnMu  .VI  tho        KNCKINlTK  Mir.    ff^NKir,   a   hlv),   a  &m1 
Ciimet    f:K:.'Sk«.     >.f.-;e    it*   di»*iivery    Kncke     gi*nt:«  of  tho  family  crinewZ/rt  an«l  e[ai«  erJ 


li:*d  d:!i;:ri.:!  V  :i|  |  !.•  <!  !.,in*K-!f  t«>  the  iletenniiia*  drmuitti.     It  apinrareil  among  the  earliest  fvi 

tivn  of  ir*  ••.-'.'..     M.k.r:;:  t:<««  of  the  meth>»!s  of  animal  life,  its  remains  Lpi-i.ig  prrsened  ta 

of  hi'  f-r::.'  r  iii-trui  *..  .-.  l'r"f.  (i.r>*,  a<  ei  plain-  tho  n-t-k*  of  the  siluhan  {•i^'i(ld.     In  suc^^rriii&a 

ad  in  h;»  Wvjfk  TUvrt.i  M^iu$  i\frj>^nim  L\xi€^  fonuatiuDSi  nearly  to  the  lias|  they  are  ultca  »9 


ENCRINrTE  ENDICOTT                    145 

•bundAnt  that  ealcareoiu  strata  extending  over  pentacnntis  caput  meduscB^  almost  the  onlj 
nmr  miles  are  in  great  part  made  np  of  them,  living  analogue  of  the  ancient  crinoldea.  As 
As  OMcribed  bj  Mr.  Miller  in  his  work  on  the  Dr.  Bnckland  remarks,  the  primeval  perfection 
criDddea,  the  animals  of  this  family  are  for-  of  the  fossil  affords  an  example  at  variance  with 
siihed  *'  with  a  round,  oval,  or  angular  column  the  doctrine  of  the  progression  of  animal  life 
eomposed  of  nnmerons  articulating  joints,  sup-  from  simple  rudiments,  through  a  series  of  grad- 
portmg  at  its  sammit  a  series  of  plates  or  joints,  ually  improving  and  more  perfect  forms,  to  its 
whidi  form  a  cop-like  body  containing  the  vis-  fullest  development  in  existing  species. 
een,  from  whose  upper  rim  proceed  5  articulated  £N0  YCLOPiEDI  A.  See  Gyclop^sdia. 
inii%  ^Ti^ng  into  tentaculated  fingers  more  or  ENDEMIO  DISEASES  (Gr.  cv,  in  or  among; 
lea  immeroiis  surrounding  the  aperture  of  the  and  di^/xo^,  people)  are  diseases  produced  by  lo- 
mooth."  In  the  encrinite  the  stem  is  cylindri-  cal  causes,  generally  persistent  and  appreciable, 
al ;  in  the  kindred  genus  pentacrinite  it  is  five-  and  consequently  peculiar  to  certain  climates 
sided.  The  cop-like  body  is  the  portion  repre-  and  localities,  during  t!io  whole  year  or  at  fixed 
•eating  the  flower  of  the  lily,  for  which  the  crea-  seasons ;  in  the  last  respect  they  differ  from  epi- 
tne  is  named.  When  the  tentacula  are  spread  demic  diseases,  which  prevail  more  or  less  ex- 
eat, the  appearance  is  that  of  an  opened  flower ;  tensively  from  accidental,  temporary,  and  gen- 
wben  dosed,  tliey  represent  the  unopened  erally  inappreciable  causes.  As  examples  of  en- 
bod.  The  stem  served  to  attach  the  animal  to  demic  diseases  may  be  mentioned  the  cholera  of 
■ly  bodies  in  the  water,  and  by  the  manner  of  India,  the  yellow  fever  of  the  southern  United 
vtienlation  of  the  plates  composing  it,  it  ad-  States,  the  intermittent  fevers  of  the  western 
Bitted  €ii  much  motion,  swaying  back  and  forth,  states  and  other  marshy  districts,  the  coast  fevers 
By  this  means  the  head  with  its  tentacula  was  of  western  Africa  and  Central  America,  the  bron- 
bfoo^  within  reach  of  its  prey.  The  plates  chocele  and  cretinism  of  the  Alpine  valleys,  the 
ef  the  stem,  separating  into  short  cylinders,  periodic  dysenteries  of  the  East  Indies,  the  yaws 
pnsent  the  form  in  which  the  remains  of  this  of  the  West  Indies,  and  perhaps  the  elephanti- 
saimsl  are  most  commonly  seen.  In  the  mar-  asis  of  the  blacks  in  Brazil.  Many  exanthema- 
blsi  Qsed  for  chimney  pieces  they  are  often  tons  and  catarrhal  diseases,  ordinarily  attacking 
very  ahnndant,  the  polished  surface  presenting  single  or  few  individuals  in  a  community,  under 
some  of  them  of  a  different  color  from  the  the  influence  of  certain  ill-understood  atmo- 
greaod  in  longitudinal  section,  some  in  oblique  spheric,  telluric,  or  electric  conditions,  may  be- 
eooieal  formed  cutting,  and  some  in  circular  come  epidemic,  and  affect  many  persons  at  a 
£iks^  being  transverse  sections  across  the  cylin-  time;  the  cholera,  endemic  in  India,  has  raged 
der.  By  the  disintegration  of  the  rock  contain-  as  an  epidemic  in  Europe  and  America ;  and  the 
ing  them,  the  little  joints  of  the  fossil  stem  fre-  history  of  diseases  exhibits  the  occurrence  of 
qnently  ^1  out,  and  may  be  gathered  in  great  various  epidemics  before  unknown,  appearing 
■ombers.  Each  has  a  hole  through  its  centre,  without  evident  cause,  defying  all  treatment, 
aimittiDg  of  their  being  strung  together.  Dr.  spontaneously  disappearing,  and  not  returning 
Xutell  states  that  he  has  found  them  preserved  afterward.  Endemics  and  epidemics  may  or 
IB  tmnuli  of  the  ancient  Briton?,  having  evi-  may  not  be  contagious  (including  under  that 
dently  been  worn  by  them  as  ornaments.  In  term  infection,  which  amonnts  practically  to 
the  north  of  England  they  are  called  *^  wheel  nearly  the  same  thing) ;  the  endemic  dysentery 
itPMj^  and  "  St.  Cuthbert's  beads,''  and  were  of  India,  the  typhus  fever  of  certain  localities, 
flBraowrly  used  as  rosaries.  The  encrinites  are  the  ophthalmia  of  Egypt,  under  favorable  con- 
mawrkable  for  the  multiplicity  of  small  calca-  ditions,  become  contagious ;  the  same  is  true  of 
leoos  pieces,  which  make  up  the  various  parts  epidemics  of  the  eruptive  fevers,  erysipelas,  and 
sf  the  animal — ^the  stem,  the  parts  that  may  be  puerperal  fever.  The  investigation  of  the  causes 
oBedthe  10  arms,  the  hands  and  fingers,  and  the  of  endemics  and  ei)idemics  is  one  of  the  most 
■aenms  tentacula  which  proceed  from  them  difficult  as  well  as  the  most  important  duties  of 
A  These  pieces,  as  enumerated  by  Parkinson  in  the  physician;  the  lives  of  thousands  may  bo 
Hi  ^Organic  Remains,"  amount  to  not  less  than  endangered  or  saved  by  the  neglect  or  adoption 
M^OOO,  thus  showing  a  complexity  of  structure  of  proper  sanitary,  hygienic,  and  therapeutic 
ifliil  to  any  that  is  met  with  in  the  nearest  living  treatment ;  the  temperature,  electric,  hygromet- 
■dognesof  these  ancient  animals.  The  structure  ric,  and  chemical  constitution  of  the  air,  the  ele- 
tf  QBBctf  the  fossil  pentacrinites  (a  genus  which  vation  and  nature  of  the  soil,  and  the  food  and 
Isasa  to  abound  as  the  encrinite  disappeared,  habits  of  the  people,  are  principally  concerned 
■■abas  been  represented  in  some  of  its  species  in  the  origin  of  endemic  disea<ics. 

I  to  the  present  time  from  the  lias,  or  in-  ENDICOTT,  John,  governor  of  Massachu- 

in  a  single  species  from  epochs  much  more  setts,  bom  in  Dorchester,  England,  in  1589,  died 

i),  has  been   cited  by  I>r.  Buckland  as  in  Boston,  Mass.,  March  15, 1665.    lie  was  sent 

"Aaving  an  equal  degree  of  perfection,  and  a  out  to  this  country  by  the  *^  Massachusetts  Com- 

daborate  combination  of  analogous  organs  pany"  to  carry  on  the  plantation  at  Nanmkeag, 


■pecies  .  *  . 

of  the  lias.    The  living  species  is  the    to  transfer  the  charter  and  government  of  the 

TOL.  vn. — 10 


146  EXDUCHER 

eolony  to  Kew  England,   and   Wintlirop  wm  r»ingMrttth^  and  lioil  tlio  mortification  of  mcibi 

a|ip«jintod  govvrnur.     lu  163«j.  with  ilic  lomnus  the  oriviitalij^t  JitM-ph  von  llaniuicr-INirfcttaU 

CApt.  I'ndvrhill,  he  rondiicti.'d  the  fumpuinurT  ntiiiiinati-d  to  thfi*rt*Mdency  of  ihearailvinv,  h 

but  inolTfctuul  cxi»oditiiiD  ai;ain<»t  the  lilm-k  Im-  litniur  to  whicli  LiidlichiT  wait  at  leaat  aa  veil 

and  and  IVtuot  Iijdiari«.     Eudicutt  wax  dopiitv  cntitli*<l.     T)io  {Ktlitica]  tunuuiU  «if  l^A  pUcfd 

l^iTernor  of  the  Moiv^ai  Ini^t-tts  c<ih>ny  from  1641  Endlicher  in  a  linH-urinuft  po^iiicm  :  hit  AjniBa- 

Xo  1644,  in   lOSn,  and  1Cj&;  nnd  wu  pivoni-  thiv*(  and  prinri|>losi  were  thf^c  <if  the  pii^lBr 

or  in   K>44  aud  l»>4ll,  from  1601  t<»  1654,  and  ijarty,  whiU- his  a.>fiociatiiiriftBiid|»urM]it»lioaBd 

fnmi  16!»o  to   IdO.V     \l*i  wu^  bold  and    oner-  him  to  the  an?>tiKTaA-y  and  thir  ronMrrratiTcn 

ITptic,  a  »nrcrf   and  Zi-ulou;!  I'uritau,  ripid  in  The  unt<} ward  turn  of  ^Kilitiral  aflairs  bia  m<«- 

his  r)^nci|>li•<^  and  K'Vcre  in  the  execution  of  niary  C'mbarra<»MiicntN  and  the  intri|n:e*«*i  etie> 

tlie  la«»  a^iiui^l  thoM.*  who  dilTered  from  the  niie^  drove  him  to  di-ipair,  and  he  died  id  % 

religion  of  the  c<»Iony.     »So  avvrM  wa<i  Iio  to  hrukvn  heart,  or  :^<«  some  belifVv  by  hit  ovm 

•very  thiii;;  like  i»o|nrry  that  he  cut  out  the  crovi  hand. — Hi;*  works  mi>ot  of  mhich  m'ere  pab- 

fruni  thu  mihtary  stuiidard.     IIo  was  opiMi>ed  li<»h(.Hl  in  Vivnmi,  are  a*«toni>hing  for  thrir  ti^ 

to  lon;(  hair,  inM:4ted  that  tho  m'onien  Miould  riety,  and  arc  written  with  equal  learning  tl^ 

wear  veils  in  public  aMcmblieii,  aud  did  all  in  gance,  and  cleanu*M».     Thcntc  on  »ubji-«'ta  boI 

bid  |Hiwcr  to  e<>tabU«h  what  lie  deemed  a  poro  connected  wit!i  iMitany  are:  Kxtimem  Criiie^nk 

chorrh.     In  1659,  during  his  adininisttratiuo,  4  CodirU  IV,  Ernngeliorum  Byiantino'Cmrfimi' 

Quakor-t  were  put  to  death  in  Iktston.  aui  (Lei]»sic,  1^25;  ;  Atton^mi  Btla  RegiB  3V 

ENI^Ml'IIEK,  Srti'iiAN  LADiai.Aia,  adi^tin-  tarii  de  GtMti§  Hungarorum  Liber  (IHST);  Rn^ 

nXAivd   iH.tanist   and   linguiM,  liorn  in  IVes-  eiaui  dt  Liiudt   Impfratoris  Aftasta»ii,  H  4$ 

burg.  Hungary,  June  24.  1^>4.  died  in  Vienna,  P»nderihua    tt    MeMurU    Oirmina    (ViMn^ 

Marc  U  '2\   1  ^^4 '.).     A  ft  e  r  ha  v  i  n  g   rere  i  ve*!  t  ho  1 H2  ^ ) ;    Fragmen  ta    Thtot  Uea  Venio  ni§  A  ma^ 


degree  cf  ih»t  tt>r  of  philo<ii>phy  from  the  uni-     quwinur  Erangtlii  3i*itfh»i  tt  atimyoi  ffi 
veri»ity  of  IVmIi.  he  entered  the  arc-Iiiepif*k*opal     /i<iru»iie<lite«l  with  lIotTmann  von  (allenhrfaca, 
ienii  nary  (if  Vii-n  Lain  1>«J3,  mainly  with  a  view     iK'U);    Vt»m  Jinuhr  Ktiuachen  (with  F.  WolQ 


to  the  Mii'Iy  of  oriental   Iangua;:fS  whieh  he  1^:15);   /)f  I'ljiiitni  Ihatitutivnvm 

pur*>Uid  f'lr -iome  year*  with  ^uice^s     lie  re-  ttr.    (1K)5);     i\tt*iU»g\ia    Codirum 

ct,ive«l  tlie  minor  clerical  tinier^  hut  in  1>*27  to  rum     lUhliother^w    PaUitin€§    Vindoh*\ 

re*'lvtil  I'i  abandon  theology  f«>r  the  natural  (1^36);  AnaUrta  6'ramm<i fira  (with  Ilr.  J.  voa 

■cit-nres  und  c4|H'eially  botaiiv.  without,  how-  Eirhenfrld,  1K]6):   VrnfirhHiaadtrCMiumatkam 

ever,  giving  np  hi*«  lingiiiMii*  pursuits     In  lr«28  vnd  Jayanttiaehtn  Minitn  drs  Mmng-  ti»d  A^ 

be  na.**  a|i{N)int«.^l  dirertur  of  the  imr*erial  li-  tiltn'OibinftM  in  II'i>»(1h37>;  Ah/tingm^mit 

brury  of  V ivniio,  in   lh30  kee|ier  of  the  court  der  ChiiuMtMrSfn  (irammtitii  MM5k    Ih§  ^ 

cahinct  of  ii.it lira!  hi^tury.  and  in  lH4<l|trofe^!Mlr  9ttge  dts  heiligtn  St^pkan  (IMI'k  AVi-wm  i7«a- 

of  hiiTaiiy  .-iud  director  i»f  the  Uitaiiir  garden  gttricantm    Slonunnuta   Arj^idiuna   (St     GaD^ 

oft!ie  uiii\tT«ity.     Ill  lii-viealoUH  prom«»tion  of  IMV^I. — IIl^  Uitanical  work^  are:   Crrafatkstm^ 

hi4  faviiritv  <>tiiilie«  he  immi:i  cxliau^teil  the  f-on-  eint  ntnf  Pff*inirhgtittung  avsdrr  Ordh^Mg  Atf 

»ider.tMi  r<^iiiiri->-»  whirh  he  )iad  inherited  from  SfMamnr    ()Wrlin.     l'''J'J)  :    Plora    Pq4ou\ 

hm  f.illn  r.      }tiH.L«,   map*.  l>l»e%  M-eil?*.  plaiitz*,  (IV-lh,  l>^:i'*»;   -^tirjtium  Pemyt^u  :  MtUti 

herliar:.i.  ii!i<l  a]l  othi  r  inattriali  wlileh   Were  /KiftJ/iiVfi  (Hilh  II.  S'hott,  Vi«nna.  l*^^ii; 

yet  waiiTiii^  at  Vienna,  aiiil  whiih  the  govern*  aingitt,  X^rum  Gfuu*  Phtntamm  (iViS^: 

nient   u:i-  ffit   LUral  eiitittg!i  to  priH'ure.   he  drutnua  yi**rtf  Sorf'tiira^  ttr.  iWviiti^   \99SX^\ 

purrha*i*il  ai  hi*  own  exjun**'.     He  pulilinhed  "  Mi^cellaiitou-*     Work*   tif    KoU'rt    Browa,* 

tlie    mo^t    **:|M  r!'!y    il!ii*;ruttil    vkurLn,   whirli  e«lited   in    (i>nncrti(in    with    Nvi^   Vun    Ems> 

owiiit;  til  v.cir  (-••Htimi  «*  aii<l  *<-ii  ntitlr  (  haracter  b«'i'k  ;    AUtrta  jUftnuica^  S**rn  (trnena  tt  Jim^ 

foimd  l>iit  t'lvv  pur>-)ia'H-r*.  hei%i-n  aiileil  utlitTft  ciVj  J'htnfitruuk  {\K\'.\};    Xt^ra   Ufnera  tff  J^f> 

in  puM.o}.!!;^  tilt  :r  wi<rk«.  niid  gave  away  «  lj«>li}  ciet    Pt'ihttirum  in  I^fjho   CKiSf  u»i    Lrti^rmm 

rtlitlori*  of  !m*  own.      II:*  map  i»f  I'hiiia,  in 'J4  (with   ToppiLr.   I^-i]<*ic.  lOrn:  Strtnm  t^mhmU' 

khr^'lo.  ni:k\  T'l-  *  i'.%A  a<*  a  *|k*<  iim-n  nf  hi*  priNl>  rum  inter  Ihra   (ihmte  Kknn  tt  f'iibul  (wiMh 

igalilv.      11*   pri»4  !;!!•!  hi*  own  rlmii-c  lihrary  E^Iward  Ken/l,  l**.Vi);    General  Pi^utarmn  a^ 

anti  r:>  li  In  r*  .ina  tf  ihr  *tatr.  and  •li*triSnted  cindum   Ordines  y*itur*iU§  diai<'$il*t  ;  mertiHi 

rare  .\*i.i^'    |rii:!-iig  tt|N«  t<>    puMic    in*titu-  SvftpUmtutim  Primum  (l*<«^»-4ti;  lAvuflW 

tiiii.«.     Ill*  W.I*  i-itia'.!.^  •■ri/inal  ami  profntind  mo*t  ini|Mirtaht  h%*teinatic  «ork«  }tt  pobliak- 

in    hi.?ari%    :.•.!    pfjili'I",:.* .     Hi'    » iTri  *|Nindi*«l  e«l)  ;     /.'/.•ir/iTiifin    Pimttirum    qutu  i a^  AV<w 

If},  til-  iM-  ^t  tM.iMiiit  '•avant4  in  «•%•  ry  p.irtff  UulUtuditr  Or*i  A^.atn*-(hrulent*ili  ad 


the  wiirM.  i\- •\    w  a*   oii*-  nf  thi*  •i.iif  fiiumlfrK  i'yrufr^im  tt  in  Siuu  liegi*  Gt'*rgii,f*Utf%i  {*. 

of  thf  A  :i!>  ':  j>  •  f  Vif  !:ti.i,  and  I'lu-  of  t*ii*  ori-  L.  II.  de  Jlit'jrl  \'^\\\\i.\\'\*v^-  lUrit!.am.  E  Fefu^ 

giiiat'ifo  if*'.    .!'.'■  :'«-•  dr»  Wittttr  M^stums.  and  H.  S'lmTI,   IhTiT).   I*'"h"gr*ipki»t  (§t%i 

l\v   nr.i!.  n  I   %  :.!;.i*-'«'  **  r\»ii'<  tn  tlii*  *!;»*••,  f'lr  PUintxtrum    I  !*•'**•»;     i»r^tndtugf    fi%tr 

whirh  hi'   ritin-'l   !."   rinnneratifn.   ar  d    fur  Thr'trir  dir  lytiinsentfugufig  i\t^T»^\.  Stir^MX 

|o  \iar*  w  M  .1  •••'  -'.ai.t  r>>tiipani</n  of  the  <-m-  AuatritKi»tfttrum    IltrKirii  llugeluiHi 

|irr«ir  Kir'I.'.i-.'I    V.,   ujth   *h«im    hi'   u*4'd   to  frr«i  1  *»:>».  .sViryium  X-rarvw /Arrti^f*  I l!tt»; 

i*a^ft  M-iir.k!  !.'•.:->  wtry   \k\%\.     F"r  a!l  il.i^  /ViTii  AViijiViVruif.  «fc.  iwitfi  I'h    Fr.  a»l  PLiL 

Le  wa«  few  ar  lei  with  ihe  paltry  title  of  7»Vy»«-  \on  Martiun,  Vienna  and    Lcil««tc,  lMO-'44>; 


ENDOGENS  ENDOSMOSE                     147 

Enekiridton  Botnnievmy  ete.  (Leipsics,  1841)  ;  sitnated  on  this  side  of  the  Jordan,  to  the  soath 
Die  MMieinalpJIanMen  der  ostreUhi^chen  Phar-  of  Nain.  It  was  in  a  solitary  vallej,  not  far 
mat^pdie  (1842) ;  Oatalogus  Horti  Aeadem-  firom  this  town,  that  the  famons  sorceress  re- 
in l^ndohonenMii  (1842-*8) ;  Mantista  Botan-  sided,  whom  Saul  went  to  consult  on  the  even- 
tei,  Httent  Oentrum  Plantarum  Supplementa  ing  before  the  fatal  battle  of  Gilboa. 
Stemndum  et  Tertium  (1848)  ;  (frundtStge  £NDOSMOS£  (Gr.  cKdov,  within,  and  tMTfior, 
igrBoteaaik  (with  Franz  Unser,  1848);  Synop^  impulsion),  the  action  exhibited  by  one  of  two 
nt  CSaniferantm  Sancti  Oatti  (1847) ;  Paraii-  fluids  of  different  densities  and  composition  in 
mti  fmdohoneiuii  (with  Hartinger,  1847) ;  and  passing  through  a  porous  membrane  whidi  sep- 
many  minor  works  in  the  Annalen  de$  Wiener  arates  them,  till  they  become  both  of  the  same 
Jfiafifmt,  and  in  other  periodicals.  (See  also  density.  Let  a  solution  of  sugar  in  a  tube  ciosed 
BoTA^Tjand  CHnnas  Lanouaos.)  below  with  a  slip  of  bladder  tied  across  the 
ENDOGENS  (Gr.  ci^oy,  within,  and  ytvpat^  end,  and  open  above,  be  suspended  in  a  vessel 
to  generate),  a  class  of  plants  so  called  becauae  of  water.  The  quantity  of  liquid  in  the  tube 
fbenr  stems  bicrease  in  diameter  by  the  deposi-  is  soon  seen  to  increase  by  the  passing  through 
tioB  of  new  woody  matter  in  the  centre,  in  con-  of  the  thinner  fluid.  It  will  flow  over  and  run 
tnSstinction  to  exogens,  whose  stems  increase  down  into  the  outer  vessel,  and  so  the  action 

5ib»  formation  of  a  new  layer  of  wood  outside  will  go  on  till  the  two  mixtures  become  uniform. 
tittEt  previcnnly  fbrmed,  and  immediately  be-  Dutrochet,  who  first  observed  this  phenomenon. 
aeath  the  bark.  In  endogens  the  stem  has  no  found  that  the  height  to  which  the  fluid  would 
andnllary  raya^  concentric  rings,*  or  ^>parent  rise  increased  with  the  density  of  the  thicker 
fttinction  of  pith,  wood,  and  bark,  but  consists  fluid.  In  a  tube  about  1^  inches  diameter  and 
ef  fibres  of  w<K>dy  or  vascular  tissue,  distributed  sirup  of  density  1.083,  the  fluid  rose  more  than 
wifli  little  apparent  regularity  through  the  eel-  1^  inches  in  1^  hours;  with  sirup  of  a  density 
Uir  system  of  the  stem.  They  may  be  traced  of  1.145  the  fluid  rose  nearly  8  inches ;  and 
ftem  fhfi  boss  of  the  leaves  downward,  some  when  the  density  was  1.228  the  rise  was  4  inch- 
g  into  the  roots,  and  others  curving  out-  es.  A  considerable  force  is  exerted  in  this 
until  they  lose  themselves  in  the  rind  or  movement ;  in  sirup  of  density  1.8  Dutrochet 
il  integument,  which  differs  from  the  bark  estimated  it  to  be  equal  to  the  pressure  of  4^  at- 
sf  exogens  in  that  it  does  not  increase  by  layers,  mospheres.  If  the  flow  is  drawn  inward,  the 
sad  cannot  be  separated  from  the  wood.  As  action  is  called  endosmose ;  if  in  an  outward 
tbe  plant  grows^  now  threads  or  fibres  spring  direction,  it  is  called  exosmose.  It  is  supposed 
tan  the  fireshly  formed  leaves,  and  passing  to  be  upon  this  principle  that  the  sap  ascends 
first  down  the  centre  of  the  stem  crowd  the  in  trees  and  fluids  are  diffused  through  an- 
oU  ones  ont,  and  are  finally  directed  toward  the  imal  bodies.  Licbig,  after  describing  some  ex- 
and.  In  some  plants  the  rind,  being  soft,  is  co-  perimcnts,  in  which  fluids  were  made  to  pass 
fMe  of  unlimited  distention ;  in  others  it  soon  through  as  many  as  9  membranes,  to  fill  the 
ndnratea,  and  the  stem  consequently  ceases  to  vacant  space  left  by  evaporation  of  another 
glow  in  diameter.  The  best  example  of  this  fluid  in  a  glass  tube,  remarks  with  reference  to 
dsM  of  plants  is  the  palm,  whose  branchless  the  application  of  the  results  to  the  ])rocesses 
tnmk,  rising  from  80  to  150  feet  from  the  taking  place  in  the  animal  body  as  follows: 
fRumd,  and  terminated  by  a  simple  cluster  of  "  The  surface  of  the  body  is  the  membrane, 
mage,  has  a  striking  and  majestic  appearance,  from  which  evaporation  goes  constantly  for- 
Tlie  growth  of  this  tree  is  from  the  terminal  ward.  In  consequence  of  this  evaporation,  all 
Ml,  and  if  the  bud  is  destroyed  the  tree  per-  the  fluids  of  the  body,  in  obedience  to  atino- 
iAeL  In  some  instances,  as  in  the  doum  palm  spheric  pressure,  experience  motion  in  the  Oi- 
sf  ITpper  Egypt,  and  the  pandanus  or  screw  rection  toward  the  evaporating  surface.  This 
two  terminal  buds  appear  and  branches  is  obviously  the  chief  cause  of  the  passage  of  the 
shoot  forth.  The  asparagus  is  an  example  nutritious  fluids  through  the  walls  of  the  blood 
dogenons  growth.  Endogens  are  monoco-  vessels,  and  the  cause  of  their  distribution 
QUonoas ;  the  veins  of  their  leaves  are  almost  through  the  body.  We  know  now  what  impor- 
■ifiinnly  in  parallel  lines  connected  by  simple  taut  functions  the  skin  (and  lungs)  fulfil  through 
rene  bars :  their  flowers  are  trimerous,  or  evaporation.  It  is  a  condition  of  nutrition,  and 
tiwir  sepals,  petals,  stamens,  and  styles  in  the  influence  of  a  moist  or  dry  air  upon  the 
They  luxuriate  in  hot  and  humid  cli-  health  of  the  body,  or  of  mechanical  agitation 
and  the^  comprise  the  greater  number  by  walking  or  running,  which  increases  Uie  per- 
il flants  contributing  to  the  food  of  man,  and  spiration,  suggests  itself."  Interesting  examples 
lit  ft  small  proportion  of  poisonous  plants,  of  this  phenomenon  are  seen  in  the  passage  of 
Ikff  are  genmlly  shorter  lived  than  exogens,  the  gases  through  membranes.  If  a  tumbler, 
%fpi^  the  dragon  tree  and  others,  whose  filled  with  air  and  covered  at  top  with  a  thin 
ymrth  is  not  limited  by  the  hardening  of  the  sheet  of  India  rubber,  is  placed  under  a  bell 
Mrteal  integnroent  of  the  stem,  may  attain  a  glass  filled  with  hydrogen,  the  gas  will  soon ' 
pHfc  age.  The  average  age  of  the  palms  is  penetrate  the  cover  and  mix  with  the  air;  and 
Mdups  200  or  800  years.  this  action  will  go  on  till  the  India  rubber  bursta 
_XNlK>B  (Heb.  home-fountain),  a  town  of  open  from  the  increased  bulk  of  the  contents  of 
asrigned  to  the  tribe  of  Manasseh,  the  tumbler.    If  the  tumbler  contained  hydro- 


148  EXDTUION  ENTANTIX 

gvn  ami  the  boll  j:]a«  *ir.  tho  Intlia  niliWr  rolJijionsrriO*!.    IleiliarptHlliirn  atnlhi^f -'.l-'W- 

noulil  thru  h*}  iiri*>o««l  in  Lv  tlio  v«o:i|>o  cf  tho  cr-  with  {'laiinin^  u  H*ciul  ifrilcr  fi>un<li->l  u|«*n 

in^  Wviit^  tho  i>nriiuii  rcinaiiiiD^;  uf  ^roatly  liivntioiisiios;  s^luiraiuii  t*ri«iii  Chum  in  I*^-<l.ar.J 

reiliirtn)  (U'li^ity.  <IiiMl  a  year  after wiirti.     Ili.'t  M.*ci«.«iiin  wa^  foi- 

KNPYMIoN,  in  an<-ii'nt  niytholo^ry.  a  shcp-  U^himI  liv  that  uf  t!io  vt'onuniioal  aiid  i^'Iitifal 

liiTil  itrrt-n  lark  libit*  U-nniy,  «h<».  ai\-«>nlin^  to  a  sri'tion  ot'tho  >rh(Hil.     Lnlaiitin.  howc\iT.  pir- 

Cin'tk  Ir;;i*nd.  ri'tintl  i.'\i-ry  ni^ht  to  ugmtitift'  M»tfJ  in  hi:»  on(Ka\or^  to  i'«tuMi-«L  a  nvw  re- 

Monnt  L.-itniiH  i:i  i'uria.     As  \iv  •K'|»t  ihc  ;:(m1-  li^rion.     Ho  aili]rLv<<<-<l  lii'«  folium  cni  («h«.>in  he 

f]o<^S*li*ni'(:honioun)  Ivruinvi-naniorL'tlot'l.ini,  cMiniatod  ut  40j'^'m)  in  Frunci'  alunv)  mith  the 

aiid  leaving  hi-r  ( liariot  laniv  doun  to  liini.  The  aulLority  of  a  superior  hcin;;  avi  apart  by  Prtir- 

c<  lipM"*  of  tho  moon  Wi*ri»   bttri^utol  to  thrns  idcnro  for  tliv  pur{<)!H*  of  inau^^nratinf*  a  iivw  era 

ri*it!«.    Hy  St'lcnc  he  h:iil  o**  (lunj^htiT.'*.    Jupitrr  for  humanity  thnui^'h  thei-nmnripatiun  azM  th« 

condi'inni'I  him  to  |ii'q*i-tuul  skvp.  or.  aci.-oril-  a^i-iioy  of  woman.     Ho  i-ndfa^nrvd  to  find  the 

ing  to  fit!  I  IT  aoounnt.s  ti»  5i»  yoar*>  i>f  7»lcci>.  fi-mali'  MoMali  {Jrmmr  MesMu)  wlio  id  Lin  o|.iii- 

KNFANTIN,   Hahtii^.i  emy  Pm^^pEx,  pim-r*  ion  w:lh  prcdc^tini'd  to  War  to  hiin  a  ni-w  »a- 

ally  kMi>\\n  utidcr  the  namo  of  \\u*  Kniantin,  \ionr  of  niankiml.     Ho  oijointd  on  all  hi>  ad- 

ono  (if  tho  foiindtT'i  of  St.  SimoniMu,  Inirn  in  hiTont'*  in  the  ditft-rviit  part^  of  Francv  to  aid 

I'arLs  Ki'h.  i^,  17'.MK    Uv  wai  tin*  N*n  of  a  l>ankiT,  him  in  hi<i  K>ardi  for  thi-  female  ;  an^l  ullhi»iififa 

and  with  hi<»  fv!1ow  pupil-^  wai  ili'*iniv.M*d  from  his  Mn^ular  thittrii***  wcro  attarkc<l  1>t  tuanj 

tlio  ]Hi1\te(lini(' M'hiHiI  alter  March  ."o,  1>1 4,  fur  of  hi't  old  asMn'iates  ho  roLtinuvii   tu   inake 

having  fired  tm  that  day  on  the  ikllie<l  tro'ip*:.  pnr^lytes  t!io  nuniU-r  of  hi"*  publicatioD*  in- 

lle  tlu-n  bt*camo  a  roninieroial  travvKi-r,  and  in  cri:LM.d  rapidly,  and  he  Hi-nt  up*nt4  to  tho  uria- 

1***J1  nieiiiU-r  i»f  a  nKri-:»!itiio  firm  in  St.  IVtrrs-  ripal  citie;*  of  Kiirope.      Ho  ^'avo  ^plvndi«l  CD- 

burg.     Ho  returned  tu  France  in  I'^Jii.  and  was  tertainmcnt<i  at  i'aris  whith  arc  Mid  to  Lava 

cunvertt-*!  ti>  thti  thi^iry  of  St.  >im<in  by  a  •Uw  c*>-t  him  over  l.'iti.utMi,  in  which  the  paq^«< 

nanu-d  olir.de  l*i»ilri;;iioo,  who  liad  Uxn  one  (T  of  diM.-(»ver>n^  anions:  tho  women  pri<4c&:  the 

Lin  te:i<*hcr«.     At't^T  t!ie  ilealh  of  St.  >;tili>n,  M:iy  h>Ii;:-<^iU^lit   individual  wa>  lie ViT  h«kt   »i^ht  all 

ly,  \^'2\  Knfintin  and  K«*dri^'uen  be::ari  the  piih-  He  procured  a  luan  of  |1»V»'  for  tho  I'^labt.ih- 

licatioii  of  a  jf:iri.at  ( /.r  ;'rif/tirrr>/r».  wli!i  h  wai  mmt  of  itdu**!nal  work^hop^  but  thi>  amriont 

d:MM»nti!;ueiI  tiiuardiheeiidof  1>J>) :  many  {•«-r-  va<»  i.ot   ^u!^U'itllt.      They  were   !Nmu  Ctit»cda 

■itiit.  who  had  ^'i\en  their  Mip|Mirt  to  i:  while  and  tho  /r7t-V  now>{iaiHT  W'a<*  a^«o  dL»c>int*cu«d 

it!«di*i«'U«>kiMiin^\iro  conttneil  t«i*M.K'ial  and  indu«-  for  w;int  (»f  faiid^.      T!to  attentiiin  i-f  th«  aa« 

trial    interests  liavii-;;  wiiliilrawn   Ojt  >i^*i\  u*  thi*rities  beiti^  ut  b'n;r*Ji  dra^n  tu  hi«  UMxlinis^ 

Knfaiitin  :k^o!:iniil  tho  chanwler  of  a  n*ii;:iim.'*  tl.ev  were  iIi-hiI  in  M:iv,  1*»32.     He  n*.-*  with* 

iniii>\3t><r.  and  <.-«pi-t-i:i!!y  a*.  M^^n  U'^  he  W:!.-  de-  driw  w  ii  h  4o  1*1' hi^  f  •!!<•«  ir«.a:::ot.;wh>  •::.  wer« 

ni  :i!n'ed  a*  *i:ih  by  I$t-iMa!nin  T. ■:.■»!.»:::.     Kti-  Micl.il  C'iii\ii'.i*r   ai.il   oi!n.r  emii.t.r.:  inr.  to 

fa:<!i;i.  !.i'\\f%  I  r.  i-i>:itiiiU(d  t>t  ad\oi  4:e  1:1^  %  !•  \i4  t).e  i.vi^!iUirii«i<Nl  i>!'  TarN,  i.«ar  M.  ?-!'i'  ..r  '^r* 

bv  Ii-.  t'.rr-ai.d  piiblie  nieetirii:«».    1  he  reN i'l'iTi'-n  Hi Tt-,  i.j"»:i  "t*!',!-  l.i:..l  w ).:<.  !i  Ul'-n^id  !••  1.;e\ 

of  1**..«»  l^av.'r%d  ti.r  n:'iv«.i:.iiir,  whi.  !i  w  .in  >,k.ii  they  %«:.ti>'.i-lii  il  a  o-::»::i'::.;*y  aiil  >]•*:.*.  tl.«ir 

r«ri'.i  il'.y  I  rj.i'.:,-d    with    I'Tifai.t-::  :ind  Ikx':irfl  time  ir:  i:ia:ti>al  lii'^ir  m.'I  >t.S  :::•';. loi.  rxl.j^;-.' 


a*  the  1 1.:.  f  li  .nil -%  J  yV-w  f./»rr;»»,fjr.  M.-l  u  .;!i  ii.iiii^trat!  >:.*,    iixir    w):ii-i.    Fhfuiit.Ti  ir*-»:ici 

the  /fi'i-'f  I'.i  «<>;:.;•<  r.  ot  »  liii  !i  M.i*hi-i  I  !.»  vaiier  Aja.h  arra:^Ti»d  b>    tin'  ;^■\^  r:.i:.r:.t.  Kiif^XitJi 

w  a^*  i«:;:-r.  .,*  j;«.  ir;;.in.     A  SM-hi-in.  ht.wi  %i-  apj'^.irnl  i:i  :l,e  ii-:irt  with  l^.i  Llit-^CtvUe 

^N'li  l;i'».r  I  i:t   Ivruiin  thi- t^-i  Ivaili :«.     Kii-  Ffiriii  1  ai.«l  A,:!:»e  >.i;iit  ir'ai:*    a*  hi*  n  UL^-i ; 

f.i:.*;ti  i»,i-  a  b,n*ht!.ir  a: A  a  •»<  ntiniei.'.a!.*:.     11"  b'lt  \\  %y  w,  n-  i.'-:  ptri:.;:*.i  1  :  •  p!i.i  !  !.;•  ra'i*e, 

t!i\  .1  ■!  iriiiiiki:.!!  ii.t.»  !uo  iI.L'.m-,  \\.v  11:  ]  •..!•.:  no  i :.«   tr:al  l.i-tt-l  -  ■1.*%-  :  A'.^.  27  aii-l  ^'•.  KSy. 

a:.d  tl.v  i'  1  ■:,:;,!•■'.:'..  {]iv  :".'ri:»i  r  ;:«i\t  ::;•  \  .-».  !i'.y  lU-  wsl*  f"ii.  I  JT'J.'.:;.  u:i'!  v.:.!e:n  n!  •«>  a  }<ar*« 

\y  rr»ii«.e:.:  •>•  r::iMu  li!-  and  eJKt  t^  !).i-  i.iti.  r  in.;.  n-«innieit'.  I  ;:  •*.:  fr*v  afttrafow  i:v  r.:h»' 

a.w  i>-  Xy  3)  ni.ii^  pr;:i  ■;  1«^.     In  1  r<i(r  t<i  }..r-  «;» :. :  !i-':i.      He  ►:;!-«. ,'.i:j!:>   >\^,\.l  i  iiat*  in 

11!   ■  I/.-  !*  i-  |h  r*«'!..il  r\  ia?:i'ri"«  hi  iw  n:.  i:  .  ••i  i;v.i  Y.j\  \  !.  j»fti  r  w  h.i  !i  ho  re*.;;::  vd  t"   Fraz..-«,  d«- 

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ENFEELD  ENGHIEN                    149 

Ti^er,  Bazard,  and  Abel  Transon.    It  passed  or  nsed  for  pasture  lands.    The  valley  was  for 

through  4  editions  from  1880  to  1832,  and  a  some  time  subject  to  Anstria,  wbich  lost  it  in 

Bev  ediUon  appeared  in  1854.     In  bis  latest  1623.    Most  of  the  male  population  emigrate  at 

irork,  "  Knowledge  of  Man  and  Religious  Physi-  an  earl/  age  and  scatter  themselves  over  all 

olo^^  (Paris,  1869),  bo  still  maintains  bis  pe-  parts  of  the  continent     Some  of  the  higher 

cohar  reKgious  and  social  theories.  Alpine  pastures  of  the  valley  are  let  every  sum- 

ENFE^D,  a  market  town  of  Middlesex,  mer  to  Italian  shepherds.    The  natives  speak 

England,  on  the  London  and  Cambridge  rail-  a  peculiar  dialect  called  Bomansh, 

way,  10  m.  N.  E.  from  London;  pop.  in  1851,  EN6AN0,  an  island  of  the  Malav  archipelago, 

9,453.    It  is  noted  as  the  seat  of  an  ancient  pal-  €0  ra.  8.  of  Sumatra,  in  lat.  5^  21   S.  and  long, 

•oe,  now  half  mined,  built  in  the  time  of  Henry  102"^  20'  £.    It  is  about  80  m.  in  circuit,  of  a 

VIL,  and  of  the  manufactory  of  the  well-known  triangular  form,  thickly  covered  with  forests, 

rifles  which  take  their  name  from  this  place,  and  surrounded  by  coral  reefs.    With  some 

The  mannfactory  employs  1,300  bands,  and  small  islands  adjacent,  it  has  an  area  of  400  sq. 

turns  cot  weekly  1,100  stands  of  arms.    The  m.    The  natives,  who  are  genuine  Malaya,  Uve 

term  ^  Enfield  rifle  "  does  not  denote  any  par-  in  conical  bouses,  have  neither  cattle  nor  fowls, 

ticolar  improvement,  but  the  result  of  a  series  and  seem  to  subsist  wholly  on  cocoanuts,  sugar 

of  improvements  on  the  old  musket.    The  ^uns  cane,  bananas,  and  fish.    Unsuccessful  attempts 

are  made  by  machinery  after  the  American  have  been  made  by  the  Englbh  and  Dutch  to 

ratem.  which  a  commission  was  sent  out  by  open  an  intercourse  with  these  islanders.    On 

the  BntM^  government  to  examine  about  1851.  the  S.  E.  side  of  the  island  there  is  a  safe  bar- 

ENFIELD,  William,  an  English  theologian,  bor,  formed  by  a  bay  protected  from  the  sea  by 

bom  in  Sudbury,  March  29, 1741,  died  in  Nor-  4  small  islands. 

wiefa,  Nov.  3, 1797.  He  was  a  dissenter,  and  in  ENGHIEN,  Louis  Antoine  Heitbi  de  Bonn- 
1763  was  chosen  pastor  of  a  congregation  in  Liv-  bon,  duke  o^  a  French  prince,  of  the  Cond6 
crpdoly  where  he  remained  7  years,  and  publish-  family,  bom  in  Ghantilly,  Aug.  2, 1772,  execut- 
ed some  devotional  works  and  2  volumes  of  ed  at  Vincennes,  March  21,  1804.  He  received 
aennonsL  In  1770  he  was  elected  to  the  profes-  an  excellent  education,  served  under  his  grand- 
■onhip  of  belles-lettres  in  the  academy  at  father,  Prince  Louis  Joseph,  in  the  outbreak 
Wanington,  remdned  in  this  position  till  the  of  the  revolution  in  1789,  and  accompanied 
disBolation  of  the  academy  in  1783,  and  was  bis  father  and  grandfather  into  exile.  He 
sabsequently  pastor  in  Norwich.  His  biograph-  bore  arms  against  revolutionary  France  in 
ial  sermons  and  biblical  characters  are  not  only  the  famous  corps  of  royalist  emigrants  com- 
valnable  as  ^ds  to  interpretation,  but  exhibit  manded  by  his  grandfather,  and  distinguished 
considerable  force  of  thought  and  elegance  of  himself  both  by  bravery  and  humanity  to  his 
expression.  He  published  an  abridgment  of  prisoners.  On  the  disbanding  of  the  corps,  iq 
Bnicker^s  "History  of  Philosophy,"  and  a  work  1801,  he  fixed  his  residence  at  a  chateau  near 
entitled  **  Institutes  of  Natural  Philosophy,^'  and  Ettenheim,  in  Badon,  being  impelled  to  that 
wrote  under  the  signature  of  X.  many  articles  choice,  it  is  said,  by  his  affection  for  the  prin- 
hiAikin's  "Biographical  Dictionary."  He  was  cess  Charlotte  de  Rohan,  who  lived  in  Etten- 
also  the  compiler  of  "  Enfield's  Speaker,"  a  very  heim,  and  to  whom  be  was  perhaps  secretly 
popolar  collection  of  pieces  for  reading  and  re-  married.  Though  it  does  not  appear  that  ho 
dting  in  schools.  took  part  in  any  subsequent  plots  against  the 

ENFILADE  (Fr.  enfiUr\  in  military  affairs,  French  consul,  ho  was  generally  looked  upon  as 

a  trench  or  position  which  may  be  sconred  with  a  leader  of  the  emigres,  and  was  suspected  of 

riiot  tfarongh  the  whole  length  of  its  line.    A  complicity  in  the  attempt  of  Cadoudal  to  take 

tamch  or  parapet  is  said  to  be  enfiladed  when  Bonaparte's  life.    The  reports  of  spies  sent  to 

Am  guns  of  the  enemy  can  be  fire<I  into  it  in  a  watch  his  movements  gave  some  color  to  these 

direction  parallel  to  its  length.  surmises,  for  it  appeared  that  he  was  frequently 

ENGADINE,  or  Enoadin,  or  Valley  of  the  absent  for  10  or  12  days  together,  at  which  time 

Im,  a  beautiful  valley  of  Switzerland,  situated  it  was  supposed  that  he  secretly  visited  Paris.  It 

letr  the  sources  of  the  Inn,  at  an  altitude  varying  was  thought  that  an  unknown  person,  apparent- 

im  3,500  to  6,100  feet  above  the  level  of  the  ly  of  rank,  who  had  been  seen  to  visit  Cadoudal 

■^  and  extending  along  the  banks  of  the  Inn,  at  Paris,  but  who  afterward  proved  to  be  Piche- 

AnnQgfa  the  canton  of  the  Grisons,  between  two  gru,  could  be  none  other  than  the  young  duke. 

■Aidpal  chains  of  the  Khsetian  Alps,  from  the  Anxious  to  terrify  the  royalists  by  a  decisive 

Xdoia,  which  separates  it  from  the  picturesque  blow,  and  to  put  a  stop  to  their  attempts  upon 

fil^y  of  Brigcll,  to  the  gorge  of  Finstermilntz,  his  life,  Napoleon  resolved  to  seize  and  execute 

Mtlie  confines  of  the  Tyrol;  length,  about  45  m.;  the  duke,  and  accordingly  sent  Gen.  Ordener 

wmnm  breadth  between  1  and  2  m. ;  pop.  esti-  with  800  gendarmes  to  make  the  capture.    The 

■ited  at  11,000,  chiefly  Protestants.    The  tops  soldiers  surrounded  the  chateau  on  the  night  of 

of  tbe  sorronnding  mountains  are  inaccessible  March  15,  1804,  arrested  the  duke  in  his  bed, 

ndOg  and  the  sides  are  sometimes  covered  and  conducted  him  immediately  to  Strasbourg, 

vMi  ^aciers.    The  valley  and  the  lower  part  whence  he  was  removed  on  the  18th  to  the  for- 

flf  the  mountains  are  susceptible  of  cultivation,  tress  of  Vincennes.    He  had  received  warning 

krt  are  for  the  most  part  occupied  by  forests  of  his  danger  from  Talleyrand  and  from  tho 


i.-.^  ir   'Tf^itrTL  ir-n^;  ..t  r..:ii.-T.-r  i:  "irii-  fir."!.     T'l**  ▼  -j*  i^-r'-^-.!  t..  AnliimiMi  s  nn- 

-L-«    irtar  .r   ;;n-  .i  iet7".i:i    lUMi  r:it"»     ::   :'..r-  2- r:^-u«   ".':.-  i:  F*;-    -  ulr.  i»*  a!^i  hi*  in  v*n- 

r-.rT;::j    k    -..wp-ni-.r*.       T.f    ir.-r.i-r    -^r.u-iiiMi  :.•.■.•!.-•;    rj  ..il  :-.t.- t^tritii'i.*  in  inv«  lianical 

"  ari'nr.iri     ■;    ;,!•   •-  -r.iii^     f  -.:••   ••>.-.  i.:.i  %  «.■.••:.••?.  -'-.•.•..•  :.  -.  :..  a  hi,fli  r&iik  aa  an  t-np- 

**▼    ."  ""^    Jii-nrir;   i   :  ■•ir'niixr'.'.i..  **•-:■:#••!  I'm-       V  "-;.-::*  wj.*  a  fvlrbratcJ   iT.^iai-«-r 

iv.-r   ..-    ..-r..  -i.ui:!.  iH^^'iiiiii-i    a  ",.••  •■■r*.";-i,  K"<!:".<«i  :  ▼  A  vj".'?:"*  !••  t!u- i.'ffirt  of  !»uj*riii- 

a   r.: -.i    r-u    ▼!■  rr.i^  '«.- li^'i.  tiii.   ▼:.!-'::  Vr.:.-^   icii  :.;.-  ..-^    i?.c    militarr  m^in,.^ 

tta  '^LdT-.m^Liin    ii"  V  r:ii~-f    .p  t-::  ^n  -»— r.-  ir.-:  f.-  -r  vi.-r    j.  v -l  a*  an  ari'hitvrtural 


Hi'Ti*     111-    i  .«••    TUi  '.lir.-:   r*.:>7  t.:   '!.-»•»  v'-r  'v  L  *  r.viv-*     /•<  .-frrAir/rrurai  u|io& 

Siorr*-    i  T'-a**  n.  uiii  it  .i:i!:  i-i    ill"..  ?:-■:-  ".:»r     r.  ;....-^     f  »-!•.   f-rtilii-atU'iLS  U-cr.|i!vA, 

"iuo.     .Ilj  -•■.  :i=*»  "ti  *v 'ill-  ir-z  ■  r.-::.  1:11 1 -.j  v..  :i-t"*.  -  u"' 'i*  !v.  i.-^u!..*  t :i;: jif.<4,  niilN,  Ar. 

jit   Li.'^X'Z'i  fc  -iiiite-fciir  v"'i    .i«t:i    :•:;:.•-:.     Hi  I*:.'-.:^  *  .-  z- ■:•:.-    aj^*.  ami  iii^Iwil  u|i  I0  tLe 

▼.to  H.- t     • -.  rruiiipiL    j«'T..fn  ♦  ic*:  #    ■  •:.•■*  "■::.•:      if  r.      .1:.- •: ..  !:■  r.    nf  Mi-aiii    cii^inr^, 

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"▼.■to  -Li.-i'vi.  ir— *u  la  I  T  L-.  :i:..  i  ,r^."  •  »i:i'!i  '.:••    -,■  :ri.:..-:  ■  ^•rrj.v-r-  *•{  i:.c  I»iiti  h  aim!  tb« 

Laa   ji— :x    ;u*r   -:u    1-47    i-\:r\      r..j  TTirrai  m-ijJ.«  ■  r..-:.-:.  !o:  '.z  i.'.c  crth  of  Ilalj,  were 

ma  il    17    ;.:i   in-;   !!:•:  ii::.a.:-t*  Tr:^*'-  --.x-  -'    '  ••-*    a.*  ...••-•  ti.-al    I  rar  i  ?*    of    Xhv     priifc*> 

siL*i   «  v-rii::^    A    iiT-  r    -..'^  •ic'i'.''xt  i.:r.Tt».  *!•  n     ir-:     f  :i.r-«  v.o  r:nt*t  iiaDiii!f^  arr  iIm 

'iiiiUin    t    iMi    fi  jircuiii-i  ?'f  :•  i    a  ■:i:r:::i;f  i  i- rr^e-    r  ::...  jr»v.  i :. -r- !.•  •,  a-rhat  ^.f  St.  Mary 

«ijn  \2  :.  :.-  ;a  •  "-:•**  'f  .'.uii  'i-Lu.     >'ic«ic.'a  i^  ?*•  >.':.•••.  ■  j   ::.-t:  •>!;«■«.  i.s;  <f  St.  TtUr'!*  at 

mil    i^  :...i:j    :i.<.-j:;:i;i:-.*  '..t  it  -s «•:!"/  ':ix^r^  ij  F-  r:e.    .t  }*,.r.L::.  Sa:;  li.i!:'s  ami  MirM  Ah- 

,iis<::^  v. fir    -  u«:;i:\  u:<:    i  ':a.«*  ■!ij''-=r  j^wa  ^•'      -».^'-    r"  >".  Pa  ;!'•  a:  LfiHlfn.  l-j  Sir  CLri*- 

»a«wT  *  :  '  :t  *...ein  "*  is  3ii.!<  ^.-""7  -•  |-«'.'-r  W.-.s.     The  ■:.!r»-!i;i  !;i-n  i»f  ihe  »tram 

TN  :'>;Tyv'\.;    y-    ..  ,^^7.   ^^    •air-i**  .   a  <::^":'*.  i.^*!  *.".•*  ^v a:  vi :«:.•. ^'n  nfniiinLfaftarrf 

:i'— II  iiM'i.*.--    .1.*  i  '  •.    •  .i-  ->:-  r"'-^:«  11  *..:•■  .•  "^-r.  .*•  r-H?-;  ivi:  :!.•  ."o  n.  i:^.-r;t«l  niw  tit*M«  ft^r  t^ 

it  *  1.1 .:   .-":.-•  -  <:.<r:i :..  .:    r    a.ui.-.  *l.^-  :ii:«w  ?.»r-i:.«  c-*    :  ::.*•  ir^.nrrr :  ami  in  Eii^laad |>ar- 

ir«:::»-».  j.;  iir«:  ;•  '  •.  i.:-i  •.*;.. "or  *    •'»•.     T':- -^  •-•■  :.j.-' 7  '.i.-s  a.—.  :::  .'.«  %&rii<u»  ili-i>artuirtit»  at- 

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„     ....  ....'.     .....       ;.;,..      'i  ■.T-..<a-  .   >i2i  •:"■•:.     Till?  livili*  K-Ofrrt 

cc  V  1..  ,     ',-  ;•  taj   .»    *    .      ..           I.  '  M  •  «     i.  I  •     •■  '-v  *  f..r  .::  ■  ''.'  r  tV  1!  !!..•  Irii!^*  ^hall 

%!    .     "...     ,v  ,  .1,   '..     ».«    ■        s  -       .,    •  •   -s  ■••".-*•:  -■'       -:r:-:    :.   •-.  :fr  larjrc  •hij-t  thai 

Ii...   I.  •  i  .»•      .,  •..   '..■     ■     ■•    •■         ■■•  '           ■•-■  1'-^""    ■■   *-^  ■  »-   »~  •• «?  t  *:  ;:iry.     lifulle  a:aiw 

.,  ...    ,, ....     ,..,>»    .    ■'.■    .•  ..  ^>..  .;       "'..       ■.  ■  '•  "^  '  ■  '■•■<''  •*;  -i-"^'.  *''i  IT  i:i  i.uTn':K«ri«ri:Nr 

.^.   ^,^,    .    ....    ....    '.           .    .  *.■*.    1.- :  1  L.->  :  tf  »  :}.  i*.o  *!.»|«'  «-f  l5  r  pToTiBj 

,\  .  .  .    ^   ■   ..  .    •   .^    \    ^                  .,    .    .  I.    -.  "^  ■■    -'•    !•   \*:  .r.  I.^:J!i!,  Mjpl».»r:  tl.r  5r;jg« 

,,    ^..^  .J         ..       .....            .   ..•     .  ■*  .'.*.-•••:  1-^  •-■  f::.v  r.wT.    To^p^ii ihe riiir 

■'»'*,■        -..  •*  ■  •  :^      '.  1    -. -n:  ::  ir.:  to  i:*  nav  v»l'<*Q  •»» 

«•  w*    ,-1.      »••■  '^ 

.     ,  ,,^.             ^ ,  .       I      .^       sr     •  -•  ~    -■       '■'  ^'  '*  -*»■'  •  ■»>  "  *  f*v:  t!i*i ;»,  ar«!  iJ.e  Kc«t- 

...      ...    ,     .              ,     ^,    .:  r.i     *  f  ■ ;  ■:   1;  :  jra\i!  iittL-ii:.^  J«.»  fc*:  fur- 

.,,...  ^ ^       ■••.%...•  •.■.--■'•-       :.  :o  Mr   l»r.:.ilia«.«»Ja  o.i^i'tr 

1.  ■*  ■    •  • 


.    n -*  —  :    -."..T  f«.<  1  111  ilaiiuUT  ar.il   !■•> 


'.  ^  !*  .^     .  ^    .^       -  r*  .'  «»  .-  S.-i*\;vi!M  \\  f*.ri  il.-;  in  air  La- 

.^ ,     .^             A  »  •      1  *•  ^    •  ^^"^  •-fi*.^'-*  j'^x-^-ro.  :;.*.■  I-  .\!»  Ti  i.*  at  U-ttc-o 

,    ..  ....             ^t  w  .>  -\:  ■.  1*^:  S"  ::  t:.  w.  r*  T.J  *.*liin  iJ«*ii6  to 

..      ,  .         »        »  .      ,  ■         •  1  n..  .  :»  vi  :.ci^:-!..r  .  a:.*!  i:>  a  «?•*♦  :L>^:  «3- 

^     ..     .  ^.     .  ••        »    L»  *^.      *r  k-:"  r  i*«  Ln  » a»  r.i:^^i!  ftl».i*rl'o  i^^r- 

^^  4,^.'  .«*-4i/j.    ..  .^i'^i^^  '•'♦  r**-   t.-^-i  wf  W-i.^:  |.la:c  .r.u  m  a;.L  Uta 


vfreniaJe  readj  upon  the  land  to  be  laid  acroH 
tk«e  opeDinga,  each  to  have  one  foot  upon  the 
Bier  in  the  rirer  and  one  upon  the  pier  on  either 
Wk.  Eadi  meMored  470  feet  in  length,  17 
fat  in  width,  and  13  teA  in  height;  and  with 
tbadwina  U>  b«  auspeoded  from  it  Tor  sapportiiig 
the  n»dw>v,  the  weight  of  each  exceeded  1,200 
.  loM.  Ita  strength  was  tested  by  a  we^ht  of 
IJOO  tons  distribnted  over  the  whole  arch, 
the  cfiect  of  which  waa  only  to  cause  a  tem- 
porsr7  deflectioQ  of  7  inches.  The  tabes,  being 
mted  oat  upon  iron  pontoons  and  bronght  to 
their  plaeo*,  were  raised  by  hjdraalio  prea- 
■n^  ue  metlioda  emplojed  resembling  Uiosa 
iJiipfi  il  for  fioatiog  and  eloratingthe  Britannia 
tmkr  bridge.  Twice  every  week  the  spans 
wve  rwaed  3  feet  in  one  day ;  and  in  the  inter- 
nJi  the  maaonry  on  the  land  side  was  boilt  up 
to  iiiptioit  the  outer  end.  The  ends  in  the  mid- 
fla  of  the  river  were  sastained  b;  teniporvy 
Wr*'"c  each  time  they  were  raised,  until  a 
Wl)),lil  of  14  feet  was  attained,  which  admitted 
IBm  inaertion  of  one  of  the  joints  of  this  length 
of  tiw  great  cast  iron  columns,  4  of  which  snp- 
fottedfiiese  ends.  When  thearched  tnbeswere 
tiktA  to  the  height  required,  the  chuns  forsup- 
porliiif  tbe  roadway  were  attached,  and  the 
vort  was  then  toon  completed.  To  stiffen  the 
^■etuv,  tbe  parts  were  strongly  bonnd  togeth- 
er with  cross  ties  of  wrought  iron.  The  quan- 
ti^  of  this  metal  employed  in  the  work  was 
iboat  S,650  tons,  beside  1,200  tons  of  east  iron. 
Tbtx*  were  also  used  about  11,000  cubic  feet  of 
timber  and  459,000  cubic  feet  of  masonry. 
Hhttt  finished,  tbe  bridge  was  tested  by  a  trwn 
'  "  g  400  tons,  crossing  and  recrossing  at 
speeds.  Tlie  greatest  deSection  ob- 
sarveaaidnotexceedliinches.  The  appearance 
■  and  to  be  tasteful  and  elegant,  thongh  the 
only  object  in  view  was  strength  and  etaDility. 
b  naval  engineering,  also,  England  was  prcSm- 
iMUt  in  the  constrnctlon  of  the  largest  ships. — 
Ihe engineering  worlds  of  the  United  States  are 
ediitnted  in~  ita  long  lines  of  railroad,  so  eon- 
ibsctcd  as  to  stretch  at  the  least  cost  over  vast 
Bd  thinly  populated  areas;  in  its  canals,  its 
&7  docksl  fortifications,  and  breakwaters;  and 
■or*  especially  in  i-litp-building,  which,  how- 
over,  in  the  United  States  is  not  ordinarily  treut- 
«d  oa  a  branch  of  engineering. 

ESGLAND  (Ut.  Anglia;  Fr.  AngUUrrt),  tt 
iimiilij  of  Europe,  forming  with  Wales  the  south- 
Ma,  larger  and  more  important  division  of  the  isl- 
■n  of  Great  Britain,  and  the  principal  member 
•fdko  United  Kingdom  of  Great  Britain  and  Ire- 
faid;  bounded  K.  by  ScoUand,  E.  by  the  Ger- 
■>■  oeean,  S.  by  the  straits  of  Dover  and  the 
Thflinh  channel,  separating  it  from  France  by 
dfattAcea  incresEing  westward  from  31  m.  to  100 
»,8.W.  by  the  Atlantic,  aod  W.  by  St.  George's 
Aarnd  >od  the  Irish  sea,  dividing  it  from  Ire- 
Ind,  aad  having  an  average  wiiltli  of  aboat  90  m. 
&  Im  between  hi.  49°  57'  42"  and  65°  46'  N., 
Ing.  l"  44'  £.  and  6°  IS'W. ;  its  greatest  length 
V.  and  a  is  400  m.,  and  its  greatest  breadth  2S0 
^    Ita  dupe  bears  some  resemblance  to  a  tri- 


AND  151 

angle,  the  apex  being  at  Berwick-on-Tweed,  tho 
northernmost  point  in  England,  and  the  extremi- 
ties of  the  base  at  the  Sooth  Foreland,  near 
Dover,  and  the  Land's  End,  at  the  S.  W,  point 
of  Cornwall.  Tlie  distance  in  adirect  line  from 
Berwick  to  tbe  South  Foreland  is  34S  m. ;  from 
thoSonth  Foreland  to  the  Land's  End,  317 m.; 
and  from  the  Land's  End  to  Berwick,  4SS  m.; 
making  a  total  perimeter  of  1,087  m.,  but  follow- 
ing the  ainnoeities  of  the  coast  the  perimeter 
will  be  about  3,000  m.  The  area  of  England  ia 
8a,GffO,429  atatute  acres,  or  S0,922  sq.  m. ;  that 
of  Wales  is  4,734,486  acres,  or  7,398Bq.  m.  The 
divisions  of  England  are  very  ancient,  the  coun- 
ties being  snbstantiolly  the  same  now  as  they 
were  10  centuries  ago,  though  a  few  have  been 
made  inlater  times.  Each  conntyisaubdivided 
into  hundreds,  and  the  hundreds  into  parishes. 
London  is  the  metropolis  of  the  United  King- 
dom, and  the  other  principal  places  are  Liver- 
pool, Ifanchester,  Birmingham,  Leeds,  Bristoli 
Sheffield,  Bradford,  Hull,  Sootham^ton,  &e. 
The  following  table  shows  the  population  of  the 
counties  in  lUl  aod  18S1,  number  of  inbaln- 
tauta  to  the  sqnare  mile,  and  county  towns : 


CmiUn. 

lUI. 

W1. 

«1 
3M 

a 

ME 

1 
ns 

R«4 

STS 

'«! 

IM 

lie 

15* 

llf 
As; 

1 

IS! 
4«l 

C<»=ljl«» 

IS 

istw 

8«,1M 

ns.D3s 
r^«6 

S44!9Tf 

1 

I,««7,(M 

S1IS.G87 

RSi.ises 

14It.WS 

4i&eM 

m.v» 
«e,OM 

14S.il  0 
JS3.1S7 

»i,3ei 

«w»» 

M9.4T1 

esiess 

SOftOV! 

'K 

,,1S 

H 
'S 

IM.4IS 
441,114 

■0S,8M 

"B 

MS341 
4U,9IS 

405,870 

nvnt 

80.301 
lIB.ai4 
l.S2\4!»S 

Ciinbilrteo 

Aj-lnftuiT. 
rambrtdgt 

ItoTlinlo. 
Csrllile. 

DurliuD 

Ch'^l'"'l*rt. 

12";::::: 

Gloiin-.ter. 

UncaUr 

MlddlrHi 

Hrrnirord. 

Sa-T::::: 

Ni.nl  iiiBpton. 
)  upr.n-TyB«. 

Sominwl 

Sasscl 

Wurwlck 

W.slmotclsnd.. 

rhlchj^. 

^E^  Elding... 

^^'^- 

Ni.rti.  Bwiiif.. 
WcitBlrlln;... 

Norlliillerton. 
Itlppn. 

TotJil 

U.9BT,«T 

lfl.9Sl,SSS 

sm 

Wales,  which  woa  incorporated  with  the  Englidt 


152  ENGLAND 

tnonftrchj  in  the  time  of  Eel  wan!  I.,  is  dirMed  Norwich,  whirli  is  now  near  tho  centre  of  th% 

ioto  12  conntio^  with  an  a^nrri-frato  iK>|iiiIatiuu  £.  divisiun  of  Norfolk,  having  utood  in  tb«  13Kh 

In  IMl  t»r  1(11.705,  and  in  1^51  of  1.0ii5,721 ;  and  14th  centuriva  on  an  arm  of  the  tea.    Tba 

ETeragenuiuUTof  inhaliitantf«|K-r^.ni.  in  lh51,  8.  rooAt,  from  the  South  Foreland  to  bcTOod 

136.     Including  tho  itrinT,  iiaval  and  nivrfltiint  FoIki'Mtonc,  U  characterinKl  by  loftjclialk  clitC^ 

marin€iM>rviiv.  thea^rvgutoimpulattonof  Enj;-  which  are  continuallj  diinint«hing  in  height, 

land  anil  WhIvs  in  IK"^!  was  iKjNM.&ril.  of  w!toni  It  then  gradually  sulMidc*  into  Romncy  nur»h, 

8,683,2lH  wcro   inidi'rt  and   t*,121,25:{  foiDulcH,  Vi\  of  which   tho   shoro    becomes  dtcnuUely 

and  the  oMimato<l  population,  Juno  30,  Ih57,  precipitous  and  flat.     The  W.  b  by  far  the 

WAS  19.:t<4,<HK>.   Tho  numbiT  of  marriage  A  regiiH  ino^t  irregular  of  the  Englbdi  coafttA.     It  i«  high 

tereil  in  England  during  the  finit  9  mouths  of  and  rorky  an  fiir  a^  Minvhead  bay  on  the  liri^ 

1668  was  liw.rd  ;  nuniU'r  of  births  during  tho  tot  channel.    North  of  tho  princi|iality  of  Walca 

whole  y vur,  C5r»,4i27 ;  numberof  dcath^45U.0I8,  the  shore  con»i!»ts  of  wa»tmg  clitf;!  of  red  clay 

an  incroa«o  of  2 '.(.999  from  tho  previous  year,  and  marl,  of  |>euiniiulaa  which  were  probably 

Tba  ratio  of  nmrtality  wuuld  tlius  Iio  uliout  1  in  once  more  elevated  than  they  are  now,  of  aln 

43;  in   1740  it  was  1  in  40,  and  1H52  it  was  rupt  headlaIld^  and  toward  Sidway  frith  of 

Cftimatod   at   1    iu  56. — Tho  most  ini|H)rtant  Miids  and  marshes.   The  most  mountainona  part 

rivers  of  England  are  the    Mod  way,  Thames,  of  England  lies  N.  of  the  riven  11  umber  and 

Stour,   Orwell,    (ireat    Duse,  Neue,   Wi-Uaiid,  MerNoy,  and  is  traversed  N.  and  S.  by  a  ranga 

Witham,    IIiimlKT,  Trent,  Unso,   Tees,  Wear,  called  tho  Pennine  mountains  or  the  northern 

Tyne,  and  Tweed,   all  of  which  empty  into  range,  connected  with  the  Cheviot  hilU  oo  tlM 

tha   Cienuan  oci*an ;    the    Enk,   Eden,    Lune,  Scotch  border,  and  teniiinating  in  Derbyshira. 

Ribble,  Mersey,  Uoe,  Svverii,  Avon,  Taw,  and  The  general  height  of  its  aummita  is  3,000  to 

Torridge,  whidi  empty  on  the  W.  c«)a»t ;  and  8,40()  fei>t.    Thin  range  is  about  60  ra.  long,  and 

the  Tamar,  Eie,  Froom,  Avon  (Ilamimhire),  of  unetiual  widtli,  varying  from  a  narrow  ridf* 

and  Siuthunjpton  water,  which  flow  into  tho  to  20  m.     West  of  it  are  the  Cumbrian  noon- 

Englifh  channel.    Many  of  these  have  broad  es-  tains,  occupying  the  central  and  S.  portions  of 

tnaries  at  their  mouths  and  are  navigable  by  Cumberland,  the  largest  part  of  Wr»tmorelandv 

large  vo^-n-N.    The  English  lakes,  though  few  in  and  tlio  N.  part  of  I^ncivhire.    Their  higtieai 

number,  An^fametl  fur  their  beciuty.   Thopictur-  summits  are  K-afell  (.'(,1GG),  llelvellyn  (3,055)i, 

eac|ne  di-^tricts  of  We-tmoreland  and  Cumber-  Skitldaw   (3,u22),   aud   Howfoll  (2,911).     Tb« 

land,  in  wliioh  are  TlUwater  (9  m.  long,  and  Devonian  range  extends  fntm  tSonierte'tJkhirr  to 

from  I  ti»  2  m.  wide),  Windennero,  the  large!»t  the  Land's  End,  and  its  principal  elevatiuos  ar* 

lake  in  England  (loj  m.  h»ng,  and  IWrni  1  to  2  from  1.500  to  l.SOu  feet  high.  Tliroe croa rulitva 

m.  widf).  1<&<»«enthwai  to  water,  Perwentwater,  occupy  tho  S.  E.  part  of  tho  kingdom.  vxtcntLng 

llutterinoro,  Ennenlolo water,  ^'c,  arc  fuvifrite  frma  Sali-biiry  IMxiin,  onv  S.  E.  to  Lieachy  Hca«i 

auninier  re^irts.     The  Mvi-cou^t  i^  riun-h  bn^kcn,  aiHithvr  E.  to  the  lil.  bliore  of  Kent,  and  tlH*  third 

and  abomnU  in  tine  harbors  and  ruod-teadt.   i  Ui  N.  K.  into  Nurf^Ik.    The  f:unous  S4»uih  lKtwr.\ 

the  E.  are  Ilcrne  bay.  the  e!>tiiuri("«  «it'  the  Meil-  5^^  ni.lniig  and  5 or  ti  m.  wide,  are  in  the  flpit,  and 

way,  Tli:i!iir4,  and  HumlHrr,  und  tho  W:i*-h,  into  the  Surrey  hilU  or  downs  celebrated  like  tli# 

whichi'Mipty  the  Ciri-at  <  >uiie,  SvUt\  Witli.itn.  &c.;  furiiirr  fi<r  liu-ir!>hei'p  p!i<*ture%arv  in  the  ftecvtnd. 

on  the  W.  tl.v  bpiail  S«ilway  fritli.  U-:wo«*n  Kii*-  The  Malvvni  hilN  vxtoud  over  part^  of  the  csjoo- 

land  aiid  Smtland,  Mont-anilio  bay,  tho  Iiri«tol  tiesofiilnuceMer,  Hereford,  and  Woree?»t(.T.  Tha 

channol, )  >ridg«*  water  Imi).  and  tho  eM  Mar  io4uf  the  1  otswoM  and  Stroudwater  hiiN  are  in  <flotice»* 

I>uddnn,  Kibi-lo,  Mersey,  iK-o,  und  S-vvrn;  and  ti*r,  and  the  Chilteni  hills  oxtcnd  I'rcm  Hertford 

ou  the  S.  Mount'^  bujt,  Fnhnonth  IturlMir,  I'ly-  intti  Oxt'ord.     lMwc<'n  the«i'  ridges  lie   many 

mouth  ^t>*:nt!.  Tor  b.iy.  tin*  r*>tuary  of  the  Exo.  beautiful  vaU-s,  wutonsl  by  rivets;  other  i*aru 

Wiry  month  bav,  ]*imi1.*  h.iriior.  the  Soii-iit  ami  uf  the  et»'intry  hpread  out  in  va^^t  plain «,  »u<-h 

8*>utli.viitit«in  water  Ih  twi-«n  HniM]i^liiri*and  tho  im  the  plain  !•!'  York,  whirh  vxtiii<U  from  th« 

U'.e  »»f  \\  iirlit,  riirtMuo'itli  an«l  Chichr^tfr  bar-  valh-y  ufthe  Ti'*s  to  the  cuntluenco  *»f  th*  i>uio 

bors.    Ne.ir  the  oiitraruvof  I>iiVi  r  strait  into  the  nntl  Trent,  a  di^;:lli^o  of  7<i  or  b*i  ni .  anil  others 

(tvrmnn  <H'fnn  aro  the  wt-i!-ki.<iun  andiorago  aUuind    in   ru^ved   and    picturt.>«|Uo    K-rnt-ry. 

grounds  cillod  the  I>owTt«.  npjMi^ite  thot^'Hus  NorthumU rhihd  in  in  a  groat  dL-;:7ti- iM-(*upicd 

of  lH*a]  uml  Sanilwii  !i.     Thf    K.  maot  pre^nts  bvuuHipi,  whieh  .tlvi  iiiIit  much  nf  I.'tnea^hire, 

an  altrrnatiiMiof  Miidy  iTai-hi^  anil  rhalk  rlitfs  \tirk*>hire,    StalfopShire,    (uinU-rUnil,    Wt-«t- 

holl<»wod«Mit  in  nianv  p!a<-i'«in!<iifivi-^nud  « ith  ini>rrlunil,    a!id    iMirham.     Thi*«c   are   tltvat^-d 

several  hi.;!!  pr< If tt4ii;t'<r ii-«.     Tho  Atlaiitii"   ti^b's  trnetn,  m  nii><kl  plaei*  Mi-rile.  healh-^rri'*  n.  ur 

fonn  a  i»tr«':i^  fum-nt,  ^w^.«■p:rl;:  S.  a!'»ng  t!it«  gravelly,    Iht^-f  ff  the  E.i«t  It  id  ing  u  Yiirk*hi7^ 

c«ia«t,  a^^d  ••i:j!ii:uai!y  w«jriii«;  aw 'vy  tiio  lime-  aU'tie  ooVit  nii  area  of  A****  or  ?i<Nt  «.|.  u\.     TSe 

stiinr  r\AT-  nnd   hfadland^  ,   thi*  i  ?.<  ruai^hniftits  Mo!d«  uf  York-hire.  whi«'li  clii^iy  rc^-i:iMo  l.^c 

of  tho  M-a  havf  alrea>!v  birittl  lar^*i<  tr»rt.«  of  clKilk    l.il!'*   ff    nianr    otlur   ctiuntie«.    occnt'i 

land.     A  c^.Sniahtiof  r*-<  l.a.*  l-i-^tiTraeol  along  a*.NMit  .^o•l  f^^.  ni. — The  di^tribuiinn  of  thr  pr  ■> 

a  groat  par*,  of  tho  i->ia*>t  i>f  I.i:ii  f!n«!iiro.     On  btgictl  fiiriiiutii>tiN  throuich  En^ilatid  t«  ruri<--.«.y 

thr  hai;<!>  iMirtMii*!  uf  t'  f  m-a! Kaiil  i],v  npiHi-tito  rii:iii«*<*t«-il  uith  that  of  it^  inhabitaiit^  thiir  :* 

iihen^Mni-nuii  i«  ct  aaTvo)  .  |N>r!^i!i«  i»f  iaiid  liA^o  du-'rinl   iiur-^uit*,  aiul    [•hymnal    mi.d.U ''i  :   kV. 

Lrre  Iten  ^rained  fio::i  the  wa!or,  the  toHu  of  Mhich  iudeid  aru  lu  grval  uivasurc controUcd  I y 


ENGLAND  158 

tiM  nature  of  ihe  mineral  productions,  and  of  extends  from  tbe  N.  E.  eztremitj  of  England 

the  foil  resulting  from  the  disintegration  of  the  to  the  river  Tees,  along  the  coast  of  Northom- 

vockj  strata.    Nearly  all  that  portion  of  Eng-  berhmd  and  Durham ;  it  is  traced  further  S.  to 

kDd  lying  £.  of  a  line  drawn  from  the  mouUi  Leeds,  bat  this  portioa  has  only  the  lowest  beds, 

ef  the  Tyne  in  Northumberland  in  a  southerly  which  are  of  little  importance.  The  Yorkshire 

directioii  through  the  towns  of  Nottingham  and  and  Derbyshire  extends  south  from  Leeds  to 

Leioerter,  thence  8.  W.  nearly  to  Gloucester,  near  Derby,  and  covers  in  its  northern  portion 

and  agun  8.  to  Bath,  and  S.  W.  to  Exmouth,  a  breadth  of  about  25  m.    Some  small  but  very 

eonsista  of  tbe  upper  secondary  formations,  in-  productive  coal  basins  lie  S.  W.  of  Derbyshire, 

doding  tbe  oolite,  lias,  chalk,  and  greensand ;  of  which  that  near  Coventry  is  the  most  south- 

and  on  both  aides  of  the  Thames,  widening  as  em  locality  of  coal  in  the  midland  counties.  On 

the  formation  extends  N.  along  the  coast  of  the  N.  W.  is  the  Cumberland  and  Whitehaven 

SaSoDc,  is  the  tertiary  group  of  clays  and  sands,  coal  field,  extending  along  the  coast  to  the  north 

which  oonstitutea  the  London  basin,  and  rests  in  of  Maryport;  some  of  its  mines  have  been 

the  depreasxon  of  the  chalk.    Similar  strata  worked  beyond  low- water  mark,  and  the  con- 

Uda  the  secondary  rocks  over  a  small  area  vonience  of  shipping  gives  a  high  importance 

about  Southampton  and  the  northern  part  of  to  their  products.    The  Lancashire  coal  field 

tbe  iile  of  Wight.    In  Lincolnshire  a  strip  of  lies  W.  of  a  range  of  hills  that  extends  along 

allBfial  akirts  the  coast,  and  stretches  S.,  const!-  the  borders  of  this  county  and  Yorkshire,  sepa- 

tuting  the  boggy  district  of  Huntingdonshire  and  rating  the  two  coal  fields  by  the  underlying 

Omliridgeshire.    Over  this  region  of  secondary  shales  and  millstone  grit  of  which  they  are  com- 

vo^  the  prevailing  dip  is  toward  the  S.  E.,  so  posed.    The  strata  of  the  coal  formation  on  the 

tint  the  lower  members  of  the  series  are  in  west  side  dip  toward  the  west,  and  the  margin 

general  met  with  in  passing  from  the  eastern  of  the  fioid  in  this  direction  reaches  to  Prescot, 

eoart  weetward.    They  constitute  narrow  belts,  near  Liverpool,   and   extends  N.  E.    toward 

idudh  are  traced  with  great  uniformity  in  their  Colne.   A  little  beyond  the  southern  extremity 

fine  of  bearing,  or  N.  £.  and  S.  W.    Thus  from  of  the  Lancashire  coal  field  is  that  which  sup- 

W^ymoath  to  the  Humber  one  may  continue  plies  the  potteries  near  Newcastle  in  Stalford- 

ea  diat  bed  of  the  middle  oolite  called  the  Ox-  shire,  and  which,  with  those  referred  to  as  lying 

ftifd  day,  the  average  thickness  of  which  does  S.  W.  of  Derbyshire,  make  up  the  central  cos! 

lot  exceed  600  feet    A  little  ftirther  west,  district  as  grouped  by  Conybcarc  and  Phillips. 

from  Bridport  in  Dorsetshire  to  Flamborough  These  include  the  fields  of  Ashby  do  la  Zouch 

Bmd  on  the  coast  of  Yorkshire,  the  topogra-  and  Warwickshire.    In  the  South  Stafford  or 

E,  rocks,  and  soil  all  designate  the  chalk  Dudley  coal  field  the  coal  has  been  worked  in  a 

lation  of  earlier  date;  but  west  of  this,  single  bed  80  feet  tliick,  and  at  one  locality 

ca  the  line  from  Lyme  Regis  to  Whitby,  the  it  has  reached  a  thickness  of  more  than  45 

Eaieslones  of  the  lias  appears  in  the  general  feet.    The  western  coal  district  comprises  tho 

otder  of  older  rocks  in  a  westerly  direction,  mines  in  North  Wales,  the  island  of  Anglesea, 

Over  all  this  region  no  mines  of  coal  or  of  me-  and  Flintshire.    The  middle  western  or  Shrop- 

tiDie  ores  are  found.    The  easily  disintegrated  shire  district  comprises  those  of  the  Clee  hills, 

strata  present  no  bold  hills,  except  in  the  cliffs  Colebrook  dale,  Slirewsbury,  &c. ;  the  south- 

of  chalk  abutting  upon  the  coast,  but  are  spread  western  district,  those  of  the  forest  of  Dean, 

eat  in  elevated  plains,  and  gentle  undulations  South  Gloucester,  and  Somerset,  on  both  sides 

md  hills  of  smoothly  rounded  outlines.    The  of  the  river  Avon,  and  tho  coal  field  of  tho 

edcaieous  nature  of  the  strata  secures  fertility  S.  coast  of  Wales,  bordering  the  Bristol  chan- 

to  the  soil;  and  tho  region  is  distinguished  for  nel  for  100  m.  E.  and  W.,  and  stretching  in- 

its  agricultural  character.    West  of  this,  ooou-  land  toward  the  N.  from  5  to  20  m.     This 

fjiug  a  belt  not  many  miles  wide,  is  the  manu-  field  is  in  convenient  proximity  to  the  copper 

fc«'*^"g  district  of  England,  made  so  by  the  mines  of  Cornwall,  the  ores  from  wliich  are 

■fam  of  coal  and  iron  ore  which  are  found  transported  to  tbe    great  smelting    establish- 

ibng  its  range.    They  occur  at  intervals  in  ments  on  tide  water  near  tho  coal  mines.     (Seo 

Uatedbasinsof  moderate  area,  but  remarkably  Copper  S^celting.)    Much  of  the  coal  of  this 

inductive  in  coal  by  the  close  grouping  toge-  region  is  semi-anthracite,  like  that  of  the  Cum- 

Iher  of  the  beds  and  tho  great  depths  to  which  berland  coal  field  of  Maryland,  and  some  is  true 

tfctf  are  carried  by  the  steepness  of  the  dip.  anthracite.  Tho  latter  was  first  successfully  ap- 

(Bee  C0A.L.)    These  basins  are  often  overlaid  in  plied  upon  a  large  scale  to  the  smelting  of  iron 

|vt  by  the  sandstones  and  marls  of  tho  new  ores  in  this  district  at  tho  Crane  iron  works.  Iron 

lid  sandstone  formation,  which  may  be  seen  ores  abound  in  the  coal  measures  of  this  field  as 

mtfaig  opon  the  upturned  edges  of  tho  strata  well  as  in  many  of  the  others,  especially  that  of 

tf  the  eoal  formation.    The  marls  afford  rock  Dudley  at  Wolverhampton,  near  liirmingham. 

■It  and  strong  brine  springs,  which  have  long  Tho  same  measures  also  yield  the  fire  clay  essen- 

Wm  advantageously  worked  in  Cheshire,  ana  tial  for  the  manufacture  of  the  firo  brick  required 

aeir  Dnritwich  in  Worcestershire.    Associated  for  tho  furnaces ;  tho  limestone  for  fiiix  is  ob- 

vitli  the  salt  are  also  found  valuable  beds  of  tained  from  tho  same  group  of  strata  and  other 

msom.     The  coal  fields  aro  too  numerous  to  older  formations  in  close  proximity,  and  the 

n  aU  psrticularly  namc^    That  of  Newcastle  millstone  grit  which  underlies  and  holds  as  in  a 


154  ENGLAND 

cup  tlic  coal  rooararcs  fumWhofl  t  most  durable  spccU  is  not  readilr  fonnd  io  on  j  of  the 

builJinfC  »t<>ne,  aIm)  woll  adaMod  for  with<itand-  tionn;  w)iiU\  on  account  uf  the  hDini<l 

ing  the  lioat  of  furiiACo*.    The  prodnction  of  pherc  causing  the  stones  tu  rapid! ▼  diMni 

England  in  rtial  and  iniri  is  stated  in  the  Bi>ei'ial  the  want  of  dura!»Io  materials  is  the  m* 

articles  upi>n  tliese  suhjccbi.     l{e<*ido  the  coal  bibly  felt  for  important  structoreft.   The 

meaiiures  scattered  over  the  area  in  which  they  sian  liuie^tone  selected  fur  the  new  hui 

ore  ffund,  and  the  newer  I'onnations  which  here  parliament  is  described  under  IUiuotku 

and  there  overlie  thenif  there  occur  frequent  it  has  not  proved  so  durable  as  was  ez 

put<*he«,  like  islandu,  of  rocks  of  older  date,  and  its  decajr  is  so  rapid,  that  it  ii  no« 

whii'h  have  intruded  thmugh  the  carbtmiferuus  coated  with  a  ccimposition  to  prefer  re  t 

strata  ami  tlie  later  formations  aliovo  them,  face  from  further  disintef^rAtion.   Eng'an 

Tilt  so  uro  of  granite,  menitv,  and  nictomoqdiic  ficient  in  fine  iiiarbh-s  and  in  griod  iron  ore 

slate 4.     Some  are  basaltic  dike^,  and  one  ««f  best  of  the  latter  are  the  hematitv« ;  lu 

cztrai>rdinarr  extent  apiicars  from  under  the  chiefly  employed  in  the  immense  pruduc 

alluvium  on  the  coaitofthetivrmAn  ocean,  near  iron  of  this  country  are  the  poor  ar^il 

Ilarwuod  d:iU\   and  in  thenro  traced   toward  ores  of  the  coal  fonnation.     For  maktof: 

the  N.  W.  arntvi  the  Tei-s  to  the  western  port  cvUent  cast  steel,  for  which  En{;li>h  m 

of   Iiurhoin.     It  travvpio^  strata  of  the  li&s  turers  are  celebrated,  the  better  irm  fi 

oolite^  the  coal  iiu'asiirc«,  and  of  the  mctallifer-  magnetic  and  specular  ores  of  Norway  ar 

ous  or  mountain  liinotuue  of  the  lower  carbon i-  den  is  largely  imiKirted.  Tlie  annan!  proi 

femui  group.     Its  length  in  from  5u  to  60  m.,  salt  is  nearly  GOO,<><jO  tons,  a  large  p:irt«>t 

and  in  some  places  it  is  si'en  onW  25  to  30  feet  is  exported  to  America.  Theclimatv  i«su 

thick,  dipping  at  a  steip  angle,     ^he  mountain  great  variations  of  heat  and  cuM.  and  of  < 

linu-stone  is  productive  in  lead,  cop|»er,  and  zinc  and  moisture,  but  the  winters  are  u<«t  sei 

ores  in  S  di^trict^i  in  England.     Veins  of  galena  the  latitude,  aud  the  heat  of  summer  i^  o 

near  Al»t4in  mni»r  in  Cumberland  traverse  ad-  lieved  by  periods  of  cool  weather.     The 

Jtiiuing  bed 4  of  limcittone  and  sandstone,  yield-  phero  is  chilly  and  damp,  and  partii-ul.i:! 

ing  well  in  t!io  fonner  and  |KKirly  in  the  latter,  in  the  W.  cimnties,  but  the  E.  coa»i  i*  tl.i- 

Others  are  found  in  the  some  county,  as  alsi>  iu  The  mean  annual  temperature  of  the  > 

I)urham  and  York  iu  the  upi»er  [Mtrtions  of  the  sea  level  in  about  5*2^;  at  (rretrnwiih.  ^ 

valleyi  uf  the  Tyne,  the  \^ear,  and  tlie  Tees.  Penzance,  61'  8'.    There  is  thus  an  inir 

Pyritous  copper  in  obtained  S.  W.  of  AUton  mean  temiHrrature  from  N.  to  S.  and  fr^v 

miKjr,  and  near  riversitone  Inrds  of  red  hematite  W.    July  and  August  are  the  hottot  i. 

alteriiiite  with  tli4tsc  of  the  aukine  limestone.    A  l^ecember  and  Jaimary  are  therolijo^t,  t: 

seomd  di^trii-t  \s  in  l>erby«hire  ami  the  contig-  mometer  in  the  hitter  two  near  I>'i:i!i*r.  *. 

U0U4  pnr*^  of  the  neighU/ring  counties.     Zinc  mean  height  of  3'J~  7  .     The  W.  uti'!  ^  W. 

bh-nde  it  economically  worked  in  this  district,  m*»tt  pro\alent  and  inm^tant  wind*,  l* ;!  a 

which  al»i»  include«i  tiie  copper  mine  of  Keton  ing  N.  £.  wind  often  blows  ufHin  1^l  K 

in  S:air«ird<»hirf.     The  mim-rol  pnnluet  ions  are  doing  great  damage  to  the  on  ifM  and  liw-- 

further  noiic«.Mi  in  t!io  urtii'K-^  Pcrhthiuhk  and  Norfolk  and  Kent.  Nottvithstamling  :'  i 

Firoi:  Si*4iL     The  third  diMrirt  is  in  the  N.  K.  ity  of  the  climate,  tlte  axinualavcrure  I.il 

jiart  of  \l'ul«-«i,  wln-re  tnim't  of  galena  and  cala-  is  les^  than  in  the  Northi-rn  rnite-l  St.^t 

mine  h:iv«>  Imtg  K't-n  pnititubly  wurketl,  I>ing  the   British   islands  it   is  given  as  :  J 

|>artly  in  the  nio.intain  linic^tntu*  and  {tartly  in  while  at  Cambridge,  Ma<«4  .  it  is  «t.ir<'«!  \ 

old  or  fi>miati<iit<«.    Ilunlering  tin*  roal  tieldn  fre-  (iuvot  to  Im  3S  incheiw  and  at  the  Wi  «r< 

quvntly  are  m-vu  the  htrata  of  the  old  red  H:ind-  serve   college*.   Oliin,    it   was    fd*:.;-!    }  ; 

■tifbo  aud  iitiivr  roi-k^  uf  the  iK'vonian  MTies;  l.iN»ini«i  t«»  l>e  34  imh-.'s.     The  gv-ni  r  .\*l 

and  frum  U'Ueaih  thfM*  ai'fieur  the  older  atul  of  the  ^lil  istliat  of  great  fertilitv.  iKi<  .^ 

l>»wiT   fit««iIiferoU4   itratA  of  the  bilurian  and  are  fi.i><Mi  i-r  T.'hxi  <u{.  m.  of  Liu  J  untl;  I 

C*anibrian  fonnation*;    they  prinluce  little  of  vation.     T!ie  rui'avati-d  cn^ps  an  w]..  , 

ecuuiiniical  inipnrt.'uiiV.     The  metalliferous  d  14-  Ik^aus,   barley,    rve,    turnips.    fw.ta*.<^-«. 

tri«-t<»  t>f  I'ornwail  and  l)evon  havo  already  been  ht^pN  tUx,  d:c.    Yvmr  of  the  fure%L»  are  vw 

niilire«l  in  the  .irtirlefi  upi in  the«e  counties;  M'e  but  the  country  14  well  wooded.   irv»! 

aI*o  ('«irrKi!  and  Ti.v,  in  whii'b  the  amount  (»f  timU*r  U-ing  found  in  feUiall  i<'..ti:t.i *..••(.% 

prmlurtiiifi  uf  thi*^  nietaN  i*  «p<ritted.  The  gra-  iiig  to  private  individuals.   Tl.<-re  ore  »•  •:: 

nitic  rock«  and  metainnrpliir  -Lito«,  vuch  a^  are  large  fore<  landvhowi  rer.  suih  i^  :}.■.•  N 

Seen  in  thi«  {Mirtitm  of  Kn^'I.nnd, are  repeate^l  in  c^i  in  llainp«h!r%\  Iv.vi  f^ri'^tin  (i!<<'.vi  *• 

North  W:kle\  whtTf  the  ar^iilotvuu^  hlatC't  an*  and  Sherwui>«l  lu  Nottinghaiii>i..i' .  u  :. 

Wiirkcd  in  the  innmnM*  ipiarries  near  liangur.  the  pr<<iKrty  uf  the  ir^wn.     Ti.t  {-'-'^  ; 

Tlic  lamc  rot'ks  <Kvijr  again  in  the  N.  W.  part  are  the  oak.  aOi.  mount. lin  a«!i.  tr,  Nm.« 

of  Yi>rk«hiro   and  I^nra'^iiire,  an  1  are  trat'«,d  i:ii>re.  maple,  iMiplur.  elm,  lan-K.  {■;::« .  i- 

through    West niort- land  and   CuraU'rland  ii:!o  h^r^*  t'hiMnut, and  w.IInw.    Ti:*  rr  arc  n 

Ktitlnnd.     The  graiiito«  atfiinl  but  little  pMn!  inUigenou*  fruits;  the  {H-sr,  ora^.  Hm^I!^ 

building  fttain*',  and  there  are  no  im|>*irtant  qiiar-  rhfrrv.  bullatv,   ratpUrry,  biaclU  rr« . 

ricA  of  this  ftM'k  in  England.     ll'iiMir.g  M*<nt  of  berr\.  i  'irraiit,  <tr.-i«U-rry,  aitil  «-rari-«  r 

durable  character  ur  ^1  Aid  i^ual I tie^  iu  ut her  re-  the   iuu»l   im(K*rtaiit  »|K.tios.     Fortigi; 


ENGLAND  156 

boverer,  except  saeh  as  require  a  powerfal  snn  which  formerly  inhabited  the  forests,  snch  as  the 
to  bring  them  to  maturity,  are  found  to  thrive,  bear,  wolf,  wild  boar,  and  wild  cat,  have  disap- 
Of  the  imall  herbaceous  plants,  beside  the  peered,  and  the  stag,  fallow  deer,  and  roe  have 
floamion  grmssee  ooTering  the  country  with  been  preserved  only  by  strict  game  laws.  The 
mAuie  which  the  winter  seldom  destro^fy  other  indiffenons  wild  quadrapeds  are  the  fox, 
any  be  mentioned  the  daisy,  primrose,  cowslip^  badger,  polecat,  beech  and  pine  martens,  otter, 
fkiel^  hyacinth,  harebell,  tamarisk,  musk,  gen-  weasel,  stoat,  hedgehog,  mole,  squirrel,  hare,  rab- 
tHO.  fiuudore,  henbane,  hemlock,  and  night-  bit,  dormouse,  lemming,  shrew,  and  several  vari- 
duoe. — The  varioas  improvements  which  mod-  eties  of  the  rat  and  mouse.  More  than  270  species 
—  ~~~~oe  has  introduced  in  agriculture  are  of  land  and  water  birds  have  been  noticed,  of 
adopted  in  England,  and  under  careful  which  20  are  birds  of  prey  and  80  belong  to  the 
ent  the  hmd,  which  once  with  difficulty  gallinaceous  kind.  The  bustard  seems  to  be  the 
imorCed  a  prnmlation  of  10,000,000,  now  eamly  only  bird  which  has  become  extinct  here.  Of 
anuUaiDS  neany  double  that  number.  The  best  about  170  species  of  fish  which  frequent  the 
^ptams  of  drainage  are  employed,  not  as  for-  coasts,  rivers,  and  lakes,  the  chief  are  the  her- 
■ariy  in  manhy  srounds  alone,  but  in  nearly  all  ring,  pilchard,  mackerel,  sprat,  cod,  and  salmon. 
CnmiL  Artificial  manuring  receives  due  atten-  The  sea  fisheries  are  chiefly  of  cod,  mackerel,  ojs- 
tioai,  and  steeps  which  a  few  generations  back  ters,  and  lobsters. — ^The  manufactures  of  £ng- 
voidd  have  been  thought  waste  land  are  now  land  are  commensurate  with  her  greatness  m 
ndsr  profitable  culture.  English  husbandry,  other  respects.  The  most  important  is  that 
hMrew,  hat  risen  to  its  present  high  state  very  of  cotton,  which  employs  more  hands  them 
4owly.  The  fSums  are  small,  averasing  in  Eng-  any  other  in  the  Idngdom,  and  fumbhes  about 
1  and  Wales  about  111  acres  each,  and  there  }  of  the  exports.  The  principal  seats  of  this 
oomparatively  few  landowners,  most  of  the  manufacture  are  Lancashire,  Cheshire,  Derby- 
M  beiqg  held  by  tenants  at  will  or  bv  lease,  shire,  and  Yorkshire.  The  number  of  cotton 
Bat  for  this  the  capabilities  of  the  soil  would  factories  in  England  and  Wales  in  1856  was 
dowlblieflB  be  stJll  more  thoroughly  developed  2,046 ;  spindles,  25,818,576 ;  power  looms,  275,- 
tbeyarenow.  The  best  tilled  counties  are  590;  males  employed,  148,354;  females,  192,- 
loCtheE.  coast  The  capital  used  in  tilling  816;  total,  341,170.  The  total  amount  of  raw 
..  flocking  land  is  about  £200,000,000 ;  rent  cotton  Imported  in  1858  was  8,654,638  cwt^ 
tf  ftrma,  £80,000,000.  Cattle  raising  is  a  most  of  which  5,846,054  cwt.  were  from  the  United 
a^ortant  branch  of  husbandry,  and  the  country  States,  and  2,235,162  cwt.  from  the  British  East 
has  been  famous  for  live  stock  since  the  days  of  Indies.  Total  value  of  yams  and  goods  exported 
Ombf.  Somewhat  more  than  the  half  of  the  during  that  year,  £42,797,000.  The  chief  wool- 
■aUeland  is  used  for  grazing,  the  best  pastures  len  and  worsted  manufactories  are  in  Yorksliire, 
Wag  fonnd  in  Buckinghamshire,  Kent,  Middle-  Lancashire,  and  Gloucestershire,  and  the  value 
m,  and  several  of  the  W.  and  midhind  counties,  of  goods  annually  produced  by  them  is  about 
h  the  last  are  bred  good  dray  horses.  Yorkshire  £25,000,000.  The  raw  material  is  mostly  of 
fl  noted  for  carriage  horses,  and  an  excellent  domestic  growth,  though  for  some  years  post 
for  farm  labor  is  raised  in  Suffolk.  The  large  quantities  have  been  imported.  The  great 
race  horse  is  renowned  for  speed  and  centres  of  the  hardware  manufactures  are  Bir- 
Moles  and  asses  are  little  used.  Lanca-  mingham  and  SheflJeld,  the  former  having  work- 
is  noted  for  its  long-homed  cattle ;  North-  shops  of  iron,  steel,  copper,  and  brass,  and  tlie 
ttriierlandy  Durham,  Devonshire,  Ilerefordshire,  latter  being  famous  chiefly  for  cutlery,  agricul- 
ad  Sussex,  for  their  short-homed  breeds,  and  tural  implements,  grates,  fire  irons,  &c.  The 
BiAlk  for  its  duns.  Essex,  Cambridgeshire,  and  making  of  linen  is  carried  on  to  some  extent  in 
Decnt  are  celebrated  for  good  butter ;  Cheshire,  Leeds  and  the  counties  of  Lancaster,  Dorset,  Dur- 
Qeocestershire^  Wilts,  other  W.  counties,  and  ham,  and  Salop.  The  silk  manufactare  made 
UeMterihire,  for  cheese.  The  well-known  great  progress  under  the  tariff  of  1826,  beforo 
Iflloa  cheese  is  made  in  the  last-named  county,  which  date  it  was  unable  to  compete  with  the  op- 
&i  iheep  are  highly  prized  for  the  quality  both  position  of  France  and  Italy.  About  50,000,000 
tf  their  flesh  and  of  their  wool.  By  an  estimate  lbs.  of  leather  are  made  annually.  Tlie  glove 
MBpfled  firom  the  returns  of  10  counties,  and  a  trade  of  the  midland  and  W.  counties  is  impor- 
|Btfl€  Yorkshire,  in  1854,  it  appeared  that  there  tant,  the  principal  establishments  being  at  Wood- 
Ma  under  tillage  in  England  and  Wales  12,-  stock,  Worcester,  Ludlow,  Hereford,  Yeovil  in 
lllaTTi  acres;  under  grass,  15,212,203  acres;  Somersetshire,  &c.    The  vast  number  of  estab- 

eed  with  wheat,  8,807,846  acres;  barley,  lishments  engaged  in  the  book  and  new.s[)aper 

;776;  oats,  1,802,782;  rye,  73,731;  beans  publishing  business  gives  a  strong  impetus  to  the 

ma  pcofl,   698,188 ;  vetches,  218,551 ;  turnips,  production  of  paper,  the  quantity  of  which  mndo 

Uir,S0O;   mangel  wurzel,   177,263;   carrots,  in  England  in  1858  was  128,929,067  lbs.,  and 

1^;  potatoes,  192,287;  flax,  10,156;  hoi>s,  in  the  United  Kingdom  176,298,997  lb<<.    The 

^Ni;  osiers,  1,079;  other  crops,  97,834 ;  in  amount  of  duty  charged  on  paper  in  England 

ftDow.  895,069.  Numberof  horses,  1.050,-  and  Wales  during  the  year  ending  MarcJi  81, 

eoUa,  258,079;  milch  cows,   1,876,703;  1858,  was  £920,609,  and  in  the  United  King- 

^707,193;  other  cattle,  1,339,270;  sheep  dom,  £1,244,185.    Distilling  is  carried  on  to 

lube,  81,054,812.  Many  of  the  wild  animals  much  smaller  extent  than  in  Scotland  and  Ire- 


UbA,  bat  tb»  hitiwtfim  an  nrj  bbibmoob,  lad  ^ 

naaj  of  tb«m  oa  xb»  Urpnt  rale    Th*  qaan-  

titT  of  malt  mwle  ia  Ea^ud  ia  ISU  wa*  S8.-  ^^22^. 

000.871  bmb^  and  in  tfae  UdtMl  Ei^don.  nk   "*"*' 

4fi,M7,Ml  bmabak.     Th»  otbn-  nMns&ctnn*  riu  

eoapriM  btfiL  (Im*,  poUnr.  nap,  Uca.  *c  [JJ^     

Ship  boildlof  (•  alM  a  prouiBcnt  bmidi  of  in-  bmt* 

dmtrr.    Tb«  somber  and  toaiu(a  of  tbc  rta-  ^J*^ 

Mb  tnilt  and  nfkltred  in  tbe Cnitcd  Kiogdon  Titte*...!!!''. 

to  lUTaraaUlediatbaiat^otMd  taUe,vbieb  p"^" 

wa  «i«v,  bwacaa  of  the  imponbilitf  al  £stiB-  fjy " 

foUning  iboM  pfoptdy  bcbiofiiis  t   ~    '     ' 

aloM ;  and  thii  rcmarfc  alM  appUca 

other  (UiMtkal  ftatcmenu  eoataiocd 

article: 


tiBM  power 

State*,  ba^  lai«  been  wftboW  »  paraUd.  Uer 
aitaatioa  ki  in  tBa lint dcfreo  (aToraUe  fcrancfa 
ponaiu :  tha  hardihood,  indiHtrj.  and  eotcr- 
pri*e  of  ber  people  bare  turned  tier  Dateal  ad- 
raaiafte  to  aeooont,  and  tlitfa  la  no  part  of  the 
world  aeoeMble  to  ber  nercbanta  with  which 
■he  haa  not  iMaMlrfwd  Mmmercial  rdaiioaa. 
With  Ireland  abe  baa  a  trade  in  gr^n  and  pn>- 
Ttuon*  in  eichacfa  for  mannfKtnred  gooda; 
frofn  y.  Europe  ibe  recelrea  timber,  iron,  Sax, 
'    [np.  pirrh,  tallow,  polaih,  and  wheat ;  from 


S.  Eon-ic,  wine,  brand/,  fhiit,  dmgii,  lilk,  Ac  ; 
fKim  ib«  roited  Stale<^  rutton,  tubeoco,  rice, 
and  flijur.  (he  importa  tbenoe  beiD|-  cotiuder- 
abl;  inferior  in  raloa  to  the  esporta  tbitber; 
fron  Souib  America,  bidcf,  akin*,  i&digc^  cocb- 
Incal,  and  boUioD;  from  Ana,  tea,  coffee, 
■agar,  indigo,  dniga,  cotton,  piece  gooda,  and 
ifoTT  :  frotn  AlHcB,  dmgi,  Irorj,  teak  wood, 
and  faiilei.  lfana(actai«d  guodi  are  (ha  ataplca 
furtiiklial  b7  Eoriand  in  exchange  for  all  tbeee 
cumrnuditicA.  Tlie  fulktwtng  taUe  ibowi  (be 
commercv  of  the  railed  Kingdoia  fur  4  jeara 
ending  with  1«3T: 


«i>U«      <14 


Cin.lM.I"T     til* 


!-»«. 

•..-^ 

'- 

ill 

T*ul 

lua 

tie; 

<iMjeiJu 

•Uia.M 
tlKeiwt 

■iSSi 

_sas 

r)l«.*ai.Tnt 

Hie  Importa  into  tbe  Talted  Kingducn  doring 
the  1 1  m<>atha  ending  >'ot.  SO,  lbft7  aod  Uit, 
n  aa  fUlowa: 


Tbe  export*  in  IMS  were  (ha*  dbrtrit 
cotton,  wiiulien,  ailk.  and  linen  janu  and  i 
bctarr\  £63.467.000 ;  banlware  and  ct 
£i.i«0,OOU ;  macbinerv.  CS.tM.OOO  ;  imo, 
S3fl.0(Ki ;  copper  and'  bra«.  fa.hM.OU^ 
anUun.  £!,334.000;rual*andrultn.  i'a,(& 
eanbenware  and  glata.  £l.T31.iiM);  k«« 
ale,  Xl.M3.Oi0i  batter  and  rbcexe.  XU: 
■tila.  fHlS.wW;  Hit.  i:?W,0O0:  ■(unu^  j 
«MI;  It-ailicr  manafartDrca,  £1.011.<»X>;  p 
U»ka.  £:t»0.000;  *tatit«erT,  £lii>«,uno; 
and  watrtiM.  £3H.00n;  rumimre,  £3S< 
•uap  and  randle^  £367,^^)0.  Tbe  impi.t 
Irillion  in  18Se  were :  H'L  £32.TW,(W; 
£«.7(").liO0  ;  (oul,  £«9.4M,(iWi,  of  •hict 
(>r,«.(t>Nt  wa«  fnmi  Autralia,  £6.Ksa,rai0 
llcliro,  Siiutb  .\niehra.  and  (be  Wm  I 
£4,011,(KH>  frooi  the  L'nited  tiutea,  £3,$; 


ha  Rosia,  Hatue  towns,  Holland,  nnd  Bel- 
giam,  and  £2,T33,000  from  Fnnee ;  exporta  : 
tM.  £12.585,000 ;  silver,  £7,063,000 ;  total, 
il9,0Sd,O0O,  of  which  £10,021,000  was  to 
naBM,  £9,S20,000  to  Indis  and  Cliina,  and  £1  - 
i«,000  to  the  Haose  towns,  Holland,  and  Bel- 
lini.  The  entruices,  clearaoccs,  and  tonnage 
of  T«Meb  eDjnged  in  the  foreign  and  cooiting 
tnd*  of  the  United  ElDgdom  in  1658,  were  u 


.117     t,3»%U3  I  1^4  I     M&SIS 


AS.<2S 


M.-iW      *.IWS.M»  ;    l^ia  I     «I.\'-63 


lWoM*n  steam  navigation  of  Eogknd  is  in- 
(^^■nble,  and  her  lines  of  steam  pockets  tnoT 
kiwdto  perform  the  mail  BCrricoof  the  world. 
filMni  TesaeUof  iron  are  now  extcasively  huilt. 
TVinwm  of  internal  commanication  are  Bupo- 
nrto  thoae  of  any  other  coontrj.  It  is  just  a 
^BtDT  since  the  English  began  to  make  good 
tmia,  though  tompibes  were  set  op  a  hundred 

SI  earlier.  The  total  length  of  all  roods  in 
and  and  Wales,  exclusive  of  paved  streets 
roads  in  towns,  is  about  100,000  miles;  of 
f»  Utter,  30,000.  The  canals  of  England  are 
Hot  in  importance  to  those  of  Holland,  and 
Wi  Mtomenced  in  the  last  century.  The  rail- 
«f  ^fitem  was  introduced  in  1S30.  The  fol- 
Imaatftble  shows  the  length  of  railways  in  the 
VM  Kingdom,  Dec.  31,  1857,  and  their  re- 
l^pfc far  thai 


e  previous  G  months : 


»-. 

s;|-ir 

KflfUbim 

BS  """"■■ 

*,i:8  j  iM.W5Sf 

i.iw        s»s,uri 

£5.S*>,01S 

ns,j!S 

1- 

(.mH  1  £i.»u.iu 

£«,IS»,*1S 

B>  Bomber  of  possengere  carried  during  the 
■Mporiod  was,  in  England  and  Wal<;s,  02,927,- 
M;SootUad,  8,163  825;  Ireland,  1,762,137; 


.AND  157 

total,  75,S34,0I4.  There  were  OSS  m.  of  rail- 
way in  courae  of  constmction,  but  not  begun, 
and  S,GS4  anthorized. — The  total  number  of 
letters  deliverei^in  18S8  was,  in  England,  42S,- 
000,000  (nearly  J  in  London. and  suburbs);  Ire- 
land, 44,000,000;  Scotland,  B1,000,000;  totd, 
623,000,000,  allowing  an  increase  of  19,000,000 
03  compared  with  1867.  The  number  of  news- 
papers posted  in  1858  was  71,000,000.  The 
persons  employed  in  the  post  office  on  Jan.  1, 
1869,  nambered  24,372.  The  public  institnUons 
of  charity,  of  learning,  of  tlie  arts,  of  education, 
and  of  religion,  are  in  great  number  and  of  high 
repnte.  Every  considerable  town  Los  its  hos- 
pitals, many  of  which  are  liberally  endowed,  its 
free  schools,  mechanics' inatitntes,  &o.  The  prin- 
cipal cities  possess  galleries  of  art,  and  several 
have  valuable  libraries.  Compulsory  provision 
for  the  poor  has  long  been  established  in 
England.  The  whole  country  is  divided  into 
poor  law  unions,  over  which  are  guardians 
elected  by  the  rate  payera.  During  the  i[uarter 
ending  Dec.  81,  1868,  there  were,  in  627  unions 
and  single  parishes,  826,665  paupers  in  re- 
ceipt of  relief,  a  decrease  of  75,877  from  the 
corresponding  period  of  1857.  The  number  of 
pauper  lunatics  in  asylums,  hospitals,  and  U* 
censed  honses,  Jan.  I,  1868,  was  17,672,  and 
probably  12,000  or  18,0a0more  were  supported 
by  the  poor  law  guardians  in  workhouses,  or 
with  private  persons.  The  total  amount  ex- 
pended by  the  poor  law  boards  in  England  and 
Wales  during  the  half  years  endio|T  March  26, 
I85T  and  1858,  was  £3,043,077.  The  number 
of  charitable  institutions  other  than  schools,  in 
London  alone,  in  1853,  was  630,  and  the  amount 
expended  by  tliera  doring  the  year,  £1,805,635. 
— ^England  has  dono  much  for  the  cause  of  educa- 
tion, but  not  BO  much  as  should  liavo  been  dono 
by  so  old,  wealthy,  and  humane  a  nation.  The 
principal  universities,  which  have  existed  for 
maoy  centuries,  are  among  the  most  venerable 
mounraenta  of  the  middle  ages ;  and  as  much 
of  the  illilwrality  that  once  was  conspicuous  in 
their  goverotncnt  has  disappeared,  it  ni.iy  ho 
believed  that  their  future  will  be  as  brilliant  as 
their  past  has  been  useful.  Among  the  higher 
institutions  of  learning  are  the  universities  of 
Oxford,  Cambridge,  and  Durham ;  University 
college  and  King's  college,  London  (the  Inst  2 
founded  for  the  purpose  of  cheapening  and  pop- 
ularizing academical  instruction);  collegoof  pre- 
ceptors, Loudon ;  Owen's  college,  Manchester ; 
Manchester  New  college ;  Queen's  colleges,  Hip- 
mingham  and  Liverpool ;  S>t.  David's  college, 
Lampeter;  royal  agricultural  college,  Cirences- 
ter; Doside  good  foundotion  schools  ot  Winclica- 
ter,  Eton,  Manchester,  Great  Berkhamstcad, 
"Warrington,  Shrewsbury,  Ilirmingliain,  Tun- 
bridge,  Westminster,  Highgate,  Bedford,  Ii)s- 
wich,  Repton,  Rugby,  Harrow,  and  London.  The 
great  public  schools  of  Eton,  Westminster,  Har- 
row, Winchester,  St.  Paul's,  the  charterhouse, 
and  merchant  tailors*  school,  are  of  the  highest 
reputation,  and  have  educated  many  of  the  dis- 
tinguished men  of  Enghuid.     Tho  University 


158  ENGLAND 

college  anfl  KingV  rollojrc,  c^Ublishe^l  in  tho  of  tho  goTcrnmcnt.    The  divcotcn  bclUrv  thftl 

eAjiitA!,  h.ivo  n<l  onlj  |frovo<l  u<toful  inMitu-  anj  jilan  which  the  icovernment  miglit  aAofH 

tidiiA  thoiiiV'lve<s  hut  thfir  fnunilAtion  ha.«  hiul  a  woufil  bo  too  tnnch  nmler  the  docniiiifla  of  tM 

gtMMl  I'tfcct  on  llic  (ilil  univcniitii*^.     Thorc  arc  o^tabliAhod  church,  and  thev  Dotoolj  dttoovnM 

804  coilopute  and  grammar  fk'ho«iK  and  1,A07  fftatc  int«rforvDce«  bat  rame  of  them  object  tod 

othi'r  N-liiHiK  tho  annual  %'ahio  of  tlie  endow-  kind^  of  aid  from  the  Mate,  deeming  toe  toIbb* 

mcnts  ff  which  irt  c^tiniatod  at  £.%fK>,0(Kt.  but  tarjr  principle  the  proper  basit  of  action,  aa  vdl 

not  I  of  thi<«  auifiuut  U  mude  arailahle  for  tlio  in  tlic  supiMirt  of  M^liools  as  in  that  of  rdigMH 

pur|Hi*>c4  f>f   idui-atiiin.      Tlinugli   parliament  worship.     Sectarian  influence  evenr where  ei* 

liaH  Miu^'ht   tu   inve!»tigale  tlio   caum.^  of  this  liibits  itjK.*lf  in  the  educational  moTemcnta  of 

broach  I  if  tru^t,  no  ctirrortion  of  the  eril  haa  Knpland,  and  tho  exert  iooa  of  the  dis 

lieiTi  niaiK-.     Tho  nunilH-r  of  M*h(Kds  of  the  com-  conw<pent  on  tho  goTcmment^s  sappoecd 

mon  rl:i>s  f*'r  the  ditTu«iiin  of  |iopuIar  educa*  t 'favor  the  churches  claim  to  miperin  tend 

tiuri,  was  in  1651  (including  both  public  and  lar  education  have  done  much  to  uprcttd  kaovW 

private  m  hi««jN),  44,>«30.    The  private  Mhintls  e<Vo.     Rivalrr  has  been  prodactiTe  of  good  il 

woro  2'J,4'2.''i.  (if  which  only  1  were  ranked  hu-  thid  instance,  as  it  has  b^n  in  some  other,    ll 

pcrior.    <  )f  tlio  inferior  M*hooi{«,  lu^arly  ^  of  tlio  is  not  poMible  to  Me  what  will  be  the  nhiBMle 

wh>*Io.  Oie  returns  of  7<*4  wore  Mgne«i  br  the  courM^  adopted,  bnt  the  practical  character  ef 

ma«tiT  or  nii^tn*^  with  a  mark  ;  and  the  same  tho  nation  cannot  fail  to  aevise  lome  plan  t&Ml 

strai:^c  fac  t  uivum-d  in  the  returns  of  35  public  shall  prove  acceptable  to  the  great  lioaj  of  tkt 

•i*hu(iU.  mll^tof  them  )iavingend«iwments.   Tlio  people.    The  educational  movement  Hm 

nmnlier  of  f^oimhtrn  attending  dar  8ch(X>Is  in  it^  supporter*  men  of  all  partiefw  and  of  ri 

ItCil  w. 1^2, 144. :i7><:  Sunday  scholars  2.407,642.  reli^ous   views,   the  opmion    prevailing 

Th'iugh  lit tlo  has  been  dune  for  general  education,  upun  the  elevation  of  the  people  throogh  to 

con  I  |i«rvd  with  what  has  been  edited  in  some  succcsn  depends  their  own  private  indiTidMl 

otlier  ciiuntrieSi  yet  the  improvement  has  bi-en  happinesa,  and  tho  incroafte  of  tho  strength  aA 

groat  within  6uyoar%  the  prewnt  generation  of  reputation  of  the  British  empire. — The  eita^ 

Engli^hmon  boiiig  in  every  reftfject  more  en-  li  tinl  rrlinnn  ii  Thnt  nf  thr  rnnrrh  nf  FnglM^ 

lightoiiod  than  (heir  anriMurs.    (i uvemment  haa  which  will  be  treated  in  a  seimrate  article.   TIm 

duno  but  a  Mnall  part  iu  the  work ;  and  it  was  not  di»«enters  constitute  some  oi  the  moel  rupees 

until  1>^.';,  whon  I^ird  (trey  was  at  tho  head  of  able  religions  bodies  in  the  world.   Thej  eoa* 

that  ul.i^miniMry  which  carried  through  the  re-  sint   of  Pro»bytorian^  Indvitendenta^liapCiili^ 

fonn  h'l'X  that  the  tir^t  public  grant  was  made.   It  Friends  Methodif«t^  Unitarian^  Bible  ~ 


wa'*  £*2o,o«.i^),  which  was  continued  for  5  yeara,  Mnravi.ons  and  Mime  otlu-rs.  The  IVesbytetiaHL 

when  tho  amount  was  raided  to  £30.0(x^.    From  MothoiliMfl.  and  Baptists  are  severally  divided 

tinio  V*  tiri.o  it  was  incroaHo^l.  until  in  IfUS  it  into  a  uumlK.'r  of  M-fts.     The  Catholics  are  Mt 

roarhtil  t<>  tho  huin  of  JL'JOo/joO.    Tlio  amount  numerous,  but  amoni*  them  are  many  old  tmk 

exi-oniK-d  in  iirout  Hrituin  fur  education  grants  wealthy  fainilie*.     The  Jews  are  fow  in  cambtf', 

in  l^^.'iT  wa^  iii>  loss  than  i,'55t'/Ji74,  of  which  but  Mn(*e  July  2.1.   1S5^,  when  they  were  ■!• 

£11 '.',••'•4  wa>i  "iK-iit  in  huililing,  onlarging,  re-  mittotl  to  »it  in  Tarliamcnt,  they  have  tDjoyei 

pairii:^*,  ariil  furi.'.«hing  ilomintury  and  normnl  all  civil  ri;:hts.    Tho  utmost  n-lipons  hWrtyflS- 

sohtHiN,  hHi\  i'/iT.'J'Jl  in  annual  grants  to  train-  ii^ts. — The  number  of  journals  uf  all  doscripcktf 

ing  rii!Iop.'s.    Of  tho  amonnt  exjkondiHl  tho  fnl-  (oxdufivo  of  monthly  and  <iuartrr!y  rvviewi) 

lowing;  Hon*  tho  irincipal  recipionU*  in  England :  puiili^hod  in  iK's  was  i"  Kngland.  6:i^  (ISf  !■ 

rhLrr».ofKnr!»M^w           o:: w  i^'";^'»):  ^^•«•tl•^d,13l;  Wb\^22:  toc^ 

w.  •!.  1  »r.  vii—ii  .    . .                     *.'.*»  — The  govonimont  is  a  lirniio»i  hrivditiry  i 

lir.i'.'.  *  .1  f.  ■.  .;•.•»»—:  m^-.iy               j-vvJ  afchv,  the  Ml  promo  iiowor  Uing  vcMed  in  a 

or  queen  anu  ministry,  ana  a  ]»arl lament 

Tlic  ^'rant  to  Banian  ('utholic  »c1i<m.<1s  in  Great  ]*<j««*d  of  lunls  and  c>>nmions  the  former  tittiif 

Britain  wa-  £'J<j.^1I4.     Ami>ng  the  educatittnal  chiefly  by  hore<litary  ri);l.t  and    the  latter  b9 

grunts  in  l*-ri!^  iion£»  £r.»Nl.4:i5  for  public  o'luca-  pt^pular  election.     A   prv\i>ms    knowlo«*ge  er 

tiou  in  (treat  Britain,  £Kl.7;t«»  for  tl^e  dep.irt-  Knclish  history  being  re*  juirod  for  a  comj 

mont  I'f  art  ai.d  m  ioni-e.  and  £H,i*i54  for  the  uni-  »i<>n  of  the  chanres  anil  proM-n*.  state  (»f  the 

Tenity  ff  I  i'Mtluu.     Tlko  total  aiiiount  granted  H<'hcon>tituTion,  «-o  Khsll  refer  the  reader  ft«r  M 

f.>r  tirc.it  BriTum  and  Ireland  wa<i  £1.1 'J'i.ti'C.  a<vount  of  tho  latter  to  tho  c<mc!u«iing  pait  eC 

Til*'  LT.in;*  to  flonM>n:ary  M'ho'iU  in  f-ln^-Und  thi^artirle,— TIk- f.-llo^iiiirtabii-*  Oiow  th« 

and  \Vuu-«.  the  c^anuil  i»land<s  and    the   i>Ie  cnuo  und  oxjiMidituro  <if  tSe  I'nitt^  Km 


of  Mit..  fn>m  parliumtiitary  v«»te%  from  1*^3  fr  tho  fi^al  year  end inj;  March  31,  1*OS: 

to  In'. 7  iurl':«i\i>.  amourUe«i  to  £*J,'*'>o.643  bs.  Lirc^ri. 

4«/.     'I  ho  ^•J^jvrl  of  natiMhal  e«hicatiiin  is  in-  *«•*"»«                                                               _^_ 

croa^i:1g  in  iiit4T««t  in  Kn;;land.  and  it  is  s;i{»-  !o'u:i,:>t         ...                                                *:  «:iTiS 

pcMM-cl  that  dtUrn.inrd  ert".irt.s  will  In*  niatlo  to  T**f«                  •                                               a;^^ 

estai'li^h  >• 'mo  M-*lfm  of  gefiorBl  application,  at  p?]lIl''iM**    '    .                                              ^tn^«S 

no  \iry  ih«tant  d.iy.     The  <|Ut-fkt:<>n  i>f  r^IifTion  ir«-"?;!«nii 

is  that  «-hu-h  <a  iM«  the  chief  ditf.rultr  ui  the     ^^•^'■•*^^» ' 

way  of  rvmprvheiMre  working  on  the  part  Tvu: 


ENGLAND  159 

^       ^  parliament  in  1846  and  by  several  subsequent 

iHviife^k  wmid^  ****  ftuided  debc..sa,figb^  o«  i^^^g  ^  system  of  county  courts  has  been  formed, 

df vUradB  ptfd. ..... ... ............  j^^gjgj  ^^  giving  increased  facilities  for  the  prompt  and  in- 

Vu!^^. '.  I  ..*.!... .    tiolooo  00  ezpenslTe  collection  of  small  debts.  The  j udgea 


''•rf^SSiiJlftaSff^.*.:::^       ^mm So  ^^J^'^j^^.^^^?y^'''}^^^i  ^^A^^^^  ^Ji^: 


401,157  11  oellor,  and  must  not  exceed  60  in  number.  They 

^M  S  ^^®  jurisdiction  over  districts  arranged  with 

^ l5s|»S  18  regard  to  convenience,  and  not  always  bounded 

les V. 068,284  18  by  couuty  lines,  counties  in  some  cases  being 

18,915,156  16  mg  £50  are  brought  before  these  courts,  the 


^*900looo  00    i^S^^^  which  determine  all  questions  whether 
_  fi8Q|688  00    of  law  or  fact  unless  a  jury  be  summoned,  which 

drU  ■enrice. T,S87,7i9  10    is  done  at  the  request  of  either  plaintiff  or  de- 

fc^fJi'SS^KSr'.'r::::::".:  *^^}&    ttndmt.  nennmberof  U.ejuryfs6,and«nnan- 

imous  verdict  is  required.     A  court  of  general 


•— .To,8T8,8!»  08  qaQ]-ter  sessions  of  the  peace  is  held  4  times  a 

Ttm  total  reTenue  for  the  year  ending  March  year  in  every  county,  its  jurisdiction  extending 

n,  1669,  was  £65,477,284^  and  the  expenditure  to  all  felonies  and  trespasses,  but  the  capital  cases 

£K6CS;882.  The  total  public  debt  of  the  United  generally  are  remitted  to  the  assize.    The  conn- 

dfdom,  March  81, 1857,  was :  funded  £779,-  ties  are  governed  by  the  lord  lieutenants  and 

|n,417,  nnfandfid  £24^082,541,  total  £803,-  iheriflb,  and  they  have  also  their  justices  of  the 

||||968;  of  which  the  permanent  debt  of  Great  peace  appointed  by  the  crown,  clerks  of  the 

Pilliiii  was  £786,009,272,  and  that  of  Ir^nd  peace,  and  couirty  coroners.    The  character  of 

£il,89S,14.  The  funded  debtof  the  United  King-  the  English  courts  is  very  high,  and  has  been  so 

iam  was  ^r57,951,281  in  1854,  and  on  March  81,  ever  since  the  revolution.    The  criminal  code  of 

UBdii  bad  increased  to  £779,225,000,  principally  England,  which  was  for  a  long  time  excessively 

fa  ooeaagnrnce  of  the  Russian  war  which  broke  severe,  has  been  greatly  improved  of  late,  and 

Ml  iiiiiiiediately  after  the  former  date.    The  with  its  improvement,  crimes,  especially  acts  of 

~  Bff  army  consists  of  222,874  men,  including  violence,  have  signally  decreased,    llie  number 

dvperaed  in  the  colonies  and  India.    Of  of  persons  committed  to  prison  in  England  and 

BoniDer  20,067  are  cavalry,  28,842  artillery,  Wales  in  1857  was,  males  107,884,  females  34,- 

aa  179,465  infanbry.    The  navy,  in  July,  1858,  586,  total  141,970.    Of  54  sentenced  to  death 

aonpiised  244  sailing  vessels  of  various  kinds  (20  for  murder),  13  wore  executed,  the  punish- 

wilii  an  armament  of  8,71 6  guns,  and  294  steam  ment  in  all  the  other  cases  being  commuted. 

faads  eanyiDg  7,075  guns  (total  538  vessels.  The  greater  proportion  of  convicts  sentenced  to 

11,791  gnns},  bende  160  gun  boats  and  120  ves-  long  terms  of  detention  were  formeriy  transport- 

flili  fat  port  service.    Thegovernment  has  fine  ed  to  penal  colonies  or  confined  on  board  hulks, 

iwljaiilii  at  Deptford,  Woolwich,  Chatham,  but  prisons  are  now  established  at  home  capable 

^  I,  Portsmouth,  Devonport,  and  Pern-  of  receiving  all.    The  principal  prisons  are  those 

naval  academy  at  Portsmouth,  a  mili-  of  Millbank,  Pentonville,  Portland,  Dartmoor, 

ademy  at  Woolwich,  and  a  military  col-  Portsmouth,  Chatham,  Brixton,  Parkhurst,  Ful- 

at  Sandhurst — ^The  judicial  system  of  Eng-  ham  refuge,  and  a  hulk  at  Portsmouth.    There 

eomprises  4  superior  courts:  the  high  court  were  also  at  the  beginning  of  1858,  40  certified 

waaanoery,  the  court  of  exchequer,  the  court  of  reformatory  schools  in  England  with  1,866  in- 

Uaifa  bench  (termed  duringthe  reign  of  a  queer  mates,  and  22  in  Scotland.    The  police  force 

ftooovtofqneen's  bench),  and  the  court  of  com-  of  England,  Sept.  29,  1857,  was  19,187,   and 

Mflb     Hie  court  of  king's  bench  is  the  su-  the  cost  of  maintaining  it  during  the  year  end- 

oonrt  of  common  law,  and  takes  cogni-  ing  at  that  date  was  £1,265,579. — ^The  history 

of  both  civil  and  criminal  causes,  and  to  of  England  begins  shortly  before  the  commence- 

k  en  be  removed  by  writ  of  error  the  judg^  ment  of  our  era,  when  (55  B.  C.)  Crosar  first 

of  aQ  other  English  courts  of  record.    It  invaded  the  island,  landing  near  Deal  or  Wal- 

3i  of  a  chief  justice  and  4  other  justices,  mer.    Britannia  and  Albion  were  the  names 

Ika  ooort  of  common  pleas  likewise  consists  of  by  which  it  was  known  to  the  Romans.    The 

ei,  and  takes  cognizance  of  civil  cases  be-  Phoenicians  had  known  the  island,  and  so  had 

inbjecta.    The  court  of  exchequer  con-  the  Carthaginians  and  Massilians,  and  aU  of 

of  a  chief  baron  and  4  other  barons ;  it  is  them  are  supposed  to  have  traded  with  it  di- 

a  law  and  an  equity  court,  trying  all  rev-  rectly  or  indirectly,  the  Phoenicians  especially^ 

qnestions  and  many  other  cases.     The  for  tin.  The  interest  that  Crosar's  invasion  caused 

SftiMi  of  these  8  courts  are  <klled    the    15  at  Rome,  among  the  best  informed  men  there, 

P^Hof  England.    There  are  4  terms  in  the  shows  how  little  was  really  known  concerning 

flf  about  8  weeks  each,  during  which  the  the  country,  and  even  for  a  long  period  after- 

■rta  sit  at  Westminster  for  the  determina-  ward  it  was  regarded  as  cut  off  from  the  rest  of 

of  aU  questions  of  law.    Twice  a  year  14  the  world.   He  made  little  impression  on  it,  and 

tfAi  Judges  m^  circuit  through  England  and  his  invasion  probably  met  with  more  resistance 

**    lo  try  caoaes  in  the  country.    By  act  of  than  is  commonly  supposed.  Augustus  proposed 


1-1 


160  EKGLAKD 

an  ex]H>dition  to  Britain,  tnit  never  Atteniptc<1  it.  up  the  S.ixnn  conquest,  nars :  "So  tri  -. 

CAlifnilunl-'*<>tliri*At<:iut!  inva^inn,  amltriuiiitihi'd  yet  more  unciTtain,  arc  the  orcountA  K 

vitliuiit  ezc«'Utiii^  it;  l*ut  it  waa  resorrt-a  for  the  C()i)<)iiest  of  a  groat  kingiluin  \*y  tlu 

Claud iu*i  to  l>i'pn  the  work  of  real  cunquoft  runs  (IwvUer^  on  tiie  German  ocean,  ainl 

(A.  I>.  4'M.     I Miriri);  the  next  40  years  the  con-  t{M)liation   {H-Tpet rated    oinong  ktructur 

quest  of  Muith  Britain  wan  completed,  many  other  property,  tho  fruits  of  Roman  1 

peiivral!*  beiiif;eni])loyvd,  iiichidiu};  Aulus  I'lau-  tion,  on  a  people  accustomed  to  servitu- 

tiiiA,  Ve?«p:i.«itin,  Suotoniud  ^aulinll^  and  Agri-  knew  but  little  how  to  use  them,  ami  a 

cola.    Tho  main  divi^tionA  of  Uie  nmntrj  wcro  to  dvfend  them.**  Kcmblo  czpretti^'s  tliv  « 

Britannia    Ittunaua,   embracing    Enfrland   and  that  the  Anglo-Saioo  kingdoms  for  a  h 

Wales  and  which  had  Uen  eiitiri-ly  ftubilued ;  riod  were  only  bo  many  camps  planti-d  d 

and  Britannia  Barbara,  whi«>h  at  fii-)«t  included  enemy *t»  territory,  and  not  aeklotn  in  a  !> 

all  the  country  to  tho  north  of  tho  wall  of  Ha-  mutual  hostility.    Ono  effect  of  this  ( 

drian,  but  later  only  what  was  to  tho  north  of  conquest  was  to  cause  Britain  to  rtvirt 

the  wall  of  Antoninus.    This  region  dutieil  all  then  ism,  and  one  of  the  fairest  pruvir 

the  elTurts  of  tho  Human  ann**.     The  other  was  Chriiitendom  wom apparently  lo!'t;  t>ut  in  t 

in  a  vory  duuri*>hiug  condition,  and  at  a  later  tificate  of  (iregory  the  Great  it  was  reci 

ruTiod  was  divided  into  5  province:!,  named  and  the  work  of  Saxon  con renion  cum u 

tritonnia   I*rinia,  BriLinnia  Secundu,  Maxima  under  tljo  guidance  of  August  in.    The 

CsHariinsi'*,  Maxima  Kluviensis,  and  Valentia.  chy,  improperly  called  heptarchy,  dat«: 

The  country  ^ul^ered  with  the  re!»t  of  tho  em-  A.  D.  C60.     Turner  rejects  the  Ktatemm: 

pire  fmm  the  inva*>ious  of  barbarian^  and  was  was  by  Egbert  that  the  name  of  YMg}^ 

aband«Hied  by  the  Bunians  in  the  earlier  part  of  formally  bestowed  upon  Gennani«'  Brita 

theSih  centur>'.   The  Britons  tAen  iHrcomc  indc-  Lap[>enberg*s  arguments  in  supiMirt  of  i 

pendent,  and  dif^playetl  much  energy  and  spirit  in  to  be  conclusive.     It  was  in  Kglnrt'i 

contending  with  the  in viider>i.  They  werclesskue-  the  first  8d  of  the  9th  ccntur>',  that  the 

coshful  in  their  endea%'ors  to  establish  a  IxNly  iMiI-  men  first  ap|K*ared  in  forcv  in  Kng!atM: 

itic,  and  the  inland  was  distracted  by  contentions  it  shows  the  vitality  of  tlie  <ild  Bri:i«l 

and  civil  wars.    Thedi!»turU.*d>tateof  thecoun-  that   numbers  of  them   Joined  tho   in 

try  was  favtirable  to  the  incursions  of  the  Picta  There  had  U-en  previous  attacks,  but  t\ 

and  Srots,  whenafewSaions,  said  to  hare  been  thu  most  serious;  it  was  nu»ucci-«^f-tt,  a 

cxile\arriviHliii  thu  i>le  of  Tlianet.     They  were  Britons  who  had  risen  werv  sevtrtlv  | 

but  'iiNi,  and  woru  led  by  two  bmthers commonly  ed.    Tlu'se  invasiunn  were  constaiitly  r^'i 

calloil  Ilengi^t  and  Hfrsa.  They  were,  it  is  protx-  the  Northmen  and  I>anes  being  tho  trr 

abIe,i>napir:itii'alexcur>ion.  The  story  that  they  all   ]H.M>ples  mIio  cikiM  Ut   rearlinl    fr- 

came  l>y  invitation  i^  unfiHinded,  and  probal'ly  M.-a.     Ijirge  portions  <if  EngUnil  l\\\  ;:  : 

ori^nniitrdin  thf  fact  th;it  other  Saxonn  Were 8ul>-  hands.     Much  of  Alfrvd's  rei^n  \\a«  \  \- 

K''liuiitly  incited  tD  Britain.   Tht*  British  chiefs  c«fnte'»L4  with  them.    Tho  fi-rtui.t*  i>f  i\.x . 

n'Milvfd  to   hire  thiir  >i>itiin  as  M'MierM,  ao-  was   various    but   even   the   viit.Tt*    • 

CfinMn;;  ti>  an<it  nnriiiiimifn  r.i^tuni.   They  rhas-  Anglo-Saxiin»  o'-t  tlieni  dear  ;  vi*.  .*  :« 

ti*tt|  the  S<  cftt-h  iniudiT's  and  wht-n  the  Saxnn  bio  that  the  giMteral  re^i:I:  »a«i  p""-.  a:. 

lemh-ri  pr"}M.«>t-il  M-ndinp:  for  iiH>re  of  their  ofun*  the  infiiMnn  n('  new  blninl  into  Ki:«:'.a!.-: ; ' 

trynie:i.  in  oriirr  tlint  their  defen^ii'o  measures  ihI  tho  country  frmii  di p: Herat  11  i»*  r-.;  .  :, 

mi^'i't  1m<   uutm  <  xiiii^ivo.  t!io  pn*iMi«iliitn  w:is  gave  to  it  a  new  IitV.     Much  of  m  ! ./.  :• 

n-ailily  ri-<-i  :%« li.  uiid  t.iini^rrsuf  Saxt-ns  An^'le^,  Saxon  i-^of  [»ani«h  uru'in  ;  but  it  «!.<• .'.  1  V 

anil  .l-itf"*  urnvid  ill  the  i**un:ry.    At  fip't  thoM*  tioneil  that  tho  l>anen  aiid  >aiir,«\\tr 

■trangi-r^  pru\i  •!  ^mmI  frieniN  tu  tlie  Briton*,  but  fctantially  of  the  ^3mo  race,  t^e  «liiri.T<  r.«  < 

whi-ii  ll.ey  hfii!  eoii-iuered  t!io  <i;hir  barb.irians  tliere  Mere  U'i:ig  in  f:i\ur  i>f  the  :':!:;< 

thi  V  t  I'llk  iSritain  for  tliilr  ri'Mard.     Tliis  how-  I^Aui^h  dvna^tv   wh^  o-taMUIioil   i:i   il.v 

C\i  r.  Ma«  Uiil  I  tl'ic'ted  « itho'it  a  M'hhIv  c*iinto«t,  part  of  tho  11th  1 « ntury,  anil  the  r.ni.-u-  • 

in  %khii  h  t!it-  ]'.ritt>ni  evin<id  great  br3Vi-r\.  arid  mite,  or  Kuud,  is  hi.;h  <in  tlu*  h-^t  (.'f  K-  < 

at  t'Mv  tiiui-  nri-  "..lid  In  have  exi'»'Il»d  their  fil»e  wiVi-roiirns.     T!»o  SaX«»n  dyni^^ly  w.\.i  n  '»!■ 

allii  V     'II. r  }.i-!>rr  i-f  ihi^-  tiiiii«  it  little  Ut-  li'VJ.  in  the  p<r<Min  of  Edward  t.Vr  <•  ■ 

!•  r  !li;i[i  f  /  i<-.   arid  tin*  \iry  iianif<i  of  IlLii^'iot  ('ii  wlii»^«  death   t!io  thrcm-  Ua.<*  ••■:.;'•:' 

and   n<  r»a  :iri-  {frhapi  ii«  iii\l!it<  al  an  th<>«o  of  JI.iri<M.   Mm   of   E.irl    (ti<d«In,   a   jr^a*. 

B'liinil'.n  (I'ld  ki-riii:-.     Tho  liioot  tlial  i«  kiii*w!i  stat(*«ir.an.     Bis  r»-ijn  was  de«M)i<i!  !<•  a  * 

i«,  tl.tft*  I  •  r'aiii  (•!  T'linnii' in\abT<t  N'lUlui  1]  tho  ami  trigii'al    lirmirwitiun.      .\n  e\i:::   « 

gri  .i!f  r  |art  if  Ii.'iS^iim.  nn<i  l.;i>l  the  f'lundatiun  |h  iidiii^*  (iXtT  Eiv!an<l  nhieli  w.i"  t<*  r-   . 

iff  !li..?  I.n.rliir.'l  %%!*»■  I.  hai  «i»' ui'iid  *«.i  hiriT"  a  ri*ti-r\  f.Tivir.     The  Nuriitir.*.  •It-^.i-.-la 

»i>n<  I   ti  ti.i-  ]..«s>r>  (■!'  t*.«<  vi>r!<l  f'T  vi  ni.nv  tlifM^   N<<rt!iinen  wim  ha*!  h  t^Ictl    ;r)    N« 

* 

iitifiir:-f       Wi'  kii'<\»  tin-  ri'-'.ilT,  hi:?  iif  tlioj-ro-  (N.  W.  Krann*).  h.id  cStairti]  i  ii:.«.ii!.  rkl 

fi-«M  1  Ml  kr.fw  ii.  \!  t.i  i...rl..ii/.     'i  Iif*o  ii*va»l-  l!;i  niv  in  K::i:lanfi  in  tho  t'onfi-^M  r*-  IiT; 

crt  n]  |>«  nr  t«i  \,rw-  b^  !i<!i,'t  i  •';!  "Tantinlly  tm'r  o  Wirtirid**td  the  leadmi;  race  of  t!i*  Wft. 

r»n-,  I-  .1  !!•  }  h.kd   •*:•■!.»:    |'«'.:j!*  of  ilitfiTi  r.i  r.  li.»i:i.  ihiko  of  Ni«ri:!ahily.  ilaiiiii^  !!.•■  :':.•' 

lihuh  wif'-   p.'ri.i  ir..i:!y  {  r-'iniin nt  a»  Utwt«;i  )j:.:!.in>l  throuirh   h>  ^*rt.i!-ai::.t.  a  t.'if*   i 

ii'iit  an-1  Ai.^li.%     LapjiubiT^',  in  suuUiiiig  wurtlUcad.     Neither  William  nor  Uat^', 


ENGLAND  161 

tny  Intimate  pretensions  to  the  throne,  bat  king,  and  more  a  knight-errant  than  either.  The 
Haruld  had  the  support  of  the  English  nation,  English  are  proud  of  him,  yet  he  was  a  French* 
and  William  assembled  a  powerful  army  to  en-  man,  could  not  speak  the  langnage  of  the  island 
Ibrce  hb  claim.  The  support  the  duke  received  people,  and  kept  out  of  England  whenever  he 
from  his  own  subjects  was  reluctantly  given^  could.  His  brother  and  successor,  John,  ascend- 
bat  the  promises  of  spoil  he  held  out  attracted  ed  the  throne  in  1109.  It  is  from  his  reign 
to  his  senrice  a  largo  number  of  adventurers  that  England  dates  the  renewal  of  her  existence 
from  different  parts  of  Europe,  so  that  he  as  a  nation.  John  was  one  of  the  weakest  and 
was  enabled  to  land  60,000  men  in  England,  most  wicked  of  kings ;  he  is  one  of  the  few  men, 
Harold,  who  had  just  defeated  an  army  of  eminent  either  from  talent  or  position,  who, 
Norwegian  invaders,  met  the  Normans  at  after  having  been  long  regarded  as  monsters, 
Hastings,  where  he  lost  his  life  and  his  kingdom,  have  had  nothing  said  in  their  favor  by  modem 
Oct.  14,  1066.  William's  victory  was  com-  writers.  The  cliaracter  and  conduct  of  Richard 
plcCe,  and  the  Normans  and  other  adventurers  III.  have  been  defended  with  plausibility  ; 
90OD  became  masters  of  all  England.  Saxons  Henry  VIII.  has  been  pronounced  ahnost  a  per- 
iod Danes  were  involved  in  common  slavery,  feet  monarch  by  one  of  the  great  lights  of  this 
The  victor  introduced  the  feudal  system  into  age  of  historical  criticism ;  but  John  is  held  to 
England.  It  is  probable  the  extent  of  the  Nor-  be  as  bad  now  as  he  was  in  those  times  when 
man  spoliation  has  been  much  exaggerated,  but  Shakespeare  furnished  such  life-like  portraits 
diat  the  natives  were  reduced  to  a  state  of  po-  of  English  kings.  He  is  the  same'^^trifler  and 
fitical  bondage  admits  of  no  doubt  whatever,  cowai^  "  to  posterity  that  ho  was  to  his  con- 
Tbe  very  name  of  Englishman  was  made  odious,  temporaries ;  and  the  highest  authority  assures 
A teeign  rale  was  established  over  England,  and  us  that  his  follies  and  vices  were  the  salvation 
itvae  not  nntil  7  generations  from  the  conquest  of  England.  His  French  rival,  PJiilip  Augus- 
kad  passed  away  that  the  distinction  between  tus,  was  an  able  statesman.  Their  contests 
Norman  and  Saxon  was  nearly  obliterated.  It  were  ruinous  to  John  as  a  continental  sovereign. 
fid  not  disappear  altogether  until  a  much  later  Normandy,  Brittany,  and  Anjou  were  lost.  The 
period,  bat  it  ceased  to  influence  legislation  in  English  Plantagcnet  had  little  more  than  Eng- 
tbe  last  days  of  the  13th  century,  or  soon  after  land  for  his  dominion.  His  continental  pos- 
that  time.  The  Norman  line  gave  8  sovereigns  sessions  were  all  to  the  south  of  the  Loire.  The 
to  England :  William  I.,  William  II.,  and  Henry  I.  insular  Normans  were  separated  from  the  con- 
The  death  of  the  latter,  in  1135,  was  followed  tinental  Normans,  and  were  compelled  to  have 
by  the  reign  of  Stephen  of  Bloiii,  his  nephew,  the  saine  interests  with  the  m^  of  the  people. 
lad  by  the  wars  between  that  king  and  the  ad-  From  this  came  the  series  of  events  that  led  to 
^erects  of  the  old  dynasty.  Henry  I.  left  an  the  concession  of  the  great  charter,  June  15, 
ody  daogbter,  Matilda,  married  first  to  Uie  em-  1215.  John  was  involved  in  disputes  with  the 
peror  of  Germany,  and  then  to  Geoffrey,  earl  pope,  to  whom  he  afterward  resigned  liis  king- 
flf  Anjou.  by  whom  she  had  that  prince  who  dom,  and  he  is  said  to  have  offered  to  turn  Mussul- 
became  Henry  U.  of  England  in  1155.  England  man  if  he  could  obtain  Saracenic  aid  from  Spain 
■ffered  terribly  in  the  contest  between  Stephen  against  the  barons.  In  a  contest  with  France  his 
and  Matilda,  the  rightful  heiress  to  the  crown,  troops  shared  in  the  loss  of  the  battle  of  Bo  vines. 
vbo  was  supported  by  a  powerful  party.  Henry  The  barons  called  Louis  of  France  to  tlicir  aid, 
IL  became  king  in  consequence  of  an  arrange-  and  he  at  first  was  successful,  but  evincing  a 
■ent  with  Stephen,  who  had  lost  his  only  son  partiality  for  his  countrymen  he  lost  ground, 
Sastsce;  bat  the  treaty  was  really  the  work  of  many  of  his  first  supporters  joining  John,  wlio 
tte  barons,  who  had  risen  to  high  power  during  was  about  to  fight  him,  when  he  died,  Oct.  17, 
filephea^s  reign.  The  young  king  was  the  found-  1216.  Ho  was  succeeded  by  his  eldest  sou, 
r  of  the  royal  family  of  Plantagcnet,  which  Henry  III.,  a  boy  of  9  years.  The  government 
hdd  the  English  throne  330  years,  and  from  was  conferred  on  the  earl  of  Pembroke,  who 
Ub,  in  direct  line,  Victoria  is  descended.  He  succeeded  in  compelling  the  Frencli  to  make 
kd  ^xon  blood,  his  great-grandmother  on  the  peace  and  to  leave  the  country.  On  Pembroke's 
Maud  nde  being  a  Saxon  princess,  and  having  in  death  power  passed  to  the  hands  of  Hubert  de 
berveins  the  blood  of  Alfred.  Th"erehave  been  Burgh  and  the  bishop  of  Winchester,  but  the 
hw  abler  monarchs  than  Henry  IL  His  foreign  former  was  soon  compelled  to  resi^  it.  The  reign 
Hons  were  vast.  He  was  duke  of  Nor-  of  Henry  III.  is  the  longest  in  Englisli  history 
ly  and  count  of  Anjou,  and  having  married  save  that  of  George  III.,  and  it  was  passed  in 
lor  of  Aqnitaine,  was  also  duke  of  Aquitaine  constant  troubles.  The  favor  shown  to  foreigners 
looontof  Poitou.  Maine  belonged  to  him.  caused  much  irritation.  There  were  frequent 
■idertook  the  conquest  of  Ireland.  Had  it  disputes  with  the  barons,  which  led  to  imi>ortant 
i  been  for  bis  dispute  with  Becket,  and  the  consequences.  Under  the  lead  of  Simon  do 
troables  that  happened  at  a  later  period  Montfort,  earl  of  Leicester,  the  barons  defeated 
tf  bb  life,  he  might  apparently  have  conquered  the  king  at  I^ewes,  in  1264,  and  took  him  cap- 
Aiiriiole  of  France.  The  crusades,  too,  had  an  tive,  and  the  next  year,  under  Leicester's  rule, 
iAet  prejudicial  to  his  interests.  He  died  in  the  first  English  parliament  was  assembled. 
IIM,  and  was  succeeded  by  Richard  I.  (Coeur  de  The  same  year  Leicester  and  his  party  were  de- 
Ub),  who  was  more  a  crusading  chief  than  a  Btroyed  by  Prince  Edward.  The  royal  author- 
voL.  vn. — 11 


1«2  EKGLAKD 

it  J  wa4  fitr  n  tinie  r('rAtA]i1i<*liPi1.  and  tlie  princo  mother,  which   Ivtl   to  that  riralrr  of 

iWparioil   to  juin   iho   Luit  rrunadi*.      IIenrv*«  aihl   England   that   lia^  ciidurx*d  d<>Mn 

Weakness  I'un I uru|^«d  him* nciniM,  and  the  conn-  day.     Ho    had    niiineroii!*    al!i«^  on  ti 

trj  wait  rd.ip-in^  into  mnfiiViuii,  wlion  he  diiHl  t incut,  and  lie  K-tl  an  army  into  Frani^  i 

in  127*2.     Ki|w:ird  1.  ariC«nd«>il  the  tlironc  with-  which,   howcvi-r.  acccmpliMied  mat. in. 

out  iipiui^itinti,  aiid  proviil  hiniMrlf  an  ahle  and  frrcat  naval  vii'tory  uf  Sluyi  wa«  putif*: 

lin9cni|ii:l<iii«  riilt-r.    He  wof*  ag«H.id  Hcivctri^n  for  Kn^rli^h  in  l'>4o.     TniuMe^  i^  ith  parlLiui 

£n|r!and.  tniindin^  permanent  leifal  institiitiuns  want  of  inonry  prcvcntvil  liiin  from  nr^ 

which  ).:ivf  L-viT  hineo  been  ftfMikcn  nf  with  re-  war  vipiniutly.  nod  it  wai  nut  nntil  1.'^ 

a|iect,  and  lir*i-nin^thcpuhlic  ex[H'nditar« ;  hut  the  hattle  v(  ('rci\r  «iM  wun  Ity  tho  ] 

towanl  fort  ijsn ITS  h^  waM  fuithlcv  and  cruel.  Calaitt  was  altorward  taken,  and  th«*  k: 

He  cun-iui-ri-d  >Vule9  and  murdered  iu  princes,  made  a  tnico  with  the  French.     Whiio 

That   co-iii:ry  wom  annexed  tn    Kn^Iund,  the  ah!K>nU  un  army  rai'^'d  hy  his  uifo  dcirf 

kiMfC  Conferring  the  title  of  prince  of  Wales  on  Scotch  at  tin*  bairle  of  Ne\ille*s('ro<i«,  a 

hit  Min  and  heir,  which   has  ever  Mnce  tn-en  turiH)  their  kiiifT.  Havid  Hruce.  A  naval  m 

biime  hy  the  eldvHt  Mm  of  the  Mivereipi  of  En^-  tlie  Sjianiards  follow  eil.  aiid  the  lattt  r  « 

land.     He  Mui^ht  to  comiuor  Scotland,  and  at  featvd  in  uirreui  hattlc.     TheterriMe  i^ 

one  time  up{K.>are«i  to  have  aucceetled,  but  the  that  ruva^tsl  the  world  in  tlie  Mtli  i  «-iii 

raaistaiice  of  the  Scotch,  fint  under  Wallace,  |»eared  in  Kn^'laml  in  l!i4'.i.     Iheni.* 

then  under  l*(>m VII  and  KraficT,  and  finally  under  the  war  uith  France  led  t>i  the  hattle  « 

Kruce,  >aved  their  country  from  hecuniinfr  an  tiers  in  IX't;,  in  \%hich  F.«lunr<l.  [trin I 

Enicltfili  d«'|N*ndcncT.     Edward  was  involved  in  known  as  the  Hlm-k  Prince.  ilefeatc'I  Ku 

a  war  wit ii  France,  which  had  seized  liuienne,  of  France,   nnil   made  him  priMjner. 

one  of  the  few  remaining  l»osAeviiiinH  of  the  (^Iward    111.  .n^iain  invaded    Franre.    a 

Enftliidi  on  the  c>»ntinent,  but  which  won  re<Ht4ire<l  Ne;.-ed  Klieims  U-can^e  he  wi-hed  to  Im.<  • 

under  papal  mediation.      Hit  wiirs  made  him  kin^  there.     The  n^xt  \ear  pemo  w.x- n: 

dependent  un  parliament,  the  |Niwer  of  which  tween  the  two  cnuntrio,  (Mwanl  rvn- 

waamueh  increa^k^I  in  hit  rei|rn,  the  oimmoni  all   claim  to  the  French  eru»n,  hat  rx 

firtt  ti:tin;;in  a  vparatv  chan)U*r  in  Vi^J^.     He  lar^e  portion^  of  French  territory,  ai.d 

▼iolate«l :  he  ;;re.Ht  charier,  and  for  a  time  kliowed  men<»4*  Mini  of  nmney.     The  Fn  ii<*!.  kin 

every  diTi|MiM(  inn  to  reiirn  arbitrarily;  but  the  op-  \u^  himself  unnMe  to  fn'.nl  the  timiA 

poaitxon  hee\|icrienc«d  wasnot  t4t  lie  overcfime,  tn-aty,  went  l>.v-k  to  I'.n^rlind  a  pr^^'ri 

and  he  jrave  way%'f»ire  it.     It  was  while  man-h-  there  died.     The  prince  i»t  W?ili«.  fn-r:! « 1 

ing  to  niief  Hrihv  in  Scotland  that  Filwanl  I.  inter:ere<l  in  t!ie  nlftir'*  of  >pr.i;>.  Ufi  i 

died,  on  July  7,  l.»"7.    His»iucce*««»r.  Edward  II.,  Imitlo  of  Nujera  if:  l-'*7.  in  I'd.  .ir'  ■  f  W 

wat  a  Me;ik  prince,  wlm  w.is  nnuMe  to  c«»mpre-  Cruel,   ai.d   o\ir  \}iv   FriT.il.,  ^^\  ■■.  •:: 

hend  <r  to  acciinip'.i»h  his  faihir**k  i!e^iirn«i.     IIo  tiiie^lin,    UA-re   ;iii!:i'.;:    l{<':i:y   *'i    1*..^ 

was  (;i«\i:-n«<l  l»y  luvurite*.  whink*  iri'Mileiicc  pro-  The  iijh:i'h.*  of  tl.;-»  w::r  i  a'i-«»il  t'  .■  •  ; 

Tiiki-d  X]f  !';»riHH.  hy  h  horn  tl:e  chief  of  iheiii,  beri*ine  ui.ptip'.l.ir.  an<i  l.i'«  la-t  «!j.^"  : 

(iuvi<.*..:i   \v:i«  |.iit  til  death,  ill  l.'fl'J.     The  kin^  mioc'rar-li'  ('"r.tra-l   \\it!i   l.i-  i-ir!y  •  .«r> 

ma»  111  !   •-•  1  {<•  h  .id  H  k'reat  army  to  .'^c<it!and  in  divil    in    \"l*'t.   a  Vi-.ir   Urci'   tlie  <li.i! 

loM.u  li.i  .1  M  :i«  I-.. niphu-lv  defeated  at  llanniH-k-  father,     lie  l.itri  r  ^  i- ir^  •  !'  the  ki;  .:  vi 

b::rn.  a'l  •  •!  lit  lliut  eot.iMi«he«l  the  S*otti«h  ha-  eiiihittered  \>\  fii'.:]."*-  i:i  I  r:in<  •*,  a'  •!  '  *  • 

tiou  a:.l  tin*  throiiiiof  Itniee.    Althe  iii<*tani  e  i>f  uilli    p.irli.itiunr.      N.-:    a  li!:!t>    »  a-    • 

Kdwani'-  jM-.  !i,  I-aU-lla  of  Framt-.  puriiinitnt  il.is  rii;:n  tnw.irl  iho  i!i\. •".•■■.. iv.i  i.t  •  •* 

dep  M-1  !!.••  kt::/.  who  woMNHin  afterward  ni  ^T'  iii«l'i*'lr\.    an<l    -"tne    •  i»i;"ii*.iitl-:  »!    «^ 

drre  !,  in  >i  {■!.  l;;'J7.    Thi-piverninrnt  wa^iii  m-  wire  im-:i!i-.1.      I'I.o  i:»  v\  kn-t;.  Hi- 1  .vi 

in..".iv  111  !',(•  l.alnNfif  E'lward  HI..  .1  hi«vi  f  l"i.  oflhi*  II!. u  k  I'r::;re.  w.-i-*  I'M  v   1;   \.   »•-  . 

tui  in   ri-:i!itv  it   was  uiildi**]  hv  I«a!>i-ii.i  ii'.d  a  reL'«  in  v  via<>  .li  :  tctite  I.   'I  i.e  i«  :ir  m  '. '. 

II'V"^r  M  ■r!iiiur.  h»T  pnrjiiioiir.     ThcM*  r»;lers  l.r  ;:iii*!i. .!.     "ll.*«    |'ia-ariir\.    I.i .» 1-  i    ": 

%iere  It!!!"  ■;■'.!  ir,  ami  lln-ir  iinju'pulinty  »a-  i?.-  'Jv!rr.  r--*-  l:i  ft  Vi-.iii  n.  tii-   i.:tvt  ::\-  •.  • 

Cre.i».-il  '■>   a  tr>  .ify  wKii  h  tl  e\  li..ide  «  ith  S'l  t-  pjiln    pli*  !.'.■■   tl.i    ./i-*/-.*  •'iV   li.V.  \   .1 

land  iri  I-'^'J'.*.  txijh  ifnitiL' a'.!  ■  !.il!ii  to  ^ijfritiriry  i:i  I'laiiri- iiimii  liatt !%  a:!tr:l.<  !  VI.    •  '  : 

o\er  t:.il  "   •'..iitry.      M-<ri:mi  r  i»l  o%ii-il  I  :(ii«,  !f  1  !,•■  \ii':ii^' ki'i„"  »:i   •>*■  !   l"!*!  t  .<  l   . 

ah!e  all!  '..r.'H  :  i.|iiilii'is.  an>l  t!if  \"':riir  Lii  i!  hid  4>ii  iM-  im<'.\«;-   .at.!    i:»'*i*   |'*- ::    ^       ! 

ttiiov^j'.r-   .u.i.ii-:  hi'ii.     Thr«nii-« '.  li.'rh' r  a'ld  a^-'lify  l.  i!i  w.i«;.  '  Jl-  i  ' '.  !..••  ;'•  ■  : 

htr   J.i'. .  r  \\  ■  ri«  *t  :.'imJ,  a!  d  tli--  1 1'S  r  i»  .4«i  •  \t- -  x\  i*!i  >*'iit;.i'.  i  !■  .1  '-  i.*-  r*--  .!;-.     I  ..i  .  'i. 

ruted.    *1 :  ■  :•  ;j-.  •■!  F^lw  ard  III    i*  !«■•'*•  ■!  i;;   -Ji  tl.i-  k.iij'^  m.-  '.-.  t:   ■  ■!  .k.   .  f  i  •*■  m  •  >'•  .• 

a*  I'll*- '  r  :!ie  Mi-i,:  hriKia-.'.   m  E'>^»  f'l  !.;•*■»•  \.  iiilrmai  Iri- .    .•  •       I'-k.s./u  .-:..:.: 

He   »..*    k.   4 :..  r^'fii- pr.iit  I'.  Biiil  r- ir.»».  •!  !'.*•  |'1« -i-nri  -  m  •:.«  \  :i..\'  !.a  !  1 « •  ti  »:r.i- ••  ■. 

|aM*t"^«  t   • 'I  u  !i>  h  111  l.al  tf.i- r  Hu\  dif:' ;;  ).!«•  n'ln  r   p  .rp  m -.  ;»:•■;   1  ■■  •    •.;'•!'!   i    • 

f^tlii  r'«  ri  .'!i       .\.iliu;;  Italnl  in  an  B'.tfinpt  to  ltri*y  l>y  m.ik::  .*  :%  !  •;..'  *.r »..      t    k-. 

oht  ii:i   !'m    I  r  lAi.  i.f  N-.i!lini|.  ho  \k**t\  M\tr  tiie  l-v    iri.irr-.  i*  j:    I  .»■   d  •    /  .!•  -   •■'   I"'  ir.   • 

ScMti  I. '.:.i  \  :•  *•>:%  iif  Halii!iiri  Ilill.hilt  tlieih  fi  at-  i}i.l<iuf7^i   i'- "       li   >  'i'>   '.'    *'!■.•     •*• -' 

■  ■ 

ed  «ere   :■■■!  i  -n  |Uere<l.      He  m.1   Up  an  a'toiipl  to  a\ail   I  n:;*i-!l  i!    :',  %  '■:  |-  ;    '.■v  ■;. 

claim  to  :ho  crL>wu  uf  France,  in  ri|;ht  of  hit  •ei^'d,  imjui^oued,  und  put  :••  diath.  >■ 


ENGLAND  168 

psrtjr  was  destroyed.  Parliament  stood  firmly  the  condition  of  a  province  of  France — this  plan 
Ij  the  king.  Two  of  his  supporters  were  the  was  destined  to  fail.  Henry  died,  Aug,  31, 142SI, 
dnke  of  Hereford  and  the  duke  of  Norfolk,  and  when  apparently  about  to  realize  his  scheme, 
tbey  qoarrelling,  the  king  banished  them  both,  He  left  but  one  child,  a  boy  of  9  months,  who 
the  first  for  10  years,  and  the  second  for  life,  became  Henry  YI.,  and  who  was  soon  the  king 
Hereford  was  son  of  John  of  Gaunt)  the  duke  of  of  a  large  part  of  France,  his  French  grandfather 
Lancaster,  and  cousin  of  the  king,  and  when,  on  dying  soon  after  his  father.  The  king^s  unde, 
his  &ther*8  death,  the  king  seized  his  cousin^s  the  duke  of  Bedford,  carried  on  the  war,  and 
estatesi,  the  new  duke  of  £uicaster  returned  to  the  English  were  mostly  victorious  over  the 
Bng^aiv^,  aiidf  so  great  was  the  monarch's  un-  French  and  their  Scotch  allies.  A  variety  of 
popolarity,  rapidly  levied  a  force  that  placed  events,  however,  among  which  the  exploits  of 
him  at  the  h«^  of  the  country.  He  compelled  Joan  of  Arc  are  the  most  remarkable,  led  to  a 
the  king  to  resign  the  crown,  and  assembled  a  change  in  the  fortunes  of  the  contest,  and  after 
parliament,  which  made  him  king,  he  having  many  campaigns  the  French  recovered  all  their 
claimed  the  throne  in  virtue  of  his  descent  from  country,  except  Calais,  and  two  other  small 
Hmry  III.  According  to  the  received  ideas  of  places,  in  1451.  Henry  VI.  proved  to  bo  a  man 
neoesaion.  he  had  no  cTaim  to  the  throne,  wliich,  of  much  amiability,  but  deficient  in  intellect  and 
Culing  Ricnard  and  heirs  ofhis  body,  belonged  to  vigor  of  character.  During  his  minority  the 
the  eail  of  March,  descended  from  the  duke  of  court  was  the  scene  of  intrigues  and  contentions; 
Clarence,  3d  son  of  Edward  HI.,  the  new  king  and  when  he  had  arrived  at  manhood,  and  mar- 
being  son  of  Edward's  4th  son.  The  reign  of  ried  Margaret  of  Anjou,  daughter  of  Ren^,  titu- 
Henry  IV.  began  Sept.  80,  1899.  Richard  was  larkingofSicily,  Naples,  and  Jerusalem,  that  able 
imprisoned,  and  is  supposed  to  have  been  mur-  princess  became  the  real  head  of  the  state.  The 
dered  at  Pontefhict  castle,  but  nothing  is  certainly  conflicts  of  parties  were  increased  in  fierceness, 
known  of  his  fate.  Henry^sreign  wasoneof  much  which  was  in  part  caused  by  the  throwing  of  so 
interest  The  followers  of  Wvcliffe  had  become  many  public  men  back  upon  England,  who  had 
very  nnmerons,  and  the  king  s  father,  John  of  lost  all  they  had  seized  in  France.  That  contest 
Gannt,  dnke  of  Lancaster,  hod  supported  Wye-  which  is  known  as  the  wars  of  the  roses,  or 
lifle ;  but  the  son  proved  a  firm  adherent  of  the  the  disputes  of  the  houses  of  York  and  Lan- 
chnrch  of  Rome,  and  consented  to  that  act  for  caster  for  the  crown  of  England,  commenced 
the  punishment  of  heretics  which  was  passed  in  about  1452.  Richard  duke  of  York  was  un- 
1401,  and  under  which  so  much  cruelty  was  per-  doubtedly  the  legitimate  claimant  of  the  throne. 

Setrated  for  two  centuries.     The  Lancastrian  Hod  Henry  VI.  been  an  able  monarch,   the 

ynasty,  by  allying  itself  with  the  church,  post-  claims  of  York  under  the  circumstances  would 

poned  the  reformation  for  4  generations.    The  have  been  of  little  practicol  importance ;  but 

reign  of  Henry  IV.  was  short,  but  eventful.    In  a  the  weakness  of  the  king,  and  the  fierceness  of 

war  with  Scotland  the  English  won  the  victory  the  p.irty  contests,  united  to  concentrate  men's 

of  Homildon  Hill.    The  rebellion  of  Glendower,  attention  upon  the  duke,  who  had  many  strong 

in  Wales,  was  highly  successful  for  many  years,  points  of  cliaracter,  and  had  served  his  country 

and  that  chief  was  never  formally  subdued,  well  in  Franco  and  Ireland.    He  had  married 

thoogh  finally  forced  to  remain  in  a  state  of  Cecily  Neville,  daughter  of  the  earl  of  West- 

eomparative  quiet.    A  rebellion  headed  by  the  moreland,  a  near  connection  of  the  earls  of 

carl  of  Xorlhumberland  broke  out  in  1403,  but  Salisbury  and  Warw^ick,  two  of  the  greatest 

tibe  victory  of  the  king  at  Shrewsbury  estab-  nobles  of  the  realm.    The  duke  expected  to 

fished  his  power.     Other  rebellions  followed  succeed  quietly  to  the  crown  on   the  king's 

this,  and  the  conspiracies  were  numerous.    The  death,  as  Henry  had  no  children  for  many 

French  had  insulted  the  English  frequently,  and  years  after  his  marriage ;  but  in  1453  Prince 

Henry  IV.  was  on  the  point  of  renewing  the  Edward  was  born,  and  the  king  was  reduced  by 

war,  when   illness  compelled  him   to  refrain;  illness  to  a  state  of  imbecility.    York  was  then 

and  soon  after  ho  died,  March  20,  1413.    His  made  protector;  but  when  Henry,  in  1455,  re- 

m  and  jsnccessor,  Henry  V.,  put  down  the  Lol-  covered  his  intellect,  ho  resumed  power,  and 

hrds  with  a  vigorous  hand,  and  renewed  the  showed  such  favor  to  the  duke^s  enemies  that 

war  with  France.    Landing  in  France  with  a  the  Yorkists  assumed  arms,  and  that  civil  war 

hrge  array,  in  the  summer  of  1415,  he  besieg-  began  which  did  not  end  until  40  years  later. 

adand  took  Harfleur.     The  battle  of  Agincourt  The  first  battle  was  fought  at  St.  Albans,  May 

vas  foaght  Oct.  25, 1415,  and  was  won  by  the  22, 1455,  and  was  won  by  the  Yorkists,  or  party 

laglish  against  great  odds,  the  French  suffer-  of  the  white  rose.    The  king  was  in  the  power 

iy  eeverely.    The  war  was  continued,  and  in  of  the  conquerors,  and  acceded  to  all  the  de- 

MO  the  French  government  made  a  treaty  mands  of  York,  who  became  protector  again  on 

vbh  England,  by  whicli  it  was  settled  that  the  return  of  Henry's  illness.  The  queen  was  less 

Hnrr  V.  should  marry  Catharine,  one  of  the  submissive,  and  nearly  succeeded  in  her  attempts 

ia^ters  of  Charles  VI.,  and  that  he  sliould  to  destroy  the  opposition  chiefs.    War  was  re- 

leeome  heir  to  that  king.    On  Charles's  death  sumed  in  1459,  with  various  fortune.    After  the 

and  En^and  were  to  have  but  one  mon-  battle  of  Northampton,  July  10, 1460,  it  was  ar- 

Fortunately  for  England — which  by  its  ranged  that  Henry  should  remain  king  for  life, 

would  have  been  probably  reduced  to  but  that  York  should  succeed  him.  Margaret  re- 


164  EXGLAXD 

■UtfrtI,  nnd  r>n  IVv.  r.'l.  14*A  d>  foA!«:^l  the  Y*^rk-  die<l  in  14^1,  worn  oat  br  deVttocb^rr.    nu  toe- 

bUftt  WAk«:fii'!iI.     Y'^rL  aim!  hU  Jt.iun,;  9on.  tho  otr!i»i»r.  l-^lwanl  V..  was  CuC  ^cite  13  jeAT*  uU. 

earl  of  I.utUntl.  an'i  M^  r.-acf  nupf-Tier.  S^i*-  The  cnurt  woa  «liTi«l«ri  into  two  panit'^  tbc  mm 

iKirv.  w «rrH  {.Tit  to  (Ivatb.  The  York i^  rUim  now  cuOsi^liDg  of  the  reUtiTv^  of  tinr  ?uvn|r  kinir 

p*.%«cil  ^'  Dlward.  carl  uf  MArch.  tlieilske'^eM-  on  the  inatcTiial  mJo,  anU  th«  other  ff  the  oid 

•4t  •wn.  a  Touth  of  IV,  !^u{A-rior  t'>  hU  fdthvr  in  nobilitv.  Uichard.  duko  of  O!o:2cv4t«r.  the  kioc'a 

intelltTtuai  <]iulitir««  tut  hU  mferior  in  virtue  ancle,  an  able  and  aniMtiooft  pnnoe«  telbed  tii« 

and  humini'.v.     Edw^^rd.  wh«>  Lad  (rrvat  niili-  rcia^  of  guvomnienu  was  icad«  protector,  fiat 

tarr  frvriiu^.  ixurchvd  atrain^t  or.v  c»f  the  Ijuiro.^-  to  death  ^'^eral  of  the  inooarch*#  rrUtive*  acd 

than  arniir^  and  dcf^atol  it,  and  then  ]'ruc«.-vdvti  ftO|fpi*rters.  and  tinalij  nidde  hiDi«cIf  kiQC.    £d- 

to  Lji;d<*n.  where  the  |ie*.i|'!e  and  MJinv  nf  iho  ward  V.  und  Lii  br-tber.   the  dake  d  York, 

parliarnvr.:  a<  knowlvdiri^d  hU  claims,     lie  was  wvre  I'laccl  in   cuiitinemvnt,  and  t»xm  d'um^ 

prvK-Iaitm-d  Lin^.  MiirchS.  1441  ;  and  Mnrornpt  poaretl.  but  it  is  nut  certain  that  the  coniiDua 

were  hi^  movements  that  he  invt  the  Linra.4-  iturr  a.<«  tit  their  fate,  that  ther  were  monlcfed 

than  anny  at  TuMton,  a  few  niili-s  ffinn  York,  bj  Iliohard's  order*,  i*  trao.     Kicl;ard*t  r^ica 

the  2'.«l}i'ot  the  ftariie  Tnt^nih  (.ralni  Sunday),  wsd  brief,  and  was  uiurh  di»tnrl««i  by  CLomr- 

A  hundred  th->ui^iid  men  joined   battle,  and  acie*;  he  hail  uifended  the  YorkisU,  and  had 

afte r  the  m<*?>tterribIeCnntUct  that  ei'eroccurreil  nut  ciiuri Hated  the  I^nca»tr;ac«.     A  eoalitioa 

on  En^'ii-h  irrtrini],  virtury  dei-l;ired  for  (^Iward  was  formed  a^in«t  l.iin,  at  the  head  of  which 

IV.    Margaret  renewed  the  n  in  teat  with  French  stiiod  tlie  earl  of  Kichinond,  the  Ian  pcnon  who 

and  S^itti-h  aid.  b'.:t  waA  beaten  at  llexhain,  cnuld  pretend  to  bo  the  reprv^eotative  vi  the 

May  15.   14«>4.      Ifcnry  fell    into    hi4    rival's  house  of  I^nca«tor.     Kichmond  wae  the  grcaft- 

hand%  aritl  va4  iniriri^M^ni^l  in  the  tower.    The  fn^-at-frrandMin  uf  John  of  Gaunt«  founder  ufiha 

powvr  I'f  the  Yi>rLivt«  bein^  e«tahlL<»he<l,  they  h«>u«e  of  I.Anca,«ter,  ki^-'in^  dcaeendeU  fhjBi  the 

fell  t*>  i^uarrt-IIinir  am- mi;  t]teii»4<*Ivf<*.     The  Ne-  earl  of  Sonien^.'t,  Mm  of  tliat  phnoe  by  Ctth- 

Tiile4,  at  ^h<i^   hi-ail  ^U^^d  the  earl  of  War-  arino  Swynford,  hi*   luistrees.     SonscneC    had 

wick,  claimed  mi 're  t!*an  the  kirt?  was  di«iM»Md  been   ]e*r;itimate«l    by  parliament,  bat  cvt  off 

to  irrant,  e\e!i  for  *tijch  m.*rviii-4  a<«  they  had  from  the  line  of  ftunx'^ion  to  the  crown.     Oft 

leoderii!.  an>l  which,  bein^r  t»>  inipi'rtant  to  be  his  fatiier's  Mde   Kichmond   belonged   to  the 

ntwardi^L  LV.':raIiy  ina^le  them  and  the  royal  WeK!i  family  ff  Tudor.  lii<i  prandCuher.  Owctt 

hoa*<;  ini.-niii-4.     The  kind's  marria;^*  with  I^ly  Tudur,  havin;^  mturlM   Cathahne   of  Valutik 

Grey.  Wili.w  i>La:i  ol>«i-ure  I^ancojitrian.  pave  widow  of  Henry  V.  of  &i};land.     Thoe  Kirh- 

in*]« :« '•T'^H'.e '.••TV jrw it  k  and  hi«  friends.    The  moiid  had  no  K-'.'iiiiiinu*  ilaimtothe  tlnine; 

dak*    f  Core r.*-e.  a  brother  of  the  kin^.  married  anil  vwn  if  Kicliard  111.  were  dead  there  »rrt 

th-L  r"!-v  ^.k".jht*r  t.f  Warwi*  k,  tii  the  ilisr'K  several  |»^r*i>::'»  who  had  M;['erior  claims  to  that 

of::.-.  ;:.  •z.jlt'  \..     Fl  14'VJ  there  wan  a  reU'liion,  seal  in  \niiui  iff  bli».i«l.  Miii|H»!«in«;  that  the  limi- 

LeaiK'i  ';•    tr,<:   Ne\.;i-.A   w:.}  were  aidt.d   by  tatiiwi  of  the  ri^-ht.'i  vf  Uiehmi»ad*s  fn^aXMllathcr 

CIi.v.— ,  a:.  1  :!-••  kir.^  at  i-ne  lime  wa-  their  Smurs^t  w:i*  imI  ri-^rarded.     lUit  |>arty  eI^xa- 

pn^'T.rr.     !••  !tA«<-il  trurii  run  tine  nun:.  Kdwanl  ci^-t  <>ven*aii>o  c-vitv  thin;*.  a*id  to  icUisfy  the 

Lc;  du'<« :.  \i.  •::.•. T  rv lie! lit •:!.  Aiid  i.*onr'erre«l  hi^h  Yorki^t^  it  wat  ar.Tet*d  th.-a  Kirliuuitid  ««L«Mid 

IV ••rji  '  1.1  i  ; art  t.rv  :fc:.il  Warwick  :  b:it  tlu- i^uar-  m;irry  Kliul'ttii.  iMt-*t   dau^-hter  o!    E-lvani 

re!  wa".  pr.-wi'.i,  and  faii^n;;  to  M-iie  tito  kin.:.  IV.     Tiio  lir-t  tiFort  <»f  the  0'R»piratt»n  :ai!«^ 

the  TvW.  I  !iM  s  ri-tl  !••  Kra'ii  e,  i«  !iere  War w irk,  and  tho  duke  ol'  lSn<*k:n^'!iam,  the  rhief  of  throi 


nnder    the  l:ti*di..!..»:i   if  Ijiiiu^  XI..  joinid   the  in  K:i^'hmd.  « a9  Im  he^fedi-d.      In  14-**5  th«-\  m 

party  of  M.iv^ri  *.  «<f  Anjo.i.     Iji:-.<lii:,!  in  Kn^-  m<ire  ^u•ve>.M*ul.     Ilu-hni«>nd  luiidol  in  Walt**  at 

laiitl.  arid  pr>>4 1  liiiil'.j  III  iirr  VI.  km.*,  W^rwii-k  the  head  of  a  mm  all  i^riv.  marrheil  into  Kni:lar«d, 

wa«  exeri  Hfitro  *'i*  'V*«f :!.  ai:*l  K*lw;ird  iK-tl  tu  eneoUhteritl  Ku-h.ird  at  I^-«w«irth.  Auff.  :it.  and 

llo'Und.     Ill  a  ft  w  n)<-ii:!i4  Kilwar>l  returned,  def«-ate«l  hiiii.   the   kin,;  fallim;   in   tlie  batt>. 

and  «a«  a«  «u«-'*f«fi:I  a«  W.4rwiek  h>l  U-en.     la  KiJiaril  wi*;i!il  have  unn  an  ea»T  \i(-li.nr  hai 

4  Wi*«k«  hi'ti.tt  .-kI  I.<i!.d-<:i.  t.u^iri,;  U'tn  ji  lined  it  r.i>l  K-en  f^r  the  triaihery  of  s^»me  uf  hit 

by  h;<i  brMi!.i-r  <';ir>  :.*•*.     Ihe  N.i;:Ie  if  Hurnet  adheri-n:«.     Ttie   trowii   t!jat  ho  wore   in   tie 

wait  f.i'iirl.t  Af  r.!  1 1.  1 ITI.  a:il  :!ie  Ijivcvtrlans  a«-tf'n  ma^t  |  !:ii  e<l  en  the  head  of  liichmodd. 

Were  ih'fi-ato!,  W^rw.i'k  atn!  hi*  Vrot!.»r  M««n-  mho  mai  haili^l  a»  llmry  VII.     Thi«  m^irarrk^ 

tatfiie  f.-illiii^  nn  t!»e  !.•!•!.     i  »:i  M.iv  4.  (lilward  fir«i  of  the  Tui!>ir  line,  tiore  himn-lf  a«  c\ar{ 

airain  (Ii'IfaioI  the  f-iui  .i«tri.iiii  at  T(-uke«hury,  nf  tlu»  I. .in •-:!'•*. nan  party,  and  depre<Mr«l   the 

Prmce  Milwaril.  »•  n  «f  lieiirt  VI.,  fa!i.n.;  m  the  V-Tki-t^  w!ifi.rVtT  he  oniM  do  >«».  thiK:^h  l< 

action.     Mar^'irr:  fS' .\ I j>*u  Mil*  n:j4le  pr:<«>iier,  fi!t   himM.If  toiniwl'.ed  ti>  marry   ihv   |in:ior«t 

and  Mht  t.i  the  ttiwt-r.  %»h<-re  l.t r  hu«!<and  ^a.i  K!i/aU-*.h.     11. «  iX'.cti  tix%  di^turl^sl  )•«  t&anf 

put  t*i  death.  Miy  '.M.     K^I*«Ar>l  i«.\*  no  mure  con^p.raiii^    and    by   tho  apfH^araiKe  i<f  pnr- 

clt«turl*i-d  by   the   Iji!u-a<r;.iii'*,  )<ut  the  di^^^n-  t«niltr«  to  the  rmvn.     The  fi.'-^t  of  the^e  f^^• 

»iitn«  ■!  hi^rti!:rt  IhIi»\-«*ii  diiTereni  hr.iiirht «  if  tender*  vi:fc<«  one  I«*inUrt  Simuel,  whi»  pcr^^r>- 

the  Yi'iki-S  |-  irty.  and  l<!»t-«n  him««-!l  ai> !  hi«  atol  the  i-.trl  of  War«iek.  Min  \*X'  the  ji^^t  dake 

brt'thiT   i'!ar«'(.i-e,    eari*>i>d    him   preut   !rM-:Mf.  itf  i'iaret-.re,  an^l  nniiiiubti-tl  lietr  tu  th<»  rr^iea 

C*laren>  e  he  put  tt»  di-a'.h.     lli^  m^»Itd  Iroin'tf  failn.k;  e!.:i<Ir\n  i>f(^lHar%l  IV.    The  Iri-h  »g^ 

at  tho  ho.id  of  a1  ir^ett>rt-«*.  but  l>>;i:««  Xl.  liou^'lit  iHirittl  lhi4  pretender.  vihowa«  the   *«>u  iif  aa 

peace  uf  htm,  a:id  he  returned  to  llj^Uud.    lie  u^^IimU  baker,  and  he  waa  aided  by  the  UucImm 


ENGLAin)  165 

dowager  of  Bargandj,  a  sister  of  Edward  IV^  fhe  accession  of  Ilenry  YIII.,  whose  father 
•ttd  notorious  for  her  hatred  of  Henry  YII.  At  seems  to  have  liad  some  scruples  on  the  subject, 
the  head  of  the  miscellaneoos  force  which  was  The  reign  of  the  new  king  was  destined  to  be 
collected,  Irish  and  foreign  soldiers,  the  Yorkist  the  most  momentous  in  the  annals  of  England. 
leaders  landed  in  England,  and  had  they  re-  Ho  was  frequently  engaged  in  hostilities  with 
eeired  any  considerable  English  support,  they  foreign  countries,  and  the  great  victory  of  Flod- 
woold  probably  have  succeeded ;  but  they  were  den  was  won  by  one  of  his  generals  over  James 
left  to  fight  nnaided,  and  were  totally  defeat-  IV.  of  Scotland,  husband  of  his  sister  Margaret. 
ed  at  Stoke,  June  16, 1487.  Among  the  slain  His  policy  was  the  result  of  his  passions.  That 
was  the  earl  of  Lincoln,  next  to  Warwick  the  he  was  troubled  concerning  his  marriage  with 
chief  member  of  the  house  of  York.  Simnel  hisbrother's  widow,  after  that  marriage  failed  to 
was  taken  prisoner  and  made  a  scullion  in  the  produce  sons  that  could  arrive  at  maturity,  is  ea- 
kinsfs  kitchen.  Another  pretender  is  known  sily  believed,  as  ho  was  singularly  superstitious; 
to  history  as  Perkin  Warbeck,  said  to  have  but  it  required  his  passion  for  Anne  Boloyn  to 
been  the  son  of  a  Toumay  trader,  but  who  givo  his  scruples  much  force.  Had  the  court  of 
claimed  to  be  Richard  Plantagenet,  duke  of  Rome  aided  him  to  a  divorce,  he  would  have  re- 
York,  2d  son  of  Edward  IV.,  a  claim  which  mained  a  Catholic ;  but  that  court  refusing  to 
has  fonnd  strong  defenders.  Henry  regarded  declare  void  a  marriage  which  the  church  had 
him  as  a  much  more  important  character  than  sanctioned,  ho  threw  off  his  allegiance  to  the 
Simnel,  and  foreign  potentates  treated  him  as  pope,  and  became  head  of  the  church  in  Eng- 
if  they  believed  in  his  claim.  James  III.  of  land.  He  was  6  times  married,  and  2  of  his  wives 
Scotland  gave  him  one  of  his  relatives  in  mar-  were  beheaded  and  2  were  repudiated.  It  has 
risge,  and  marched  an  army  into  England  to  aid  been  alleged  that  much  that  was  severe  in  Henry's 
him.  But  all  his  efforts  proved  failures.  A  Cor-  treatment  of  his  wives  was  owin^  to  his  desire  to 
nkh  insurrection  was  put  down  vigorously  by  have  heirs,  the  wars  of  the  roses  m  the  preceding 
the  king,  at  the  battle  of  Blackheath ;  yet  when  century  having  made  English  sovereigns,  states- 
the  pretender  entered  Cornwall  he  was  regarded  men,  and  people  very  sensitive  on  the  subject 
M  king,  was  joined  by  a  large  force,  and  laid  siege  of  the  succession  to  the  crown.  Henry  inter- 
to  Exeter.  On  the  approach  of  the  royal  army,  fered  much  in  continental  politics,  and  the  Euro- 
bowever,  he  fled,  and  subsequently  surrendered  pean  balance  of  power  theory  dates  from  his  time. 
on  condition  that  his  life  should  be  spared.  Fly-  In  his  reign  the  scaffold  was  constantly  occn- 
ing  a  second  time,  he  again  gave  himselfup  on  the  pied  by  victims  from  every  c^s  of  society,  the 
«nio  terms,  but  was  set  in  the  stocks,  and  made  number  of  whom,  however,  9^  been  consider- 
to  read  a  confession  that  he  was  an  impostor,  ably  exaggerated.  The  liighcst  classes  were 
Consigned  to  the  tower,  he  sought  to  escape,  and  probably  the  greatest  sufferers ;  the  king  was 
was  hanged  at  Tyburn  (1499).  Henry  at  the  impartial  in  the  selection  of  his  victims,  and 
Brae  time  cansed  the  earl  of  Warwick,  the  last  usually  as  unjust  as  he  was  cruel.  He  died 
larvivor  of  the  legitimate  male  descendants  of  Jan.  28,  1547,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  only 
Edward  IH.,  to  be  put  to  death,  on  a  groundless  son,  Edward  VI.,  whoso  mother  was  Jane  Sey- 
charge  of  conspiracy  with  Perkin.  SVith  these  mour,  Henry's  3d  wife.  Edward  was  in  his 
proceedings  may  be  said  to  have  closed  the  con-  10th  year,  and  the  government  was  placed  in 
test  between  tho  houses  of  York  and  Lancaster,  the  hands  of  a  council  of  regency,  the  principal 
iathc  complete  prostration  ofthe  former,  though  members  of  which  were  the  earl  of  Hertford, 
the  latter  was  represented  by  a  bastard  member  tlie  king's  uncle,  soon  created  duke  of  Somerset 
wbo  was  not  even  descended  from  Henry  IV.,  and  protector,  and  Archbishop  Cranmer.  In 
the  founder  of  Lancastrian  royalty.  The  last  this  reign  the  church  of  England  was  establish- 
jears  of  Henry  VI  I.  were  more  peaceably  passed,  ed,  and  tlio  nation  placed  on  the  Protestant  side 
Hid  he  became  a  powerful  sovereign  at  home,  in  the  struggle  then  going  on  in  Europe.  In 
vidle  his  inlluence  was  great  abroad.  His  the  contests  for  power  that  took  place  at  court, 
msster  passion  was  avarice,  and  he  hesitated  at  Somerset  was  dually  worsted,  and  then  be- 
BO  means  to  gratify  it.  He  pretended  to  make  headed.  Dudley,  duke  of  Northumberland, 
wtr  on  France,  but  only  ttiat  he  might  obtain  into  whose  hands  all  power  passed,  caused  his 
■ooey  from  his  subjects,  and  then  sold  peace  4th  son.  Lord  Guildiord  Dudley,  to  marry 
to  the  French  monarch.  He  depressed  tlie  Lady  Jane  Grey,  great-granddaughter  of  Henry 
power  of  the  high  nobility  in  various  ways.  VII.;  and  when  Edward  VL  died,  July  6, 1553, 
ue  law  that  no  man  should  bo  held  guilty  of  the  duke  made  tho  lady  Jane  queen,  to  whom 
treason  for  adhering  to  the  king  de  facto  Edward  had  been  persuaded  to  bequeath  the 
was  passed  in  his  reign.  Ho  died  April  21,  crown.  Her  reign  lasted  but  10  days,  and 
1S09.  Henry  VIII.,  his  successor,  was  his  her  party  was  quickly  dispersed.  Mary,  eldest 
noond  son,  the  first,  Arthur,  having  died  before  daughter  of  Henry  VIII.,  ascended  the  throne, 
Iw  &ther.  Arthur  had  married  Catharine  of  and  behaved  mercifully  toward  most  of  those 
AragOD,  one  of  tlie  daughters  of  Ferdinand  and  who  had  sought  to  prevent  her  succession. 
inbella,  and  on  his  death  his  fatlier  had  pro-  Northumberland  and  others  were  executed, 
cared  a  dispensation  from  the  pope  allowing  but  the  lady  Jane  and  her  husband  were  spared 
fte  marriage  of  Catharine  and  his  second  son.  until  the  next  year,  when  they  were  executed,  in 
marziagc  was  not  solemnizod  until  after  consequence  of  the  lady's  father,  the  duke  of  Suf- 


160  ENGLAND 

liilk, liATing Uken pArt  in Wjatt\4  rilMl'Iiin.  Scf-  haunted tiicmiiidwof licr«nljcrt*of  Al]rh«««4: 
folk  alho  was  vxerutod.  Mary  I'tlVrtttl  a  rci-uitril-  that  wiicii  tlio  Mi*|ilrc  puvKsJ  quiet  It  ti>  tlii-  ^  and 
Utiuu  with  Uuiiic,  and  iravi}  Ikt  haiid  ti»  Philip  of  a  nu march  who  was  di-M't.>ndca  fruin  thr;r 
II.  of  S|iai[i.  This  inarritt^o  IlhI  to  war  U'twvcn  anriont  kinfr^,  who  wan  imt  vet  at  the  pvr'.tMl  vi 
England  and  France,  and  un  Hiitrli^h  arniv  juin-  iniddlo  lil'o,  and  who  wus  the  father  nf  MrTeral 
cd  tbv  Spanish  furre  that  inv.iilcd  France,  and  chiMron,  a  wcii^lit  wa-*  taken  from  t!io  E'  t?Ii<h 
took  iiart  in  tiio  battle  nf  iSt.  Qiientin.  Tho  mind  that  had  lunj^oppre^scil  it,  and  deini'n^tra- 
Fnfnrh  »uiiH*edvd  iuunattack  on  i'uhiis  t!ie  Ii>sii  tii'ns  «»fjii}'wero  c-Miniion  that  hr  no  iiiiani 
of  which  hhi ir toned  Mar \ 'd  life.  Showu^adc-  implied  wvarino>!t  of  tlie  Kii/aU'tlian  ru!e.  Had 
Tout  Catholic,  and  caused  I'mnmer,  Latimer,  JanieA  bcvn  a  man  cf  onlinarv  capacitv  and 
Ridley,  and  aUmt  3u«)  uthcr  rrote}»ta:.t!<,  ti>  l^o  common  sense,  lie  niit;ht  liavo  preM.TVrd  If.U 
burned.  Her  death,  which  ooi-urri-d  N'tiv.  17,  {Htpuluritr,  and  laid  deep  the  fimndationn  « if  hit 
IAuS,  \v{i  the  thnine  to  Klizabeth,  wlin  felt  herself  d>  nanty,  but  he  was  a  pedant,  and  a  tyrant, » ith- 
comitelledtoMdo  withthelVnteytaiitA.  Herrci^n,  out  tite  coura;ro  whiclt  is  m-ceixury  to  niamtam 
which  liL«tvd  m«iru  than  44  yearn,  in  one  of  tho  a  tyranny.  His  |NTMin,  h'M  nmnnrrs  trn*]  h'la 
noftt  brilliant  in  Kn^'liih  hi*>(ory.  Snt^acii-ui  in  actiomiwcro  all  opainst  him;  and  before  he  Lad 
tho  ai-lection  of  tier  coun»eIlorti,  idic  w:u(  ablu  to  reached  I^mdim  hi>  pupulurity  began  totKc]iD«, 
triumph  over  all  her  enemiL%  and  to  r:ii'«e  lur  and  wasquirkty  exliausted.  He  comnienct-t!  i>iat 
kingdiirii  to  the  firnt  jtlore  in  Kuro|»e.  »^he  nilvd  cour^?  of  (nilii'v  which  wai  de^tineil  to  ra>i<i« 
over  SiHitland  in  fa«*t.  ainl  put  the  utiverei^i  his  hoUM)  to  he  •-••me  extinct  in  exile.  The  di- 
of  that  Country  to  death  atUT  having  held  her  in  vino  ri^lit  nf  kir.^'«,  m»  abhi>rri-nt  to  rca«on  acd 
nnjuitt  capti\ity  nearly  19  year*.  The  Hu^ue-  to  Kn^li^h  idi-ai  of  p»\ernment,  wa«  the  lia^u 
Bota  of  France  and  Henry  IV.  received  aid  truni  of  hid  conduct,  and  wa»  made  contemptiMo  by 
ker,  and  but  for  the  a.>^i^tancc  hhe  f^ave  tho  hismodctif  priKcedini:.  He  |»triK'tuaJl«  cl.MUied 
I>utch  they  Would  have  sunk  under  the  |N>wer  hi^rher  piiwer  than  any  I'lanto^renet  iir  TiS'cr 
of  Spain.  She  invited  the  Turkn  to  joi:i  her  in  had  claimed,  but  lie  invariztblv  abandoned  ht« 
Attack in»c  the  I Ni|>e  and  tho  kin^  of  Spain;  and  ground  wlien  ho  wai  rL>si&te«).  It  has  be<n 
over  both  thii^e  ]N>tentate!i  hhe  achieved  a  great  souglit  to  defend  hU  cuurne  by  .stating  that  !.• 
triumph  in  iri*^^.  when  the  urmadawas destroy-  wa-s  ignorant  of  tin*  ron-^titution  ami  law*  of 
td.  liothi*atholi4-4  and  J*uritjmHWere  pi.r4ecut<  England,  and  Muned  \iiil:otit  knt»wlet!ge  :  tut 
cd  by  her  gi»vernnient.  The  Engliih  mind  wai  thii  excu«>c,  which  wuuld  l»e  (*f  little  in*  inert 
then  Mngularly  fy^ile,  and  home  «if  tho  greatest  under  any  circiitristances  i!i  of  n><ne  wh.itci'vr 
DAineit  in  the  Iit«.4Kture  of  Kngland  W.itng  totho  in  hii  ca<ic.  Hi-*  %er\  tir^t  parh..nien!,  1(>U.  in 
Elizabethan  a^e.  Theentcrpri.M>of  Kirgliiihmen  reply  to  his  t'.rMl  n>-ir:ii-n  ti.at  ull  il.iir  \::\\- 
led  them  to  cinumnavigate  the  gloU',  to  attempt  lo^es  wero  ili-riveil  fr<<!n  him,  ii«>oer!i.d  in  fu".. 
culonl£.'ilii>n,  to  exieitil  traile,  atiil  to  c<<mmeiu-o  and  in  the  pl.-iJu-'^t  1.iIi;;m;i;;c.  all  tl.iM?  j  T:t\K.- 
that  iiiterititir«e  wirh  India  which  w:i4  il«>t:tii>il  pled  r>r  wl.ii  ii  ilio  Kn^iioli  con>ii:;:t;^  dal.^'i 
to  lead  til  exirai*r!iiiary  ri-i'iltv  Kii/.h«.:!i  h.id  contt  ridet]  n^'airjit  :>  p-iierati^'i-.M  ff  .^tuar!.-.  and 
Dot  mucli  til  4h>  4lire<*t!y  ui:h  tht^e  t!iiri/<« ;  liiit  a^'^rteil  till  Ml  ::4  fa<  :-*  ii«>t  t<^  Ik-  <i'i«^t.<':.oi. 
•lie  M.kt  the  NiVi-riip'ti  i>f  the  country,  ilieciiitral  Thi-u  lte;r:in  th.it  t.\i!  citi.te'it  uhuh  I.i»!i^! 
figure  «'f  a  great  nation  in  a  great  a^'r,  ui;d  all  duwn  t<i  P'^U  in  f'i!l  furre.  ai.d  w!:ilt  «aa 
Uiat  wa<4  a<-i  i>mp]i<>hi  d  by  her  Mibjnt'i  \i:»i  noi  utttilyatun  e!:<!  uiitil  ITt'*.  Tie  f  re  jn 
Allonied  t<i  iiMTcik.^' the  ^pleIl•!l>r  4>f  !ier  gl<iry.  p«>!i4-y  uf  .laiiic*  \\a'i  an  \ii-ii'Li  as  \..s  b<  i:.« 
bhediol  March  *Ji.  li'>*'3.  uii'i  with  herteruiinat*  p<>i:«'y,  aii4l  Kiip;laiid  btcanie  of  I«^4  at^our.t 
•d  the  Ti;d<ir«!wia*>!v,  ufivranexlitinccff  nt-.-ir-  in  t!io  r:ir<i;faii  wurM  t!:an  a  <mt  iid-rAti  <irr* 
jy  1I*«  yi.ir4.  >}ie  M;k!i  mh-i  ee«hd  ly  .T:ime4  VI.  man  ^t  lu  i.vi  princijaliiy.  >!i<rtiy  af'.cr  hit 
of  St-i»tIaJid.  fir^t  king  i»f  Kng'aiid  of  the  S:i:arl  ai't  e^^-^tt^n,  !(•  iUfi;<>nt.  the  IVi :  i  !)  hii.\  .«^>ji.iof. 
line,  h}i>>  iuL^rttrii  t^e  Ki.gl:»!i  4  ntwu  in  \  ir-  pri>}  hi>;eil  tha*.  tor  u  ciiilury  Kn,:!a!.<I  «i«u'.d 
tne  4»f  hi<*  di-M*i  nt  fri>m  M»r»:art-t  l'ttih>r.  elih^t  turdh  ini'tiiM*  lier  ]  r><«;'er:i\  t<>  ui.y  <i'.!j«r  *  ar- 
dau«:hter  if  Ii*  nry  VII.,  who  h:id  n.arrii-d  hii  porn)  tli.tn  her  i-w:i  ii>ji:ry,  u  (j^i  •!u-:.«  :;  t.Vat 
IpX'al-gra'iiirkihiT,  Janit't  IV.  Tin*  ni  \v  king  cuIiil*  nuirvi  ll'iu-ly  in  .»r  in  1;:«  ra!  fi:!;.'.;:ici.t. 
Wiu  h»:ied  wi:h  iiiui  h  nati'*  fuel  ion  by  tl.c  K'lg-  lltid  w.'i<4  w^l!,  f.-r  if  t!ic  Sliiar:*  h.i<i  k:.<>«a 
li»!i.  I  !ie  natural  f<>::dl.i">«Mf  men  for  t  huh;:!' h. Ill  how  to  U«  |Hip::!;ir  ki:  •:<•  thi*  KliAris-h  i(  ^^t.tu- 
aonieihktig  to  t'li  Hi!h  t!i.*.  t-:*.  i;  ii  but  jti«:  t'l  !«ay  ti  >n  w<*::M  haw  b.  f:i  4l>  -!  roved  ;  I  -.t,  il.-  LgU 
that  tlit*  •jutotiKii  i-f  t!.<'  1  ;i'i-r^«ii*ii  t.i  lit**  t!.ri>!io  p-iit  r:i]!y  men  ff  u!  ility,  i!.ty  m  i  lu  to  !  aw  lir- 
haii  Ih  I  n  kUi*  of  « ii.d  n.tt  n  <•:  t>*  *.]:«•  F.i.;;!i'*Ii  fr-  m  h^litid  n«  iiuu  }i  in  anii4i\  it.p*  ai-.i!  di  j:t^i*1.:.j:  li.i  r 
Uie  tii:ie  of  tiie  «ur«  nf  t!.r  ro-^-,  .iii>!  {'.irtii-'iLir-  ii.;lji>4  *•»:.<»  in  «!.ri'rt!y  i..L'*ri.!.r!g  t!.it:..  Ja::.t« 
\y  kiace  tho  t>-.iir(<k«i\c  «».%•'«  if  Iltiiry  \'11I.  I.  <:.i*<l  i:)  I<*_'o.  ai.il  \i  :ii  <i-:.-i-c«  ileil  1  y  }  ;.«  ••  a 
IijmI  [iriiXid  ^••iihlr>..'.fKl.  II«4iiTia:  •!  {••  ••p!cu!iko  O.arlet  I.,  a  m  >nart  !i  i%!:o  hoil  »4>tiic  t!«  ,:&::. 
had  U-t-n  di«eply  nfVitl  by  the  4-«'i.«*.ir*Iy  i;ii-  gi  :.'.!eiii;iii!.ke  ta»:i  «,  l>Mt  w  Kti  A^p.^r*  i.t'«  i&::M 
pendihgdange.'ff  a  «li»['ii(tMN:ii'c«  ««[••!'..  AMl!r>iin  ii'  I  tfCi-i  ivei>f  ur  y  ii!l:k':t:  :•■(;«  i-:i  the  |  a;t  >  f  a 
liitf  dea:h  ft'  K^lvinril  \  I.  t"  that  of  Kii.'.tU  :■!,  kiiig  t«i  hii  ^u^je4 1«.  Ilr  dal  !.••:  p*.::  f^ra  .rd 
only  two  niiiihin  i>f  the  main  In. i*  vtire  in  es.-t-  h.«  pri-teii-iiWK  x*!  oiri!.«ivt 'i\  a«  »>n.t:.iri  :  r<  !.,^! 
oner,  and  f^ir  44  ye.ir*  I'lily  ot.e  iici:i.in.  K.ii/alvth  U-iL  put  Inrwari!  by  hi«  f..lhi  r.  )  i.*.  he  atl.Vi  :.d 
hrrkrlf.  The  atituty  that  «  a*  filt  f>r  the  mar-  bi  t!.>-m  \% /.h  a  conr.iiTi-  ai:ii  a  :•  ::.m  :*«  th  .1  wr*e 
rJ        uf  LiiXAbclli  «  at  u«  ixi^  lu  tliii  drvad  that  utterly  UbLiiowu  to  Jatu^s.     He  set  delil«raU^y 


ENGLAND  167 

to  vork  to  introdace  into  England  the  system  never  counted  upon  the  king^s  death  or  deposi- 

of  ^verameat  thac  prevailed  in  France,  to  do  lion,  and  that  at  no  time  was  it  out  of  liis  pow- 

in  England  and  Scotland  what  the  Austro-Bur-  er  to  have  reigned  in  strength  and  peace,  on  the 

pindian  princes  had  done  in  Castile  and  Ara-  sole  condition  that  he  should  rule  as  a  c^)nstitu- 

gon.    Evea  the  wretched  excuse  of  ignorance  tional  sovereign.     Had  thej  set  aside  the  dj- 

that  has  been  pleaded  for  James  cannot  be  used  nastj,  there  would  liave  been  no  occasion  to 

in  behalf  of  Charles;  for  he  hud  been  educated  change  the  constitutional  practice;  but  that  was 

in  England  from  his  early  childhood,  had  good  impossible.    It  was  natural  that  Charles  should 

ficulties,  and  had  by  his  assent  to  the  petition  refuse  to  part  with  power  that  was  legally  his; 

of  right — an  instrument,  all  its  circumstances  and  it  was  equally  natural  that  the  parliament 

considered,  even  more  important  than  Magna  should  refuse  to  allow  it  to  remain  in  his  hands. 

Charta— ozpresslv  agreed  not  to  rule  arbitrarily  Both  parties  appealed  to  arms,  and  what  is 

for  a  full  and  solid  consideration  paid  into  his  known  as  the  great  civil  war  began  in  the  latter 

hands.   For  11  years  (1620-^40)  he  colled  no  par-  part  of  1642.    At  iirst  fortune  favored  the  king, 

liament,  and  England  was  as  despotically  ruled  whose  wrong-headedness  however  rendered  him 

as  France ;  and  had  all  his  instruments  been  unable  to  profit  therefrom.    Gradually  the  rodi- 

Erudent  and  able  men,  it  is  possible  he  would  cal  party  in  parliament  gained  strength,  and, 

ave  succeeded  in  his  desi<m.    His  chief  instru-  under  the  lead  of  Vane,  Cromwell,  and  others^ 

ments  were  Wentworth,  afterward  earl  of  Straf-  rose  to  power.    Cromwell  wos  everywhere  vio- 

ford,  and  Laud,  archbishop  of  Canterbury ;  the  torious  m  the  field.    Parliament  was  ^^  purged  ^ 

former  one  of  the  ablest  of  men  in  an  ago  sin-  of  all  who  showed  any  disposition  to  treat  with 

fftiLarly  prolific  in  able  men ;  the  latter  equally  the  king.    The  army  became  the  source  of  all 

distinguished  for  his  narrowness  of  mind.   These  power.    The  king  was  tried,  condemned,  and 

two  men,  it  should  seem,  were  associated  only  executed.   Ireland  was  conquered  by  Cromwell, 

that  the  wisdom  of  the  one  might  be  confound-  who  was  almost  equally  successful  in  Scotland, 

ed  by  the  folly  of  the  other.    Laud  gave  pre-  The  battle  of  Worcester,  Sept.  3,  1G51,  crushed 

cedenoe  to  ecclesiastical  tyranny^  whereas  Went-  the  royalists  for  nearly  9  years.    In  1653  Crom- 

worth,  if  he  had  had  entire  management  of  well  dissolved  the  parliament  by  force,  and  was 

affairs,  wonld  have  established  political  despot-  master  of  England  for  5  years,  ruling  the  coun- 

isra,  whence  religious  uniformity  would  have  try  far  more  wisely  than  ever  it  had  been  ruled 

soon  followed.  It  is  very  doubtful  whether  the  by  a  Stuart,  but  still  with  an  iron  hand,  which 

people  could  have  been  stirred  up  to  the  fighting  ho  did  not  condescend  to  cover  with  a  velvet 

jjif'.nt  if  their  relijrfous  sentiments  hod  remained  glove.     IIo  would  have  ruled  constitutionally 

without  serious  disturbance  until  their  political  if  ho  could,  but  by  him  the  English  would  not 

rights  hod  been  totally  subverted.    The  bigotry  bo  so  ruled.  Ho  wished  to  become  king,  but  this 

of  Laud  caused  him  to  seek  to  fasten  the  Eng-  the  army  would  not  allow,  for  it  was  composed 

lish  church  polity  on  Scotland,  which  was  met  of  men  who  were  sincere  republicans,  and  who 

by  that  deep  and  determined  resistance  on  tho  acted  conscientiously.    Yet  England  then  occu- 

psrt  of  the  Scotch  which  is  so  striking  a  trait  in  pied  the  highest  place  she  had  ever  known  in 

their  cliaracter  when  their  principles  or  prcju-  the  world's  estimation ;  one  in  striking  contrast 

dices  are  assailed.    War  between  tlie  Scotch  peo-  to  that  which  she  had  held  during  tho  40  years 

pie  and  the  English  government  followed,  and  of  the  rule  of  James  I.  and  Charles  I.    After 

Charles  was  compelled  to  call  a  parliament,  April,  Cromwell's  death,  in  1668,  dissensions  broke 

1640.     Thus  were  all  Wentworth^s  sagacious  out  among  tho  military,  and  tho  military  and 

plans  set  at  naught.    The  parliament,  known  in  civil  republicans  quarrelled.    Richard,  tho  infe- 

history  as  the  short  parliament,  lasted  but  a  few  rior  son  of  the  great  protector,  resigned,  and  tliua 

days,  when  it  was  dissolved,  in  the  mere  wanton-  was  prepared  the  way  for  the  restoration  of 

De^  of  tyranny.    Six  months  later  assembled  tho  tho  Stuarts,  effected  by  Gen.  Monk,  in  1660. 

iiuaous  long  parliament,  which  the  king^s  no-  Tho  reign  of  Charles  II.  dates  from  that  year, 

eesBity  forced  him  to  call.    Tho  parliament  pun-  May  29,  in  fact,  though  in  law  it  dates  from 

idled  the  king^s  tools,  and  forced  him  to  admit  the  day  of  his  fathor^s  decapitation.    The  change 

that  it  should  not  bo  dissolved  without  its  own  was  prodigious.    Tho  austere  Puritans  were  sue- 

ftttsent.     It  then  proceeded  to  divest  the  king  ceeded  by  profligate  cavaliers;  but  for  this  the 

of  much  of  his  power,  demanding,  among  other  former  were  most  to  blame.    They  had  insist* 

things,  control  of  the  militia.    It  may  bo  admit-  ed  upon  ruling  tho  nation  into  rightoousnoss, 

ted,  without  any  reflection  on  tho  memorios  of  and  had  caused  that  reaction  which  ended  in 

IVni  and  Hampden,  and  their  associates,  that  tho  the  foulest  licentiousness.     It  has  been  truly 

piriiament  i>arty  went  beyond  the  limits  of  tho  said  that  tho  reign  of  tho  saints  produced  tho 

ooostitation,  in  their  desire  to  preserve  the  con-  reign  of  tho  harlots.  Many  of  tho  reforms  effected 

ititation.     Their  excuse  is  to  bo  found  in  the  pur-  by  tho  long  parliament  were  preserved.    That 

me  and  acts  of  tho  king,  and  in  his  incurable  body  hod  swept  away  tho  court  of  star  chamber^ 

Uiehood.     Yet  they  did  not  go  so  far  as  the  the  high  commission  court,  and  the  council  of 

■en  of  IGSS-'O  went,  who  set  asido  a  dynasty  the  north,  all  tremendous  instruments  of  royal 

in  order  to  place  the  constitution  beyond  danger,  tyranny,  and  not  one  of  theso  w^as  it  possible 

It  matters  not  that  Charles  was  beheaded  in  1640;  to  revive.     Other  good  effects  of  the  legisla- 

kaow  that  the  political  leaders  of  1640-^42  tion  of  that  great  parliament  were  preserved. 


168  ENGUiyD 

The  nation  had  irone  fonrani,  and  it  yraa  not  ed.  The  loading  olijoct  of  th«  of  poftition  via 
povible  for  it  to  ki>  backwan),  ewn  niidcr  the  the  cxclu»i«iii  uf  tho  duke  of  York  fntin  the  liaa 
effect  <«f  tliAt  vingular  rvartiim  which  caused  of  itncco5sion ;  and  evvti  to  this  tlie  king  wo«ld 
tuualiy  Mimiblc men  to  weUrtunc  back  tlienrofli-  finallv  ha%'c  c«>n!«cnti*d  rather  than  have  ftMighL 
nto  kiii^  with  toars  in  their  eve«.  Had  Charlofl  liut  the  rvai'lion  tliat  wt  in  Mvi'd  hirn  fmn  tha 
11.  )>Oi-n  ail  arnbiliouA  monarch,  he  mifrht  have  last  divraoc.  When  tho  Oxford  parliament  vaa 
ac<Nin) {•!•.<>} Kil  what  his  grandfather,  hid  father,  diwolvcd,  in  1C>«1.  thu  king  found  hiniwlf  hard* 
and  t.i'*  brother  were  unable  to  aocomiilish ;  ly  lens  |H>wvrfiil  than  ho  had  bo«.*n  in  1660.  J|« 
he  mi^'lit  Imw  t»tablikhed  des]MUiani  in  England,  never  callc«l  anotlier  parliament,  but  va;*  abk*  to 
At  loa^t  fiir  a  time.''  Kut,  though  one  of  tho  govern  witliout  one.  ThocunApirariv^thnt  wtre 
ablest  iiuiii!kT4  of  hiii  fainilr.  ho  was  singularly  formeil  by  the  wliigH  (the  names  <if  whig  and 
destitute  itf  tiiitSe  feelings  which  onlinurilr  are  tory  Imd  their  ditinite  |»olitical  ccimmeoomicftt 
ftnind  iu  nioimreh*.  Ho  bived  his  oaM*  above  in  lOsu)  wero  deti^cti-ii,  and  many  of  the  run* 
•U  tliiiij'*.  arid  if  he  could  get  pleaMintly  si»irators  were  pun i^IuhI.  Others,  men  uf  whom 
through  1  hi*  24  hour*  he  was  quite  willing  that  the  government  wished  tn  be  riiL  such  aa 
otlier  iiK-ii  fhould  do  Hi.  He  had  many  of  thcMo  Kuwi-II  and  Sidney,  wore  judicially  murdvrvd. 
qoalitii'H  which  are  iMipularly  lattrilmted  to  his  Fow  kings  have  U*un  more  ]>owerful  than Charici 
grand!:itlirr.  Henry  IV.  of  Franco ;  but  hepmb-  II.  wan  during  the  lust  3  years  of  hiii  reign.  yeC 
ably  hi(i,;lHil  at  his  ancest<ir*s  daring  in  the  field,  some  marketl  adrantase.<t  had  been  obtained  bjr 
His  vii'fH  wero  of  the  |Nipular  kind,  and  huch  as  the  con»titutionaliMs.  which  have  endured.  Tha 
even  ni<>r;tl  men  are  roaily  to  forgive  in  kings.  Kabtai  o>rjfU$  at*t  of  1G79  was  amonff  thegrc«t> 
Fntm  \\iM  llt'i  to  t he  30ih  year  of  his  age  his  life  e»t  triumnhs  of  tho  lil>eral  party,  n«>t  only  io  it* 
had  Ut-n  p;iHM,<4l  amid  civil  disputes,  wars,  wan-  self,  but  liec.iuse  it  furnii(he<l  a  fmint  of  nnioa 
deringo,  uiid  intriguer  and  in  |iovertT;  and  ho  between  whigs  and  torios;  for  in  the  next  rviga 
ha«l  ci>iitracte<l  from  this  experience  a  horn>r  of  it  was  found  that  t lie  torie^  even  wlien  nuist  trr- 
every  tiling  that  li»oked  liko  danger,  or  tliat  was  vilely  h»yal.  c«iuld  not  be  pri-vaileil  uiH>n  to  rrpc«l 
bQsiue!<:«.  Hap|K«n  what  might,  he  is  r«-|Kirted  that  act.  C'harU-HlI.diiilsuddenly  in  Feb.  16H5. 
to  hav«>  >.ai<l,  he  wouM  not  at;ain  go  on  his  tnv*  Janu*s  II.  came  to  the  throne  w  iihout  the  slighl* 
•Is.  Frmii  the  ]>ersonal  seltishness  of  this  easv  r^t  opjNisition,  and  for  a  brief  {teriod  was  pops* 
▼oluptu.iry  England  derive<l  aliiiov^t  as  nm«'K  lar.  Thou^li  an  o|*en  and  nvuwed  rath«dic«  ha 
goiNl  a*  I  mm  the  tyraimy  of  John  or  the  cow-  was  beloved  fanatically  by  the  priest  IkkmI  oC 
ardice  •>!'  .Tainea  I.  Ho  was  content  to  rule  as  the  church  uf  England,  whi«-h  indei*d  had  aaTc4 
much  tlirniigh  i»arltament  an  couM  l>o  ex|iocted  hisi  inheritance  in  tho  day  a  of  theexclu«ton  bUL 
from  a  nMuan'ii  under  no  more  rootrainl  than  Had  ho  l>een  content  with  (>erfteciitingdi«d«nters 
ha  wa«.  S'veral  times,  when  nic»rv  daring  nu-  ami  whipt,  and  with  dentro^  ing  niu«  h  «»f  the  cit  il 
ture!4  t'lan  hU  own  had  cauM.**!  him  t«»  vehiuro  liU*rty  of  his  Mkbject^  it  in  not  unhkeh  tlia:  lio 
n|ion  ^>!iie  de&pntic  act.  ho  was  ready  t'»  (rive  wnuld  have  ma<le  himself  a!«  |>oifterful  as  Henrr 
way  HJiiii  )if  fumid  the  opjMifkition  re<M»IiiTe.  VIII.  had  U-en:  bu:  he  wi»hitltiire«-<»tab!i»h  the 
He  rvtre.itctl  from  tho  ground  a^^unied  in  hit  as^'endencv  <if  hisoun  <-hurrh,  which  could  not 
declamtiou  of  iudul^'^nre.  and  sn  «eak«-(ied  K*  done  m  tthoul  o\erthriiwing  ihr  Ac^liraa 
the  ro\al  ]Mix\fr.  11)4  ]Nipularity  tuM-n  under-  churrh.  anil  hiKiihn;:  the  Arif»t4«iTa«*i  i'fnmeh  i/ 
went  u  il'tlino.  which  wa%  )irtnt-i|ially  aitriln  their  pro|H'rty.  and  thn<«  he  unite<l  church,  an^ 
vtaMe  t>i  tho  meanncM  uf  hii  f^reipn  pi^Iiry.  toe  racy,  and  nil  the  intriligent  part  of  the  pn^ 
With  t':i«  rc»tiiratitin  of  the  Stuiirt!*  was  at«o  re-  plo  Hgain»t  him.  The  I'urliament  he  »ummiKi- 
st«trr«l  tliat  Jit  •Wry  in  fnrti^'u  aiVuir*  which  hud  ed  wat  bo  siTvile  I  hut  it  !•«  im|NiMible  to  claM  it 
reduce*!  E'.cl.ind  ti>  so  |i>w  a  ftute  in  their  Ilr»t  w  ith  thi»N;  n"bh'  iMuliv^  wliieh  hail  di»ne  «it  mueh 
two  rt-i/ii*.  E(i^'land'«  honor,  it  mny  Yk*  Kiid,  to  \indical«*  tlie  IilNTtie<iof  England.  E\en  the 
was  g!:•^•  led  with  ('rMMiwtr.'^  YnmIv  at  T}hurn.  parliament  of  l(>iU  <M*i n.vd  manS  nnd  hlpera^  in 
An  ui.iii«e^fori  war  with  the  iMitrh  prmlui^^l  compuri<Min  with  it.  Vtt  tht%  M^rvile  Unlr  ci««| 
tniw'h  ih-«rr:i<  c.  The  triple  allianrr  nhn-h  wan  not  itati">fy  tlie  kin^*.  and  he  broke  « iih  it  i« 
enteral  i!.l>i  with  Swe<ien  ami  IbiDund.  onil  |Hiiitt^  that  plainly  hhoHtil  he  was  U*n:  tm  the 
which  fi>ra  bri«  f  internal  i^tavt-d  the  ctmr^'  of  e«t:iMi*ihTneiit  of  a  iIe«tMiti<»m.  and  the  d«-*trj<^ 
LiMiL4  .\IV..  «a«  the  s->li:ary  act  of  the  kir:d  tii>u  of  \\\x*  c*ihMi:u:i«in  in  ihiiri'li  ax«d  <al«, 
that  re?!tv:«  h«>:itr  on  tlii*  reifm*  T!ie  kii.tr,  iWfore  lhi«  hapiien^d,  ho  hail  put  do«n  the  aX- 
howeti-r.  viwu  U*t-ame  the  t«H>Iand  penMun*  r  of  ten<pt  of  Monmoiith  tt>«iib\ert  the  gM^emnirit;, 
France.  IIi*  fori-es  o^^i^tM  in  tho  war  on  llol-  pniii*hiikgtlie  chirf  and  l.i«foIlo>fter*  with  a  Fin- 
land made  by  I^i'ii*  XIV.  The  un(Mipi:larity  dictivt nvss  to  Hl.ii-h  thin*  are  fe«  t<arBlleU  in 
of  this  <-ii-ir*«\  and  the  internal  in iftgovcni merit  hi«t«>ry.  S^*  roinple'.e  hk^  the  termr  caux^!  by 
of  the  raSal  iriiniitrv.  creste^l  a  great  rhangi*  in  the«e  puni»hiiieiit«,  that  r:ot  t\en  the  ui-.ioD  "f 
English  fpini'Xi.  and  finally  as^Latant'r  was  M-nt  rhnrchnii  n.  ijiH<k:n!i'ns  the  an»t«NTa«*y,  the  I«^ 
to  tliv  I*Tiirh.  Tliei-racetif  167^  wa%ti>11f>wed  by  g.il  priife^^iim.  and  the  mi«I(lie  i*.a««t»  4it  a^ui  ^•l 
theei^'.ti  ineiit  rauaftl  by  thoa11ege<l  (N»pi«hplttt,  r\ery  faith,  t'otild  Iiave  a^u.lisl  toitbit  hi*o«ir- 
and  fir  a  time  tho  kin^  wa«  alnii'^t  a«  uiifMipuUr  throw.  )i:til  not  that  union  W^*\\  •'.i|'|*tirted  ty 
aahift  fa'.ht-r  liS'l  l*ern  in  1040.  Tarli.imei.t  after  a  lar^'e  foreign  arm>.  heailol  Iv  a  !>rint^  ««f 
parlianirn*.  «  aj»  rlerie«i,  met,  liCt  itM-lf  m  df-^-idrd  the  highlit  reputation  an  a  s»>Mit  r  and  a  »Lalc»- 
opfmaitioa  to  the  gov  em  mint,  and  was  diasulr*  man.    Tho  king  prorogued  i>arluziiebt  tn  Nov. 


ENGLAND  169 

1685,  and  that  body  never  met  again.    For  8  was  fonnd  that  James  had  no  hold  even  on  the 

jears  he  governed  despotically,  and  there  was  great  army  which  he  had  established  iu  defiance 

a  contest  perpetually  waged  between  him  and  of  law.    Ue  was  deserted  by  those  upon  whom 

his  people ;  and  the  vigDr  with  which  the  con-  he  ought  to  have  been  able  to  rely,  even  his 

tcsit  Wiis  fought  on  tlie  popular  side  shows  how  daughter  Anne  joining  his  enemies.    lie  gave 

w«ll  establtalied  was  the  English  constitution,  way  to  terror,  hastened  to  undo  all  he  had  done, 

The  king  at  first  sought  the  aid  of  the  church  and  fled.    Brought  back  to  London,  he  tied  a 

agaiiLst  the  dissenters,  and  received  it  until  the  second  time,  and  reached  France,  where  he  had 

diarch  foQnd  he  meant  its  own  destruction,  to-  previously  sent  his  wife  and  son.    All  England 

gether  with  that  of  all  other  forms  of  Protes-  was  in  the  hands  of  William  and  h\»  friends. 

tantisnou  when  it  revolted,  in  spite  of  its  passite  The  convention  parliament  that  assembled,  after 

obedience  doctrines.    He  then  sought  an  alii-  much  discussion,  conferred  the  crown  on  William 

aoee  with  the  dissenters  against  the  church,  and  and  Mary,  which  was  a  revolutionary  act,  as  not 

thongh  some  of  them,  as  was  but  natural,  were  only  were  James  and  his  son  alive,  but  Mary 

ready  to  aid  him,  the  great  minority  of  their  num-  and  Anne  had  claims  to  the  crown  compared 

ber  remaiaed  tme  to  the  constitution.    By  the  with  whicli  those  of  William  could  not  bear 

iotnion  of  1688,  the  king  was  opposed  by  almost  criticism.    The  declaration  of  right  placed  the 

all  dasses  of  his  subjects,  and  could  not  procure  ground  of  action  on  the  vindication  of  the  *^  un- 

tbe  aervioes  of  even  tliird-rate  lawyers  in  an  age  doubted  inheritance  of  Englishmen,^*  the  entire 

proverbial  for  the  baseness  of  its  legal  men.  movement  being  conservative  in  its  character, 

wHliaiii,  prince  of  Orange,  had  watched  the  and  not  one  of  innovation.    The  events  of 

contest  ia  England  closely.    He  was  the  king^s  1688-'9  are  known  as  the  English  revohition, 

Mpliew,  son  of  his  sister  Mary,  and  had  married  but  it  would  be  more  correct  to  call  tliem  the 

the  kinff^s  eldest  daughter  Mary,  heir  apparent  close  of  that  revolution ;  for  the  contest  that 

to  the  British  crown.    It  is  not  probable  that  had  commenced  with  the  coming  of  the  Stuarts 

be  eared  much  for  the  liberties  of  England,  for  to  the  throne,  and  wliich  had  lasted  for  86 

be  was  the  chief  of  that  party  in  Holland  which  years,  was  virtually  closed  on  the  day  that  Wil- 

vis  opposed  to  the  eiisting  constitution,  a  pol-  liam  and  Mary  were  proclaimed  king  and  queen 

ttj  ID  its  spirit  not  unlike  to  that  of  England ;  of  England.    For  170  years  the  government  of 

bat  be  was  firmly  opposed  to  Louis  XIV.,  and  England  has  been  constitutional  without  ques- 

desired  to  have  the  aid  of  England  in  thwarting  tion,  a  circumstance  totally  without  parallel  in 

b:a  schemes ;  and  James  was  the  pensioner  and  the  history  of  great  nations.     If  wo  except  the 

aUv  of  Loais,  and  so  would  remain  so  long  as  rebellions  of  1715  and  1745,  that  couutiy  has 

be  should  persist  in  governing  England  illegally,  been  the  scene  of  no  serious  outbreak  ajrainst 

While  Mary  of  Orange  stood  next  in  succession  established  authority  for  5  generations.     Faults 

to  James,  her  husband  could  not  do  much  in  op-  there  have  been  in  botii  government  and  people, 

pQsitioa  to  that  king ;  but  he  let  it  be  known  that  but  not  greater  than  are  to  be  found  in  the  cor- 

ha sympathies  and  those  of  his  wife  were  with  responding  annals  of  other  European  nations; 

the  constitutionalists.    James  had  married  for  while  in  no  other  country  of  the  old  world  has 

his  second  wife  Mary  Beatrice,  a  princess  of  the  the  good  that  England  has  known  had  an  ex- 

hoose  of  Este  of  Modena,  and  from  this  union  had  istence.    Liberty  and  law  have  gone  hand  in 

proceeded  4  children,  all  of  whom  had  died.    It  hand  together,  each  sustaining  the  other,  inu- 

teems  to  have  been  taken  for  granted  that  this  tuolly  imparting  a  portion  of  their  spirit.    Mor- 

coople  were  to  have  no  more  children,  and  that  al,  intellectual,  and  material  progress  through 

in  doe  course  James  would  be  succeeded  by  his  6  generations  has  made  England  the  first  of  ua- 

du^ter  Mary ;  but  in  1687  the  queen  was  de-  tions,  and  left  her,  in  some  important  respects, 

dared  to  be  pregnant,  and  on  June  10, 1688,  was  without  a  rival.     The  greatness  of  England,  her 

boro  that  prince  who  was  afterward  known  as  moral  power,  in  no  small  degree  her  literature^ 

tbe  preteader.    This  incident  precipitated  mat-  and  the  fact  that  she  is  the  mother  of  nations 

toSi  for  the  opinion  was  almost  universal  in  Eng-  destinetl  perhaps  to  excel  herself,  are  all  due  to 

hod  that  a  supposititious  child  had  been  placed  the  happy  settlement  that  was  effected  in  1 GS8- 9, 

JB  the  position  of  heir  apparent  to  the  crown,  which  was  the  completion,  by  one  sot  of  patriots, 

June  30,  1688,  William  was  invited  to  invade  of  what  other  patriots  had  initiated  or  forward- 

^"j^"*<*  at  the  head  of  an  army.     This  invita-  cd.    Macaulay,  writing  at  the  time  when  all 

tioa  was  signed  by  the  earls  of  Shrewsbury,  continental  Europe  was  agitated  by  the  rcvohi- 

DsTonshire,  and  Danby,  by  Lord  Luinley,  by  tionary  convulsions  of  1848,  claimed,  with  the 

Bemy  Sidney  and  Admiral  Russell,  and   by  natural  and  just  pride  of  an  English  statesman, 

C«iiiiptoa«  bishop  of  London ;  and  it  was  ac-  that  England's  exemption  from  those  convul- 

etpCed.     A  variety  of  circumstances  favored  tho  sions  was  duo  to  the  wisdom  of  her  leading  men 

ndertaking,  and  on  Nov.  5  William  landed  at  of  tho  17th  century.     "  In  our  island,"  ho  says, 

Torbsj,  at  the  head  of  a  well-appointed  army,  "  tho  regular  course  of  government  has  never 

U,000  strong,  composed  of  men  of  several  na-  been  for  a  day  interrupted.     Tho  few  bad  men 

linMw     At  first  the  people  were  slow  to  join  who  longed  for  license  and  plunder  have  not 

koD^and  after  having  advanced  as  far  as  Exeter,  had  tho  courage  to  confront  for  one  moment  the 

he  talked  of  returning  to  his  ships ;  but  men  of  strength  of  a  loyal  nation,  rallied  in  firm  array 

'   now  began  to  repair  to  his  standard,  and  it  round  a  parentai  throne.     And  if  it  bo  asked 


i 


170  ENGLAND 

irliat  lia«  m.vlo  ns  tii  ilifTT  from  nt!icr\  the  yoan frost  cliiM  of  tliU  marrinfre  wm  t  diiagblfr, 

an^'Wvr  i^  ih.it  w«*  nwir  I«>->t  wh:it  <*:hvm  nre  S«)p!iia.  iiiarrieU  to  Ernest  Aujni'tiui,  tint  tl9€- 

iftiMIr  ar.il  !i!i:iilly  Mvkin;;  ti>   ri*;;:iin.      It   b  ttir  of  ILinuvi-r.     An  early  as  l<i-^9,  WilluuD  bad 

bi'raii*"*    Wo    )i:i'I   a  pri'^irviii:;    rcvi^iition    ia  Ik^ch  di'^iroiis  of  cntniUng  the  liritUIi  rrown  aa 

the    ITlli    iX'iifitry    that    ^^^v  have    ii'>t  had   a  thifl  latlr,  and  tlie  houno  of  lord*  nnanimoadj 

di*^tri)\ini;  rrv.'ltitioii  in  the  \\*:\\.      It  i^   I*o-  ac^cH^d  t«i  an  ainvndinvnt  of  the  lull  of  rightt  10 

raii-o  MO  h:id  frivih>Tii  in  tlio  u\\*]<  of  ikTvi-  that  I'lfort.     Tlie  ci»innion4  unaniin<ta>W  reject* 

tmK* l!iat  Ml-  liuvf  ttriliT  iii  the  riiiiNt  of  nnari'liv.  ed  the  amendment.    >Vhile  the  two hou«ca  vert 

Fur  tlio  n'i:hiirity  of  law.  fur  t!io  M'ouriiy  of  eonforrinf?  on    the  nuhject,   a  non,  after wari 

Iirit}»t'r:y.  f<>r  the  |K-ai>^  «>f  our  »trt.*i-ts  for  the  known  a*  duke  of  Cihiurifitcr,  was  born  to  tba 

iai-|<i::<"'4  of  <iiir  hMiiu**,  nur  irrutitudo  i^  duo,  pUnr^^M  Anne.    Neither  hc*UHe  wunM  frirew^. 

nndi-r  Ili':!  w!io  rai^**  uni  {iuIIh  d>»wn  naiionn  and  the  bill  nf  n|rht.4  wus  loi^t.     The  dnk«  of 

at  hi«  iii'^i-un*.  ti)  the  It  mi;;  ]>ariiumi'Dt,  to  tho  liloiu-eoter  die^l  in  IT^^O,  and  in  1701  MTilliam*! 

mnv^'T.tiiin.  and  to  A^illi.un  of  Omiiiri*.**     Wil-  oM  plan  wa*  adopted.   The  crown  waseniaiM 

liarn  in.  f-Mind  his  new  thntne  any  thin;;  hut  nu  on  the  elertrciu  Snphia.     An  art  mora  revuls* 

a^rreeahU'  M.-a:,  liUt  !••  •«<««■  <»^ioii  if(  it  onabli'd  him  tionnry  in  itn  cliarartor  w.i<  never  pa«M*«l  by  a 

to  fiiiiih:!*.  Loui-i  XIV.  with  ultimate  hUive?^<(,  li*i;i»lative  ImnIv.     All  tho  de%*endanta of  JaflMt 

th'.Mi^ij  thr  w:ir  thai  Ki.^Iuiid  derlariil  aitainU  II.  and  I'harlon  I.  were  |ia.<«fled  over,  and  tW 

Fran<*f.  in  lt'.H<j,  was  marked  by  innny  rever^M  preference  (riven  to  a  f;randdauj;litvr  lif  JaoMt 

on  the  part  uf  the  fiirmiT.      It  waa  tfmiinutA.*d  I.,  for  the  8oIe  reaxm  that  i*he  wan  a  rn»i 


by  tlic*  w-aiv  fif  Ky^niik  in  l^UT.     Irelund  wa-i  There  were  thou  livin^r  !f7  ]iersi^n4  who 

tulKju«'i|  alini»:»t  as  Ci»mpl«:(i*ly  an  ^he  ha<I  Ikvq  claim.i  to  the  erc»wn  »nporior  tn  tbo«e  of  tW 

t'll-lut-d  by  i'nimwcU  nMn*  th:m  4')  yeurA  earlit-r.  eb*i*tro«A,  aci^ordin^  to  the  received  ideas  of  tlw 

There  Mi-re  <H,-\era!  rdn^piruiie'*  fi»rine<l  a;;ain«t  ri(;ht  of  »urreH.Mon.    William  wai«  jiur«revde«l  bjT 

the  i.iw  pAiTiiinent,  but  tht-y  all  fuiletl,  and  the  sister  of  hU  wife,  Anne,  »et<oDd  daagfaUr 

lufiny  i.f  ihi*  4*1 -n-p: rati »rs  were  punished.     Tho  of  Jamen  II.     May  15,  1703,  war  was  decUrsd 

bink  ff  KTi;;!aiiil  wa*  estahiiohed  in  Pi'.U.  Mary  afrain^t  France,  that  war  which  was  illQ«traU4 

die>l  in   It'.'.'l,  And  Kft  William  »i>Ie  monarch,  by  thedeediiof  lVter)N>r«iU);h  and  Marlboruogm 

The  frei-dHni  «if  tl.e  Kn::li»h  pr«?M  datc4  frnm  ainl  whirh  lasted  11  years  ^'ben  it  was  eoa> 

]6'.>*>.     M>>^:  of  till-  letfl-iation  of  this  pi^n  w:u  eluded  by  tho  treaty  uf  I'trecht,  in  wbtch  tW 

of  a  li'M-ral  fliarai'ter.  arnl  wuuld  have  U'en  far  Enfrlnth  are  thought  to  ha\e  thrown  away  ntv 

mure  •*«»  if  William***  willies  cmuM  in  all  c.'tnes  ly  all  the  fruits  uf  their  many  victorieiL     Thfl 

bavo   prevjilfil.      Mui-h   of  tho  evil  uf  tlnf^o  war  party  had  pmeout  i»f  ofltre.  inc'tn^it^tiei 

tlnic^  cri-w  uut  of  ditVer^ni'cs  in  relipnus  Ulicf,  of  the  hostility  of  the  church,  and  th^cir  9>u 

a'i'l  W.i;;.i!ji  \va*  M:i,::r.:irlv  iVi-o  fri'in  bij^otry,  N»n  were  ^upINlM'«I  to  aim  at  tlio  nMi'rr.titio  €# 

thtiujlj  jiw  i!h>u  huvv  h>fM   iui>ri<  di'Vitut  th:m  tho  Stuart^  thi*  -^li,  at  the  moo:,  thi«  !*ix«p:rM« 

he  w.i«.      The  ('•Ii-rnlioti   ai ;,  vihii-h   ha«  hei-n  of  Ja«-obiti«m  rmiiil  apply  only  ti*  !l«>iiM^firx»k«. 

pp-n'  ■'.:.■  •••!    Iiv  t!ie   hi^l-i"*:  ai!hiT;ty  as  "that  Tlie  union  of  Kn^land  unil  N-ntiard  »a«tfreelt4 

whi  S   !:.••:    -'tnkii.L'Iv  illu^tra'.rs   t!ie  poiMilrar  in   lTi>7,  the  latti-r  cnuDtry   In  i<>^  allowird  to 

\iir«  :i:.'!   t:;i-  |hm  ::!i:ir  i-Xi  t  lleri4-i-s  of  Kn{:ii'«!i  hi'inl  4*)  meiiilHT<«  to  tlie  hoit»^*  if  i*t>r*iiiiiin\  and 

1«V'>1-    'i»  "f  i*'l  the  ;»i  S  thai    Unw  rvi-r  hi  t-ii  li>  to  the  huu<HMif  j  (A-r<«.    .\nne«]ii-«i  .\u^.  1, 171^ 

p.'i'^*'!   \}    pari;  iiiHMit."  ua-t   Hibijttcil   in    Iti**'.*.  arid  the  <'rnun  pa«M-<l  withii'.it  a  ^tr;i^;:lc  In  tht 

1  ::••  !.»«i  y  .ir-  ff  Wil!..i:ii\  riiprn  !«aw  him  riiifr  htniM.*  i»f  MaH'iVfr.     The  rei^n  »*(  t\rt»TX^  !.  «m 

i'.t>  t^\  •  {..r:.!:>in  tri-.iiir'«  \\i:!i   Lnuin  \IV.  t>i  bv  no  niran^  alriiliii.t  oiu'.     Tie  relviiitm  of 


d.»;  ■"I"  ■  :'  :!i*-  iMiTUfn^i-  «I><':iiiiifiiM  uf  tl.i-  Spjfj-  ITl."*.  in  ln-hrdf  of  the  Stuart*,  pmvti!  a  U 

W.\  *r.*:.i  ii  ••:'  :l.i»  h'lii**'  ••f  .V.i-tri.i,  riiar'.e*  II.  and  t!io  f  iriiirn  iiinveminl*  (*»r  the  "nme  t«'*Ji«| 

U-ltjj   \i:ih«..t   h»  ir*  uf   hit   h-Nly.     l.uj:^  \iit.  were  •nilti*  as  r.«fli ««.     Kn,:!ai:d  allieti  hmrlf 

lal«' i  :ho  "..I..'."!   trt-^tv  ii:   17'»«».  and  Wi;!i.uii  with  Franiv.  tlun  ruUd  bv  the  rw^nt  OrI< 


«••.'.:  I  .ivi- i-i.i'h- war  u!i  him.  h:it  i  ir<-\m<«:ariiei     Tiie  \ihi;;<4  ritnriii-«l  tu  p<<\%er.  uhith  th«v  ktM 
prr\i':ti.l  h:J:i.  u'i!   iln-ri'  tt  .i*  ivt-rv  pri»"-pi-rl     imtd  tin- rc!::n  uf  *  m-^t;^^*  III    '1  h*  Si<.t!i  vwba^ 


that   '.I.!-  i-'ir.rc   "^ptJil-h  iii'inar*  !jy  %\i.;i!il    p.i^s  ble  enUM-d  fcrrral  di-tri-**.     Wai|»«''.f"«  a««.vcd 

l.»  I'iii'.ip  '  f  Aijj   -.1  u;Mi  ";!  n  *.ri-.:i<  ••iru.vh',  ey  Uxan  «  ith  ii^  i  i,pI>MiM(t,  th«><i;;h  Jh-  h:ij 

when  !.'•  •.H  I'.ri'.v  !^.-  u^••^•  Mri:!"!!  i.ali>>ii  i.M.i  in  uttii'i*  I  •r.^  1«'f.Ti*  thai  tlale.     Ki-i;!!:  il  «asio- 

a  ra^i'  1^  a'  k:M\\!    L'.-  j  th«'  •'••n  uf  t!;f  t  ii!\-tl  vulvid  in  war  wirh  Spain.  ari>!  i'l  171*«  woo  iW 

JaiMi  t  n    I  n.'  •/ tifva!  I'lri'.iiM,  .Tarjn-*  «I.*in.;  in  i:aval  vi^-tu! y  of  l'a|««»  ra-Aaru.  (ii•llr;^,*  I.dicdia 

17"!.      W:.i:.iiii   t  hi'k   ;.  U  aiit.'u:*'   **f  l:.i-»  M';n-  17'J7.  ami  »iis  "Ui  •  ir«h'«l  h>  h:H  »iiilj  ••»fi  ll^^ft 

ihr,  a:.  !  u  .»•  i  r^\'ir.-j  f-r   \ .,:  >rf-..4  u:ir  hI.i-u  II  ,  li'twii-n  h1i<*mi  ai:il  hi(ii*M  I:' thrre  h»!  b#ra 

hi'  i.rd,  M  .-•  !i  •*.   17"-*.     1:.%'  >.ar  hi  fire  hi*  biCer  h  ilri-l      Tlte  lew  k.n^.  unih  r  tl^e  isifla- 

di'.il!.  I.I   1. 1 1  :!ii    -..i:. -!'.»'■  ti   i\  •  f  *.•»  .:s^-  l\.v  r';n-  vfin*  uf  h'.*  w  ife.  ( 'aru!iiiii  of  .Vr:*}  ai  h,  r'ti.tkniM4 

1*1.  :./  •>•.-■*.'  I'.:'.  ?  •  t^^■  'A-  rk  -f  S'.al  ri  vu^u'i.n  Wal('i«if  in  irKrt*.  ard  tl.a!  jrreat   ii:ii.i«l<T  WM 

^%.:!l  t:."«  ;   *.      :'  Mh  I  h  Ii  t  I.i!:ii«  .s  iii'lt*<M.!  ;'..'.y  u'    thi*    he*«l  of  utViir^  until    ll.r  l>«-;:i:.nir-c  vt 

%*y>  '.  Mii^l      I  »  I'.:  .  1  ■...•»'..•■:! I  >:  lart.  dai.»;!.!i  r  174 J.  biill!:.,:  f'-r  ^i-.irs  a!l  l!.e  riir:i<>r.«  i-f  tbo 

uf  .la-M  •  1  .   !.  )<1  \\v'!>!i  tl  *.I.L>  •l<.:>'r  I  :b!atii.e.  n^i'st  »'•!•' niid  u:  ««  rupuh*ri«  u]*f->«i*.:u»  t^-.al  hai 

Ffi^li  r:i   \   .  w  !••   lis  r«  r.r»!  1  i-'al:i«'  kin^  iif  ]»•••  evi  r  txi»!id  in  a  fr*-e  Hati*.      I!  •  pri-x  :j.lc  «f 

1.1  !:o  I,    }•  .'.    '•«*■•   •    ■  ..!    Ii>  .I'm  r    k'lp   !i:«   fiW  Bi-ti<>;i    w  a«    "to    h '.    Util    al>>?:e.*'    I::    jm    ko 

ki:i(r'i'':i  :i  T  p.*f«er\«-  h'.s  uld  pa!a:i:ia*.e.     Tho  thuU(;ht  things  were  well  %khu-L  il  wuuld  Lavif 


ENGLAND  171 

■ 

been  better  to  improve,  ho  failed  in  his  duty  to  they  been  well  governed.    With  the  exception 

Ids  coaotrjr.    He  allowed  hhnself  to  be  forced  of  a  few  thoughtful  men,  the  colonists  were  at- 

into  a  war  with  Spain,  which  departure  from  tached  to  the  home  government  as  sincerely  as 

hb  ajstem  was  soon  followed  by  his  fall,  though  were  the  dwellers  in  Lancashire  and  Kent.  The 

be  retained  his  influence  over  the  royal  mind  attempt  of  that  government  to  tax  them  caused 

to  the  day  of  bis  death.    liis  successors  were  great  indignation,  and  led  to  the  American  rev- 

whiga  ia  priDciple,  and  tliere  was  no  chance  for  olution,  which  ended  in  the  dismemberment  of 

tbe  tones,  as  a  party,  under  the  fin>t  two  mon-  tlie  empire.    The  English  in  the  last  years  of 

arcbs  of  the  Hanoverian  line.  War  with  France  the  war  had  to  fight  the  Americans,  the* French, 

was  added  to  that  with  Spain,  growing  out  of  the  Spaniards,  and  the  Dutch.    The  pence  of 

the  ^pestlon  of  the  Austrian  succession.    As  a  1783  left  England  in  a  low  coinlition,  from  which 

whole  this  war  was  one  of  the  least  glorious  however  she  rapidly  recovered.    She  lind  been 

trer  waged  by  England.    In  1745-^6  the  con-  fortunate  only  in  the  I^t,  where  the  ability  and 

test  between  the  reigning  dynasty  and  the  re-  nnscrupulousness  of  Warren  Hastings  increased 

mmsa  of  the  Stuart  party  was  brought  to  an  her  power.    Shortly  after  the  conclusion  of  the 

cod  at  CoUoden,  where  the  duke  of  Cumber-  war  George  HI.  became  popular,  and  saw  the 

land  defeated  Charles  Edward.    The  cruelties  party  which  he  hated  excluded  from  office. 

wnh  which  the  Jacobites  were  punished  reflect  The  new  phase  of  toryism  which  manifested 

iiseredit  on  the  English  name.    The  treaty  of  itself  under  the  rule  of  the  younger  Pitt  became 

lis  Ja  Chapelle  in  1748  restored  peace  to  £u-  the  ascendant  political  principle  of  England  for 

roM  for  a  few  years.    The  whigs  continued  to  more  than  40  years.    When  the  French  revolu- 

fUB,  headed  by  Henry  Pelham,  and  after  his  tion  broke  out,  the  English  ministry  reluctantly 

daith  in  1754  by  his  brother  the  duke  of  New-  engaged  in  the  war  that  soon  followed,  a  fact 

OHlla.  The  renewal  of  the  war  with  Franco  in  that  is  established  by  the  total  want  of  prepara- 

1755  ledtooonsiderablo  ministerial  changes,  and  tion  that  marked  the  condition  of  England  in 

k  1757  was  formed  the  celebrated  Pitt-New-  1798.   A  portion  of  the  aristocratic  whigs,  head- 

ftle  ministry,  which  carried  on  the  contest  ed  by  Burke,  were  more  anxious  for  war  than 

vith  great  vigor;  so  that  when  George  IL  died,  were  Pitt  and  his  immediate  followers.  The  war 

Oet  SiSt,  1760,  his  fleets  and  armies  were  every-  lasted,  with  two  brief  intervals,  down  to  tho 

vfaere  triumphant.  The  foundation  of  the  East  summer  of  1815,  ending  in  the  complete  triumph 

hdiaa  empire  of  England  was  laid  at  Plassey,  of  England  and  her  allies.    Tlie  exertions  made 

Jane  23,  1757.    French  America  was  conquered  by  England  were  vast,  though  her  actions  were 

It  Qgebec,  Sept.  13,1759.    The  victories  of  not  always  wise.    Her  fleets,  led  by  Nelson,  Jer- 

Miaden  and   Crefeld  atoned  for  tho  days  of  vis,  Howe,  and  Duncan,  achieved  splendid  vic- 

Laffddt  and  Fontenoy.    Hawke's  victory  over  torios  over  the  French  and  Spaniards,  and  in  tho 

Cooflans  was  one  of  tho  noblest  exploits  of  lost  years  of  the  war  her  armies  were  greatly  dis- 

tkt  British  navy.    The  victories  of  Frederic  of  tinguished  under  tho  lead  of  Wellington  and 

PhiSRa  were  quite  as  much  owing  to  English  others.    In  1812- 15  she  was  involved  in  war 

Mmey  as  to  German  genius.    Death  arrested  with  the  United  States,  growing  out  of  tho  im- 

tha  policy  which  had  produced  such  results,  pressment  and  rightof  search  questions.  Ilerco- 

The  new  king,  Georgo  IH.  (tho  first  English-  lonial  and  Indian  dominions  were  much  extcnd- 

Vm  prince  who  had  been  on  the  throne  since  od  during  tho  contest.     On  tho  other  hand,  she 

1714),  grandson  of  George  XL,  was  by  nature  as  found  herself  burdened  with  a  debt  of  $4,000,- 

fapotic  as  the  worst  of  the  Stuarts,  and,  hav-  000,000,  and  her  expenditures  hnd  been  on  tho 

iagbeen  edacated  in  principles  utterly  unfit  to  most  gigantic  scale.    Georgo  III.  lost  his  reason 

keheld  by  a  constitutional  sovereign,  he  re^olv-  finally  in  1810,  and  for  more  than  9  years  his  eld- 

•i  to  attempt  tho  restoration  of  btuart  modes  est  son,  afterward  George  IV.,  was  prince  regent, 

ifgOTemment;  and  hence  peace  was  his  first  succcedingtothethronoJan.  20, 1820.  After  the 

not  because  he  had  any  aversion  to  blood-  restoration  of  peaco  in  1815,  England  entered 

bnt  that  he  might  be  at  liberty  to  concen-  upon  a  career  of  reform  which  has  been  nioro 

all  his  powers  on  the  work  of  internal  or  less  steadily  followed  ever  since,  and  which. 

He  g«>t  rid  of  Pitt  and  made  peace,  but  without  causing  any  disturbance  to  society,  has 

Mlwitn  be  had  waged  a  brief  war  with  Spain,  wrought  important  changes,  and  greatly  im- 

eooDtry  joining  tho  French  in  tho  last  stage  proved  the  condition  of  the  people.    This  reform 

contest.     The  treaty  was  held  to  bo  very  at  first  related  to  commercial  and  legal  matterr*, 

iful  to  England,  but  history  hardly  bears  but  soon  reached  to  others  which  are  considered 

eootemporary  opinion,  though  it  certainly  to  bo  more  peculiarly  political  in  their  character. 

iwise  to  give  up  such  islands  as  Martinique,  The  high  toryism  of  the  government  underwent 

'  the  Philippines.     Scarcely  more  wis©  a  change,  and  on  the  death  of  Lord  Oastlereagh 

it  to  ret^n  Canada,  whereby  the  English  in  1822,  that  liberal  course  in  foreign  politics 

American  colonies  were  freed  from  any  was  commenced  by  England  which  has  been 

iSrom  French  attacks,  and  any  feelings  of  substantially  maintained  until  now,  and  promises 

lence  wliich  they  might  have  would  to  be  permanent.    Tho  passage  of  the  Catholic 

It  laereaaed.    Those  colonies,  however,  would  emancipation  act  in  1829,  under  direction  of  a 

mt/bMj  have  been  long  in  maturing  tho  wish  ministry  headed  by  Wellington  and  Peel,  showed 

Jhr  Mparation  from  the  parent  country  had  that  rehgious  bigotry  was  no  longer  to  rcooivo 


172  ENGLAND 

• 

the  <lirort  roiintenani^o  of  (!ovornincnt ;  aikI  tlio  attompt  to  disturb  thorn;  hnt  it  U  Mid  li« 

priK-oi'diiif;  WHH  hwt  tho  fiiltilnu'iit  vt  the  spirit  pn>piir\'(l  in  ilo  Mimothingr  A||;ainct  th«-in  irh««  te 

v(  tho  iTfatv  )>y  which  Iri'Ltinl  h:ul  hci-n  united  wan  «!oized  with  that  illiieM  which  prtircd  Crtil 

to  <iri*at  Hritaiii  in  IHO],  niitl,  hor  t»wn  parlia-  to  him,  June  20, 18^7.    lie  wii«  rarr^eiM  bvhii 

iiient  ulMi)i«h«.'d,  iiilitwitl  tuik'ndriK'TiiU.'rHto  tho  nivrc,  tho  princcM  Alcxandrina  Viotnria.  vIm 

iiii|HTiiil  [uirliaiiioiit.    (tiNtr»n*  IV.,  who  hail  !»e*  t4»ok  the  title  of  Victorin  I.    She  wan  the  oa|f 

pin  life  Oft  A  hhcnil  ill  i»ohti(-9,  np|M^Hrd  this  childof  Edward,  duke  of  Kent,  4th  »on  of  Ireofft 

act.  hut  was  rurni»olIi*d  to  vield  to  the  pro^^uro  III.     Thi^  event  led  tn  the  nejiaration  of  tha 

bruii^'Iit  to  Ih'ut  U[K»u  him  hy  the  tory  chii-fn.  crownsof  England  and  Hanover,  which  had 

Ho  liifd  tlio  next  year.  1^30.  and,  liavin^;  no  Ic-  worn  by  the  imnie  pcn>oDti  since  1714.  the  S 

piliuKito  I'hiMn-n,  wa^  Huri-isHlvd  by  hiH  bnithor  law  prevailing  in  Hanover.    The  queen  waa  v 

the  diiko  <»f  i'hircnre,  an  William  IV.,  who*«  |iopular  when  ^hea'«cended  the  throne,  nor  hsvv 

nhcrt  ri'i^rn  wait  dvsitiiied  to  l»e  the  time  of  nion)  22  years  prmlurtnl  any  almtemont  of  that  p 

polttii'.il  a;:i(atiuii  than  had  lieon  known  (tince  larity,  the  love  of  lier  subjectji  and  the  eft 

the  revolution.     Imniodiately  after  he  liet^nme  of  foreifnivi^  being  fully  Ju»iified  by  her 

kiri»r  happi-netl  the  Fn*nrh  revolution  of  July,  duct,  which   had  ever  k»een  that  of  a  ha 

lK.'io,  which  wa^  fnllowctl  bv  nutbre.ik<*  in  other  and  roUMtitutional  sovercinm.    She  CsviMYd  iW 

parttdf Euro|>e.c«}Nf'ially  in  Itvlpuni and  I*olan«l,  whip  ministry,  which  remained  in  office  soiim 4 

apiinKt  e;'(abli^hi-«I  authority.     En^rlnnd  felt  tlio  year*  after  licr  accession,  though  often  r^dttf 

effect  of  thc»e  inovemviit*^  and  sympathizeil  with  hhaken,  and  once  compelled  to  resign  for  a  ~ 

the  pt>pular  partii*^  of  the  continent.     Parlia-  days.    The  elections  held  on  tlie  deini«c  of 

nientary  rcfonn  had  Ion;*  Xufen  desire  J  by  many  crown  did  not   strengthen  the  ministrr. 

of  hiT  iH^opli*.  and  from  time  to  time  etforts  had  they  ruled  on  sufferance.     Tliere  was  a  near 

l*eenni:iile  til  AiTiini pi i»h  it,  bnt  rarely  with  spirit,  proach  to  war  with  Franco  in  1840,  in 

and  neviT  with  »>uc(v<i<.     Hut  in  March,  I ><:U,  a  qucnco  of  dis^putes   on   the  eastern  qi 

rrfonnbill  wa<i  introduced  in  to  tho  housoi  if  com-  Could  Fram*e  have  looked  anywhere  for 

moiis  by  Ixtnl  John  Ku*v>ell,  and  after  hmi;  ile-  ally,  war  would  probably  have  bn^ken  out; 

liates  in  parliaiui-nt  and  intense  excitement  in  all  tho  great  powers  were  arrayed  against  btf; 

the  oiuntrv,  cauMtl  bv  the  opixiNition  of  the  nearlr  as  cK>si-lv  as  thev  had  licen  in  IslS.     la 

LoUM.*  of  Infill  a  bill  making  ex teUiiive  chan;^'H  in  1H41  tho  long  content  l»etween  the  conserrali 

the  iiin«titntion  t>f  tho  hou-M*  of  i*«>minons  finally  and  the  whigM  came  to  a  crisis,  and  after  the 

pa'^^ed  in  June,  }^i\2,  umler  the  mini»try  uf  Eurl  ter  had  been  more  than  once  defeated,  the 

(■n*y.     The  tir>t  rcfornuMi  fiarliament,  which  of  c*oniinuns  declared  its  want  of  otntulenre  it 

met  Jan.  21*.  I^^^A.  containe<l  an  overwhelming  them  by  a  vote  of  S12  to  81 1.   Shortly  aftervwA 

m.ijiirity  uf  reform  on.      Tho  dominant  party  parliament  was  di.sM>lve<),  and  the  suI'^h^tmsI 

bowcviT  was  t<Hi  !itn»ng.  and  fell  from  its  own  elections  ended  in  a  ct<niplete  ct»n«er%atnr  tr^ 

Wi-iglit.     Ir^h  tmul'lcH  led  ti>  di*t<«<-n<«i<ins,  and  umph.     liS'lK-n   pnrliament   mot,  the   niinia 

lii>ril  <irtv  rctireil  l'n>rn  o(ri<-o  in    Ib'M,      Ho  werelicaten  bv(M  mnioritv  in  theo'miiinc^ 

wu*  M'.riixtK-il  bv  I^»rd  Melh  lurno.      Toward  bv  72  in  the  lonls.    Thev  iimiied'at*-lv  rt-; 

tho  rli'M*  "f  till*  vi-ar  Karl  SiH-ncvr,  father  of  and  Sir  H.  iVcl  fi»nni-«l  a  conMTvati\o  ministry, 

l>«rd  .Mi!i"rp,  ditd.  <.ii>inir  a  vacancy  in  tho  de-tined  tii  deMn»y  many  thing*  i» hit  h  fuo«tr» 

c*}ianri!!<>ro!iip  of   t!ie   e\i  {lO^UiT,  which  Lurd  viitivi>s  held  dear.     Tlic  uhiirs  ju^t  liefcre  ifcOT 

AltlMTp  ro'ilil  fill!  hold  an  a  p«>i^T.     1  he  king,  )iad   U*i-n   cxi>elle4l.   had  adoptr«l  tlie  ftart  m 

wh'i  lia«l  )m  t  n  wati-liliig  fi>r  an  o[iiMirtunity  tt>  cum  law  refunner^,  and  the  \ttict'of  tho  coa^ 

get  ri«l  «.>f  tlie  whi^  t>*uk  tlii^  iM-caoi'iu  to  di*«*  try  was  l>«*;;inning  to  make  i :.••••! f  licartl  on  tbii 

ini<>«  iNe  in:t.i«iry.     Tin- ptviTument  was  C4im-  que-tion  of  fiNnl.     In  niany  ri-viierts  the  i 

mi:i«-«l  til  Sir  K<'f>ort  IVt-l.  who  formi-il  a  ctm-  ter>ht»»'i-d  biniM-lf  a  rt*fonn«T.     He  frwd 

>4rvativo  mini*»!M.  and  m.ido  a  l>«ild  cfTiTt  to  artii  le^  from  duti«*s.  and  in  other  way«  ap^ 

ri  t.i:ti  |NitiiT.  lhoi:;;h  it  in  liul  prtili.iMi*  ho  would  imati-«l  t«*  the  |N>«i(i(in  nf  a  fre«*   tnuk-r.     TlM 

have  A«iv!«u-4l  t!io  kiPi;  Xo  the  si*]*  he  liad  taken  iw«>ro   ititciiM*  run^Tvalixt-*  vero   ili«<«Ati4&i^ 

in  tl.<.riiio<>iM:r  tli**  M«ilKif:rno  tniitiotrx.  ftirti.ero  but  the  i'«iur<H*t if  events  w:u«  tiNiniurh  f»rtbtVk 

w«.re   ii«it  *J0«)  tUi  u  in  the  ruinrnotiH  who  wc»uld  Th«'  f.iniini'  ff  lMr>  ci>rii}i«-l!i*<l  the  iiiinL*try  It 

b.ivi*  [•rtfirn  d  the  rtiiiv  rvattvi-s  tn  tlio  uliig«.  diM-iinlinuc  thi-ir  Mipp'^rt  «>f  the  pri'trrti*»Q  pal* 

I'srli'iriti'iit  ua^  ili<«i-]v4'«),  and  m  thi>  f!ci-tii>nf  ii-\.  anil  thi- aiiti-riirn-taw  Ifagiw  ritrivr«I  m' 

th  it  !i>!!fUt.i  the  runvrvativi"*  gnincl  lar^i'lv  ;  n:<l  from  the  jMitat**  n-t.    Tin*  iiti:ii«trr 

tut  :!it' rvr'nipr^  )i»«I  a  minority,  «M  it  liat,  though  ullicc.   hnt    hh^   riini|N-!!t^l  to  rt^nme   it. 

Rfi   nfonmr*   \oti«l  tur  the  iVtl  caiididute  for  t«»    prc^iil-    t*\vr  the   ih-*Inirti.»n  i«f  tJ»c 

sfH  .iki  r  of  till*  ho..««Mif  i-ornnioii«,  ho  Him  lieaton  luu -.    \ih:t'!i    wore    finally    di'>|>o««'<]    «*f    JaM 

l.y  a  n:.ij'»riry  of  l".     Sir  K.  I  W|  continued  in  of-  •.»♦•.    l'»4»'.      Tho    "hairm"    wa«    imirirdiatefy 

fi.f  ur.'.il  Aj'Til  »•.  l-.Vi,  wl.iii  he  retin-^l.  ha\lt»g  di^-^oStd.       Tho   iVvl  niini^trjk   hail    fn*n  t^ 

Uen  r«'fieatoil!r  tx  at4  n  on  Ir:<ht*h':ri'h  •t'li  fttii>n«.  f.r-l   ei)it-rii-n(*f«l   mui  h  ditt'iiult«    in  th«  ma^ 

Hi«  riiiiiiotry   livl  ii<<t  l:k<^ti'd  •%  rii'>:iil.«.     I.onl  rur*  niefit  uf  In<»h  atfair*.     The  Mi!biiurTte  mia* 

Mi-lNi'irno  rt-turin"!  t^i  olli'f,  with  !ii;»ny  of  his  i-*ry  h.i-l  piir*ueil  a  hlxT.d  coun—  low  ar\l  If^ 

I'M  •  ••Il«'%:^c*.     1  hi-  V.ini:  ft>und  hiiu**  \{  forci-d  la»;'l.  r.nd  fi'i^'ivid  flie  tkiipj-ort  i»f  Mr  !•!  ••?! 

to  ii'i*'i..;l  to  the  w  hi^*^,  and   hi»  t^i-l  *.i  w .:!»  u«  nifl  hi*  I'ritT.d*.    b'J?    »h*n  the  rt»n«rriatir 

D)Ui':i  e;racc  a.<«  i>v«ible,  and  ne^ir  mada  au  ojien  came  into  ollice,  the  Irish  leadi  r,  U.-tw<«n  « 


ENGLAND  173 

nd  the  premier  the  utmost  personal  dislike  ex-  much  as  their  ancestors  had  received  from  Pitt 

itftedi  resumed  the  work  of  *^  agitation."    lie  a  century  earlier.    The  war  was  continued  in 

brou^t  forward  the  repeal  question,  and  mon-  the  Crimea  during  the  winter,  hut  little  pro- 

Iter  meetings  were  held  in  various  parts  of  gress  was  made  in  the  siege.    In  the  spring  in- 

Irdaod,   at   which  enormous   numhers  were  creased  vigor  was  infused  into  operations,  and 

present.     Government  interfered  to  prevent  some  hrilliant  successes  were  achieved  ;   hut 


of  these  meetings  atClontarf,  Oct.  8,  1843,  on  June  18  hoth  French  and  English  were  ro- 
wish  perfect  snccess.    Mr.  O'Connell,  one  of  pulsed  in  attempting  to  storm  the  Malokoff  and 
bit  KMtis,  and  8  other  persons,  were  arrested  the  Redan.  Lord  Raglan,  the  English  command- 
on  charges  of  conspiracy,  sedition,  and  un-  er,  died  soon  after,  and  was  succeeded  by  Gen. 
kwfiil  assemhling.    They  were  tried  and  con-  Simpson.    Preparations  for  a  final  attack  were 
Tided,  and  Mr.  O'Connell  was  sentenced  to  a  now  made,  and  in  September  the  city  was  sub- 
heavT  fine  and  a  yearns  imprisonment,  and  re-  pected  to  the  most  terrible  cannonading  known 
i|iiired  to  find  high  recognizances  to  keep  the  m  the  history  of  war.    On  the  8th  the  French 
peace  for  7  years.    The  case  was  carried  before  stormed  the  Malakoff,  but  were  beaten  on  all 
die  hoQse  of  lords,  where  3  law  lords  voted  for  other  points  of  attack,  while  the  English  failed 
thereversalof  the  judgment  of  the  lower  court,  before  the  Redan.    Tlie  Russians  abandoned 
ad  one  (Brougham)  to  retain  it  (Sept.  4, 1844).  southern  Sebastopol,  retreating  to  the  north 
Ibe  3  were  Lords  Denman,  Cottenham,  and  side,  whence  no  serious  effort  was  ever  made 
OmpbelL    Though  nominally  beaten,  govern-  to  dislodge  them.    They  submerged  their  fieet, 
Bent  was  really  Tictorious,  as  from  that  time  Mr.  and  they  and  the  allies  destroyed  what  was 
OKTonnell's  infiaence  was  essentially  diminished,  left  of  the  town,  and  its  fortifications  and  splen- 
]al846thePeelministry  brought  forward  an  act  did  docks.    Kinbum  was  taken  by  the  allies, 
to  protect  life  in  Ireland,  but  it  was  defeated  and  Kars  was  taken  by  the  Russians.    But  the 
fai  tne  commons  on  the  same  day  that  the  com  war  was  now  virtually  at  an  end,  and  peace 
kvi  were  repealed,  and  the  ministry  came  to  was  restored  by  a  congress  of  the  great  powers 
■  end,  being  succeeded  by  one  at  the  head  of  at  Paris,  in  March,  1856.    England  reluctantly 
Thich  was  Lord  John  Russell,  which  lasted  made  peace,  her  people  having  entered  upon 
iown  to  the  early  part  of  1852.    The  Russell  the  war  with  the  determination  to  put  an.  end 
Bini5tTy  mled  England  through  the  crisis  of  to  that  supremacy  which  Russia  had  exercised 
lM8-*9,  and  did  not  find  the  task  difficult,  over  Europe  since  the  fall  of  Napoleon.    The 
Wcaim)  the  constitutional  principles  on  which  war  had  served  to  show  her  i)0wer  and  her 
the  people   had   been  so  long  governed  had  credit,  and  it  had  also  exposed  some  of  her 
icndtfrea  revolution  unnecessary'.     A  weak  at-  weaknesses.     It  was  as  well  for  her,  however, 
tempt  to   get   up  an  insurrection  in  Ireland  that  peace  was  restored,  for  not  much  more  than 
WW  pat  down,  and  the  chiefs  in  it  were  trans-  a  year  after  that  event,  and  while  engaged  in 
ported.      The    Russell  ministry   went  out  of  hostilities  with  Persia  and  China,  a  conspiracy 
sfiicc  in    1352,   and  for  sevend   months  the  was  forming  in  her  great  Bengal  army  of  sepoys, 
fesries,   led    by    Lord    Derby    and    Mr.    Dis-  which  broke  out  in  Jan.   1857,  and  was  at- 
tatHL  were  at  the  head  of  alfairs.    This  min-  tended  with  circumstances  that  shocked   the 
■Cry  was   followed  by  one  composed  of  co-  world.      Delhi,  the  old  capital  of  the  Moguls, 
ifesced   whips  and  Peelites,  headed  by  Lord  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  sepoys,  and  the  nom- 
Ab«rdeen.     In  1853  the  troubles  on  the  Turk-  inal  Mogul  emperor  found  himself  once  more 
■hqutfstion  began,  and  war  was  declared  against  a  sovereign  in  reality.     The  mutiny  spread 
»ia  by  France  and  England,  March  28, 1854.  rapidly,  and  in  a  short  time  the  whole  Bengal 
fivots  and  armies  were  sent  to  the  East,  army  had  become,  with  few  exceptions,   an 
fleets  to  the  Baltic.    The  Crimea  was  in-  army  as  hostile  to  the  English  as  tliose  which 
vided.  the  victory  of  the  Alma  won  by  the  had  fought  against  them  at  Wandiwash  and 
iSea.  and  Sebastopol  partially  invested.     The  Assaye.    The  particulars  of  the  contest  that  fol- 
EmsUqs    made  great  exertions,   and   having  lowed,  and  which  in  less  than  2  years  led  to 
Inofht  up  largo  forces,  fought  the  battles  of  the  recstablishment  of  the  English  ascendency, 
Uaklava  and  Inkermann,  losing  them  both,  this  is  not  the  place  to  relate.    Suffice  it  to  say 
Ibej  were  more  successful  in  defending  Scbos-  that  they  showed  the  idleness  of  the  assertions 
Mplf  the  allies*  attacks  on  which  proved  total  that  England  had  become  powerless,  and  that 
Hares.     Winter  set  in,  and  great  snfierings  tho8kil],vulor,  and  endurance  of  her  people  had 
txperienced  by  the  besiegers.    Alanning  declined.    Her  military  reputation,  which  had 
of  the  condition  of  the  army  were  fur-  been  lessened  in  the  eyes  of  many  by  the  events 
to  the  London  newspapers  by  their  cor-  of  the  Russian  war,  was  greatly  raised  by  tho 
aipoiMlents,  and  were  corroborated  by  private  successes  of  her  annies  in  India,  and  the  valor 
Irtlen.     Tliough  tho  allies  had  de9troye<l  Bo-  and  fortitude  displayed  on  almost  every  critical 
■■aand,  in  tho  Aland  islands,  their  expedition  occasion  by  her  sons;  while  tho  statesmanship 
Ae  Baltic  had  failed.    Much  irritation  ex-  that  was  exhibited  in  the  Pui.jaub  showed  that 
England,  under  the  effect  of  which  the  it  is  in  her  power  to  rule  India  with  wisdom, 
tn  ministry  broke  down,  and  was  sue-  firmness,   and  humanity.     In  8  months  after 
by  one  at  tho  head  of  which  was  Lord  tho  breaking  out  of  tho  mutiny,  there  were 
from  whom  tho  peoplo  expected  as  nearly  70,000  effective  English  troops  in  India, 


k 


174  ENGLAND 

nrul  now  native  mq-n  hnd  rojilarofl  Iho  w  poTs,  entered  into  I  lie  Paion  pnlitr,  the  forr 

Ity  the  in<l  of  1k'»\  tliU  furiiiUluMe  n'Tolt  ^M  tuiiiin;;  to  a  (Uritli»(|  |ired(iiiniimnre.     T) 

tiita'.iy  Mi}i{iresMtl,  in»\  tlie  few  inutinecn  that  cIv^eA  wen*  divulod  into  thnnen  arid  coi.ii 

remained    wt-re    ri'dui*e>I  to   tlie   etindition  of  fi inner  being  noMoH  and  c<'ntrr.  An<l  the 

wnniliTing  hripund**.     Mnjur^Cteneral  Sirllenr}*  the  inas«t  of  tite  fH'«»|iK>.    The  [Kr«e»^i'*n  f> 

]I.ive]tick  pnrtirnlarly  dij^tinguiiihed  himself  in  erty  detennined  the  t<i«i(ion  and  r':,;}it9 

tliin  w)ir,  hut  did  Dot  live  to  ^ec  it  a  eonchiMon.  frivmen.     The  tliralU  were  Maves  I'Ut  a 

A fi IT  defeating  the  m.'Imi\h  in  0  pitehe«l  battle^  po-ti-d  not  t(»  have  l^ecn  nuineniu«.     Th 

he   ditd   at   Ijuknow,    Nov.   SA.    1S57.      The  orpmization^    regulated    fi-r    the    in***\ 

Mtif   \in4  rt*ni*luded  by  the  peneraNhip  of  Sir  their  own  atrairs.     The   coaniry  «a4   i 

('•■iin  I'anipliell.  who  wa«t  rain^Ml   to  the  i*(*er-  into    counties    the    counties    into    l.ti; 

a^i-  a-  liuron  Clyde  for  his  KTvieof.     The  piv-  the    liundnds    into     tithing*.       The 

eminent    innier  which   inea^nren  m>   thonnigh  conrtA,    and     tlioM    of    the     hundred*, 

had  U-en  initiatctl   beranie.  Iiowever,  uniK»[i-  iHipdar  triltunaK     The  wit<Tagenu*:e  n 

i:hir,  l>er:ui«e  it  w»<i  FUpiKi«ed  to  bo  too  huh-  higlie^t   Ai^Hinbly,  and  wa.4  thoroughly 

KTvii-tit  to  that  of  Franee.     A  hoMilo  vote   in  cratical  in  its  cliararter.     Tbo   Ltir<;   p 

the  1jou«v  of  rtininiitiiH  in  Feb.  1^5"^,  drove  the  in  it,  and  it  mot  by  lii<»  eumnionii.     The 

^a!lner^:oIl  niiiii«try  from  oiliee,  and  a  new  con-  nobler  by  birth,  m  tlio  tham*^  were  fr 

K'rv:t:ive  ministry   \^nn  fnrniitl.  with  the  earl  session  of  pro]  lertv — .'attended  it,  and  »>*t! 

of  iKrby  an  premier,  and  Mr.  I>i«raeli  as  cban-  oj^  andabltot'*.     The  t!iane«,  tiMi.  I.nd  ll 

ci.!Mtr  of  the  exrho<iutr.     A    new  reform   bill  to  Mt  in  it.     The  b*ral  tiiairi«tra:e!«  are  «l 

w:i«  brou^dit  fur  ward  by  thi»  ministry  in  Feb.  to  have  Ixvn  (K-eaHionally  prevent.     The 

I'^.V.*.     It  HUH  not  acceptable  to  the  friends  <if  had  no  part  in  it,  and  Were  not  repriM  n 

reform,  nnil  w:i>«  defeated  in  the  houho  of  ct»m-  made  law^,  ami  voted   taxt-s  whin   the 

iMons  Mareli  SI,  1S,V,(.     Parliament   in  con<»o-  nee«led.     It  controlled  t)ie  king,  an^!  Ci>-.. 

(]:iei.(.v  was  dii^Milviil.  and  an  afipeal  made  to  him  from  anmng  the  ineinU'rHof  the  r<o 

the  cfiintrv.     The  ri'^ult  of  thii  election  was  a  It  wa««  the  hi^'he*>t  court  in  all  ra«4-«.     1 ! 

conMderublegaiii  to  the  IVrby  mini>try. — Kng-  ical  inlluence  in  it  wa«*  great,  a*  it  wn^  1} 

luh   f'fhtttfuUt'u.      The   Kngli^h   n>nstitution,  <iiit  the  country.     The  idia  thnt  thc«i 

>ihich   tlie  Kiigli!»h    iteo{ile  are  atvuntonuil    to  luoto  wa^   the  C'riginal   of   pnr!;:im«iT. 

FpLiik  I'f  iL-.  the  envy  of  other  nations,  i<  very  an-  once  entertainc«l,  i>  now  «-ntiri  ly  tj:\,  n 

c:ertt,  though  the  pri^ftiMit  constitution  is  to  that  it  it  apparent  that  it  had  Mime  i<f  t?  c  c! 

iM-iier  w  hie!  I  Kt!^d;;r:d '*  lion  ribbed  r>o(J  years  ago,  of  |i:irhument,  and  ticil  it^  eii-ti  rn  e   « 

i»  hat  the  tree  iiti» the  ^apling.**    Thecommence-  without   etVcct  in   )it-![*in;:  t>i  fi>rni    t^< 

nient  ff  the  Kii;:ii*h  pi'liiy  uiii^i  be  b^ikoil  f«»r  that  now  exi'^t".    ll.e  >!i\i»ii  arl-Tinra-  y  i 

in  tie  tiiM4*  i-i'  the   l^•lnan  CK-ecpatii  n  of  the  ed   tlieir  jtiui-r   aM  time  wi-r.:   f>: .   &:. 

i^!and.  fi.r  tla?  ivi  ufia:ii<n  wa?*  n»it  unly  imjNir-  Ulii'Ve  that  if  tin*  Nt.ni:ar*  h::-!  !ji  t  r..: 

t:i:it  in  iTmIi'  ;  -  a  ;:r.ind  ciM'.izin;:  ii::ency,  but  r.n^'l.md  that  ci»Mniry  wii::ld  !  .i\i-  hv.  a 

it  h.kd  i:"t:?"iii  ofj  t!.ti*o  (irrniariic  ctint{Uert*r4  er   p:!*-*   iiifo   t!ie   ha?:*!"*   of  the  ^jri  il 

A\li'iM  Wf  »  a!i  Ai<;.'!«' >u\i»n*.     The  theory  tint  Tie   hiL'ln-r  carl*  wt  re    f;-.^!    l-^t.t:.:j 

tl.e  >-.x  Mi-,  will!.-  i!i-!ri'\ing  the  male  Iiriton«,  of  th«*  -^r.^le.  hIi.-m  iln-y  ur.il  \\.v  j-.  ;  !•  • 

fT.:iri«l  ar.il  i!.'iri;id   tliiir  wi>nien,  14  phiu«il)Ie,  nn<l  I»ar.i-!i.  wvri*  all  •'ii'iMi-uil  by  »:.! 'l.* : 

aii'l  I*  •'is:';«'rt.  li  l.\  the  fart  that  *>iimethii>^  of  em    nn'c,    «!.i<?i    }iad    m  .t«Ti;.V.y    t\.:it 

thi-  h  i!:;f  kii.'l  ha*  b'-i  li  di»tie  bv  nther  ctino'ier-  *  ?iar.1C!er  bv  a  l«»rJS    r«  *iih-li«  e    in  !':.;:■■  < 

i  T'   ui.'l*  r  *  ::i.I.ir  i-ircini)«>tanie«>.     Thi*  Hi»ijM  i«»nip;e»«t  itt'eited  ::rtat  i  ;.u:-;ri-^  iti  K'  j'-: 

give  Ut  Kn;rl:ii.d  all  i!ii{Hirtunt  (Vhic  e!«Mnei.t.  frtnlal  *y*!.-!a  ^a*  uitk'.uun  tJ.tr»-  vr-- 

'1  In*    invti!(r<    pri.b.iMy   oi-ciipinl    ihe    K>iman  that   e\*J:t.  t!mn;;!i   i!ie   eliTi.ri.N  «!  ^ 

tiiwn*.  i!...-:j)i  a  !;iirh  .ii:thi'ri:\  iKinibh)  i*  v(  Vin*  ni>l  iilTi'tvrher  a^*.  lit  fri-rn  i!.      U 

o- ::iifri  th.i:  ll.i-v  aih-uid  thi»M*  ttiu  lijt  to  iterl^h.  ii.tri'«l<.a'i  •!   ihl*  •■\ -ti.:'i    i?.t»»  Ki!f':\' -i    I 

•  4  « 

T:  e  t  ■■•jxer-i-'M  I'l'  t!.e  An/l.i->.iX<'nH  to  thri—  ^u»■ll  n!i<i!ifica:i'>i.-  a*  jrrvtnttd  "J  «•  *-• 

lij.:  :Ty    «a*    :.:»    jiii;'«»r!a:it    *!.  p    ti*w:inl    tip  ir  fr^iu   Uit!.r  ei.*!  im  «l  bv  l!  i- ::<.' ;",.'v 

f  jvi../;»t."i'.  nr.'J  «!•%»  !-jid  t!  o*i«  ilrrt*  of  iin!»-r  rnulil  i»iit  ha^f  il-  :  ••  !  ad  h«-  {"■  r.  !  ••    *\: 

nriii   \i\\    hIi:- h    Sin!.,:    t"  the   r.:i  e    of  i*  hi.  h  i*!:r.ir  ::i  lh«'   i*I;.f.  1.  f  r  in  X^..**,   «  \--    \.i 

t].*}     Wife    iiH  r*»' .  r-.    jji    r.n    eii  iii-nt    dignc.  ha\c  l.ad  t-«  ci:i'.-ri'i  t-i  :!»■  p.  r.»  .-■.'.    c? 

1  !.i  V  \i «  Ti- L!r. ii!i:a!!\  ?* -'fiU:.:  .i  t  firi-^liin  ^ta!t•,  i.f  tht»  •v-ti  fu.     1  }.<•   tli*- -rv  Jh.il   !:..    k 

whi  ti  tlie  urri\  i!  I  t   the  l».r  i*"«  gaxi*  a  ne»  turn  Kr^rh.nd    i*  t!n'    •i.;ri  r:  i«  hr  !   «f   **'    !: 

t  •  «  v«m:*,  al.>l  <  •n'r:- itid  ;r.  lir.kjn:*  tir.l  K'lj-  i*  In  Ii  t  x:-:*  i.i-w.  .m.  1  J  ;i*  i  \  :-r. .]   !    r: 

Inr.d   Kkhuh    t!i«'    S.  r:ii  i:»^    h  ..-nl    in   tho    \\*.\i  %*  :r.i\r\%*,  ^a-    t  «•  .' !  -V.  •!    \\     \\  *•    i-   ? 

ri:.!.:r*.      'I  he  I » i:.  .-"i  i  !• 'm  Tit  ^  :i.»  f.ivur.ihlf  :  i  'I  Lis   »...pri  ?.::ii  y  w..*  d  -i.''v  -i*  .1   *.  '  ■■ 

the  pri^itrt  t-n  *(  a  :>•<■  •■  i!i».     All  Ihenn  :*..  i:.  ts-!   *'y  t\\\  !':.•  l.i:.  !•  d  t  .• 'i    if   F    ,• 

»t.iTii^-«  iif  KfiiC- i:.l  i!»:r  ■.,:  i!ii»  Ti  »*ii:M!rir4  ;!.;:i  l***'',  iti   r.n    »»«*•  i:i'-!\"  :.!    *».i!  »'     r;        A 

f.>!!'>«t-<l  thf-  1:.  iM.-.n  :,*-.ii<ii;;ti>t  n:  i.f  ihei^'.irnt  ti irj,  if  f*..]:\.  r.:  I  .!..!  1   ••    .j» .     1* 

tendiil    lt»  l!n»   !■  r::.a!.i':i   of  I.*'   p '!'ty    ^^l!■!l  !?.•■  k-r ;:  i'-:i!i  rr«  ■!  "'i  \.:*  f  '.  ■«."♦    »■ 

l.i'W  elJ^t.*  then.  :*•■!    w  I.i.  h   »  a*   t'.r^t  I'-alv  t«  r- •!  <.vt  r  the  i  ■■•.:'i:r\.  *•  '.'   .:   il  *  .• 

I  r- r.i>ii[n-«d    in    :h.«   i:.!i  n:i!'.:ry.       Ih-'h   t!n«  hU-  f.r  hi*  f.f;..  :•   i.  '••/■'     *••    r    -i 

ar  I:  to«  rat  ic  iUnivii*.  a:.d  !h>.' dimvK  rat  ici  lament  territorial  pountatt  «,  mii'*  a-^  ti;«t^d    .. 


ENGLAND  175 

md  elsewhere  on  the  continent    lie  kept  np  the  the  conference  was  not  concladed  nntil  the  19th. 

Sftzon  conrtfl,  bat  withdrew  from  the  county  The  great  charter,  one  of  the  landmarks  of  the 

court  cognizance  of  ecclesiastical  matters.  These  history  of  freedom,  laid  the  foundation  of  the 

popalar  courts  were  made  more  popular  by  English  constitution  in  its  broad  and  definite 

wlUiaui  than  they  had  been  under  the  Saxon  sense.    It  was  renewed,  with  some  omissions, 

kings.    The  king's  courts  were  also  important  in  the  reign  of  Henry  III.,  who  also  granted  the 

tritmnali.    This  judicial  system  tended  to  keep  charter  of  the  forest,  modifying  the  forest  laws 

down  the  baronial  courts,  which  were  always  of  the  country.    These  charters  were  renewed 

of  inieriur  rank  to  the  baronial  courts  of  the  6  times  in  the  same  reign.    The  charter  of 

other  European  countries.    The  English  barons  Henry  III.  has  been  80  times  confirmed.    The 

thcmMlves  never  attained,  in  any  respect,  to  the  most  remarkable  of  these  confirmations  was  in 

enoseaoence  which  barons  achieved  elsewhere,  the  25th  year  of  Edward  I.   The  government,  as 

Half  toe  people  were  slaves,  living  in  villeinage,  established  in  the  18th  century,  provided  for  a 

Those  attached  to  the  soil,  like  Russian  serfs,  hereditary  monarch  with  limited  powers,  taxa- 

were  villeins  regardant^  while  the  others,  who  tion  by  parliament,  punishment  to  bo  inflicted 

eoald  be  disposed  of  like  the  negro  slaves  in  only  after  li^wful  trial,  the  cessation  of  arbitrary 

ov   soQthem  states,  Vere    villeins   en  grot,  fines  and  imprisonment,  trial  by  jury,  and  jus- 

Thc  nnmber  of  the  latter  was  not  large.    This  tice  without  price  or  delay.  Parliament  attained 

Mate  of  things  was  brought  about  in  the  90  to  the  distinctive  character  which  it  has  had  for 

yean  that  followed  the  conqnest,  and  was  the  695  years  in  1265,  when  borough  representation 

f«nk  of  the  Norman  rule,  the  English  peasants  was  created.    Knights  of  the  shire  were  earlier 

baw  reduced  to  the  condition  of  those  of  Nor-  summoned  to  the  great  council,  which  was  called 

nndy.  In  the  reign  of  Henry  II.  the  work  of  re-  parliament  in  1246.    It  was  the  intention  of 

dcfliution  began,  and  for  7  centuries  progress  those  who  framed  Magna  Charta  that  cities  and 

has  Men  the  law  of  England,  though  some-  boroughs  sliuuld  be  represented,  but  60  years 

times  it  has  been  very  slow  in  manifesting  elapsed    before   their   plan   was  carried  out 

itself.     Jadicial  interpretation  was  favorable  Councils  without  burgesses  continued  to  meet 

to  the  enslaved  classes.    At  the  beginning  of  for  some  time  after  the  establishment  of  parli^- 

the  13th   century  there  was  a  class  of  free  ment.    That  England  obtained  a  symmetrical 

kboren  in  England,  small  in  numbers,   but  constitution  in  the  18th  century,  or  that  she  has 

cmbrscing  the  humbler  people  of  the  towns,  ever  had  any  thing  of  the  kind,  is  not  pretended 

and  some  of  the  peasants.    The  free  peasant^  no  by  the  most  partial  vindicators  of  her  polity; 

natter  how  complete  his  poverty,  was  compelled  but  it  is  claimed,  with  strict  justice,  that  then 

to  be  enrolled  in  the  <f^cfn;ta,  or  subdivision  of  she  became  distinctly  a  free  state,  and  that 

the  hundred  to  which  he  belonged,  and  per-  since  that  time  she  has  been  able  to  maintain 

fanned  certain  political  duties  of  a  local  nature,  liberty  and  order  to  an  extent,  and  for  a  length 

Be  eunid  act  on  inquests  or  jnries.    The  land-  of  time,  unknown  to  any  other  country.    Mon- 

kolders  were  tenants  in  chivalry,  or  holders  by  archs  and  ministers  frequently  disregarded  the 

■ilitarf  tennre,  and  included  the  barons  and  restraints  placed  on  them  by  the  laws,  but  not 

other  great  men  holding  immediately  of  the  even  the  most  arbitrary  of  kings  or  the  most 

crown,  and  whoso  burdens  were  as  great  as  their  reckless  of  ministers  has  ever  dared  to  go  be- 

hoQora;  tenants  in  free  socage,  who  have  been  yond  a  certain  line,  save  to  bo  destroyed.    The 

compared   with    the    modern    yeomanry,  and  constitution  continued  to  develop  itself,  and 

whoae  cttndition  was  as  good  as  that  of  any  class  early  in  the  14th  century  we  find  the  house  of 

of  men  in  that  time;  and  tenants  in  villeinage,  commons  a  great  admitted  power  in  the  state. 

Ben  who  had  been  emancipated,  and  who  con-  In  the  reign  of  Edward  III.  this  body  complained 

tianed  to  reside  on  their  old  places,  rendering  of  the  conduct  of  the  king's  ministers,  and  in 

tiheir  old  services,  or  freemen  who  had  taken  1876  the  first  impeachment  took  place,  applying 

theirploceson  the  condition  of  discharging  their  to  6  persons,  2  of  them  peers,  who  hud  been 

•UigaUona.     There  were  not  many  of  this  last  employed  in   the  fiscal  department.     In   the 

dM  of  holders  at  tlie  commenc^iinent  of  the  affairs  of  war  and  peace  the  commons  were 

Utheenturj.    The  conquered  towns  had  passed  then  frequently  consulted.     It  was  provided 

the  hands  of  the  Normans,  but  had  man-  that  there  should  be  frequent  sessions  of  parlia- 

to  obtain  a  certain  degree  of  freedom,  by  ment,  and  48  were  held  in  the  reign  of  Edward 

and  also  by  cljarters,  yet  were  liable  to  III.    The  minority  of  Richard  II.,  and  his  wcak- 

•pecaally  taxed  for  the  benefit  of  their  lords,  ness  when  he  became  of  age,  favored  the  growth 

IS  the  condition  of  England  when  John  of  the  power  of  the  commons.     That  king 

king,  and  carried  the  ordinary  Norman  sought  to  **pack''  the  house  in  1398,  a  plain 

tgnnnj  to  an  extent  that  never  was  tliought  of  proof  of  its  consequence.     Parliament  aided  to 

\f§aj  of  the  preceding  kings.    A  council  of  depose  Richard  II.,  and  to  confer  the  crown  on 

*  and  prelates  was  held  in  1213,  at  which  Henry  IV.,  over  the  superior  claim,  in  a  lepiti- 

n,  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  brought  mate  sense,  of  the  line  c>f  Clarence.     Hallam, 

ard  a  charter  of  Henry  I.,  which  was  well  speaking  of  things  as  they  were  at  the  close  i>f 

ved.   Another  council  was  held  in  1214-'15,  the  14th  century,  says :  *'  Of  the  3  capital  points 

h  extorted  Magna  Charta  from  the  king,  in  contest  while  Edward  III.  reigned :  1,  that 

charter  itself  is  dated  June  15,  1215  but  money  could  not  be  levied ;  2,  or  laws  enacted 


L 


176  ENGLAND 

without  xho  commonV  ron^ont;   an<1  ?t.  that  but  between  frood  blood  an<1  the  priTileirtJ  of 

the  adniiiiii^trution  of  piviTUitient  wan  subject  ]Ht^ra^  thi-re  waH,  mtx&t  fortunatvlir  fur  oar 

to  tlivir  iii«|K>t-tiiin  ami  onntni] — the  tir«t  was  country,  no  neccwiarj  connection.     Pcdtgrrcc 

alisolutilv  iU-riiliil  iMthi'ir  iHviir,  thoM-cond  waA  nn  haiir,  and  encutcheonn  as»  old,  were  to  be 

at  lou>t  iH'rffctly  admitted  in  principle,  and  the  found  out  of  the  houne  of  lord^as  in  it.    There 

]a.<«t  y^■n9  ciiiitiriiuil  hy  freipieiit  exercise/*     In  were  new  men  who  bore  the  highest  titlciL 

the  lilh   veur  nf  Ilvtiry  IV.  it   wofi  reco^ized  There  were  untitled  men  well  known  to  be  de- 

that  all  iiiiiiiey  bills  niii-t  nripiiate  in  the  hiwer  »cendoilfrom  kni^rhts  who  had  broken  theSaiua 

house,  and  that  the  kiiti?  shouM  nut  take  c(»frni-  ranks  at  llaMinps  and  uraled  the  waUe  of  Je- 

taneiM't*  the  subject  of  that  1m nIv's  deliberations  rusalem.    There  were  Hohnns,  Ifuwbrays.  De 

until  it  hull  decided  u}H)n  it,  and  brou^rht  itsile-  Vere^  naj,  kinnmvn  of  the  hfHise  of  Plantain" 

cisiiiu  U* tore  him  ri'irulnrly.  Fri-ed«>m  «if  »i|M.'ech  net,  with  no  higher  atldition  than  that  of  e^ 

was  reiuctuntly  uHowihI  hr  the  hovcn*ign,  and  quire,  an<I  with  no  civil  privilege  bejond  those 

Henry  IV.  di«l  what  he  c*a\U\  to  prevent  it ;  and  enjoyi*d  by  every  fanner  and  shop-keeper.  Tlicre 

in  the  r^-ifTM  of  Henry  VI.   a  niemU'r  of  the  was  therefore  no  line  like  that  which  in  sume 

coniiiii>ns  wa.H  impri<Minoil  Ik'cuum.*  ^if  a  motion  countries  divideil  the  frntrician  from  the  |Je- 

he  li:iil  Miude ;  but  u.^  tl»at  luotinn  related  tt>  the  lK,'inn.  The  yeoman  w&s  not  inclined  to  murmor 

succe«M«>n  to  the  throne,  and  was  made  not  at  di^n it ies  to  which  his  own  children  might  rise. 

b*n;r  Uftjre  the  outlireak  of  the  wars  of  the  The  grandee  was  not  inclined  to  insoU  a  cUes 

rose^  iK-rliaps  the  k' Verity  exercisi>d  toward  into  which  his  own  children  must  descend.** 

him  wa-*  owiii^  to  the  jealousy  which  the  I^n-  Had  the  plan  to  c«»nf]ne  county  representatioB 

ca^trianH  felt  toward  the  YorkiMs.     Memlivrs  tf>  {K-rsons  of  gentle  birth  been  saccessftil,  this 

Were  then  tir-t  ]in\ile:;ed  from  arrest.     Laws  lilnTal  htate  of  things  inuht  have  come  to  an 

were  pa^M-tl  tt>  U-^^-n  tlie  intluemv  of  the  crown  end.  and  the  Knglish  aristocracr  have  degcner- 

in  elei'tii*ns  and  to  determine  the  ijualitications  ate<l  into  a  mere  oligarchy,  to  liave  been  in  its 

of  V4>tfrs  a[i4l  repn'si-ntatives.     At  this  time  turn  sulNlued  by  tmme  iMiwerful  king.     It  was 

the  desire  to  ent«-r  parliament  was  commonly  owing  to  the  general  lil»erality  of  the  Fnglish 

felt,  vlienas  in  the  pn-ci-iling  tvntury  it  hail  system  <if4<X^  years  ago  that  the  plan  Ikilcu,  the 

been  I'lirind  neees^iry  ti*  mforivthe  election  of  law  falling  into  desuetude,  and  the  coarse  of 

repre<i«ntativis^  while  e  let 'tors  complainetl  of  Kngland's  development   Iwing  left    withcmt  n 

the  bunlen  ff  pay  in;:  niemU'rs.     The  wars  Ih»-  check.     It  would,  however,  be  wrong  to  i 

twci-n  the  !iim!K'»  of  Y«irk  and  I^nca>ter  raisi>d  from  the  real  |Niwer  and  great  consi 

the  con«f|Ucnre  i^f  the  liou^e  of  c(»mmon*i,  as  of  {larliament,  that  the  king  was  nut 

euih  pari\  hail  to  a{>|Kal  to  tliat  ImnIv,  and  em-  cigii  of  the  lin>t  rank.     He  was  very  powerM, 

pl'iM-tl  ill*/  p>iwiT  <•!'  p:trli:uni-nt  a;rain*«t  its  ene-  and  did  many  things  whirh  we.  with  our  mod* 

in:r«.     In  '2'\  lb  iir\  VI.  it  wan  ntii^'ht  tii  pro-  eni  ideas  of  law  ami  regularity,  find  it  xtrj 

y  \\\v  th:tt  khi;:Iit<*  nf  tlie  !-liire  oIhiuM  bi*  of  gentlo  ditlii-iilt  to  reconeilo  with  the  idea  of  tlie  chief 

birt!i.  but  tlie  law  nMiM  ni>t  U*  tiiftirct'd.     Had  <if  a  o>nMitutii*naI!y  pivenied  country.     Moch 

tht-  ]i.i««>i'<I  ihtii  prartiie.  iiinl  iHinnif  a  (Nirti<iii  de{H'niled  on  |»erM»nal  cltarm*ter,  l»ut  even  the 

«»f  i).r  ii»!i*!iHit;i»M,  i!u-  «iinrM'  i-f  Kii;rli>h  hi^  weakest  of  king**  |Hi*i!«i>?>MHl  great  pri>ri>gativr«k 

ti»rv  inu^T  ii.i\e  1>««  n  itttinlv  elmnk'vd.     it  is  and    tound    nut   Uiuch   difficult v    in    itcrasion- 

owinj  !••  t!::iT  liUr:ilt  har:ii-t«-r  i^f  her  ariotm-rai'y  p}\y  evinling  or  vinlntine  the  law.  with(»nt  can^ 

that  liiijlain!  !•»  U*i\i  ariotiHTutiral  and  lil>rral  ing  public  cnniinotitm.      With  3  ur  4  eirc^ 

in  hvr  ;;<iv«  rnnunt.     Tiitn*  wa^  in  Kn;:1iinil,  in  tioUN  all  the  Knglioh  S4iven*igns  that  reignc4 

the  l-*!!i  ii-nriir\.  "a  »^*r>*ux  litTnIitary  ari*-  Wtwi^en  the  da}s  of  Ha^tingH  and  lUisworth 

t<i«-r.i«t  ;  l>tit."  •».i%«  Mm-aiila\,  *' it  wa<*  of  all  Were  men  of  diMlnguiohml  talents  and  morh 

htTi-*!.:;ii V  ar.-^T'H  i-:ii)i  ••  the  li-u*'t  iti^nh'tit  and  energy;  fiu*ts  that  explain  why  it  was  that  the 

f\(  li>:%t .     It  ii.pl  iHitii*  «if  t!i«'  MiMtliiiiis  rhar-  lilK-ral  principle  made  no  greater  rn«gnrsi^  an^ 

acttT  I't  a  f-.e>!f.     It  wa«  rfn^tnntly  ri«Hiving  al^i  i>how  l.ow  earnest  the  English  moat  have 

nii'ii^-i  r«  ir«-:ii  tlie  {Hi-p!**.  ninl  fi!i«i.intl\  "t-nil-  lietn  iu  lalNiring   for  free  in«tituti<ini^   which 

in;:  i!"\Aii  ii.i  ;;.^H  r-  t<i  miiiijlf  wtth  tlie  ]Ki»p!f.  could  have  U*en  gained  by  no  orditianr  ucene 

Ai«v  ^1  ;.!!.-iii:i!i  n.i/l.t   iH'ii.ine  a  pt-«T.     The  frt>m  monanhs  of  ^uch  abilities  and  who  were 

vi •'.:!:,:.  r  -^^  ti  I'f  a  p«ir  ysAt  \'\\X  a  irt-ntlrinan.  n.itur.iriy  averM*  to  every  tl  ing  that  tended  to 

iiraifi'^'Mi*  •>!'  }K'\T<«  \ :«  Mt  i|  pnri  ill  ntv  tu  mwly  le>'«en  their  aiith«irity.   Tho  lielief,  once  so  com* 

mu<ii-  k;ii^*i'.t-.     Till*  t!i«:nity  i>:' kiii.:hth<NNl  was  mon.  thai  tbeTutlorseMabliUied  adr«potisra  in 

n>'t  ^•  ^  ot.*!  t.'ii  n  ai  h  ff  anv  nun  m  Im  couM  by  En^-land,  and  that  for  l\  generations  and  Dtore  the 

dili»;i  v.fv  u:A  thri!)  rt  uh/c  ak***"'!  i-^tutc  i^r  «  ho  iHilitv  of  tho  country  U'came  less  liberal  than  H 

n.i:M  :i*Tra<!  ii"Tf-  }-}   hj-  \;i!«<r  in  a   battle  had  N'en  undi-r  the  i*lantAgi*ncts,  cannoCiww  be 

or  :i  «.«,:•.     It  w  .ei  ri /:in!i-i)  at  no  diopara,;e-  ju«>tly  ontertnine<l.     Thrr«*  Were  great  rliar^ae 

ihi :.:  :  -r  :).•  'I.riijh!!  r  i-f  a  li'iLi*.  n:iy.  nf  n  ri>,«al  Uiado  in  variuUd  re4|H-ct«,  but  that  the  g^^vrm- 

«!iiL«-.   !••  •  o^-'Moi-  fi  i|;-:<i. »•:::«:.•  li   ri<nii:i<ini-r.  nicnt  wa«  as  arbitrary  a«  has  often  been  slated 

T:.  .->.:.*>  ^!i  "^ir  K'in  rt    llouanl  marrii  i1  tlie  i^  not  the  fjct.     It  had  that  ap|>earafice  brcaase 

«l:i'i»*^t*  r  I  t  1 1  "ii.:!*  Mi'U  tT:iy.  t!iiki'  ••!'  Niir1'i>Ik.  thoM*  ininisttHl  « ith  it  wi-rv  careful  ni>t  often  le 

>'.T  U:i  'i.ir'l  I*<It-  n;:»rrii«!  ihr  •-••iiti!t »«  of  .^iili<»-  p»  furthi-riu  their  exai't ions  than  public  opiniun 

lii.r^k.  •{.•i-i.'l.!.  r  ot  <tt<Tji\  d'ike  %•(  l*iart-i:4 e.  wouMvnmnt  thi-irp<ing.     **  In  the  hoose  of 

01^4  i'Unj^  «aa  indved  held  iu  hi^'h  re»|ivct,  cuiumuns,  then  as  miich  as  now^'^aayi  Fruodei 


ENGLAND  177 

•*  there  was  in  tbeory  nnrestricted  liberty  of  were  not  noble  until  the  time  of  Henry  VIII., 
dttcussion,  and  free  right  for  any  member  to  or  later.    The  Dudleys  then  rose  to  noto.    Bat 
orig:mate  whatever  motion  lie  pleased.    But  so  whether  new  or  old,  tlio  aristocracy  were  the 
long  as  confidence  existed  between  the  crown  true  serviles  of  the  Tudor  times,  not  the  people. 
and  the  people,  these  rights  were  in  great  mea/h  One  of  the  proofs  that  the  parliament  was  not 
ore  enrrendered.    The  minbters  prepared  the  a  feeble,  inconseqnential  body  oven  under  Henry 
bosness  which  was  to  be  transacted ;  and  the  YHL,  the  most  arbitrary  of  all  the  Tudora,  is 
temper  of  the  booses  was  nsually  so  well  under-  to  be  found  in  the  use  which  he  made  of  that 
stood  that,  except  when  there  was  a  demand  for  body  on  many  occasions.    That  monarch,  as 
money,  it  was  rare  that  a  measure  was  proposed  Bolingbroke  says,  *^  by  applying  to  his  parlia* 
the  acceptance  of  which  was  doubtful,  or  the  ments  for  the  extraordinary  powers  which  he 
natore  of  which  would  provoke  debate.    So  exercised,  and  by  taking  these  powers  for  audi 
Bttle  jealoQsy,  indeed,  was  in  quiet  times  enter-  terms  and  under  such  restrictions  as  the  par- 
tunea  of  the  power  of  the  crown,  and  so  little  liament  imposed,  owned  indeed  sufficiently  that 
was  a  residence  in  London  to  the  taste  of  the  they  did  not  belong  of  right  to  the  crown.    He 
borgesies  and  the  country  gentlemen,  that  not  owned  likewise  in  effect,  more  than  any  prince 
ooIt  were  their  expenses  defVayed  by  a  consid-  who  ivent  before  him,  how  absolutely  the  dis- 
erable  salary,  but  it  was  found  necessary  to  position  of  the  crown  of  England  belongs  to  the 
forbid  them  absenting  themselves  from  their  people  of  England,  by  procuring  so  many  dif- 
dnties  hj  a  positive  enactment.^'   Henry  VIII.,  ferent  and  opposite  settlements  of  it  to  bo  made 
wrxtiog  to  the  pope  in  1529,  said:  ^The  discus-  in  parliament."    It  has  been  observed  that  the 
ikms  in  the  English  parliament  are  free  and  un-  increased  weight  of  the  commons  in  the  Tudor 
restricted;  the  crown  has  no  power  to  limit  their  reigns  is  proved  by  the  desire  of  the  govern* 
debates,  or  to  control  the  votes  of  the  members,  ment  to  obtain  victories  at  elections.    New 
They  determine  every  thing  for  themselves,  as  boroughs  were  then  created  for  the  express 
the  interests  of  the  commonwealth  require."  purpose  of  adding  to  the  government's  influence 
Henry  had  a  motive  to  make  the  pope  believe  in  the  house  of  commons,  and  to  this  action  is 
in  the  power  of  parliament,  but  he  was  too  sen-  attributed  the  irregularities  that  have  existed  in 
nble  a  man  not  to  be  aware  that  the  papal  court  the  popular  representation  of  England.  Govern- 
had  excellent  intelligence,  and  that  it  would  ment  intorferetl  in  elections,  and  bribed  members 
be  the  extreme  of  folly  to  attempt  to  impose  of  the  house.  Henry's  daughter,  Mary,  dissolved 
cpon  it-    Throughout  the  entire  existence  of  two  parliaments,  because  they  would  not  do  what 
the  Tudor  dynasty  there  were  instances  of  the  she  desired ;  and  the  third  was  not  always  com- 
lorereigns  retreating  from  positions  they  had  pliant.    The  abbey  lands  could  not  be  restored 
Hsnmed  when  they  found  they  hod  done  what  to  the  church,  nor  the  English  crown  settled  on 
VIS  nniK)pular;  and  they  retreated  so  well  as  Philip  11.,  because  of  the  hostility  of  parliament 
tlways  to  save  their  dignity,  and  to  prevent  to  both  schemes.    These  facts,  and  others  that 
HkoT  prerogatives  from  being  called  in  question,  might  be  quoted,  show  that  the  government  of 
The  resistance  which  the  Tudors  experienced  the  Tudors  was  not  altogether  of  that  despotic 
when  they  endeavored  to  tax  their  subjects  too  character  that  it  has  often  been  represented, 
highly  can  leave  no  doubt  that  the  power  of  They  were  more  arbitrary  sovereigns  than  the 
the  people  was  as  great  as  ever  it  had  been,  and  Plantagenets,  and  they  carried  much  further 
thst  the  new  dynasty,  whatever  else  it  succeeded  than  their  predecessors  the  usurped  jurisdiction 
h  changing,  did  not  effect  any  change  in  the  of  the  court  of  star  chamber.    That  famous  tri- 
English  character.    They  certainly  bore  hard  bunal  interfered  with  the  common  course  of  jus- 
noQ  the  aristocracy,  but  this  rather  helped  tice  so  fur  as  well  nigh  to  hold  all  authority,  and 
itm  with  tliO  people.    The  j>eerage  was  not  nearlydestroyedthe  value  of  trial  by  jury  by  its 
then  extensive.    Frequent  mention   has  been  arbitrary  treatment  of  honest  jurors.    The  re- 
made of  tho  first  parliament  of  Henry  VII.  formation  had  great  political  effects,  the  chief 
Isirag  contained  but  29  temporal  peers,  while  of  which  was  tho  increase  of  the  power  of  the 
k  the  parliament  of  1451  there  had  been  53  crown.    Henry  VIII.  was  pope  of  England  for 
■di  peers ;    from  which  it  has  been  inferreil  a  time  as  well  as  king.     His  ecclesiastical  su- 
fliat'tnc  aristocracy  had  been  nearly  annihilated  premacy  was  exactly  what  the  words  mean ;  but 
fa  the  wars  of  the  ro«^s.     Unquestionably  it  this  was  owing  to  circumstances  and  to  his 
hid  snffcrc<l  immensely  in  those  wars,  which  personal  character,  and  his  system  died  with 
«CK  contests  between  aristocratical  factions,  him.    Wlien  the  Anglican  church  was  finally 
kit  there  was  abundant  material  from  which  established  under  Elizabeth,  the  sacerdotal  char- 
li  hare  filled  the  house  of  P<x^rs,  had  the  king  acter  of  tho  sovereign  was  dischiimed ;  but  she 
\mn  desirous  of  filling  it.    The  Tudors  greatly  had  a  vast  power  over  tho  church  in  her  hands, 
flhmgod  the  character  of  tho  aristocracy,  not  the  ecclesiastical  jurisdiction  of  tlio  crown  be- 
ii|jl>y  striking  down  many  of  tho  noblest  of  ing  complete.      "  Tho  act  of  supremacy,"  says 
kmembers,  as  tho  Roman  emperors  had  served  Hallam,  ^*  empowered  the  queen  to  execute  it 
Un  relics  of  the  republican  aristocracy,  but  also  by  commissioners  appointed  under  tho  great 
Ij  derating  men  from  among  tho  gentry  and  seal,  in  such  manner  and  for  such  time  as  she 
hcmjen.     The  names  of  Russell  and  Seymour  should  direct ;  whoso  power  should  extend  to 
anaong  the  noblest  in  England,  but  they  visit,  correct,  and  amend  all  heresies,  8chismS| 

VOL.  XUi — 12 


178  ENGLAND 

abusoA,  and  oflTonccA  whatorcr,  wliich  fall  under  of  a  conMitntinnfilly  nilod  kininlom.    Tho 

the  cofrnizaRCt.'  and  are  bubjoct  tt)t)io  correction  te^t  tlint  tlieu  roiiinioM(*i*d,  tlie  (ii»enin{»sceiMof 

of  siiiritual  AUthnrity/*    Alitor  no veral  teininini-  the  Kn^liuli  rrvnluiion,  w.h*  the  wurk  of  tlia 

ry  corniiii'iiium.'i  had  mi  nndor  t!iU  act,  tlie  hi^h  government,  ami  the  rovuliitidnnrr  (wrty  con- 

coninii!«^u>n  cuurt  caino  into  existence  in  ISSS.  aistvd  of  that  iroveriiinvnt  and  it^  adhcnenta. 

A  more  urliitniry  tribunal  never  exi>te<l.  and  it  Tho  **  c<iuntry  part  v.**  ad  the  opi)o<»ition  rain« 

is  ea-y  to  !«ee  t!iat  men  »1iimiK1  fupikmo  it  c<ui1d  to  bo  calk-<I,   wa!«,  in   the  »tricte«t   ttn^  of 

tio  fHV(irc>d  only   bv   a  di^-iiotic    pi»%'erninent.  tho  word,  a  consvrvative  party;  and  if.  in  tk« 

Burloi^'h  opiH»fiod  the  i>rfK*vduro  under  it,  but,  coun«e  of  the  Um^  struggle  of  86  yenr^  it  Lad 

influent  iu!  an  lie  wa.s  his  op|H>f^iti<Hi  avaiU^d  occasional  ri^sort  to  act  si  of  an  appariiitly  rvT- 

notliing.    The  hnu«o  of  coniinonn  \va!i  hostilu  olutiunary  churacter.  it  wa-H  only  U*cau««  thej 

to  the  hi;:!i  eccle.«ia.*<ticAl  piirty,  and  the  tnno  were  necessary  to  the  «ucce«  of  tho  one  ol  ji-cl 

which  it-i  (ipiH»4ituin  t^Kik  was  not  that  of  a  it  had  in  view,  namely,  the  preserviuiun  of  liM 

aervile  b«N]y.     Yet  it  is  from  the  i»en  of  one  of  liberties  of  Knyrlantl.     In  En^rland.  &<«  uSlcrward 

Uio  Wl•^^t  of  the  bishops  that  we   have  tho  in  America,  tho  M'curity  of  lilnrrty  wad  foofid 

dearest   priM>f  of  the  nature  of  the  £n^li-«h  coinputiblo  only   with    tho   removal  of   that 

govern  mo  lit  in  the  K»th  century,  to  the  point  g<»vornment  which  hiul  nvumed  the  dr^tnic- 

thut  it  WU.H  not  arbitrary.      **Tho  repment  «»f  ti%'e  part,  and  which  would  ha%'e  orvrthrv>wa 

En^rland,**  wa  Aylmor,  after wunl   bishop  of  the  la^t  of  tho«o  con>titution«  of  which  then 

London,  **!•!  not  a  mere  monareliy.  at  H>nie  ftir  had   foniierly   l»eon  m>  many  in   Eurct{ie,  tbm 

lackofc<in«iderationthi!ik.  iioramoreoli:;arrhy,  EiipU;*!!  conMitutlon  Wxng  oidv  one  i*f  a  larft 

sor  deTn(*cr.icy,  but  a  rulo  mixed  of  all  tho^,  family  of  similar  I'olitii*^  and  the  la>t  rarvivor 

wheroiM  vat  !i  one  of  those  have  rtr  »hnuM  hnvo  of  them.    The  di\ine  right  the<iry,  which  vaa 

like  u:it!:i'r.;y.     The  imapo  wheroof.  und  n(»t  fco  zealously  preached  in  the  reicn  of  Jame^  L, 

the  imu/e  but  the  thin;;  imloeil.  i?i  t«)  l>e  K*en  in  wan  meant  to  pre|»are  the  way  for  tlie  MihjiigiF 

tho  purlianiont  hoU9<>,  whori-in  you  shall  tind  t  ion  of  tho  people,  and  for  the  concent  rat  icA  of 

thes*  tliri-e  estate^ :  the  king  or  queoii  whirh  all  p<iwer  in  the  hands  of  the  central  aixthorilj. 

repre<k'ti'.oth  the  monarchy,  tho  noblomen  which  Charles  I.  wn^  kicnt  upon  not  being  a  Vccietiaa 

be  the  url-tiK^rocv,  ami  the  burgosM.*>t  or  knights  dtve,  and  sitmc  roally  able  modem  writen  bav» 

Uie  dom<  vrii-y.    If  tlie  parliament  use  thoir  pri  v-  written  as  if  they  liefieved  there  waa  a  ckv^e  i^ 

ilege!^   tli>*  king  con  onlain   nothing  without  Si-niblanco  between  a  king  of  Enghind.  who  had 

them ;  if  he  i\*\  it  is  his  fault  in  u^uriiisi;;  it,  only  to  rule  according  to  law  ami  his  oath,  aod 

and   thr'.r  fuult  in  iK-nnitttng  it.     Whon'iiire,  tho  shadowy  phantom,  that  did  not  eron  plaj 

in  mv  jii(l,;nii.-nt,   tii«><<e   that  in  King  Ilrnry  at  ruling,  on  the  Adriatic.     A  verr  grvat  ncaa- 

Vin.  ■«  <Iav-i  wuu!d  not  grant  liim  that  hi-  pn>-  uroof  p(»wcr  has  aluMys  \tCvn  wivlded  t'*vn  by 

€!.anatliiri  ^!lMl!M  have  tlie  forre  of  a  statute,  the  moct  cnn*'tiiutiiinally  inc!ine«l  ErglUh  moo- 

wtTo   k' '  "l   fatliori  iif  tht.'   CMimtry,  ami  wiir*  an^lis,  and  ixtpuhir  foeling  has  ufU'n  (km.- n  with 

thy   cii'  I'iiL-mhition   in   dofrrwling    their  liber-  such  kingH  a^ain-t  thu  aristocracy ,  but  alwayi 

ty."    T!.!-  u;ts  written  in  iri*!'.),  thi*  l-t  year  of  on  the  condition  tliat  the  king  rulM  arrnnliBf 

Elizibitlt   iiii'l   the  7-lth   of   the   Tiidi>f   rule;  to  law.  a  fact  that  it  wan  iiii(M>v«ible  fur  Okarlaa 

and  it  i^  !:>>!  iMi«%:bIe  tliat  it  cumM   have  l>een  I.  to  compri'lK-nd.     The  contv«t  wa.*«  fur  power 

H'ritUii  li.fl  (.:  ghiiid  iNvndi-^jNitiially  governed  over  tho  i>i:rH*;  whirh  M^cureil.  |Kiwor  over  tlM 

by  tho  T  ;il«ir''.     To  tho  Mme  pi:ri»ort  are  tho  awunl  foliowod  as  of  counH\    The  S*!  |>ar!}anMBl 

ob-M  rv:it...M-i  iif  a  far  groator  wntor  of  tho  KHz-  of  Charles  I.  ji:i«'«km1  the  retitioii  of  K^hl,  m 

aUthh'i  t.r'i  •.  mailo  in  itt  b^t  day*.     *' I  cnn-  in!>»tnimont  Mi]Kriiir  to  M:iirn.iCliartA  iLK-!f.  aad 

not rhi •...•.'* -iVH  HiNikor,  *'!i';tci»r!iniond  higlily  to  whiih  the  kirg  gave  hi<  CMn«»«iJt.     In  it  art 

thi'ir  \«i>  ItiM.  by  «h<im  the  fi>u!i<!a'.ii>n  of  tlio  pointc<l  out  the  lire.ii'lie<i  that  h  id  Nhr  made  ia 

ci':M:t>(i  MsI:!!  hath  Ut  n  laid ;  «i  luroiii.  thiiUk'h  the  law,  tho  riiii«:itii:i'>nal  ri^rh?-*  o!  KnglfhinM 

no  nui'.rji  r  nf  jiir*i'n  or  oauM?  le  «ii»'ilijorl  unto  are  dool  in-tl.  ami  tho  kins  i-*  prajol  to  n:!»  W* 

tJu*  k.i..'*'  ;-«»wir,  lit  *.»  in  tho  |N»wi-r  ^^t  tlio  gaily.     Ewn  if  iht-ro  bhd  br»-n  a  i!f*]  i'tl«m  ta 

kin.;  •*!   r  h'.I  ai.  !  in  all  litnitid,  that  ii!it  i  nil  Endand  privioii-  t>i  I>*2'.i.  it  ttn;:l.t  l!.i!i  ti»haf« 

hit  pr-  •  <  •  <!.i!^*-.  tSi'  law  ii-<  If  i<i  .1  n:1f."     ilal-  ci>iik*  to  an  ii:>l.  :it><  r  kin;:  ami  p.irliai.ii'nt  had 

LiMi  ^:i-::>   :;•  !li«'  whi-l*  ^':ljl•rt  liy  Mving  that  fci'lirUinly  a^Tod  iii'"ii  tlie  tenii**  on  nliuh  th« 

t!io  Kji.):  )•  r..:.«'i;r;it.o:i  unilt-r  t)io  TiidiT"* '•  wus  giiviTniiiotit   p!ii»'^M    lliori-aftcr  !■*•  camo!  oa, 

a  n^v  .-' !..\  ..-roa'.Iy  liinitt-tl  by  law.  but  rotain-  Yet  the  ki'i;*  \  !•  ].iU*\  tho  IVtitinti  of  ]!ii;ht  is 

in.;  Ill  .<  ^  iHi-.ii-r  t)tar  ua- :11  r:di  uhitod  I0  pm-  tho  mi>«it  fl.i.'nii.;   ni.v.mr.  and  did   r.t.>:  roll  a 

nin'.i  !".■•  j"iM.'' giNi-h  iimI  ^Wlr\i^..:  riifHinMaXy  par!i.i*!irnt  f-T  11  .*i.ir*.  w*  irh  i»as  u:;prpre- 

iii!i  .1-1   ;rr.  .rnlir  v*'y.T^;  \\\i'\t\i  tliiro  »..*  im  «b'ntch     l»M:ii»::  tli.v  linie.  Enjh'\n<l  was  a*  ar- 

n  :r..  •/.  :»'!<  ••^•i.iU*  tn  1  ■•rrf«  ?.     It  may  \<e  iM*u]^  bitrar:ly  pi\in:iM!  n-  KmiM-o  by  liiohohm,  w.:h- 

th  it  l'   ■  |-r;i  'i-  .il  vx*  r  i-<'  of  an!hi»r:!v  •..fitiH  to  out  haMn^'anv  ;:!t'rv.  liki-  th:.l  >»h:i  h  !lu'hrl;oa*8 

h:i\i;  l<«n  1--  fri'tjiu  i.!ly  \i«iloii!    arid  t-j'-ri—  furotgn  jHilJi-y  w.i^  iraititi.;;  li»r  Kramo.  to  giju 

►.-»■■.  ii".  !  i'l  i-  ,:il  t.i[r.!.iti<iri4  l<rt.r  ii!:«!»  r-t.f^l,  hor  rtiaiii-*.     T!iO  n:ai  ?iiru  ry  nf  donj'-iti-m  »  aa 

in  ::.«■  ;■  '/n  i  ?"  r!.'iJ'«*!i  i!inri  f -r  «M'ir.i-  pr.  'n!-  ftiuml  t.«  Vi*  jh  rfivt  »-!!..fi  rirtnin  I  iiut^  and 

iiig  ;i/" '."'     H-  • .  ••.  w  ht-M  tho  !..  i:^'  nf  >riiart  tlnrw  !iy  r.n  nir.m*  ra-r-^w  i»ni«      Tho  jir;*ii;'^ 

•Hir.i  !-d  t  '  T:.iT  iif  T..'!-«r.  it  d.  1  i'"t  l«i    11:0  ti  •!!   of   llio  cn-irt   v(  *'ir  r!iam%'r  wa«   \cry 

tijc  1.0  m1  of  a  doj'u'.i  .iliV  guvornoi  »!ato,  Lut  great,  and  the  prv<evding«  in  that  court 


ENGLAND  179 

mere  nnmerons  and  violent  than  ihej  bad  been  tntionnl  goTcrnment.    Bat  there  were  religions 
under  the  Tudors;  and  **the  objeot  of  drawing  grievances  in  abundance,  though  so  **  thorough^* 
so  largo  a  namber  of  criminal  cases  into  the  had  been  the  repression  exerted  hy  I^ud,  that 
star  chamber  seems  to  have  been  twofold :  1,  he  could  report  to  his  master  a  most  happy  ab- 
to  inore  men's  minds  to  an  authority  more  im-  sence  of  nonconformity  in  1639,  *^  on  the  very 
mediately  connected  with  the  crown  than  the  eve  ofa  revolution,  in  which  primate  and  church, 
ordiDary  courts  of  law,  and  less  tied  down  to  and  monarch  and  monarchy,  were  to  perish  to- 
aaj  ruies  of  pleading  or  evidence ;  2,  to  eke  gether.^'    The  religious  element  had  much  to  do 
oat  a  scanty  revenue  by  penalties  and  forfeit-  with  bringing  about  the  contest  that  commenced 
iire&.    Absolntely  regardless  of  the  provision  of  in  1640.    The  4th  parliament  of  Charles  I.  met 
the  great  charter,  that  no  man  shall  be  amerced  in  April,  and  was  soon  dissolved;  and  6  months 
evea  to  the  full  extent  of  his  means,  the  conn-  later  met  the  most  memorable  parliament  that 
cillors  of  the  star  chamber  inflicted  such  fines  ever  assembled.     That  parliament  fought  the 
as  DO  court  of  justice,  even  in  the  present  re-  battle  of  the  constitution,  and  fought  it  success- 
dnced  value  of  money,' would  think  of  impos-  fully.    The  entire  machinery  of  despotism  Was 
10^^   The  cruel,  atrocious  punishments  inflicted  broken  down,  most  of  it  never  to  be  rebuilt.  The 
by  the  star  chamber  are  as  well  known  as  the  star  chamber,  the  council  of  the  north,  and  the 
sentences  passed  at  the  bloody  assizes.    The  high  commission  court  disappeared  from  £ng* 
oooDcil  of  the  north,  which  had  been  created  land,thefirsttwoforever,  and  thelasttobconly 
by  Henry  VIII.,  but  which  for  96  years  had  temporarily  revived  by  James  II.    This  would 
eomparatively  limited  powers  and  jurisdiction,  have  ended  the  quarrel  could  the  king  have  been 
was  converted  into  a  star  chamber  for  all  that  trusted.    But  to  trust  him  was  quite  out  of  the 
urtof  England  which  lies  between  Humber  and  question,  and  parliament,  to  preserve  the  free- 
Tweed.   iCentworth,  the  president  of  this  coun-  aom  of  the  country,  had  to  resort  to  measures 
dl,  contrived  to  make  it  oven  worse  than  it  would  which  were  unconstitutional,  according  to  the 
have  beea  under  the  presidency  of  any  other  letter  of  the  constitution,  but  x)erfectly  in  keep- 
man.    Proclamations  were  frequently  resorted  ing  with  its  spirit.    The  king  was  forced  to 
to,  and  were  made  to  have  the  force  of  law.  agree  that  parliament  should  not  bo  dissolved 
They  intermeddled  with  almost  every  depart-  without  its  own  consent,  which  was  an  invasion 
meat  of  life,  to  the  great  grievance  of  the  sub-  of  his.  prerogative;  and  later  it  was  resolved 
jeet.    Tet  nothing  can  be  clearer  than  their  that  no  minister  should  be  appointed  or  peer 
CDCunstitutionality ;    and  until  the  Stuart  age  created  without  the  consent  of  parliament,  and 
they  were  but  little  known.    James  I.  made  that  the  king  should  bo  made  to  resign  the  su- 
them  cotnmon,  and  his  evil  example  was  out-  premo  military  authority,  which  he  justly  held 
done  by  his  successor.    The  case  of  ship  money  to  be  the  very  flower  of  the  crown,  and  which 
has  attracted  extraordinary  attention,  which  is  was  unquestionably  one  of  its  most  ancient  at- 
in  part  due  to  the  character  of  Hampden ;  but  tributes.    This  conduct,  indefensible  on  mere 
it  was  one  then  calculated  to  excite  all  men's  technical  grounds,  was  proper  in  reference  to 
attention  in  itself,  for  it  showed  that  no  depend-  the  object  had  in  view,  which  was  to  put  an 
eace  could  be  placed  on  the  common  law  courts,  end  to  illegal  government  by  the  king,  who  had 
and  that  those  tribunals  were  nearly  as  bad  as  repeatedly  ])roved  himself  incapable  of  keeping 
the  irregular  tribunals  which  Charles,  and  Went-  his  word.     War  soon  broke  out^  and  the  king 
vorth,  and  Laud  employed  to  plunder  the  prop-  was  supported  by  a  largo  number  of  constitu- 
€ity,  to  restrict  the  liberty,  and  to  mutilate  the  tionnlist^  men  who  were  prepared  to  maintain 
persons  of  Englishmen.     "  Ship  money,"  says  the  government  as  it  wasjafter  the  early  reforms 
HaUam,  **  was  held  lawful  by  Finch  and  several  of  the  long  parliament  had  been  accomplished, 
other  judges,  not  on  the  authority  of  precedents,  but  who  dreaded  innovation.    Had  they  been 
which  must  in  their  nature  have  some  bounds,  successful,  the  constitution  would  assuredly  have 
hot  on  principles  subversive  of  any  property  or  been  destroyed,  though  nothing  was  further 
privilege    in    tlie   subject    These    paramount  from  their  intention ;  while  the  innovating  par- 
tita of  monarchy,  to  which  they  appealed  to-  ty  were  pursuing  the  only  course  that  could  lead 
day  in  justification  of  ship  money,  might  to-  to  its  preservation.    The  war  led  to  the  suspen- 
■orrow  servo  to  supersede  other  hiws,  and  main-  sion  of  the  constitution,  and  the  protectorate 
tan  new  exertions  of  despotic  power.    It  was  of  Cromwell  was  mainly  a  government  by  the 
■■niff^  by  the  whole  strain  of  the  court  law-  sword,  in  spite  of  tho  fact  that  the  protector 
y«n,  that  no  limitations  on  the  king's  authority  sincerely  wished  to  rule  as  a  constitutional  mon- 
eonld  exist  but  by  the  king's  sufferance.    This  arch.    In  1660  the  house  of  Stuart  was  restored, 
aknninff  tenet,  long  bruited  among  the  church-  but  unfortunately  without  any  thing  having  been 
■n  and  courtiers,  now  resounded  in  the  halls  done  to  secure  the  enjoyment  of  legal  rule.  Tho 
if  Jmtice.^    A  reconciliation  was  sought  with  old  polity  came  once  more  into  full  force.    Tho 
Borne,  and  Catholic  troops  were  to  bo  employed  government  was  what  it  had  been,  nominally, 
to  eoDtrol  the  Scotch  and  English.    Even  had  before  Charles  I.  and  parliament  appealed  to 
fton  been  no  religious  grievances  to  complain  the  sword,  so  that  tlio  star  chamber  and  high 
<9if  the  political  grievances  were  so  vast  and  so  commission  courts,  and  other  institutions  of 
iBkNia,  that  they  would  have  justified  a  resort  tyranny,  no  longer  had  place  in  England.    Ten- 
te  arms  on  the  part  of  all  who  cared  for  const!-  ures  by  knight  service  wero  abolished,  and  most 


180  ENGLAND 

of  tlio  M>il  of  EnplAnd  was  hoM  nn«1cr  that  restraint.    Tho  ovontfl  of  16^S-*9  remorcd  Lia 
teniin*.    Tlic  pArIi:iiiu'nt  o(  10(*i]«  whirh  lasti-U  fn»ni  the  thrtmo,  bot  a.MUe  the  din-ct  line,  am! 
down  to  l(i7'.\  wuH  fanaticully  uttachi><l  to  my*  plained  the  c'on!)iitutiononafinnba>L\  on  whirh 
aliiit  prinriiilc%  and  to  it.i  fanaticism  must  the  it  liasrvitod  without  ftcrioas  difiturbance  fur  170 
bad  gviviTnincnt  uf  Chnrlvs  II.  in  no  Mnall  do-  roars.    Tlic  (ruvcrnmi'iit  of  parliament  wa*  th«n 
grci*  U*  attribiiti'<1.     lli>«  tv\^u  U  one  of  tho  fairly  acknowledged,  and  Las  never  unce  been 
wor>t  in  EnglUh  hi*t<iryf  but  lii«  (ii>t  parliauent  called  in  question.    Even  wIr's  Genrp.'  III.,  wbo 
wan  a^  Imd  an  tlie  Ling.    Yet  in  tliat  n-ign  Acb  in  jierfimal  ciiarat'tcr  liad  much  reMriiiblaDCc  to 
wiM  d(Hie  that  liml  i»eniianent  etTect  on  the  con-  the  Siuarts,  and  who  would  Lave  b««n  a  kiof 
atitutioD.  Thedi^fien^in^  p<iwer  wajici>udenmed  after  their  |iattem  if  bo  could,  rcMilved  to  rait 
by  iwrlianientf  and  itji  illeiipility  admitted  by  tlio  a^  wvll  as  to  reign,  he  iiought  to  realize  his  ^ 
king  hiniiklf.    The  to«t  a«*t  wa.4  fia^ised.    Tho  sign  through  the  aid  of  |>arltament.  PracticaOj, 
kaUtu  corpus  art,  which  fuiiplied  a  pro|)er  hvs-  too,  parliamentary  rule  means  the  rule  of  !&• 
tern  of  |»r«j(*eduro  to  pre^Tve  the  liU  rty  of  tho  house  of  ciimmons.   The  hutise  of  peerv  occnpMt 
subject,  waM  adopte<I,  and  received  the  bupfmrt  a  high  place  in  the  Ftate.     Within  certain  nmita 
of  all  Englishmen  who  were  not  anxious  to  «*o  its  power  is  bv  no  means  small.  On  general  sa^ 
despoti»m  cMaUinhetl.    rarliunient  made  war  jcctji  it  is  at  liberty  to disttent  frotn  the  rnminciM 
or  ]»eace  at  its  ple&*iiire.     It  wud  now  obvious  but  when  the  people  are  really  determined  opoa 
Uiat  not  only  had  i>arliainent  becr^me  the  chief  carrying  a  iMilitical  measure,  the  peers  bare  to 
power  in  the  state,  but  thut  the  houtie  of  cum-  give  way,  no  matter  what  may  be  their opinioM 
mons  wari  virtually  parliament.     To  counteract  as  to  its  Justice  or  exfiediencT.     A  reniarkabli 
this,  the  king  aihtpteil  a  plan  recominendcd  by  instance  of  this  working  of  the  EnglUJi  sT«Cea 
Hir  William  Temple.     He  e rented  a  new  council,  was  seen  iu  1 832,  when  the  refonu  biU  was  fcneW 
or  extended  the  privy  cuum-il  to  30  members,  tljrough  the  upf»erhou!K\  though  it  was  note •rioai 
15  of  whom  wiTo  to  l>o  the  chief  mini^^ters,  that  a  large  m.'noriiy  of  its  inemlier^  werv  op- 
while  th«^  othcni  Were  to  Ih:  n<'hles  or  gchtle-  iNtsed  to  tlio  bill.     In  the  reign  of  William  vad 
men,  without  office,  but  of  weuUh  and  (*onMd-  3fary,andof  William  II I^  many  things  were  doot 
eration.   It  was  ex|Kvted  that  ihi'*  council  wuuld  to  settle  tho  prineiples  of  the  constitution.    Tb« 
satisfy  all  part ie?*,  but  it  suii>tied  nob«Kly,  and  declaration  of  rights  adoiiti>d  by  the  con Tentte 
failed  from  the  conimenoemeiit  of  its  eii»tence,  parliament  was  continneu  by  tlie  rt^pilar  pariiAr 
The  old  fi»nn  wa*t  stmn  rotnred.     A  tory  reac-  iiient,  soon  aAor;  and  the  act  of  ^ettlemrBti 
tion  made  the  calling  of  parliament  together  passed  in  17(M>,  contains  8  additional  articloL 
onnecensary  in  the  la>t  yean  of  Charles  II.    llij  further  limiting  the  fMiwer  of  the  cruwn,  am 
auccesMtor,  James  II.,  nut  content  with  an  amount  protei'ting  ]iopular  fn^tlom.     The  most  impor* 
of  iNtwt-r  sueh  a<<  n<i  other  t>overi-igii  nf  hU  lino  taiit  of  the^e  art:rle<i  U  tlie  7th,  by  which  jod||Cft 
hati  |MHH.-^M:d,  eiitcred  uihiu  a  citunH?  of  action  Were  to  hold  their  ^eats  during  good  iR-liavior. 
that  plitinly  hhowcd  he  had  in  \iew  tlie  tot;d  and  their  balaries  were  to  lie  a<4*ertaiiM^  ano 
ovvrthn»wof  theei»n>»:itutio!il't.thinchun*h  and  eatabliMied.     The  fir^t  mutiny  bill  wjb*  pa«se4 
state;  niul  as  his  staiifhL-<»t  tiipiNirifrs  hud  K-en  in  ir»s«j,  and  has  U'l-n  renewed  annually  ever 
churrhinen,  all  parlies  in    Kn(;lani]  were  iMMin  hi  nee,  giving  to  parliament  control  of  the  ftword. 
arruyi'd   a;:ain>»t    him.  f  xcept  a  few  C'athulies  A  triennial  lill  was  paK.«<^  in  \C**M,  but  «r(4<IH 
mill  a  ^mall  ptirticn  of  the  di-Mtite!^.     He  had  nial  iiarliamenti*  were  i-tabliAhetl  in  1717.     Aa 
ralh-d  a  parliament  imnu-iliately  uitvr  his  accis-  the  law  originally  stooil,  the  king  cuuM  kc«p 
ftion,  ami  thoutsh  it  wan  the  m4H<t,  -><'r\ilo  InHly  the  parliament   ehoi^c'n   ininie«Iiatcly  aAcr  hm 
that  had  met  for  HO  w-:tr«,  and  the  king  had  naid  Act'i><»»ion  tn  tho  throne  during  the  wlM>le  of  his 
there  ^vrv  only  4U  nuMi:U-r^  of  the  liou*<i  of  ri'ign.     Tlio  triennial  act  repi-aled  ihi*  prvrofi^ 
r«>mmi>n««  whom  he  woii!il  iii>t  haxe  named  him-  tivv,  and  the  M-ptinnial  act  ctinfirmetl  that  re 
K'lf,    he   KM»n   «}u:irrt'l!i<l    \iiih    it.     The  ends  iH*al,  while  it  extended  the  time  for  which  pv- 
whirh  lii>  ha>l  niott  ut  Itf.'irl  ui-n'.the  rv]iL'al  of  fianients  might  endure.     So  |iarliamenu  hluv* 
the  ktt^Htu  f-rpuM  a'.t,  t!>e  « -taMi-hiuent  of  a  ever,  since  that  time,  has  exl«te«l  f«ir  7  J€§ni 
stati«!iiu'  ;ir!iiv,  nu*\  th«*  rr;**-.:!  of  uU  laus  tliat  and  tltoiigh  the  motives  of  the  nM'n  wlio  rarriea 
««re  ilirirlvi  :i;::iiii*'t  t!ie i':i:!:oa>-«.     It  Hi  h:iiH  through  the  M^pti-nnial  act  weiv  UDgoorfionalijy 
p«i;e<l  tliu:  tht^*  tlirw  tlri.^H  wvre  preei-Hiy  of  a  p:irty  c!iara<>ter.  neither  thoy,  as  uir.i»tcffi^ 
tliof^»  Ktfiitli  his  own  frit mN.  tin*  tori^s  Wi-ro  nor  p:irli:mient,  iftero  guilty  of  QsurpotkHv,  tW 
le.H«t    inclined    tn  gr.iii!.     'Ihiv  Ui-re  an  murh  ri^rht  of  p:U'liument  to  pasK  ftneh  an  act  n'sflBf 
att:irhi*d  to  the  Aii^.ri  ri-r/'-  j  ml  a<.  \\\.Tv  tho  on  the  ^aJIK•  gruund  as  its  nght  to  ad<^  Mf 
iiliig<i;  thcv  aiVMiTi.itt •!  tin'  i!  1:1  of  a  i>;:i!Hling  law.      The  hkus  relating  to  trea.*«tn.  to  libd, 
army  with  the  n.ilit.irv  r^.'n'  <  (  ('ri>innill ;  and  and  tn  toKrntion,  pa«*4.-\I  in  the  \tar»  tmrar£» 
thev  MW  niin  to  tlie  th  tn  h  of  r:.i:ian«I  iu  rrlief  atilv  fuilou  tug  the  revolution,  and  »hich  b*» 
to  tho  rut]iolii*«,  ah<l  the  *•:,,'  t!ii:ip;  whieh  they  came  part  of  tlio  constitution,  »«re  grn«ralW 
]o\fl  !>«t:«r  th.in  eithi-r  nuiK^ri  !i  or  moiian*hy  of  a  liU-rTil  characttr.     At^cr  the  aorvwuo  01 
na^  t!iat  « liuri  h.     I'ltr  :!  yt^r^*  Jaim •*  carried  the  houM*  of  IlaiioVir,  an  attempt  Has  made  bf 
t*u  a  wfirfire  agnii.-t  tl  e  t-i«ii«:itu*.^  11,  reviving  a  i-ortii'ti  of  t!ie  whi^ti>fhi«etlie  h\*iiiK  t«f  pMff^ 
the  hi»'h  riiiiimi«'>i"n  fi'tirt  bv  Lis  i<\iii  oi  t.  aiiil  lii'«'rc«'  I.  g?\xr  hi'»riiiiM*i.t  to  the  ii.tnH!u>lK«si  f£ 
in  ilvlianio  «.>f  a*  t<  t^f  f'arliaii.enl,  aii'l  in  \;t:i>;:4  a  h>>l  1<>  vkhiih.  utu-r  a  few  more  rrtat:t<^\  no 
oiher  ways  »hoiiiug  Lis  utter  coLtcUi]!  of  all  aduitivtis  were  to  1%*  made  tuthe  ).-«A-ragt.    Fur 


ENQLAOT)  181 

the  18  elective  peen  of  Scotland,  25  hereditary  neatralizes  that  prerogatiye.  Ttio  money  to 
peers  were  to  be  snbstitnted.  Had  tliis  measore  pay  the  salaries  of  the  officers  lie  i4)points  mnst 
been  SQccessfn],  the  worst  conseqaence?  miist  be  voted  by  parliament.  He  cannot  alter  the 
have  flowed  from  it.  It  did  succeed  in  the  standard  of  tiie  money  which  it  is  his  privilege 
bouse  of  peers,  bnt  the  bonse  of  commons,  to  coin.  The  appointments  he  makes  are  vir- 
under  the  lead  of  Walpole,  threw  it  ont  The  taally  made  by  parliament,  the  ministers  being 
goveniment  was  strictly  parliamentary  down  only  a  committee  of  members  of  that  body,  se- 
to  the  beginning  of  the  reign  of  Greorge  HI.  lected  from  it  by  its  consent,  and  responsible 
That  monarch  attempted  to  rule  parliament,  to  it  He  is  held  to  be  incapable  of  doing 
and  did  not  desist  nntil  he  fonnd  that  his  best  wrong,  and  the  ministers  are  responsible  for  all 
chance  to  accomplish  his  purpose  would  be  that  is  done  in  his  name,  which,  whatever  its 
through  a  union  with  that  body.  The  demand  Justice  in  former  times,  is  proper  now,  the  king 
for  parliamentary  reform  commenced  in  the  being  capable  of  doing  notning,  while  his**  ad- 
time  of  the  American  revolution,  and  was  vLsers**  do  every  thing.  He  is  head  of  the 
by  the  conviction  that  began  to  prevail  church,  but  ho  cannot  alter  the  state  religion, 
_  men  of  all  classes  that  the  existing  abuses  and  should  he  become  a  Catholic  he  would  for* 

owing  to  the  vices  of  the  electoral  system,  feit  his  crown.    The  privy  council  is  appointed 

Hiid  France  remained  quiet,  the  reform  tliat  was  by  the  king,  and  is  bound  to  advise  him  to  the 

■ficompliahed  in  1832  would  probably  have  been  best  judgment  of  the  members.    With  the  ad- 

aeeomplished  a  generation  earlier.    The  French  vice  of  Uiis  body  tlio  king  can  publish  procla« 

RTolntion  had  the  effect  of  delaying  changes  mations,  provided  they  are  of  a  legal  character. 

in  En^^and  that  were  much  demanded,  as  nu-  The  council  can  inquire  into  all  offences  against 

meroos  members  of  the  house  of  commons  were  government^  and  commit  offenders  for  trial. 

ffcComed  by  peers,  or  by  rich  individual  com-  The  judicial  committee  of  the  council  is  a  court 

Boners.    The  reform  bill  of  1832,  though  it  of  appeal  in  cases  of  lunacy  and  idiocy,  and  in 

diaaged  the  construction  of  the  house  of  com-  admiralty  and  plantation  causes,  in  questions 

MNB  in  some  respects,  did  not  lessen  the  power  between  colonies,  and  all  questions  of  a  kindred 

of  that  body,  which  is  more  influential  now  character.    It  has  an  appellate  jurisdiction  over 

than  H  ever  was  before.    The  exclamation  of  all  parts  of  the  empire,  except  Great  Brit- 

XcBoebnck  in  1858 — *' The  crown  1  it  is  the  ain  and  Ireland,  in  the  lost  resort.    The  ex- 

hoow  of  commons!  ^*— expresses  in  few  words  ecutive  government  is   in  the  hands  of  the 

tlie  precise  character  of  the  government  of  the  ministry,  which  consists  of  the  leading  men 

ftidsh  empire.     The  house  of  commons  con-  of  the  dominant  i)arty.    This  has  not  always 

nts  of  654  members,  of  whom  496  are  returned  been  the  custom,   for  though  there  have  al- 

from  England  and  Wales,  105  from  Ireland,  and  ways  been  ministers,  a  ministry  was  not  form- 

8t  from  Scotland.    The  house  of  peers  consists  ed  till  after  the  revolution,  of  which  event  it 

It  present    (1859)    of  about   450    members,  was  one  of  the  consequences.    The  cabinet, 

hdaad  sends  23  representative  temporal  peers,  though  now  formed  from  the  ministry,  and 

dween  for  life,   and  4  spiritual    peers,  wlio  often  confounded  with  it,  is  not  identical  with 

■t  by  rotation  of  sessions;  and  Scotland  16  it,  and  is  indeed  much  older  than  the  ministry. 

RpKsentative  peers,   chosen  for   each  parlia-  It  originated  in  the  custom,  which  was  inevi- 

ment  by  the  nobility  of  that  country.    The  table,  of  intrusting  power  to  some  few  of  the 

others  are  English  temporal  peers,  with  the  king's  ministers.    In  the  reign  of  Charles  I.  this 

exception  of  the  2  archbishops  of  York  and  knot  of  ministers,  or  *'jnnto,"  as  they  were 

Canterbury,  and  24  bishops,  who  constitute  the  called,  were  in  the  habit  of  holding  meetings  in 

iinitnai  peerage  of  England.    The  house  of  the  cabinet  of  the  queen  consort,  Henrietta 

peers  IS  the  supremo  judicial  court  of  the  em-  Maria,  whence  the  name  came  to  have  its  pres- 

pire,  exercising  jurisdiction  in  civil  causes  upon  ent  meaning.    The  word  cabal  had  the  same 

■w>fftl«^  and  in  criminal  cases  when  brought  meaning  for  a  time,  but  the  unpopularity  of  the 

hcfee  it  by  the  house  of  commons  by  the  pro-  cabal  ministry,  in   the  reign  of  Charles  II., 

aav  of  impeachment    Peers  can  vote  by  proxy,  caused  it  to  become  so  odious  that  it  has  never 

Wt  tiba  privilege  is  not  available  when  their  since  been  employed  in  a  respectful  sense.  The 

se  ifl  in  committee.    Bills  affecting  the  peer-  cabinet,  or  ratlier  the  cabinet  council,  has  never 

nnst  originate  in  the  house  of  peers,  and  been  recognized  by  the  law,  it  has  no  legal  ex- 
be  altered  by  the  house  of  commons,  istence  now,  the  names  of  the  persons  who  com- 
eharged  with  treason  or  felony,  a  mem-  pose  it  are  never  officially  published,  and  no 

of  the  upper  house  must  be  tried  there ;  for  record  of  its  doings  is  kept.    The  difference 

r  offences,  by  the  common  courts.     The  between  the  cabinet  and  the  ministry  may, 

gives  his  verdict  upon  his  honor,  and  an-  perliaps,  be  best  stated  by  mentioning  the  com- 

j  in  the  same  way  to  bills  in  chancery;  position  of  the  existing  English  government. 

when  a  witness  in  any  of  the  courts  he  The  ministry  now  consists  of  25  persons,  but 

the  usual  oath.    The  sovereign,  in  the-  the  cabinet  has  only  13  members,  viz.:  the  first 


eiy,  is  almost  as  powerful  as  in  early  times,  but    lord  of  the  treasury,  chancellor  of  the  exche- 
ii  practioe  his  power  can  liardly  be  said  to  ex-    quer,  lord  chancellor,  president  of  the  council, 


He  can  make  war  or  peace,  but  the  con-    lord  privy  seal,  secretaries  of  state  for  the  homo 
ImI  of  the  purse  and  the  sword  by  parliament    department,  for  foreign  affairs,  for  the  colonies 


L 


CnURCU  OF  EKGLAITD 

fiir  war,  for  Inilin,  fir*i  W*\  «*f  tlio  oilmiraltr,  niKlereach.    The^  three mctropoCUn  mc4  were 

Sri'-MfMt  nf  the  Inmnl  tif  trutli*.  ami   prvsi*  Yi irk,  London,  and  anothiT,  the  name  uf  wbicii 

cut  «if  thi*  iHinrd  of  work'i.    Thi*  M-cri'tury-  had  butfii  iiiattvr  of  depute,  although  it  is  gcnvr- 

(khip  of  Imlia  N  nf    rcn-ni   rn-atiuii,  datiitf;  ally  adniitttid  that  it  waa  a  WvLth  proviocv  vidi 

onlr     frtmi     1859,     whni    Vii-tdria    biraino  iti*  seat  at  a  place  called  Cuerlvim  ii|>on  tho  L'aka, 

?uovn  of  llin«1i»taii,  and  tlio  rule  of  the  Ea^t  afterward  at  Menwia,  now  St.  David**.    At  ih* 

iidia    ri»iii|iaiij    over    that    country   ceasvd.  council  of  Arlcdi,  in  314,  Uie  archbiAbops  of 

Anion;?  the  nnni^ers  who  are  not  of  the  cubi-  these  three  HH-ti  were  prewut  oa  ponicipactiL 

Dvt   are  the   ctininiundir   of   the   forced  the  There  were  al>o  RritUh  bisdioita  in  the  cuaiicil 

iMiotiniiKter-frfrierul,  ttie  b»nl  I ieute  11:111 1  of  of  Sardica,  in  .^47.  About  the  middle  ut  tfa« 
IrehuMl,  the  cliaiicvlhir  of  t!io  duchy  of  loincas-  6tli  eeutury  t!ie  Saxons  arrived  in  Luf land,  aad 
ier«  tilt*  lunl  ^rvat  rhuiiiU-rluiii,  the  lord  .stow-  in  the  courac  of  the  century  fuUuwing  bad  not 
ord,  and  «*tlHT:«.  Thv  iHi>t  of  iirirne  niiiii>ti'r,  only  gained  the  ascendency  there,  but  had  near 
or  pri'UiiiT,  has  ^iierufly  Ik-i'Ii  held  liv  the  lirst  the  ch>iH.'  of  the  century,  iu5'J0,  to  a  very  i;rail 
loni  of  the  tr«.-aMiry  hinrr  the  acec>.<*ion  of  thu  extent  exterminated  Ch^i^tianity  also.  Anynitia 
L4>us«  (if  Ilaiiovcr.  It  wa-*  irencrully  lieM  by  came  as  a  miksitmary  from  (irvgury,  bi»bup  sf 
tlie  h>rd  trra«urvr  in  earlier  tinii-!*,  I>ut  there  Rtime,  to  convert  tlic  Saxons  to  Chrislianitj. 
La<«  bi-en  nn  >ui*liotlicvr  Mntv  1714.  TheoflitM)  Efforts  were  also  stHtn  after  made  both  froa 
base%er  since  that  date  Well  in  ron mi isksiuii.  and  Ireland  and  Scotland  to  reconvert  England  to 
It  wai  Sir  KoU-rt  Waif  Nile  who  tir^^t  attarhe<l  the  faith  which  had  been  hn^t.  The  Saxua  dom* 
the  ploi-e  of  prime  ininii^ti-r  to  that  of  fir!>t  lord  inatiou,  however,  had  uut  extended  ihruuchott 
r«»iiimiN«itinvr  (^f  the  treaMiry.  rreviou>ly  to  tlio  w«it  of  England  in  any  such  way  a%  altAjfi^ 
that  time  a  iH.*4Tvtary  nf  Mute  hud  higher  otliciul  ther  tu  abolish  the  Christian  worhliip.  Tka  tmetB 
rank  than  the  head  ot  the  ireaMiry ;  and  after  of  history  also  indicate  that  tliorv  most  have  b««a 
WaI|Mih-*s  fall,  I.«>rd  Cartcnt  (Karl  (i  ran  ville)  a  large  portion  of  the  Christ  iiiu  population  cv«o 
wao  the  prim-iiMtl  man  of  the  ministry  to  whii-h  within  the  heptarchy  itself  »till  reiuainiuf,  luora 
be  btlongitl.  and  wai  a  M-rn  tary  of  Mute.  It  especially  among  the  females,  ily  all  these  infis- 
bas  Mimetimes  hap|M*ne«I  that  f<>rri'  of  character  eni*es  combined  the  Saxons  were  kkiIi  convert* 
has  enaMvtl  a  ftei-ntary  of  htate  ti^  hv  premier  ed,  und  a  general  union  of  tlio  bvlicven  cflected. 
in  fai't  if  not  in  name,  a<i  in  the  (-hm-a  nf  thu  li\'ith  a  view  of  establishing  nniforuiity  of  doc- 
elder  I'itt,  l.«inl  ('aHtKTi-a;rh.  and  Mr. Canning;  trine  and  discipline  in  the  Briti*!!  church,  Aa* 
but  the  rule  i«,  that  the  tirht  Innl  of  the  tri-at-  gustin  held  several  conferences  with  the  VTcb^ 
Dry  i<(  premier.  The  twiMiiVn*e<t  of  lin^t  lonl  and  bishoiM,  6  or  7  in  number,  but  with  little  aoc- 
chan<-ellf)r  of  tl>e  eX('!iei|iKr  !ia\i'  Mmietimes  cess,  as  the  latter  ret un,*d  t4>  acknowledge  tbe 
biHU  lield  l-y  the  haiiie  pi Tr^'iM.  The  king  run  supremacy  of  the  bishop  tif  Home  or  tu  cunfona 
call  a  privy  riiiituillur  t*>  ll.i-  1  aMnet,  thi'iigh  to  the  Uomanrii^toniuf  «vUbruting  Easter  uDtbo 
he  holif  nil  otfii-i- ;  and  ttuiiii-iiT  im  11  liuve  >at  ill  first  Sunday  of  tiie  ]>aM'!ial  full  mcMm.  The  iSrit* 
that  NmIv  miTiS  U'*  rahir:i  t  <  •.iii.rilli.r*. — Thi^  i«h  Chri«tianN  like  thoS)  of  the  Eu^t,  kept  iho 
principal  autliiTiiie-*  for  the  hi^tnry  of  Kn gland  festival  on  tlie  :td  day  after  the  14th  of  the  Jew- 
are :  the  «  ork<ft  «.>f  Tunji-r.  TaU'rave,  K^  nible,  Uh  month  Nisan,  whatever  day  of  tin?  w  «.^k  that 
and  l4ip|K-nherg,  «>n  tlti- >:ix<>ii  liniv^;  ]lali:im*s  niiglit  Ih*.  They  rt'sembled  the  oriental**  alio  ia 
**  Eup>)H*  diiriiik'  the  Middli  .\/«-."  ami  **Con-  the  practice  of  baptibhial  imuierston.  It  iseUim- 
stitntidnal  ]Ii''(*>ry  of  Kn^'!an(] ;"  Thierrv's  cd  that  the>e  fact<4  show  that  the  bishop  of  Uumc, 
Vvu*i*trtf  tU  VAi.'jt^ttrre  yar  irt  X'trrmtmU  ;  up  to  the  year  o 'J 6.  had  J»««*ie!«*<-d  bo  autboritT 
Miv«  >:riek!and'»  "V^ru'ent  of  Kik;:I:inil;'*  the  over  the chunh  in  England. and  that  the EshtIuo 
work**  of  Stephen^  ('rea«y,  atid  liaikes  on  the  or  rather  the  KriiUh  church  wat  nndcr  uu  iliskO- 
English  con»titu!iiin  ;  the  hi-torii-^  of  England  bility,  cen-ture*  or  di'<id\aut<ige  in  rori^^-irnct 
by  Hume,  I.inganl,  Kn:;:li:.  M:ii-uiilay,  and  of  it.n  inde|H.>ndeni'v  uf  the  si-c  ctf  Kome.  iluw* 
(ntcile,  the  tj»(»  l.-ist  U'ii.gV.e\ote«l  to  '•{•ecial  e\er,  ttie  inlluencu  of  the  advucatia  of  RcBiOB 
portitin^  cif  tliat  history.  aupremai-y  pri'XaiUd,  and  in  the  coumc  i*f  a  (cv 
EN(iI..\NI>,  CiM  kill  or.  a  Protefttant  epi;**  genera!  iun.4  he«-u  red  a  con  foniti*.}  of  tlje  EngUnh 
eniial  organi/ation  e-»tuMi«htil  hv  law  an  the  •>t;ito  Christians  tti  the  d(jctrinr<  and  tuages  uf  KMXie. 
cliurrli  I  if  England  h*.A  Ireland.  It  ii  heM  l>y  The  iHtabliohment  of  nii mastic  huos^'N  cxtoii-t 
many  that  the  git^itl  wa<4  prea<  loil  in  Itrit.iiM  fn»m  h»cal  errleMa>ticiiI  juriMlictiitii  axid  xiljcit 
In  the  Ktcenturv  {<«  Si.  I*aul  himstlf  during  the  only  and  direttly  to  the  iKif<e,  in'eatly  incnaird 

Kri«H!  U-twi^'U  hi^  \<  and  2*\  iiiipriM>nment^  at  the  Unman  intluvmv,  am!  the  Sunuan  ctin^?ir«| 

Hue.     It  14  At  oil  evi  nt-  t  ertaiti  that  thegi^|ie1  hail  a  like  etfert,  althtmgh  tbe  |«'{-e  ft';iid  it  »r- 

wa«i  f'r«  achotl  there,  the  rl.urrh  fully  i«tab)i.'«he<I,  ce^^iry  to opiKi-M.*  and  re«i<*t  the  c«'nt|Ui ror, as  tbe 

and   the  iH-ttpli*  p*neraI1y,  jH-rhap^  univer^dly,  king  wa<»di*>iNrMd  to^a^jl]gatc' the  rhurvh  lt>ti« 

niLVi  rtfff  t'llhe  faith.  U'rur**  the  >axon  invasii^n.  rov al  pren>gati\e  and  n>e  it  ft>r  purjiMrt  of  »Lite 

Of  thi«i  i-.irly  [iiTii^l  in  t!ie  hi«ttirv  nf  the  Iiriii;*}!  p«ilii-y  much  further  than  it  ••uit«d  either  Ahx* 

eh'.irt  h,  li<iwevir.  wehave  m:it'!i  li*<.«t  lnf«>rmaiinu  andcr  II.  lir  hi«»  Mirer-v^ir  (ir^gory  VII.  (Uilde- 

tlian  ciiuhl  In*  th«:rii].     A*  earlv  a^  Til  t.  ttie  1*1-  brand)  to  allf»w.    The  1  oti I ro\ epkies  and  ciilSmU 

and  M'^'mt  !••  hav<-  I  i-en  *\\\  iih  d  iiit<*  three  e«'e!e-  N  twi.fn  the  c«iuquert^l  SaxnoH  and  the  c«'n  1'^*- 

aiftktii  al  prnvin<'«-<«.  earh  with  its  ii.etr«i|iilitan  or  ing  Nonnan**  continued  ti!I  tli*y  wtrv  stt*.!r«i  tv 

archbtftliop,  and  of  courw  with  several  bijdio|is  thvoccvaMoUuf  ileury  LaudMatddaof>x*ilaad^ 


CHUfiOn  OF  ENGLAND  188 

and  a{\er  that  the  qnarrds  between  the  king  and  exempted  from  all  other ;  the  right  to  summon 
hUhnrouf^endingin  the  resignation  of  his  crown  convocations,  approve  or  reject  canons,  and 
bj  John  into  the  hands  of  the  pope,  to  be  re*  hear  appeals  from  the  bishops,  was  vested  in 
eeived  back  by  him  and  ever  after  to  be  held  by  the  king  alone,  and  sentence  of  deposition  was 
an  annual  payment  to  the  pope,  served  to  increase  passed  upon  Gampeggio  and  Ghinucci,  bishops 
the  papal  influence  in  England.  From  this  period  of  Salisbury  and  Worcester.  Though  now 
untu  the  great  reformation  the  ecclesiastical  his-  honored  with  the  title  of  supremo  head  of, 
tory  of  England,  though  marked  by  occasional  the  church  on  earth,  Ilenry  contemplated  no 
diftorbances  and  protests  against  the  papal  an-  change  in  the  doctrines  of  the  old  church,  and 
thority,  has  few  features  of  general  imix)rtance.  no  setting  up  of  a  rival  community.  Indeed,  it 
Bat  aboat  the  time  when  the  preaching  of  was  not  until  80  years  or  more  after  these  steps 
Lather  and  his  followers  was  arousing  G«r-  that  the  Roman  Catholics  and  tlie  reformers 
many,  Henry  VIIL  undertook  to  set  aside  the  were  looked  upon  as  separate  bodies,  or  had  a 
pope's  supremacy  in  England.  Henry  had  mar-  separate  ministry  and  separate  places  of  wor- 
ried Catharine  of  Aragon,  the  widow  of  his  de-  ship.  Throughout  Henry ^s  reign  much  less  was 
eeiaed  brother  Arthur,  but  on  falling  in  love  done  toward  a  change  in  creed  or  ritual  than  dur- 
with  Anne  Boleyn,  he  began  to  question  the  ingtheshort  reign  of  his  son,  Edward  VI.  The 
legality  of  his  marriage.  Anxious  to  prepare  fundamental  principle  avowed  from  the  first  to 
i&  way  for  a  union  with  Anne,  he  requested  the  last,  however,  was  that,  beside  retaining 
the  pope  to  declare  his  marriage  with  Catha-  the  ministry  and  the  creeds  of  the  primitive 
line  nnll  ah  initio^  or  to  grant  a  divorce ;  but  church,  they  must  in  all  points  of  doctrine  and 
hb  request  not  being  complied  with,  he  refer-  discipline  also  accept  its  authority.  In  this 
nd  the  matter,  by  the  advice  of  Thomas  Cran-  view  the  offices  of  devotion  were  expurgated 
mer,  who  now  began  to  rise  into  notice,  to  his  of  what  were  deemed  errors  and  innovations, 
own  clergy  and  univendties,  among  whom,  as  well  and  translated  into  English  (having  been  pre- 
ai  at  the  seats  of  learning  in  foreign  countries,  viously  used  in  the  Latin  language),  and  brought 
he  £d  not  foil  to  find  some  who  answered  ac-  together  as  a  "  Book  of  Common  Prayer  and 
cording  to  his  wishes.  Fortified  by  these  opin-  Administration  of  the  Sacraments.'^  Ilomilies 
ions,  Granmer,  who  had  been  raised  to  the  wore  prepared  to  be  read  in  all  the  churches 
irdibbhoprio  of  Canterbury,  procldmed  the  for  the  instruction  of  the  people;  the  Bible 
king's  marriage  with  Catharine  void,  and  con*  also  was  translated,  and  not  only  read  in  pub- 
firmed  his  alliance  with  Anne  Boleyn,  whom  he  lie  worship  by  the  clergy,  but  copies  were, 
bid  privately  wedded  a  few  months  before,  placed  at  the  public  expense  in  the  churches, 
T!ie  po[)e  threatened  Henry  with  the  heaviest  where  they  were  accessible  at  all  times,  ex- 
eeB!<ares  if  he  did  not  take  back  his  legal  wife,  cept  during  the  hours  of  public  service ;  and, 
Imt  Henry  resolved  to  separate  from  the  church  of  finally,  articles  of  religion  were  agreed  upon, 
Rome  rather  than  restrain  his  passion,  and  meos-  now  known  as  the  *^  XXXIX.  Articles,^'  and 
ares  were  at  once  taken  to  subject  the  clergy  of  were  published  as  indicative  of  the  extent  to 
Che  kingdom  exclusively  to  the  crown.  A  blow  which  the  church  of  England  had  departed 
had  already  been  struck  at  the  old  ecclesiastical  from  the  belief  and  usages  that  had  prevailed 
fTstem  by  the  indictment  of  the  English  clergy  in  England  before  the  reformation,  and  still 
ia  1531  for  supporting  Wolsey  in  his  powers  as  prevailed  in  the  churches  that  were  obe- 
legate  before  receiving  the  royal  sanction ;  and  dient  to  Rome  on  the  continent  On  the 
in  the  convocation  held  immediately  after,  in  death  of  Edward  VI.,  Mary,  daughter  of  Henry 
which  a  sum  of  money  was  voted  to  the  crown  VI II.  and  Catharine  of  Aracon,  Henry's  first 
by  way  of  buying  immuiiity  from  the  conse-  wife,  ascended  the  throne,  ohe  was  a  devout 
qvencc^  of  conviction  ou  this  charge,  the  king  adherent  of  the  papal  authority,  and  set  herself 
waa  acknowledged  to  be  ''  the  one  protector  to  secure  its  recognition  in  England.  To  pro- 
of the  English  church,  its  only  and  supreme  pare  the  way  for  the  realization  of  her  object, 
lord,  and,  as  far  as  might  be  by  the  law  of  an  important  change  was  made  in  the  house 
Christ,  its  supreme  head."  By  the  same  asscm-  of  bishops.  Some  wore  declared  to  be  no 
Uase  his  marria^re  with  Catharine  was  declared  bishops,  because  they  were  married  men ;  some 
■■1^  and  in  1533  the  parliament  passed  an  were  deprived  of  their  sees  because  they  had 
Mft  against  paying  to  the  pope  the  annates,  or  been  appointed  to  them  only  during  the  good 
year's  revenue  of  all  bishoprics  that  fell  vacant,  pleasure  of  the  king.  Five  were  condemned 
wUch  had  formerly  been  paid  to  Rome  as  a  and  burned  at  the  stake  for  the  part  they  had 
tax  on  bulls  issued  it)  new  prelates.  At  the  taken  in  the  reformation.  Thus  under  Mary's 
Mine  time  it  was  ordained  that  no  regard  rule  the  state  again  became  Catholic,  but  in 
■honld  be  paid  to  censures  which  the  pope  about  5  years  she  died,  and  was  succeeded 
nigfat  pa^  on  account  of  this  law,  and  that  by  Elizabeth,  the  daughter  of  Henry  and  Anno 
mam  shonld  be  said  and  the  sacraments  ad-  Boleyn,  who  brought  back  the  reformed  faith 
■mistered  as  usual     In  1534  still  more  im-  and  usages.    The  bishops  who  had  been  de- 

portaat  measures  were  enacted.    All  pavments  prived  by  Mary,  and  had  saved  their  lives  by 

....          ..  j^^.j^       _  _            .                                       .... 


to  the  apostolic  chamber,  all  bulls  and  fleeing  from  the  country,  were  brought  back, 
ttipensations  were  abolished ;  monasteries  were  and  either  restored  to  their  own  sees  or  pro- 
ail]|)e<ied  to  royal  government  and  visitation,  and    moted  to  others  that  were  vacant.    More  than 


184  CHURCH  OF  ENGLAND 

«>ae*half  tho  English  bUhoprios  were  either  va-  was  held  at  the  Savoj  in  London,  to  reTiie  tbi 

cant  when  EIizaU«tli  came  ti)  tho  thruno,  dr  prei-  **  I{«x)k  o(  Common  I'rarer  and  Adminiftnlkm 

entljr  became  m>  without  any  act  of  her*.    Tho  of  Sacrainenttt,**  so  ai^  ii  possible  to  inclado  all 

filling  of  theiiQ  neca  gave  Iivr  at  once  a  nugority  those  who  were  inclined  to  diiaent.    Althonoh 

In  tho  councils  of  tlu)  church  who  sympathized  the  dissenters  wero  represented  hj  Baxter,  Im 

with  her,  including  among  theui  of  courfie  those  most  learned,  the  mildest,  and  the  most  modenle 

who  had  returned  to  occupy  tlieir  old  places,  of  their  number,  no  great  result  was  aeoomiJislH 

Several  of  Mary^s  bishops  chow  t<i  retire  ratlier  ed«    Tho  disseiitens  however,  develcifica  tbe 

than  to  conform.     Hut  in  a  short  time  things  fact  tliat  there  was  such  a  radical  diffcrenet 

were  reitonMl  in   tho  English  church  to  the  between  tho  English  church  and  themselTea 

oondition  in  which  they  hail  been  in  the  year  senerally  with  n*gard  to  the  fundamental  ooo- 

previout  to  tho  death  of  Edwanl  VI.    l)uring  ditions  of  salvation,  regeneration,  the  means  ct 

the  latter  part  uf  the  reign  of  Elizabeth,  aud  grace,  Justification,  ice,  that  no  nnion  couU  be 

througliciut  tho  reign  of  her  successor,  Janie%  effected  between   them,  and  no  conilnieliaa 

efforts  were  matlc  \o  alter  tho  articles  of  tho  could  fairly  bo  put  on  the  formularies  of  the 

ehnrch  of  England,  so  as  to  render  them,  if  church  by  whicii  persons  holding  the  viewe 

not  unei}ui vocally  expressive  of,  yet  entirely  entertained    by    tho  diMentera,  and    dcsylaf 

■greeablo    to,  tliu  Colvinistic    the<il(igy.     For  tho  sacramental  theory  of  the  ehnrch,  coidd 

this   pnqiose    tho    famous    Lambeth    articlea  consibtentlv  with  honesty  and  self-respect  rs* 

were  drawn  up,  and  «*ven  tho  consent  of  Whit-  main    in    her  ciimni union.    Charles    IJ.   woe 

gift,  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  was  obtaine<l  succeeded  by  his  bn>ther  James  II.,  a  RomaB 

to  their  incorijoration  into  tho  fonnuUries  and  l*atholic.    lie  sought  first  to  sccnre  ftir  his 

standards.    Tho  church,  however,  never  guvo  own  faith  a  free  toleration  in  EnghuuL  hoping; 

any  a««nt  to  those  articles.    And  when,  in  as  it  was  supikm^hI,  to  bring  the  £iirlish  chnrai 

162B,  Kin^;  Clisries  binued  his  *'  I>eclarati(>n  con*  agnin  into  confonnity  with  that  of  Kome.    Ite 

coming  Ueligion,**  and  re<{uin*d  that  t lie  XXXIX.  effort  to  do  so  was  regarded  as  uncoostitiitioul, 

articles  shouhl  be  ailhered  to  as  tho  bond  of  and  was  one  of  the  causes  of  the  king's  rieel- 

onion  and  standard  of  doctrine,  ho  required  that  ment  from  the  thn)ne.    A  portion  of  the  bkooM 

those  articles  should  be  received  and  held  in  and  clergy  who  had  been  foremost  to  rcttst  ms 

their  ordinary  st^n^e;  ^*in  tho  plain  and  full  efforts  to  Homanizo  tlio  ch arch,  stood  by  hlai 

meaning  thereof;'*  *'  in  tho  literal  and  grammat-  when  tho  dissenters  and  others  sought  to 

ieal  sen»«.**    The  Calvinists  complained  bitterly  William  of  Orange  on  the  throne  in  his 

that  this  was  a  restraint  ujion  tliom,  and  a  pro*  They  considered  themselves  bound  in 

hibitiun  of  tJioir  couMruction  of  tho  artirlea.  to  preserve  the  purity  and  integrity  of  the  chBTEh* 

We  nivntion  the;«  farts  to  show  that  while  tho  and  equally  bound  by  their  oath  of  allegiance  to 

Roman   inthulics   had  reganlisl  the   Engliitli  bo  fuitliful  to  his  inherited  right  to  the  thruos; 

church  a^  U-ing  so  fur  lVf>ti>staut  that  thoy  ccmld  and  to  that  of  his  iK»n  James  (Francis  Edward^, 

not  niiiuin  in  its  c«ininiunitin,  the  Calvini^ts  Hence  they  refuM.*d  the  oatli  of  allegiance  ta 

also,  wht'tlier  iitKt*o  inclined  to  rre^byterianisin  Willi:un,  and  iHM'aiiie  known  in  history  as  tlnr  noa- 

or  t«»  l'tingre;ralionali«m,  did   ii«»t  o»n<i:iler  it  jiin>rs.     Decide  ailhoring  tu  the  ciin»tiiatiuBal 

pos^ihU*   to  n-«*om'ilo  their  theology  with  tho  rijrhtsof  Juiiiesandhii  son, callvd  the  prvtc-ndcr. 

XXXl.X.  articles  in  what  was  then  understtNMl  they  were  al!*o  the  i>erMins  who  wer«  knuwa  as 

lo  lie  their  "  arriHttiniecl,  their  phiin  and  ^nini-  the  high  churi-linieii.  In  opp«i»ition  to  the  kiw 

matiral  n'iisc.**   After  a  fK-iMin  of  tmul'lo  under  churchnieii,  wlio  were  m»  euUvd  becanw  of  the 

the  prutet'ti irate  of  Oliver  and  Kirhard  Croru-  sympathy  in  their  gi*neral  views  witlsthoditsent- 

well.  frutii  KkVI  t4i  liifio,  the  church  wrni  ro-  ers  sad  ntmHrhurchnien.     This  state  of  tilings 

Mored  under  ('haHe4  II.  to  its  fortiier  |Mi»ition.  cnUiHul  the  high  churchmen  to  be  nti  favurilcs 

Tho  few  bivhoiM  thut  reuiaine<l,  Jtixon  of  I^*n-  witli   William   and   his  |»ulitiral   advi^rt  and 

d«in,  I'it'rre  uf  Hath  and  WelK  Skinner  of  i>x-  frientls;  a  t'eeling  iithieh  has  hwl  it^  vfffct  ever 

ford,  Wurtirr  of  Korhe^ter,  KuluTt*  of  Itunpor,  siiici'.     In  1717.  duriii|;  tho  reign  of  (ivunrv  1^ 

W*rrn  of  Ely,  I>uppa  of  Salisbury,  King  of  t'lii*  the  church,  in  ronH.HjUen(*e  of  il«  attetnpc  to  co- 

chest^T,  and  Krewen  of  Coventry  and  I.irhfieM,  fun^e  it si  discipline  U|ion  Iloadlev.  bijihitpof  llan- 

were  rr*!iired,  thou^'h  nut  all  to  the  hei>!«  they  g«ir,  and  a  favorite  with  the  kint;,  wa*  lurbiddra 

bad  held  before,  antl  the  reinaiiiing  mm-s  again  to  hold  se^iont  of  its  c^mvoeati^ius  or  to  enter 

filled ;  the  pra}er  UNik,  lemons,  ami  ritual  eanio  UfHrn  uny  legi^hitive  or  e<H*lesia«tiral  buftior««  uf 

back  into  U!*e  as  UTore  the  INiritan  aMX-ndeiiry.  a  cor]Hirate  character.    The  ci»nvo«atit>n.  ho*- 

Even  d u ring  t h«  pMt«H*tor4te.  the  chn re h.tlioii^h  ever,  cuiitinui-d  t«i  go  through  tho  fonn  of  aa 

opprp%«K'«l  and  [lerwcnUnl,  hail  c^intinui**!  her  annual  nieelinfr.  thuti^h  it  i»as  invariaUj  prt»- 

inini%tnitiiin«:  ^ueh  men  a«  SinderBon,  llsckett,  rogueii  UTore  it  could  pnicee*!  to  liU-int-Mk  and 

Bull,  Fell,  iic^  remaining  at  their  p<i«ts,  and  in  it  i^i  only  within  a  very  few  vitir^  that  i:«  \v^\l- 

the  f « rf( 'miance  of  t h eir f I ntiiMi.     Althtiugh  thev  imnte  functions  have  been  tmrtially  r^^orvvl. 

wereni»t  allow  1x1  to uAv  the e« •in mon  prayer  h4M>k  It  was  undeniable  that  lloaiiley  hail  iivt  <-cIi 

either  in  public  mini^t rations  or  privati*  devo-  doniiil  the  divino  origin  ai.d  ubligatiitr;  vf  the 

tiuas«  Nime  of  them  hail  riHiiinitt«*d  it^  r^ intents  epiiN^niial  |>iOity  of  tho  ehnn*li,  bi:t  he  had  ai^o 

lo  memory.  att«l  u«e<l  its  fonnuUries  thriititrhout.  deniiil  4»ther  of  the  fiind.inieiit«l  artirle«  ol  the 

Oo  the  Mtoratiou  of  Charles  IL  a  cunferenco  faith  as  taught  and  held  by  tho  English  eLarch. 


OHUBCH  OF  ENGLAND  185 

that  lor  example  fritli  regard  to  the  divinity  of  to  havo  not  only  a  wise  and  jndiciotis  compcnd 
Christ.  The  efS&cts  of  this  ascendency  of  what  of  doctrine  and  devotion,  but  also  one  of  the 
has  been  called  Erastianbm  in  the  chorch  were  most  effectual  of  all  possible  conservative  safe- 
iooa  felL  The  high  places  in  the  church  came  guards  for  the  faith  once  delivered  to  the 
to  be  aooj^t  by  persons  who  had  far  more  desire  saints.  The  characteristic  tenets  of  the  church 
lot  the  ioconae  and  reepeotability  of  position  of  England,  beside  the  fundamental  doctrines 
winch  thejafforded  than  lorthe  work  which  they  of  the  Trinity  and  redemption  through  the  all- 
ailed  lbr--ffiore  aDziona  in  fact  to  benefit  them*  sufiicient  atonement  once  made  for  all  by  the 
nlvei  by  a  good  living  than  the  souls  of  men  by  death  of  Christ  on  the  cross,  are  a  regencra- 
hard  work  and  spiritnal  counsel  and  guidance,  tion  or  spiritual  birth  in  baptism,  in  which  the 
A  Moeral  apathy  in  religious  matters  ensued —  baptized  becomes  a  member  of  the  church, 
braccii  by  such  distnrbances  as  the  Wesleyan  or  and  a  growth  in  grace  by  the  uso  of  the  sacra- 
Mefhodiat  movement,*and  the  rise  of  the  ovan-  ments  and  ministrations  of  the  church  duly  od- 
cdieab  of  the  school  of  Newton,  Toplady,  and  ministered  and  duly  received,  made  efficacious 
umMD,  occasioned — until  about  1880,  when  a  by  the  Word  of  divine  truth  and  the  gracious 
mofement  was  contemplated  and  actually  pro-  influences  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  freely  given  to  all 
posed,  which  it  was  earnestly  believed  and  se-  who  duly  seek  and  faithfully  use  them.  The 
riondy  feared  would  sweep  away  all  that  was  condition  of  man  after  the  fall  is  such  that  ho 
firtinetiTe  of  the  church  as  between  itself  and  con  do  nothing  acceptable  to  God  without  pre- 
thelYotcstant  dissenters.  This  fear  and  the  pros-  venting  ffrace;  good  works,  though  pleasing  to 
pact  which  it  contemplated  led  to  the  publica-  Heaven,  nave  no  power  to  put  away  sin ;  works 
tion  of  the  **  Oxford  Tracts,"  by  members  of  the  of  supererogation,  over  and  above  God^s  com- 
naiieisity  of  Oxford,  and  that  recurrence  to  the  mandments,  cannot  be  taught  without  arrogance 
principles  of  the  church  as  held  and  practised  and  impiety ;  the  church  has  power  to  decree 
Mbra  the  revolution  of  1688,  which  has  been  rites  or  ceremonies,  and  to  decide  matters  of 
dianelerized  as  '^Puseyism;**  princioles  which  faith;  the  Roman  Catholic  doctrines  of  pur- 
hid  for  A  time  nearly  died  out  with  tne  non-Jn-  gatory,  invocation  of  saints,  and  respect  to  rel- 
fon.— In  the  foregoing  review  of  the  history  ics  and  images,  are  rejected ;  clergymen  are  al- 
of  the  chorch  of  England  wo  have  aimed  at  the  lowed  to  marry ;  and  communion  is  to  be  given 
twefidd  purpose  of  (1)  presenting  an  outline  of  in  both  kinds.  The  number  of  sacraments  is 
in  history,  and  (2)  showing  from  thb  history  two,  baptism  and  the  Lord's  supper.  Three 
both  its  ecclesiastical  and  its  doctrinal  position,  clerical  orders  are  recognized,  bishops,  priests, 
Eedesiastically,  it  claims  to  be  the  perpetua-  and  deacons,  the  first  deriving  tlicir  office  in 
tioa  and  legitimate  heir  and  representative  of  direct  succession  from  the  apostles  by  episcopal 
the  chnrch  rounded  in  England  before  the  Sax^  consecration,  and  the  others  receiving  ordina- 
OB  invasion,  before  tho  Norman  conquest,  before  tion  at  the  liands  of  a  bishop.  Those  of  tho 
the  reformation.  The  English  claim  tliat  they  second  order  are  entitled  archdeacons,  deans, 
had  a  perfect  right  to  r^ect  the  papal  authority,  rectors,  vicars,  or  curates,  according  to  their 
iaasmnch  as  (1)  it  was  not  given  by  any  direct  functions.  A  reader  is  a  layman  licensed  by 
divine  institution  or  appointment  witnessed  or  the  bishop  to  read  in  a  church  or  chapel  where 
testified  to  in  the  Holy  Scriptures ;  (2)  its  claims  there  is  no  clergyman.  Parson  signifies  a  clergy- 
fromthe  first  were  in  contravention  of  the  most  man  in  possession  of  a  parochial  church. — ^Tho 
nered  canons  of  the  universal  church ;  and  (3)  church  of  England  is  divided  into  2  provinces, 
the  &oc)ntinnanco  of  any  submission  that  there  Canterbury  and  York,  witli  an  archbishop  in 
nay  have  previously  been  to  the  see  of  Rome  each,  and  under  these  26  bishops.  The  dioceses 
had  at  the  time  of  tho  reformation  become  in-  are  much  too  large,  and  a  gradual  reduction  in 
&pensable  to  the  purity  of  religion,  the  best  their  size  by  divisions  is  being  effected.  Be- 
faiterests  of  the  chnrch,  and  the  spiritual  welfare  side  these  are  32  bishops  in  the  English  colonial 
if  the  people ;  so  that  if  it  were  forrahlly  and  in  dependencies,  with  a  number  of  clergy  amount- 
tEtemai  appearance  a  schism  (which  ih'^v  of  ing  in  all,  at  home  and  in  tho  colonies,  to  about 
eoone  do  not  admit),  it  was  nevertheless  not  20,000.  The  dioceses  of  Ripon  and  Manchester, 
flB^y  Jostifiable,  but  necessary.  Doctrinally  the  in  the  province  of  York,  were  created  in  the 
wrch  of  England  claims  to  be  based  on  the  reigns  of  William  IV.  and  Victoria;  and  the  sees 
Hoij  Scripture<s  aa  interpreted  in  the  Apostles'  of  Gloucester  and  Bristol,  in  tho  province  of 
■d  other  ancient  creeds  of  the  church  that  Canterbury,  have  been  united.  The  bishop  of 
hare  been  nniversally  received,  and  to  have  kept  Sodor  and  Man  does  not  sit  in  parliament. 
henelf  aloof  from  all  the  modern  systems  of  Tho  otJiers  constitute  the  si>iritual  peerage  of 
Mthj  whether  of  Calvin,  or  Luther,  or  Ar-  England^,  and  are  in  theory  appointed  by  the 
iHuiia,  leaving  her  members  free  to  enjoy  their  crown,  in\fact  by  tho  ministry.  Next  to  the 
•vn  opinions  on  all  points  not  represented  in  archbishops  rank  the  bishoi)s  of  London,  Dur- 
tta  Scriptures  as  necessary  to  the  souPs  health,  ham,  and  Winchester,  and  the  others  take  rank 
■d  refiulng  to  be  narrowed  down  to  any  other  according  toy  the  date  of  tlieir  consecration. 
cnad  or  creeds  than  those  of  the  apostles  and  The  revenues \of  the  church  of  England  are 
the  primitive  church.  She  claims  also  to  have  often  represenM^.A*'!  an  endowment  from  the 
Rtamcd  all  that  is  essential  to  church  organ-  state — a  tax  levied:  ^^d  collected  by  parlia- 
in  her  episcopate,  and  in  her  liturgy  ment  for  the  suppo^rt  of  an  institution  for 


i 


186  ENGLAND  CLAXorAos  avd  LmsATm) 

wliirh  niAiiT  of  tlio  people  have  no  choice  or  EXGI^ND,  LANorAOK  and 
ri'^inl :  hut  tli'H  i«  a  luioiuke.  At  the  time  of  The  £ngli»h  is  eiuiiKiiily  a  mtiiptitoite  langiiaK% 
tlio  rt- tun  nut  lull  lu-urly  if  not  <]iiite  one-fit\h  of  madenp  uf  contrihutiuuH  from  oth«*r  InnpiufCiL 
all  the  pro|K.Tt3r  in  the  rt-alni,  Inith  real  and  It  derives  its  origin  from  the  Celtic,  Uie' 
|K-pMinuI,  wa^  in  the  |Hl^!^.•s»tilln  (»f  the  chnrch  the  Anglo-Saxon,  the  Daniiih,  the  N< 
and  crelf^iri^tiral  {KTMinH,  and  hvld  hy  them  French,  and  84)me  others.  For  the  inTCfti^ 
for  their  own  |K.TMinal  Mip|M>rt,  and  for  pur*  of  this  suhjort  there  are  two  modci^  One  of 
|Ni«i«  of  rliarity  and  rilipi*n.  Much  of  this  these  is  linguiHtic,  and  is  more  strictly  phflologi- 
fuiiM«t«d  iu  n-al  eotuti*  whiih  hud  iHtn  givi-n  col.  The  affinities  and  diversities  of  the  variooi 
in  t^u^t  til  tho  f  liuti'h,  or  to  h|»i>citic  pur-  w«irds  in  the  langnage  furnish  what  may  bo 
po«iv%  in  t)ie  ihiirch;  nimh  of  it  consisted  in  called  the  internal  evidence  of  the  several 
titlii.4  uhi>  h  Imd  Ikhu  (rruntetl  the  church,  and  sources  from  which  the  vocahulary  and  the ooA- 
werv  thim  uii  iMiruinhranrvon  tliepro|K>rty  asii  strnctious  were  derived.  The  other  mode  cC 
|ia.*<otil  fp mi  then untTu ho gr:inte«l  tliosi*  tithes  research,  which  is  ethnological,  and  whick 
to  hi:*  hiirs  and  |K»otirity.  Of  the  property  furnishes  the  external  evidence  JTrum  the  hie* 
thi-n  in  |Mi-xo^i«in  of  the  rhurrh,  a  large  part  tory  and  migration  of  nations,  often  ctiiiductsto 
wa.4  tulkcn  into  the  ri»yal  cxrhi'ipUT,  a  large  the  same  conclusions  with  tiielingiiii»t ic  method, 
part  wuH  givi-n  to  royul  favoritc-i,  and  enrirlicd  ^Vhen,  fur  instance,  we  hear  of  a  stream  calM 
many  a  pi-niiili-s'«  tuiiiily,  thus  placing  thcni  Watts  bffl'vattr^  and  kiHtw  that  each  of  tho 
ani'Mi;:  tlie  iii;igiiati*4  i^f  tlie  land.  The  entAtvs  3  words  of  which  the  whole  W(»rd  i^  made  ap 
of  the  dulkc  of  lk-<lford  arv  of  this  kind,  liut  signifies  **  water,^*  the  fir!«t  in  the  Celtic,  the  tee- 
the pn-^i-nt  revi-nue?i  of  the  Kngli>h  church  are  ond  in  tho  (lerman,  and  the  third  in  the  Eof* 
only  u  hat  rtinain  to  it  ot'  tlu-  prii|>i*rty  which  the  li»h,  we  recf»gnize  3  changes  of  inhahitxmiOi  to 
chun-li  lu-Id  i:i)d(  r  tht*  old  Mute  of  things;  and  whom  the  former  name  saccessivtly  luet  its  si^ 
the  only  agi'iicy  of  the  state  or  the  parliament  nificance.  This  is  internal  evidence.  We  akii 
in  the  matter  ntay  Unstated  in  general  tennn  to  ki:«iw  from  history  that  the  CvIIa.  the  tfaxou^ 
be  merely  the  enium-inent  of  the  rights  of  pnip-  and  the  £ngli»h  have  huccessively  i-cvuj 'u'd  ibo 
erty  which  uri;:iuated  iLsalMivedeM'rilii'tl.  It  is  territory  where  that  stream  is  found.  Thia  ii 
indeeti  true  tliat  in  c-iinsii|Uence  of  the  great  external  evidence.  ]i«>thkindsof  e\idenreintUa 
change^  in  the  value  of  pro|ii'rty  in  so  many  ca.«e  condui*t  us  towani  the  concluMun  that  tbo 
vear^  t  lie  re  i<«  a  great  disparity  in  the  incomes  uf  Celts  and  Saxons  Ci)ntribute<1  materials  tu  the  fal^ 
the  cl«-rgy.  ( Mher  raUM-s  have  alM>  contributed  mat  ion  of  the  langm^:e. —  7'hf  i  ^rlttr  tlfwttmL  h 
to  thi«  result :  and  within  u  few  }  earn  post  a  move-  the  Engli^i  vocabulary  are  found  basket,  fnm 
lUi-nt  liaH  U'l-n  ^et  on  fiNit  to  remedy  this  defect,  the  Celtic  hasgo^a  ;  cobble,  from  ffuUtl ;  B^ai* 
Anei-<  ll•MaMil'aIl-•>nMni^'>i<•nhu'«lM.•enap|lointe<l,  tock,  fnuu  mattttf  ;  pail,  from  tNi/<»/,'  mi4d  other 
an*!  MiiiH  a}i|ir«'ai  h  niaile  tiiUard  conviTting  tho  words  of  a  like  derivation.  Sl<>reo\ir.  a  larpa 
iiii-fiiii  i'f  tiii*  rhiirrh  inioaronniion  fund,  « ith  a  part  uf  the  name^  of  the  niountaitA  lakes  aM 
di^tri'iititin  !•>  U*  maile  acfordiii;;  to  the  wants  rivers  in  the  iSrit'.sh  i<>le4  are  signit'.tant  i*t.Iy  te 
and  iii'i-i -^itii"*  of  rat  !i  ollice.  The  average  in-  luuno  Celtic  dialect.  Ihei'eliii  w^-re  \eryrar|j 
I  (iiiii-oftli«*rIiTL'>.not\i  ithMnnding  tlielarge  in-  inhabitants  of  Hritain.  Tliey  eii.igrated  froaa 
ii  Hill- 1  if-^tiniei  if  I  lie -•  «».u"»  Willi  lii-tiT.  Canter-  ceiitral  Asia  in  the  early  age**  of  the  wttrld  to* 
1-:!!^.  ami  Li-iiilon,  i-*  lt«<«  than  i,'4o*)  |i«*r  iuinuni;  ward  the  wt-M.  Tliey  «vre  probably  prt-sM-dos* 
a::*!  I'lfaUiut  ihru -roiirili«iof  (iKiiiit-aturugi*  is  ward  hy  other  tri I •!•!•.  until  tliey  re »<-!.« <1  the  At* 
h  '>tt!i:iii  i,'lo(».  In  a  Uw  ea«4--i  it  i-*oiiI\  Jt'ln  ;  in  luntti' m'ean  and  pas>edo^cr  the  Kiii:li*h  rl.aaMl 
ot!uT^  It  ri:t<  lii-a*  lii^'h  a«  17. •'•■'<>.  1  lie  total  in-  inti»(freat  Kritain.     Their  d^-n-t  i.dniiT*  are  fttifl 

c'o:i t  tli«-i-)Miri-lii-ulNiiit  i.''i.r*Mii.(HHi, andi«de-  fifund  in  Walit  ntid  in  Corm^all.  a«  w«-ll  as  ■ 

ri\i  >1  tri'Ci  t:llii%  laiiiU.i  liuri  h  rates.  |>t-w  reiits  Ireland,  in  the    })tghl.nnd«  ol  So:!ai:d.  in  tfao 

K.t«ti  riiiriTlni^'N  and  ^iirpliei-  \\\-.     In  KA  the  ioleofMan.  snd  in  lirittany  in  Fr:ifi«e.   t^fiVhia 

til)ir«  MiTf  i  I'liviTti  d  iiitiirifit  rliargi'x.  pa>uMe  woriN  the  jr.iigli*h  lanirunge  h»«  f«  h  ;  «-f  CcMi 

ininohiy.   From  l^'ui  n  Anne'- liouniy  (»o tailed  cunMrwrtion*.  noni-. —  7'he  Lu^in  tUi>*f%t.     Is 

Imimiim-  tlint  *M\iri-i;:n  grant«-il  the  prmlure  of  the  Knu'lish  \iH-ahnlary  are  fmir:*!  sIrtAl,  froaa 

fr^t  friii!<  and  l«  niii-.  fi*rNirri.«  Miit  totht-  |'o|k-,  the  IjUiii  f'r•l^l  ;  nin«ti  r.  from  vui-/istrr ;  PtaU^ 

but  f roll  I  I  ht'  irt'i>r!ri.it:oii  tn  hi  T  tiMte  paid  ti>  fr«<ni  «/•!'•/«  ;  April,  tVitin  «li'ri/t«  ,*  au<I    ussuf 

the  iiionari  I:,   "r'<ir   tli*.*    iiii^iiieiilalion    of   The  i»lher   >%<<ril<%    ot    a  liki-  dert^atitai.     The    R^ 

inaintt  iiHiii  r  I'f  t!.f  p«Hfr  i  h  r;:>")  thfre  it  an-  niaii^   uiuli  r  J(:Ii(t«   C(p»nr    intaihd    Englaa^ 

nuall}  \K\.*\  i!(.*Mi*i  !>i  :!ii-  h«*liii  ft  of  •.Miall  li^-  ^-'i  It.  (  ..  and  alNTward   und«-r  A,;rtr«4a  rt«a* 

ir:;:« :  ai.d  •^iim:!  tr  <Ii-{Mi«:tion  i«  tiiadf  of  other  ph  !t  d    the  ioiiijiu-*t  <>f  the  ei'Ui'.irv     R* 

1.1  W    .'I 


i:iii!:f^  »  ffi'iji  1 1 1  !•  *M*f  1'  d  toiirif*.     The  ni:iii-  l.iw  and  inagi-'iraeifi  »tre  i'\»ri»lnre 

li  r  of  ].!.iri «  t.f  Mi<r»!i.p  i-f  th«*   e«tahii»hetl  l>hiil.  aii«l  the  Christian   rtlv*i*>n   «a«  i&tro* 

chlirihili    Kl./!.ilti|.   \V.iM-.  alid   the   i>!aniit    uf  dlir«tl  b\   thoM'  W  ho  olNiki*  th«    I^i'in    Ian] 

t.'.<-    Mriv-ii   ^  I-..    Ill    l**.'!.  WA*   I'l.  |:il,   havi'i;;  It   i^hould.    hi>w«-\«T,    i>e  Matiil  thai  tic 

»liiii..'*  1 -r  *' «-:**.'«4'(   {H-r-'iit.-      In  lite   Vnitt-d  wonUin  the  laiiL'n:ige  w«  n-  ii>>l.  fi>r  tl.v  Bj 

fi!.i!i»   tIm-  »<!!■!  ri  :i!«i   to  tfif   th**  triiir^  of  the  part.  intriN!iir«il  tbiriiig  the  r>oo  ]i«  ar«  iS^at  tbo 

t  huri  h  •!   II' /!.iiid  areialli-d  l'ri>T<  *'taiit  V.\r.%-  h>'iran«  hud  ]'o«««'«>«!<im  of   Tirttu'ti.  l-ul   mfitt* 

r-.|-;i!:.ii  •.        i  ■*.  f    FriMuJ'AL    C  li:  IK  II    IN"    TllK  w  :i-il,  w  h»le  Alvl"  Sal««li*   iN-n*   ^»AV.<rLsScr 

I'.MXLb  >iAi^'*.)  iiul.     A  large  numU>r  ot  Laiiu  words  vcr«  »• 


ENGLAND  (Ljlvouaox  ajsd  Lrksatubs)  187 

trodnoed  bj  monks  And  learned  men,  relating  Enj^iono,  the  regions  most  exposed  to  Danish 
to  theology  and  science  in  general.    Words  of  Tisitation. — 7%«  Anglo-Xorman  element.     An 
I^in  origin  constitnte  a  very  important  part  etymological  analysis  of  the  language  sboiii's 
of  the  language,  whether  introduced  directly  that  the  Anglo-Norman  element  enters  very 
from  the  Latin  or  through  the  Norman  French,  lorgely  into  its  compositicm.      This  element, 
The  following  is  the  development  of  the  Latin  which  is  composed  of  the  Celtic,  the  Latin,  and 
portion  of  the  language :  1,  stem  verhs,  or  roots,  the  Scandinavian,  was  first  introduced  (1066) 
as  bib^  carp,  eede^  urge  ;  2,  stem  ac^ectives,  as  by  the  Nonnans,  under  William  the  Conqueror. 
\lamdy  bruU,  brec  (short) ;  8,  stem  substantives,  Norman  French  was  spoken  by  tlio  superior 
as  mwc,  barb  ;  4,  primary  derivatives,  asjinaly  classes  of  society  in  England  from  the  connuest 
fmet0r;  5,  secondary  derivatives,  as  valuabUj  to  tbe  time  of  Edward  III.  (1327).    The  laws 
mtderaU  ;  0,  derivative  words  with  prefixes,  as  of  tho  realm,  the  proceedings  in  parliament 
aftade,  aUude;  7,  compound  words,  such  as  and  in  courts  of  Justice,  were    in  that  lan- 
Utpard, — The  Anglo-Saxon  element.    Whetb-  guogc.    In  the  1 8th  century,  during  tbe  progrcs- 
cr  we  take  into  view  the  number  or  the  sorts  tive  mixture  of  the  two  races,  a  literature  sprang 
cf  words,  the  Anglo-Saxon  is  less  an  element  up  in  which  tbe  two  languages  were  more  or 
ttaa  the  mother  tongue  of  the  English.    In  the  less  mixed  together.    In  the  14th  century  tho 
En^ish  language  there  are  as  many  iks  23,000  Anglo-Saxon  i>rinciple  seemed  to  have  gained 
woHa  of  Anglo-Saxon  origin.    About  ]  of  the  the  upper  hand.  In  the  15th  century  tbe  Anglo- 
words  in  actual  use  are  from  this  source.    The  Norman  clement  seemed  to  be  gaining  t!i6  pro- 
of the  greater  part  of  the  objects  of  na-  ponderanco ;  but  the  proportions  still  continued 
«if  A,  moon,  dajf;  all  those  words  which  to  vary  until  it  became  fixed  in  the  ago  of  Queen 
bodily  action,  as  to  $tand  to  stagger;  all  Elizabeth.    Words  were  generally  adopted  into 
words  which  are  expressive  of  the*earliest  the  common  language  from  the  Anglo-Norman 
«d  dearest  connections,  2a  father,  mother^  hro-  or  the  Anglo-Saxon,  according  as  the  objects  or 
dir,  Bitter^  are  Anglo-Saxon.    Most  of  those  ideas  expressed  by  those  words  belonged  more 
•Ijeets  about  which  the  practical  reason  is  em-  exclusively  to  one  race  or  the  other.    Thus  tho 
ployed  in  common  life,  nearly  all  English  pro-  names  of  common  articles  of  dress  are  Anglo- 
aoaas,  a  large  proportion  of  the  language  oi  in-  Saxon,  as  $hirt,  breeches,  hose,  shocSy  hat,  cloak; 
TCctire,  hamor,  satire,  and  colloquial  pleasantry,  but  other  articles  subject  to  changes  of  fashion 
mt  Anglo-Saxon.     English  grammar  is  almost  oro  Anglo-Norman,  as  gown,  coat,  loots,  man* 
aefaisivelT  occupied  with  what  is  of  Anglo-  tie,  cap,  bonnet.    The  word  house,  a  common 
8txon  origin.     The  English  genitive,  the  gen-  residence,  is  Anglo-Saxon ;  but  palaces,  castles^ 
enl  mode  of  fonning  the  plural  of  nouns,  and  manors,  and  mansions  are  Anglo-Norman.  Tho 
the  terminations  by  which  we  express  tho  com-  names  ox,  colt,  sheep, pig,  boar,  are  Anglo-Saxon, 
ftrative  and  the  superlative  of  adjectives  {er  because  that  part  of  the  population  were  cn- 
nd  est\  tho  inflections  of  the  pronouns  and  of  gaged  in  tending  those  animals  whilo  they  wero 
tbe  Terba,  an<l  tho  most  frequent  termination  living;  \iJii  beef,  veal,  mutton, porl',T€ni»on,vsii 
tf  adverbs  {ly),  are  all  Anglo-Saxon;   so  are  Anglo-Norman  names,  because  tliat  part  of  tho 
Ihe  aoxiliary  verbs.     In  fact^  tho  Anglo-Sax-  population  were  accustomed  to  eat  their  flesh 
m  imparted  so  much  of  itself  to  tho  language,  when  they  wero  killed.    Tho  natural  dovelop- 
thil  the  proximate  origin  of  the  English  Ian-  ment  of  tbe  Anglo-Norman  or  Romanic  portion 
is  to  be  sought  in  Gennany,  and  its  re-  of  the  language  is  nearly  as  follows :  1,  verbal 
origin   is  to  bo  sought  in  central  Asia,  roots  in  English,  as  boil,  cay  in  decay,  ceite  in 
was  spoken  tho  primitive  tongue  which  conceive,  pound,  touch;  2,  stem  adjectives,  as 
be  regarded  as  tho  parent  of  tho  afliliated  chaste,  clear;  8,  stem  substantives,  as  beaut,  d:o. ; 
iropean  languages,  spoken  by  tho  sue-  4,  derivative  words  with  suffixes,  as  flourish^ 
re  tribes  which  migrated  westward  into  authorize,  tolunteer,  arabesque,  plumage,  jour- 
e.    The  natural.development  of  tho  Anglo-  nal,  service,  fashion;  5,  derivative  words  with 
portion  of  our  language  has  been  nearly  prefixes,  as  avouch,  antechamber,  countermark; 
ifiiUows:  1,  instinctive  forms  and  pronominal  6,  Romanic  compounds,  bs portfolio,  tcardrohe; 
Menta*  as  ah,  oh;  2,  stem  words  or  roots,  as  7,  disguised  Romanic  words,  as  biscuit,  bachelor^ 
ntim  ;   Z,  stem  noxins,  as  blank,  band;  4,  proctor,  curfew.    Tho  common  statement  is, 
wiiplic nte  forms,   as  chit-chat,  sing-song  ;  5,  that  Anglo-Saxon  was  converted  into  English: 
derivatives,  as  chatter,   toilsome  ;  6^  1,  by  contracting  and  otherwise  modifying  the 
derivatives,  as  carefully,   tiresome-  pronunciation  and  orthography  of  words;  2,  by 
r;  7,  words  with  prefixes,  as  arise,  forbid;  omitting    many  inflections,  especially  of  tho 
%  eompoand  words,  as  god-man,  pick-purse  ;  noun,  and  consequently  making  more  use  of  ar- 
^  fiigaised   compounds  and   derivatives,    as  tides  and  auxiliaries;  3,  by  the  introduction  of 
mSmfMiOt. — T%s  banish  element.    Many  hnn-  French  derivatives;  4,  by  using  less  inversion 
fail  of  words  in  tlio  language,  esi>ccially  those  and  ellipsis,  especially  in  poetry. — Beside  tbe 
the  names  of  places,  are  Danish,  intro-  languages  already  mentioned  which  have  con- 
dnring  the  incursions  and  occupation  of  tributed  to  tbe  composition  of  the  English,  se^^^s 
by  the  Danes.    A  portion  of  those  end  others,  and  especially  the  Greek,  sbire  on 
■6  indeed  provincial,  being   confined  also  bo  mentioned:    1,  Greek  verbal  ro<oeccle- 
li  tha  northern  and  north-eastern  counties  of  arc?^  in  archetype,  grap\  in  graphic ;  ^  extraor* 


188  £XGLAKD  (Laxocaob  axd  LmsATim) 

Mom  a41jcctiro^  aa  2ia/,l»caiuiA]Kinra]Ii;n'AphT,  wonLi.**  Anotliorcanwof  thenntationtwelavt 
^ypK  '*  ItitMvii,**  ill  Bb«>cr}'|ihtt ;  3,  (liwk  hU-tu  rvforrcd  to  U  that  tlio  piirtmits  uf  tiie  v«H'*H 
rab<«tantiro^  tk<  rhom\  chord;  4,  (ircck  dcrii-a-  people  have  been  niultifunn  bejond  thaw  iMMUf 
tivo  wordft  with  tiutVixv*^  a<t  poet^  chrism;  6,  £un)] 
fccttiulary  derivative^  ta  linutUt^  Christian; 
6,  (ireck  di-rivativo  words  with  invfixvii.  u  ap* 
vphxy,  f»iturrh^   ctittiMtrophe ;    7,   111X1*1:   com- 


pouiiil>^  &i  thmttrrtiry^  tftiagttyuf.  There  aro 
alftO  in  tho  huipi:t^*  lichrew  word*,  an  m/in- 
fi<i.  a  ^'uiii,  ./•ur/Mrr.  a  precious  Bt4ine,  sahfmith; 
Spanish  wonK  cortts,  dnn ;  Italian  wordii,  ai 
atanzn,  pitiXit ;  Kuv^ion  wunl^  a^  cmr,  ukase; 
lVr^i.1U  wunN.ax  Utituir,  shuh;  Arabic  wurd«| 
as  altmhif^  ijiiztlU :  Chincso  words,  as  rA^p, 
kysi*n ;  uml  Jixlian  word-s  as  hvrninyy  moe- 
ca»ou,     "We  Itrituns,**  eavs  lIarri^  '*in  our    glivSaxon   (iranimar/*  translated   bj   Tbory* 


tixiu*,    have    Ui'n    rvmarkable    borrowers,   as 


tive  words  with  tiutVixv*^  a<t  poet^  chrism;  6,     Euroi>ean  nation,  and  the  languaire  has 

•{>nndini;ljr  changed.  LcxicograpbcntoQ,lii 
xcal  to  introduce  new  word%  to  the  n^^^ect  of 
old  ones,  liAvc  contributed  to  tlie  changes  bj  i^ 
conling  the  one  class  and  hj  omitting  the  a  ~ 
In  llalTiweirs  "  Dictionary  of  Archaic  and 
vincial  WonW*  there  are  more  than  60.000 
not  recorded  in  modem  diet kmarics.— For  te- 
ther information  on  this  tnlyect  tlie  reader 
consult  (irimm^s  J^utsehe  Urammntik  (4  xa 
(Jottingen,  lS19-'87) ;  Guest's  •*  Uistocr  of  ^ 
ish  Hhvthms**  (IxMithm,  1838);  IUsk*a  ^. 


I^ndon);    lionp's  ^ComparatiTe  G 


our  inultiumn  laiigunt'e  maj  ^ufllcientIy  bhow.  translated  bj  Last  wick  (3  vols.  8ro^  LoDdoa); 

Our  ti-nus  in  |>ulite  literature  ]irovo  this,  that  Trench's  **KngIish,  Past  and  Present**  (New 

thi-r  ciiMie  frtim  Gnx-ce;  our  tenns  in  music  York  ed.,  1855);  (fiNildBrown*a  **GratnnMr_af 

and  j'ointing,  that  the^  come  from  Italr;  our  English  Grammani**  (Xew  Y6rk,   1^7); 


phnueH  in  cook  cry  and  war,  that  we  learned  tham's  '*  Hand-IhK>k  of  tlie  English  I  ingnagi' 

tliCK'  fmm  the  Fri-nch ;  and  our  phrases  in  uav-  (New  York  i*d.,  1HA7) ;  FowIer*a **£ngiirii  Loi* 

Igation,  that  we  were  taught  by  the  Fleiniugt  and  guage  in  its  Elements  and  Fonna**  (New  York, 

Low  I  >uti-h.**^Fniiu  its  c«»m|iosiu*  character  the  18511). — £>'(»i.imi  LiTERATraB  was  preceded  te 

English  i4  uaturully  copious  in  its  vocabulary  tlie  HritiAhb^Iunds  by  compositions  in  tlie  Cjmii 

and  phra«i's.     Tlierv  are  large  classes  of  words  or  ancient  Jlritiitli,  Angli>-Saxon,  Angb>>XunBM 

derived  fr<im  the  Norman  or  tho  claMical  Ian*  or  early  French,  and  I^tin  langoages.  Thereat 

guages  wliii-h  are,  in  common  ]iarlance^  f*ynony-  extant  a  few  Cymric  metrical  pieces  which  dalt 

mou.4  with  wonls  derived    from  tliu  Anglo-  probablv  fruurthe  6th  century;  thej  ai«  tht 

Saxon,  Ml  that  a  writer  may  have  his  choice  songs  ui  the  celebrated  M'eWh  bards  Aneori^ 

whetht-r  to  use  tin)  Homanic  or  the  Teutonic  elc-  Talies»in,  Lly  warch-llen,  and  Meidhin,  the  aafi 

niont,  a  chi>ii*v  of  great  value  to  him  who  has  as  well  as  {mwI,  whom  succeeding  ccotnrM 

the  taste  to  prc^-rve  tJie  delicate  differences  of  transfigiiretl   into  the    enchanter  Jferlin.    T« 

vonirt  n«  Wi-H   ai  tlK*ir  agn*ement.    (General  (iildas  a  brotlier  of  Aneuriu,  is  attrilMted  « 

tenim  arc  dcrivid  from  the  I^atin;  thiMn*  that  I-atin  pn»M5  tract,  /V  Ertidioet  Confuntm  Uri* 

denote  the  ^|KCial  varieties  (TnhjeetK,  tjuziHtii's,  tiinhitr^  which,  if  genuine,  i^  the  eariii-flkt  faisur* 

and  iiifNlrs  i»f   Action,  are  derivi-d   from   the  icid  work  pnHluced  in  Uritain  thai  lias  brett 

An;:1ii-Saxi'n.      Tliu«,  0'!or^  a  general  term,  is  preM'rviil.     The  |K'rsonagi-s  mentioned  in  three 

Laiin  ;  liut  «rMu,  U*i^l^grefn^  particular  terms,  eldest  Iiriti!<h  wngs  and  aiinsLs  as  Arthur.  Her- 

are   Ang1i»-S;ixi'n.      It  has  been  correctly  re-  lin,  Koy,  and  (ia wain,  played  prominent  parts  in 

marked  that  **  I^tin  furnishes  the  elegant,  the  rtimantic  literature  a  few  centuries  later,  and 

Baxon  the  ounnion  expre^Mon,  ai  had  otlor  and  evi-n  to  tliin  day  affttrd  favorite  themes  lor  the 

»tehch^  \jT  tfTtftirntwH  and  sveat.'^      In  IiM»k-  ptH-t^.     iMiring  tho  Anglo-Saxon  period  buCh  A 

Ing  thniugli  the  se\eral  stages  of  tho  Inngiinge,  vema«MiIar  and  a  Ijitin  literature  Wrre  cnhi- 

tuunely.  the  Saxon,  the  senii-Saxon,  thciild  Eiig*  vated,  their  nioiit  tlouri^liing  era  being  the  Hih 

lish,  the  Uiiildle  Kngli^h,  (he  modern  Kngli*>h,  centnr}',  the  age  <if  Alcuin,  Aldlubn,  liede,  and 

we  are  Mrmk  with  the  constant  death  of  oM  Ce«'Ifrid.    The  monasteries  of  Knpland  and  Ire* 

wonN,  aiid  tho  coufttaiit  birth  of  new  ones  that  land  M*nt  forth  many  seliolar*  of  Kuny|«ean  cck^ 

Come  in  t«i  till  tln-ir  placed.     In  the  early  i»e-  rity  for  learning,  and  Alcuin  and  Oigena  srrred 

riodn  thi*  was  tlue  to  the  i»Ui*ceMktvc  irniptions  rs|)e<'ially  to  aHMieiste  these  conntrie«  with  the 

of  forei^tieps  wl.o  in  intn.idu(-ing  tlteirownlan-  continent  in   hU-ral  studies,    Tlie  allitcralire, 

goage   iK-<\*««<irily   exiielleil   a  |iuriiiin   of  tho  un rhyming  verhitication  of  tlie  Anglt>^{SasoBa 

Vemai'ular  wIkim.-  pla4v  it  t<it»k.     **(ireat  veri-  ctmtinued  to  bo  employed  In  some  oi  the  cw^ 

ty,'*  sa}si*anhleii,  **  wm  tin*  gh>ry  of  the  Kng-  English  |Mii<nis.    Tho  Ni*rman  coni^iie^  how« 

liftli   tongue    U'fore  the    Norman  coni|iie*t,  in  evi-r,  alini**it  aUditehi,'*!  the  u>e  vf  tlie  Anri^ 

thi^  that  the  «>Id  Kngli^h  ci»nld  exprv«  nw^t  Saxon  langiia/e  in  writing,  and  U*r  mnre  than 

a|itly  all  thv  comvit^  of  tho  mind  in  tlieir  own  a  century  the  pn-volcnt  literature  of  Fngland 

timpie  without  I mrro wing frt>m  any.**   **Theal<  was    cither    iu    Ijitin   or    in   An};Ii»-Ni«man. 

tenit i* in  in  our  tongue  hath  Uvn  bn.>ught  about  I<jinfranc    and   An«€lm,   who    were    attrmrted 

by  !heei)traniv«if  *itningen,asl)ane^  Nonnaiis,  from  Frani'v  by   the   mnqueror,   and   bccASne 

an«]  f»( hers  who  huve  s«aniK*d  hither;  by  traf-  sucr<'«i»ive)y  an'hbiiiho|is  of  (^antcrbunr,  «4igi- 

'^for  nea-  wnnU  as  well  as  new  wurk*  havo  nate<i   or  *revive«l    the    S(*hoU«tic    phiji^i^ihy. 

^***  vs  roim*  ill ;  b\  the  tyrant  Time,  which  al<  the  treat  ikos  on  w  hiih  were  in  Latin,  and  sc«e- 

y*^  all  thinpi  uniler  hvavi-n;  by  n««*,  which  ral  of  tlie  most  rniincnt  later  doctiir*  of  which« 

i  MTi*  m^(  ^^j  1^^^  ^^  abaulote'coinmand  in  as  Alexander  lla2e«|  Lhms  ScuCu^  aaA  WQlian 


EN6LAKD  (Lanouaox  axd  LmmATrBK)  189 

Ooesfii,  were  of  British  birth.  Roger  Bacon  is  riod ;  and  Benoit  composed  a  romance  of  the 
c^ieciallj  renuirkable  for  his  acqaaintance  with  history  of  Troy,  which  uphold  the  claims  of 
Hebrew  and  Arabic  literature,  and  quotes  from  sevenU  of  the  western  nations  to  a  Trojan 
10  of  the  most  hichly  reputed  Saracen  authors,  origin.  The  cycle  of  romances  relating  to 
In  ccmnection  with  him  mar  be  mentioned  Mi-  Arthur  and  the  round  table  were  prevalent 
diael  SooUu,  the  wizard  of  the  northern  ballads,  in  England  from  the  11th  to  the  14th  century. 
whose  writings  were  celebrated  throughout  £u-  They  were  in  the  French  language,  but  several 
rape.  The  scholastic  writers  of  the  12th  cen-  of  them,  as  the  ^^  Merlin,"  ^'Lancelot,"  "  Queste 
torr  prided  themselves  on  their  epistolary  style,  du  Saint  Graal,"  and  "  Mort  d'Arthurc," 
•xid  manv  oullections  of  their  letters  have  been  were  written  by  Englishmen  for  the  English 
PTBeerved,  which  are  among  the  most  valuable  court  and  nobles.  Some  writers  have  main- 
uliistratifiiisof  the  public  and  private  history  of  tained  also  that  the  lays  of  Marie  and  tibie 
the  time.  These  letters  hegin  with  Lanfranc,  romances  concerning  Charlemagne  and  his  pa- 
were  Tery  numerous  in  the  reign  of  Henry  II.,  ladins  appeared  in  England  earlier  than  in 
nd  the  most  interesting  of  them  in  a  literary  France.  The  original  source  of  these  fictions. 
poiiit  of  view  are  those  of  John  of  Salbbnry  and  of  romantic  poetry  in  Europe,  is  attributed 
aod  Peter  of  Blois.  Latin  poems  abounded  by  Bishop  Percy  to  the  Scandinavians  through 
thnmghoat  the  12th  century,  and  those  of  Lau-  the  Normans,  by  Warton  to  the  Arabians 
icnee  of  Durham,  John  of  Salbbury,  John  de  through  the  Moors  of  Spain,  and  by  Ellis  and 
Haaterille,  Kigellns  Wirker,  and  Alexander  Turner  to  the  inhabitants  of  Armorica  or 
Herkham,  contain  passages  of  nearly  classic  ele-  Brittany. — ^During  this  prevalence  of 'Latin 
nnee.  The  most  ambitious  attempts  were  by  and  Anglo-Norman  literature  the  Anglo-Saxon 
Joseph  of  Exeter,  who  wrote  two  epics  in  heroic  language  had  been  confined  to  the  conquer- 
■MMure.  A  new  style  of  versification,  in  which  ed  race,  but  the  Saxon  chronicles  had  been 
Aymes  took  the  place  of  tlie  ancient  metres,  carried  on  in  obscure  monasteries  by  various 
VM  introduced,  and  soon  attained  an  attractive  annalists  to  the  year  1154.  About  50  years 
MHgy  and  sprightliness.  It  was  brought  to  later,  when  the  two  races  began  to  unite  in  one 
perfection  in  the  satirical  poems  attributed  to  nation,  a  work  appeared  writt^^n  in  Anglo-Saxon 
Wilter  Mapes,  which  exhibit  excellent  sense  so  much  modified  by  French  that  it  is  usually 
nd  humor  amid  bacchanalian  jovialities.  In  accounted  the  beginning  of  English  literature. 
kii  CimftMaio  Oolim  is  found  the  famous  drink-  This  was  Layamon^s  translation  of  Wace's  i^o- 
bg  song  beginning  Jleum  est  propositum  in  man  de  Brutj  which  was  followed  in  the  13th 
tabema  nu>rt.  This  kind  of  poetry  became  ex-  century  by  a  multitude  of  translations  from 
tremelr  popular,  and  fiourishcd  long  after  the  Latin  and  Anglo-Norman.  The  older  chronicles 
ttjk  of  the  more  serious  Latin  authors  had  be-  were  more  or  less  closely  followed  in  the  £ng- 
eome  hopelessly  debased.  But  the  most  im-  lish  metrical  pieces  of  Robert  of  Gloucester 
portant  Latin  works  during  the  Norman  period  and  Robert  Manning,  a  monk  of  Bourne.  The 
were  the  chronicles  or  histories,  all  of  thorn  by  Anglo-Norman  romances  were  reproduced  in 
eedesiastics.  The  chronicle  of  Odcricus  Vitolis  the  English  metrical  romances  of  ^*  Sir  Tris- 
(died  in  1132)  wos  the  first  in  which  history  trem,"  "  Sir  Perceval  of  Galles,"  **Ywaineand 
was  made  an  object  of  laborious  research ;  that  Grawayne,"  "llavclok  the  Dane,"  "King  Uom," 
of  William  of  Malmesbury  is  the  most  elegant ;  "  Coeur  de  Lion,"  "  King  Alesaunder,"  "  Morte 
nod  that  of  Geoffrey  of  Monmouth  exerted  the  Artliure,"  "  Sir  Guy,"  the  *•  King  of  Tars,"  and 
greatest  influence  on  subsequent  literature,  be-  many  others.  "  Sir  Tristrcm,"  which  is  one  of 
^wmiwg  one  of  the  cornerstones  of  romantic  the  oldest  of  them,  was  attributed  by  Sir  Walter 
It  narrated  Welsh  and  Armorican  tra-  Scott,  on  grounds  now  generally  admitted  to  bo 
of  British  history  from  Brutus,  an  imagi-  unsatisfactory,  to  the  Scottish  poet  Thomas  the 
son  of  ^neas,  to  Cadwallader  in  the  7th  Rhymer.  The  body  of  Latin  tales  entitled 
iry.  Ingulphus,  Henry  of  Huntingdon,  Gi-  Gesta  Romanorum,  perhaps  of  German  origin, 
laldos  Cambrensis,  Roger  de  Iloveden,  Matthew  was  now  and  continued  much  later  to  bo  a 
Tkria,  and  Jocelin  de  Brakelonde,  are  perhaps  source  of  materials  for  English  authors.  Tho 
ttM  other  most  important  names  in  the  long  cat-  first  original  English  poet,  who  left  the  beaten 
llogae  of  monkish  chroniclers.  The  earliest  track  of  translation  from  chronicles,  romances, 
Aai^o-Norman  compositions  extant  are  supposed  and  legends  of  the  saints,  was  Laurence  Minot 
to  bdoDg  to  the  first  part  of  the  12th  century,  (about  1350),  tlio  author  of  some  short  ballad- 
la  the  reigns  of  Stephen  and  Henry  II.  a  school  like  poems  on  the  victories  of  th<^ English  annies 
poets  was  formed  devoted  to  versifying  his-  in  tho  reign  of  Edward  III.  Richard  Rolle,  a 
in  that  language,  the  three  great  masters  hermit  of  Hampole,  producc<l  about  the  same 
rhicli  were  Wace,  Gaimar,  and  Benoit  de  time  a  moral  Ppem  entitled  the  ^'  Pricko  of 
to-Maur.  Wace  translated  Geoffrey's  Brit-  Conscience."  The  most  remarkable  production 
U  l^tory  into  Anglo-Norman  verse,  under  tho  before  the  ago  of  Chaucer  is  the  **  Vision  of  Piers 
of  the  Roman  de  Brut^  which  extends  to  Ploughman,"  ascribed  to  Robert  Langlande.  It 
15,000  lines;  and  also  wrote  tho  Roman  de  is  in  alliterative  verse,  without  rhyme,  abounds 
t  ^Ting  the  legends  concerning  Rollo  tho  in  allegorical  personifications,  and  is  a  satire  on 
VomaD.  Gumar  made  a  metrical  continuation  the  vices  of  the  times  and  especially  of  tho  ecclo- 
cf  the  narrative  of  Geoffrey  to  the  Norman  pe-  eiastics.    It  has  passages  of  humor  and  extraor* 


190  ENGLAND  (LiiarocAoi  jlitd  LmBATm) 

dinArv  poetical  vicor,  bnt  tho  Author  roctiia  to  Mnati<m  of  autIior\  tho  chief  of  vhniii 

Itavo  profiTri'^l  an  (il.««  Avle  luul  unrvtiiKHl  diction.  S;ickvi;]o.     He  fiirnisliotl  alone  ita  mosc  valoabW 

It5  |Ni|iiiUrity  cauM^il  iiianT  iinitations  ti>  lie  |m irt ion,  the  **  Induct i<»n**  or  prolngae,  an  imite- 

mnde  «if  it,   tho   W^i  of  whirh   m'&4  **  ricrt  tion  uf  Dunte,  niarkiNl  by  a  monotuny  of  |rf 

PloUf:hiiian>  Credi*/*  written  hr  a  Wycliflite.  and  sorrtiu*,  but  comparable  with  the'finoat 

(\>ntcii)iH  .rary  \i  ith  Oiaucor  was  Gowcr  (1325-  M^res  of  Spenwr  fur  grandeur  of  iniairinatir<i 

140SK  whi»M*  TurifCAiiVy  JvjKinfiii,  in  octo-v'lI*^*i<^  power  of  Un^niaire.    Hie  ballad  literature  of 

metre,  i^  a  n)i!<cvlIfincoU!i  collcctinn  of  vturios  England  and  Scotland  in  of  uncertain  «Ute^  bvft 

and  of  |>hy«ical  and  nu-tapltyMcal  rcflivtittnii.  much  of  it,  a^  *' Cbcvy  Chaf*o/*  Um  "  NoCbmvB* 

Chancer  call  a  him  tho  **  moral  (luwcr,**  and  his  Mayde,'*  and  the  numen>u«  ballads  alMnit  Robta 

poetrv  i-i  of  a  (rrave  and  so  mentions  turn,  pro-  IIikkI,  pmltablj  arose  in  the  15th  and  lAth  ot 

leKv«{ly  *H.Tiouii  ciUil  instructive,   lloth  in  pcnius  rie^.   lt*t  golden  era  waa  the  tiine  of  Marr,  qi 

and  ^t}le  lio  i^  much  inferior  to  Chaucer  (dii^l  of  S*ots.    1  during  tlii^fierifMl  Scotland  had  * 

aUiut  1400),  tho  first  great  Kngli<«h  author,  ad-  ce«4iunof  genuine  fMK't^  IUirboar(died  in  ISMX 

mirnlilo  for  the  coiiiprehon«iveiio4A  and  variety  who  wrote  an  epic  entitled  the  **  Hnicc,**  hAvinf 

of  his  iK»«AT4  a: id  for  an  inbi^rn  kindly  Joyous-  been  folio we<l  bv  Wyntnun,  Hlind  Harry.  Gswia 

noM,  which  make  him  ctim parable  with  Shake-  Douglas  and  ^\  illiam  I>unYiar. — Kntrlii^  proaa 

ftpeuro.    A  cniiriii-r  and  travfllor,  he  mas  ono  of  begins  witli  Sir  Julm  Mandeville*i»  narrative  of 

tlie  carlittt   En;rli«h  writen  who  was  not  an  lli^traveK  written  in  1  At  in.  French,  and  Englbk, 

ecelooiiistic,  and  he  cxreN  e«[>eiMa]ly  in  merry  soon  af)or  his  return  to  England  in  13!ft5.     It  la 

narraftve  and  in  |Nirtrai(urc  of  diameter.     He  a  me<11ey  of  his  own  observations  «*ith  aneicai 

intHNltii-ed  and  nnplitved  with  facility  tho  regii-  fables  and  the  marvels  reiNirtv<l  by  other  trmr* 

lar  iainbir  ctiuplet,  the  inii>t  approved  EngH»h  ellors.      Notliing  like  the  excellence  iif  Utcr 

metre.   The  proli igi:e  to  the  '* (Canterbury  Talcs"  En;r!i<*h  ]ir<»se  was  pro<lnciil  for  a  centur;  aad  a 

b  |ierhap4  un^uqia-vsiHl  as  a  deft4*ription  of  char-  half  mon\  during  wliich  time  Trevi^  tranidattfd 

actvr  and  manners  and  the  "  Knight*s  Talo*^  Higdi*n'Hlaitin7V/y^Ar')nf>ftn,  WyclitfeU-cnta 

Is  among  the  iiobK'St  of  chivalrous  romances,  filmw  thecopiimHne^^sandenenrytiftht^laniniaf* 

ChauciT  has  lieen  oi^en  compared  to  the  a] )|»ear-  in  liis  translation  of  the  Bible,  Tliancer  ran- 

ance  of  a  giMiial  day  in  spring,  preceded  and  fol-  poM'«l  two  i if  the  <*nnterbnry  taK*s  and  two  ncbcr 

lowed  by  dark  clmids  and  wintry  blastji;  and  works  in  proM*,  lii^hop  IVacock  wmte  in  fiaror 

fntinhiiAgt'tothutof  Siienserthe  history  of  Eng-  of  n-ason  riither  tlian  constraint  as  a  meaiis  of 

lish  jKH'try  is  but  a  barren  theme.  There  itades-  bringing  the  l^dlanls  within  the  pale  of  tha 

olate  fH^ri«sl  of  more  than  1<n)  yeans  ui  age  of  Catholic  church,  Tiptoft  translate«l  rireft>'s  Ik 

diifiMited  ^ucce^ion*  and  civil  wars,  when,  says  Amiriti*t,  I.on!  Uiver«  1>«M*ame  an  anthur  by  kii 

an  old  l.i-tiirun,  *'the  U-lls  in  the  church  slee-  "  Pirtsnf  rhilo^iphers,*'andSir  John  F««rtef<iia 

pies  Wi-re  iii<t  lu'urd  fi>r  th«*  sound  of  dm  ins  and  (died  in  147o)  •>ur|ia«M'd  all  of  hi«  pri*«!ere«sorft  ta 

trumpt-:^'*     Till  the  acri-«wi»in  of  ElizaU-th.  tho  the  style  ««f  hi-*  IrcatiM'  on  tlie  '^HilTervnce  be- 

lie!>t  of  iiunu'nius  versifiers  are  John  the  ('ha|>*  tworn  an  Abs4ilutt<  and  a  l.imitiil  yonarrhy.** 

lain,  <Vc!«V(\    tho  ncrvitile   I.yd/ate,    Hawes,  Tlie  tlr>t  iNMik  printed  in  England  i«^upp«i««d  to 

Skvhi<!i  the  lu<:reate,  ^\io  has  bi'en  liki-neil  to  have  lieen  the  **(ianif  of  Chrss^'*  by  i*axt«A.  la 

lCab>  lai-,  hi-i  ri\ul  Itari-lay,  tho  curl  of  Surrey,  1474.     As  an  authitr,  by  tran«lating  fn4B  tht 

Sir  Till •!i::L<t  W\ alt,  (ii-i.rge  <ia*i«'<>yno,  Thomas  Fri-nrh, ami oOen  liv  continuing: the nnrks which 

Tu>o^r,  utnl  'Ihonias  .^Ui'kvitle,  afterward  l^>r«l  lie  printi-d,  Caxton  proltaliU  exerto!  a  grrater 

Ilui'Lhi:r-t.     <  *f  this  sorir«.  Surrey  ( lol6-'47)  infliunre  (»n  prf»M^  litiTaturv  than  any  otht-r  tndi- 

is  m>»»t  I'-ttvnitfl   as  an   improver  of  Kn;rli'*h  viilual  U-twtvn  Chaurirand  tho  reitm  of  llrnrr 

ViTH\     Hi*  i-*  Mid  to  have  made  the  ti-ur  of  Eu-  VIII.     ('hrnnirlrrs  m-arly  conttni|N>rary  vitJi 

riipe  in  the  spirit  of  chivalry,  pHN^Iaiming  tho  un-  him  were  ]^dK-rt  Fabvan  and  Eilwanl  Hall.    A 

par.-iIUli-d  r]iarm«of  his  iiii«trt.*«is  (ieraldine,  and  curious  c<illectii*n  of  h tt«*rs  has l<e«-n  pn^«><rTed» 

rvt^;riii'd  to  Kn;:l:ind  di^tingui^hi'il  as  tho  mostde-  writtt-n  by  nu-nibers  of  thi*  I*A*>ton  faiiiily  in  tb« 

Tot*i1  Iii\rr,  KarniHlnidilenian,  andaci-oinplished  nicns  of  Hfury  VI.,  Edward  IV..  ainl  Her.ry 

giMitliinan  I'f  his  u;;e.    In  lii«  \rpses  hecitpiedthe  Vll.,  which  fornin  tin*  oMv^t  ImmIv  of  pri\atr  let* 

simjdi*  .ty  and  ;:raif  i>f  the  Italian  poets,  avoid-  tcrs  in  any  mo*li  rn  Euro|H-an  lAr;:ua4^*.    Totk* 

ing  Ieur;!i><1  a!lu«iii!:s  or  elalMirale  eonrvtts,  and  nign  of  Ilrtiry  VIII.  U  liii:;>Sir  Thoi:i&*  lHurr** 

natur.tli.V'l   tliO   ^-'tttu-t   in  Eri^'land.     llo  a!«i>  *' Hi<*ti>ry  of  EIwupI  V.,"  thr  tir^t  vxample  of  a 

gixt*  thi- r-irlii->t  f\.tiiiph'iif  b'.aiik  vrr*e.   Wyatt  pure  aii'l  i^r-'piruiiti^  prt»M*  ►tyl*-.  ii.arktnl  by  a 

e«N.|H  raTiil  ui!li  }i:rii  in  H-«kiiig  tin*  I'lt-gani'i'S  dimiiiuti«iiii>fiib<Militi']'hra<4-«>li>gy.  ai:il  aorlaxa 

of  I  ••i;i{H*«;tii»ii :  b.i  ho  ini)>.irrav«4-d  l.i«  son;r<  intHl.-rn  turn  anil  «?ruiturt\  and  i'«<n\i-ying  aI»o 

an<l  ^'iii.t*:^  w;:h  \iit'y  aiid  f in<  tful  c-onrvit-.  ju«t  niid  «trikin{rt)io-i;;hT.    Hi* 'Vr'/'i  i.  in  mhirh 

J««?«n  IbyMiKvl  is  r«  iiuniln'rtil  «>ti!y  for  bin  in*  hi*  drvilnj^d  hi*  tln-ory  i-f  a  jn-rfr^-l  ••«••«-?», 

tfrlu'b-s  !  It   he  wnito  al*»i  »"oo  « jii^Tams,  ar.il  wa^   fir*!  pt;>.li*hi-<l  in  I-atin.  and  »as  ^--arrrjy 

Li*  !».»••!   l.i*»«iri"«l    jN-rf'iniianri*  i*  tho  "  Spiilor  exis-'hil  in  ••pirii  and  orikrina':!y  by  ariy  pmitnia 

and  •.!.•  F!.i-,"  pntnoimrx-d  by  Wartt-n  to  \k*  tho  Latin  w.-rk  ^ritti  n  in  Eun-jn-  *infe  the  rwnal 

ino*!  tr«l.M-.i*  and  tr.t!;r.ir  of  a|i»'lt»i:Ufs,  "  witho-.:t  »'f  b  :ti  r».     I'rii»r  to  Eli/aU-th.  i-r  rarly  in  brr 

fif.ry,  ni-.iLin;r,  or  ni«Tiil.*'     The  mo^t  nmark-  r«it"n.  wi  re  uritti-n  a'.***  tin'  "  N^w  Ycar'^iiiff 

id!.'  )...ni  Ntwi-^n  S'.rrcy  ard  S;K'n*«r  is  t!iO  an*!  t!.r  •*  ltirn  rary"  i.f  I^ilani!.  tl.«*  '(ffuier- 

"Mirr^ur  fv^r  llBp»irutv%'*  wnttiu  by  a  com-  ni*ur"  i>f  Sir  Thomas  Khot,  the  *' Art  of  IUkI* 


ENGLAND  (Lasoxj^qx  and  Litxbatubb)  191 

oriqne*^  of  Thomas  Wilson,  the  biography  of  the  second  in  point  of  time,  which  was  acted  at 
Wouej  by  Cavendbh  f first  printed  in  1641),  the  Cambridge  university  in  1566,  and  contains  tho 
translations  of  the  Bible  by  Tyndale  and  Cover-  first  drinking  song  of  any  merit  in  the  language. 
dale,  the  sermons  and  letters  of  Latimer,  and  the  The  earliest  extant  piece  that  can  be  cdlod  a 
**  Tozophilos^*  of  Roger  Ascham,  who  was  the  tragedy  is  the  "  Ferrex  and  Porrex  "  of  Thomas 
fint  accomplished  scholar  that  composed  his  Sackville  and  Thomas  Norton,  afterward  named 
chief  works  in  English. — ^The  annals  of  the  Brit-  the  "Tragedy  of  Gordobuc,"  which  is  in  regu- 
iali  drama  begin  with  miracle  plays,  which  are  lar  blank  verse,  consists  of  5  acts,  and  was  acted 
first  mention^  as  being  represented  in  London  before  Queen  Elizabeth  at  Whitehall  in  1561. 
in  the  latter  part  of  the  12th  century.  They  were  During  a  part  of  the  reign  of  Elizabeth  miracle 
on  Mcrcd  subjects,  usually  from  the  Old  and  New  plays,  moral  plays,  and  romantic  dramas  were 
Testaments,  were  written,  and  to  a  comparative-  prevalent  together.    The  custom  of  acting  Latin 
ly  late  period  actetd,  by  ecclesiastics,  and  were  plays  in  the  universities  of  Oxford  and  Cam- 
■t  first  performed  in  churches  and  the  chapels  bridge  continued  till  CromwelPs  time. — From 
ofraosasteries.     lliey  were  performed  on  holy  the  middle  of  the  reign  of  Elizabeth  to  the 
days  in  the  largest  towns,  the  most  famous  and  accession  of  Anno  (1580-1702),  and  more  par- 
frequented  being  those  of  Chester,  Widkirk,  and  ticularly  to  tho  great  rebellion  (1580-1642), 
Coventry.     At  Chester  they  continued  every  may  be  reckoned  tho  Ppnod  of  the  so-called 
Whit-Sanday,   with  some  interruptions,  from  old  English  authors.    Tlie  more  limited  era  is 
1S68  to  1577,  and  were  in  Latin  or  French  till  unsurpassed  in  force,  variety,  and  originality 
in  1S38  Higden  *'  obtained  leave  of  the  pope  to  of  literary  genius  in  the  annals  of  the  world. 
hifa  tiiem  in  the  English  tongue."    The  most  Among  the  influences  which  excited  vast  intel- 
ndflnt  extant  miracle  play  in  English  is  at  least  lectual  and  moral  activity  were  tho  study  of 
ai<^«s  the  reign  of  Edward  III.    It  is  founded  the  classics  and  of  the  literatures  of  Italy  and 
QB  the  16th  chapter  of  tho  apocryphal  gospel  France,  the  discovery  of  America  and  of  tho 
of  Nioodemas,  is  entitled  the  "  Harrowing  of  right  theory  of  tho  solar  system,  the  reforma- 
Hell,**  and  consists  of  a  prologue,  epilogue,  and  tion,  the  practical  results  then  following  from 
mmnnediate  dialogue  between  9  persons,  among  tho  invention  of  gunpowder  and  of  printing, 
vhom  are  Dominus,  Satan,  Aoam,  and  Eve.  and  from  the  overthrow  of  feudalism,  the  as- 
Btnde  this  and  a  few  other  single  pieces,  there  sertion  of  individual  rights,  and  the  cnthusias- 
cnst  S  distinct  sets  of  them :  the  Townley  col-  tic  sense  of  national  independence  and  power, 
i    lection^  30  in  number,  supposed  to  have  be-  New  ideas  and  interests  aroused  the  minds  of 
I     ]^^^  to  Widkirk  abbey,  before  the  suppression  men,  and  the  old  forms  and  institutions,  disap- 
[     of  the  monasteries ;  the  Coventry  collection,'  pearing  from  actual  life,  lingered  in  the  imagi- 
f     performed  in  that  city  on  the  feast  of  Corpus  nation  and  were  idealized  in  poetry-.    The  lan- 
I     Christii  42  in  nxmiber ;  and  tho  Chester  Whit-  guago  rapidly  grew  to  a  strength  and  afflucnco 
nm  collection,  30  in  number.     Miracle  plays  which  Dr.  Johnson  declared  adequate  to  every 
were  transformed  into  moral  plays  by  exchang-  purpose  of  use  and  elegance,  while  a  inasculino 
ing  scriptural  and  historical  characters  for  ab-  vigor,  sometimes  coarse,  sometimes  highly  del- 
Btract,  idlegorical,  or  symbolical  impersonations,  icate,  marked  all  the  diversities  of  character 
This  sort  of  religious  drama  was  in  a  state  of  and  culture.    The  most  extensive  and  impor- 
eonsiderable  advancement  in  the  reign  of  Ucnry  tant  department  of  literature  during  this  epoch 
TL,  and  reached  its  highest  perfection  in  that  was  the  drama,  which  distinguishes  that  age 
of  Henry  VII.    Two  prominent  personages  in  from  all  preceding  and  less  decisively  from  all 
them  were  the  Devil,  and  a  witty,  mischiev-  subsequent  perio<ls.  It  had  two  distinct  periods, 
oas,  profligate  character,  denominated  the  Vice,  that  of  tho  old  English  dramatists  (in  the  nar- 
'*By  the  relinquishment  of  abstract  for  Individ-  rowest  use  of  the  term)  prior  to  the  civil  war, 
«al  character, '  says  Mr.  Collier,  "they  paved  and  that  of  tho  comic  dramatists  atlter  tho  rcs- 
the  way,  by  a  natural  and  easy  gradation,  for  toration.    In  the  former  scries  the  most  ecii- 
tngedy  and  comedy,  the  representations  of  nent  names  are  Marlowe,  Shakespeare,  Ben 
ml  life  and  manners.^^    John  Ileywood,  tho  Jonson,   Beaumont  and    Fletclier,    Chapman, 
gigrammatist,  who  belonged  to  tho  court  of  Decker,  Webster,   Marston,   Massinger,  Ford, 
Snry  VIII.,   contributed  to  driving  biblical  Thomas  Heywood,  and  Shirley.    Among  the 
tad  allegorical  personages  from  the  stage,  and  precursors   of   Shakespearo   were    also   John 
•    lis  plays  form  a  class  almost  by  themselves,  Lilly,  whose  9  i)lays,  and  especially  "  Endi- 
tamed  interludes.     The  later  plays  of  Bishop  mion,"  have  always  had  a  few  admirers  for 
Brie  also  belong  to  the  period  of  transition,  and  their  dainty  and  conceited  style ;  Thomas  Kyd, 
la  was  the  first  to  apply  the  name  tragedy  and  whose  "  Spanish  Tragedy,"  improved  by  Jon- 
to  English  dramatic  representations,  son,  is  said  to  have  gone  through  more  edi- 
^riiest  comedy  is  tho   "  Ralph  Koister  tions  than  any  other  play  of  tho  time ;  Thomas 
of  Nicholas  Udall,  and  is  at  least  as  Nash,  a  ribald  satirist ;  Robert  Greene,  whoso 
the  reign  of  Edward  VI.    It  has  13  comedies  are  lively,  fantastic,  and  in  a  florid 
9  male  and  4  female,  represents  tho  style,  and  whoso  "  Friar  Bacon  and  Friar  Bun- 
irs  of  polished  society,  and  could  not  bo  gay"  is  one  of  tho  latest  plays  in  which  tho 
med  in  less  than  2^  hours.     It  is  superior  devil  appears  in  person ;  George  Pecle,  /whose 
la  ^Gunmer  Gurton^s  Needle,"  by  John  StilL  '*  David  and  Betlisabo"  has  been  termed  tho 


192  ENGLAND  (Laitovaoi  akd  LimATVu) 

earliest  fountain  of  pathos  and   harmonj  in  which  are  the  *^  Alchemist,^  "  Volpone,  cr  tte 

Eh^Iifih  draxnatir  iKictry  ;  and  Thomas  I^nIito,  Ft>x/'and  th«  **  Silent  Woman/*    Tbejr  artfcl 

who  Willi  a>MK'iatf«i  with  (irii'no  in  writ itifc  t ho  of  «<>Iid  nrnterialii,  in  a  statvlr,  elooMfnt*  bll 

*'ljmkini;-(ila.sii  for  I^mdun  and  England,"  a  often  intolcrnhlj  ]>c<]antic  rtvie,  ana  M«ai  to 

Strang'  t»erforiiiunoo,  in  whioh  tliv  pr<>|ihocjr  of  havo  lieen  priNhiced  Mow  It  and  apoo  dcUbcff^ 

Jiinah  against  Nini-vi-h  is  applied  to  the  city  of  tinn,  the  wit,  fancy,  and  satire  beinc  wictijy 


Lindiin.     All  t»f  thtse  alNiund  in  bmnbast  and  elaborated.    I )ry don  admired  him 

|»idiuitio  rluscical  allusions.     A  more  ]K>tent  of  elaborate  writing.     Ilia  poetical  c 

Miirit  wtts  <.'hri>t<.>pher  Marlowe  ( 15t>5-*V^3)\  who,  appeam  in  its  nii«t  iileafting  avpect  in  the  Ivrkil 

throwing  <itr  the  hhackled  of  rhyme,  gave  to  verseii  with  which  hid  manquea  are  varied  amt 

blank  ViTsKrunt'a.-y  niodulutitm  and  rhythm,  and  enlivened,  e.«iicciallT  in  the  pavtoral  d 

|iriHlu<*eii  H'i-iK-s  and  iia>>age!«  of  wondertul  the  **  Sad  Shepherd/*  which  diaplaj  an  _ 

Iteauty  and  prundi-ur  amid  rant  and  buflVHUier-  able  taste  and  feelinir,  and  have  all  tiie  c\ 

ii-4.     His  niii^t  admire^l  plavA  are  iho  **Jew  of  song.    Jonson  may  have  aimetl  at  an 

of  Malta,**  *'  Edward  11.,  *  and  the  **  Life  and  cnce  of  men  of  sense  and  knowledge,  bat 

iK'ath  of  I)r.  Fuu>tiH,'*  and  the  lust  l»est  illtis-  mont  and  Fletcher  wrote  for  men  of  fa»hioo 

trates  the  *' tine  madni'sn"  of  his  character.    An  the  world.    Of  the  62  plays  pnbli»hcd 

awful  melancholy  jK-rvatlcs  the  fu-ud  Mcphis-  their  joint  name**,  Beaumont  may  hare 

tophi-ks  more  inl]■n'^^ivo  tlian  the  malignant  part  in  only  17.    They  are  keen,  vivariooa^ 

mirth  aMTilvcd  to  him  by  Goethe.     Marlowe  often  elegant,  but  hlight  and  sni»erficial  in  r 

was  the  ininie«liate  preeurMir  of  William  Shake-  parison  with  Shaketi|ieare*s  and  Jonion*s: 

s|K>are  (15(>4-1010),  the  greate<*t  name  in  Eng-  songs  scattered  through  them  are,  ho^ 

li>h  literature,  whom  a  |MH;t  has  ntvled  **  the  among  the  most  subtly  U*autiful  in  the  ~ 

geniut  of  the  ISnti!*h  isles,'*  and  who  stands  at  The  dramas  of  (tiHirgo  Chapman  (1557-1CS4|^ 

the  head  nf  the  nanaiitic  or  Chri.*>tian  drama,  the  translator  of  Homer,  c<intain  *'mure  tUnkp 

A  CMmpariM.in  of  his  works  with  those  of  his  ing**  than  those  of  most  of  his  cuntem] 

conteui|K>raries  proves  his  hU|ieriority  as  much  they  have  manv  passages  of  striking  g 

in  jud^inient  and  ta^te  tn  in  creative  iH>wer,  for  are  in  a  lofty  and  extravagant  style,  and  their i 

a  large  prMportion  *.*(  his  plays  are  more  regu-  teniplations  on  the  nature  of  man  and  thevoili 

]ar  tliaii  any  other  prior  to  the  close  of  the  leave  impressions  favorable  to  moral  exreUeBMC 

civil  wur>.     The  rules  of  the  da-vical  dramatic  The  **  Fortunatus**   and  *' Honest  Whure**  of 

art  Were  n«>t  then  in  vogue ;  the  French  neo-  Thomas  lK*cker  have  graceful  and  genial  m^ 

cla»ir:il  dnmia  had  n<>t  U-en  originated;  and  sagi*sand  the  "iMichcftS  of  Malfy"  and "  WInia 

thiin;;h  Shuke*>ii\'ure  viulated  the  ancient  unities  lK*vil  **  of  John  Webster  are  full  of  homvrv  clevw 

of  tii:ie  aiid  plaee.  he  ohMT\ed  alnm^t  univer-  erly  manag«*d,  und  have  bevn  c-steenud  amcog 

sally  the  unity  nf  finlin;;  niid  **(  interest,  which  the  mo^t  htriking  tragic  priMluctinn*!  «if  iLt4  pc^ 

i-*  iKThap*-  the  only  unity  ii<.i><»iblo  in  any  drama  ritKl.     The  mmlern  ri'putation  «>f  Ihuma*  Mi4* 

th;it  lUilir.ireH  tlje  Wide  muik',  the  tine  mate-  dleton  re>ts  chietly  on  his**  Witch,**  which  bar 

riaU.  ui.il  the  ]ia'>'«iiinuto  iiiteii-ity  of  Christian  have  Miggi'ttiil  tiiShake«poare  the  si:|t«matixrH 

t!i(>'..;;!.t.    The  M>i]tidi-«t  iTitKi^ni  ha<  vindicated  scenery  in  '^MacU-th;*'  and  the  citarse  p!ay»of 

fi'f  h:ni  th«-  I  liarai'tf  r  f»f  a  {intfound  artist  as  Jolin  Mart^ton  abiiund  in  murder*,  gin i*ts.  aa4 

^^ill  :is  a  eTxi^l  uinl  luxuriatit  genius,  und  his  scornful  satire.    Of  the  tragi-<li«.sof  I'hilip  Ma^ 

]K-i-u:iar  e\i  till  III  i«  »i>|>iur  in  the  marvelhms  singer  (1uS4~  1040 ».  the  **  I  >uke  of  Milan"  aai 

variety  nnil  \i  r;«inii!iTtii!i'  nf  hiH  ]i<-rN mages,  in  the  **  Fatal  I>owry'*  are  among  tlie  U*«t :  ar.d  ti 

the  ^kiil   with  w hii  li  tip|Hi<.ite  rharaciers  are  hi*  ciinn*<lie««.  the  **  rictun*."  the  "  Hi'mimaa,* 

gmupid  and    ihi-  tiiie^t    and   nii»«»t  iliverMtu»<I  and  "A  Wry  Woni.in.'*    His  •*  New  Wa;  t.»l^ 

thread-*  «ii\i-n  ii.tn  u  haniiitiiiiMi'*  web,  and  in  Old  lKbt»**  still  km  [»s  the  stage,  ft >r  «l.i«h  it  ■ 

the  e«im|-li  tene^-*  with  ^«!.iih  the  entire  a«-tii>n  iiidehted  to  it  a  etfertive  character  t>f  Sir  (liks 

a-'iVi  !I  u«  the  ^e\i  ral  •  har:.c!i'r-»  are  Worked  out,  ( )\erren(-h.     Hi**  st%  le  ha«  an  ea^v  axid  c.a^ei 

inincte  fiMture^  uml  partiiulari  bi-ing  |MH-iically  llow,  and  *'  he  ix  read,*'  *>ay  «  I^nih.  *'  with  r«^ 

ri»nr«  iii'i  w  ith  r«  l\  rein  etnthe  univer«>a!  "yfittm  jniMire  and  plaeid  dtli;:ht."     Ji»hn  F«»rd  i  IV< 

of  ihii.;r>.     ^h:ik'  ^ptaft't  phi} •«  are  o4  in  nuni-  ltt.'i',ii  prefrrred  ilark  \irt.4  anil  the  d^-<{^^  dia» 

tn-r  I  the  a'ith«>r-!i-|i  i<l  ^inie  i^f  m  Itich,  hi ■«  ever,  treH^fnr  swlijivt^i.  und  \iU  work'«i::.iLe  a  •ad  aal 

I'*  d.«|>nteili,  a:.d  ::re  usually  di\ide«l  intu  tru;^.••  ahiding  inipre«Mon,  ha^iiig.  a*  Hallam  r^marij^ 

dii  X,  ('«'nii  liii  »,  ai.tl  hi-Iiirie*.     Since  the  Ih  giu*  the  |Hiwer  iiv«r  tears.    He  sein:«  V*  ha\e  tokcft 

iiiijg  i<f  the  priMnl  ••niury   thi;r  supr«ni:u'y  an  intilleeiual  ph  a^ure  in  revnhi:  g  tl  e  \anci«t 

ha*  a!ta.ii<-d   '•ni-iu.iiil:<-«l  aiid  ititilligrnt  rei't»i;-  iHi«-it»iUtie«  ami  reMniTc^  t>f  »ir..  ai.-l  the  l^^  of 

MTi'-n.      A  Irii  ni  *'(  Shakvp'-are  and  hi*  :i*-ii-  hi*  p!a>!«  hr.-ir*  tlie  title  I'f  the  '•  Itmktti  Hrari.* 

cia'.v  i.'j  the  Mir:i:aiil.  the  I'l'h^t  of  l'lu!•^  u.os  Thnmu'i  lb  \  wiMrfl.  nn  indif3tigah!e  ard  |«<fitilar 

lUu  .T..:.*«in  \  l.'iTi    !"..:7».  nue  ni"  tlie  nm^t  tan.il-  dr.iinati«t.uriite"U-.iutiful  prnM-pu?  ii;t»i  ii«rxjic 

v^r  •>:'  the  i..ir..*  '*i<i'  n.e  fl'l  dran.ati'*:*.     He  had  n:i  ire."    .l.-jne^  Shirley  (dit^l  in  U't;7»  i«  tL«  lait 

M'hi ■!:.:!}  .!•  •i-...ii.:..i.i-e  with  tite  cl^is-ii'-.  niid  l.i*  of  t!ii« flri'lenf  tlraniati«:«,  and  ll  •-  Iia*t  r^i 


1  "ri  .1  t"  t:  .ifc.-  :hi"  iau  *  nf  t!ie  Uiiii  n!-*  autlMifj-  u*'!e  « ".ther  fi«r  nierit*  i»r  fault-.     I'nder  the  O' 

tiiti^i.  i:\  }'.:,/a^]i  •Irainatii'  :trt.    lb-  i^  thi  a'lthnr  nmn^iialth.  and  the  A-«'rniltncy  i-f  the  I\:ri:j 

t'f  tu<j!r:c<J'^ -,  "t'atiliht  "ai.d  ".'^-j;uii:*,".nnd  whnh.-id  altva\!«  hit  n  M  f^ud  tiirhthe  «  lU.  tkc 

«.>f  Lumiri'uvtomc^iea  uxid  uia»<|Ues,  the  li-4t  of  theatres  Were  cloavd,  and  iLc  playi-n  flv^(S«dL 


ENGLAIO)  (LASGUAex  asd  LnzBATUBs)  193 

At  the  restoration,  the  drama  was  revived  under  whioh  had  been  among  the  earliest  fruits  of  mod- 
the  inflaence  of  French  rales,  and  of  a  strong  era  literature,  was  brought  to  perfection  in  this 
Mti-Piiritaa  reaction,  and  the  larger  part  of  poem,  which  presents  exquisitely  beautiful  pio- 
Ihe  plftys  for  40  years  are  declared  by  Hacaulay  tnres  of  an  ideal  chivalry  in  a  land  of  enchant- 
to  be  a  diflgrace  to  the  English  language  and  the  ment  Tet  the  descriptions  of  an  imaginary 
wtionil  character.  A  shamelessness,  as  inele-  world,  though  luxuriant  and  circumstantial, 
fut  as  it  wis  immoral,  was  the  common  char-  often  lack  the  interest  of  real  life,  and  affect  us 
ideristic  of  the  drama.  To  ridicule  and  degrade  as  remote  and  abstract  speculations.  Itspecu- 
TirtQe,  sincerity,  and  prudence,  was  the  business  liar  stanza,  to  which  his  nanje  has  been  given,  a 
of  the  stage,  which  it  followed  with  an  impu-  modification  of  the  Italian  ottata  rima,  with  the 
dnce  so  anbloshinff  as  to  have  the  charm  of  addition  of  an  Alexandrine  to  each  verse  to  give 
fiabolical  naiteU,  Blank  verso  was  for  a  time  a  full  and  sweeping  close,  was  an  innovation  in 
disphtfed  by  rhyme,  but  the  tragic  authors  soon  the  art  of  poetry,  and  has  since  been  adopted 
ittanied  to  the  former,  and  the  comic  sank  to  by  Shenstone  in  his  **  Schoolmistress,"  Beattie 
ftodliar  prose.  The  best  tragedies  of  the  period  in  his  *^  Minstrel,"  Byron  in  his  "  Ghilde 
the  " Orphan "  and  "  Venice  Preserved " of  Harold,"  Thomson  in  his  "Castle  of  Indo- 
Otway  (1661-'85) ;  and  though  the  lence,"  Shelley  in  his  "  Revolt  of  Islam,"  and 
displeases  the  delicacy  of  our  age,  the  by  many  other  English  poets.  The  *^  Shepherd's 
liCUr  has  been  more  frequently  represented  Kalendar,"  and  the  hymns  to  "Love"  and 
ftaa  any  other  tragedy  after  those  of  Shake-  "Beauty,"  are  among  the  finest  of  Spenser's  mi- 
yie.  The  genins  of  the  unhappy  poet  appears  nor  pieces,  the  last  revealing  his  sympathy  with 
syrially  in  pathetic  delineations  of  passion  Platonic  doctrines.  Nearly  contemporary  with 
■M  misery,  and  few  heroines  have  been  so  the  "  Fa^ir  Queen"  were  the  songs  and  sonnets 
kWy  honored  with  the  tribute  of  tears  as  Bel-  of  Sir  Philip  Sidney ;  the  "^  Saint  Peter's  Gom- 
mra in  "Venice  Preserved."  John  Dryden,  plaint"  and  "MaryMagdolcne^s  Funeral  Tears" 
ito  was  rivalled  by  none  of  his  contemporaries  of  Robert  Southwell ;  the  ^'  Civil  Wars,"  "  Com- 
ai  a  sirtirical,  didactic,  and  lyric  poet,  abused  his  plaint  of  Rosamond,"  and   numerous   minor 


pfts  to  attain  dramatic  success,  the  faculty  pieces  of  Samuel  Daniel,  of  a  nensive  character, 
Ir'  wluch  nature  had  denied  him.  Ilis  "  Don  and  in  remarkably  pure  stylo ;  the  "  Baron's 
Sebastian,'*  "Spanish  Friar,"  and  "All  for  Wars"  and  the  " Polyolbion"  of  Michael  Dray- 
Love,"  are  the  best  of  numerous  tragedies  and  ton,  the  former  a  metrical  chronicle,  and  the 
eomediea,  the  absurd  bombast  and  ribaldry  of  latter  an  immense  piece  of  metrical  topography, 
which  have  made  them  almost  forgotten  not-  which  contains  also  striking  national  legends 
withstanding  their  surprising  incidents,  stately  and  ingenious  allegorical  and  mythological  in- 
daclamation,  and  harmonious  numbers.  The  ventions;  the  few  and  brief  poems  of  Sir  Henry 
"Fatal  Discovery"  of  Thomas Southerne,  the  Wotton;  the  "Orchestra"  and  the  "Soul  of 
*  Jane  Shore"  of  Nicholas  Rowe,  the  "  Fatal  Man  and  the  Immortality  thereof^  of  Sir  John 
Cbriosity"  of  William  Lillo,  the  "Mourning  Davies,  the  latter  a  happily  condensed  piece 
Bride  ^  of  Congreve,  and  the  "  Rival  Queen  "  of  metaphysical  reasoning ;  the  satires  of  Bishop 
of  Kathaniel  Lee,  may  also  be  mentioned  among  Hall,  the  earliest  in  tlie  language  except  the 
Hooessfnl  tragedies.  The  proper  representa-  "  Steele  Glass"  of  Gascoyno ;  the  satires,  elegies, 
tires  of  the  comedy  of  this  period  are  William  and  various  lyrics  of  John  Donne,  which  are 
Wycheriy,  William  Congreve,  George  Farquhar,  rather  metrical  problems  than  poems,  strongly 
tmi  Sir  John  Vanbrugh,  and  among  their  profli-  manifesting  the  metaphysical  tendency  then 
nte  plays  the  most  popular  wore  the  "  Plain  common  in  poetry,  but  which  reveal  a  subtle  in- 
Sealer"  and  the  "Country  Wife,"  "Love  for  tellect  and  fruitful  fancy,  though  obscure  in 
Lore"  and  the  "Way  of  the  World,"  the  "  Beaux  thought,  rugged  in  versification,  and  full  of  as 
Scntagem"  and  the  "  Trip  to  the  Jubilee,"  bad  affectations  and  conceits  as  are  to  be  found 
~  the  **  Provoked  Husband "  and  the  "  Pro-  in  the  century ;  the  poems  of  the  brothers 
Wife."  Mrs.  Aphra  Behn,  Thomas  Shod-  Phineos  and  Giles  Fletcher,  the  princi[)al  of 
and  Sir  George  Etherege  also  deserve  which  are  the  *^  Purple  Island,"  an  allegorical 
among  those  who  made  the  stage  description  of  the  human  soul  end  body. 
Immoral  as  their  talents  permitted.  The  and  "  Christ's  Victory  and  Triumph,"  which 
Husband  "  and  other  plays  of  Colley  is  one  of  the  most  beautiful  of  religious  com- 
',  and  the  "  Busy  Body"  and  "  Bold  positions ;  and  the  sacred  poems  of  the  coun- 
for  a  Wife"  of  Mrs.  Centlivre,  connect  try  parson,  Greorge  Herbert.  In  Scotland, 
Ae  period  of  the  restoration  with  that  of  Anne.  Alexander  Scott  and  Sir  Richard  Maitland 
Anooff  the  non-dramatic  poets  of  the  period  wrote  brief  poems ;  Alexander  Montgomery, 
inn  £3izabeth  to  Anne,  Edmund  Spenser  the  "  Cherry  and  the  Sloe ;"  Alexander  Hume, 
CUBI''99X  John  Milton  (1G08-1 674),  and  John  the  "Day  Estival;"  King  James  VI.,  the 
fl^fden  (1631-1700),  successively  held  preemi-  "Essayes  of  a  Prentice  in  the  Divine  Art  of 
amoa.  The  unfinished  product  of  Spenser's  Poesie ;"  the  earl  of  Stirling,  his  "Recrea- 
fawpnaiion,  the  "  Faery  Queen,'^  is  a  monument  tions  with  the  Muses ;"  Sir  Robert  Aytoun,  hi] 
I  tf  tSa  eontemplative  and  retrospective  thought  few  songs ;  and  William  Drummond,  one  of^e 
!  tf  die  Elizabethan  age,  an  age  as  philosophical  most  distinguished  poets  of  his  time, 
I  mit  was  adventnrous.  The  moral  allegory^  nets,  madrigals,  and  larger  pieces.  Majjiowe's 
l                                   YOU  TIL^13 

L 


y 


194  ENGLAND  (Laxquaob  avd  LmBATVBx) 

trantlationfl  from  Ovid  and  LucAn;  SandjaV  mired,  and  was  diligent) jttodied  by  Popou  Gov- 

from  Ovid  and  tlio  Pralms;   Harrington's  T«r-'  ley  (101&-*67)  was  tbo  most  popoiar  poet  of  Ui 

sion  of  Ariosto,  Fanshawc^s  of  Cain(»i*na,  and  time,  though  full  of  metaphysical  coneata    His 

the  more    important  vcniions   of  Homer  by  Anacreontics,  the  happiest  di  hb  pieces,  ftie^fifw* 

Chapman  and  of  Tasso  by  Fairfax,  alw  belong  to  ly ,  jovons,  and  highly  embellished.    The  ^  <  ~ 

this  period.    The  literary  genius  of  the  age  of  er's  llill "  of  Denham  is  meditali?e  in  cfaai 

Puritan  nwendency,  between  tlic  Elizabethan  and  in  vigorous  and  rbytbmleal  oooplet% 

epoch  and  that  of  the  restoration,  culminated  the  ^*  Gondibert"  of  Davenant  was  far  a  iMe 

in  Milton,  who  has  no  rivals  in  epic  poetry  but  regarded  as  a  monument  of  seniua.    The  nfi- 

Ilomcr  and  Dante.     His  career  illustrates  tho  gious  poems  of  Quarlea,  Crashaw,  and  \aa^ 

literary  character  of  liis  age.    Prior  to  1640,  ho  an  may  be  classed  together.    Tbe  pfoifarttai 

had  pnnluced  his  '*  I/AllcKro,"  **  II  Ponseroso,**  of  Herrick  and  M'itlier  exhibit  playfnlacai  of 

and  '*  Cumus,*^  the  most  incusing  of  his  produc-  fancy  and  delicacy  of  sentiment,  Tsned  ia  IW 

tions,  abounding  in  passages  frequently  quoted,  former  by  freauent  grossnesa  and  imteiicaej. 

exquisite  for  imagination,  sentiment,  and  mu-  The  ^^Hudibras'of  Butler,  aworkof  inexhaw^ 

sical  rhythm ;  his  **  Lycidas,'^  an  enjoyment  of  ible  wit,  which  was  perpctoally  Qooted  for  kalf 

cia-  a  century,  belongs  chronologically,  m  alsi 


which  is  fe«aid  to  be  a  te^t  of  a  genuine  apprec 

tion  of  |Mx*try ;  and  his  *^  Ode  on  the  Nativity/*  numy  others  of  tho  bter  poema  of 

one  of  the  finest  in  tho  l.inguage.    During  tho  his  contemporaries,  to  too  age  when  Drydn 

period  of  civil  conflict  and  Cromwellian  rule,  and  the  comic  dramatists  were  prevalent    TIm 

from  1G40  to  1C60,  he  wrote  no  poetry  at  all  ex-  rapidity  of  conception  and  ease  of  tx^nrnkm 

eept  a  few  sonnet^  but  produced  his  various  po-  of  Dryden  made  liim  a  contributor  in  mium 

lemical  pn>se  treaties;  and  it  is  remarkable tnat  departments  of  literature.    The  greatest  of  hk 

there  was  at  that  time  an  almost  entire  cewation  satires  are   **  Absalom   and  Achitopbd,**  md 

of  pure  literature  in  England.    The  contempo-  **Mac  Flecknoe,**  and  the  first  lines  of  hiifiae 

rary  poets,  witliout  an  exception  of  any  oinse-  controversial  poem,  the  *'  Hind  and  Fknthar,* 

auence,  had  tht-ir  eras  of  activity  only  beforo  are  among  the  most  mnsical  in  the  lancoifL 

lie  stnijr^lc  and  after  it,  or  in  exile  or  in  A  thinker  as  well  as  poet,  his  argnmenta  dow  ta 

prison  during  it,  and  tho  intellect  of  the  coun-  harmonious  verse,  and  his  conceptiooa  have  a 

try  was  occupied  in  producing  a  hiif^e  mam  of  strikingly  intellectual  character  and  stand  iakig^ 

eontroverfiiol  prnso,  only  a  very  sliglit  propor-  ical  sequence.   His  various,  thoogh  not  hisgiwl- 

tion  of  which  has  taken  a  iiluco  in  the  liter-  est,  exrellenoes  appear  in  his  ''Fables**  and  hii 

ature.    One  literary  man  only  was  undisturb-  **Odo  for  Saint  Cecilia's  Day.**    Amooir  Liseoa- 

ed  and  uninterested  by  the  events  of  the  time,  temporaries,  the  verses  of  some  of  whon  have 

While  Engliind  was  in  tlirno.i  and  r<infi»ion,  retained  their  {lopularity,  were  MorveU.  Rocb* 

Sir  Ttidmad  H  row  no  was  quietly  moilltuting  in  estor,    ChnrlcH  Cot  tun,'  Sedley,  John   Phi«iF^ 

his  garden  at  Norwich  uiK>n  M-|iuIrIiral  urns  Oldham,  l^>9common,   Mulgrai'e.   I>orBet«  aad 

and  the  iiuiiirunriAl  luzengo.     The  **  Paradi^to  Ponifrct. — Tho  old  English  prove  writers  aie 

IiO!>t,**  thou^li  pubU»)ied  oiflcr  tho  rcKtonitiun,  generully  di>tinguL4hvd  for  sterling  sense,  aad 

wttji  an  early  ronreption  of  Milton,  and  hvars  for  a   htylo    cojiioiis  to  redundancy,   adornsd 

tlie  iiiiprv<4  oftliid  |>eriu4l  of  ficn-o  diMM)s^ion  with  all  tho  wealth  of  tho  imagiiuiiiun  rath« 

and  of  moral  and  tIieoKi;;irAl  strife.     Ua  ^ub-  than   with  Judicious  taf*te.      Their   dictiua  ii 

Jvct,  tho  fall  of  man,  in    |K'rha[is  without  an  dvfonni'd  by  abounding  pedantry,  their  coQ^ 

equal  in  fjiirul  grandeur,  antl  its  ino!it  {irorninent  cati«>ii  of  wonlii  and  phrasi'S  \*  in  iroitaciua  ef 

perMinogi*,  if  nt»tits  hem,  ii  tlio  fnlKn  arehan^tl  tho  Ijitin,  and  their  iieriiHls  are  te«liuusly  pr^ 

ratan,  \(li(i<i' niimtl  ^ple^dor  and  |H>wor  of  dar-  litnget}   and  unrhythniicolly   nmstroctcd:    TfC 

ing  and  of  Mitferaneo  make  him  one  of  the  kuI»-  they  are  nervous  and  oflcetive,  thoufrh  ungracsfcl 

linu-*t  rreation««of  iM»otry.     The  lrite<>t  (Mi^'mKof  writers,  h- Mom  degenerate  into  indvtlaile  and 
"    eiM'#:i       -  - 


IfiUon,  "  ruruilist*  iM-^aiiied  **  and  "S;imfu>n  Ag-  aiinlrxi  phrasioolopy,  but  crowd  thrir 

oni^tes"  :ire  of  infiTi«ir  worth.    Anmn^  the  con-  with  meaning:.  Tlie  mo«t  admiraUo  priMO  writer 

ti'ni|M»rBrii'S   of  Milttm    witv    Thonian   (*arvw,  of  the  KlizaU-than   |>ori«Hl  i«  Ku-}iaj\i  Hkjt«k<r 

FraiMMH  Cellar li»<,(ieiirpo  Wit hiT,  Sir  .Till in  Suek-  (lu5:i~KiOo).  wlioss  "EccU'si actual    Puiily"  It 

lin^,   iZtibiTt    II  err  irk,    Kir  hard    bivtiMtv,   Sir  one  of  tlio  ma^ierpiecvs  of  Kn;rh«h  eliM^aeaee; 

Itiehnrd  ran-^hawe,  Kt«-haril  ('roshaw,  Abraham  and  its  Hiber  richnoM  of  Myle.  tt^  fulness  of 

C«>wKy,  llehry  Vau;;han,  Sir  Ji>fiii  I>enh:ini.  .^!r  ituu;;ery  united  with   condeUAatiun  of  thoockl. 

William  pAVeiiant,  tlilimind  WalU-r,  and  Smmiel  wii!«  unApproa4*hed  bv  any  other  writer  daring 

liutler.     Tho   ^*u^  aM<l  »h"rt   a:tia'.«iry  pii'Ces  tKo   next  century.     Yho    Sorum   i^ffam^f%  oC 

of  Carvw  Hrre  tlif  precurMin  (if  nuiitiruu*  •'ini-  I^^rd  Itarun  I  lt*i»»l -Ki-(>\  tlio  mife*t  influential 

il;ir  |<nMlTi«-!iiiii4  writ ti-n  hv^:iy  and  :irriiiii|pIi«!uMl  aiid  oripiml  phihiNiiphieid  work  that  ! 

ruv.\!ii  pi  .ir.ll  riiiirtii-r^.  a4  the  *' Halto*)  u|mi;i  a  prinluced    in    Kngiand.   wa*  writtm  in 

WiiliiiiiT.*'  and  ni:iny  otht-r  |nw  rn«*  of  S-.K-kliripT,  lli^  •'  Ail\uncenient  uf  Iwcaming,"  a  "globe  o^ 

adniiraMo  f  ^r  tln-ir  wittv  le%itv  ;  the  mle^  and  lite  intellectual  univers*.**  witii  a  note  i/ 


tkjv^  of  Iiii\e!.v-«' :  tho  nii'NvIiamNiti^  |Mi«'in<»  of  partjt  ntit  yet  iniprovi<4l  by  the  lalior  of  man.  be 

Fan<«ha«e;  ar.(l,h;ijKT.(ir  toall  titlit-rr  tlio  prswv-  cmnpared  tn  tho  noi^t*  whieh  mu»iciaa«  make 

ful  oC'\k*i'tii.il  |'«Hii)«  cf  ( 'it^t  !i  y  an<l  W. tiler.  1  ho  wh!ii>  thi-y  are  tuning  their  in<itrumentik  **  whieil 

mcludiuui  vvrvs  uf  Waller  was  es|«ecially  ad-  is  uuthiog  pleasant  to  hoar,  but  yet  is  a  caosewlij 


ENGLAND  (Ljlnouaox  jlhd  LnzBATUBs)  195 

the  nmsieissweeter  afterward ;"  and  at  the  close  vines,  Joseph  Hall  (1674-1 656),  and  Jeremy  Tay- 

of  his  aarvey  he  predicted  that  *'the  third  pc-  lor  (1613-16G7),  whose  works  are  monuments 

riod  of  time  will  far  snrpass  that  of  the  Grecian  of  their  own  abilities  and  of  the  pedantic  tastes 

nd  Roman  learning."    His  style,  usually  senten-  of  the  age.    The  ^*  Contemplations  "  of  Hdl  are 

tioos  and  somewhat  stiff,  became  more  imagina-  superior  to  any  of  the  writings  of  Taylor  in 

ttvB,  ridier,  and  softer  with  his  increasing  years ;  continuity  of  thought,  but  the  latter  has  perhaps 

bat  tiiongfa  his  fancy  was  of  the  brightest,  he  had  no  equal  in  the  pulpit  in  the  splendor  of 

•Oowed  to  it  no  other  office  than  that  of  minis-  his  imagination,  and  is  often  called  the  Shake- 

tering  to  reason.    His  apptication  of  thought  to  speare  of  divines.    The  most  curious  works  of 

purposes  of  atility  and  progress,  with  a  view  to  the  time  are  the  "  Anatomy  of  Melancholy"  of 

the  practical  restitntion  of  man  to  the  sover-  Robert  Burton  (1576-1640),  composed  largely 

eignty  of  nature,  has  entered  as  a  characteristio  of  apt  and  learned  quotations  from  rare  authorsi 

cSiniient  into  the  public  mind  of  England.    His  constantly  intermingled  with  the  writer^s  own 

"  Eonys"  are  among  the  masterpieces  of  Eng-  thoughts,  and  which  exhibits  in  every  part 

lUtk  prose,  and  are  equally  eminent  for  power  great  spirit  and  power,  and  has  the  charm  of  a 

ofoprearion  and  for  compactand  solid  wisdom,  full  ana  vigorous  style;  and  the  ^^ Religio  Me- 

Gootemporary  productions  were  the  **  Arcadia"  dici,"  *'  Urn  Burial,"  and  other  works  of  Sir 

ind  the  "  Defence  of  Poesy"  of  Sir  Philip  Sid-  Thomas  Browne  (1605-1682),  whose  popularity 

My,  the  former  of  which  was  universally  read  has  revived  in  our  own  day — elaborately  quaint 

ttd  admired ;  the  **  History  of  the  World  "  of  compositions,  fascinating  from  their  ponsive- 

fir  Walter  Raleigh,  written  in  the  Tower ;  the  ness  akin  to  melancholy,  their  paradoxes,  and 

"Chronicle  of  England"  and  "  Survey  of  Lon-  their  occasional  subtlety  and  imaginative  bril- 

doa"  of  John  Stow ;  the  chronicles  of  Raphael  liancy.    Under  the  head  of  essays  or  sketches 

EMinshed;  tho  collection  of  voyages  by  Richard  may  be  classed  the  ^^GulPs  Hornbook"  of  the 

EUdayt;  tiie"Purchas  his  Pilgrims"  of  Samuel  dramatist  Decker,  the  *' Characters"  of  Sir 

Ftodias :  the  "  Relation  of  a  Journey,"  &c,  of  Thomas  Overbury,  the  "  Resolves"  of  Owen 

George  Sandys ;  the  ^  Epistoke  Ho-EIianie"  of  Feltham,  the  *'  Microcosmography"  attributed 

JaoMS  HoweU ;  the  **  History  of  the  Turks"  of  to  Bishop  Enrle,  tho  miscellaneous  pieces  of  Sir 

Biefaard  Knolles ;  and  the  sermons  of  Bishop  Henry  Wotton,  and  tho  **  Discourses  by  way 

Andrews  and  Dr.  Donne,  mosaics  of  quaintness,  of  Essays  "  of  Cowley.    The  last  are  written  in 

onotation,  wisdom,  folly,  subtlety,  and  ecstasy,  a  placid  and  perspicuous  style,  very  unlike  the 

The  writings  of  John  Lilly  produced  a  marked  affected  obscurities  of  his  poems,  and  may  be 

effect  on  much  of  tho  Elizabethan  literature,  reckoned  among  the  earliest  models  of  good 

His  "  Euphues,"  a  dull  story  of  a  young  Athe-  writing  in  English  prose.    John  Locke  (1632- 

nian,  in  a  smooth  style,  full  of  affected  conceits  1704)  is  the  author  of  treatises  on  civil  govern- 

and  recondite  similes,  was  the  model  after  which  ment,  education,  and   the  reasonableness  of 

vits  and  gaUants  formed  their  conversation  and  Christianity,  which  diffused  a  spirit  of  liberty 

writing.    The  ladies  of  the  court  wore  among  and  toleration  in  opinion  and  government ;  but 

Us  pDpila,  and  Blount  (1632)  remarks  that  tho  his  most  important  work  is  tho  **  Essay  on  the 

bcanty  who  could  not  "parley  Euphuismo"  Human  Understanding,"  which  soon  become  the 

WIS  as  Utile  regarded  as  one  that  could  not  acknowledged  code  of  English  philosophy,  and 

speak  French.     Lender  James  L  was  produced  displays  and  inculcates  a  careful,  tentative  obser- 

ue  translation  of  the  Bible  which  has  been  vation  of  intellectual  habits.  It  helped  to  convert 

fRierally  in  authority  from  that  time.    Between  metaphysics  from  scholastic  probloThs  into  prac- 

Bseon  and  Locke,  the  most  acute  of  English  tical  and  clearly  intelligible  analyses,  but  its  in- 

■ctaphysicians  was  Thomas  Hobbes  (15S8-  definiteness  in  the  uso  of  the  phrase  "  ideas  of 

1179),  whose  political  theories  are  collected  in  reflection  "  has  left  tho  essential  character  and 

Us  **Leviathan."    His  style  is  uniformly  excel-  tendency  of  tho  Lockean  system  in  dispute  be- 

knti  a  merit  which  belongs  to  no  one  of  his  tween  sensationalists  and  idealists.    Two  writ- 

predecessors.     Among  his  contemporaries  were  ers  who  at  this  time  deviated  from  the  track 

the  soeptical  philosopher  Lord  Herbert  of  Cher-  which  English  speculation  has  chiefly  followed, 

harj,  who  wrote  also  a  history  of  the  reign  of  and  in  whom  Platonic  tendencies  pre<lominated, 

Bmuj  VUI. ;  the  antiquaries  William  Camden,  were  Ralph  Cudworth,  the  author  of  the  "  In- 

fir  Henry  Spelman,  Sir  Robert  Cotton,  and  tellectual  System  of  the  Universe,"  and  Henry 

Mm  Speed;  John  Selden,  the  author  of  a  More,  the  author  of  the  "Mystery  of  Godliness," 

*T^eatise  on  Titles  of  Honor,"  and  whose  ad-  tho  "  Mystery  of  Iniquity,"  and  other  works 

■finble  **  Table  Talk"  was  published  after  his  which  were  once  very  popular.    Tlie  sermona 

isadi ;    the    chronologist  Archbishop  Usher ;  of  Barrow,  South,  and  Tillotson  were  respect- 

VilCam  Chillingworth,  whoso   "Religion   of  ively  esteemed  for  strength,  wit^  and  rational 

PMestants"  is  a  model  of  perspicuous  reason-  unction,  but  tho  lost  have  retained  least  of  their 

»;  Peter  Heylin,  a  wit  and  divine,  the  author  former  popularity.    To  this  period  belong  most 

^Microcosmos ;"  John  Hales,  a  preacher  and  of  the  prose  writings  of  MUton,  which  test  the 

MBlroversialist;  John  Gauden,  the  supposed  au-  power  of  the  language  in  vigorous  and  lofty 

of  the  fiunous  "  Eikon  Basilike,"  which  pro-  declamation,  the  Origins*  Sacra  of  Stillingfleet, 

to  emanate  from  the  pen  of  Charles  I. ;  the  theological  treatises  of  Sherlock,  the  "  Ex- 

tha  two  most  eloquent  of  the  old  English  di-  position  of  the  Creed  "  of  Pearson,  the  ^^Exposi- 


k. 


196  ENGLAND  (Lavouaob  aspd  LtnBATCU) 

tionofthoXXXTX.  Article!!*' of  Bishop  Burnet,  was  cleared  of  its  redniidancict,  uid  wit  i^ 
the  **  Saint's  Kvvrla.«tiiiK  Kc»t**  uuU  other  workri  fiued  from  itA  alloy.  The  writera  of  the  £Iii^ 
of  Baxter,  the  exp«Niitorjr  workd  of  I^eiichton,  hetliun  ]»eri(Ml,  in  an  age  of  stnpendoiu  chanm^ 
Owen,  and  Ilvnrv,  and  tlio  writingn  of  the  on  tho  conthiesi  between  UarbariiHD  and  reniW' 
Quakers  Georicu  Foz,  KoWrt  Ihircluy,  W'ilHain  mcnt,  had  dealt  with  the  original  pamuns  and 
Peun,  and  Thomas  £11  w CM k1.  Thi^atseofdiTiiie:!  princi{deii  of  human  nature,  and  had  fooad 
and  c«>uiicdrainatihts  wurialM>  distiii^uihhvtl  for  their  illustrations  in  the  paireantry  of  pMl  lo- 
lls devotion  to  |>ruA'tirul  kcieneo  under  the  ^id-  stitutions  and  in  dreams  of  the  future.  At  Um 
ance  of  the  Kiiirit  «'f  Bacon,  and  ehcuiihtry  and  Eiifclish  advanced  to  the  character  of  a  pulisbed 
phy Mcsl>o<*ame  as  fashionable  as  wine  and  h>ve,  nation,  losing  the  bluAness  and  heartineaa  of 
and  us  much  resfKH'ti'd  as  dcfenivs  of  the  Trinity,  tiieir  older  manners  their  literature  also  bemua 
InKtaiuvHofthiNtendt-ncyurethe  **I>iscovi'ryof  less  wild  and  grand  in  its  rmnance  and  mora 
a  Nl-w  Wi>rld  *'  ami  the  othiT  so  called  *'  mat  he-  regular  in  its  outlines,  the  suggestions  of  ftenioa 
matirol works'* of BifhopWilkins, the'* History  being  moulded  by  the  rules  of  taste.  Aa  cd- 
of  the  Ito}al  SK'ii'ty''  of  Sprat,  the  ''Sacred  riched  and  refined  by  the  writers  oi  the  ragm 
Theory  of  the  Earth'*  of  Thomas  Burnvt,  the  of  Anno,  which  is  often  called  tlie  AngnataB  ava 
**  Svlv'a"  and  ^'Tt-rra'*  «>f  Evelyn,  the  *'OliM.Tva-  of  the  literature,  the  language  was  almost  fia^y 
tions'*  and  the  **\ViMdfim  «>f  Ci«m1  Monifvsti-d  in  formed.  The  fashions  and  IKvolitiea  of  eJcgaat 
the  Works  iff  Croat iun'*  of  Ji>hu  Ray.  and  above  and  artificial  life  liecanie  tlie  tliemca  of  pocCa 
all  othcpt.  the  **  C'ontiide  rut  ions  on  the  I'mTuI-  and  essayists,  and  while  the  bighcct  regiona  of 
ness  of  Ex iieri mental  PhiIo«opby,**  and  c»ther  poetry  and  speculation  were  abandoned. 


Works  phihisoiihical  and  religious,  of  Roliert  were  no  longer  confined  to  the  learned  or  enri- 
Bo>  le,  and  t  !i v  Ph  ilo§ajfh  j4p  Xa  tura lit  Pr'mcipM  ous,  but  wore  grad ual ly  snread  among  all  clasoaa. 
M^thematiea  uf  Sir  Ii>aac  Newttm.   Among  anti-  Men  of  letters  now  first  became  known  in  Eaf^ 
quariuii  wtirkii  werethi*  Jf(^rias^i<v/ij4a{r/Munuifi  land  as  a  distinct  cbss  in  society.     To  biickf 
of  Sir  William  Dugilale,  thv  Athena  Oxoni<fi$e$  philosoiihy  out  of  closets  and  librarica,  achoob 
of  Antluiuy  H  WoinI,  the  history  of  the  order  of  and  colleges^  Aod  to  make  it  dwell  in  dnba  and 
the  garter  by  Elias  Ashmolc,  the  '*  Miscellanies**  assemblies,  at  tea  tables  and  in  coffee  boosas 
of  John  Aubn-y,  and  the  J-\nUra  of  Th(»mas  was  the  object  which  Steele  proposed  to  hlm- 
Rymer,  w)io  aUi  wn>te  a  curious  treatise  cm  self.    Tliat  school  of  poetrv  which  mav  be  trarcd 
tragvdy,   in   which  Shukcs|K-are  is  criticized  to  tlie  adoption  of  Ir  rencn  mlea  under  Cbarica 
according  to  certain   Ktuti*Iy  notions  derived  II.,  which  acquired  stability  from  the  transoHi- 
fhmi  the  ancients.     Works  of  high  literary  dentiHiwersof  Dry  den,  and  which  was  now  ncr^ 
Int4.'r«'<»t  aro   the   '*  Worthii-s  of  England"  of  fccted by  Alexander  Pofie (1688-1744), retamcd 
ThomitH  KiiIliT,  one  of  the  strungo-^t  IxMiks  in  its  ascendency  nearly  through  the  IHtb  century, 
tlio  World,  a  nu'Ioxigv  of  iNhlity.  Miguiily,  and  hu-  Tlio  follies  of  hisfveblo  copyists  have  reacted  in- 
mor,  in  a  pitliy  mUo  ;  the  **  l!i>ti»ry  oi*  tlie  Itc-  Juriously  u|.H»n  the  fume  of  thv  great  master  o^ 
bellii'n"  of  l^»rd  ('lure  lid  I  III,  whit  li,  in  spite  of  the  m:]iooI.     For  h:df  a  century  tlie  notion  pre- 
Its  di'iiliiTate  {•urtiulit}.  iit  ndiiiiraMe  fur  it?* |Nir-  vuiled  that  whoi>ver  deviateil  from  the  standard 
trailiiri-s  of  rliura«'ter  and  it.«  uniinutiil  n:U'ru-  of  I*ope  was  worthy  only  to  figure  in  the*'  IhitH 
tive;  tlio  "Ob4<-r%:itiiiiis  on  die  I'liited  IVov-  ciad  ;**  but  somewhat  Uter  it  L>ecame  comnwo 
inccs  of  the  NetlierluiMN'*  of  Sir  Williuiii  Teiii*  to  deny  to  him  |Mietic  genius,  imagination,  and 
pie;  the  lii->turii-4  i.f  tit*-  refuriiiatiiin  Htid  uf  his  renoitility,  and  to  decry  his  wit,  epigram matie 
own  tiiiu-t  by  (iilU-rt  Biiriut;  (he  "  ril^riiii's  furce,  and   fuultlens  numU-rc,  by  cvitfoum^icg 
Pr<»gre<>^"   of  Jnhii    Bni)%nn,  a   s|k.i  iineii   I'f  tliem  lAith  the  imitations  of  the  dunces  wliohw 
homely  Eni;li*>li.  the  fruit  of  a  lively  and  |m>w-  caught  Mtntething  of  his  metre  but  nothing  o^ 
crful  iinoirinntinn  eu!ii\titft|  nnlr  by  the  Miuly  his  hpirit.     Ills  correctnetM  was  bramU'd  as  the 
of  tlte  SiTi|'ture<«:  uiid  tliehalf  p'H  tieal  "l'<»iii-  badge  of  unimaginative  and  artifieial  verse,  and 
pU-te  Ait^'lt  r'*  of  I/.'uik  WiUtmi,  uln*  aUo  iiri'io  niuy  l«lmo^t  liC  nnniberi-d  among  tiie  lo^t  artJL 
some  pti-a-in;:  bi*>k'raphies.    Miii«>r  wnrk>  were  Yet  Cum  pi  •ell  and  Byron  werL^zealoiiB  todo  hia 
the  tnin*>!atii<ii<i  and  iMi]itiruI  paiii|>IiK  (h  of  Sir  ju^ttiiv,  and  the  latter  o  mi  pared  the  |««trT  uf 
Rtdn  rt  I.'K-truii^e.  the  "('•>iiti-niplati«>ii^"4if  Sir  the  l^th  (viitury  to  the  ParthenoD,  and  that  of 
Matthew  Male,  the  *'  K-^-a) .«"  tiu  uiii  ieht  iiitd  his  own  tiniLti  to  a  Turkish  nHMffue,  and  Imwsts 
miileni  lesniiiiK'  hy  Ti  iii]ile.  bill!  the  *' Kellei  -  that  though  he  a^^isted  in  rearing  the  gaudy  aod 
tiunH**  in  an^wtr  t«i  tin  in  by  Woitun.      Tom  fanta>tic  Mriieture,  he  liad   iivv«r  defaced  pc^ 
I^'lrffv  .ind  Ti'iii  Hniwii,  "nu-rry  fi  ll^ws,"  tliu  depreeiatetl  the  iiKinumenis  of  a  vurx't  tMtr. 
Iai*t  itf  tlie  wi!-*  of  tlie  Ti  •(••ration,  u  r^'te  euiuie  The  vipir  of  eohi'eptitin  anil  |Niint  oi  t'iprv«»t«4i 
and  lii-t-iitiiiti4  eiiinpMoitiiiii<k  ill  prM»o  and  \erM'.  mliirh  di«tiiigM)*li   llie   **  E*>.«^ay  t^n   Man,"  the 
The  ">l.i.rt  View.  '  A*e.,  if  Jenmy  Collier  w:l«  *•  1;u|h>  of  the  !.4Mk."  the  "  Epistle  from  Kk-t^a 
the  Uviniiim;  of  a  miitrovefy  UtwevU  him  to  AUlunl."  the  ".Sitiri  s'*aii«l  the  "  l>um-i*d," 
aiid  (he  roHiit*  drsiiiuti-t^  iihieh  reotilteil  ill  the  will  lit  lea-t  ^  indicate  for  tliriii  the  higl»r«t  rack 
refi*rniAtion    of  the   theatre.  — With   the  niju  in  ;i  iHTiiIiar  iiihI  Uilmirhble  cIom  of  nHttiii^Mi- 
of  Anne  lI7<>t!-*14>  begins  a  n«-w  era  in  Eng-  lion...     Ilt«  "Iliad**  and   **(M;«««*y.'*  thuuch 
lidi   rii!ii]»i**ition,    ahen   the   aiBueneo   of    the  nn-IIonierie.  are  \aluiible  additionA  to  Eiicu*h 
older  literature  gave  «  ay  to  com.i.*tiieN«.     The  literature.     The  tinei»t  rontem|iorarT  p«.«tscal 
rules  of  the  art  wvm  better  understood,  style  pruduclious  were  the  "Letter  tirua  llAiy,"  lb* 


UNGUlSD  (Laitovaqx  jlsd  Liixbatubx)  197 

^'Csmpugn,^  and  the  *'Cato^^  of  Addison,  the  Margaret^^  of  Mallet,  the  Scotch  songs  of  Koss, 
octo-sjllabic  satires  and  occasional  pieces  of  the  ^' Marj^s  Bream^*  of  Lowe,  the  *^  Auld  Robin 
Swifty  the  "  Shepherd's  Week,  in  Six  Pastorals"  Gray"  of  Lady  Anne  Barnard,  the  "  Tulloch- 
of  Gay,  the  "Hermit"  and  the  "Night  Piece  gornm"  of  Skinner,  the  "Tweedside"  of  Craw- 
on  Death"  of  Pamell,  and  the  "  Gentle  Shep-  ford,  the  various  poems  of  Ferguson,  the  odes, 
herd"  of  the  SSbtch  poet  Allan  Ramsay.  The  and  the  epitaph  on  his  wife,  of  Mason,  the  odes 
names  of  Prior,  Tickell,  Garth,  Blackmore,  of  Smollett,  the  "  Art  of  Preserving  Health" 
Ambrose  Philips,  Somerville,  and  Anne  count-  of  Armstrong,  the  "  Gumnor  Hall "  and  the 
ess  of  Winchelsea,  also  belong  here.  It  is  translation  of  the  "Lusiad"  of  Mickle,  the 
remarked  by  Wordsworth  that  between  the  "  Braes  of  Yarrow"  of  Hamilton,  the  elegies  of 
poblication  of  "  Paradise  Lost"  and  of  the  "  Sea-  Hammond,  the  "  Careless  Content"  of  Byrom, 
sons"  of  James  Thomson  (1 700-1 748),  with  the  the  "  Country  Justice"  of  Langhome,  the  "  Law- 
exception  of  the  "  Windsor  Forest"  of  Pope  and  yer's  Farewell  to  his  Muse"  of  Blackstonc,  the 
a  passage  in  the  "  Nocturnal  Reverie"  of  the  "  Shipwreck"  of  Falconer,  the  "  Actor"  of 
ceontess  of  Winchelsea,  not  a  single  new  image  Robert  Lloyd,  the  "  Rosciad  "  and  other  satires 
of  external  nature  was  produced  in  poetry.  The  of  Charles  Churchill,  the  brief  poems  of  Tliomas 
*^  Seasons"  are  almost  the  only  memorial  which  and  Joseph  Warton,  the  "  Leonidas"  and  "  Ath- 
the  age  has  left  of  poetical  S3rmpathy  with  natu-  enais"  of  Glover,  the  short  lyrics  and  transla- 
nd  scenery.  It  was  original  as  well  in  style  as  tions  of  Sir  William  Jones,  the  "  Chameleon" 
m  sabrtance,  for  its  blank  verse  has  an  easy  of  Merrick,  the  pastorals  of  John  Cunningham, 
low  peculiar  to  itself.  The  "  Castle  of  Indo-  the  "  New  Bath  Guide"  of  Anstey,  and  the 
\atdt  is  a  soccessfhl  imitation  of  the  manner  "  Triumphs  of  Temper"  and  other  works  of 
of  Spenser,  and  has  great  and  peculiar  beauty.  Hayley,  who,  thougn  the  feeblest  of  the  imita- 
The  "  Night  Thoughts"  of  Edward  Young  tors  of  Pope,  was  once  considered  a  great  poet. 
(I<t81-1765)  is  also  in  effective  blank  verse,  dis-  In  the  latter  half  of  the  18th  century  also  Mac- 
MTtational  rather  than  simply  poetical,  in  a  sus-  pherson  produced  the  pieces  which  he  ascribed 
tiined  imaginative  and  epigrammatic  style,  to  Ossian,  Cliatterton  wrote  the  poems  which  he 
The  **  Qnkve"  of  Robert  Blair  and  the  hymns  ascribed  to  Rowley,  and  Percy  collected  manj 
of  Watts  are  serious  and  devotional  composi-  old  songs  and  ballads  in  his  "  Reliques  of  £ng- 
tioos  €i  the  same  time.  Through  the  "Bas-  lish  Poetry." — ^The  English  drama  of  the  18Ui 
tand "  of  Richard  Savage,  the  "London"  and  century  bore  the  impress  of  the  neo-classical 
"  Vanity  of  Human  Wishes"  of  Dr.  Johnson,  school  reigning  in  France,  and  presented  a  com- 
tbe  eclogues  and  odes  of  William  Collins,  the  plete  separation  of  tragedy  and  comedy.  The 
*•  Pleasures  of  the  Imagination"  of  Mark  Aken-  "  Cato"  of  Addison,  the  "Elfrida"  of  Mason,  and 
tide,  the  odes  and  the  "  Elegy"  of  Thomas  Gray,  the  "  Irene"  of  Dr.  Johnson,  though  once  acted, 
the  "  Deserted  Village"  and  the  "  Traveller"  are  rather  dramatic  poems  than  plays.  The 
of  Oliver  Goldsmith,  the  "  Minstrel "  of  James  "  Sophonisba"  and  4  other  tragedies  of  Thomson 
Beattie,  the  "  Botanic  Garden"  of  Erasmus  are  the  undramatic  attempts  of  a  descriptive 
Darwin,  and  the  "Task"  of  William  Cowper,  poet.  More  successful  tragedies  were  the  "Re- 
the  line  of  English  poetry  was  continued  al-  vengo"  of  Young,  the  "  Barbarossa"  of  Brown, 
most  to  the  commencement  of  the  present  ccn-  the  "  Gamester"  of  Moore,  the  "  Elvira"  of 
turj.  Johnson  and  Goldsmith  both  belonged  Mallet,  and  the  "Douglas"  of  Home,  the  most 
to  the  school  of  Pope ;  but  their  T)oetry  has  dis-  effective  of  them  all.  In  this  period  were  pro- 
tfaietive  characteristics,  that  of  Johnson  being  duced  the  finest  examples  of  the  legitimate 
marked  especially  by  vigor  and  strong  sense,  English  comedy,  written  usually  in  prose,  and 
and  that  of  GoIdStnith  by  sweetness  and  grace,  exhibiting  refinement  of  sentiment  and  wit. 
The  "  Ode  on  the  Passions"  and  several  other  The  forerunners  of  the  comedies  of  Goldsmith 
pieoeB  of  Collins  are  masterpieces  in  their  kind,  and  Sheridan  were  the  "  Conscious  Lovers"  of 
■nd  eq>ecially  remarkable  for  the  pictorial  Steele,  the  "  Suspicious  Husband "  of  Hoadley, 
~  produced  by  the  personification  of  ab-  the  "  Jealous  Wife"  of  the  elder  Colman,  the 
qualities.    Collins  and  Gray  were  the  "  Clandestine  Marriage"  of  Colman  and  Gar- 


two  fineist  lyric  poets  of  the  century,  and  Gray's  rick,  the  "  Way  to^eep  Him"  of  Murphy,  the 

**ElMy  written  in  a  Country  Churchyard"  and  "False  Delicacy"  of  Kelly,   and  the  "West 

bia  raidaric  ode  of  "  The  Bard  "  are  exquisite  Indian"  of  Cumberland.     Goldsmitirs  "  She 

oamplea  of  finished  art  and  poetical  vigor.  Stoops  to   Conquer"  has  every  requisite  for 

Cowper  was  the  precursor  of  the  regeneration  making  an  audience  merry,  and,  according  to. 

if  poetry,  and,  abandoning  the  stock  images  Davies,  "  revived  fancy,  wit^  gayety,  humor, 

aaa  metrical  sing-song  with   which  art  and  incident,  and  character,  in  place  of  sentiment 

had  been  described,  he  produced  pic-  and  moral   preachment."     The    "  School  for 

of  Eofiish  life  and  scenery  marked  by  a  Scandal,"  the  "  Rivals,"  and  the  "  Critic"  of 

ity,  freedom,  and  freshness  which  anti-  Sheridan  are   distinguished  for  epigrammatic 

the  dawn  of  a  new  period.    Among  the  witticisms,  insight  into  social  weaknesses,  and 

fiodnctions  of  minor  poets  of  the  18th  century  ingeniously  contrived  whimsical  situations ;  and 

m%  the  "  Grongar  Hill"  of  John  Dyer,  the  the  first  is  in  many  respects  superior  to  any  other 

*flkhoohiiistres8   of  Shenstone,  the  "  Colin  and  comedy  of  modern  times.    The  "  Lying  Valet  ** 

Lh^**  of  Tickell,  the  ballad-like  "  William  and  and  "  Miss  in  her  Teens"  of  Garrick,  the  "  Belle'a 


Hl.. 


198  ENGLAND  (Lasovaqb  axd  Lrsbatvu) 

8tr«U(reRi^  of  Mrs.  Cowley,  the  *'  Tom  ThnmV*  of  tlio  tnoflt  edtticmed  men  of  his  timc^  and  tz- 
of  Fieldinff,  the  "  Man  of  the  WorM  "  of  Mack-  erled  great  influviico  in  favur  of  relii^iun  and  in 
liD,  the  ''High  IJfc  Uvlow  Stain*  of  Townlfv,  giving  ponulartty  and  fofttiiun  to  met^khytical 
the  **  I)eril  to  Pay*"  of  Colfvj,  and  especiidly  studicA.  The  '*  CharactcrUtica'*  of  the  eari  of 
the  20  farcical  plays  of  Footo,  were  the  ho»t  &hafle»bnry,  once  greatly  admired  for  their 
and  moiit  popoUr  comic  pruductiuns  of  tliia  moral  and  religious  seutiuicnta,  and  their  elegaal 
tpoch. — The  nrose  autlion  of  the  18th  cen-  though  alTected  diction,  are  nuw  little  read,  lie 
tury  may  nearly  all  bo  cliukKMl  at  cAsayiAts,  plii-  auggosted  tlio  theory  of  a  **  moral  sense/*  which 
losopliens  liisturians,  dirincss  and  novelists.  Te-  was  adopted  and  illustrated  by  subiiequent  Scotch 
nodical  pu|>ers  containing  news  had  exi^ited  in  philo!H>i>herv.  The  loTity  with  which  he  suoio- 
England  fnnu  the  time  of  the  civil  war,  but  tho  times  alluded  to  Christian  ductrines  greatly  im- 
**  Tatler,'*  planned  by  Sir  Hivhard  Stcvlc  ^1671-  paired  his  influence.  A  similar  lerity  is  even 
1729),  was  the  first  periodical  dtraigiied  to  have  more  apparent  in  tho  letters  of  Lord  Bolingbroka, 
literary  merit  and  to  di:9CU!>s  tho  features  and  the  philuMiphical  works  of  a  restlcea  lactioiuat, 
**  smaller  moraU"  of  society.  It  amieared  3  who  was  long  considered  a  master  of  the  art  of 
times  a  week,  extruded  tu  271  numbers  from  written  eloquence.  Tho  current  fihilosophy  d 
April  12,  17u9,  to  Jan.  2,  1711,  and  each  nuni-  the  IHih  century  was  strongly  affected  bT  srep- 
ber  contained  some  lively  sketch,  anecdote,  or  tical  tendencies,  whose  influence  penraJni  the 
hnmoruus  discuMion,  and  was  sold  fur  a  penny,  literature  of  England  as  of  nearly  crery  Eutk^ 
It  was  succeeded  by  the  **  S|)ectatur,*'  which  ap-  pean  country.  Bishop  Itutler,  in  the  preface  of 
pcared  every  wock-Uay  morning  in  the  ^liains  of  Lis  **  Analogy/*  declared  that  many  persons  tbca 
a  single  leaf  from  March  1,  171 1,  to  I>cc.  1712 ;  took  it  for  granted  that  Christianity  was  no  lung- 
after  a  sus|»cnsion  it  reappeared  8  times  a  week  er  a  subject  of  inquiry,  but  had  at  length  been 
in  1714,  and  extended  to  C85  numbers.  Tho  discovered  to  l>e  fletitious;  and  in  1753  it  was 
**  Guardian**  was  begun  in  1714,  but  became  |k>-  stated  in  tho  house  of  commons  to  be  the  lash- 
litical,  and  ceased  aftcT  the  l7Gth  number.  Steele  ion  for  a  man  to  det^lare  himself  of  no  religiuo. 
wastlieT»rin('i|talcoutributortuthe*'Tatler  *  and  This  spirit  of  scepticism  especially  infested  the 
"  Guaniiaii,**  and  Addi»on  to  tho  **  S|>ectator,*'  department  of  historical  conifiosition,  which  at 
bnt  papers  were  al>o  furnislied  bv  >Swtft,  Po(>e,  this  time  received  a  great  impulse.  A  malevo- 
Berkeley,  liudgell,  Tickell,  and  llughcs.  The  lence  toward  Christianity  is  tho  chief  fault  of 
MBay^  e^ipecially  tlioso  of  Addison,  were  often  the  **  iK'oliue  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire,*^ 
models  of  grare,  delicacy,  and  amenity,  and  by  Edward  Gibbon  (1737-*94),  the  greatest  hie- 
vert*  highly  influential  in  correcting  and  refining  torical  work  in  the  English  huiguage.  No  other 
the  tone  of  society.  Numerous  works  biniilar  historian  hwi  ever  drawn  his  materials  from  a 
in  fonn  and  puriKise  apix^are<I  later  in  the  cen-  widor  variety  of  sources,  or  written  at  once  « ith 
tury,  of  whicli  t!te  only  onvs  that  have  retuint*d  tut  much  erudition  and  genius.  The  hlHitiry  t-f 
theirplnco  in  literature  are  the"  Kambli-r,"  writ-  England  by  Uavid  ]Iunu\  and  of  Sxitland 
ten  almif^t  wholly  by  Ur.  JohiiiHin,  tho  **  Ad-  and  of  the  reign  of  Charli-s  V.  by  William  Hub- 
Tcnturcr,'M*y  Iluwki*«worth,  Jtihnjitin,  andWar-  ertson,  have  rctaine<l  their  reputation  for  ease 
ton,  the  **MI(T."  chivtly  by  Ur.  JoliiiMHi,  tiie  and  el«-gance  of  »>t}le,  though  later  rvvearchrs 
^  World,**  by  Ml  Ntre,  Horace  \VaI|M»K*,  Lytt  let  on,  have  shown  their  negli'ct  of  accurai-y.  Ijcm 
and  the  earl  of  Clic>ti'rtu-ld,  tin*  '*  Connoivk.-ur/'  im|Kjr!ant  historical  aijd  biographical  writers 
by  Colman  and  Thornton,  which  received  ulno  were  f^'hanl,  Str}|K\  hniollett,  Tythr,  Frnru- 
a  few  ifvavs  from  thv  |HK't  ('tiw|»er,  anil  tlie  son,  Middlct4>n,  WaL«on,  I.yttleton.  ItuMieil,  and 
*' Mirror**  and  tlie  "  b>un^'vr,'*  Ufth  puMi.<*:ti-d  Jortin.  The  nrincipal  philo«»phical  and  cntic^ 
in  ivotland,  and  bupp<»rtvd  by  a  buml  of  liturnry  works  after  thoM>  of  lierkeU^  and  Sliafte»lKxry 
lawyem,  aniung  whom  were  M:u*kcnzie,  Crai^  werv  ]Iutrhi-M)n*»  '*  Imiuiry  into  lleauty  and  Vir- 
Cullen,  Kannatyne,  llaiU-s  AbiTcrombv,  and  tnv*' and  ^*  Sy sitA^-m  of  Moral  riiiloMifihy/' Hniur's 
Tvtler.  The  letters  of  l^dy  M:iry  WurtK-y  **K«>a\s**  ami  "Treatise  on  Human  Natufv.** 
Montagu,  who  wa<t  an  a*«kH-iute  of  tlio  uit^o?  Adam  Smith's  **  Theory  «if  Moral  ^H-ntmH'nt*." 
the  time,  are  mi^ilels  of  an  eany  and  elecunt  lteid*s  **  Inquiry  into  the  Hnnian  Mind  *  abd 
epiMolary  ^t\U•.  The  two  rliief  pIiiNt^inphirul  **  E-ways  on  the  Intellii'tual  I'owerk,"  iWattw's 
writers  of  t)io  early  part  flf  the  ri-ntury  are  *' ])iv<*rtations.  Moral  and  Critical,'*  Hartley  s 
Bishop  lUrrkelev  an>l  tho  earl  (*f  Shaft f.^hury,  ^M Observations  on  Man,  his  Frame,  hi»  I >uty,  and 
and  the  "  Minute  rijiUMiphi-r'*  of  the  fiirmiir  ii  his  Ex]»ectalii>ns*'  Trice's  **  Keview  of  the  IVtc- 
the  happiest  imi[atit*n  in  English  of  the  dia<  cipal  Quentioni  and  l>itlicnlliesin  MormK"  Fir* 
logne^  of  riatii.  The  stylo  nf  his  other  meta-  gUM^nV  "  History  «if  Civil  Sicifty"  and  ''lb»ta- 
phy»icnl  tre:i!i»«-!t  U  ^inguuirly  animate*  1  and  im-  tute«iof  Moral  riiiliisophy.**  Tucker's  "  Ltght  of 
aginaiitt.  In  his  "Theory  vf  Viiiiun"  he  nd-  Nature  I*  ursuiMl,'*  rrie^tlcy'n '*  Matter  and  Sp;.-- 
TaiuHnJ  niivrl  and  ingenious  vieWA  on  optics  it,'*  J^ird  KanH*««*H  **  fl^^TH  on  the  iVinrtplv^  of 
rhich  un*  iu>w  univvnkiily  a>lupte«l.  Hit  doc-  Morality  and  Natural  lSeligi(»n*'  and  "E^tULvnis 
ine  of  idfa!t«ni.  the  obji*ct  of  which  was  to  of  Criticism,"  Hugh  IHair's  "  Khetorirai  lx%- 
priNir  that  nitthing  existed  but  ii\m\  and  idean  in  tun***,**  and  (tcurge  CampU'irs  **  rhditt«>|di^  i>f 
tiie  riihv*^*  marked  an  t;ra  in  English  phih«i*tthy,  HlK>torii\"  The  criticd  and  r«iiitriiTerskiaJ  «nt* 
Mi<|  ^-ii^l  riw  til  a  pnUnw-tetl  difM-u^inn  which  intr«  of  IWntli-y  and  .Vlierbury  Itrlong  t*»  ti.e 
lias  ii«rd])^  y^^  cvoatd.     11  o  wm  |H:rauuaUy  one  early  port  of  this  period.     The  theological «  r.t- 


fNGLAKD  (Lavouaox  akd  LmRATURi)  199 

«  of  greatest  inflnence  were  CHarko,  Lowth,  nlaritj  in  England  and  on  the  continent  He 

HoedleT,  Leslie,  Whiston,  Doddridge,  Butler,  and  Fielding  were  embodiments    respective* 

WarbortoD,  Wesley,  Lardner,  Farmer,  and  Le  I7  of  the  idealistic  and  the  realistic  tendency, 

kno.      Dr.  Johnson,  Goldsmith,  and  Burke,  and  each  entertained  great  contempt  for  the 

HifUMSed  all  others  as  miscellaneous  writers,  writings  of  the  other.   The  ^^  Peregrine  Pickle," 

and  prdbably  Dr.  Johnson  exerted  by  his  con-  "  Humphry  Clinker,"  and  other  novels  of  Smol- 

venation  and  his  pen  a  greater  influence  upon  lett  are  distinguished  for  coarse,  comic  incidents 

the  literatnre  and  tone  of  thought  of  his  age  than  and  broad  humor,  and  the  ^^  Tristram  Shandy" 

any  other  individual.    It  was  his  wit  and  elo-  and  ^^  Sentimental  Journey"  of  Sterne  contain 

qoeiioe,  argament  and  learning,  says  Lord  Ma-  masterly  touches  of  character,  passages   and 

boa,  which  first  stemmed  the  tide  of  infidelity,  episodes  sparkling  with  wit  and  fancy,  and  also 

and  toraed  the  literary  current  in  favor  of  re-  much  melodramatic  pathos  and  sentimentality. 

raded  religion.    It  was  said  by  Burke  that  he  Three  works  of  fiction  contributed  especially  to 

appeara  far  greater  in  Boswell's  pages  than  in  refine  the  public  taste  and  the  stylo  of  novels : 

hit  own,  and  the  reason  is  that  he  conversed  the  ^'  Rassclas"  of  Dr.  Johnson,  a  philosophical 

with  admirable  simplicity  and  plainness,  but  in  essay  in  the  garb  of  an  oriental  tale,  the  ^^  Vicar 

hk  writings  adopted  an  elaborately  vicious  and  of  Wakefield  "  of  Goldsmith,  a  picture  of  £ng- 

ponderoos  style— a  style  which,  according  to  his  lish  rural  life  remarkable  for  kindliness  and 

ewB  fiiTorite  choice  of  terms,  would  be  describ*  taste,  and  the  "  Castle  of  Otranto"  of  Horace 

cd  as  grandiose,  magniloquent,  and  sesquipeda-  Walpole,  a  striking  Gothic  and  chivalric  ro- 

lian.    In  Uie  18th  century  the  novel  assumed  mance.    In  1771  Mackenzie  produced  the  in- 

nesriy  the  form  and  character  which  have  since  teresting  character  of  the  *^  Man  of  Feeling," 

ande  it  a  leading  department  of  literatnre.  The  and  a  few  years  later  appeared  Miss  Bumey'a 

*'Aitadia"  of  Sir  Philip  Sidney  had  been  fol-  "Evelina,"  "the  first  tale  written  by  a  woman, 

loved  by  a  large  number  of  chivalrously  heroio  and  purporting  to  be  a  picture  of  life  and  man- 

and  eonrtly  pastoral  romances,  many  of  them  ners,  that  lived  or  deserved  to  live,"  and  which 

tianriations  and  adaptations,  as  Johnson^s  once  showed  that  both  the  vulgar  and  fashionable 

&mooa  ^  Seven  Chiunpions  of  Christendom,"  life  of  London  might  be  delineated  with  lively 

and  in  the  l7th  century,  the  "Man  in  the  Moon"  skill,  and  with  broad  comic  humor,  without  a 

of  Francis  Godwin.    After  the  restoration  the  line  to  offend  a  delicate  taste.    Tliis  and  her 

Bnat  popular  novels  of  the  continent  were  trans-  second  novel,  "  Cecilia,"  are  especially  esteemed 

lated,  bnt  of  English  original  fictions,  the  "Par-  for  their  characterizations. — With  the  French 

tbeniasa  **  of  Lord  Orrery  and  the  tales  of  Mrs.  revolution  begins  a  new  period  in  English  lit- 

Bdin  and  Mrs.  Manley  are  all  that  are  now  re-  erature.    Again,  as  in  tlie  ago  of  Elizabeth, 

membered  even  by  the  antiquary.    Daniel  Defoe  great  civil  and  religious  changes  were  agitated ; 

(1661-1731)  first  gave  to  English  fiction  a  simple*  old  habits  and  feelings  were  to  be  set  aside, 

direct,  matter  of  fact,  and  human  interest,  and  old  manners  to  pass  into  oblivion ;  and  out  of 

theTerisimiIitadeof"Kobinson  Crusoe"  and  his  the   ruins   of  venerable  institutions   political 

other  novels  has  never  been  excelled.  The  "Tale  theorists  were  seeking  to  rear  the  structure 

of  a  Tnb  "  and  "  Gulliver's  Travels  "  by  Swift,  of  a  new  social  order.    Amid  bloodshed  and 

the  ^  History  of  John  Bull "  by  Arbuthnot,  and  confusion,  in  the  conflict  between  traditions 

the  "  Memoirs  of  the  Extraordinary  Life,  Works,  and  hopes,  men  were  forced  to  speculate  on  the 

andDiscoveriesof  MartinusScriblerus,"aro  sat-  very  elements  of  human  nature  and  destiny. 

ires  in  the  form  of  fictitious  narratives.    All  the  The  commotion  of  the  times  marked  a  change 

writings  of  Swift  are  admirable  for  their  vigor  of  scene  in  the  drama  of  European  civilization, 

and  hnmor.  Under  his  successors  the  novel  bo-  and,  though  it  did  not  shako  the  constitution 

more  complex  and  artistic,  embraced  great-  of  England,  it  stirred  the  mind  of  the  country 

Tarieties  of  character  and  diversities  of  treat-  in  every  department,  and  led  to  deeper  moods 

ant,  and  pictured  the  artificial  refinements  and  of  thought  and  to  larger  sympathies.    Tlie  re- 

£stinctions  of  society,  the  contrasts  of  temper  vival  of  poetry  had  already  been  prepared  by 

and  manners,  and  the  complicated  and  conflicting  Cowper.     A  greater  influence,  probably,  was 

relations  of  life.  The  "  Joseph  Andrews,"  "  Tom  exerted  by  Robert  Burns  (1759-90),  "  a  mir- 


and  "  Amelia "  of  Fielding,  and  the  acle  of  human  nature,"  whose  "  Tarn  O'Shan- 
" Pamela,"  "Chirissa  Harlowo,"  and  "Sir  ter,"  "Hallowe'en,"  and  "Cotter's  Saturday 
Charies  Grandison"of  Richardson,  were  pub-  Night,"  were  as  indigenous  to  the  soil  of  Scot- 
liihed  near  the  middle  of  the  century.  Field-  land  as  the  thistle,  and  displayed  a  freshness 
hg  daimed  for  his  great  work,  "  Tom  Jones,"  of  humor,  pathos,  force,  and  beauty,  which 
the  £gnity  of  a  comic  epopee.  Its  plot,  which  made  them  esteemed  alike  by  peasants  and 
faTQlvea  wonderfully  diversified  characters  and  scholars,  and  that  union  of  the  morally  sublime 
•drentarea,  is  contrived  with  almost  perfect  art,  with  the  extrinsically  humble  which  soon  be- 
nd it  portrays  the  especial  features  of  real  life  came  an  aim  and  principle  with  Wordswortli. 
taEo^and,  with  keenness,  coarseness,  an  easy  hu-  Yet  his  influence  did  not  extend  at  once  to 
■ar,  and  a  buoyant  lUffluence  of  practical  kno wl-  England,  where  Cowper  was  still  rivalled  in 
idge.  Richardson  is  one  of  tho  most  powerful,  popularity  by  Darwin  and  Ilayley,  who  pom- 
t^gie,  and  tedious  of  novelists,  and  his  volu-  pously  versified  prosaic  subjects,  and  made  steam 
^' works  obtained  almost  unexampled  pop-  engines  boil  and  flowers  woo  and  win  each  otlior 


L 


900  ENGLAND  (Lasouaob  and  LrrnuTm) 


in  vonfT.    Connoctoil  with  tlio^  wn.4  tlio  TXOla  fostly  piiri«no<1  )ii*(]inrpAM'i^wa«the  rhapmlirat 

CriiM*an  Fohmil  nf  afft'ctod  r!ivnu-«tors,  |irnini-  ami  indnK'iit  Sai!iiu-I  Tiivlor  Culrriilp*.  whoia 

neiil  iiiiiim;;  wlmni  wrre  Anna  S-wan!,  rallt^l  firu'st  pii-rv!!,  a*  *'<.*liri'»talK-r*«n«I  the  "AnrifDt 

the  »wtiti   **(  Lirhfii'M,  Mm.   I'inzzi  (ftiniu'rlr  MariiuT/*  wito  |)nNhiri'«l  earW  in  YiU\  ami  are 

Ifn*.  TltraK').  Mr»>.  Kohiii««>n,  (in-AthoAil.  Mi'rry,  u^«urpa<f^'(l  in  the  laii^niage  an  »trr»n^,  wikl, 

Wesit'Hi,  ami  l*ar44iii^  who  wvre  eifHiTivd  and  an<l  nini»iral  ^all'u^H  rif  imre  iina^natinn.     The 

Mvap-ly  rii!iriileil  hr  (iitfonl  in  his  "  Hnviuil**  faultier  rlivthin  of  **  i  nriiitabel/*  arri-ntna!  in- 

and  '*  Ma'vi.-ul.**     Matthi-w  (tri'p>ry  lA'wi.i  was  Mead  of  ffvllaltir,  wa.«  the  arknowle<!;:\'<I  model 

the  loadiT  ^f  a  romantic  *rhi»i»I.  Inith  of  poetrr  of  S<»ott*H  "Ijiv  of  the  ljk<  MinMrel."     A*  ■ 

and  proM*  ti<'tion,  atMuindini;  in  tihihUrie  and  phih>si>phcr  and  critic  he  han  in^piri-il  rather 

all   manner   of  fitranuindane  machinery,   to  than  instruct  i*«l  many  fnlldweni  tor  i^r  to  hi  ebcr 

which  till*  jN'rturlKHl  ti-mpt-r  of  the  times  pave  Rtandpuint^thnnthomMif  Ijo<*ke,  Paley.  and  Iji^rd 

a  momentary  !»iicce*«.    His  wr^es  wrre  reriecl-  Karnes.      UoU-rt  Smthor  when  a  nchiwilboy 

ed  in  HUne  of.t!ie  nif>«>t  |MiwerfnI  contciniN)rary  conceivi^l  the  design  of  exhibit injr  in  narrative 

pro»e,  and  i-xirtcfl  an  inllui'nco  on  t!ie  early  p<K*mfl  the  prande«'t  funns  of  niythnhfirr  tliai 

proiluctiiins  of  Scott.  Si mt hey,  and  (^>Ierid;^^  ever  ohtained  aiming  men.  and  hi«  ''TlialahA** 

but  wi-re  dt-inoli*>lie<l  hy  the  "  Hovers  "  <»f  Can-  and  *•  Curse  of  Keliania,**  foumled  on  Arah  aad 

ning  and  Frvre.   who  uNo  ridiculed  I>arwin*s  HindiH)  le^nds.  were  the  jiartial  fnlfilinenta  of 

'*  L<tvr«  of  the  I'lantn'*  hy  a  hurle*«iitie  fUtitU'il  his  plan,  and  display  tlirouch  a  charm in|r  dir- 

the  **  ].itvc<  of  the  Trian}:Ies/*   William  \Vf  mis-  tiim  extensive  learning  and  hrilliant  ima;nnatit«. 

wortli  (1T7*^-I^o0),  e>teeniefl  hy  many  the  preat-  Tho  irregular,  unrliyminfr  ven«e  of  '*  Thalaba"* 

eit  iNH't  iif  Ills  century,  devote<l  )iis  life  with  lie  des(Til»ed  aa  the  "  Ara1*esque  oniament  of 

•inpii-nr-<  ami  firmness  of  pur|»o<ie  to  t)ie  art  an  Arahian  tale.**     South«>y  wait  the  ni'»st  dili- 

of  iKK-try.     It  was  tlie  fu>h*mn  husine*is  of  his  pent  and  indomitalde  of  literary  men,  and  inal- 

boinp.  tlie  ohji-ct  of  all  his  thouplit.  i»h!H'rva-  mi»st  every  department  of  pntne  and  |MietfT 

tioii,  ri'adin;r.  and  experience:  am!  t)ie  ultimate  ha.s  left  monuments  of  hin  talt*nt  and  i-nniition. 

goal  whit-h  he  projM»«i'd  ti»  him*s.*lf  was  the  ct^m*  A  new  tendency  appean*<l  in  the   iNteni*  uf 

positioniif  Hva^t  phil«»*HiphicaIiN>em,  treatini^iif  Sir  Walter  Sctttt,  who  cunihiue<l   tlie  nrtine- 

man,  nature,  and  H>ciety.     His  aim  was  to  rent h  nienta  of  modern  poetry  with  tlie  spirit  and 

vate  and  rifre^h  literature  liy  hrinpinp  hack  |MKt-  materials  of  Imnlor  minstrelsy  and  of  tin*  early 

rrfrom  tivi-r-refinfmentsof  M'ntiment  and  rhet-  metrical  romanc<'S.     1 1«  adopted  in  hi*  prinefr- 

oric  to  truth  and  nature;  and  he  Uvan  1>y  com-  rwl  poems  the  octi»syIIubic  mi-a^ure,  mhich  had 

po<iin;r  1}  rii'al  h.illa<ls  on  the  humhlf-t  huhjects  ueen  penernlly  u^ie^I  hy  the  old  romancers^   Frum 

in  laiiiTuaire  Mich  as  was  **  n*nlly  UM.*d  hy  men.*^  1H05  to  In  12.  when  the  first  cantos  of  ^  Oiilda 

Ki'adiP*-.  loMtr  familiar  with  poems  on  learned  Harold'*  ap|ioared,  Scott  was  the  tw<  i^ipalar 

thenu-4  or  Tiiarki'd  hy  polioliod  Hfiititiifntalitifs,  Hriti^h  p<K.-t;  hut  he  rctrcatetl  to  pn»«e  firtKn, 

marvt  Ih-d  lit  hi'i  hald  topii-tand  coI!iH|uial  ]ihiti-  as  the   genius  of  Hyron   b«*pin   to  di*plat  its 

tude*> .!<  liti-rnry  tvci-ntriritirs.  and  could  lianlly  Mrenplh.  Tlie  hi'«ti>rii\iMial]A(l  which  he hroUjr^it 

tell  wIiwiIkt  t!ii*y  wtTe  di"«i^ned   tt>  he  comic  into  vopue  has  since  lieen  succe«sfu I ly  cultivated 

or   ^TitMi«;    and    his    iir*»t    collertion,    whirh  hy  l^»ckhart,  Macaulsy.  and  Aytoun.    iVof.  Wd- 

was  reri airily  a  iiicl:in;:e  of  p<hm1  and  ha'l.  con-  Htn,  after  prislucin^  a  fvw  |s)ems  markt^l  e*- 

taiufii  pa-'^n^fiof  Ni!ii|ili>  iiutureanil  un«ophi«ti*  |H-<'ially  hy  delicK'y  of  M*ntinient  and  v;^tr  c/ 

catitl  p.itlio<«  as  ^ri<!(-"{U«*  as  tin*  frippiTics  tif  di'MTiption,  applit-d  him«4-If  chiefly  titpriMe  I.t- 

Della  I'ru-f.ii*  art.     Ytt  the  sitnplii-ity  of  fi-fl-  erature,  criticiMii.  and  philosiiphy.     Thr  rrlrlk. 

inp,  t).<*  truthfulih'''^  of  d«-linraiii>n,  tin*  corn-  rity  of  ]^>rd  Hyntn  was  unrivalkM  durin;;  his 

prL-lieii'>i\o  opirii  of  liuuianity.  and  tlir  union  hricf  an<Iini|K*tuous  career:  and  |ierhai>«  no (>:!»cr 

of  dvfp  nml  »-l^;le  tliou;;ht    with  MiiMhility,  man,  dvinp  at  37.  ever  wrote  so  much  that  waa 

whii'h  niarki-^l  hit  h«'t:cr  pitvfs  attractnl  hy  rt-nuirkahio  f^r  intt>llfctual  jniwer  and  in:cn«.!y 

de/n^.**  a  'in  !e  t»f  i:i!!ri*i:i»lic  ailiiiiri-rs.     Tlie  of  pa^iion.     A  new  iihnH^tof  the  [kiK*t:c  mind  ap- 

work«  of  n<i  otli«T  p.H  t  l.a\i»  h«i-n  -h*  txrluMVf-  iM-ureilin  Keats  theprt'a(i*sti»f  Mriti^h  |iiii-t4tl«al 

!y  tin-  pr'"luit  of  jHT<Mi!ial  fTpiTu-ni'i-  und  rt-  have  died  in  early  vuuth,  who  pa  vo  pri*Mu«e  i>< 

tn«*itK-i-t:i'n.     Mis  inti  Iim*   and    UMw«>.^rit*«I   df*  <tnlv  hv  his  onifu^ion  of  concfptiou*  of  heaatr 

lipht    in   til'*  *>ha|H-«  and  zip|ii'ar:infi>^  tif  rural  ami  pramh-nr.  hut  aUi  hy  the  |in»pri-«4  ul.ich  b« 

and    niiiiii.t.un    *4vn«-ry    wa'«    cuti'^lanTly    lup-  rapidly  nuMh:  in  hrinpini;  his  p«*nius  under  th« 

plitt!  !>y  t!u-  «iM  ri-irii'n  wIhtm  he  d%\tlt,  and  coutnd  of  jud^m-nt.     He  haul  an  in<ii:cs  for 

whiTr  v\^^r\  nnliir.il  f«aTure  ri-ivivt-d  tlif  i'olur-  choice  wonU.  whirli  wort*  in  them^I^ot  |i.*tr.rv« 

inp  of  hi*  fiwn   iiiiii;;iii.'itliin  :    ami  lii^  poi  ms  or  idra^  uinl  hi'^  i-x.implo  has  atfcrteil  i^{ie«".al!y 

arc  m.v!i*  up  **(  did.v  tir  phi!>*«<iphiriiu'  t'oMnd-  thr  formn  of  {>m>iical  expre^^ii^n.  to  whu-h  h« 

cd  oTi  aTi.il^M^  «if  111-  liwn  tlitiMphts  I'T  of  I  liiir-  pave  a  rvtine>l  S4Mi'«uou«nt  s«.     |U>  wa«  aii  rar> 

art*  r*  .nii-l -I  •lift  » !tii*)i  illuoiraif  th*o  i|ini«  i.T<i  admiriT  of  tlio  |H>itry  uf  Ix'i^li  Hunt,  wh«»*« 

and  pha**- xf  {ii«  nwn  riiar.vtfr.  iiiih  a  run-  m.'knufr  wa^  dfriviil  fnun  Italian  niOiM«,  a^d 

ninp  •-■•iiiiri«  iiTary  »•(   naitiral  phfM«>riitiiii.  r»>-  liis  iiktlucnre  apjit-ars  >&!ronply  in  the  prtslaciion^ 

r«\alinir   aN'iiv«  ilmt    harfiioiii«.i;ii    ai.d    almost  of  Slsrlloy,  ofti-n  m<»^t  etlierral  iti  iina^nrry  and 

hli'ii>hi|  Bi-tiMfr  <if  iiit^llci-!  nipl  pa««i«>n  \%hi«-h  lanpuap«\     Thouch   tlie  Ci>mvptiiir!«  of  Miolh-r 

di«tin;rui*>hf«  hini  a*  a  plii!>>«i>phi<  al  p'x-t.     In  w*  ri>  di-rivi-d  fmni  iina;7inati\c  plid  MM^pi.y  and 

■irikiuf  contract  with  Wurdawurth,  nUo  btvad-  fn-ni  fr]ivcuIations  ou  elemental  Ziatcrv, 


ENGLAND  (Ijlhotjaox  asd  Litebatubb)  201 

than  from  homan  nstnre  and  real  life,  yet  he  was  ntation  for  his  remarkahle  prose  works,  the  chief 

initinct  with  a  love  and  intellectnal  sense  of  ideal  of  which  is  a  series  of  '*  Imaginary  Con  versa- 

beanty,  which  appear  in  single  thoughts  and  im-  tions."  Amon^  the  m  inor  poets  of  this  period  are 

ages  in  his  larger  productions,  and  especially  in  Heniy  Eirke  White,  Grahame,  Bowles,  Hamil- 

some  of  his  leaser  poems,  as  the  **  Sensitive  ton,  Lloyd,  Lovell,  Dyer,  Gary,  Wolfe,  who  de- 

Tlant^^  the ''Skylark,'^  and  the  "Clond/^  Thomas  serves  special  mention  for  his  short  poem  on 

Moore,  a  writer  of  surpassingly  beautiful  songs  the  *'  Burial  of  Sir  John  Hoorc,''  Montgomery, 

and  c^  Ught  and  elegant  satires,  displayed  his  Hartley  Coleridge,  Heber.  Keble,  Milman,  Croly, 

higfaest  powers  in  the  four  oriental  tales  of  James  and  Horace  Smitn,  Pollok,  Procter,  £1- 

which  ^^LallaRookh"  is  composed,  remarkable  liott,  Clare,  Barton,  Sterling,   Bailey,  Bayley, 

Ibr  their  splendor  of  diction  and  copiousness  of  Hihies,  Swain,  Mackay,  Aird,  Bowring,  Praed, 

imagery.    Georce  Crabbe,  ^^nature^s  sternest  Tennant,  Herbert,  Moultrie,  Maginn,  Anster. 

painter,  yet  the  best,^*  produced  strong  impres-  Barham,  the  author  of  the  "  Ingoldsby  Legends,'' 

Bans  by  elaborately  chronicling  a  series  of  mi-  Trench,  A.  A.  Watts  Tupper,  Thomas  Davis, 

ante  drcnmstances;  and  in  brief  passages,  as  in  Mangan.  Mahoney,  Allingham,  Barnes,  Edward 

"^  E^istace  Grey,"  rises  to  a  fine  imaginative  Bobert  I3ulwer  (Owen  Meredith),  Hernud,  Mat- 

ocigy.    Samuel  Rogers  (1763-1855),  the  con-  thew  and  Edwin  Arnold,  W.  C.  Bennett,  Alez« 

temporaryof  a  long  series  of  poets,  followed  no  ander  Smith,  and  Gerald  Massey.     The  most 

one  of  the  new  tendencies,  but  attained  high  popular  English  poetess  in  the  first  quarter  of 

tttistio  ezoellenoe  in  the  heroic  couplet,  with  this  century  was  Mrs.  Hemans,  among  whose 

a  Bioety  of  taste  and  grace  of  sentiment  worthy  numerous  productions  are  some  that  are  me- 

tfPbpe  and  Goldsmith.    Campbell  had  a  higher  lodious  in  expression  and  touching  in  senti- 

fenina  with  an  equal  culture ;  amid  the  dis-  ment,  tending  especially  to  purify  the  passions 

•Bten  of  the  time  he   conceived  of  lighting  and  sanctify  uie  affections.    The  dramatist  Joan- 

"the  torch  of  hope  at  nature^s  funeral  pile,"  na  Baillie  wrote  also  ballads  and  metrical  le- 

and  in  his  lyrical  pieces  he  gave  to  romantic  gends.   Caroline  Bowles  (Mrs.  Southey)  displays 

eooeeptions  a  classical  elaboration  and  finish  in  many  of  her  slight  pieces  remarkable  eJeva- 

vhich  was  hardly  attempted  by  his  contcmpo-  tion  and  simplicity  of  feeling.      Mary  Howitt 

nrieflb    Charles  Lamb,  a  peculiar  and  happily  excels  in  ballad  poetry,  and  in  writings  marked 

wayward  gemus,  wrote  almost  nothing  that  is  by  innocent  mirth  and  playful  fancy,  designed 

not  exquisite,  and  his  few  poems,  like  his  essays,  for  the  young.    In  contrast  with  her  easy  sim- 

nreal  an  original  wit  and  genial  character,  plicity  are  the  elaborate  and  impassioned  poems 

moalded  by  sympathetic  study  of  the  old  English  of  Mrs.  Norton,  who  has  been  called  the  Byron 

writers.   Ilia  reputation  rests  chiefly  on  his  **  Es-  of  modern  poetesses.    L.  E.  Landon  checked  the 

says  of  Elia,'*  than  which  the  literature  contains  diffuseness  and  efflorescent  excess  of  her  early 

few  things  finer.    The  poems  of  Thomas  Hood,  productions,  which  are  distinguished  at  once  for 

wlyther  serious  or  comic,  are  pregnant  with  vivacity  and  melancholy,  and  gave  concentration 

mmer  for  thought    Though  a  singularly  clever  of  thought  and  style  to  the  verses  written  not 

rhyming  punster  and  jester,  his  main  strength  long  before  her  mysterious  death.    Her  "Ethel 

lay  in  "the  homely  tragic,"  the  simple  pathetic,  Churchill  "  gives  her  a  place  also  among  novel- 

fai  lyrics  lUte  the  "  Song  of  the  Shirt"  and  the  ists.   Other  poetesses  of  the  time  are  Mrs.  Black- 

*^  Bridge  of  Sighs."     In  his  comic  pieces,  the  wood,  Lidy  Flora  Hastings,  Harriet  Drury,  Ca- 

"La^jXan,'"*  Miss  Kilmansegg  with  her  Golden  milla  Toulmin  (Mrs.  Crosland),  Mrs.   Ogilvy, 

Les,"  and  others,  as  perhaps  in  those  of  every  Adelaide  Procter,  and  Eliza  Cook.    The  greatest 

trSj  humorous  writer,  may  be  detected  a  deep  living  English  poets  are  the  laureate  Tennyson 

Tcin  of  earnest  pathos  and  tragic  power.    The  and  Mr.  and  Mrs.   Browning,  who  represent 

Seotch  poet  James  Hogg  (the  EttricK  Shepherd),  what  may  perhaps  be  termed  a  metaphysico- 

vith  a  rare  imagination,  sometimes  excelled  romantic  tendency. — The  most  successful  dra- 

narreHonsly  in  describing  things  that  transcend  matic  pieces  of  this  epoch  have  been  those  of 

aatnre's  laws ;  and  his  story  of  ^  Kilmeny,"  a  Joanna  Baillie,  remarkable  for  their  unity  of 

tkSid  stolen  by  the  fairies  and  conveyed  to  fairy  idea  and  intellectual  completeness,  the  ^'  Ber- 

land,  is  a  most  charming  example  of  pure  poetry,  tram"  of  Maturin,  the  happily  constructed  tra- 

Tbe  best  compositions  of  Allan  Cunningham  are  gedies  of  Knowles,  the  *^  Lady  of  Lyons"  and 

Ulads  and  songs  of  an  intensely  national  char-  "  Richelieu"  of  Sir  Edward  Bnlwer  Lvtton,  the 

Mter,  as  the  "Mermiud  of  Galloway,"  "She's  "Julian"  and  "Rienzi"  of  Miss  Mitford,  the 

Gane  to  Dwall  in  Heaven,"  and  "My  Nan-  "Ion"  ofTalfourd,  the  "Fazio"  of  Milman,  tho 

&0;^  and  William  Motherwell  was  successful  comedies  of  the  younger  Colman,  the  plays  of 

I  in  marthd  pieces,  as  the  "  Sword  Chant  of  Mrs.  Inchbald,  the  "  Koad  to  Ruin"  of  Thomas 

Thontein  Raudi"and  the  "Battle-flag  of  Si-  Holcrofk,  the  "Honeymoon"  of  John  Tobin, 

nrdg^  and  in  plaintive  strains,  as  tho  ballad  of  and  various  plays  of  O'Keefe,  Reynolds,  Morton, 

"letnie  Morrison.**    Many  of  the  poems  of  Poole,  Planch^,  Marston,  Jerrold,  Buckstone, 

Valter  Savage  Landor  are  attempts  to  repro-  Taylor,  and  Bourcicault.    The  "  Remorse"  of 

itm  the  genins  of  ancient  Greek  poetry,  and,  Coleridge,  tho  "  Bride^s  Tragedy"  of  Beddoes, 

AoQgli  they  have  fine   and    highly  intelleo-  the  "  Tragedy  of  Galileo"  of  Sanmel  Brown,  tho 

tlri  n— nunr,  thry  fir--  f-^^j^  ♦^  v^^in^^  ^r.A  (^Athelwold"  of  William  Smith,  the  "Philip 

aot  dtinto  modem  t^mes.    He  has  a  surer  rep-  van  Arteveldo"  of  Henry  Taylor,  tho  "  Legend 


r 


SOS  ENGLAND  (L&BorAOs  asd  Litbatubb) 

of  Floronro''  of  Ix>iffh  Ilunt,  and  tlie  *'  Straf-  t«cs**  of  John  Gnlt,  the  **  Salathiel  **  of  G«orv» 
ibrd/*  '*  liltit  in  the  *2»cutchci)ii,**  &c.,  of  Hubert  Croly,  the  *"  Anaslasiui^"  of  Hone,  the  **  ValcriBe* 
Browning,  are  rather  dramatic  |>ooin8  than  and^ReidnaIdDalton**ofLocLhart,tbc8ooUiah 
acting  |iltty!>. — The  roost  voluminous  depart-  tales  of  Professor  M'ilson,  the  eastern  mmaBeaa 
ment  of  Kn^libli  proso  during  this  period  is  of  Moricr  and  Krascr,  the  "  Savings  and  LKnoKB** 
that  of  ni»vels.  In  the  latter  port  of  the  18th  and  other  novels  of  fashion  of  Theodore  Hook, 
century,  the  circulating  libraries  abounded  with  the  **(ilenarvon'*of  I^y  Caroline  Ijunb,  which 
tlio  wurthloss  productions  of  the  sa>called  Mi-  wa^  suppoMNl  to  represent  I^ont  Uyron  in  ita  hera^ 
ncrvapro*^4;  but  the  works  of  Chartutto  Smith  the  *' T revclyan**  of  I^ady  Darre,  the  ^'CttU 
mark  the  lH?ginninfr  of  the  transition  from  the  Thornton**  ufThomas  Hamilton,  the  Irish  stories 
sentimental  to  the  true  in  popular  fictitm:*.  A  of  lianim,  Crofton  Cmker,  Griffin,  Cartel  on,  and 
new  energy  and  dignity  was  given  to  them  by  Mrs.  S.  C.  Hall,  the  sea  stories  of  Capta.  Marrrat 
the  puliticol  tole^  of  Holcn^  and  (tod win,  and  and  Chamier,  the  **Tom  Cringle's  Lo^**  and 
especially  by  the  highly  intellectual  character  of  '*(>uiso  of  the  Midge"  of  Michael  8coU«  th« 
Godwin'ii  *'  Caleb  Williams  ;^*  and  the  romantic  **  De  Vcre"  of  Ward,  containing  a  portrmitore  of 
fictions  of  Mn*.  Kadclitfe,  as  the  "*  Mysteries  of  Canning,  the  **  Headlong  IlalP*  and  other  ha- 
Udolpho,"  the  novils  of  the  sisters  l'i>rter,  and  morous  novels  of  IVaccick,  the  ^  liranibleCT* 
the  *'  Monk**  of  Matthew  (iregory  I^ewis  were  at  Ilou^**  and  **  Moneyed  Man**  of  Horace  SmSth, 
least  impruvvments  on  frip|>ory  love  plots.  the*'Our  Village**  of  Miss  M  it  ford,  tlie'^Vktini 
The  Arabian  talc  of  ^*Vathek,**  by  William  of  Society**  and  other  tales  of  I^dy  BleasingtoSi 
Beckford,  was  greatly  admiretl  fur  its  imagina-  the  fashionable  novels  of  Mim.  Gore,  the  **  l>ecr- 
tive  |>ower  and  literary  fini^h,  and  the  *'Can-  brook,**  the  "  Hour  and  the  Man.**  and  the  pofi- 
terbury  TaleV  uf  Sophia  and  Harriet  l/oc  are  tico- economical  tales  of  Miss  Martinean,  the  mk- 
remarkable  among  Knglish  fictions  for  tender-  cellancous  novels  of  James,  Ainsworth,  ILuui^, 
ncss  and  fi-eling.  The  delineations  of  character  Reade,  Borrow,  Collins,  Warren,  Anthooj  Troi- 
and  siwicty  l>y  Miss  Edge  worth,  Mrs.  Opie,  and  lope,  I^ver,  and  lA)ver,  of  Mrs.  TroUtMM,  Mn. 
Miais  Au'^ton  preceded  the  works  of  Sir  Walter  Bray,  Mrs.  Gaskell,  Mrs.  Manh,  Misa  Sinclur, 
Soott,  whosie  example  has  given  to  the  novtl  Mias  Muloch,  Julia  Kavanagh,  Ladj  Balwer, 
nearly  the  Mnie  imiM)rtance  in  contemimrary  and  many  others  which  at  present  occopj  the 
literature  which  the  drama  had  in  the  Eliza-  public.  Within  this  |)erioid  Mitford,  GilBc^ 
bcthan  era.  His  prodigious  familiarity  with  Thirl  wall,  and  Grote  have  produced  clahoraf 
6cotch  characters,  anecduteA.  tnulitious.  and  general  historiesofGreece,  Fmlar  has  written  M 
anpi'rstitiont,  the  delight  which  ho  took  in  the  later  and  By zan tine  period  of  the  GnMka»  and 
di-Hplays  of  honse,  humor,  or  sentiment,  in  crerj  St.  Ji»hn  on  the  manners  and  customs  of  ancient 
atrongand  fjriginal  symptom  of  character,  pn»vo  Greece;  Shanm  Turner,  (lodwin,  Lingard,  Pal- 
how  briia<I  a  fouudatioii  hi4  tirtiuni  hod  in  grave.  Mackintosh,  ('bar les  Knight,  LonlMahoo, 
actual  lite.  i)(  sub»c*4iii.nt  noveli!»t^  four  have  Mi»a  Strickland,  and  Harriet  Martineau  have  pro- 
aurpai^'if'l  all  their  coiiteinporarie«,  and  are  each  ducvd  wtirks  on  different  fieriods  nf  Enirlisli  hts- 
of  tlicm  c*>t«.'oini'd  privminciit  by  their  i^iK'cial  tory.  and  11  allam  on  the  omtfti tut ional  history  of 
adiiiifiT^ :  I»ulwcr,  Uickcn^  Th.ickeray.  and  England,  and  on  the  hist4>ry  of  Eumpc  during  the 
Charliitto  Hnintc.  It  may  Ik)  liaid  that  Char-  middle  ages;  and  various  histories  have  been 
lotto  Hn  in  to  and  Thackeray  present  t}iehap|>ic4t  written  by  Southey,  Tvtler,  (*oz«,  Chalmcr«| 
uni«»n  of  gi  tiiiH  witti  art't-tic  ]ii>wir  and  pnr|M)M>,  Uoik^ie,  I'iukerton,  Itunlop,  Mill,  Milli^  Napier, 
and  that  Oii-kcnH  exfvN  in  genius  and  Biitwvr  Mihnan,  Crowe,  Elphiustone,  and  Arnold.  Car- 
in  art.  Tiie  '*  Vivian  tln*y,"  •■  CNmini^by,"  and  lyle's  "  French  Hevolution  '*  and  **  Frederic  the 
other  niivi'U  of  Iteuianiin  l>i»r.vli,  and  the  **  AI-  (ireat**  are  distinguished  for  research  and  vigiir 
ton  I^M  ke"  and  *'  ifypatia"  of  Kingftley,  are  also  of  (-hara«'ter  painting.  The  hccoimI  nerics  c»f  .\1- 
of  high  reputation  fur  force  and  itnaginatitm.  i>oir!4**  History  i»fEun>pi*"fn»m  tht*  French  rvv- 
Amttng  the  K«i^  inii»ortant  wurk^of  pr«t»L'  tictiun  otution  to  the  accession  of  I.4»ui4  Na|K>Ir«io.  has 
txv  the  "Ziliirn**  and  "Mordaunt"  df  l^r.  John  recvntly  U*enconipKtc«t(Jniie,  IKS'J;;  and  4  im- 
Moi»riv  the  **  Sinipli'  Stor%'*  and  **  Katun*  and  p(>rtant  hiittoricol  work^  are  now  in  pn «-%-«*  tf 
An'*  of  .Mr«.  hn'hbald.  the  *■  Self-Coll t ml*' and  publiratiun:  Macanlay's  "Hi-tiiry  of  Ene*ard 
*'  I^t^'iplitn***  lit'  Mrs.  liruiitoh.  the'*  (\'ttagers  of  from  the  Ai'Ce!«<»iiinof  Janic*  II.."  Fmtklv'*  "  H.^- 
Cilenburnie'*  nt  KlizalH-lh  ILvniiton,  the  "Hun-  tory  of  Enghiiid."  MiTi\ale'»  "  HiMitry  of  t7.« 
garian  l»ri>ilierV  of  Anna  Maria  r<ir(er,  the  Humiui't  under  the  Kinpire."  and  Buck!f*«  "  Hi»- 
onre  hi,rhl.^  |i*«pn]ar  "  Thaddeus  of  Warsaw'*  lury  *if  Civili/alion."  ( i lad M one *<»  "Stud ie*  «.« 
and  **Su'.:i-h  Citii-s'*  i>f  herNNtir  J.inerMrter.  Homer  and  the  Homeric  Agv"  has  at  i*cc«  a 
tlie  relik'ii'ut  ii>*\<-U  of  Hannah  M^irc.  the  **  WiM  hiMurical,  critieal,  political,  and  rrliin^tu  chor- 
lri«h  <  'tr!  "  and  the  oihi  r  liHtimial  tale«  of  l^dy  acter.  The  riH^ent  era  esceU  especially  in  norra- 
Mor^'an,  tho  "  AlSi^vii*t-«.**  the  "Fatal  Ko-  ti\e4  of  travvU  and  in  >4*irntitio  works;  t«f  tic 
veii^'e,"  tki-A  oth«r  romsntii-  firtii'n<i  of  Mntnrin,  former,  the  m<i«t  pnimiueiit  are  tiiose  of  Hrucr. 
the  "  Frail kiii^ti-in"  and  "  I.a«t  .Matt"  of  Mrs.  Muti;:i»  Tark,  lK<nhant,  Ciap|iert.iO,  l.aB«!er. 
Sheihy.  the  *' Ma.-ri.vv.**  "  lnhcntantt>,"  and  Cttinplivl!,  Hurckhonlt,  Helfoni,  liackiD^sliom. 
**U**::ri\"  iif  MiM  Ferrier.  thodii!iiev»ic  tnlmiif  I'orter.  Clnrke,  Mure,  Fi»r*ytU  EitLtce,  H«  b- 
t?.er  .iin'**— »*'f  M.'rlt-y  and  I.:ii)Ti'h.ir;n(te  iSury,  hi  uk»,  Holiainl,  l>t»dwell.  tii-II.  iW-ckfi-rJ,  l^isl^ 
the  "  .^r:nal>  ul  liic  I'arisL"  and  "A}  r»hir«  Lego-  rorry.  FrauUiu.  Ikechey,  BasU  UaU,  Icf*^  ^ 


SKQLAin>  (Lasouaos  ahd  LirasATUBE)  ENGLAND                   208 

Twd,  Fellows,  8t  John,  Fraser,  Bnrnes,  Bar-  the  "  Tracts  for  the  Times,''  and  the  writings 
rov,  Harris,  Barton,  Kinglake,  Warburton,  in  sapport  of  tliem  or  antagonistic  to  tlicm, 
fiUnlej,  Atkinson,  and  Livingstone;  of  the  constitute  an  interesting  department  of  thco- 
htter,  tiie  principal  are  the  works  of  Ilerschel,  logical  literature.  The  names  of  Cardinal  Wise- 
Brewster,  Backland,  Davy,  Lyell,  Whewell,  man,  J.  II.  Newman,  and  Faber  are  particularly 
yiehol,  Ftichard,  Pye  Smith,  Hugh  Miller,  Wil-  distinguished  in  Catholic  theology ;  of  Pusey  and 
kiBSon,  and  Owen.  In  archieology,  the  names  Froude  in  the  Anglo-Catholic  movement ;  and 
of  Toong  and  Wilkinson  on  Egyptian  subjects,  of  Dr.  Arnold,  the  brothers  Hare,  Conybcaro, 
of  Rich  and  Layard  on  Babylonian  and  Assyr-  Maurice,  and  Jowitt  in  the  broad  church  party 
in,  and  of  Rawlinson  on  Persian,  have  attained  of  the  Anglican  church.  F.  W.  Ne^^-man  and 
high  distinction.  The  work  of  Edward  W.  Lane  James  Martineau  are  exponents  of  less  eccle^- 
n  the  "  Manners  and  Customs  of  the  Modem  astical  tendencies. — ^The  best  historical  and  crit- 
Ijjptiana"  is  unequalled  as  a  minute  and  faith-  ical  works  on  the  literature  of  England  are: 
fiDoeliiieation  of  an  oriental  people.  In  bio-  Wright* s  *^ BioCTaphia  Britannica  Literaria" 
nphical  works,  this  period  is  peculiarly  rich.  (vol.  i.,  the  Anglo-Saxon  period,  1842 ;  vol.  ii., 
ut  most  popular  and  important  of  these  are  the  Anglo-Norman  period,  1846) ;  Warton^s 
tiw  fives  of  Nelson  and  Wesley  by  Southey,  of  ^'  History  of  English  Poetry,*'  extending  to  near 
Sheridan  and  Byron  by  Moore,  of  Petrarch  and  the  end  of  Queen  £lizabeth*s  reign  (3  vols., 
Mia.  Siddons  by  Campbell,  of  Burke  and  Gold-  1774-'81) ;  Ilallam's  "^  Introduction  to  the  Litor- 
■Hth  by  Prior,  of  Goldsmith  and  the  statesmen  ature  of  Europe  in  the  15th,  16th,  and  17th  Cen- 
flf  the  commonwealth  by  Forstcr,  of  Napoleon  turies^'  (1837-39,  with  additional  notes  in  later 
md  th&  English  novelists  by  Scott,  of  British  editions) ;  Collier's  ^*  History  of  English  Dra- 
paiBtct%  sculptors,  and  architects  by  Allan  Cun-  matic  Poetry"  (1831) ;  Chambers's  ^'  Cjclopa>- 
■iwpiiam  of  the  statesmen  and  men  of  letters  dia  of  English  Literature'*  (2  vols.,  1843-'44); 
Md  science  of  the  reign  of  Geoi^  III.  by  Lowndes's  ^Bibliographer's  Maunal"  (4  vols.. 
Bwwgfiam,  of  the  chancellors  and  chief  justices  London,  1857  et  %eq.) ;  and  Allibone's  *^  Critical 
of  EoglaDd  by  Lord  Campbell,  of  British  mill-  Dictionary  of  English  Literature"  (2  vols.,  Philo- 
eonunanders  by  Gleig,  of  eminent  states-  delphia,  1858  et  teq,).  Among  brief  manuals 
and  great  conunanders  by  James,  of  How-  are  Shaw's  *'  Outlines  of  English  Literature" 


■d,  Blake,  and  Penn  by  Ilepworth  Dixon,  of  (1840),  and  Spalding's  History  of  English  Liter- 

Kapoleoa  by  Hazlitt,  of  Sir  Walter  Scott  by  ature"  (1853). — For  an  accountofthe  origin  and 

Loekhart,  of  Charles  Lamb  by  Tolfourd,  of  growthofEnglishmogazines,  reviews,  and  jour- 

CiBpben  by  Beattie,  of  Mackintosh  by  his  son,  nals,  see  Newspapers,  and  Periodical  Liteila.- 

of  BTemer  by  his  brother,  of  Sydney  Smith  by  ture.    For  English  art,  see  Music,  Paixtino, 

his  daughter,  of  Charlotte  Bronte  by  Mrs.  Gas-  and  ScrLrrrRS. 

kdL  of  Dr.  Arnold  by  Stanley,  of  Goethe  by        ENGLAND,  Jonx,  D.D.,  first  Roman  Catho- 

Lewes,  and  of  Moore  by  Lord  John  Russell,  lie  bishop  of  Charleston,  S.  C,  born  in  Cork, 

AmoDit  miscellaneous  writers  on  literature,  Isaac  Ireland,  Sept.   23,  1786,   died  in  Charleston, 

INflrseTi,  Sir  Egerton  Brydgcs,  and  John  Foster  April  11,  lt^2.     He  studied  in  the  schools  of 

prominent  near  the  beginning  of  the  his  native  city,  and  at  the  ago  of  15,  having  re- 

The  number  of  books  has  often  been  solved  to  enter  the  priesthood,  was  placed  by 

by  miscellaneous  collections  from  the  his  bishop  under  the  care  of  the  Very  Rev. 

s,joumals,  and  magazines,  as  the  ^^Noctes  Dean  McCarthy,  who  fitted  him  to  enter  the 

ABbrosiano),"  from  *^  Blockwood^s  Magazine,"  college  of  Carlow  in  1808.    During  his  stay  at. 

fiiicfly  by  Prof.  Wilson,  the  ^^  Essays"  of  Jeffrey  this  i'lstitution  he  founded  a  female  x)cnitentiary 

aad  Sydney  Smith,  Macaulay  and  Carlyle,  from  and  poor-schools  for  both  sexes,  gave  a  course 

tlfte^EdinburghKeview,"the  witty  productions  of  lectures  in  the  parish  chapel,  and  preached 

ef  Douglas  Jerrold,  collected  from  ** Punch,"  and  to  the  soldiers  then  stationed  in  the  town.    IIo 

■tnycSf  the  writings  of  Hazlitt  and  DeQuincey.  was  recalled  to  Cork  in  1808,  ordained  priest 

Gobbett  and  J.  Wilson  Croker  achieved  distinc-  Oct.  9,  and  soon  after  appointe<l  lecturer  at  the 

tioA  as  p<^itical  pamphleteers,  and  the  latter  North  chapel  and  chaplain  of  the  prisons.    In 

ibo  by  his  vigorous  and  pungent  articles  in  the  the  following  May  he  commenced  the  publica- 

'*(|urteriy  Review."    Important  contributions  tion  of  a  monthly  magazine  called  the  ^^  Rcli- 

been  made  to  English  art  literature  by  gious  Repertory ;"  in  1812  he  was  appointed 

,  Eastloke,  Leslie,  and  especially  by  Mrs.  president  of  the  theological  college  of  St.  Mary, 

and  John  Ruskin.    The  principal  met-  in  which  he  also  lectured  on  divinity,  and  about 

■hjiiml  writers  of  the  Scottish  school  were  the  same  time  he  entered  into  politics  with  all 

MBild  Stewart,  Dr.  Thomas  Brown,  and  Sir  his  characteristic  warmth.    He  exerted  himself 

Inni  Hamilton;  the  more  peculiar  tendencies  with  some  success  to  put  down  bribery  at  elec- 

•f  tte  FngiiA  mind  appeared  in  Palcy ;  Ben-  tions,  and  in  the   "  Repertory"  attacked  the 

is  tbo  author  of  important  works  on  juris-  existing  system  of  criminal  jurisprudence,  and 

J.  Staort  Mill  on  logic  and  political  opposed  the  project,  which  then  found  consider- 

and  Archbishop  Whatcly  on  logic,  able  favor  in  Ireland,  of  purchasing  Cntholio 

•ooDomy,  and  theology.    The  most  re-  emancipation  by  certain  concessions  to  the  Eng- 

•enhons  have  been  those  of  Alison,  lish  government.    The  freedom  of  his  longiingo 

Hall,  Chalmers^  and  Robertson ;  and  more  than  once  brought  him  before  the  courts, 


I 

L 


204  GUSn  ENGLISH  CDANinCL 

and  on  one  oorosion  he  wns  fined  £500.    Mean-  Christianitj  Kxamine<1,  bj  Conii«riD(f  the  K«i 

wliilo  ]io  filled  the  office  of  bisho|i'!i  iKK^retarr,  Testament  with  the  Old  **  (Roiton,  1813X  ^had 

performed  the  onlinarv  dntiefl  of  the  ministrV,  was  answered  in  the  follow  ins  jear  bj  EdwH^ 

and  founded  so%'erul  i\Vi^if>us  and  charitable  in-  Everett,  at  that  time  uastor  of  the  Brattle 


stitutions  in  Cork.    In  1^17  he  was  made  parish    church  in  Ik>ston.    Eni^Ush  then  vainly  npsk 

•ivfd  a  papal    to  obtain  a  commi^vion  m  the  U.  8.  amT,  wa 


;■?)• 


Eriest  of  ISrandon.     InlS'JOho  receivi 

utl  aiipoiniing  him  bishop  of  the  new  diocese  for  some  time  enf^aged  in  e<UtiDg 

of  Charleston,  S.  C,  comprising  the  states  of  in  the  West,  and  finally  sailed  to  the 

North  and  South  Carolina  and  (uH)rgia,  with  a  raneon  as  a  lieutenant  of  marinea  in  a  U.  fl 

scattered  Catholic  population  of  aU>ut  8,0O0,  ship  of  war.     Arririnf?  in  Egypt,  he  priiliww 

and  only  4  pricAts.    lie  wasconsei*ratedinCork,  Mohammedanism,    and    ha%'ing    libend  odba 

tSept.  2  l«And  arrived  at  Charleston  aliout  the  end  made  to  him,  accepted  a  coiomiisioo  in  th 

of  the  next  I^-comlier.    Ouo  of  his  tirst  cares  anny  of  Ismael  I'a^na,  who  waa  sent  by  Me 

was  the  cMAbli*«! mien t  of  an  academy  and  a  the-  hammed  Ali  in  1H20  in  command  cif  an  «* 

olo^ical  Si-minary,  in  both  of  which  he  tau^Oit  pe<lition  afniinst  the  trilies  of  Sennaar  upon  tkl 

the  principal  branches,  supporting  the  latter  in-  upper  Nile.     As  an  officer  of  artillerv,  Eaf 

■titution  by  t!ie  revenue  from  the  former.     Ho  liiih  perf«>rmed  important  aervioea.      lie  €m> 

founded  an  antlMiuelling  asHociation,  oirrected  ploved  camels  to  drag  cannon,  and  attenpced  li 

many  evil:»  whirh  had  erept  into  the  church,  revive  the  ancient  scythe  war  chariut,  to  muji 

vi.-ited  every  p:irt  of  his  vast,  half-setlliHl  dioi«.*iei,  fied  as  to  be  propelled  by  honwa  under  cover  ■ 

and  ;;ave  Htvc-ial  care  to  the  negroes,  for  whom  the  rear ;  but  the  mode)  which  be  eooslrvelad 

ho  alwavii  Lad  ri'gular  services  in  his  cathedral,  was  destroyed  through  jealoosv.    Thoefh  d» 

AVith  the  view  of  defending  his  crei^  he  estab-  fraude<l  of  his  pmmised  reward,  he  obtaiocd  fl 

lished  the  '*  Charler«tun  Catholic  Miscellany,'*  the  practical  knowledge  of  the  country  and 

firf>t  Catholic  |»aiivr  publi^he<l  in  America.     In  and  became  an  agi*nt  of  the  Americao 

lb2r».  at  the  retpie^t of  c^ongreais.  lie  preaiThcd  be-  ment  in  the  I^cvant.     He  retnmcd  to 

fore  the  si-natcat  Wafthiugtun.   In  Wli  he  trav-  in  1827,  and  took  up  his  residence  in  Wi 


clled  in  Euru{»e  and  t|»ent  s<mie  time  in  Rome,  ton.     He  had  a  very  versatile  genina,  and  tm^ 

when  the  \H*\te  apiHiinteil  hitn  .'ipi>st4ilic  legato  to  cially  excelled  in  acquiring  languagea.    At  lu^ 

HavtL   He  viMted  that  inland  twice  in  discharge  seilles  ho  passed  f«»r  a  Turk  with  a  Turkah  a»> 

of  his  functions,  returned  to  Rome  in  1Ki3,  and  bassndor,  who  lielieved  no  foreigner  ooold  m 

made  two  more  voyages  to  Europe  in  18:)6  and  perfectly  speak  his  language;  and  at  Waabiagloa 

1841.     Wis  death  was  brought  (»n  by  sicknesa  lie  surpri*<'d  a  delegation  of  Cherukeea  by  db- 

contr acted  on  a  storm v  |>as«age  home,  hastened  puting  with  them  in  their  own  tongue.    Ha 

by  uiiUMiuI  exertion  in  preaching  inmie<liately  wrote  an  answer  to  S.  Carv*a  review  ofhiafinl 

uher  hi^  arrival.   Hi«  learning  and  contntveniial  Itook :  a  letter  to  W.  E.  Channing  reganling  Ilia 

)Miwer?*,  his  liigh  moral  churru'tor,  and  above  all  two  (ieriiiuns  on  infiilclity  (1H13);  and  a  *' Aar- 

the  heruiMn  v\  hich  he  dixpluyed  during  a  si>a«((»n  rative  of  the  ExiK.Mition  to  I  Singula  and  Sc» 

of  Villiiw  fever,  gave  liiui  a  Manding  among  na;ir'*  (I/mdon,  1^*2*2),  which  waa  re|»oUfeJM4 

pirMiiis  (if  otiier  denoniin.itlons  in  CliarhMon  in  t lie  I'nited  St.iti*4  in  ls2:i. 

whii  h  ni>  iiunilier  of  his  fuith  had  held  there  ENtil.lSlI,  Tiii>ma4  IMnx,  an  American  ••• 

befiiri- ;  and  tlie  *»tran:^'  ^IK•^tm'le  was  sometimes  thor,  Imrn  in  rhiladel|»lita,  iVnn..  June  29.  IbllL 

wiine-«s.^l  of  tiie  Catholir  bi«ho[i  in  his  rolk'S  He    receivi^^l    the    degree    of   M.U.    fr\iin    tba 

preaching  o:i  Sundav  in  a  I'rote^ant  chun-h  to  university  uf  Pennsylvania  in  18:19,  and  han^g 

a  IViite<^taiit  i-ongregatiou  at  tlie  retiiie^t  iif  the  snlfSi'i|nently  stmlieil  law  was  admittdl  to  Ite 

btti-r*'*  pasttfr.     His  inl-ev^aIlt  aetiiitv  won  for  bar.   He  ha^  written  two  novtUentitU>d*'WalUr 

him  at  I'nnie  the  Mibri'piet  i»f  i7  rrnmro  a  Tnpt>rf^  W^Nihe"  and  *'  MlKVCXLII.**  and  haa  edited 

**t}ie  ^tram   lii^hop."     Hi^hi^p  Kn^lnnd  Kfl  a  and  (*«>ntnbuted    to  a  variety  of  Ji^umals  and 

greiit  iiuiiiUr  iif  t!ieo)o(ricuL  runtroveroial.  It  is-  magazines.     In  X^ho  ho  fiubli«>hed  a  f«4lectHa 

tori'-nl,   atiil    miswvllaneous    writings,   nmit    of  of  his  mivellaneous  |H>t*m«.     He  now  rvsidca  ia 

whirh   iiri^'inarv    aiifieari**!    in   the   (NTi(^li«'al  the  vicinity  of  Now   Yurk,  and  is  romccted 

pri>s.      .V  ri»!:ijili-tt'  iditiitn  of  his  work*,  e«Iited  with  the  i»ressof  that  citr. 

umKr  thi*  t!in<-ii..n  of  his  i.u<ves«iir,   tlio  Itt.  KN(iLl>H  CHANNEL  that  portion  of  tiM 

Ilev.  I.   A.  Ki'}  hi'li!**.  I>.h..  in  5  vuN.  Svu.,  ap-  Atlantir  whii-h  M-paralcft  Eiiclnnd  from  F 


peand  in  Italliin  ire  in  IM'.».  rxit-iuliiig  on  the  N.  fn«m  l>ii\rrtothc 

ENtil.lSlI.  (ict*i:(.i:  Hktiii'vk,  an  .\nierii*an  Knil.  and  on  tin-  S.  fri»m  Cnlai*  to  the  iUaod  of 

litt r.irv,  inilit.iry,  ami  (Nthtieal  ailventiinr.  tmrn  l*<>}tant.     At  is?«  W.  «-nii  it  is  lUi  ni.  wide,  as 

in  lUi-mn  in  IT*^'.*,  *lii-d  in  Wa*«liingti«n  in  An;*.  th«-  K..  wh«re  it  i«  uniti^l  to  the  North  fva  by 


]"*'.**<.     lie  Mas  gradtiatfd  at  Harvanl  ctdlive  in  thi-  Mrait  nt'  I»iivi*r.  it  is  aU*ut  S'*Di. 

I  ^"7.  ^rll<I:t•li  hiw  in  Ho^tiin.  ami  was  Ailmitted  t«}  its  gri':ite»>t  wiilllt  is  aIniuI  14')  m.     The  Englulb 

the  .^':!ri*!»  bar,  but  ni\er  i-ntract-tl  in  prarti«v.  enaNt  i*f  tli<*  channel  is  :;iiO,  and  the  Frvtwb  570 

K--i»ni;:i^  iir^i  a  t!i«Hintii'al  rfl'iirnier  and  tli-pu-  m.  in  li  ii;:th.    In  it  are  the  i^lenf  Wiglti.  iiorf*- 

tuiit,  and  thi'i  a»>t-:i!i-nt  tifdivinjtv  atCanihrlil^v.  m-v.  •Utm-v.  ami  i>thrr  i«1iin«l«,     A  current  a|^ 

I>ur.ri^'  h.-i  t)H'«>l<*jii'.d  iHnirM*  lie  b^»*an  ttidifutit  iN-ars  to  run  thrnu^h  it  fri*ni  the  H'.     thi  the 

the  truth  t«f  (*Kri«t.ani!v,  at.'l  pnbj^hiil  a  wi>rk  En;:U»h  f^tia^t  it  has  H»nie«-xrt-lK-nt  harKir\  bat 

in  lavur  of  Judaism,  eu tilled  the  '*  O rounds  of  thobe  on  the  Frt-nch  aide,  cicipting  the  artafioil 


ENGRAFTING  205 

port  of  Cherbourg,  ore  too  shallow  for  men-of-  ordinary  .instances  of  engrafting  tho  fig  tree 

w.  Important  pilchard,  mackerel,  and  oyster  npon  the  olive,  the  plum  upon  the  pear,  and  the 

liberies  are  prosecuted  in  its  waters.    From  rose  npon  the  black  cnrrant,  and  even  of  caus- 

ili  peculiar  shape  the  French  call  it  la  Manchty  ing  a  great  many  kinds  of  flowering  plants  to 

^tiie  ileeve.^*  grow  upon  a  single  and  distinct  stock ;  but  all 

ENGRAFTING,  the  process  in  horticulture  such  are  fallacies.    In  some  countries  plants  are 

Ij  which  varieties  of  one  kind  of  plant  may  be  sold  in  the  market  places,  so  prepared  as  to  dc- 

ndueed  to  grow  artificially  upon  other  individ-  ceive  the  unwary.     A  hollow-stemmed  and 

m1  varieties  or  species.    No  attempts  toward  woody  kind  is  selected,  and  a  variety  of  others 

Mgnfting  plants  on  others  which  do  not  be-  are  inserted ;  or  their  seeds  are  so  sown  as  to 

k^  to  the  same  natural  order  have  been  sue-  enable  their  roots  to  descend  into  the  hollow 

MadhL    Generally  speaking,  varieties  succeed  part,  where  they  will  meet  with  suitable  soil 

bert  on  Tarieties,  species  on  species,  or  species  and  nourishment.    In  this  way,  tho  difibrent 

ad  Tarieties  on  aUied  genera.    All  our  culti-  kinds  of  leaves  and  flowers,  being  made  to  in- 

fited  fknits,  for  instance,  are  improved  vario-  termingle,  serve  to  produce  a  strange  and  anom- 

tks  of  some  original  species,  now  not  ascer-  alous   effect.      Something    of  the    same   sort 

tamed.     Out  of  thousands  of  varieties  raised  may  bo  noticed  in  the  chance  springing  up  of 

from  the  seeds  of  some  previous  excellent  va-  currant  bushes  in  the  cracks  and  crevices  of 

riely,  very  few  liave  any  merits  the  tendency  trees,  and  of  the  mountain  ash  in  tho  rotten 

bsi^g  to  return  to  the  original  specific  typo,  hollows  of  the  large  trees  of  our  cities,  the  dc- 

TbcB  a  new  and  decidedly  valuable  variety  cay  ing  wood  and  the  dust' swept  by  the  winds 

secui^  It  becomes  a  matter  of  importance  to  into  these  cavities  affording  them  a  partial 

parpetbate  it  in  as  great  a  number  of  individual  and  limited  support.    In  some  other  instances, 

plaaU  as  possible.    The  trifling  effect  that  tho  tho  expansion  of  tho  leaves,  and  a  feeble  devel- 

fttioA  has  upon  the  scion  enables  the  poorer  opment  of  the  engrafted  scion  upon  another 

iFirieties  to  be  employed  in  furnishing  tho  trunk  plant   not  kindred   to  it,  seem   for  a  while 

nd  root  to  the  smaller  and  younger  scion.    A  to  show  the  possibility  of  such  a  union ;  but 

pieee  of  well-ripened  wood,  in  the  form  of  a  the  effect  is  so  transitory  and  the  death  of  the 

twig  having  8  or  4  buds  upon  it,  is  thus  trans-  branch  is  so  certain,  that  such  instances  are 

fwed  to  uie  poorer  kind,  and  forms  a  living  no  exception  to  the  general  rule. — A  great  va- 

tttremity,  which  extends  itself  into  branches  riety  of  processes  in  engrailing  are  possible, 

nd  forms  a  new  head  or  top.    In  this  way  va-  but  the  principle  of  the  operation  is  the  same  in 

rieties  of  apples  and  of  pears  may  be  engrafted  all.    In  the  vegetable  kingdom,  a  distinct  vital- 

qton  the  wild  crab,  or  upon  paradise  stocks ;  ity,  capable  of  development  to  on  unlimited  ex- 

Mt  the  result  is  to  dwarf  and  stint  the  growth  tent,  is  resident  in  every  individual  bud.    In  the 

ef  the  freer-growing  scion.    Here,  varieties  are  growth  of  all  exogenous  plants  there  is  a  pecu- 

MMSted  by  species ;  and  tiee  tersay  species,  or  liar  organization  between  the  inner  surface  of 

varieties  of  one  kind  of  species,  may  be  propa-  tho  bark  and  the  outer  surface  of  tho  wood, 

pted  on  those  of  another.    Tho  pear,  too,  in  which  is  called  the  alburnum.    Tho  vital  power 

its  almost  endless  varieties,  may  bo  engrafted  of  the  plant  resides  chiefly  here.    Thus  the 

^cm  the  apple,  quince,  hawthorn,  and  moun-  woody  portions  may  be  removed  without  affect- 

tui  ash,  where  we  see  species  and  varieties  of  ing  the  life  of  tho  tree,  or  the  bark  may  be  strip- 

mdesfloarishing  upon  entirely  distinct  genera,  ped  off  without  killing  the  tree,  provided  no 

ne  stone  fruits  engraft  with  more  difficulty,  mjury  is  sustained  by  the  alburnum.  Thisvital- 

J^  the  varieties  of  tho  plum  can  be  engrafted  ized  organization  renews  the  bark  and  the  wood, 

iponplumstocksorupon  the  apricot,  the  cherry  so  tliat  its  presence  is  essential.    It  is  then 

ipon  cherry,  &c.    Nut-bearing  trees  ore  often  equally  essential  that  the  alburnum  of  the  scion, 

f^graftej  to  insure  a  better  sort  of  nuts,  and  as  it  is  termed,  bo  brought  into  exact  and  close 

vaamental  trees  and  shrubs  of  rare  and  curious  contact  with  tho  alburnum  of  tho  stock ;  thus 

kiads  can  be  increased  in  tho  same  way.    Tho  tho  greatest  amount  of  contact  of  tho  alburnum 

tfcrgreen  pines  have  been  thus  propagated,  and  in  both  will  insure  the  most  perfect  success. — In 

Mtoo  have  beeches  and  ashes,  as  well  as  the  lilao  this  country,  the  most  common  and  likewise  the 

i  distinct  species  of  lilac,  and  even  the  most  clumsy,  and  yet  quite  as  often  tho  most 

II  lilac  upon  the  ash.    The  rose  acacia  successful  plan  of  engrafting,  is  called  Cleft 

finelv  upon  the  common  lucust,  and  Graftino,  and  is  practised  upon  the  heads  of 

highly  ornamental  head  in  2  or  3  years,  large  or  old  trees  by  lopping  the  extremities 

lliDv  choicer  foreign  shrubs  and  plants  culti-  of  the  branches.    Sometimes  the  entire  tree  of 

mad  in  greenhouses  ore  thus  profitably  in-  4  or  5  inches  diameter  is  cut  to  a  bare  stock  and 

of  which  tho  camellia  is  a  notable  ex-  used  in  the  same  manner.    The  stock,  whether 

The  daphne,  with  fragrant  blossoms,  a  trunk  or  branch,  is  cut  over  horizontally  with  a 

in  the  parlor,  unites  well  with  the  sharp  saw,  and  tho  surface  pared  smooth  with  a 

■ne  laurel  of  England ;  tho  oleander  with  knife ;  a  cleft  about  2  inches  deep  is  made  in 

mntb  flowers  unites  with  the  single  kind,  and  the  stock  with  a  splitting  knifo  and  hammer ; 

fti  necnlent-stemmed  cactuses  and  their  allies  the  scion  to  bo  engrafted  is  prepared  by  sloi>ing 

CM  te  engrafted  upon  each  other.    Eemarka-  its  lower  end  in    the  form  of  a  wedge  about 

lb  itories  are  in  common  circulation  of  extra-  an  inch  and  a  half  long,  leaving  it  a  little  thicker 


b 

L 


206  EXGRAFTIKG  ENGRAVING 

on  the  oDtcr  cil;;c.    Tlio  clefl  being  kept  open  or  of  tho  branch,  and  the  lover  end  of  th« 

^  ith  a  woi];:o,  tlie  Boion  is  cart'fuUy  pushed  down  is  cnt  k>  as  to  fit  tho  part  as  near  as  po«ibl« ; 

to  tho  placf  fittinfc  its  inner  bark  on  one  side,  so  it  is  then  fixed  in  the  branch  or  Imnk,  ifil 

that  tliv  inner  edi^es  of  Btockand  scion  may  co-  tonpiing  both  as  in  whip-itrafUag,  tyiiiKthm 

iiicitlo.    The  wedge  is  thvn  withdrawn,  and  tlie  with  bast,  and  claying  over. — IxaBcniiQ  lioalj 

ccLuiis  are  retained  in  place  by  tho  springing  to-  a  kind  of  engrafting,  and  la  employed  whvt 

gether  of  the  cti-fl,  when  the  grail  is  covered  the  cut  sciim  is  not  to  be  easily  aniited  to  tiM 

with  Kline  kind  of  comnufiitiun,  either  of  day  or  desired  stock.    Two  branchea,  or  two  itocka  of 

of  wax,  in  onler  to  exclude  tlie  air  and  to  facili-  the  two  distinct  plants^  ore  bron^t  cloM  t^ 

tite  tho  uniim. — In  England  and  on  the  con-  getlier,  and,  the  prenareQaarfacM  being  matched 

tinent,  another  procoss,  called  TVniP  or  Tongvc  and  tongued,  tho  whip-craning  ia  employed :  al^ 

(iuAFTiNo,  U  mufrtly  em|)loyed.    This  is  consid-  tcr  a  while  a  perfect  anion  will  have  taken  plae^ 

cred  the  most  exfioditiouM.    Tlio  stock  }i\ton  when  the  engrafted  portion  ia  to  be  sepiiratan 

whii'h  it  is  iH'rfomied  must  t>e slender,  from  the  from  its  parent  root,  and  it  henceforth  beeoBM 

size  of  a  gooso  quill  to  any  diameter  which  co-  the  branch  or  top  of  ita  new  foster  mother* 

iuciilcs  witti  the  thickness  of  the  graft.    Some  BtHDixo  (which  see)  is  only  a  variety  of  Ihii 

smooth,  rli-ar  i>art  of  the  stock  being  selected,  it  art. — ^The  practice  of  engrafting  aeema  to  hsfo 

Ls  in  hooding  it  ofThlupcd  on  one  side  with  a  knife  been  long  known ;  but  the  proceves  have  nnlll- 

to  a  viTV  acuto  angle,  and  a  slit  made  on  tho  plied  with  the  discoveries  and  improveiDcali  la 

lower  hide  of  the  blopo  to  re<*cive  the  wedge  or  Lorticalture. 

tongue  of  the  graft.  A  scion  having  4  or  5  buds,        ESGUA  VIXG,  properly  the  art  of  cnttiaf 

and  uf  ttio  size  to  match  the  stock,  should  bo  designs  upon  hard  surfaces,  as  of  wood,  rtOMt,  or 

ilniH-d  at  tho  bottom  so  as  to  accurately  fit  it.  mctal^a  species  of  sculpture  upon  plane  tm^ 

The  rindhof  both  should  be  nia<le  to  correspond ;  faces.     In  this  sense  the  art  vaa  prartisad  M 

a  string  of  soft  bast  i^huuld  bo  wound  round  very  remote  period^  mention  being  made  of  tha 

them  to  hold  them  in  place,  both  covered  with  work  of  the  engraver  in  Exodna  zzxt.  85.    kl 

tho  graft ingt^ompot^'it ion.   After  the  grail  pushea  its  modem  use  the  term  more  commonly  doii 

its  buds  tiie  binding  should  be  hK>sened  and  ignates  the  production  of  designs  by  cntttof  or 

finally  n-inovod,  when  the  adhesion  is  com-  by  corrosion  urion  tho  face  ci  blocks 

plt'tcd.     Piocc-s  of  the  roots  of  apple,  quince,  tollio  sheets,  wuich  are  to  be  osed  for 

or  ]H.*ar  are  also  whip-grafted  and  phmtcd  out,  ring  tho  figures  by  pressure  to  paper  < 

Ju^t  exiio*iing  the  top  of  the  scion  to  tho  air;  s^ft  substances,  in  order  to  mnlttply 

thv-se  unite  fimily  and  mako  vigorous  plants.  Engraved  plates  serve  therefore  aaimi 

This  may  Ik*  practised  also  on  flowering  ^h  rubs. —  pow  to  moulded  types  use<l  for  printing ;  boC  thi 

IuSadm  eCihaitino, the  MMoniHcIefi  instoadof  art  of  preparing  the  plates  i^  of  much  higher 

the  btix-k ;  the  ^llH'k  is  pared  away  on  each  !«ido  order  than  t!ic  manufacture  of  types  or  the  set- 

to  an  acute  angle,  fo  n.s  to  alhiw  the  scitm  to  Mt  ting  of  them  to  form  a  page.     For  types  ore 

or  ride  upon  it,  and  the  union  of  the  edges  of  only  fixe<l,  arbitrary  syml»ols«  which  have  ne 

tho  I'urkn  ni.iiie  as  mini-leto  as  i»os.«ilile  on  each  expre^Mon  of  their  own  ;  «  hile  cngraringa  am 

tiih'. — Ci:i>wN  tiuAiTiNG  i*(  pnu'tiscd  uiHmhirgo  pictures,  from  originalfi  drawn    it  may  be  bj 

troi-f  <if  IK  hie h  till*  winnI  id  too  Irnrd  and  stub-  mahtcrs  in  painting  or  diMiign,  which 

liorn  to  bo  cK-t't.   S*\eral  M-ions  are  |iar(.d  away  be  tran<«ferrod  line  by  line  to  a  new 

on  one  f>:tIo  of  tiio  Inwer  end  fur  abuut  2  inched^  even  with  the  aid  of  ingenions  mechanical 

so  a«  to  make  tiiut  ^i(lo  tlai  and  louvo  a  ••houldor  vioes,  unloHsi  the  copier  can  enter  stimew hat  into 

funning  a  rigltt  angle  with  it.     The  heofl  of  the  tho  spirit  of  the  artist,  and  thus  catch  thecs- 

atoik  l*eing  pawn  off  horizontally,  the  bark  is  pres>ion  f*f  the  work.     The  rrlaltcHi  of  theciK 

gently  raiM-d  I'mm  tho  wouil  and  thin  we«lges  graver  to  the  painter,  as  remarked  by  Allan  (^n- 

iii«<  ruil.    'I  Lo  M  ions  are  nuw  pu!»hcd  under  the  ningham,  is  that  of  tho  translator  to  tlie  aathor. 

bark,  thi  ir  ■'III  luMrrs  re!»ting  on  tho  crown  of  Hy  means  of  tho  art  the  mast  eqtioces  of  scolptam 

the  ^l(K-k;  t!ie  weilp*9  Wing  withdrawn,  the  and  painting  are  i>laee«l,  in  foithftil  mpicSk  wtthiB 

whole  nri'  tinl  in  by  M»ft  bast  c»r  «>t her  string,  tho  reaoh  of  all;  science  is  maile  Cuniliar  br 

and  i-onijM.si'i.iu  of  wax  or  «Iay  hiid  over,  to  cheap  illii»trati«»n4,  that  reach  the  undt-nrtaa^ 

prevent  any  wvt  iH.-nvt  rating  the  wound*.  After  ing  where  wonN  full;  in»trqction  and  awnss 

the  graft**  have  gruun.  and  nmdo  b^rg.  ti^mler  nient  are  pre<«'nti-d  by  it  in  wonderfnl  varirty  In 

shcKitN  wliii-li   tliiv   will    lie   apt   to  do  with  the  c^mjitAnt  ^urcoMion  of  cheap  ephemeral  pr^ 

nnif  h  rapidity  and  vitror,  they  sliould  bo  MTured  durtion*  which  are  a  |>eruliaritv  oi  this  ape :  omd 

to  Ui::g  »takf*i  plunti'd  nrar  the  st«>rk  and  rising  miinetary  transtoct ions  are  facilitated  by  the  nn- 

a\-*'\v  it, -mi  a^  t.i  Mive  the  nculy  fomie«l  t^p  I  ini  it  id  number  of  facsimiles  of  intricate  de«iin^ 

fmni  bn-ukin^olfat  the  junction  with  tho  !>tiM-k,  fnnii«he<l  at  trilling  ctml  for  a  single  rupy.  hat 

l>y  the  furre  of  « indn  m  ting  Ufiun  the  luxuriant  ditliruU  andoxin-UMVo  to  counterfeit.  Tliv  pvriod 

fi'!i.i,:i-.— Sill  K- times  it   is  e«M'ntial  to  replace  w  luncnin'a  veil  plates  or  bliH-ks«  ere  tirvtprintel 

liUiU  that  !ia\e  Utii  hn>kvn  fmin  young  tri«'«,  fromisinvi.lvrd  inmnrholKicurity.    Thrtirerks 

or  fruiu  hrai.rhe-  tif  oMer  one^  and  ti>  ri*«toro  are  said  by  Honidiitiu  to  have  f^rrpartd  maio 

the  »\iiin]i'.ry  of  form  ;  and  thi<  i»di>n«»  by  Side  n]Kin  metallic  plat*-*  (Tak*  It.  C.{,  which  m^l 

(iHArTiNo.     lltTL-  tho  bark  aud  a  little  of  the  very  well  have  served  fur  furnishing  copies  by 

woud  is  sloped  off  from  tho  Aide  of  the  tmnk  impression,  bat  were  probably  urrtr  ifpbrf 


ENGRAVING  207 

to  this  use.  The  Chineso  are  said  hy  Da  Holde  made  the  first  representation  on  paper  from  a  me- 
to  hare  practised  the  art  1120  years  before  tallio  plate.  The  art  was  at  once  taken  up  and 
Christ,  and  some  snppose  that  from  them  the  extensively  practised.  Painters  of  distinction, 
art  was  transferred  to  Europe.  It  is  first  men*  as  Botticelli,  gave  their  attention  to  it,  and  it  was 
tiooed  as  having  been  practised  by  an  Italian  rapidly  perfected.  This  was  especially  the  case 
Cunilj  of  the  name  of  Cunio,  who  executed  in  Germany  and  the  Netherlands,  great  num- 
wood  engravings  in  the  year  1285,  and  who  hers  of  eminent  men  adopting  the  art,  among 
may  have  received  the  art  through  Venetian  whom  Albert  Dnror  is  particularly  distinguished. 
merchaota,  8cch  is  the  opinion  of  Ottley,  Rembrandt,  Vandyke,  and  other  great  painters, 
Uw  author  of  the  ^  History  of  Engraving."  A  also  executed  valuable  works  of  art  with  the 
daene  of  the  magistracy  of  Venice  vi  1441  etching  needle,  and  Raphael  highly  prized  the 
has  been  bronght  to  light,  in  which  it  is  stated  services  of  the  great  Italian  engraver  Marc  An- 
thit  the  art  and  mystery  of  making  cards  and  tonio,  who  transferred  to  copper  many  of  his  de- 
piinted  figures  had  fallen  to  decay,  owing  to  signs.  The  art  appears  to  have  been  introduced 
their  extensive  importation,  and  the  introduc-  into  England  at  an  early  period,  an  illustrated 
tka  into  the  city  of  such  work  printed  and  work  called  the  '^  Golden  Legend "  having  ap* 
painted  on  cloth  or  paper,  as  altarpieces  or  im-  peared  in  1488,  and  in  1545  was  published  Ve- 
sfes  and  playing  oiurds,  was  in  consequence  salius^s  ^  Anatomy^"  in  Latin,  illustrated  with 
prohibited.  This  indicates  the  enstence  of  the  copperplate  engravings.  Maps  of  English  coun- 
art  not  only  in  Venice  but  in  other  places  also  ties  were  engraved  in  1579.  Little  progress, 
aft  thsEt  time,  and  for  an  unknown  period  previ-  however,  was  made  previous  to  the  18th  century, 
only.  Playinff-  cards,  it  is  known,  were  in  when  Vertue  and  Hogarth,  and  subsequently 
we  in  1275,  ana  it  was  probably  for  multiplying  Strange,  WooUett,  Bartolozzi,  Sharp,  and  others, 
copies  of  their  simple  devices  that  impressions  brought  the  art  to  a  high  degree  of  excellence. 
me  Snt  taken  from  engraved  blocks  of  wood.  At  present  engraving  on  wo(^  or  metal  is  more 
In  the  beg^ning  of  the  15th  century  this  was  extensively  practised  than  ever,  owing  chiefly 
•a  established  tnde  in  Germany,  the  artists  b#-  to  the  demand  for  prints  for  the  embellishment 
Sup  known  as  BrirfmdUr^  and  also  as  Form-  of  books  or  illustrated  periodicals.  Italy  is 
aeiaMcKer,  or  figure  cutters.  They  applied  their  no  longer  preeminent  for  her  engravers ;  she 
pRsnit'to  higher  objects  also,  and  engraved  has  however  within  the  century  furnished  some 
prints  of  aaints,  and  even  impressed  some  rude  engravers  of  transcendent  merit,  whoso  works 
ibrnis  of  books  upon  sacred  subjects,  the  printed  will  compare  with  the  best  of  their  prede» 
natter  occupying  only  one  side  of  a  large  page,  ccssors.  At  the  head  of  these  stands  Raphael 
and  two  of  these  being  pasted  together.  One  Morghen,  whoso  **  Last  Supper"  after  Da  Vinci, 
ef  the  earliest  remaining  of  these  wooden  cuts,  "  Transfiguration  "  and  Madonna  della  Seg- 
bearing  tlie  date  of  1423,  is  of  folio  size,  and  pre-  giola  after  Raphael,  are  among  the  most  costly 
aarrcd  in  a  convent  at  Buxheim,  near  Memmin-  productions  of  the  art.  Schiavoni,  the  An- 
(BD.  Its  subject  is  ^^  St.  Christopher  carrying  derloni,  Bottelini,  Longhi,  Porporati,  Pavon. 
tils  Infant  Jesus  over  the  Sea ; "  and  its  illumi-  the  latter  a  scholar  of  Raphael  Morghen,  and 
Bstioos  are  of  the  style  of  those  on  the  playing  others,  have  engraved  with  success  many  of 
ends.  It  is  now  in  the  possession  of  Earl  the  works  of  the  old  roasters.  Toschi,  who 
Spsnoer,  in  England.  A  specimen  of  these  illus-  died  in  1854,  took  high  rank  among  line  en- 
trated  books  was  called  Biblia  Pauperam^  *^  Bi-  gravers  by  his  print  of  the  *^  Entry  of  Ilenrv 
Ueof  the  Poor."  The  editions  vary  from  40  to  IV.  into  Paris,"  after  the  picture  by  G6rara. 
BOleavei,  small  folio,  printed  on  one  side  only  of  as  well  as  by  his  ^'Descent  from  the  Grossw" 
tiM  paper.  From  these  rude  beginnings  it  was  after  Volterra,  Spasimo  di  Sicilia,  after  Rapn- 
aibort  step  to  the  invention  of  movable  types  acl,  and  other  works  from  the  old  masters. 
and  the  discovery  of  the  art  of  printing.  Cop-  Rosaspina,  Bisi,  Mercuri,  and  others,  have  pro- 
Mr  was  very  soon  employed  as  well  as  wood  dnced  meritorious  prints  from  masters  both  old 
fv  engraving  upon,  and  at  about  the  same  time  and  modern.  In  Germany  the  art  has  witnessed 
fa  Germany  and  in  Italy.  A  German  copper-  a  steady  improvement  since  the  commencement 
ifata  print  is  in  existence  of  the  date  14G1,  and  of  the  century,  particularly  within  the  lost 
k  fa  nnlikely  that  this  was  the  oldest  specimen,  quarter  of  it,  although  engraving  on  wood  or 
Btt  Yasftri  gives  the  credit  of  the  earliest  use  stone  is  probably  more  extensively  practised 
tftUsmetal  to  Finiguerra,  a  native  of  Florence,  than  line  engraving  or  the  other  methods  of 
ite  practised,  in  his  occupation  as  a  goldsmith,  working  on  metal.  Rahl,  Hess,  Reindel,  Umer, 
At  aogravinff  of  plate  for  churches,  &c.,  by  Leybol£  Kessler,  Kobell,  Barth,  Klein, '  J.  II. 
— — ^"jT  into  Tines  cut  in  the  metal  a  black-col-  and  J.  J.  Lips,  Steinla,  and  others,  havo  gained 
end  aSoy  of  silver,  lead,  copper,  sulphur,  and  eminence  as  line  engravers ;  and  Chnstion  Fried- 
\maXfCahed  niello.  The  surface  being  polished,  rich  von  Mtiller,  who  died  in  1816,  aged  83, 
km  tiins  beautifullv  ornamented  according  to  produced  a  print  from  Raphael's  Madonna  di 
ttt  ^n  and  taste  exhibited  in  the  pattern.  It  San  Sisto,  which  is  regarded  as  one  of  the  noblest 
fat  the  purpose  of  obtaining  a  copy  of  the  achievements  of  the  graver.  His  father,  J.  G.  von 
ed  figure  that  Finiguerra  is  said  to  have  Mdller,  was  also  a  good  engraver,  and  among 
^iplication  of  soot  and  oil,  and  taken  other  works  executed  tho  well  known  print  of 
k— 'An  on  damp  paper;  and  thus  was  tho  battle  ofBunker  hill  from  Trumbull^s  picture. 


208  SNGRAYIKG 

Tlie  renmM»anc€  in  (icrman  painting,  effected  by  tho  art  han  l)Ocn  pronocntcd  vith  great  ■ 

the  ctfurts  uf   CuriivliuA,  Overbcck,   Schadow,  Itaiuibnch,  Stowart,  Burnet,  Smith,  ami  oiImtx 

Kaalbadi,  and  ol]iorshui»  had  a  marked  tnflufnco  have  made  M'ilkiu*8  picturea  generallj  knovn 

Qpou  thu  art  of  en^avin{r,  and  wieliin  the  hist  through  the  medium  of  eicclk*nt  lioe  cnmT- 

40  yvara  a  school  of  en^ruvcrs  has  Kprung  into  ings;  andiiiMHiall.  Wilhnore,  Pjre,WilM]n,  rtiur, 

ezinteuco   who    havo    codi>erated  with    these  Findon,  Walli;*,  and  Couik'Q    have  dune  the 

inasitvrd  in  their  vndcavurd  to  restore  to  art  ita  name  for  the  hmdseanvs  of  Turner,  SlanfirM, 

ancient  tiiniplicitj  and  deep  reIii;iouB  feeling.  ConHtahle,   Cidlcott,   Koberta,   and  the   fithcr 

Prominent  among  theM  are  KiiKchewef  h,  who  great  Engli>li   masiter^  of  this  department  of 

wad  asbociatcd   at  I  Some  with  Cornelius  and  painting.     Marti  u'h  mezzcvtints  of  the  **  Fall  of 

Overbei'k,  and  who  hvA  engraved  tho  chief  Habvhiu,^*  ^'IWlshazzarV  Feast,"*  &c.,  after  hk 

wiirku  uf  tho  new  school ;  Aui»ler,  Keller,  tho  own  de?*igns  are  htrikinp  works  and  well  kDovn. 

Fel^infrH,  and  Mcrz,  who  have  drawn  their  inspi-  The  engraving  of  Sir  Eilwin  Landseer*;!  works 

ration  frf>m  the^amo  si>urcc;  Thavter,  EichenA,  of  which  nearly  200  different  prints  have  ap- 

Handel,  ICahn,  and  Schleich,  who,  among  otlier  {K*ared,  hat  employ e«1  a  numerous  baod  of  cn- 

works  have    engraved  some  of   the  mabter-  gravers,  prominent  among  whom  are  the  artist's 

pieces  of  Kaulbach,  Schnorr,  Scheffcr,  &c.     In  bri»ther    Thtmias    loindseer,    Cousins,    Lacai^ 

Fruico  as  in  (f ermany  tho  efforts  of  engraven  Brumley,  Ryall,  Atkinson,  liaker,  Wasa,  Gibbco, 

arc  now  less  directed  to  the  reproduction  of  tho  0  raves,   Hai'on,   and  liobinMiO.     Duo,   Watt, 

works  of  the  old  masters,  or  of  indifferent  de-  Heath,  Ilollaway,  who  engraved  tho  cartoooa 

■igns  for  illustrated  books,  tlian  to  the  execution  of  Itaphael  in  Hampton  court,  and  otliers  hav* 

of  prints  after  con  tern  poraneous  ^inters.  I  >avid,  produced  gt»od  line  engravings  from  the  oM 

Gros,  Ingre%  and  others,  have  aflorded  numerous  ma^terH ;  and  the  more  modem  Enffliah  puat- 

aubjects;  and  ofauchiK>iiuIar  painters  as  Veniet,  ers,  such  as  Leslie,  Newton,  Eastlake,  Eny, 

I)elaroche,  and  Ary  Seluffer,   probably  nearly  M'ard,  Webber,  Maclise,  ]iillai^  Frank  StoM, 

e  Very  im  [Kir  Ian  t  work  has  been  engraved.  Franco  Herring,  T.  Faed.  d:c.,  have  found  ready  inter* 

has,  however,  produced  some  excellent  line  en-  preters  in  Kichardson,  lk*Hin,  Badil,  Ilowbon, 

gravers  after  the  old  masters,  among  whom  may  Walker,  Simmons,  ^tock^  Iteynolds,  J.  Faed, 

be  mentioned  tho  baron  Desnoyers,  who  died  in  Hull,  and  many  others.    The  etchings  ufGeorire 

1857,  and  who  executed  tine  prints  of  Itaplmers  Cruik^hank  from  his  own  designs  ara  also  of 

JitlU  j*irdihUrt  axv\  **Trnnsfigtiration,*' and  of  the  liighcftt  order  of  merit.     Wood  engraviag 

Cieranl's  Na[>oIeon;  Pre vost,  who  has  engraved  in  £uroi>i*,  and  ruirticularly  in   Englaiid,  haa 

Paul  Veroneae*s  *'  Marriage  of  (*ana;*'  thu  Mas-  reached  a  iKTfection  unknown  t«>  any  prevkiaa 

sanls    lATunte,    Lorichon,   IWin,    Richomme,  era  in  the  lli^tl>ry  of  art,  and  in  thetattcr  rtxm* 

I'orster,    Martinet,    Lignon,   (lUtlin,    Audouin,  try    the    wmMlruts  of    the    ]>al/iet    brv'.hen^ 

Hridoux,    iiirard,   d;c.      Oi   ttii>«e   who  havo  £van^  CtNiper,   Palmer,   Linton,   and   i>thcr\ 

devoted   themMrlves  to  the   wurks  of  modem  have  a  rit'tuu-'^i  and  delicacy  of  fmi<h  n4»t  infe- 

mu.'^ter:*.   the    ui«i^t  eminent  pcrhap?*  is  Hen*  rior  ti»  the  hicheot  efforts  of  tho  enirra vers  oa 

rii|UeI-I>uiH»nt,   wh(»M*    line  eii;:ruvin^   of  I)e-  metal.     In  t!u*  Netherlundit  tho  principal  ca- 

]aroi-lK*i4  !ri"M.'o  in  the  jMniir\i.li.'  of  the  PnUiis  gra\ers  are  Vinkele**  and  VantJenuN  VanTn*- 

J^« /'fii '/J- urf«  i<i  unsurpavMil  in  merit  or  dimon-  twvrk.    Van  (>s    t^verl^eck,   Jan^in,   Chak^ 

sion?!  by  aiiy  rtvent  work  of  the  kind.     Hlan-  l'hu>Mns  l*c  Frey.  I'orr.  Ac.     In  the  CnitMl 

chard,   Prudhomme,   l.i>uis  and   tlie    brothers  States  h  here  the  art  hat*  Wen  pursmM  prinri- 

Fran^'uis  huvu  engraved  niany  of  the  wurki  of  pally  t\*T  the  priHluction  of  vignettes  for  hank 

Vernet,  Jk'luriMlje,  and  Sheifer,  and  C.  K.  J.  notes  or  small  prints  fi»r  UHik\  the  m«*>t  rmi- 

Fruii\>ii!i   Ui%^   Clin  tilled   liiniM  If  vxtlusivelv  to  neiit  n.imes  arc  I  Mi  rami,  Cheney.  Smillir,  I>b&- 

I  telariN-he'tt  work-^.   (iiranlet  has  engraved  ^nmi  forth.  Sartuin,  ]  >i('k,  Ac. — Accc^rding  to  the  ic^ 

the  a! live  master**,  an«l  aUt  M-Vi-ral  *>iil  jeets  from  terial  UM*d  for  receiving  the  de>iigns,  the  art  is  d^ 

Ann  man  hi-tory,  iiirluding  Liiit/e*4  *' Wa>h-  si  gnate  das  xylography,  chalet  igraphy,  siderogra- 

in^'ti'ii  i'rox*ing  the  J  Via  ware,"  St '.Lirrs  {Nirtrait  phy,  and  Iilh«>graphv — fW<m  (tXor,  triW,  j^aXiaa, 

of  W;i«]iin^tttn,  «kc.     .1a/vt  i>  ivlebrated  fur  his  cop^HT,  gcd#«M)f ,  st<*ei,  Xi^or.  stone,  andypv^a,  t9 

a<)T:at;nts   from  the  battle  pieces  of  (iroH  and  inM-riln*.     The  last  willW  treat  i-d  umlcr  its  ow« 

Vvriiet,  and  ('al.iinatta  ban  « leriited  admirable  di-s^'nutii>n. — X^UMinAfiiT,  or  Wimiu  KyofeaT- 

portrait  pri.'it^  uf  l.anieiinal%  (iui/ot,  Fourier,  iMi.  i.N  tlio  Mmplest  and  cheapest  form.      The 

anil  Madame  I  >UilevaiJt.     ( 'alanie,  a  Swi.is  arti'«t,  Wo<>d<«  u*>id  are  ihos}  of  the  box.  |icar,  and  orc^ 

ha4  iTiNltired  m.iny  ailmirable  etchings*.     Tho  hionally  the  apple  and  l>etrh  trees,  alio  for  lar;pf 

pr.ic:iie  of  i-i'pyirig  tlie  old  mn^'^teris  and  to  a  phicard**  main >piny  and  pine.   The  fint  tkaraed  it 

eti(i«i>ltTabIe  1  xteiit  o!'  line  i  n;; raving,  Itas  faUeU  dei  idcdly  the  bi*«t.     It  is  closo  and  even  grained^ 

into  tli'^iiM.'  in  (jiglaiiil,  the  l.ittir  Uing  empKy-  hanl,  and  tt>ugh.  and  not  liable  to  be  atSarkea 

t-ii  pr.m  ipaily    in   large   la.iilM-aiN  4  ur   in  l!io  by  insi*<-ts.     It  hhotild  Ih' sek-cte«l  for  ita  OBifcm 

hipcher  iU«^  uf  firTuro  pietv.     ibn*  a^rain,  as  yellow  color,  which  implies  unifLYrmity  o^  t<s- 

iu  (ierrnaiiy  and  Kraniv,  the  work^i  of  a  few  ture.  and  U'fore  using  fnu>t  lie  ihi^roagfdy  sea- 

vmiuent  nAii\e  arti-t^  have  iN'cupied  the  atten-  soniil.     The  drawing  is  maile  with  a  lead  peDcd 

tion  of  t!ie  I  liief  eiigravtr<i  alnm^i  exrln«ivily,  upon  the  surface,  which  Ls  cut  acn>«  the  eadi 

aii'l  undir  thu  intbuiH  e  <if  paiutept  like  Key-  ot  the  tlbri' of  the  wood  and  sniiOtlAy  pboed; 

iioklf,  Luwn-uce,  Wilkie,  Turner,  and  Laudsver,  then  with  a  aleodcr  and  finely  |K>in|id  gram« 


( 


ENGRAVING  209 

called  the  ontline  tool,  tho  bonndarr  lines  of  tlie  The  handle  la  short,  and  the  side  on  the  line 
portions  to  bo  removed  are  slightly  cut  in  the  with  the  point  is  made  flat,  both  for  the  pur- 
wood,  which  are  to  form  the  light  parts  of  the  pose  of  applying  the  instrument  at  the  smallest 
engraving.    The  lines  marked  in  tlie  drawing  angle  with  the  flat  surface,  and  to  cause  it  to 
are  the  prominent  parts,  which  are  to  receive  remain  without  rolling  wherever  it  is  laid  down. 
and  traoifer  to  the  paper  the  ink  or  other  color-  In  use,  the  point  is  thrust  forward,  cutting  a 
ing  matter ;  in  copperplate  engraving  tlie  lines  furrow  in  the  metal  and  raising  burrs  by  the 
are  rank  into  the  metal.    There  is  a  method  of  sides  of  the  lines.    These  are  commonly  taken 
wood  engraving  in  which  the  ground  is  inked,  off  with  the  scraper,  but  in  some  instances  those 
and  the  lines  sank  in  the  block  appear  white  made  with  the  finest  etching  needle,  c^led  the 
vpoa  the  paper,  thus  producing  a  good  effect  dry  pointy  have  been  allowed  to  remain,  and  a 
for  outline  sKetches  at  little  cost.    This,  how-  pleasing  effect  is  said  to  have  been  produced  in 
ever,  differs  from  copperplate  engraving  in  the  many  of  Kembrandt^s  engravings  thus  treated. 
ground  instead  of  the  lines  receiving  tho  ink.  Tlie  polish  and  cleanliness  of  the  plate  are  pre- 
The  outlines  being  cut  into  the  wood,  the  por-  served  by  frequent  rubbing  with  a  woollen  rub- 
tioBS  to  be  removed  are  next  cut  out  by  means  her  wetted  with  olive  oil.  Parallel  lines  required 
of  gravers  and  gouces  of  different  sizes.    The  in  series  are  cut  by  a  ruling  machine.    The 
blocks  of  small  woodcuts  are  so  shaped  as  to  be  fainter  shades  too  delicate  for  the  gravers  are 
inserted  in  the  page  with  the  types,  their  surface  scratched  in  with  the  needle  or  dry  point,  which 
being  brought  to  the  same  level,  and  the  printing  is  held  in  the  same  way  as  a  pencil  in  drawing. 
is  then  effected  precisely  as  if  the  whole  were  Such  is  the  simplest  method  of  line  engraving 
tjpesL     In  the  same  manner  they  are  blocked  on  metallic  plates. — Engraving  by  dots  or  puno- 
ia  stereotype  plates.      The  thickness  of  the  tures  made  in  tho  metol  to  produce  shades  is 
blocks  of  wood  is  the  height  of  common  types,  often  practised,  but  commonly  in  tho  etching 
Aa  application  of  flake  white  or  bath  brick  and  process.     The  dotted  style  is  called  stippling. 
gsn  water  is  made  upon  the  surface  of  the  The  effect  is  produced  by  dots  made  usually  in 
wood  in  order  to  receive  the  lines  of  the  draw-  curved  lines  with  the  graver,  the  point,  or  by 
11^  ■  (^iaro§curo^  or  elaro  ohacuro,  is  a  method  etching ;  tho  moro  closely  the  dots  are  grouped 
of  wood  engraving  in  which  a  series  of  blocks  together,  tho  darker  the  shade.    Tho  style  was 
are  used,  the  first  having  merely  the  outlines  of  much  practised  by  tho  English  in  the  latter  part 
the  print,  the  second  only  the  less  dark  shadows,  of  tho  last  century,  and  is  particularly  adapted 
and  the  third  those  moro  dark,  and  so  on  if  fur  giving  a  soft  pleasing  effect  in  shading  the 
more  are  used.    An  impression  is  taken  from  limbs  of  the  human  figure,  in  representing  flow- 
each  in  succession.    In  some  instances  a  copper  ers,  &c.    Tho  work  resembles  painting  more 
plate  is  used  to  give  tho  outlines  in  a  heavy,  tlian  lino  engraving.  For  producing  the  greatest 
dark  style.    It  is  on  this  principle  the  printing  delicacy  in  shading,  the  fine  dry  point  is  used. 
of  colored  engravings  is  effected,  a  series  of  When  tho  dots  are  struck  in  w^ith  a  little  ham- 
blocks  being  employed,  each  one  having  its  own  mer,  the  work  is  called  opiia  mallei. — The  most 
color  and  being  used  in  turn,  as  practised  in  common  method  of  engraving  upon  copper, 
Cauco  Pbixtino,  which  see  in  this  work,  vol.  practised  also  upon  other  metals  and  upon  glass, 
iv.  p.  224. — Copperplate  Enoravixo  is  prac-  is  that  called  etching.    It  consists  in  causing  an 
tised  by  various  methods,  the  most  simple  of  acid  to  bite  in  tho  lines,  which  have  been  drawn 
widch  is  to  cut  in  the  lines  of  the  drawing  with  through  the  coating  of  wax,  called  the  etching 
iharply-pointed  gravers,  after  tho  sketch  has  ground,  upon  which  the  acid  has  no  effect, 
been  transferred  to  a  thin  covering  of  white  Albert  DQrer  is  supposed  to  have  invented  the 
wiz  melted  uniformly  over  the  face  of  tho  method,  tho  earliest  known  specimens  of  it 
liammered  and  polished  metal.    Tho  transfer  is  being  among  his  works.    The  etching  ground 
cffiscted  by  laying  a  tracing  of  tho  design  in  is  prepared  by  melting  in  a  crnciblo  at  a  mod- 
bhck  lead  pencil  faco  down  upon  tho  wax  and  erate  neat  2  ounces  of  white  wax,  with  half 
■Igecting  it  to  a  heavy  pressure.     The  lines  an  ounce  of  black    pitch    and  the  same  of 
vs  then  distinctly  seen  upon  the  wax  when  Burgundy  pitch,  and  stirring  in  2  ounces  of 
te  tracing  paper  is  removed.    By  the  use  of  asphaltum  in  powder.    When  thoroughly  in- 
my  delicate  gravers  tlie  lines  are  slightly  marked  corporated  by  boiling,  the  mixture  is  poured  into 
ftiough  upon  the  copper,  and  when  tho  wax  has  water.    It  is  then  separated  and  worked  by 
fata  melted  off  the  engraving  is  completed  by  hand  into  balls,  which  are  tied  up  in  pieces  of 
MttiDg  Uie  lines  to  the  proper  depths  with  suit-  smooth- worn  silk.    The  application  upon  the 
able  gravers,  removing  the  burr  which  is  push-  plate,  uniformly  heated,  is  made  by  rubbing  one 
ad  vp  by  the  graver  with  another  instrument  of  these  balls  over  its  surface,  so  that  tlie  com- 
criUa  scraper,  and  softening  tlie  effect  produced  position  melts  through  the  silk.    It  is  then 
Vf  wenX^es  and  lines  cut  too  deeply  into  tho  spread  evenly  over  tho  copper  by  a  dauber, 
aiCal  by  rubbing  the  surface  over  with  tho  which  is  a  bag  tightly  filled  with  soft  wool  and 
■■milhlj  [iiiiiid  i1  steel  instnimcnt  called  tho  covered  with  smooth  silk.    The  ground  being 

* 'iher.   Thegraver  or  burin  is  similar  to  those  thus  evenly  spread,  tho  plate  is  next  held  over 

in  wood  engraving.    The  point  is  of  py-  several  smoking  candles,  till  a  coating  of  lamp- 

"  il  form,  with  unequal  sides,  and  is  kept  black  covers  tho  wax.     The  outline  of  the  do- 

br  frequent  application  upon  an  oil  stone,  sign,  made  with  black  lead  pencil  upon  pai>er, 

VOL.  VU. — 14 


L. 


210  ENGRAVING 

ii  then  ]:w\  fnoc  down  upon  tlio  lampblack,  and  border  of  wax  i:i  raided  aronnd  th«  plato.  Water 
br  proA'«:iro  la'twecn  the  rollem  iinod  fi)r  thU  is  poured  ui>ou  it  and  k-fl  fur  15  luinuti-A,  whra 
purfNiM  it  U  traii>ferred  to  the  etching  pmuiid.  tlio  burstini;  gnmiid  cra<:*fl  o[ivn,  cx|i>»';n^  the 
8tinio:iti)c«  the  back  of  the  skelcli,  wliirh  in  mppcr.  It  i^  thcu  rviulv  fur  tlie  i;Urir  a*  i^l, 
till!!  oaM!  U  drawn  reve^s<.^l,  m  ctivored  with  which  in  \im**\  as  in  etch inp,  and  uiar  K*  k«.«oraI 
whiting,  and  laid  niHin  the  blackened  burfnce,  ti men  apphcd  after  each  i«t«*ppiu^  out  ^T  tiio  i^c- 
and  the  tinvs  then  being  f;onu  over  with  a  blunt  tittrnttiutliciintly  corn»dcd  ti»  |TiNluf  i'  iL'j  ilo^rtd 
point,  tliejr  iiri>  t^un^fl■^^l.•d  bv  the  chalk  a<lhering  bhudcs.  The  bur«tin(;  ^-ronnd  \*  not  alwa\»  rv- 
to  the  lanipbliu-k  and  wax.  The  line^aro  then  quired,  tlio  acid  iK-in;;  appUid  direct!  v  uifu  tL« 
drawn  with  ftcliin^  neediv*  through  tlio  ground  irranulation.4,  which  pnitcct  the  part.^  tlivv  ci >Ti*r. 
to  the  c«*i>lKT,  ttie  fsiuiv  care  K'in^  taki-n  to  pre-  and  tlie  varvin^shudi-s  are  prudnevtl  bv  rt-i^atcd 
■erve  the  prit}ier  etU'ct  of  distaui-e,  by  appruprl-  c«irnM»ii»n9  and  as  nmny  >ttipi»iiig»  cut.  11^  !Mjiue 
ato  iineni*«i4  or  c(tar<eneM  uf  ttio  lines  asi  in  a  artists  certain  re^inoud  iKiwdcru  are  diuted  ap- 
fini^hed  «!rawin{r.  In  order  to  retain  the  acid  on  the  plate  instead  of  obtaining  the  graoaU- 
Qliun  the  plate,  a  ridge  of  what  U  calU'd  bank-  tioiiA  by  itie  ahidiiilic  dilution.  Uuni  sanda- 
ing  wax  i^  laid  around  it^  edge  about  half  an  inch  rac  in  UM>d  fi>r  this  puqH»»e,  or  tlie  pumt  miB 
high.  Thin  !!>  prepared  by  melting  ti>gether  more  or  lesii  finely  ]iulverized,  and  titled  thnxigh 
twupartKof  pitihund  t»no  of  Itee^wax,  and  add-  muslin  u{M>n  the  plate,  to  which  the  particlaa 
IngSiiniertweetoil.  X  i trie  acid  diluted  with  aUtut  attach  thi'ni*«elve*i  on  iUi  iKriiig  heatetl.  i^vlon 
4  |Mirt:>  f)f  water  is  then  ]»oured  over  the  itlato,  are  s«>inetinie:t  apjilied  to  tho  platt.-ai  and  the  d^ 
and  allu  wetl  to  remain  lung  enough  t4>  corn  xle  the  »ign  is  at  once  printed  in  ita  intendeU  colon; 
lainter|>«>riiun4of  the  sketch.  Itinthen  iM»ured  but  whero  several  c*don  are  employed  in  coo- 
off^  and  the  plate  U  wa.<*hed  wiili  water.  When  ta(*t  with  each  other,  it  has  been  cuMtomarr  to 
dry,  an  applicatiitn  of  a  mixture  v(  lampblack  u»e  as  many  ditTerent  plated  one  for  each  culor, 
and  Venire  turjK'Utine,  called  ^^•pping  ground,  and  print  in  BUcce!«f«ion,  the  phitea  being  kepi  in 
Is  made  with  a  camel's  It  air  bniAh  to  tliesH.*  |>or-  their  exact  plat^en  by  fitting  u|K)n  4  fixc^  pun 
tiond,  by  which  further  action  of  tho  acid  ia  tliat  jiass  through  holes  in  their  ct^merk  TUa 
preventtnl.  lly  a  renewed  ex {Mtsiu re  to  the  acid  methi»d  is  practisetl  in  engraving  uj^jn  cMtM 
the  partK  not  protected  are  mi  ire  deeply  cor-  cloth.  (See  Calico  Pbintinu.)  Tlte  aiinatlnea 
rodeil,  artil  a  corres|»oudingly  bolder  »hado  will  pntceM  is  a  French  invention,  dating  frv*m  16£S. 
be  iinp:ir:ed  to  theM)  line:*.  Anotlier  applica-  It  h.*is  Uvn  a  favorite  ktvlo  of  engraving  with 
tion  of  the  ^topping ground  given  un<»ther  gnitln-  Englisli  art i<»t.s whose  wurls  by  Uils  nufthi^  ar« 
tion  of  tint,  and  as  manv  of  theM)  mav  In*  ob>  of  tho  highent  merit.  The  Mune  remark  mar  alto 
tained  :i4  the  tinier  of  ri-i»eating  the  pniceM.  bemado  of  tlie  niezzot  into  ur  half- pain  ted  ^lyU, 
The  biir-li.T  of  wax  i^then  meltiil  otf,  and  aAer*  which  wan  intriKluced  into  Ei. gland  by  I'r'i^-v 
Ward  tie  i  tcijing  gnmnd  is  k«>  softeninl  bv  heat  KujKTt,  who  may  have  invented  the  prv^-v*.  •  r 
tliat  ii  \'i  ui|Hd  oif  ^\ith  a  nig  mt^Mene*!  with  iMtssibly  learned  it,  a**  Mime  miv,  from  an  u!!:.\r 
olivi<  II.!.  r>inii}n4  of  the  plate  tliat  rupiire  it  named  I.udMigvim  Siegan,  who  wat  in  the  ivr- 
are  tlii:i  LT'^iie  ovt-rwith  graven*,  imil  the  tini'^h-  vice  of  tho  landgrave  iif  IIom'.  The  inver.ti«<i 
ing  ii'<;.  :it>«  are  tliu^  put  on.  It  in  o:ien  the  has  al^t  Uvn  mdit^-d  to  ^ir  I'hrUtuplur  Wnn. 
ca'>e  th.i:  a  p:irt  of  tho  work  i-<  done  ul.nily  by  The  methtnl  U  partienlarly  appropriate  to  i^'C- 


the  gr.L\ir  afur  tin*  i>t!ur  purtiMtis  ha\e  liecn  trait  autl  hiitorieul  en,;ravin.*^  and  night 

ttci..  •!.      li.e  >liades  are  freijuen!!y  priNluced  in  requiring  a  very  dark  groi:i:d.     The  pre|» 

the  »t.ppiiMj  style  In »!h  by  fU'hiiig  and   after-  tion  of  the   plates  it  a  ineihanieal  Work.  |acr- 

nurd  i:i  l'!i:-hing  by  ittrikin;;  in  the  dotji.     It  in  fiirnieil  by  running  little  tiNiilted  whtt- 1»  wL  ia 

app.irt-!it  fro:ii  tiiisdeM-rip!  ion  that  the  art  of  en-  liantilc^o\er  thiir  wlmlo  Mirfutv.and  by  a  r««k* 

gra^tiigr  III  I'e  prai'ti'^'d  only  by  gtNNl  ilraught'«-  ing  motion  causing  them  ti*  Utake  iitdtntatit 

men  ;  ami  that  at  th-ar  ideat  are  rl■<}ui^ite  of  t!io  and  rai^*  corre?«ixinding  burr*  or  barb«  in  1: 

ditrort'i.t  ^Tuilet  of  tho  shading  and  of  the  met:i-  variously  directeil.   Tl«e<^e  instruments  arecalM 

odi  o!  prtsl'ii-ing  t)M'<*t*  etUx't<%  a^  if  the  >ke!i'h-  cra'iU-n.     11. cv  are  nuitle  of  various  dcgrevt  of 

vn  Wife  t>*  l-e  protjinvil  i**T  tlio  tir'*t  tirne  upnii  finene<^s  aznl  the  ditVh-'.tlty  of  the  pr^NV**  is  in  th« 

pai^T. —  r!ie«>:,vli"i««f  en;;ra\ing  kniiwn  a-*  A<^'u<t  skilful  ailu;>ta:io:i  of  tho  pnt;i^-r  f4...de4  in  th^ 

tiut't  anil  fuf::t'ftf*fo  reipiire  notice.     The  firmer  gruund  prinltuvd  by  llu"«<*  tool*.   Afu  r  iIk'  «  h«ia 

is  Nj  na<ii>«l  fri'in  the  ^iInilarity  of  tho  ellVi't  to  plate  hat  Uin  thu«rii\ered,  tho  burr*  arv  rab!<<«l 

w:iter-«  'il  ir  t.r  In  lian  ink  dr^u  ingA.     AAer  the  otf  w  iih  t4*ra;i-r'*and  burni«!ier!»  nhervier  Iig-.U 

de-:^ri  loit' -^ti!  iiiiiiiiliiit*,  aniltheett-hin;;;;niUMd  are  de^iri^l.  and  deeper  ^hadvt  are  made,  if  e^ 

removal,  a   *><iiutiiin  of   re«in  ur  of  Hurgumly  rt-<*>ury,  by  imrea^ing  miiiio  of  the  iniUni 


{Mti'h  m  alii'li'il  it  iKi!ired  over  tho  plate  at  il  IhelifTlitt  ami  siia*U-t  are  lhn«  bp>;:ght  uc;t,a::t2 
it"*  i:i  ^!i  ihi  lined  pn-itiiiu.  .\s  tlie  uhnhol  an  a,;reeaMe 'Hi:ti.e««  it  pro«!:;cc«l  b«  the  ItArTr.^- 
ev.tjHinti-s  :!.«•  re«[n<i:i4  niatti  r  i'*  left  in  the  form  nii*UH  ^radatixnt  if  the  tntt^  m  to  easily  tl^:.  \  y 
i»f  gr.iMu.«t:<i'i«  over  (he  *>'>irfai  o  of  the  plate,  the  tither  nKtiiiiN  of  irigm^ing.  Tho  plAtr*  d  > 
Thv  •l(-«i.:rt  I'*  tin  ri  dr.iwn  viith  a  cuinmy  Mrup  not  wear  \iry  Will  in  printing  unh^wstcxl  i«  t*.^  • 
called  tiiP  li'.}r<it.n,r  ;:r>iund,  Hh.ili  i*  applied  ititntiil  fori-oppi.-r.  I Iv  loniliining  etching i-ftJ.e 
«  hiTeViT  a  <l■i'l^'  ii  t'l  U*  pri>l!:C(>!.  The  iightt  outliiiet  u  ith  the  nie.'Z  'tint*  >  tho  prvKV^  i«  ciac^ 
arc  h  :t  u!it->t.>  iinl.  11. e  mI.i  !e  .••  ni  it  (o\ered  imrirnVo!. andani«>riMh-.-idid  character  Ugiiee 
nith  a  luating  ef    turj'Ciitiue   \arni9h,  and  a  to  the  prints,     Mvi^utiul  platis  arv  tMW 


ENGRAVING  211 

for  the  trade  snpply,  which  are  prepared  hy  a  corrosion  is  completed  in  4  or  5  hours,  when 

machine  invented  hy  Saalnicr  for  ruling  lines,  the  applications  nbonld  he  removed,  and  the 

The  cross  ruling  is  sometimes  so  fine  that  the  glass  cleaned  with  oil  of  turpentine.    The  pro- 

grcHind  appears  hiack. — Exqbatino  on  Steel  cess  is  conveniently  applied  to  the  marking  of 

may  be  regarded  as  an  American  process,  invent-  hottles  for  the  chemist  or  apothccarr.    The 

cd  by  Mr.  Jacob  Perkins,  of  Newbury  |)ort,  Mass.,  deep  transparent  etching  is  produced  by  the 

thoQgb  the  metal  had  once  been  used  in  £ng-  direct  application  of  the  liquid  acid  to  the  glass; 

hcd  in  1S05  in  the  print  of  the  ceiling  of  the  the  more  delicate  opaque  lines  by  the  vapor. 

star  chamber  in  Smith's  "  Topographic^  lUus-  (See  Fluorine.) — In  order  to  lessen  Uic  tedious 

tradoiu  of  Westminster."    Its  great  advantage  mechanical  operations  connected  with  engrav- 

conflsts  in  this — that  the  plates,  after  having  ing,  attempts  have  been  made  to  obtain  directly 

been  engraved  by  the  methods  used  for  engrav-  by  chemical  means  from  the  drawings  engraved 

ing  eopper,  con  bo  hardened,  so  that  they  are  daguerreotyi>es  for  printing.    The  investiga- 

capable  of  transferring  the  design  by  pressure  tions  of  Mr.  George  Mathiot  of  the  U.  S.  coast 

npoa  other  softened  plates  of  steel ;  and  these,  sur^-ey  in  this  direction  particularly  demand 

being  hardened,  may  perform  the  same  office  notice.    They  were  prosecuted  with  the  object 

vpoa  others,  and  so  an  indefinite  number  of  of  applying  the  process  to  the  printing  of  the 

pules  may  be  obtained  from  one  engraved,  maps  of  the  survey ;  and  though  the  method  is 

TL&s  ia  peculiarly  the  invention  of  Mr.  Perkins,  not  claimed  to  be  altogether  original  with  him, 

and  its  most  important  application  is  for  en-  it  has  been  hy  no  one  else  so  perfected  and 

gnving  bank  notes,  for  which  the  most  cxpen-  practically  ap]>lied.    The  subject  is  treated  in 

BTs  desiinu  are  desirable  in  order  to  prevent  detail  in  the  '^  Keport  of  the  U.  S.  Coast  Sur- 

coonterfeiting.    This  branch  of  the  art  is  espe-  vey  for  1854.^'    In  a  daguerreotype  the  light 

dally  treated  below.  The  design  being  once  en-  and  dark  shades  are  chemically  different,  and 

grsiVd  npon  a  steel  plate,  any  number  of  copies  hence  are  dilforently  susceptible  to  the  same 

nay  be  produced  from  it.     Perkins  prepared  chemical  reagent.    M.  Donne  proposed  to  etch 

his  plates  by  first  transferring  the  impression  the  plate  with  nitric  acid,  which  he  inferred 

from  the  original  plate  to  the  surface  of  a  soft  would  act  upon  the  dark  shades,  supposed  to 

rted  cylinder  by  repeatedly  rolling  this  under  be  silver,  ana  leave  the  lights,  which  are  mer- 

ht»Ty  pressure  over  the  hardened  plate.     The  cury.     This  has   not  been  found  successfhl. 

cytinder  receives  the  impression  in  relief^  but  Prof.  Grove  proposed  etching  the  daguerreo- 

being  hardened,  it  transfers  it  to  successive  type  ])latc  by  the  voltaic  current,  making  it  the 

soft  plates  like  the  original.    Unless  an  im-  positive  electrode  in  a  bath  of  strong  hydro- 

menae  nnmber  of  impressions  is  required,  a  soft  chloric  acid.     Mr.  Mathiot  succeeded  in  ob- 

fteel  plate  is  sufficiently  hard  without  subject-  taining  engravings  of  great  beauty  and  delicacy 

inz  it  to  any  further  process,  and  for  the  most  by  this  method,  but  in  only  two  instances  in 

delieate  works  of   art  in  this  metal  this  is  more  than  100  trials  were  the  lines  deep  enough 

preferable,  as  in  the  transfer  there  is  dways  to  print  from.     The  most  satisfactory  results 

■ome  risk  of  injury.     A  soft  plate  has  furnish-  were  obtained  by  the  use  of  a  carefully  pre- 

cd  as  many  as  95,000  impressions  w^ithout  dete-  pared  copper  plate,  upon  which  was  dei)0sited 

rioration.    The  hardening  is  effectually  accom-  a  film  of  silver  of  about  J  of  a  grain  to  tlie 

lushed  by  dipping  the  plate,  in  order  to  heat  it,  square  inch.     On  this,  after  being  washed  in 

u  a  bath  of  melted  fusible  alloy,  and  then  cool-  distilled  water,  dried  and  slightly  buffed,  tlie 

bg  in  water,  which  it  is  perhaps  better  to  heat  daguerreotype  is  taken.     It  is  then  submitted 

to  the  boiling  point.     In  preparing  the  soft  plate  to  the  action  of  the  voltaic  current  in  a  bath  of 

for  etching,  the  lines  should  bo  cut  into  the  chloride  of  sodium,  until  the  silver  is  etched 

itseL  as  the  acid  would  bo  likely  to  corrode  a  through  to  the  copper,  at  which   the  action 

Imsd  instead  of  a  deep  line.     In  the  ruling  stops;  but  unless  the  plate  be  immediately  re- 

SMchineof  Mr.  William  Low ry  a  diamond  point  moved  from  the  bath,  the  lines  will  s])read  in 

li  Kmetimes  employed  for  cutting  the  lines. —  the  silver  film  and  blur  the  effect.     The  time 

Gtooes  are  often  engraved,  a  dry  point  being  to  remove  the  plate  is  determined  only  by  prac- 

iKd  as  in  engraving  metals.    The  work  does  tico  and  dexterity.     After  removal  the  plate  is 

lot  produce  so  fine  effect  as  engraving  upon  washed  by  immersing  it  in  water ;  and  it  is 

Wtal,  but  it  is  well  adapted  for  mechanical  then  dried  over  a  current  of  heated  air.     If  no 

diawings,  maps,  and  similar  styles.    Glass  may  imi»erfections  are  detected  on  examination,  it 

V$  engraved  by  sketching  the'  design  upon  it  may  next  bo  submitted  to  the  action  of  a  re- 

with  a  solntion  of  beeswax  and  turpentine,  and  agent,  which  will  etch  the  copper  on  the  exposed 

tken  causing  the  surface  to  be  corroded  by  the  lines  without  affecting  the  silver.     Solutions 

* of  hydrofluoric  acid  generated  by  the  of  pcrchloride  of  iron,   persulphate  of  iron, 

of  sulphuric  acid  upon  pounded  fluor  and  nitrate  of  silver  are  found  suitable  for 

,\  which  is  placed  in  a  shallow  basin  of  lead  this  purpose.    The  first  is  perhaps  preferable, 

■d  gently  heated.     Or  the  glass  may  bo  cov-  though  it  is  more   apt  to  corrode  the  lights 

«sd  with  a  thin  layer  of  beeswax,  through  than  the  lost.     The  objection  to  this  is  its 

rtdi  the  design  is  etche<l,  and  this  is  then  tendency  to  fill  up  the  fine  lines  by  deposition 

■fcjuled  to  the  action  of  the  vapor,  as  the  of  metallic  silver.     The  aqueous  solution  of  the 

KA  is  lud  face  down  upon  the  basin.    Tlio  perchlorido  should  bo  of  the  strength  repre- 


L 


212  ElYGBAVING 

wntod  bra  K'Tnon-yoUnw  rolnr.     **T1io  i-lnto  week*  of  tDcchanicil  labor  \*  completed  in  u 

i!«  to  Ik*  imincrs«il  in  a  huri/'nitiil  poMtUni.  wit  It  lit  any  houni  by  the  artist  hiniselC  and  no  ri«k  is 

the  fmv  up  ill  the  <Milviiit.  :ir.<t  »  •^'tt  i-aMu-t'-*  iiu-urri'il  of  ii\jiiring  the  platOA.     \jkrfX'   luapa 

hair  ( •1*111 'i I  ••wi-jit  {;intly  ovt r  it  fn >i.i  tiuu-  t<»  also  vmi  bo  nipiilly  engraved  by  dividing  the 

tiim*.     In  the  ronr*^*  uf  :*.«»  ininnti-  or  K*^-*.  the  Wi»rk  among  uiuny  engravers,  and  taktc^  scp*- 

art  ion  t*f  t!io  iH-n-hhtriiK  will  havi*  tl.^wn  u\9  rale  elect  rolTpo  casts  of  eaeh  piece  tu  Us  after- 

rhloricK'  of  !«ilviT.  <i>>thut  thr  )>ru-h  run  ^Wi■vp  ward  united  in  one.     In  the  report  of  1S57, 

it  away.  aiM  t!u-rvhi  (■<»piHr  will  :i|i|Knr  in  the  printid  in  1nV.»,  the  extraordinary'  progre«  in 

bottom?  iif  thi*  liiji-.     The  i-hite  nitty  t hi- n  bo  thi-*  department  id  more  luirticuiorly  noticed, 

washed  lUid dried,  anil  if  on  in?-pertii*n  it*>li«>nld  and  the  fruits  are  M-en  in  the  great  nmcbcr  of 

iMtt  b«'  th«»ivht  do-peni>:iL'ti  ti>  hold  the  ink  iVir  beautifully  vu);raved  charts)  which  arcompnnj 

printing',  it  may  U-  rotariu'il  to  the  bath  of  per-  the  report.     A  new  plate  is  prefiored  ou  an  av- 

ddohde  fur  a  >In»rt  tim«\"    The  iliiUi  iilty  in  erage  in  every  2j  working  day*,  when  a  fcw 

the  priNVi<i  Iin4  U'en  t<t  nhtaiii  siitVu-ient  depth  year.-*  ago  it  wa!»  tbon;;ht  an  achievcmcLt  to  prtH 

in  the  Winr*  withiMit  eorriMlini:  the  Ii;;ht4 :  nuit  dace  0  iu  a  year.    Thin  electn^trpes  fvrre  even 


the  ni(i{r«  mil .^Mp lent ly.  thnu;:]i  e\:iet  t'i»pies  to  print  from,  being  made  raflocieotly  titiff  bj 

lai*k«i)  forreof  expre<ioii>n.   Ttie  cnu'ravi-r,  tioH  -  Mritehing  tliem  on  Mnootli  atcvl  pUtie^  called 

ever,  ran  s^mn  n-nieily  t]]i-  by  piin^:  nver  tlie  htri'teh-platc9 — eaeh  one  wrviog  for  all  electro 

lin^-o  upiin  the  pliUe  Mith  the  burin,  and  thii;*  typo.nof  its  size.     Mr.  Muthiot  proposes  thlt  aj^- 

giving  them  the  r<*ipiin*d  deptli.     The  !:Im  uf  plication  to  all  kind:*  of  printing  uone  from 

ailver  over  the  iN'PJkt  i-nere-.-arily  Very  tliinin  grave«l   Burf:ices  other  Uiau   warpc-d   »urfi 

onler  that  the  tir«t  etitiiii:;  ma}  reaeh  through  Mr.  Mathiot  rejKirt:*  a<«  follows:  '*  The  workiB( 

it,  and  yet  it  mu-t  U-  -utKeieii!!}  tliiek  to  aifunl  of  the  thin  eleitrotyfH'ff  hu!»  suggoted  to  me  the 

complete  pr<»ti-i*tii>ii  t«*t!h*  rnpik-r  it  i<*de?<ij;neil  idea  of  using  the»e  plated  on  a  eircnSar  bed  or 

to  CKver.     It  ha«  l^vit  a  niee  nuitter,  thu'i  re-  roller,  atid  gaining  thereby  the  gri-at  ad  van  tapH 

ftriete<l  in  Kith  direet'iiiH.  toiKtrrmineeiaotly  of  evjimler  printing  for  flat  plates.     Tbi*  hM 

the  riirfit  thirkne^-.     In  an^x%ir  t'l  !>iiine  ipii<-  otlen  been  sought  before,  but  the  imfNa>ibiUtJ 

tiim**  rai-iii!  ri-^jHctinj  t!ie  tendep.rv  «»f  tlie  biiinj;  of  getting  n  rigid  p!ate  to  Conform  aA'tiinitvly  to 

agent  U*  wiirk  lat«r:i!ly  ainl  priilutv  nMi^di  uml  a  eylimlricnl  figure  ha.«  hitherto  dvfe.i  ted  it.     As 

uneven  line"'.  Mr  Matliift  ]>re^eiitei1ari>ii.miini-  the  thin  eKvtroty|ieH  are  easily  »traiued  ov«:r  a 

cation  ti»  "  Hiimplirrv'^  Thotogriipliir  Jnurnal.**  curved  >urface,  t!»e  gre.it  de-ideratum  U  now  al- 

Kov.  \^.  I^'i'i.  in  uliii-h  he  iii!v:i!ii>  •*  tlie  opin-  taina!»Io.     I  am  alntui  liavingthin  matter  pti£  to 

i'tn.  b:iM'd  MiMtn  hi-*  exp'-ri'iients  tli.tt  it  i<  m't  a  praetieal  te*<t,  and  have  every  h\t\Hs  that  the 

thi*  tiltii  of  nii-reiiry  \\!ji»-h  prtiti'-t*  t!ie  li^rht  ci'pi»vrplute  pri:iting  ran  xUu*  It'  exec-jtcd  ly 

ph:id<*^  lr«»!n  t!ii-  ai-tii»n  ff  tlie  nair-'iits  whiili  Mi;i!ii  mai  hiiiery,  and  wiih  ahnt^-t  the  ra;  .iity 

c«»rniih-  tin-  darki  r  part*  :  l«ut  thtit  in  the  li.-Iit-i  oi"  htterpn*-  wnrk." — A-.nppliei!  In  pt'  :.•,  iLs* 

of  t!ie  pjii'sre  a  t  ry'.t;i'.Ii/.iiii.rM.:*t!.i- -ilvi-r  h:i-*  art  i-  n»'\\    known   a«i  plifrn-lithn^rap^y.  a:.! 

taki'ti  pl.^i-.  a:.'l  tli:.-*  h.i-  i\ti-ndi-d  uir)iiii  the  uiapr*  t)-ii«i  pn-j-ire'l  »ire  tir*t  p'-.!-'.:-!  nl  in  tho 

iiiit:il  in  p:.-!»--r:*-:.  !••  x).*'  ii.t-  •  -fv  ai.d  il';r:i-  l-r  \'>!nniei>f  I'altrev*:*  "  Il.-T»«rv  i.f  N\-*   E?:,:- 

tii'ii   I'f  t!if   I'j'if.     T'li-  Ji«t:-.'i  :i;  [NMr-.   t-i   l-f  l.,i;ir' iln-^t'iii,  l**."i".«i:  and  i-i1.«t-i  in  :l.r  •wiao 

dir.r!'y  ilier«  t!:.-  iMi  r«-'iry.  ii:.!  :[..■  ♦  :V  ,t  i-To  ^!\!.•  were  next  Me:i  in  l.t-Ie*'-  ••  Ir«'n  Mjji-.- 

{iri.T. .-!  tl.i-  r:i:.:l  i:;  pr  .;..-ti-i:i  :i-  :!.i^  ir;^*:il-  f:i- r'lr.-r'-*  (Iniih"  (New  Yi'rk.  1-"»'.M.      V  t  a;a 

i^.-.ti'-n  !i:i-  t.iK.  n  p!  i.-.-.  is- t  i  |.  ri '  v  n*  t?.--  --.r-  ai«-'!n:  ffllie  pr«N-.-^  te  l.|-ii!<t.}.\!  >ii.     Ap- 

faif.  :i^  it   w  '  111   1'.-  p-"*.'!..!    ' ;.  u   !:*':j,   hiit  p!.*  •!  :••  w.H.i|.tl.i  art  i-^t'-dl-d  ij. '■»  pVt.'...^r.\j  J  ». 

al-t  in  til''  -I*-:  ir:.--   i!t!.  ■  !-..  •  1;  -n  t!i-.:   tin-  lly  i»:ie  -.f  li.*-   i:.ri.«'i-*  iin^'tf*!-  i-r.'j-  «<•!.  ihe 

lirti- ij.ile  *  \  k'-'.\'J  :i  •*  i;' :.  r:  ■  ■  • .  ;i' d.»  n    i  M...  k   i-i  i«t\i:V'l  frufii  t!ii.'  li.;!.:   «f   i!..y    *  .:h 

^p^•■^^  at  t*n   '-•:!.  -a.     n  .  V..-         Titx.  fr.  ni  »  in*:\:::re   nt"  i'Xai;i!e  «'f  ►'.Uir,   r  j!.  r.   ar.  I  a 

t!j"  I  r;.  ••:.'.! i/. I* j.-n  -pr-  i!'./  r.  :'  ■   i  .tt  rl-^r  i;:i-  lifl-    t'Mtii.     T!.!-  i-  r::''t-i'!  witii  :l.e  f.:..-vr  :.".l 

di  r  t*.f  -Iti-l«d  p"*-!  '•:.-.  t!i«-  l.i.' ^  * rii.'  i.:ir-  ll.*-  n.-ii-i'ire  i.i  ar!}  di-appt.^r-.  m.-!  a  i'-!.'-.*!? 

r«w.  r  .:- ;^.  >  ;:r..w  i!i    ;  .  r.    I'i  ;'      "C..  -rSir-  ei.;:!in»' <»!' t!.- -^iln  r  vil'.  i- t  ^«  :.!}  ^pr* -d  uj.  ri 

\iy  K-  p-  rt-"  *:"  !*•"*  a:.'!  !*-.*i7  a'-  U'"    :'  t-  •  f  i'.*-  w-ihI.     'I'l...  \,\,^\  ■;,  t;.,.ri  p  :•  a'^..*  i-.  il « 

thi-  «  \lr:i  -r!;!  :i-}  >•;,;  r  ••.  ct:i.  :i:-i:*  Vr.  M.ir!.;.'  d.iik  T  r  v  y  !■:  :-!?!•  'true:  ;ii  1  v. 'n  :i  i»A:.:.d, 

in  tip' :ir;!.'i*:' '1  i»f  !*.o  1  li  ■  rri  T*  •'-.•  !»i!i-m*i-  i!  i-   r«  ,j'i .  !••   rt    •  r.  i*  i:ie  p.- •    ri-  !  v  ::.i-  L'-il 

pn^ir:;:  of  i?..ir*-.      ri  iVi*  (^  r-..  ;}t.i-h^-  •!»-  p'j>r-/r:i;''j.i*   p-.i.--.  a*    '»i;'''''    ■'  J  *•  ■ -i--**! 

vi!i.il   a  i:i.t!..  d  if  j..i:;n^  I'.--''.,  r  «!.  t  .■  1.  d  p;k;  •  "■     Ti.- 1    .n.  il":.--.  t:..-  '  l-- \  r  .  .}   '  i.  ;■  . 

p!al«- •'•  r  I'.v  a  •'ir.'!-  lar.'"  ♦■?.'■.  w  .-?...»  irji  .r-  i:i.  ■ILi*.. !}  i  !..t..\i  !.  j-.-:  :i- .f  :'.•■  |     !-:•    J.i! 

ri»;.r  :!(•■  r«'«I.'i::*  n::  !  ■ -jii- •.\  1.  i!  !.  .v.  .!.".-.  »:i- ra-  !•  •  :>  I'.i!;*:"- i  :•  •'.  1.  -nl  i.  ^\   !..i'\«-'«   ii-':*. 

t-.'.n  i  I"!"':':».'  •'..■  t'.i  '..  I'l.'i  '  '■-.  -..'.I ::  j  ..r  '.V.'.'.i.:  :*.  i*  \\  -!.-'-.".  1  n-:  l-- 1  \\*  ^  It"  I'.r  i!  :*.■  :  :  .^  % 

t*ii  r  i  L*'-  T  •  t?  i-  r-  .«:  r-  1  -I. .;  •.      I:.-!.  » 1  •  t"  «■:'•':■   "■:•  ,  i.  ■-  »  •  I-  ■  j  ..«  -.%<  r.d  !..t.r-  :■-  .:  :' 

thiH  1,.  !  .\  •».  ij  1 1-    tri'!;. ;  J  r  .••-.  tf  t!  ••  i!.-  f  -  1  .!.i^  ".:.•!.•       I  !..••'.  ;-'.:\u  .!_v.^|-r^%  »-! 

Vi'  l.fl  :  '...!«■..  trr:i'n.'!  t!;i  -•  «  :'!.  M-S^.-r-.  t  .  lit  i. .!!.-.■  i:.*-  -:■  r-i-:!.*  '■.  ,'•■  .  '\  .  :  il..  iV-  •..    .i    • 

CM  h»»** '-r.  :i' d  .-.  !ii- !.•    It'.riw  *]»  »'..o,  ri:..!.*  :'■»  r-i  ;  i-.  d    -.;::... e   i»   l' ."-.■•   •  :V  «   :    t-    i   >..-,■  !. .c 

W;i\  11-    -ri  :i  1 !  ir.'h.  :  !  .!■  :   t*.ew..v"ii  e\ii''-ht«  •■!      ■*  w  l'\  t!..' lt  i\' :■      !:j  t*ii-  ' '  •'.? '•• -r  .  .'-j, 

wij*-- 1  i.;V  w::!:  :;  >  !■.:^  -.1*  :r.*!.  •!  w;-h  •■.!  if  Snr-  <»  •    l**'?.  i^  a  *U  -  r .[  t  •n  •  I  ji-.   v.i  rpr'-t  -^  i.i 

[••■•. t ■.!..■.      1  !|..  p! /•■  I-  :!.■  [t  Ti  .v!y  !"..r  the  il*^'-  w".     '.   •'.   •  w.-^l  i-  t  -a'.!  .1  wii!i  :..  i!;i.  ,:*".u!  :.i\ 

tft^'.yp.^L    l>y  tLi*  iuv.-llit.d  \vu.''k  w  h.ih  re-^uired  ;.:i  1  :.:..:. ...1  i-'.'ap,  tliiii  i3i|'i>M.d  Im  a  ^sit^i-'U  k-1 


ENGRAVma  218 

Mlimmoinisc,  and  after  this  to  one  of  nitrate  of  Bank  Note  Enoritino.  To  the  efforts  of  artists 

nlTer.    The  picture  is  transferred  from  another  and  mechanics  in  the  various  processes  of  mana- 

on  glmas  or  piq>er,  and  is  fixed  by  a  saturated  facturing  bank  notes  the  art  of  engraving  owes 

fdution  of  hjposnlphate  of  soda.    The  follow-  some  of  its  most  important  developments.    In 

ing  proeess  was  devised  in  Worcester,  Mass. :  the  United  8tates  this  branch  has  attained  its 

A  preparatkm  is  applied  to  the  blocks  of  as-  greatest  perfection,  and  whatever  skill  has  in 

phaltom  dissolved  in  ether,  as  M.  Niepc  de  St  England  been  sliown  in  bank  note  engraving. 

Victor  used  the  same  in  photo-lithographing,  has  been  the  result  of  improvements  introduced 

This  is  followed  by  an  application  of  lampblack,  directly  from  this  country.    The  rude  and  cheap 

The  Borftce  is  then  polislied  with  a  smooth  notes,  roughly  engraved,  such  as  were  used  by 

cushion,  till  it  becomes  of  glossy  jet  black,  the  bank  of  England  a  century  and  a  half  ago, 

whea  it  is  coated  with  collodion  and  rendered  were  reproduced  unaltered  for  at  least  100  years, 

sensitiTe  by  nitrate  of  silver.    It  is  then  ready  at  the  expiration  of  which  it  was  found  neces- 

Ibr  the  camera.    Herr  Prctsch  in  1656  devised  sary  to  enect  some  improvement  because  of  the 

a  new  method  applicable  to  copperplate  en-  frequent  forgeries  detected  about  that  tune.    In 

grariiu,  in  which  the  electrotype  process  was  the  year  1800  the  directors  of  the  bank  of  Eng-. 

ipplied  to  sacceed  the  photographing.    He  ex-  land  first  endeavored  to  furnbh  notes  whidi 

poses  s  glass  or  metallic  plate,  coated  with  a  should  be  secure  from  counterfeits,  but  this  at-. 

luztiire  of  glue,  bichromate  of  potash,  nitrate  tempt  failed.    Foi^rics  multii)lied,  and  it  was 

of  nlver.,  and  iodine  of  potassium,  to  the  copy-  not  until  1820,  two  years  after  a  committee  had 

big  proeefw  with  the  design  to  be  transferred,  been  appointed  by  the  society  for  the  cncour- 

A  £unt  picture  is  produced  upon  the  prepared  agement  of  arts,  and  commissioners  had  been  ap- 

wntaee.    After  washing,  the  picture  comes  out  pointed  by  the  English  government  for  the  pur- 

in  relief  by  the  swelling  of  the  aim.    It  is  then  ]X)se,  that  any  positive  improvement  was  made 

■objected  to  other  processes,  which  raise  it  still  in  the  style  of  engraving  bank  notes.    In  Amer-. 

mon  and  increase  its  hardness.    It  may  then  ica,  however,  a  superior  system  had  for  some 

be  made  to  receive  by  the  electrotype  opera-  years  existed.    The  continental  notes,  tlie  ear- 

tion  a  coating  of  copper ;  or  it  may  first  be  liest  in  this  country,  engraved  by  Harrison, 

transferred  by  pressure  to  a  warm  sheet  of  were  of  no  importance  as  works  of  art,  and 

gotta  percha,  and  this  be  subjected  to  tlie  cop-  those  next  engraved  for  the  bank  of  North 

per  solntion  in  the  battery.    Tliis  process  ex-  America,  by  the  Philadelphia  firm  of  Murray, 

dted  greait  expectations,  and  in  £nglan<l  a  com-  Draper,  and  Fairmnn,  wore  little  better ;  but 

pany  was  formed  to  enpage  in  the  operation  the  invention  of  steel  plnte  engraving  and  tlie 

opon  a  large  scale.    It  did  not,  however,  prove  transferring  process  by  Mr.  Jacob  Perkins,  don 

a  profitable  undertaking.    Another  invention,  scribed  in  a  previous  part  of  this  article,  at  once 

abed  photo^lyphic  engraving,  has  recently  raised  bank  note  engraving  to  the  rank  of  a 

been  patented  in  EnglaiSi  by  Mr.  Fox  Talbot,  special  art.   Mr.  Perkins's  reputation  as  a  raanu- 

ifistinguisbed  for  his  early  researches  and  dis-  facturer  of  bank  note  plates  became  so  great 

coreries  in  photography.    It  is  applicable  to  that  in  1808  a  peculiar  style  of  note  with  stereo? 

plates  of  steel,  copper,  or   zinc    He  obtains  type  check,  invented  by  him,  was  by  a  special 

upon  the  plate  a  &mt  image  of  the  object  to  be  law  of  Massachusetts  directed  to  be  used  for  all 

copied  by  the  process  patented  by  him  in  1852,  the  banks  of  the  commonwealth.    This  ^  stcr 

anng  a  coating  of  glue  and  bichromate  of  pot-  reotype  check  plate,"  although  a  sufficiently 

aah.    But  he  avoids  the  subsequent  washing  thorough  protection  against  coimterfeiting  at 

Aoi  employed.    Instead  of  this  he  covers  the  the  time  of  its  adoption,  grew  so  familiar  in  the 

plate  evenly  with  a  thin  coating  of  finely  pow-  course  of  20  years  that  fraudulent  imitations 

oered  gum  copal,  and  melts  it  over  a  spirit  lamp,  became  numerous,  and  the  law  was  ultimately 

flms  producing  a  uniform  aquatint    ground,  repealed.    Some  New  England  banks  continue 

ready  lor  etching.    A  small  quantity  of  satn-  to  use  it  to  this  day,  notwithstanding  the  inele- 

tsted  solution  of  perchloride  of  iron,  with  the  gance  of  its  appearance  compared  with  what 

addition  of  about  J  its  quantity  of  water,  is  more    modern    engravers  have  accomplished. 

mred  on  the  plate  and  spread  with  a  camcPs  About  1814  Mr.  Perkins  went  to  Pliiladelphia, 

oair  brush.    Tnis  liquid  penetrates  the  gelatine  and  became  associated  with  the  firm  of  Muiray. 

•aJy  where  the  light  has  not  acted  on  it.    In  Draper,  and  Fairman,  with  whom  he  remained 

imt  a  minute  the  etching  is  seen  to  begin,  several  years,  still  perfecting  his  machinery.  He 

WluA  is  known  by  the  parts  etched  turning  left  behind  the  original  transfer  press  construct- 

Wowa  or  black,  and  then  it  spreads  over  the  ed  by  him,  which  is  still  at  Newburyport,  though 

vfadle  plate,  completing  the  operation  in  all  tlie  long  ago  discarded  as  too  clumsy  and  compli- 

iituls  of  the  picture  in  2  or  8  minutes.    The  cated  for  use.    The  first  piece  of  steel  on  which 

•efioB  li  assisted  by  stirring  the  liquid  all  the  transferring  experiments  were  made  by  him  is 

ash,  and  thus  cently  rubbincr  retained  in  the  Boston  oflice  of  the  **  American 


with  the  brash,  and  thus  gently  rubbing 

ftaipelatine.   To  deepen  any  portions,  the  brush  Bank  Note  Com  pany  ^^  as  an  interesting  relic 

■ly  afterward  be  applied  with  fresh  liquid,  but  While  Mr.  Perkins  was  in  Philadelphia,  Asa 

inparod  of  equal  parts  water  and  saturated  Spencer,  also  connected  with  Murray,  Draper, 

[       SMtion  of  the  iron  salt.    The  weak  solution  is  and  Fairman,  succeeded  in  applying  the  mechan- 

I      Sridto  act  more  rapidly  than  the  stronger. —  ism  of  lathe  work  to  bank  notes,  thereby  secur- 


314  SKGBAVIKQ 

Ing  a  new,  and  at  that  time  irnpcnetreMo,  dv f«.>nco  value,  arc  rery  small    It  ahonld,  bowercr.  ba 

aij^ainst  ciiUDt4.'rfiMtiiif;.     Thisi  adaptation  of  tho  uiidcntuiMl  that  it  h  iropOMible  to  &ntcr|iuM  a 

^  geometric  lathe/*  aiihoiigli  but  the  iicw  appli-  completely  effevttial  preventive  ag;uii»t  euca- 

cation  4 if  an  i)ld  principle,  wan  ncvertheleM  no  terfeitiug.     Whatever  can  be  done  can   be  rv- 

•uccv4«fully  empliived  bv  Mr.  Si»encer  that  bo  peated.    Eaoli  bank  note  legitiinatelr  prudoccd 

Jn«tly  re4vivi*d  as  hi;;)i  cre<lit  an  if  lie  were  ttie  can  be  frandulentljr  imitated  with  such  *iniilarit7 

oripii:d  iiivi'titor.    Tho  peculiar  ad  van  tai^>  uf  as  to  deceive  even  the  inont  practised  eye.     Bat 

lathe  work   in  bank  note  enj^ruving  will  l»e  by  the  em|4oyment  of  the  higliest  ca|»abilitiea 

v|M>ken  of  in  tho  detcriptiou  of  tho  ditTeront  of  tho  art,  and  by  ticcuring  the  aervicee  of  the 

prori'SM*H  hereafter.    The  tir»t  latlio  miu^'liino  fmesit  workmen,  it  u  also  iKieetible  to  keep  lo  Ctf 

made  hy  Mr.  Sjivnceris  now  iutheiNi»se9k*«ion  of  in  advam*e  of  what  the  leiw  akiUbl  ftir|^?n  eaa 

Cyrus  ffuranil  in  New  York.    lulS18Mr.  IVr-  hope  to  do,  that  the  danger  need  never  b«  great 

kinA.  uttnu't*.*<!  by  the  liberal  pn>{KMilionAforcom-  nrovidod  proi»er  care  be  cxercbied  by  the  paUic 

Et  it  lull  otfervd  by  the  bank  of  En^cland,  wi-nt  to  itdelf.  It  iri  the  anxiety  on  the  part  of  liank  noCf 
mdon,  oeciiiiiiiaiiied  by  Mr.  Fainn^m  and  a  num-  C4»m|»aniea  to  prevent  counteifeiting  by  avaOing 
bcr  of  fX])erii'ncvtl  workmen.  The  suiieriority  of  themselves  of  tho  best  tolenta,  and  employing 
Mr.  Perkinsi'ii  work  was  immediately  iicrci'ived,  everv  artiMic  expedient,  as  well  as  the  de«ire  U> 
but  not  iH>  readily  acknowledged ;  anu  unfurtu-  obtain  patronage  by  the  production  of  attractive 
nately  for  his  pro4|H.-ct!s  a  L«tndon  wood  eiifrrav-  notes,  that  has  contributed  to  raise  the  sund- 
er, Mr.  l>arton,  succei-dc*!  afivr  many  ciTurts  in  ard  of  bank  note  engraving  in  this  country  to 
making  a  wuodrut  copy  of  one  «>f  his  pieces  of  its  present  elevation.  Some  of  the  names  mwC 
lathe  work,  a  circum>tance  which  was  used  as  distinguished  in  connection  with  this  subject 
•o  iK>wvrful  an  argument  againait  tho  Aiui-rican  have  already  been  mentioned.  lVi*minent  in  tbs 
eom^ietitor  that  he  was  oblif^.*d  to  withdraw  development  of  tho  art  hince  the  time  of  Perkina 
from  the  contest,  and  tho  privilege  of  manufac-  and  S[iencer  were  J.  W.  Cteilcor  and  Jamea 
taring  their  notes  was  awarded  by  the  bank  to  Smillie.  The  fonner  excelled  as  a  designer  and 
Me^Ri.  Applegarth  and  Cowfier,  in  1820.  But  in  the  vigorous  and  masterly  use  of  the  graver, 
■o  confident  was  Mr.  Perkins  in  the  security  of  whose  canabilities  he  would  seem  ulmt»t  to  hava 
llianote^that  soon  atler,  when  supplying  a  bank  exhausted;  the  latter  became  eminent  f««r  tba 
In  Ireland,  ho  volnntirily  agreed,  if  they  tlnmld  exquisite  delicacy  of  his  etchings  and  aIthoo|rii 
be  forged, to  fumi.''h  anew  issue  without  charge,  ho  never  amfincd  himself  to  bank  note  work, 
Mr.  Fainnjin  and  the  other  Americans  returned  yet  his  engravings  have  been  a  standard  guide 
homo  not  long  after,  leaving  Mr.  Perkins,  who  to  uU  f^tudent^.  Among  ihs^Mj  who  luive  coc:;- 
establi.ohe<]  a  partnership  with  Mr.  Ileatli,  an  em-  bind  the  various  re(|uiremeiits  of  tlie  art,  p^j«- 
inentengniverofLaidon,whii)ila*<ted  during  his  se-ising  e<inally  intimate  aciiuuintan^e  wi:h  its 
life.  Mr.  Perkinses  iniprovetiientshave  extended  minute  details  and  its  hi^lu.r  atiainmeuts  Tim* 
tbriKighout  England,  and  have  been  uwd  on  tho  othy  Ilouse  is  con^iilered  foremost .  The  witLs 
continent,  thou^rh  in  a  CMni|iaratlvely  MnuU  de-  of  these  arti-^ts  have  ad<»nicil  a  large  pn>;ii<r- 
gree,  &>«  bank  notes  are  there  geia-rully  eij graved  ti«in  of  the  bunk  Uittes  which  have  U.-en  rirru- 
a|Mm  a  ditler(.-nt  and  Ie<*s  oMnplifated,  a<i  well  ns  luted  for  the  pa«t  25  yonrs  <utd  their  Ki|ifrior*, 
kw  artistic  i>laii.  In  the  Tnited  States  t!;c  rapid  aUi^gether  cini?iidered'  ha\e  not  yet  apinrared.-* 
increase  of  bunks  <K.*rahioned  a  demand  f.'r  va-  We  have  now  t«i  s:iy  a  few  wc>nL  of  tLe  actUA! 
riety  and  lieuuty  in  notes  alnii)»t  iii!>atiulile.  Hunk  prorc-^M-s  of  bank  note  engraving,  a^  it  ii  carrii^l 
note  engraving  companies  were  formed  in  \a-  on  in  the  I'niled  Stute»;  jfur  lkere.'d>ine  t«  it  MX'n 
rioai  ports  uf  the  Union,  but  never beranitf  very  in  itertix-ttiin.  The  present  brink  o:*  LngUnd 
numerous  in  conM-ijuence  of  ihe  largo  uinount  n**Wn  an*,  for  example,  prinletl  fn^m  an  vlertrx^* 
of  capital  retjuire*!  to  carrv*  «>n  this  hu'^iitevt,  typo  mi rf:i'-o,  ui  wnml  engravings  are  :  a  system 
and  mi>ro  es|ieciully  the  ditfictilty  of  procuring  fatal  to  uU  <lelica<-y  in  the  work,  altltt^ugh  pos- 
first  rate  artists  and  nuvhanie^.  For  a  long  sv-iing  the  aiivantagi'd  t»f  s|i«-v«l  at.d  rheapneH^. 
time  the  bu*>ini-Hs  wax  immensely  protllahle,  and  Accunling  to  this  system,  introduc^'d  by  Mr. 
indiovii  has  remaiiK*d  so  to  the  present.  e\-  l^niee,  in  18.V\  the  ori^inul  engru\i:igs  t.f  tbe 
eepting  when  exi-«.'<*.'*i  vo  c«itn|*i'tition  hus  greatly  variims  |  tort  ions  of  the  note  are  u-  *l  pruilftsl  fr^^si 
lowered  thu  price*!.  In  iK'iT  there  were  5  or  0  direi'tly,  but  are  u<K-d  at  moulds  fr\ini  «h:^-!k 
princi|iul  com))anii-s  in  the  I'nitetl  State\  niost  electn'-ct^ts  are  taken;  the  uot«"*  an)  U«va 
of  which  extendi**!  their  ojicratimis  by  Im-inch  printed  upon  a  steam  { ri^s  friitn  t^c*e  \i4x-:r>- 
bou<«es  in  ever>'  dirvcliori ;  Lul  in  May,  I^5'<,  tyi»ei«.  The  uoUh  of  the  l.iiik  i>f  Fra:;oe  ar« 
all  the  im|tortant  iMUipanie*!  wi-re  united  in  one  al-**)  printed  from  a  Hirf:iee,  al:h'>u^h  :3  a 
general  organ i^atioci,  under  the  tiilo  of  "The  neuter  nnd  more  elfg:tn:  munner  than  in  £r.^- 
American  Hank  N'Mte  ('ornpany.**  Thi<«  c«iiii-  lunil.  Tlie  Anierinui  bunk  ni>'.e  ei:.;rav«.r  c^.:.- 
peny  now  |»erfoniiS  nearly  all  tho  bank  note  fine<4  himself  to  lino  eiikrrri\:n/;  the  s:ip, '»*, 
engraving  anit  printing  rv<]uireil  in  North  and  mez/i>tin;.  aijuatint,  anil  other  v.iruti«r*  :;  -t 
Suuth  AuHTira.  It  is  athnirubiy  ailmini«tert.d,  U^.tig  Sutliriintly  d:!>tliic:  or  dt  iii-aie  t4i  l«  uf 
and  ltd  i»|ivra(ion4  are  to  thoroughly  s\^teina-  service  tn  him.  Fn  onler  ti*  priici.t  a»  f at  as 
tiie<l,  that  the  t'hanrx*s  of  extensive  riHinter-  pi^ihle  attempts  at  inii: alii •ii.  i:  i«  n\^ci^«ari  to 
foiling  iif  itj^  ui'tes  or  of  alteration  of  unte'i  ppNlu^v  the  mu>t  cUUtr.'Uely  Hi^v  rii^rBvi&r^; 
of  a  low  denomination  to  thoM  of   greater  and  for  additiuual  security,   Mciions  of  baiik 


ENGRAVING  216 

note  decorations  are  cnt  by  machinery  with  an  large  number  of  impressions  needed  may  be  ob- 
czqaisite  minatenew  which  coald  not  bo  accom-  tained  withoat  great  difficulty.    Twenty  thou- 
pliafaed  by  hand.    The  pictorial  portions  of  the  sand  notes  can  be  printed  from  a  steel  bank  note 
modem  bank  note  are  the  vignette  or  centre  plate,  and  by  retouching  and  retransfcrring  it 
piece,  Qsaally  placed  near  the  middle,  at  the  top,  may  be  so  restored  as  to  yield  almost  as  many 
the  end  pieces,  and  the  tail  piece  at  the  bottom,  more.    The  50, 100, 500,  and  1,000  dollar  notes, 
The  arrangement  of  these  varies  according  to  of  which  fewer  are  needed,  are  sometimes  put 
the  taste  of  the  bank  note  designer,  and  their  upon  copper,  which  will  give  only  about  8,000 
pQfitioDS  are  often  reversed.    The  counters,  on  impressions.    For  a  single  steel  plate  $125  is 
\rhich  are  fixed  the  denomination  numbers,  1, 2,  charged ;  for  a  copper  plate,  |75.    Until  re- 
8,  5,  &c,  are  of  intricate  lathe  work,  and  gen-  cently,  banks  were  able  to  procure  notes  at  a 
crally,  though  not  necessarily,  occupy  the  upper  cheaper  rate  by  means  of  a  ^^  general  plate," 
eornera,  for  the  sake  of  convenience  in  count-  which  was  so  constructed  that  any  required  title 
ing.    The  pictures  are  originally  engraved  on  could  be  inserted  in  an  otherwise  unalterable 
teparate  small  plates,  and  are  thence  transferred  block.     By  this  plan  many  banks  circulated 
to  the  bank  note  plates  by  the  process  invented  notes  precisely  alike,  with  the  single  difference 
by  Mr.  Perkins.    The  small  plate  is  softened,  and  of  the  name  of  ^e  bank ;  and  thus  offered  de- 
thoroQc^ly  annealed  before  passing  into  the  en-  cided  advantages  to  counterfeiters,  which  were 
mver^s  hands.    After  his  work  is  done,  it  is  systematically  made  use  of.    But  the  **  general 
hardened  by  restoring  its  carbon,  and  the  whole  plate  "  system  has  been  put  aside  by  the  *^  Amer- 
cngraTing  transferred  to  new  plates  as  desired,  ican  Bank  Note  Company,"  and  is  not  likely  to  be 
Ihe  average  cost  of  engraving  a  vignette  of  or-  revived.    Plates  for  bank  checks,  drafts,  certif- 
fiaazy  size  is  $125  ;  an  end  piece  or  portrait  icates  of  stock,  &c,,  are  fi-equently  engraved  in 
costs  about  $75;  and  a  tiul  piece  about  $20.  the  same  manner  as  notes. — The  printing  of  bank 
By  the  aid  of  the  transferring  process,  bank  notes  is  a  labor  demanding  extreme  care  at  every 
note  companies  are  able  to  furnish  a  steel  note  stop.    The  ink  must  be  nicely  ground  and  mizeo^ 
pltfe  for  $125,  which  otherwise,  as  it  appears,  and  of  the  finest  quality.  The  paper  needs  to  be 
would  cost  $800  for  pictorial  engraving  alone,  wetted  with  exact  regularity.    The  best  work- 
Isaviog  oat  of  question  the  machine  work  and  men  can  hardly  print  more  than  600  impressions 
the  letter  engraving.    The  time  required  to  en-  in  a  day,  whereas  by  the  coarser  electrotype  pro* 
grave  a  vignette  varies  from  one  to  two  months,  cess  of  the  bank  of  England,  in  which  any  num- 
A  tranf  fer  can  be  effected  in  15  minutes  or  less,  her  of  duplicate  plates  may  be  used,  it  is  custom- 
The  counters  of  notes  are  cut  by  the  lathe  ma-  ory  to  throw  off  3,000  in  an  hour.  After  printing, 
diine,  as  improved  by  Mr.  Spencer,  in  every  the  sheets  are  laid  away  to  dry  for  2  or  8  weeks, 
form  of  intricate  and  involved  regularity.  They  and  are  then  put  between   pasteboards,  and 
cannot  he  imitated  except  by  similar  machines,  smoothed  by  a  heavy  hydraulic  pressure.  Some- 
whicU  it  is  nut  in  the  power  of  counterfeiters  times  a  high  polish  is  imparted  by  pressing  the 
to  ea*ily  procure,  or  even  to  use  successfully,  notes  between  hot  steel  plates,  but  this  destroys 
Sometimes  lathe-work  counters  are  drawn  with  the  strength  of  the  paper.    As  the  principal  aim 
a  diamond  point  upon  a  plate  covered  with  etch-  of  banks  Is  to  protect  their  notes  as  thoroughly 
isg  ground,  and  bitten  in  with  acids ;  and  again  as  may  be  from  counterfeits  and  alterations, 
cooaters  have  been  produced  by  medallion  rul-  many  expedients  in  printing  have  been  devised 
ings,  also  bitten  in;  but  both  of  these  processes,  to  that  end.    One  of  these  is  the  application 
having  been  found  inferior  to  the  first,  have  of  largo  letters  and  figures  in  red,  printed  £rom 
been  almiist  entirely  discontinued.    After  the  types,  on  the  back  as  well  as  the  face  of  the 
kxhe>work  patterns  have  been  cut  upon  soft  steel,  note.    For  some  years  this  plan  was  very  gener- 
tbs  large  figures  of  denomination  are  cut  over  ally  resorted  to,  though  it  was  known  to  be  the- 
them  by  the  letter  engraver,  and  the  plates  are  oretically  imperfect,  and  of  little  real  value.    A 
hsrdeued,  to  be  transferred.    It  is  seen  that  thus  more  recent  device  is  that  of  covering  the  paper 
file  principal  work  of  manufacturing  bonk  note  before  the  note  has  been  printed  with  a  colored 
fhtes  Is  done  by  the  transferring  press,  and  in  tint,  communicated  from  a  plate  of  fine  and  faint 
BOflt  cases  even  the  lettering,  titles,  dates,  &c.,  ^the  work.    The  special  object  here  is  to  pre- 
sn  similarly  stamped.    Bank  note  companies  vent,  not  counterfeit  engraving,  but  copying  by 
hsTe  always  on  hand  a  large  assorted  stock  of  photography,  which  has  come  to  be  considered 
CBgrtvings,  ready  to  be  transferred  in  every  the  greatest  danger  to  which  bank  notes  are  ex- 
nriety  of  combination.  Sometimes,  for  addition-  posed.    The  American  association  for  the  ad- 
dttcority,  a  bank  requires  one  or  more  special  vancement  of  science,  in  its  meeting  at  Mon- 
Cigravings,  for  which  it  pays,  retaining  the  exclu-  treal,  in  1857,  discussed  at  length  this  subject  of 
■ft  riglit  to  use  them.    The  expense  of  a  set  of  photographic  reproduction  of  bank  notes,  but 
ffalcs,  for  a  bank  of  ordinary  capital  and  busi-  threw  no  light  upon  it.    It  is  understood  that 
MSL  ranges  from  $900  to  $1,200.    Notes  are  photography  cannot  communicate  colors,  but 
Muly  arranged  4,  3,  or  2  together,  upon  lan?e  unfortunately  no  tint  has  yet  been  discovered 
ftm  tuates  of  steel ;  but  are  sometimes,  to  facili-  which  may  not  be  chemically  removed  from  the 
tefoe  printing,  put  upon  separate  thick  blocks,  paper.  The  tint  once  removed,  the  photograph- 
ic the  notes  of  low  denominations,  1,  2,  8,  5,  mg  of  the  black  body  of  the  note,  which  is  suf- 
10  nd  20,  steel  is  always  used,  so  that  the  fered  to  remain,  may  of  course  be  effected,  and 


216  EKKEMOSER  ENOCH 


tbo  color  ra1»s(y}Qcnt1y  rcHtnrod  with  a  bni»h  or  Li«  Icnming  and  the  chArm  of  his  ecnxi 
oUivrwiiio.  It  H  doubled  by  choiiiiKtA  wl  tether  tioii  attmctod  to  hi  a  little  d  veiling  od  yovmt 
any  piMitive  |irvventivo  against  phot«>gniphio  Avciuinua  the  most  cnli^^litoned  citizeoft.  Chn>- 
cuontcrfeitinK  can  be  iirovidvd ;  but  by  certain  nohipral  reaMm*  make  it  iiu|inibable  Uiat  b« 
ti»pliamv!«,  nuteii  may  be  so  prepared  that  inii-  was  the  instructor  cf  tlio  elder  Catu  In  (invk, 
tati«>n!«  mu»t  Ik>  inimen^'ly  diflirult  and  exiteii-  as  wa.^  aflcrwanl  asinertetl.  llis  cunlemporafica 
•ire,  and  «inly  to  bo  acconipU!ihed  by  first  cIum  marvelled  at  his  leiimin}r,  which  in  thurvQch- 
•rtidU*  a:  id  mechanics.  The  expense  of  urinting  ness  and  extent  was  sur|iaitfed  by  lew  of  ib« 
plain  hunk  notes  is  $2  CO  ]»er  hundred  slieetj«,  later  Koman<).  Though  a  master  of  iirwk  l:tcr- 
Mch  »hi'et  containing  4  notes.  Tlio  charge  ia  ature«  he  gave  a  thoroughly  national  rharactcr 
greater  when  coKirs  arc  applied,  according  to  tlio  to  his  own  works.  The  princifial  of  thi-se,  ca- 
nature  of  the  application.  (For  Enqkatixo  on  titled  AnnaltM,  w:is  a  poem  u|Nin  lUnuan  hl^t^^rr, 
precious  stones,  bee  Gem).  whii-li  ho  triratitl  omsocutively  from  Ilumolsa 

EKNEMoSElt,  Jftdtipii,  a  German  jdivaiiolo-  and  Kemu;*  to  his  own  times,  di-scribing  later 

cut,  bom  in  Tynil,  Nov.  15, 1 T':^?,  died  in  kgvrn,  evvnts  with  tho  greater  fulnesii.    This  poem  waa 

Upper  liavaria,  Sept.  19,  1854.     In  early  life  ho  p«»pularly  admired,  and  was  the  chivf  foundatioa 

was  a  hliephenl,  but  having  attended  tlie  schiKil  of  his  fame.     Its  |H>etical  merits  wi-ro  such  thai 

€f  his  village,  his  lovo  of  learning  induced  several  Virgil  did  not  dlsdnin  i{i  many  pl»-es  to  *-"itaf 

clergymen  to  send  him  to  a  gymnasium  and  af-  *t,  and  as  a  history  its  value  wuuM  be  grval  lo 

tarward  to  tho  university  of  Inusimick.  Among  us ;  but  though  it  hp|ii-ars  tu  ha%'v  existed  in  iba 

hii  classmati^s  was  tho  celebrated  ILofer,  whom  13th  century,  nothing  but  fragmenta  uf  it  gath* 

he  followed  to  tho  revolutionary  war  as  secre-  ered  from  the  ancient   writers  now  rvmuBu 

tary.     He  won  distinction  in  tho  camfMiigns  of  These  are  sufficient  to  khow  that  En n ins  devoud 

1818  and  1S14,  resumed  his  studies  after  the  res-  great  attention  to  liis  Linguagc,  and  ctmtribotcd 

toratiim  of  iieace,  was  graduated  as  doctor  of  much  in   hannoniziug  and  perfe«*tiiig  iIha  ycC 

medicine  in  Berlin  in  1816,  officiateil  from  1810  rough  and  nncuUivatetl  Ijitin  dialect.    Ennina 

to  1837  as  professor  in  ISonn,  afterward  prac-  also  wrote  boUi  trage<lies  and  ctmiedic^  aad 

tised  his  proft*9isinn  at  Innsnruck,  and  in  1841  ro  adapted  tho  masterpieces  «if  «Ksch}Iusy  K^ho- 

moved  to  Munich,  where  iio  gained  a  high  rep-  des,  and  Euripidi'S  tothoKomaii  stage.     AmiM 

atatioii  for  bin  skill  in  tho  practical  aftplication  his  numerous  iJiort  ideccs,  his  epigrarus  3  or 

of  animal  magnetism  and  for  his  writings  on  which,  extending  ciillectively  to  li>  hn«r%  have 

medical  and  physiohigicjd  science.     His  most  been  preserve«l,  were  especially  famoan.      The 

important   works  are :  I/rr  JUa^netunni§  (2d  best  collect i>in  of  the  fnigments  of  Ennius  is  by 

ed.,  Ix-iji^ic,  1844;  translated  into  English  by  Ilesselius  (4to.  Amfterdam,  17u7>. 
William  Hnwiit,  under  the  title  of  "Natural        ENNS,  or  Ens  (ano.  AnUus^  cr  Af.fs'^tu  a 

History  «if  Msgic,**  2  voltt.  12mo.,  Londitn,  1^>54) ;  river  of  Austria,  riin-s  in  tho  ein-lo  of  S.kl*.ibury; 

Ikr  M'lfjuetijimui  im  VirhdlfnUnsur  Satur  uhd  on  the  northeni  A*\\h:  of  a  bruirh  "f  '.::«•  N\»no 

RtUijion  i'lA  e«l.,  Tuliingon,  lH.Vi).  Alps,  12  i\\.  S.  of  Uadotailt,  fltiws  N.  p.i^i  U^at 

KNNIS,  a  ]>:irliuim-ntary  and  inunicipal  l>or-  town,  then   E.  N.  E.  ihrMiu-h  Si^ri^  ti.r.n   S. 

ongh  and  market  town  of  In-lanJ.  c:ipital  of  Mparating  tho  pn»\in(vs  vi  rp|HT  a  •!   l^>«tr 

tlie  ri.iiiiity  lit'  I'lare,  on  the  river  Fergus,  112  Auv.riik  and  after  a  total  n»urM*  I'f  IT'i  m.  r:«- 

m.  \V.  S.  W.  frum  Dublin;  ]Nip.  in  l>ol,  7,^<^  tering   the    huiiul*!'  2  ti:.  bel«»w  iho   tiiwn  %A 

It  is  irri'gnlarl}  bu:lt«  and  the  ruins  of  an  an-  Eiin«.     Its  prim  ip.d  ulll^A-nii  are  t!u-  Mi  >tT  osi 

cient  Frani.-i4e:in  abbey,  fuundi^tl  in  124'>.  are  its  tLe  ri^ht.  and  tlie  S:i!.m  hu  the  lef:.    I:  ;«  !iai;- 

ouly  nn'iiivuMe  arrhitei^turul  fe.it u re.     It  has  '^  gaMo  to  Kiillin^,  ar.il  i'.%  njip  r  purt  Iks   am;d 

bridgi  s  ac  ro<«N  the  Fergus,  man  u  factories  of  linen  wild  mountain  M-eiie.'-v.     Tijc   art  hilui  l.it^   c/ 

and  flannel,  and  f-cnMihTablo  tra<lo  in  a^rricul-  Tpj^er  and  Lower  Aur«tri.i  un*  ol'ti  :i  rul.o!  tlj« 

tural  protluct*.     The  b-iriuigh  returns  one  itKUi*  pri»\  IniV'v  i»f  t!ie  Enn«.  or  rp{>t  r  a:i>i  1^'»  ^  r  Enik^ 
ber  to  tlit>  house  i*f  commons.  KNNS.  a  t'wn  uiMr  the  nin-  '.ii>:i  of  t\e  7\\tT 

ENNIl'S.  Ci>  INT -» t!iel'.itherof  RoULinlifor-  En:i»\%i:!i  t!.e  I)..nwNi',  «  i:ii  i..:kii  ::;ia'*   r.c*  t»f 

ature.  Utu  in  KuJia*.  a  village  of  C'.ilaliri.i,  2:il>  iron,  frt««l,  a!:<l  i\>:t<':i  pH<I«;  p..j>    h.>*i.     \ 

II.  C.  ilitil    ICy.     He  claiine*!  di"M>nt   from  a  battle  Utwi'.ti  i'..»  Friin'I.  u:.-!  \»;*:.-.iJ.«  V«iL 

mylliiral  h«To.  tl»e  fin*tH'tt!*rinhI-rt.*iniry,  and  J'I.hm  i].«re,  N  -v.  \  l**  ■'•.     A-ij  ■■;:  .i,-^  s:.v  t.«n 

in  later  life.  a:\r  he  h.*!*!  learui'il  thi*  rythag>>-  is  t!ie  oM  ea^tlt'  of  Ki::i'^<k. 
reaii  doi'Tnuo  of  transmigration,  he  Inta-tt'il  that         EN«  H'll.  the  ^»*\\  of  .I.ir^- 1,  a'.tl  :'.i  •.'.:••.••  if  V<  ■ 

the  H>:il  of  IfoMier  dwelt  in  hini.     Nothing  is  th:.'«alt]i,  l.nr:!.  ui  ..Mri:'.:^'  t*i  the  Ik!..  z.\  i-\r\>- 

known  i»f  his  life  till  at  the  age  of  IW  year*  he  nol .^-y.  A.  M.  •"■'J J.     lb    i-«  r:»!!»'\:  ■*  f.-  *•  i* 


,  •' 


a(>|i«'.irs  a<f  a  ■^'IU^t  in  the  Iloinan  nrinv.  enjiiy-  from  A«!a!ir*  <-'i:-if  1 1 1,  t  •  •l.«::i.»".:.<:k  :...::  :"x  :u 

iog  the  fri«nd<»hi|i  of  tho  elier  i'ato,  by  wh^ni  Enoeh  t!i«*  -••ii  of  ('.on,  ulf<  «  a*  \*:.\\  \   «-  t:.:r! 

he  was  taken  t«»  I'ltMie.    Th«^re  he  taticlit  (ireek  fp'tn  Aila'u.     F.iMliiu-*  :*tf«  r«  :r<  i.i  :2.«-  :.'..'(•    f 

and  Lntiri.  |iut  ns«!ii«  to  liavo  h^M  n>  inark^-d  *'f.ititir  if  ao!r'>:ioii.;."  ^-^eii   hr:.   \;^    &::   *\\ 

position  till  in  1"*'.*  he  made  the  .K!o*i.iii  ram-  wriN-r,  thrit  lie   i<«  I'.ie  ^a'.ie  \^\.  -m  :!i-    ••r«^'^« 

paign   uU'Kt   FuUius  Nobilior.  gaim^l  t!ie  ar-  Wor-htjpi-tl  ninli  r '.lii- i'.in«- of  Atix*.     Wt  :e^i 

onainLanre  and  e»!«*eni  of  the  %:\*\^r  >cipi'»  and  in  tlie  SiipMinn  t!iat  "  hr  ^u'.k>'1  im.:!.  i.  «1.  ' 

tne  n:o-t  oinoi'lera*>lel!onisnN  and  rveeiieil  tho  and  "  i>'.<aM* '.   lutt,."      A*:  :  :.«  !•>   1..*  «!•  ;.».-:^:* 

rights  «*f  Itonian  iitiieuahtp.    From  this  time  from  the  wuril,  «e  are  teld,  thai  "he  «a»  ux^ 


ENSIGN  ENTOMOLOGY                  217 

Cor  God  toolc  him  ;^*  t.  ^.,  that  in  his  case,  as  in  at  the  sammit    The  height  of  the  entablature, 
that  of  Elnah,  the  body  without  sufferiDg  ordi-  according  to  the  most  commonly  received  opin- 
Bftiy  ^aaolntion  was  clothed  with  immortalitj-,  ion,  ought  to  be  generally  two  diameters  of  the 
or  endaed  with  the  immortal  principle  by  the  column,  but  it  Tones  somewhat  in  different  or- 
immediate  power  of  God.     The  character  of  ders ;  in  the  temple  of  Minerva  at  Athens,  one 
Eoocb  is  drawn  by  two  apostles  (Hcb.  zi.  5, 18,  of  the  purest  examples  known  of  the  Grecian 
and  Jade  1-4, 15).  The  last  passage  has  been  the  Doric  style,  it  is  almost  exactly  two  diameters. — 
sal;}ect  of  moch  coatroversy,  referring  as  it  does  Tlie  term  entablature  or  entablement  is  also  ap- 
to  apffophecy  by  Enoch,  some  portions  of  which  plied  to  the  lost  course  of  masonry  on  a  wall, 
It  dtes  apparently  in  the  language  of  the  prophet  immediately  under  the  roof. 
himself,    A  prophetical  work  odled  the  ^^  Book  ENTAIL,  an  expression  used  in  the  old  books 
of  Enoch^  is  frequently  mentioned  in  the  writ-  for  an  estate  in  tail  (media)val  Lat.fneihtm  talli- 
ingi  of  the  fathers.    It  is  noticed  by  Justin  afum,  from  taliare^  to  cut  off),  signifying  a  tnm- 
lurtyr,  Irenieas,  Clement  of  Alexandria,  Ter-  cated  inheritance,  as  being  carved  out  from  a 
tnUian,  Origen,  Augustine,  Jerome,  Hilary,  and  larger  estate,  or  perhaps  from  the  exclusion  of 
Eoieblns.    Mofit  of  these  considered  it  apocry-  certain  heir*.    For  the  nature  of  this  species  of 
jfb^  though  Tertullian  maintained  its  authen-  inheritance,  see  Estate. 
tirity  and  defended  it  from  the  criticisms  of  his  ENTERITIS  (Gr.  cvrcpoi',   an  intestine),  a 
cootemporariesL     Bruce,  the  traveller,  brought  medical  term  denoting  acute  inflammation  of 
bome  utMn  Abyssinia  3  copies  of  the  book  in  the  external  or  peritoneal  coat  of  the  intestines, 
Am  Ethiopic  language,  which  immediately  ex-  as  distinct  from  inflammation  of  the  mucous 
cited  great  interest  in  Europe.     The  eminent  coat.    This  is  a  painful  and  dangerous  disease, 
orientalist  De  Sacy  translated  some  portions  of  and  not  unfrequently  terminates  in  gangrene 
il;  and  a  complete  English  version  by  Dr.  Lau-  in  a  few  hours  from  the  flrst  attack.    Its  symp- 
icnee,  professor  of  Hebrew  at  Oxford,  appeared  toms,  which  can  seldom  bo  mistaken  for  those 
in  183<S.     In  1833  a  second,  and  in  1888,  a  third  of  any  other  complaint  except  colic,  with  which 
RTiscd  edition  appeared.    The  book  is  supposed  it  is  closely  allied,  and  which  indeed  is  apt  to 
to  hare  been  originallpr  composed  about  the  time  oridnate  it,  are  fever,  frequently  preceded  by 
«f  the  Christian  era^  m  the  Hebrew  or  Chaldee  chilliness,  flxod  pain  in  the  aMomen,  costive- 
Ingnage.     The  Ethionic  version,  however,  was  ness,  and  in  most  coses  vomiting.    The  pain  is 
aoft  maide  from  the  Hebrew,  but  from  a  Greek  restricted  to  a  small  part  of  the  alKlomen,  or 
translation  which  is  not  now  extant.  spreads  over  its  whole  surface,  according  as  the 
ENSIGN  (Lat.  intignt^  a  standard),  in  ancient  inflammation  extends  to  tho  whulo  or  part  of 
warfare,  a  banner  designed  to  communicate  tel-  the  intestines;  it  is  commonly  severest  about 
cgraphic  signals  rather  than  to  be  a  centre  for  the  navel,  and  is  always  increased  by  pressure. 
nllying.     Near  tho  end  of  the  middle  ages,  it  This  pain  is  generally  the  first  manifostation  of 
was  a  secondary  color  borne  after  the  national  the  disease.     As  it  becomes  more  intense  tho 
banner  or  the  pennon  of  the  general.    Macchia-  bowels  seem  drawn  topcther  by  a  kind  of  spasm, 
TeDi  regrets  that  in  his  time  ensigns  had  become  the  features  grow  slmrp  and  compressed,  and 
of  little  use,  and  were  merely  the  furniture  of  afterward,  if  the  attack  bo  very  severe,  ore 
piradesL     Subsequently  the  name  was  given  to  much  sunken,  giving  the  countenance  a  wild 
tiie  collars  of  infantry,  and  also  to  the  bearer  of  and  fearful  expression.    Tho  brain  usually  but 
the  colors,  who  was  the  first  sergeant.    Still  not  always  remains  unaffected.    The  causes 
kfar  the  colors  were  borne  by  cadets,  who  were  of  this  diseose  ore  acrid  and  indigestible  sub- 
in  the  line  of  promotion  to  lieutenancies ;  but  stances  taken  into  the  stomach  in  larpo  quanti- 
tbe  function  afterward  retunied  to  the  ensign,  ties,  indurated  fa?ces,  high  living,  long  contin- 
The  grade  of  ensign  is  still  retained  in  the  Eng-  ued  costiveness,  strangulated  hernia,  spasnio(lio 
Brii.  Prussian,  and  Austrian  armies,   but  tho  colic,  the  involution  of  one  fold  of  the  intestine 
wild  no  longer  designates  the  colors  of  infantry  within  another,  application  of  cold  to  tho  belly 
<r  the  standards  and  guidons  of  cavalry.    The  or  the  extremities,  and  cold  drinks  when  the 
Phusian  ensign  is  not  an  officer,  and  the  English  body  has  been  previously  over-heatod.    It  at- 
tnogn  b  thus  designated  without  necessary  ref-  tacks  persons  of  every  age,  from  childhood  to 
•tnoe  to  the  colors.    His  duties  are  those  of  a  the  most  advanced  period  of  life,  but  old  per- 
■biltem  oflScer. — ^In  naval  language,  tho  ensign  sons  are  most  subject  to  it. 
Ii  the  banner  or  flag  hoisted  on  a  long  pole,  ENTOMOLOCrY   (Gr.   cwo^or,   insect^  and 
•tw  the  poop,  called  the  ensign  staff.    The  en-  \oyot^  discourse),  the  branch  of  natural  history 
4p  i§  also  the  lowest  of  the  ofiicers  of  tho  which  treats  of  insects  one  of  the  classes  of 
Knch  navy,  and  has  the  rank  of  a  first  lieu-  articulated  animals.    That  part  of  the  science 
t«int  of  artillerj-,  but  the  flag  is  not  specially  which  refers  to  the  anatomy  and  physiology  of 
htoaed  to  him.  the  class  will  be  treated  under  the  head  of  Ix- 
ESTABLATrRE  (Lat.  Uihulatum,  a  stage  sects;  and  the  particular  descriptions  of  orders, 
•ibMyX  in  architecture,  the  horizontal  contin-  families,  genera,  and  species  will  Ih)  found  under 
ion  work  which  is  supported  by  the  columns,  their  various  scientific  and  popular  titles.    This 
It  kn  8  principal  divisions :  tho   architrave,  article  will  be  devoted  to  tho  history  of  ento- 
^idi  mts  upon  the  capitals  of  the  columns,  mology,  and  to  brief  sketches  of  the  principal 
tbfrieze  immediately  above  it,  and  the  cornice  systems  of  classification.    In  entomology,  more 


218  EKTOMOLOGT 

perhaps  than  in  any  other  department  of  natural  mntl  motionless,  m  tho  diptera.-^ohn  lUj.  u 

iiistory,  d«>0!i  the  Ktudont  rod  tho  want  of  a  English  clen^yman  living  m  tho  latter  part  of  Um 

natural  cluwitication ;  hut,  a^i  tlio  he«t  authors  ITthivnturv,  was  the  first  true  systvmatbit«  and 

have  dvrutttl  wrj  une^iual  study  to  ditrvnmt  douhtlens  furnished  Linnirni  with  many  of  iIm 

groups,  from  the  iniixtssiljility  of  fully  cuitivat-  ideas  afterward  Bneees!ifuUy   worked  'oat    by 

inc  every  {Mirtion  of  tho  immense  ticfd,  no  clos-  him.     In  a  "  UiHtory  of  Insects^**  puMLahvd  af^ 

sihcatiou  ('••iiiplctc  and  natural  in  all  its  purti  his  deatli   in   17u5,  is  tho  f(»llowing  arraufv- 

can  ho  found;  the  secund  Cu%-icr  is yt-t  tn  ari^  invnt:  I.   Inserts  without  mvtamorphosK  ia- 

who  •ihdll  fiirin  from  the  si^attered  though  ad-  eluding:  1,  ajialn  (annulato  wunus),  tematrial 

mirahle  fro^nnonts  a  tnily  natund  syntom  of  en-  and  aquatie ;  2,  pfdata^  including  tho  terrSitrial 

tuniiilu^y.    Tho  descriptive  port  ion  of  tho  science  (lice)  and  a<|uatio  bexapods.  tho  orto|iods  (m4- 

is  asyi*tVi'ryiiu>«)mplvto;  when  we  04)nsider  tho  dvrs),  lol>sters  and  cratm,  the  terrestrial  pofy« 

great  nuinSiT  of  known  species  And  the  small  i>ods  (^centi|»etles  and  wcHvd  lice),  and  the  aqnatie 

size  of  most  of  theso  in  carvfully  studie<1  di>-  p«iIyt>ods  (u»i/»Ai/>0(/!fi  and  UnpoJa  of  Ijitreille). 

trirt.i.  ant!  our  oomparativo  i^nornnro  t»f  the  ll.   insects  witli  nivtamoridiu^is,  inela<ling:  1, 

insects  of  fofi'l^u  countries  it  niu*«t  lie  confess-  tho»o  with  moving  hirvm  and  pupro  {ortAcpT^fm 

ed  that  tho  nearly  ltH),fiOO  s|iecics  now  dc^crib-  and  hemipUrtt)\  and  2,  those  with  niotiunloM 

ed  proluiMy  do  nut  form  one-lialf  of  the  total  pui^o,  as  coUttpteni,  U*pi*l0pUrti^  dipUra^  and 

number  in  cxi^t^Mn^e.     If  we   take  fur  a  husis  \ifnunoptrni.     III.  luM.'cts  with  simple  tncta- 

the  iN)nip:iraiivo  ratio  whirh  lias  l>cen  found  to  mor|)h(i»is  moving  tlirough  mtwit  of  tlic  «la 

exist  in  <tiTniany  lictWL*en  insects  and  plan  ts,  like  tho  dragon -dies. — Itoanmar,  in  tho  mi 

tliat  of  2  to  1,  and  extend  this  to  tho  whole  of  tho   IStli  i*eutury,  pohlLihed  his  Mem 

World,  Wo  »h(»iilil  liMVo  in  round  nunibcrii  at  least  pour  §crrir  d  rkistoirc  des  inter tes^  oflui 

44N\uiN)  ijuH-ioH  of  in^Tti  inhnhiting  the  earth,  valuable    infonnation    on    the    habits    of  i 

^t  apfK  an  that  Aristotle,  the  father  of  natund  sects  but  wanting  in  syntematic  arrangvroctiL 

liisrtury,  sopar-itid  iii<44^-ctH  fnnn  Crustacea,  and  About  the  same  time,  in  IT^io,  apiieared  th* 

dividi-d  them  into  win^'d  and  wingle^^s  sulidi-  SytUma   XatunM  uf  ].inn»us  whu  di»{«layo4 

vidiiig  the«e  la«t   into  several   natural  minor  in  the  cla^itlcation  of  insects  the  tame  intoi- 

gntup**  S4»  Mi('f*o^«f(illy  as  to  excite  the  surprise  tive  perception   of   the  characters  of  gruvfa 

and  oilmiration   of  mu«Iern   utisor%*ers.     From  that  is  obsorvable  in  his  other  liranrhes  of  tfao 

Ari!«tot1e  wo  may  pa<»s  over  a  |>eriod  uf  1,8<J0  animal  kingdom.     His  system  is  bx^*d  on  tho 

years,  a  l>I.ink  aa  far  an  the  progres<»of  natural  his-  characters  of  tlie  wings  and  the  pri*M«nce  or  ab- 

tory  is  cnn con letl,  to  tho  middle  ufthe  16th cen-  seuco  of  a  Ming;  m  follows:  I.  In^vts  wi:L  4 

tury,  H  lion  ( ti->ner,  a  Swiss  rovivod  the  study  (»f  wings  including  the  following  onlor<« :  1 .  ct  2k«^ 

animaN,  leaving  valnaMe  iiniKTsi»n  inM.'ctAfn»m  tent,  with  the  an  tor  ior  wings  cru'^t.irto-is  n'::h 

lH.rMin:il    i»l»MTvation.    which    were    published  a  rtraight suture;  2,  Armiy* rrni,  with*- !i»icr>U- 

after  Itis  d«-:ith  by  MouiKt,  in  IG-M.     Inuring  ceous  incumbent  anterior  winf>;  !<.>/'&< /- 7- v^j^ 

tho  i:c\t  liMi  }i>ars  AMmvandus  divided  in-^'cts  with  all  tho  wings  covered  with  H-.i!r«:  4.  %/t>- 

into  2  cIiirfgroui*s  hinil  and  Writer  insfcts,  Mil»-  ray/fcrii,  with  all  tho  wiiipi  membr;Ei<<::s  and 

diiiilin^r   tlieiu  :iccordi:ig  to  tho  structure  of  with  nu  sting  in  the  tail :  5.  Ay mi-i^'/Vr j,  i\:ih 

thfir  H  in.:«  and  loj^ ;  HiH.*fnagel  nia«lo  iK'autiful  membranous  win^s  and  tail  armed  wi:It  .1  •iir^. 

figiiri'4  lit' ilnru  :  lUdi  studied  llieir  orii^in  and  II.  Insei*t!i  with  2  wings  coinpri^iiu.  **.  r^/'V-j, 

m**ile  i«f  prop-ij^iition  :  Malpig^i  made  a  careful  with  i»<iis4*r>f  in  place  of  tho]Nrt;rrlir  p-iir.     III. 

di««^'i-ri<>n  »»f  the  silkworm  ;  (oM'^lart  nn^l  Valis-  Insects  with  neit!ier  wing-*  nnr  elvtra.  :nil»:.ij-x, 

nieri  deMTiln^l  tbe  met:mit>riilto<M-4  of  inM'ct<i;  7^tipffr*t.  in  whicli  were  placed  b\  Ijnic.i  r.*  tS«« 

lA-euweiiliiK*t-k  eiaiiiin«-<l  themniicro<M>ti|»ir:iIlv  ;  hexa]MKl  lice,  fleas.  d:c.,  spider*,  crar>x  und  r«a- 

and  Miidaiiie  Mi'rian  studitsl   the  (!•  AelMprnei.t  ti|>edes.     The  frkiiit  «>f  thi^  sjk>'.iiii   i«  itJi  ricla- 

of  tho  le|' id  01  it  era,  going  to   .^urinrim  in   her  sivo  priuciplo  oi'diviMcn  drjwn  from  tho  «iag\ 

scientific   ji-il    to    contiituo    ht  r  ob^Tvattons  which  placet!  among  the  «T/»f^r.i  anima!*  fsr  iv* 

umoiig  tho  mi#st  gor^voMs  «|N«i'i,..^.     Tl;o  writ*  moved  from  insects pmiwr.- -IV  <i»nT.  a  Sw*»lf^ 

ings  iif  Sw.i!]irii>>nhiiii,   a  iKit'-h   natur-ilii^t  in  pu1-Ii'«!icd  a  w«irk  tin  in<MHLs  lK.tui-%-:i  17^2  aaJ 

the  midillt*  i'f  tlio  ITt.'i  CiMitury,  creat«-«l  a  new  177*^.  having  the  ^ame  title  a'«  that  of  Ib-acmar, 

ep'jch  ::i  ibo  nnn:i*s  uf  enti>i{i«i!H;.'y.     lit  studied  ot' whicli  it  ulav  ia  wnne  ri*?>|*i^':s  Ik-  c«*r«idepnl 

tin*  nietaMii>r pi II ■«•■<«  of  in'<«*4-ts  and  fiotn  tlie-e  thes^|i:el:  hi«  system  is  in:«-r:ni«lia!e  In'twvea 

intnsluix-I  tlio  tir!*t  attempts  towrird  a  natur.-d  that  «•!  !.ii.n:i*t:n and  that  **{  Ka!•riti>I^  iih'»c«tiiO 

c!,i^iti<-ati«iii.     Mis   iii-tcm  w^ks   as  fi>ll>iw«:  I.  after  him,  tieiut;  1>a.<k'«1  Ujth  u|ori  the  iir,:«n«  cf 

Ihxioi  t^  wit!it>-iT  <t  iue!a!ijorph«»<»i<s  chaniring  their  flirTbt  and  tbo<H.>  nf  manducati'tn.  and  ac>x*r^hng 

»Li!i  but  r:i>t  thfir  I'onii,  as  ••pider*.  lice,  uimkI  tti  Mr.  Kirbyi«  more  natural  ihw.i  that  ff  r'i(!icr 

Ikv.  a:i-l  fi:\ri.tpiH!«.     II.  Invcts  nith  a  nu-ia-  of  tboulHivvn.'uneil  naturalist*.  It  i*  as  foIIi*ws: 

in<irp!ii>«i%:  if.  th->s«>  UMving  in  n!l  s:;u'r<4  i>f  rx-  I.  InM>ct4  with  wings,  tiAi^t.  i::«  !'.:il:r.«;    A    ^rym» 

i*tf-f:cc,  .if  lir^t  wingless  then  wit Ii  ruiiiiitoiit^ry  rti'/'Vrii,  or  thoM*  ^iith  4  u  i:i*r«  \%  .:*.!•'.!  r^wi^ 

axci   lin.iliy   with  entin*   wings,  JTnludin^  what  witti  the  suUli\i«:i>ns:  1.  /^/'i.^^  fr  ?.  «i  ith  •c^ly 

are   is'-w    «  albil    nf*in»ptrr<t^    o.-f.'..t/».'«rii.    and  winirs  and^piral  t«ingt:o;  2.  ^*i»>"*1.*.  uith  raiea 

htmiptrr-i  :  A,  ini»tio;iIt«i  in  tin*  pup.i^tati-.  but  meniI>ranous  wings  n^  teet!i  r:'>r  tongue   >  fr»- 

1ia\iii;:  hrn^K.  i:icliiding  tlio  Ay  i/";.»/  '/  rr.  .-n/V.'y^.  eh**pierxt^fpKfnurinti)\  3,  iirur»'f-Vr.i, »  ith  ni«*fn-* 

Crnr,  and   /'^*t/<'/> V ni  ;  r,  ovutv  pu|<a\  vingleaa  brauu:u,  eijual,   reticulated    «tu^    and    t«vt^ 


ENTOMOLOGY  219 

in  tlM  month  (as  libetlula  and  other  LiDnsoan  isopods,  ampliipods,  and  mjTiapods.    This  srs- 

mtmroptera) ;  i^  hynunoptera^  with  membranous  tem,  though  not  purely  artifici^J,  and  founded 

nnfqiiiil  wings,  teeth  in  the  mouth,  and  a  sting  on  several  correct  principles,  is  yet  far  from  nat- 

€r  borer  in  the  females;  6,  Biphonata,  with  mem*  nral,  and  includes  among  insects  animids  which 

Wmons  wings  and  tongue  bent  beneath  the  do  not  belong  with  them;  his  14  orders  com- 

brMst  {A&mopUra  of  Leach),  including  the  aph-  prised  only  about  1,500  species  referable  to  100 

iim  and  cicada.    B.  Vaginata,  or  those  with  2  genera. — Geoffrey,  in  France,  in  1764,  published 

wings  coTered  by  elytra,  with  the  subdivisions :  a  system  which  is  important  from  the  introduc- 

C,  denmapterOy  with  elytra  half  coriaceous  and  tion  of  the  Joints  of  the  tarsi  as  a  means  of 

linlf  meinbnnons,  crossed,  a  pair  of  membra-  classification ;  he  makes  only  6  groups,  eohop- 

BOOB  wings,  and  tongue  bent  beneath  the  breast  Ura,  hemiptera,  lepidoptcra,  tetraptera,  dipte- 

iflgtmiptera  of  Leach),   as  the  bugs  and  water  ra^  and  apteroy  the  8d,  5th,  and  6th  being  the 

kogs;  7,  crtkoptera^  cockroaches  and  grasshop-  same  as  the  linnsan ;  it  is  an  exceedingly  nnnat- 

pBis;  8,  with  teeth  in  the  mouth,  and  the  wings  ural  system. — ^Fubricius,  a  German,  a  pupil  of 

of  beetles  (eolecpterd).    C.  Diptera^  with  2  un-  Linneous,  introduced  important  improvements 

eofered  winga,  including:  9,  halUrata  (the  dip-  into  the  science  during  the  last  quarter  of  the 

t^wofLinniensX  having  a  pair  of  poisers,  mouth  18th  and  the  beginning  of  the  19th  century; 

with  m  tongue  without  teeth ;  10,  prob&seidea  his  system  is  based  upon  the  number,  pro- 

Qfto  the  genus  coeeui)^  with  no  poisers,  tongue,  portions,  fonn,  and  situation  of  the  parts  which 

or  teeth  in  the  male,  and  no  wings,  but  a  tongue  constitute  the  mouth,  without  regard  to  other 

k  the  breast  of  the  female.    II.  Insects  with-i  parts  of  the  insect ;    by  building  upon    this 

•ttvtngs,  aptfro,  including :  D./S^Ztofor»a,  with  narrow  foundation  ho  departed  widely  from 

fta  nbdiTision :  ll,ft/«fana(cu2ea;),  undergoing  nature,  though  by  drawing  attention   to  the 

■etemorphosis,  with  6  1^^  and  mouth  with  mnxillary  system  lie  has  enabled  his  successors 

iMiaiiii,  the  aohaniptera  of  Xirby.  £.  6T€99oria^  to  define  certain  groups  with  considerable  accu- 

wiu  thesoboiviBions:  12,  aueenatOj  undergoing  racy.   His  first  classification  of  1775  was  greatly 

no  metamorphosis,  with  6  legs,  and  head  and  modified  in  the  course  of  his  life,  and  the  fol- 

trank  distinct,  as  termes^  pedicultM,  p90cu$  ;  13,  lowing  was  proposed  by  him  in  his  Entomologia 

drmekdia^  spiders  and  crabs ;  14,  crustacta,  as  in  1798 : 

L    bmcn  wm  Bituio  Mourns. 
JL  Twepalnofmandiblea. 
a.  The  lover  ones  bAvinf;  palpL 

1.  Frco  without  eovering. 1.  Clafls  eleutheraia  (beetles). 

S.  Covered. 9.  ^  vlotiata  {prthopUrd). 

a.  (!onnato  with  the  labiam. 8.  *'  §yni«tata  {n^uropttra). 

4.  Distended,  thin,  eorlaceous. A.  "'  pietata  {hym^nopttra). 

a.  Hornj,  strongly  toothed,  h»blam  wlthoat  palpL    .       .  6.  **  odonata  {UbsiltUir), 

\  All  vitboat  palpL            6,  **  tnitotata  {ncoloptndrd). 

B.  A  pair  of  iciaBor-like  maxlllo.     .               7.  ^  unogata  (^scorpions  and  ipfdcn). 

C  More  than  2  pairs  of  maxillu*. 

1.  Within  the  labium. S,  **  pclygonata  (Uopoda). 

SL  Oataido  the  lip,  closing  the  month 9.  **  jdtistagnatha  (short-tailed  crabs). 

8b  Ootaide  tho  lip,  but  covered  by  the  palpi.          .       .  10.  **  taochnata  (long-tailed  crabs). 

IL    Ihsxcts  wim  Suctobial  Morms. 

1.  In  the  mouth  a  spiral  tonc^ne. HI.  Claa  ffloMota  (f^pidopt^ra). 

1.  A  homy  proboscU,  with  Jointed  sheaths.   .       .        .       Vi.     **"     rhyngota  {hemipUra). 
a.  A  toft,  a]{{olntod  proboscis. 18.     **     antliata  {diptera\ 

Ibe&eiltty  with  which  genera  were  determined  representations  of  this  order  yet  known. — La- 

Vtlus  system  secured  for  it  many  followers,  in  treillc*s  first  work,  published  in  1796,  presents 

ipits  of  Its  unnaturalness ;  and  Illigcr,  by  unit-  the  insects  of  Linnosus  in  14  classes,  adding  or- 

k§  it  with  that  of  Linnsus,  considerably  im-  thoptera  to  the  Linnioan  system,  and  separating 

pnwed  it.    He  made  order  1  of  Linnosus  corre-  the  apUra  into  suetoriaj  thymnoura,  parasita, 

i^oad  with  class  1  of  Fabricius ;  2  L.  with  2  aeephala^  entomostraca,  Crustacea^  ana  myria^ 

■1  13  F. ;  3  L.  with  11  F. ;  4  L.  (to  which  poda ;  this  system,  though  in  many  respects 

Ms  added  Urmu^  Upisma^  and  podura)  with  unnatural,  claims  tho  positive  merit  of  intro- 

SmA  5  F.  ;  5  L.  with  4  F. ;  6  L.  (with  pedieulus  ducing some  natural  families.    In  1 810  he  adopt- 

wH  aatnu)  with  13  F. ;  and  7  L.  (without  the  ed  a  new  classification,  following  Cuvier  and  Do 

alvfe-named  apterous  genera)  with  6,  7,  8,  9,  Lamarck  in  separating  Crustacea  and  araclmids 

■il  10  F. — Olivier,  in  the  article  Insectei  in  the  from  insects  proper,  and  dividing  the  latter  into 

WKmchvidio  methodiquf,  follows  chiefly  the  tho  7  onlers  of  his  1st  classification,  adding  tho 

classification,  modified  by  Geoffrey  order  suctoria  (formed  entirely  by  the  genus 

!>•  Geer,  making  use  of  the  wings  and  ely-  pulex).    In  1817  ho  added  myriapoda,  thysa- 

the  iMuls  of  tho  mouth,  and  tho  joints  of  noura^  and  parasita  to  his  8  orders,  and  also 

tnC  in  his  divisions;  he  substituted  the  strepsipt&ra  of  Kirby ;  in  1825  he  raised  the 

m^rtkoptera  for  the dermaptera  of  Do  Geer ;  myriapoda^  after  Leach,  to  a  distinct  class,  and 

[;  jl  lb  order  aptcra  are  still  included  spiders,  divided  tho  imeeta  into  11  orders;  in  1829  ho 

'*  wAm,  and  mynapods.    In  Olivier's  great  work  reduced  the  myriapoda  to  an  order  among  in- 

<■  mUoptera^  in  6  large  quarto  volumes  with  sects,  raising  the  number  again  to  12  orders,  « 

*    400  phitea,  published  between  1789  and  and  in  1832  raised  them  again  to  a  class  inter- 

ij  be  foond  the  largest  collection  of  mediate  between  araclmids  and  insects.    One 


L 


220 


ENTOMOLOOT 


jrnvit  morit  of  I^itroillc  U  that  he  pare  fnniilr 
ii:iiiK-!«  t(i  the  ^TiMipH  4 if  freniTH,  wliich  Macloay 
Ijah  ri'iluivfl  til  hVi'toiii  liy  ^iviii^  tti  the  in  tlio 
tcriiiinHtinn  i</ir,  whirli,  if  not  alwHy!«claseti(>a)ly 
oorri'it,  U  of  ji'lvaiita^ro  fnr  iiiatunmiy  and 
cnnhuny. — 1>o  Laniarrk  diviiKM  uiMTiii  into  8 
ctnliTS  :  I.  liiM-ft*!  with  Hiirtonnl  ini Mil h^:  1,  ay»- 
Urtt  inurforitiK  IjiT. ;  *2,dipUra  ;  3.  htmipUra; 
4,  }fpi*lop*tr*i.  W,  ]nM.'rt!4  with  ni.tn<lihuIuto 
inoiith^i :  fi.  hymrtu*pftr%i :  tt,  nru ntptcrti ;  7, 
orthi'pttrti  :  u!i<l  h.  eoiivpUrti.  OlhiT  apUra 
he  I'lui'i-tl  unit  ill;;  aruohni<ls  and  iTU>ta«*ea,  and 
ranked  (hyjuttitturti,  myritijHnht^  and  fhirtuiia 
aniitn;;  anu  Imids. — I  >ii!nvril  place;*  iniiortsalMive 
ni<*IIu*k:a  in  tliO  ani!n:il  m.^ni-A,  and  roinpn^s 
unions  tlii'iM  urai'liriidrt  and  iiiyriaiMMlA;  hin  ar- 
ran;:i-!nfnt  ditforH  l>ut  little  from  the  I«innn*an  ; 
L>*  cndcaviirtHl  to  rcnnite  the  (!ri'atly  divided 
fui'nilif<4,  and  to  rvduei*  the  nunibi*r  of  |K*nora. 
— Before  |>:i*>**in;r  ti>  other  rlas!»iti«*ationA  the 
|ihiIi'so|ihiral  rtyi^ti'inH  of  the  nuxlern  iierniaii 
M-liool  niiiy  Ih'  alludetl  to;  they  |iro(*4>ed  un  the 
viirw  that  orpin io  nature  i^  one  preat  whole, 
osliihitin;!  Iin>;;re!i>ive  (Trailed  of  develoimienti 
which  are  c- ha  router  i2e<l  oa  rlafttcit.  Oken 
Itas  tnsule  \'i  rlxs^en  of  auiinaliS  each  n'p- 
re<(ontt-d  hv  a  •'lu-ressiveW  added  or&raiL.  In- 
iieet<i  form  I  ho  *Jt!i  cla^^  antl  are  ralle«l  lun^r-an- 
inial:!;  thev  are  divided  a<(  foll«)Wit:  I.  (lerm 
flii'S  with  {K-rfirt  metani«»r]dio«i*f.  with  trilK*s: 
1,  hrmipffm  ;  *2,  vrth'VUniiwnXdfrmnptera  ;  8, 
nfurupl^r^t.  II.  Si.'sua]  Hies,  with  {HTfeet  meta* 
nii>riihi»M4  ai'.d  v'\nii\  winp«,  with  triWA:  4,  dip' 
Ura  u lid  # •/ ^ r- •  rin  \  5,  hy men »»/* tfttt;  tt,  Upnlop' 
ttni.  III.  I.Mitj-tlits  hcftles,  with  |HTf»Tt  nieta- 
nii»r|»!i«»^is,  rlMr;u  and  win  its  with  triht-*:  7»  (*. 
Ufrtmtni  :  s,  /'.  /.^^•r.»w/r r.i  ;  and  !».  i\  prn- 
^l^Jl*■'•.f.  — Ans"!.,:  tlie  Eii;;]i<*h  writi-p*  wht>have 
4:<i:itr  :}>'iT*-l  In  t!.oailvaM('fnfentHi]itiln;;irul('hiH- 
.xitiiMti'i::,  iiia%  )••>  i:!ttiTi<in«iI  |.«Mrh.  Kirl^y,  and 
Ma''l':iy.  I»r.  W.  K.  Lt-arh  |iuMi*>lied  M»verid 
*•la^■l^;lr•■  tri  :i!i-».  <  t\\\  \\,^'\'U  in  the  "  Kinnn-an 
TraT^'.ai  r"»:i*.' a::«l  ill  the  Hriri<«li  and  forei;;n 
t-ni-1  •■j"i»  i-li.i'.;  h:4  -y*tiin  i«  f»krtr}i«*<l  in  vol.  iii. 
•»f  till*  ••Z«'oIiij'lr;il  Mi«M%'lIany.''  Heilividt'Min* 
•^■«  !*  int'i  'i:.\»fth"ui  n\\*\  mrt*if*4>ht^  ai'ri>rilin;r  to 
flu-  hli*!  :n-i»  I'T  iM'fiirfi  lire  of  liietalii'trpliti^iK, 
:*ii'  1-t  ill' !'I'!:m;j  'J  and  tlio  latter  Mnrdi-r!*; 
!.»'  -'r-lixid'i  '  rf\.'pftni  iiitu  .'i  onler^  aiMiii;; 
*'*TfFi<f^-'»  r  t  *  J  '•/?•■/  '«M  and  dirtyofi't  r#i,  and  in- 
tri»!'i-  1*  :i!-»  «  •'  •.'-•fri  and  i»w«.i/"y#*/rii.— Tlie 
r',i--!l'i"i'!'-M  "f  Ktr'«y  a!id  S|M'iire,  a*  irivon  in 
V..1.  i"..  ..f  !)..•••  |r/"«"!ii«  linn  !••  KiitiHimlo^ry '* 
<  1** I.' ■'•.»»■.).  14  fi4  riMiiw<«:  I.  Af'i*itiif'uf*if»i,  itT 
ii:"..'i!^  w.jIi  I'Liulj'-It*.  rniiTainiiiu:  t!iv  urderi; 
1.  .*•' V"^*'#  -  f  ;  ■_».  9*r*  yiftt*r.i  ;  It,  dtrmttft^t  rti  ; 
\.  *'rfh'y**  ri  ;  .'i.  t.ftr 'p'mt  :  !iu*\  *».  hjinrn- 
I'^-Vr*.  n.  //r'i«V'*.f'.i,  nr  inM-ii<  uith  "ih*- 
t  iri  i!  Tii'»'i*!i-.  I  "■iTaiiiiii,:  the  itrd»T*:  7.  hr- 
mif.'^rt;  **.  'ri-A-y*'*  rii  ;  !«.  lepid'*p*»rti  ;  lo. 
«/j;iV-ii  ;  11,  itpKii'%,p'r'''t  ;  and  12.  ap'mt  fall 
w  iTi^*. "*  !«*.■•  •*  Itri-.itJiin;;  thrn'ijii  tr.i<  Ihm  i. 
It  ha*  *i.-i":i  t«'«':i'i-t*'d  %**  thin  «\«tfiii  lYtnt  the  '.A 
or  !•  r  !•  i!njiro|HT!y  ^^'parat**!  fruni  tin* 4t!i,  and 
t\nt  ihf  ^'li  !'>>riii«  iial'ir.ill^  apart  •  if  t lie. %th. — 
Thi)  vv^ti  m  cf  JlAi'Ieav  iv  founded  un  the  fid* 


lowing:  prineiploji:  1,  all  natural  cronp 
tnrn  within  thein*H.dvo«,  and  ron.'^.Nlu«-ntly 
Hent  tlieniM'lvei*  in  the  f«»nii  iif  ein-le* 
i*:udi  of  the>e  eireles*  oontainA  5  nther*. 
niM'tiil  in  the  saxne  way  ;  \  where  the  i- 
j»»in,  there  are  intermediate  irrouji*  ninn-- 
them  more  rhiM'ly  to(^•ther;  4.  th»*  nur 
of  earh,  at  the  fHiintu  where  the  rirr%-^  I 
exhihit  analu^ii'i.  The  animal  kin^^h-m 
Risttii  «»f  5  eirele*i,  one  i»f  whirh.  the  nnn 
(rrufitacea  and  in«,TtM,  consist ^  nf  .I  prii 
grouprt,  which  may  he  repreMrntvd  an  foU 


.rSQOCUl*'  AVIRA 


<      \     5      /      t 


S  '"VAMDLOSL.      1 


•«i-,**^'_ 


The  3  ordor*  of  ameUiM^t^  mnndJ'ii.i'-f. 
h*nt»t^lhitti  niily  CMnrt-rn  u-*  here.  t»!  •:  - 
the  niyriap«M!>.  jnin  tlie  fruJtf»t^ftt,  nfi«!  r'l. 
mnnuni  and  iin^plurti  (  i*-trttsit>t\  y*  n  !*'• 
dibufiifit,  Tlie  hiiuMfriliitii  am!  f»i«i%r. * 
he  rall^  iu*rrtttptih**tt  ;  t!»e  fornii  r 
Upiih'pfrrti,  dipf/'r,!^  «/;.'/ ni  ift^'-*'-*-!,  I, 
hrtniptrnu  Mvl  h^twpUnt ;  the  hi!t«r  \\i 
trirhfpt^rtt,  hymrunpftrtt^  enlei'ptr -ti  .•" 
trra^  and  nruropUm.  'iUv*»**  tui*  i.r.  :»- 
rfinti;rn«Mm  ti»  e:uh  nfher  in  tin*  /r<r.V  i**^ 
b  pidi'pUm^  t!ie  ^^'nn•*  vt]f»f»irid*»  1 1  jif,  •  < 
fiiriner  making  the  traii»:tion  u*  «jy '.••»!  I 
of  the  latter.  Spiuv  Mill  ii'it  it-rTiii!  ?  «•  i 
dnetiiin  of  the  faniilii*-  Hliieli  hf  (••'.«  ■:•  r 
eminent  ins  link-*  )*«twfin  tli«*  <>rilir«  ••!  t*M 
jrn-at  di\i<*itin'>.  Thi^.^v^i.-Mi.  wliiif  w  ♦..!•  \ 
fitrenl  and  unnatural  at^i:l.!le•^  pr^t  .->«  i 
tiiat  i**  \aliiah!e  in  ihrirnmnn^  thi-  .*■**■]! 
traii'^itiiiii.  u  hii  h  tiri*  tmind  aii>«'n^  r.-** 
anitiit;:  titlier  l>ran('1i«-4  i-t  the  ait'.niAl  k.:.^ 
Hi«  print-ip.d  wnrk.  //»rr  /.*i«^f«../  :;■-» 
piihli-li*.!  ill  l*^!;*-;*!.  Mtinmi^t.r  d  m!. 
^••ei«4,  n«'fiirilin;r  tnt!uTiiiiip!«-?rUi ■«»*•••■?!:♦  .r 
»ni«irplii»»'>,  into  iir/.i-^i/nv'.i  and  r.r*»f*-''i. 
>rri>'ip  pn-.'ntinj  l»«»rh  /•.; •.■••# //.iM  ai.d  ••*. 
/••;/«i''»,  ard  Mi-nliv  :•!•  il  ri*  *"iirilinj  ?••  tVf 
I'f  tin*  larvii,  thi*  Mr-i' 'iiri'  nf  tl«f  h  r  c*. 
thi'  iiilt-rnal  nr^r.ini.MTi-'i.  l|i«  -inTtiri 
fii!Ii»w«:  I.  /•••^/■''i  <ifn/'<j'i> /«f.  W'.lh  stv.j^c 
metaiii'»rph«»oi« :  the  l:tr\:i.  pupa,  and  {« 
iiuect  reM.iiiMin}{  each  i  it  her,  ihv  pu{»a  «i 


ENTOMOLOGY  221 

■nd  moTing  about :  A.  Haying  a  8«ctorial  month,  hymenoptera^  and  airepsiptera  ;  and  II.  Uavstel- 

'wiiti  4  fine  setso  enclosed  in  a  sheath,  and  tho  lata,  containing  lepidoptera,  diptera^  homalop- 

p«lm  wanting,  with  order  1,  hemipUra  (bugs),  tera^  aphaniptcray  aptera,  hemipteray  and  ho- 

b.  with  a  masticating moutli:  a,  with 4  unequal  moptera. — Siebold    (Burnett's    translation),   in 

vinga,    anterior  ones  leathery,  the  posterior  1848,  gives  tho  following  classification :  A.  In- 

ttembranonsand  folded  longitudinally  and  onco  sects  without  metamorphosis,  anietahola,  con- 

«ly ;  prothorox  free,  and  many  biliary  taining :  1,  aptera  {jtediculidtBy  &c.).    B.  "With 

with  order  2,  orthopUra  (locusts) ;  ft,  incomplete  metamorphosis,  heniimctalolay  con- 

irith  4  generally  equal  wings,  never  folded,  with  taining:  a,  with  suctorial  mouth,  2,  hemiptera  ; 

order  8,  dictyotopiera  (cockroaches).    II.  In-  ft,  with  mandibulate  mouth,  8,  orthoptera,    C. 

9Kta  metabola,  with  perfect  metamorphosis ;  With  coinplcto  metamorphosis,   holimietahola^ 

the  larva  a  worm,  of  13  segments,  with  or  containing:  a,  with  suctorial  mouth, 4,  (Z//;^era; 

without  legs;   the  pupa  motionless,  or,  if  it  h,  Upidoptera ;  ^^  hymenoptera ;  h,  y^illimfiiiiSX' 

moves,  not  eating.    A.  With  suctorial  mouth :  bnlate  mouth,  with  7,  atrepsiptera  ;  8,  neurop* 

a,  with  2  naked  transparent  wings,  the  posterior  tera  ;  and  0,  eoleoptera.    This  is  tho  same  as  tho 

Kplaced  by  pediculated  knobs ;  4  biliary  vessels ;  classification  of  V  ogt,  founded  upon  embry ologi- 

)  witliout  feet ;  soft  proboscis,  with  several  cal  principles ;  and  the  orders  aro  tho  same  as 

and  a  pair  of  palpi ;  prothorax  not  free ;  those  of  ()wen,  as  given  in  the  2d  edition  of  his 

order  4,  diptcra  (flies) ;  ft,  with  4  wings,  *'  Lectures  on  the  Comparative  Anatomy  and 

merally  covered  with  scales,  6  biliary  vessels ;  Physiology  of  tho  Invertebrate  Animals"  (1855), 

brrse  with  feet  and  a  distinct  head ;  the  maxillod  except  that  homoptera  is  substituted  by  him  for 

ftrming  a  spiral  tongue ;  prothorax  not  free,  but  hemiptera.   The  orders  of  Milne-Edwards,  in  liis 

doselj  connected  with  the  mesothorax ;  with  Cours  eUmentaire  d*histoire  naturelle  (1855), 

elder  6,  Upidoptera  (butterflies  and  moths),  are  nearly  the  same  as  Siebold's,  except  Uiat 

B-  With  masticating  mouth,  or  at  least  visible  aptera  is  omitted,  rhipiptera  substituted  for 

mancUblea  and  palpi :  a,  with  4  equally  large  or  strepsiptera,  and  anoplura  and  thysanoura  are 

long  wings,  with  reticulated  nervures;  rarely  added.  The  embryological  system  of  Yan  Bene- 

inore  than  8  biliary  vessels ;  prothorax  always  den  (1856)  is  the  same  as  tho  last,  the  term 

five ;  with  order  6,  neuro^tera  (dragon  flies) ;  atrepsiptera  being  reintroduced,  and  parasita 

I,  with  4  unequal  wings,  with  variously  branch-  substituted  for  anoplura, — ^Prof.  Agassiz,  in  tho 

mg  nervures ;  larvro  generally  without  head  or  2d  volume  of  tho  "  Smithsoniau  Contributions 

fefct,  yet  sometimes  with  both;   many  biliary  to  Knowledge"  (1851),  gives  tho  following  clas- 

Tess«k;  prothorax  not  free;  with  order  7,  Ay-  sification  of  insects  from  embryological  data : 

nnnoptcra  (bees,  wasps) ;   <•,   with  4  unequal  i,   cmwixo  Isskcts  (Jran-  IL  Buckin<j  Instcts  (ZTaiM- 

wingsL  the  anterior  ones  corneous ;  larva)  with  dWufata).  uuuta). 

lead,  with  or  without  feet ;  4  or  6  biliary  ves-  c^Z^erT  m^pa!""' 

ids;  prothorax  alwa)*s  free;  with  order  8,  w-  brthopura.  Ltpidoptera. 

lupUra  (beetles).    In  almost  all  these  orders         Jiymenopttra, 

wre  are  apterous  families,  genera,  and  species,  In  this  tho  subdivisions  are  made  according  to 

whose  place  may  be  determined  by  their  meta-  their  transformations.  From  the  fact  that  those 

urphosis  and  tho  structure  of  tho  mouth ;  but  undergoing  complete    metamorphosis  have  a 

ttcT  never  form  a  distinct  order  like  the  aptera  chewing  apparatus  in  the  early  stages  of  their 

cflatreiUe.     Burmeister  maintains  that  all  truo  growth,  which  is  gradually  transformed  into 

kRcts  underao  some  metamorphosis,  though  in  various  kinds  of  suckers,  he  expresses  the  belief 

tbetpterous  forms  it  may  bo  difficult  to  detect  that  the  mandihulata  aro  lower  than  the  ham- 

ftfrixn  the  absence  of  the  wings;  as  his  idea  of  tcllata;  and  he  also  ranks  lepUhjjtcra  highest 

IB  insect  necessitates  metamori)hosis,  however  among  insects,  and  not  colcopteray  as  generally 

^perfect,  he  gives  tho  name  ametalola  (applied  maintained. — ^This  will  suffice  for  entomological 

V  Liach  to  apterous  insects)  to  all  thoso  with  systems ;  tho  limits  of  this  article  will  not  pcr- 

■  imperfect  metamorphosis,  as  there  is  no  real  mit  even  tho  mention  of  the  principal  writers 

ttbrenee  in  the  process  of  development  in  in  the  dilTerent  departments  of  tho  science.  Mr. 

Mdi. — Westwood,  in  his  "  Introduction  to  tho  Wilson  in  tho  article  "  Entomology"  in  the  **En- 

lodem  Classification  of  Insects,"  in  1889,  gives  oycloprcdia  Britannica,"  Dr.  Burnett  in  his  trans- 

ftiftdlowing:  lation  of  Siebold,  and  Mr.  "Westwood  {op,  cit.\ 

t  HocTR  WITH  Jaws.       II.  Moimi  Tnrn  a  Sucmb.  give  valuable  lists  of  the  authors  on  tliis  science, 

MuKm«iM>/itf«ra.  Order  dipiera  arranged  in  chronological  Order ;  from  them  WO 

^pUra,  »*     aphanfpUra.  solcct  the  following  as  among  the  most  imj)ort- 

■  tUnpunt,  u    }  hfUropUra  {inc\\iA'  aut  siuco  Latroillo:  in  England,  Donovan,  Cur- 

.  SaSjiJS*^"^      ••    L'."^'™'"""'""^^  tis,  Wood,  Rennie,  Haliday,  A.  -White,  Don- 

"  mmropura,  •*    Upidoptera.  bleday,  Shuckard,  Hope,  Newman,  and  New- 

•  tHekepUra.  p^j.^.  in  France,  Jurine,I)ufuur,  Godart,Gu6rin- 

ft^henft,  in  the  article  ^^  Tnsectay'"  in  vol.  ii.  of  Sleneville,  Boisduval,  Dojean,  Lacordaire,  and 

■»  ''Cyclopedia  of  Anatomy  and  Physiology"  Blanchard ;  in  Germany,  Meigen,  Ochseuheimer, 

(IM),  divides  insects  into:   I.  Mandihulata^  Klug,  Fischer  do  Waldheim,  and  Gcrmar;   in 

iBBlriiiiDg  eoleoptera^   dermaptcra  (ear-wigs),  Sweden,  Fallen ;  in  America,  Thomas  Say,  Dr. 

•rtiUptera,  aeurcptero,  triehoptcra  (caddis  flies),  T.  W.  Ilarris,  and  J.  L.  Leconte.  Tho  mo^t  use- 


222                 EKTOlfOLOGY  ENTOZOA 

ful  work  on  ontornnlogy  ever  paY>)whcd  In  this  (T^acIO,    9*tet4>ri%    ( Oo    Gocr\    BipKom 

cituiilry  14  the  **Trfiiti^o  on  m>iuo  uf  the  In^tecU  (I^tr),  aphanipUra  (Kirhyr,  U  con^titai 

of  Now  Kn^'lani]  which  are  ligurioiM  ti»Vef?i*ta-  the  iK'A  trilK\  whk-h  flocin  to  bo  intemt 

tioD,**  by  I>r.  T.  W.  I  larriii,  iMucd  by  order  of  the  bet  wivn  kftn  ipUra  anil  Jiptent.    The  ear 

le^Hlaturc  of  M:L«Micliusi<tts;  the  id  edition  was  iiirludud  by  most  cntoinolopi^tta  anions  » 

pubIi'«lKNl  in  Is-'i^.  and  a  3d  will  probably  be  noon  Ura^  fnnn  the  order  d<rmapUra  (lA-ar!iV, 

pubiiiihod,  wiili  illu>tmtiou*s  at  tlie  expense  of  the  pUiofttrra  ( Westwo<Ml ).    The  Kpider-tIio5. 

»tato.    In  thiit  work  are  adopted  the  7  following  Ac,  alluded  to  at  the  c-]o«o  « if  the  artich 

orders  ai  ^ronorally  recviv«Hl  by  naturalists ;  a  tkka,  fonn  thoordiTAofa'i/47»f^ra(Iii«:;«'hV 

brief  BketA-Ii  of  tiieae,  with  others  accepted  by  Mav  flies  wi-ro  K*paratifl  friHn  the  nrur^f 

many  entuuiolo^rists,  will  fonn  a  proffer  tormina-  and  eK'vatvd  to  an  order  triehoptera  by  i 

tion  of  this  article:    I.  Col^pttra  (i^r  beetlen),  Ttio  thyMn&pUrn  of  Ilalidnv  Ci>n!ii«>t  of  U 

with  iaws,  2  thick  wing  covers  meeting  in  a  nu to  insects  of  t!ie  f A ri/wtriLe,  generally  c 

straight  line  (in  the  top  of  the  back,  and  2  iilniy,  with  the  haniptera  ;  otUvr  hrmipUrti^  i 

transversely  folded  wings ;  metamor|ifaosis  com-  harvest  flies,  plaitt  lice,  &r.,  have  been  «epj 

plete;  larvn  genvrally  with   6  true  legs  and  by  the  En^Hsh  writers  under  the  name  > 

sometimes  with  a  tonninal  propdeg,  rarely  with-  rm*j}Ura,     Hurmelster  has  separated  fron 

out  K-gs;  pu|)a  with  wings   and  legs   oistinct  roptrra  those  s|»eries  which   tindenrn   t* 

and  uncoiifined.     11.  Orthoptera  (cockroaches,  partial  mctaniorpht>sis»  itito  the  ordt^-r  dirt 

crickets,  &c.)«  with  jaws,  2  onaque  upper  winp  Ura, — Xatnndists  generally  have  Uvn  di* 

overlafiping  a  little  on  tlio  back,  and  2  larger  thin  to  rank  inserts  in  the  animal  scale  belov 

wings  folded  in  fan-liko  plaits;   tran'«formation  lusca,  tliough  many  of  their  vital  functions 

partial;   larvs  and  pu  pie  activei  but  without  locomotion  and  perception,  indicate  a  so  |ies 

wingA.    HI.  J/emipUra  (bugs  and  plant  lice),  in  the  fonner.     Mr.   Kirby  and  other  £ 

with  a  horny  beak  for  suction;  4  wings,  of  which  entomologists  have  acctirded  the  precede 

the  ui»iier  lie  flat,  cross  each  other  on  the  back,  insects,  in  opposition  to  Cuvier  and  I>e  Ijaa 

and  slope  at  the  sides  like  a  roof ;  transformation  who  placed  the  in< ilhisca  first  on  aoctMm t  ul 

partial;   larvm  and   pu|»»  like  the  adulta,  but  system  of  circulation.     In  the  branch  of  i 

wingless.     IV.  XeurvpUra  (drsgcm  flies,  May  lata,  the  positi(»n  of  insects  is  well  giv 

flies,   whit«  ants,  Ai'.),  with  Jaws,  4  netted  Oken,  when  he  says  tliat  "  lepidopt«ra  an 

wings,  the  hinder  tho  largest;  with  no  sting  as  worm%  then  pass  into  the  conditi«in  uf 

nor  piercer;  transformation  complete  or  par-  tacea,  and  are  finally  develoiKnl  into  true  ii 

tial ;    larva  and  puna   various.     V.  Lepuiop-  exemplifying  the  natural  order  of  gr»Jati 

tfra  (butterflies   and  moths),  witli  a  sucking  the  tlirce  classes  of  articulata.'*     Fi»r  ini 

t:il*e ;  4  sraly  win^s;  tninhformAtion  complete;  ing  and  concluMve  tili«ervations  on  the  p^ 

lorviu  witli  C  true  legs,  and  from  4  to  10  prop-  that  wonns  are  tlie  lowest,  crusta«va  the 

le^;  pupa  with  the  ca«es  of  tho   wings  and  mediate,  and  in^octa  tho  hiche>t  among  i 

K'iTs   indistinct,   and  soldered    to   tho    breast,  lata,  the   reader  is  n^fi-rrvd  to  the   {tap 

VI.    llymrnitptera    (boi-s,  wasjM,   ant*),    with  Agnssiz,   above  alluded  to.  in  vol.   ii.   m 

Jaws;  4  %'cined  wing**,   the   hinder  pair  gen-  '*SmithM>nian  Contributions;"  the  same  ai 

vrally  the  smallest ;  a  sling  at  the  end  of  the  ity,  in  vul.  i.  of  "Contributions  to  tSe  N 

abdomen ;  transformation  complete ;  larva)  like  History  of  tlie  I'nited  States'*  in  the  h 

magg>>ts,  or  t\w£S  or  ratorpillars;    iiupm  with  cla«s  fiuMS^ta)  of  artieulata,  establir-hes 

the  legs  and  >ftings  uniMtifin^-d.     VII.  DwUra  orders  of   myriaptNl^*,    arai'Iinid\    a:id    i 

(flies  ni'i^juiloes  &*',),  with  a  homy  or  fleshy  pniiH?r,  tlie  lattor  tlivret'iiro  U-ing  the  hi 

irobosris  2  win^  and  2  balancers  or  |N»isers  onler  of  the  highest  cla«s  and  the  h*:i;d( 

K'hind  theiii;  tran«fi •nnat ion  complete :    larva)  (butterflies  and  moths;  the  highest  di«;«i 

f(»otless  ni.tgp*tS  with  the  breathing  holes  gen-  tliis  ortler. 

erallvin  the  hinder  j>art  of  the  body;  puiwo  KSToPlIVTFS.     Soo  Ki-iPiirres. 

usually  in^a•^^d  in  the  dried  ^kin  of  the  larvip,  KNTOZoA  (<ir.  trrot,  within,  and  (^ 

but  iMimetimes  naked,  in  which  case  the  wings  animal),  a  gmup  of  inveriebriite  animals  i 

and  legs  are  viMl'Ie,  and  more  or  less  free. —  «luringM»ino|i4Ti'Ml  of  their  eii«tenre  Ii«c  « 

Aniuiig  tho  snialliT  groU]is  the  order  if rr/wj/)-  nnddiTive  n<>nri*>!inient  fnimthelHHlio««4' 

frru  (Kirby  K  or  rhipipUra  (Ijitr),  contains  mi-  animuN.  and  with  few  exi>i>pti<<n<i  U'long  e 

nutei(i«<'e(<i  Hhirh  undergo  their  t  ran  «fori  nut  it  »ns  ly  tn  the  r!:is^  of  helminths  i*r  wurin*.     A 

within   the   InMlies  of    Ih*cs  and   wa^'ps ;    tho  para<»iteH  fi>nn  in  fu't  a  M^rt  t'f  Mib  fa::r.j 

maggiit-!ike  larwlive  U-tween  tlie  rings;  the  their  iimihUt  Ih  only  to  \*^}  intimate*!  \\  ti 

females  are  wingle^  and  never  leave  the  biMlies  tent  i»f  t!ii'  anlmril  kiitcih-ni      1  he  t  la««.:i>- 

of  their  h'l^t;  the  adult  mall's  have  2  vi-ry  k hi trt  of  v!iti»/*«a  h.i*  b'*e!i  atleriiptftl  !•}   f::an_t 

members  iu^^tead  t'f  fore  w  itigs,  and  2  very  lar;:o  iieht  ziM.!..„»i-t^  ••inre  the  d.i\^  of  I*:ii!<>!;-Ki 

hind  wings;  the  hharp-|Miintc4l  jaws  are  aila;»t«'d  ni:iy  U*  e(iii«i<hTi-<l  ti.e  f:i!!ier  of  helnr.T.!h-. 

for  pien-iiig  ratlier  than  biting.  Their  M'stematir  but  only  niiliin  a  few  vear*  h-t«  i:  attaint^ 

jN.t9ititin  is  not  preci«i-lT  de'.enninvd ;  Ijitre:i!e  po^irinii  of  a  true  n  ienn-.  a:idihiv:1«  thr 

plaivs  them  betwi-en  tepuL^p'ertg  ^iii}  dip*rr>i^  the  la^<lr«  of  a  few  mSm  r\or%  in  tierniany 

th'i'Jgh  he  tliinks  them  mo*t  noarlv  allied  to  %iir  r«  f-r-*  the  e:it"7.»a  t.i  tt-c  rla** '■■f'/.i.'j 

Boiae  of  tho  hymenopUra,     Tho  ori<r  apUra  hubdi\id«.>the:n,  f>.>lIi.itiiiigthepUnof  Itudt 


I 


ENTOZOA  223 

into  t4gnioidea  or  tapeworms,  irematoaa  or  flat  innamerable  roundish,  concentrically  marked, 
'worms,  nematoid^a  or  round  worms,  and  aean-  calcareous  corpuscles,  recognized  only  by  the 
tMoeephala  or  hooked  worms.    More  correctly,  microscope,  which  servo  undoubtedly  as  a  sort 
however,  they  belong  to  the  articulator  though  of  skeleton.     They  possess  no  nervous  system. 
tlwir  type  is  a  degraded  one,  and  some  of  them  The  sexual  organs,  however,  are  remarkably  de- 
CTen  approach  in  structure  the  mo^^tMco.  Adopt-  yeloped.    When  the  oldest  joints  have  becomo 
ing  this  arrangement,  we  can  best  explain  the  sexually  mature  (which  period  varies  greatly  in 
progress  and  present  state  of  helminthology  by  different  species),  they  pass  off  spontaneously  by 
eonsideriiig  these  subdiTisions  separately. — Ta-  the  anus — sometimes  by  the  mouth  even^f 
nMdea^    cettoideoy  sterelminthOy    tapeworms,  the  animal  which  harbors  them.     These  are 
Theae  parasites  in  their  mature  state  inhabit  flat,  quadrangular  bodies  of  a  yellowish  white 
the  intestines  of  all  classes  of  yertebrate  ani-  color,  and  in  some  species  are  detached  singly, 
mala.     In  their  transitional  or  immature  stage  in  others  by  groups.    These  proglottides,  as  they 
Ukt  occur  as  cysts  in  the  tissues  and  organs  of  are  called,  are  true  hennaphrodites,  contain  the 
rL  -creatures  as  form  the  food  of  their  true  sexual  organs  and  eggs  or  embryos  enclosed 
or  hosts.    These  cysts,  of  which  the  within  shells,  and  possess  the  power  of  moving 
in  swine  are  an  example,  in  the  early  about;  so  that  they  have  often  been  mistaken 
dna  of  science  were  not  looked  upon  as  of  an  for  trematoda,  and,  in  fact,  are  now  considered 
nmial  nature,  and  were  called  hydatids  and  as  separate  individuals.    They  discharge  their 
anrphalocysts;  and  not  until  the  latter  part  of  eggs  either  through  the  genital  opening  or  by 
the  17th  century  was  their  true  character  rec-  self-destruction,  which  results  either  from  the 
apnxed.     In  the  18th,  many  observers,  and  es-  bursting  of  their  walls  or  by  decomposition. 
fedaliy  Gi>tze,  noticed  that  their  heads  closely  They  affect  chiefly  moist  places,  and,  leavins 
Niembled  those  of  the  tapeworms.    His  obser-  the  manure  in  which  they  have  been  deposite^^ 
radons  were  confined  chiefly  to  the  tonios  of  wander  about  amid  the  herbage,  and  may  in 
^«^«"*l«^  and  appear  to  have  had  little  influence  this  way  be  devoured ;  or  they  fall  into  water, 
with  the  scientihc  men  of  the  next  century,  who  and  there,  bursting,  discharge  their  eggs,  which 
ttl  back  again  upon  the  old  and  easy  theory  are  thus  borne  far  and  wide,  and  find  entrance 
<if  apontaneous  or  equivocal  generation,  and  to  a  proper  soil  for  future  development.    They 
m  it  remained  until  1844,  when  Steenstrup^s  are  not  capable  of  a  long-continued  independ- 
dicory  of  alternation  of  generation  was  applied  ent  existence,  and  may  even  be  destroyed  with- 
tD  the  problem ;  and  Siebold  and  Dujardin  both  in  the  intestine  of  their  host,  scattering  their 
published  essays  on  the  connection  between  the  eggs  along  this  canal,  though  harmlessly ;  for 
tmia  and  encysted  forms  of  various  animals.  Leukart  found  by  expenmcnt  that  eggs  when 
Their  experiments  and  those  of  Kiichenmeis-  introduced  into  the  intestine  before  being  sub- 
ter,  who  must  be  considered  the  highest  au-  jected  to  the  action  of  the  gastric  juice  remain 
thority  on  the   human  helminths,  cannot  bo  unchanged ;  but  that  when  previously  submit- 
^Ten  in  detail  here ;  sufiico  it  to  say  that  tape-  ted  to  its  influence  and  then  placed  within  the 
vorms  have  been  produced  in  carnivorous  ani-  intestinal  canal,  the  embryos  became  free.  Pro- 
■ili  of  all  kinds  by  giving  them  the  encysted ,  glottides  may  even  be  swallowed  entire  by  ani- 
ftnns  to  eat,  and  the  encysted  varieties  have  mals  which  wallow  in  moist  manure,  and  thus 
beea  bred  in  others  by  administering  the  eggs  introduce  a  vast  number  of  eggs  to  their  proper 
tftmbrros  of  taenia;.     Tapeworms  consist  of  3  dwelling  place.    "When  once  they  have  set  their 
Mrti,  Tiz. :  head,  neck,  and  colony  of  joints,  offspring  free,  their  object  is  accomplished  and 
ut  head  is  a  minute  object,  usually  square,  and  they  disappear.    Each  proglottis  contains  a  vast 
franded  with  varieties  of  sucking  disks  and  cor-  number  of  eggs,  so  that  if  one  out  of  the  many 
MmU  of  hooks,  by  which  it  attaches  itself  to  millions  reaches  a  proper  habitation  the  species 
the  widls  of  the  intestine.    The  neck  is  slender  will  continue  without  decrease  in  numbers.  The 
■id  marked  by  transverse  wrinkles,  which  grad-  embryos  are  enclosed  in  firm  shells  constructed 
mUy  are  converted  into  joints.    With  age  these  to  resist  a  strong  pressure  from  without,  and  are 
iMBti  increase  in  number,  and  finally  those  first  either  brown  or  yellowish,  and  of  a  round  or 
■med  become  ripe,  while  new  ones  are  contin-  ovsl  shape.    They  probably  cannot  undergo  a 
~   pven  ont  from  the  head  to  supply  in  turn  great  degree  of  dryness,  heat,  or  cold,  or  exist 
Jaee  of  those  discharged.    Their  growth  is  very  long  in  fluid,  without  the  destruction  of  the 
rapid,  and  some  species  attain  a  length  animal  within.    As  an  example  of  the  usual 
JOO  feet,  while  others  are  only  a  few  lines  method  of  development  and  transformation  of 
^    Considered  as  a  simple  individual,  the  tho  eestoidea^  the  history  of  tho  tan  iasolitim^  or 
Iwfworm  has  very  limited  power  of  motion,  common  tapeworm,  will  best  serve ;  for  it  has 
Mbowh  a  distinct  layer  of  muscular  fibre  is  been  most  fully  studied  on  account  of  its  fre- 
ftsibeneath  the  skin.    This  integument  is  qucnt  occurrence  in  the  form  of  measles,  and  its 
rbite,  moist,  and  porous ;  and  through  this  important  relation  to  man.    Tliis  worm  is  im- 
m  ia  probably  carried  on  by  absorption,  properly  named,   since  many  are  sometimes 
the  only  organs  subservient  to  this  func-  found  in  the  same  intestine.     It  seldom  attains 
2  pairs  of  longitudinal  canals  running  a  length  of  more  than  20  feet,  and  is  composed 
side  of  thojoints,  and  united  by  of  600  or  700  joints,  whicli  when  mature  con- 
branches.    The  skin  contains  also  tcdn  myriads  of  eggs,  and  escape  singly  or  at 


L 


224  ENTOZOA 

once  into  tlio  oiitvr  worlil.  Tho«o  opp^  being  tho  matnro  worm.  It  mar  be  easily  nndeniond 
act  free  find  their  way  into  wutiT  or  iiianurv,  huw  tlivAO  ftnioll  whito  cyifts  pun  entranrv  ii.to 
andaro  tliu**  M'iitteri'il  iuruntl  wMo.  By  cliaiice  the  stomach  of  man,  for  mca>lj  ]H>rk  U  o^ 
one  occuMi'n;ilIy  cntiTs  tlic  ^tl»llllu*h  of  man  on  ten  aold  in  market^  and  although  tLorrvo^h 
lettuce,  fruit,  or  unwashinl  virgvtnMi-s  but  more  cooking  and  curing  deatroy  the  lar%-a^,  atill  the 
generally  tlioy  are  ^wallllwv(^  by  the  ho^',  the  cyntduiay  adhere  to  tho  knife,  and  be  tboi  I raaa> 
lilthv  and  oniniv(in>u<i  habits  of  which  animal  ferred  to  vi-getablcis  butter,  chee<*e,  and  Um 
nee  J  only  be  c-oa<»i<UTed  to  hhuw  bow  n>Hdily  like,  which  are  eaten  nnci  Hiked.  It  may  oftaa 
it  may  Iktouio  infeotel.  In  either  raM.>  tlteegg  bo  the  caM)  Ux}  that  pork  is  vo  slightly  uett»Ir, 
sijvU  U  de<*:r(iycd  l»y  the  iinn-e'^H  of  digi'stioii,  that  the  butrher  does  nut  knov  tiie  discaae  » 
and  the  embryo,  u  minute  globuhir  vesicle,  arm-  present.  There  can  be  no  question  aboot  tht 
ed  in  fnint  with  3  |»air4  of  ^li:ir|l^{lines  emerges  identity  of  these  two  fonna,  tho  ttrnia  mliwm 
and  K';!i[i!i  its  active  mii;rati<>n».  It  M'tsout  (»n  in  man  and  the  cytictna  eflhtlomr  or  mcMlca 
its  truveU  by  boring  into  t!ie  bliMNi  ur  lymph  in  »wine;  for  not  only  are  their  heads  anaton- 
Tf.oNfIs  uf  tliJ  ^toulaell  c»r  intestine,  ami  i^  Uirne  Ically  tho  same,  but  it  had  for  a  long  tinae  bcea 
along  by  their  currents  till  it  reaches  the  capil>  noticed  that  in  those  jilaces  where  lueaska  in 
laries  Mlierc  it  r\.'news  its  urtivity  and  bores  its  pork  were  abundant,  tlierc  tsnia  was  of  moift 
way  (»ut  of  the  circulutury  sy intern  into  any  or-  fret^uent  occurrence,  and  that  where  the  nae  of 
can  VjVk  hicli  chance  Iuls  carried  it.  There  can  this  tlesli  was  forbidden  among  nations  or  weCiJL 
be  no  d'»ubt  abtint  tliis  f:irt,  for  lA-ukart  has  re-  there  ta]M.'Wonn  was  scarcely  cTvr  foand.  Am 
ceiitly  di-^rovered  the  embryo  K'veral  times  in  of  this  led  to  the  belief,  es|iecially  after  the  tz« 
tlie  vena  purtio.  It  i^  pi»^!iible  that  tlie  embryos  periments  |»erfonned  in  regard  to  the  taenia  aaA 
may  in  N.>me  c;l'^s  1i»o  their  hi»okKts  in  tho  cystic  worms  of  tho  lower  animals,  that  tbt 
\H>M-ls.  and  tlius,  U'lng  unable  to  pniceed  fur-  measles  in  flesh  were  the  cauM*  of  tafiewt-vrm  fal 
ther,  become  ency.steil  in  tho  capillaries.  IIuv-  man.  To  settle  this  p«>int  Kiicbcnmeiatcr  M 
ing  reacheii  thus  a  pro|K'r  hituatinii  for  higher  a  condemned  criminal  8  days  before  hu  execs- 
do  veboment,  it  becomes  Mir  rounded  by  a  new  tion  on  raw  measly  |»ork,  and  on  examinatioB 
fiirm:i!ii>n  or  cy.«t  reM-tiib!ing  tliv  Mructure  of  afler  death  tho  young  tafK^wonn*  wero  tamk 
the  or^'un  it  may  iubaliit.  If  it  hapfKMis  to  attathed  to  tlie  walls  of  the  intv»iLne.  Oat 
|>ciiLtr:i:e  any  i^thUi  cavity,  however,  this  cyst  point,  however,  remained  to  be  proved,  vix.:  thM 
IS  not  formed,  but  f»therwi.M*  the  devflnnment  tho  eggs  of  the  tapewunn  prodare  tlie  mnaim 
is  the  baine.  This  priHv<*s  giKS  on  rapidly,  so  in  swine.  For  this  purpose  experimenta  wcM 
thai  in  a  week  or  two  the  c\»t  may  l>e  recog-  undertaken  by  tlio  Saxon  government  niicler  the 
ni/ed  by  the  nakeil  eye.  The  spines  or  h«Hik-  direction  fif  KQchenmeister  and  other  scientist 
!«.!-«  now  drop  ii!T,  the  jiriinary  vimcIo  p,^M  on  tuen  of  (iermany.  Young  and  liealthy  pigi 
al-oH-iii^  nutriment,  and  by  tiie  Kvoud  or  were  kept  conflm'd  so|iaratvTy,  and  to  the m  went 
fo::r:U  ucik  there  gmws  out  a  protuberance  given  the  eggs  of  ta|H:Worm4.  At  varliv^s  ia- 
fro:n  \u  internal  >)Urf:M-o,  w)ii<h  iHNin  takes  the  tervals  afterward  they  wero  killed,  and  the CB- 
form  I'f  t!io  he.id  of  the  futnro  t:cnix  I'lMin  cystod  fomis  were  found  in  myriads  thn*c^SK«l 
this  tliiTc  yj-rinuN  up  a  dinible  circle  of  Mnjdl  the  b*Mlv.  The**!'  exjirlmonts  ha%o  li^.*n  oAc9 
l.;iTs  whiih  in  0  wiiki  Kcoine  the  cnmj»lete  rein'ati-d  with  the  Siiine  Miri'*.r>^  •h)  that  the  r^ 
dt'iib'..'  c.  rohit  x'i  ):•»  k<<.  Tho  neck  now  be-  suit  is  lK.\vtiiid  •pK'stiitn.  To  recnpitalair :  ihM 
gii:^  t'l  e&t(  ihI.  but  the  bcfid  Mill  n*muins  en-  tajiewortn  of  the  human  into<«tir.e  dukiharpA 
c!t  «-d  in  tiie  lliiilihr,  till  ihe  whole  unimtd  is  millionsofe^.'gs,  a  single  one  t  if  which  ntolucly 
n :  XT^fi.  It  nny  ]ii'W  i  vi-r  c"ntiuue  to  live  in  this  reach  maturity  to  pro«h:ce  miiIioi.«  mor« :  thfTt- 
^::.\-tc«l  .•:a::e  ::il  i:  •!;*■"«  of  (ild  age,  ur.ie"*  h**t  fore  it  is  evident  that  the  va-t  miiji  rity  if  thcM 
fr«.e  by  !::k!<ire  or  :ir? ;  and  this  undoubti-dly  is  eggs  iteri-h  uiideveIo|H'd.  Th«  s^*  egsr*  rtwt  \9 
tJ.e  :".ite  of  t}jn  !:ir;,v-'l  proi  ortiou  of  tlo->e  im-  devt.iured  by  Mmie  «it!jer  hit^t  tt»  ri-arh  th«:ir« 
ii:.i".::ro  rrml'.re*.    If*.!  att-if  i'l  tl.e  mu«H-les,  this  ond  or  eney-ted  »ta{;e.     This  -tagi-  is  k&owa 


tiji ;*!»  d  •••..i;:«*  I'f  tapeworm  is  M'Ii!o!ii  of  irijnry  inea!»K!»  in  Mvino.     Mea^Ks  Nin^  t^tcn  ty 

t>*  ::i:i:i;  bill  ;:' '>y  r!tani'e  it  tuKC  tip  isdwilling-  in    turn    prinluco   tlie  tain-wonn.     Thes<  two 

pla'O  in  tlie  b.-.i::i  i-r  i  w-,  whic!i  is  n*it  i:nfre-  fonns  never  pn^iluce  ea«'h  *>t!nr  in  the  •ame  !■• 

«jui!{tly   tl'ie   'M.*.-,  re^'il;"  mo-»  strioii«*  foIli»w.  dixidual.     Various  cither  ta'tiia*  infi-»l  ibac  It 

In  tho  h-v.  l»''Wi'\tT,  th»'  ca-H*  is  diirvreiit,  for  one  of  iln-ir  ^aiTi"*,  the  luit^t  dAn^Ti-rtiU^  of  wiikk 

many  c^v  bri;:/  i!ev..:ri  d  a!  oijiv,  tl.e  esnbrjkiH  is  the  ti'hiuf*<*"^us,  or  cncy*te<!  fiimi  lY  t, 

invaile  i.e.ir'.y  I  \i  ry  I'Viin  «.f  t!,.' b"ly,  a:iil  pri»-  »,m.     The  ey-^is  prc^buHnl  l^y  t'.>  S4ra«.!« 

dii' e  sJ.e  tli-M-iM  kjj -wii  a^  liii  ;i-'.i'«i.   Wcha\e?«!ill  i-l'tiii  a*  larjre  as  a  mnti's  Iam-I,  caiMi^;? 

l»  t-n-i-'.^.-  tl.e  \\''  '.'.\A  I  '.  j:\x- <  rVji^*"  of  ib  vtl-  je.iiU  rinj  nrjl  death.     In  1 -ilni.d  t  viry  wvcath 

(.•p::iL-:.:  i:i  the  l:!e  I'f  a  t.i  :ii  i.  \  i/. :  t!ir  c  n\er-  tur^i'n  !«  tltu-  atllii-to*!.     l!ie  ix  {'1.11.11.00  i  if  this 

^:•■;»  •/  !i.i-M.»  c;.-!-*  or  nua.-'..  -  {:/.•■  t'.e  ma!'. re  l.i  s  in  tht*  flthy  h.»lii!s  (if  t!..*  j-^-'plf.  arj  a 

in*.'  -'.ii-il  ^\■■^n.     W!.i.n  <  ::■•  of  •Ju-e^l^^t•l  i-  a»-«  thv  great  n'ini!»i'r  of  ih  ,>  they  k.t  p,  nhiri,  a^ 

cM' :.•..'.  1\  .-w:i!i   Wf!  !.y  ni.iT:.  tl.e  lit  :*.i- ]  t  a-iiiio  hW,    in    ^pr^.^^^!:l•g   thi'   M'*ds   if   iJi*'   d:«4  nicT. 

\v-.'.o  l-r-:v  ninl  :!.i'  l.«;fc.l  of  ti.i'  wi  :ia  pri*-  Hire  the  c\«ts  orb\da:ii!«  ro:. ta'.n  in«:&-aA!  of 

tri. '!:!..:  l".k-twi-  \\-^\\  !■•  !!.e  :::ii -t"::;i!  w.i!!-  I'V  oi.i' *■•'.'«  r  or  hi'ud  ifiM:n.cr.kMoi  r?j!'."vi  r.ie  i" -rs^L 

it-  1.     Lb  •-.     IV  ni  :!:-••  hi  .:•!  !:i'l  i- ,:  o:;i-a::tr  w!ii(.h  of  miiPM'  incrtviM-*  i!;i'  riA  i*f  ir.'''v::.<^ 

:.L.''.hvr  uun.ert.>u- jv::.S,  whuh  tlLaIi\  liiako  up  Ihu    mature    La]»cwuna    pr\)duoed    arti&Jd^ 


ENTOZOA  226 

of  but  S  joints,  and  on  this  account  has  tnre  of  its  food  which  prodaces  it  in  the  domes- 
bitherto  escaped  notice.    Even  now  it  is  not  ticated  animal.    Occasionally  this  varietj  of  e^ 
known  whether  man  himself  or  dogs  are  the  ficerciM  is  fonnd  in  the  flesh  ofother  animals  eaten 
boita  of  the  mature  helminth.    Another  re-  hy  man,  as  the  oz,  deer,  and  bear;  hot  yery 
naricable  q>ecies  dwelling  in  the  intestinal  canal  seldom.    No  donbt  a  great  deal  of  measly  pork 
of  man  is  the  hothrioeephalut  latuSy  or  broad  is  sold  both  fresh  and  i^ted,  and  enough  is  eaten 
t^Kwonn.    This  differs  from  the  tme  tssniso  in  an  uncooked  state  in  the  form  of  sausages, 
In  the  constrnction  of  its  head  and  joints.    The  raw  pork,  and  the  like,  to  account  for  the  wide 
former  is  oTal,  flat,  and  instead  of  a  coronet  of  distribution  of  tasnics.  Dr.  Weinland,  in  his  recent 
hooks  and  round  suckers,  possesses  2  longitudi-  essay  on  human  cestoidea  (Cambridge,  1858), 
ml  locking  grooves  on  each  lateral  margin,  by  divides  the  tcenioidea  into  two  classes :  First, 
wliicfa  it  fixes  itself;  the  latter  are  one-third  of  the  Klerolepidotc^  or  hard-shelled  tapeworms, 
tiieir  width  only  in  length,  and  the  genital  open-  the  embryos  of  which,  developed  in  the  warm- 
ing is  fband  on  the  middle  of  each  joint,  instead  blooded  vertebrata,  become  mature  tffinim  only 
«f  at  the  lateral  margin,  as  in  tffinioa  proper,  and  in  the  intestinal  canal  of  carnivorous  mammalia. 
on  the  same  surface  throughout  its  whole  Thus  man  obtains  the  tania  iolium  from  swine ; 
.    They  are  sometimes  as  many  as  2,000,  the  dog  the  T.  %enDat€^  T,  canuru%^  and  T,  eehir 
I  eren  then  they  do  not  make  up  a  worm  more  noeoeeiu  from  the  rabbit,  the  sheep,  and  the  ox 
20  feet  long.  Thus  far  this  parasite  has  been  respectively ;  the  cat  the  71  croMneollii  from  the 
i  in  man  only  in  its  mature  state.    Its  geo-  mouse,  and  so  on.    Second,  the  tnalaeolepidota^ 
gMJbical  distribution  is  limited  to  Russia  (includ-  or  soft-shelled  tapeworms,  the  eggs  of  which  are 
■fFoland),  Switzerland,  Italy,  and  the  maritime  to  be  hatched  in  the  stomach  of  articulata  and 
firtriets  of  France  and  noith  Europe,  and  it  mollusks.    The  mature  entozoa  of  this  order  in- 
■oii  piobably  undergoes  its  transitional  stage  habit  the  intestinal  canal  of  such  animals  as  prey 
if  dendimment  outside  the  human  intestine  in  upon  the  above,  as  fish,  birds,  and  insectivorous 
MBa  of  tne  moUnsks,  which  form  the  food  of  mammalia. — Trematoda^  sUrelmintha  (Owen), 
■n.    A  few  other  species  of  tapeworm  infest  isolated  fiat  worms.  These  entozoa  are  character- 
■nkind,  but  they  are  seldom  met  with,  and  ized  by  their  flattened,  more  or  less  elongated 
wS  be  foond  enumerated  in  the  accompanying  shape,  and  by  ventral  sucking  disks.    The  same 
Mtalogoe.    The  dog,  from  his  domestic  and  om*  individual  possesses  the  organs  of  both  sexes. 
thenms  habits,  is  made  the  host  of  many  of  Budolphi  divided  them  into  different  genera,  ao^ 
ftm  entozoa,  and  does  much  to  keep  up  their  cording  to  the  number  of  cup-like  suckers  pros- 
fncarioas  existence.    Without  his  aid  the  t€enia  ent    This  classification  has  been  given  up,  inas- 
mtmrui  would   undoubtedly  become  extinct,  much  as  the  more  important  distinctions  of  struo- 
md  thus  the  sheep  breeders  would  be  rid  of  ture  did  not  correspond  to  the  external  markings; 
a  fisease  which  often  proves  so  fatal  to  their  but  many  ofthe  names  have  been  retained.  Thus 
iDdcB,  viz.,  the  staggers.    This  disease  is  caused  the  distoma  hepaticum^  or  liver  fluke,  has  2  suck- 
le the  presence  m  the  brain  of  hydatids  or  ing  disks.  This,  the  best  known  of  the  trematode 
i|ilie  €anuri,  which  when  eaten  by  butcher  worms,  resembles  much  a  cucumber  seed   in 
■d  sheep  dogs  are  converted  into  the  corre-  form,  and  measures  in  length  one  inch,  in  width 
ipading  taenia,  the  embryos  of  which  are  in  about  half  an  inch.     Its  color  is  of  a  yellowish 
tin  scattered   broadcast  over  the  pastures,  brown,  probably  owing  to  the  bile  in  which  it 
Vkcn  they  find  ready  admission  to  the  grazing  lives.    In  this  class  we  first  find  evidence  of  an 
Iwdn    This  too  has  been  made  the  subject  of  alimentary  canal,  in  addition  to  the  sexual  or- 
■Mriiiiug  investigation  in  Germany,  ana  shep-  gans,  thus  giving  it  a  higher  rank  than  the  Mi- 
Is  are  taught  to  keep  their  dogs  free  from  toidea.    This  consists  of  a  triangular  opening 
tapeworm,  by  putting  out  of  their  reach  or  mouth,  which  may  be  used  either  as  a  sucker 
flesh  of  animals  afflicted  with  the  staggers,  or  means  of  obtaining  nutriment.    From  this 
may  often  be  kept  healthy  by  keeping  arises  the  intestinal  canal.  An  excretory  system 
from  moist  places,  and  from  postures,  is  also  present.    This  fluke  has  been  found  only 
lAik  the  dew  is  still  on  the  grass,  for  the  pro-  in  a  few  well-authenticated  cases  in  man.    Its 
iides  seem  to  seek  such  localities,  and  the  true  home  is  in  the  gall  ducts  of  sheep,  and  it 
of  the  sun  spears  destructive  to  their  vi-  is  generally  found  in  the  same  place  in  the  Im- 
Much  more  good  may  be  effected  by  man  system.    There  are  cases,  however,  on  rec- 
rentive  measures  than  by  administering  ord  in  which  it  has  been  found  seated  beneath 
Btica,  or  by  attempting  the  removal  of  the  skin,  having  made  its  way  thither  by  boring 
I  ejsU  by  the  trephine  or  trochar.    Did  the  into  the  epidermis.    In  the  liver  of  the  lower 
of  swine,  too,  but  know  the  natural  history  animals  it  works  sad  havoc  in  autumn  and  win- 
meaales  which  infest  his  charge,  this  ter,  causing  a  dilatation  and  catarrh  of  the  gall 
me  disease  would  be  seldom  met  with,  ducts,  and  an  interference  with  the  hepatic 
often  immense  droves  of  these  creatures  function ;  by  which,  of  course,  the  secretion  of 
to  be  ilaughtered  on  its  account,  and  such  the  bile  is  disturbed  and  changed.    They  may 
always  prove  that  the  victims  have  late-  occur    in  such  quantities  as  to  stop  up    the 
in  the  neighborhood  of  some  person  cystic  duct,  and  their  e^gs  are  deposited  in  vast 
a  tania  tolium.    Wild  swine  are  never  numbers  in  the  bile.    The  symptoms  they  cre- 
in  this  way,  and  it  is  oi^y  the  filthy  na  ate  in  man  need  not  be  stated  here.    The  pas- 

TOL.  TII.^*16 


226  XNTOZOA 

Mge  of  tliifl  worm  bj  the  Atomarh  or  intoatinet  mort  nozions  of  tho  paniiitio  helm  in  t 

k  the  only  i iruof  we  could  hare  of  ita  preaenca  none  infoat  man.     Thcj  are  includod 

before  deatii.  The  generation  and  derelopmcnt  one  genuii,  echinorhjfnehu*^  which  li  chi 

of  tbeflo  worma  lias  been  a  aubject  of  great  in-  Ued  br  ltd  retractile  proboaci%  anm^d  « 

tereit  to  naturaliata,  since  Steenstmp  made  them  curved  spines.    It  is  found  in  the  intent 

the  object  of  investigation  in  illustrating  his  the  hog  and  other  animals. — Xematoidrn 

theory  of  alternation  of  generation.    The  eggs  mintKti  (Owen),  or  round  worms.     TL 

of  tlie  distatna^  eflca]>ing  from  ciliated  embryoS|  is  made  up  of  the  round  worms  which 

become  converted  into  a  nurse  or  grand -nurse  the  intestme,  lungs,  and  kidneys  of  niAn 

while  in  the  water.     These  nurseit  or  eerca-  lower  animals,  or  else  are  enclosed  with) 

ria  are  supplied  with  organs  of  self-support,  in  tlie  muscular  system  or  beneath  the 

and  were  formerly  looked  upon  as  mature  ani-  mis.    They  too  undertake  migratiun-i  s 

mala,  but  are  merely  cradles  for  young  {04(0-  dergo  transformations,   but  we    are    1 

mata^  which  are  produced  within  their  canal,  or,  quainted  with  their  developroent  than  w 

where  this  is  wanting,  within  Uie  simple  sac,  of  the  first  two  classes ;  all  that  we  k 

from  tho  germinal  jrranules  retained  from  tho  tliem  is,  that  we  find  aezually  mature  a 

original  embryo.    This  young  brood  possesses  bryonio  forms,  but  to  trace  a  connect  i 

in  some  species  tails  by  which  they  undertake  tween  them,  or  to  discover  their  mtide  of  ( 

wanderings  on  their  own  account,  become  at-  has  hitherto  been  impossible.    They  arc 

tached  to  uioHuHks  or  like  animals,  and  thus  find  guished  from  tlie  u$toid€a  and  trem*tf«M 

their  way  into  the  intestine  and  liver  of  some  more  elaborate  digestive  apparatus,  by 

larger  animal.    Another  way  exists  by  i«hich  vous  system,  and  by  individuality  of  sex. 

they  may  reach  the  iutestine ;  for  the  tailless  of  the  species  are  oviparous,  and  the  d 

brood  have  tlie  power  of  encysting  themselves  ment  of  their  eggs  lias  been  lately  ini 

while  in  the  water,  and  mav  thus  be  borne  study  of  helminthologists.    Theovsarev 

about  till  they  are  swallowed  by  H>me  of  the  in  hard  shells,  within  which  under  suita) 

herbivora.    This  is  the  general  plan  of  de*  ditionsthe  embryo  is  further  develofiod 

relopiiiviit  in  all  trcmatode  worms,  but  it  is  mentation,  till  it  breaks   from  it*  hah 

not  yet  known  what  peculiar  metamorphoses  and  comes  forth  cither  a  perfect  worm.  < 

this  entozoon  undergoes.      There  can   oe  lit-  intermediate  form,  in  wluch  it  wandors  i 

tie  doubt,   however,  that  sheep  infect  them-  tissues  of  man  and  other  animals,  whcrv 

•elves    by  devouring    snails    which    frequent  undergo  tho  encysted  stage,  and  finally  oi 

the  ftnss  in  moist  meadow  pastures,  or  by  Ing  become  the  mature  mdividuid,  n  het 

drinking  ditch  water.     Whether  '*tho  rot^  is  found  aprain  a  suttublo  habitation.     The 

actually  causi-d  by  this  parasite  is  not  certain,  of  this  class  is  the  %trongylu»  gvjxu^  wl 

but  they  are  always  found  in  this  diHease.     Lit-  h>ngs  to  the  dog  and  other  animals,  but 

tie  benefit  is  to  be  derived  from  the  use  of  an-  has  been  found  at  rare  iiitervai<«  in  the 

thelmtntic\  but  a  proper  attention  to  the^e  kidney.     It  is  a  long,  cvlindrirul,  n*^l  u 

laws  of  prophylaxis  will  aid  tho  farmer  much  with  a  mouth  iiui<ie  up  of  A  pApiU:i>.    IL 

in  pri"ii'rving  his  docks  in  a  healthy  condition,  as  usual  in  the  H€nyit**ulr»j,  is  the  Muulirr 

The  (/uftf ma  Afpfnaf<;/#iu»i  foniis  a  very  common  urin^  from  10  to  VI  inches,  whtle  the 

disi'SM)  in  man  in  Africa^  acc«irding  to  Bilharz,  sometimMattaiusthelencthof  ^fvtt,  &nU 

who  found  it  first  in  the  blood  of  the  iK)rtaland  an  inch  in  thickness.    This  i^'a  *«'rp<rni 

mesenteric  veins.    Their  chief  habitation,  how-  human  entozoa  seenn  really  to  caii>o  %  1 1 

ever,  LH  the  bladder  ami  intestines,  and  when  trouble.     Like  tlie  oMviru,  iti»  rvU'.ive, 

E resent  in  numbers  they  are  very  detrimental,  reil  color  m?ems  owing  to  a  nHlduoh  u;l  n 

II  the   bUdder  they  fasten  themselves  to  the  by  the  vaccuolcs  of  tlie  fkin.     Ano:her  i 

mucous  membrane,  and  produce  ftatches  of  in-  S,  eouinus^  is  very  common  in  tho  intei 

flammation,  exudation,  and  hemorrhage.    Tlie  the  hor>e,  und  4S'. /ensrira^imif»«ha«l<ei 

fungou<i  excres«*encH*<«  they  cause  are  i^e^lnneu-  in  the  lungs  and  bronrhiaJ  gland«  cf  m^a 

lated,  aud  often  of  tho  itize  of  a  |K*a.     AV  it  I  tin  asritriJts  are  very  nuiiioroui,  and  iahs 

them  the  animals  may  l>e  found,  and  on  their  intent ims  of  many  aniiuul^.     Tli«<  asc^r 

extenial  surface   the  egg«.     In  the  uretem  the  brict»ul<i  is  the  lur^e^t  which  infects  the 

inriain mat iim  they  create  is  suillcien I  to  produce  intei«tiiio.     It  i<«  ft»und  all  overthvVff 

stricture,  and  cimsef{Uent  atniphy  of  the  kidney,  prefer*  the  h>wer  i»art  tif  the  niiiall  \z.\f< 

tH«Vi>ral  other  sjtecies  of  trvmatANle  entozoa  have  m  i*f  a  p.ilo,  [linkiMi  hue,  crlindru  al  and 

been  found  lH>th  in  man  and  herbivorous  oni-  has  [KJinted  extremities  and  varies  ,:nr 

mall,  but  they  can  only  be  enumerated  in  this  Mie  aoc<»rtling  to  ap*  and  nex.     The  msl< 

article.     Some  of  them  infe*>t  the  evi'S  of  aiii-  uri*s  from  4  tti  fi,  the  female  fn»m  ^  tn  l^ 

maU,  and  are  simietimes  found  in  ftuch  p^MVl-  in  len^h.     The  head  i;*  trilnbulato  with 

gioiis  1 1 uaii titles  as  to  almost  fill  the  cavity  of  the  strirtioii  N*low  tho  papilla*,  whirh  tv-r^  c  a 

eyelNilI. — Aranthof^haii^  §trrtimintha^  liook^  ing  Mirfact*^.    The  inti-^tinal  CAnal  Mat 

ed  woniis.     This  gn»up  «if  entozim.  which  re-  tuU'  piercing  the  centre  of  the  wunu  fn 

•emblesthe  nrnuttouitn  in  form  and  dlHtinction  to  end.     They  are  vvry  proliftr,  auil  a«  1^ 

of  sex,  apprt>Bc*hes  more  nearlv  the /rcNhi/ui/d  in  64.0<h.i,OOii  ova  hav«  In-en  found  m  ft>uc 

tea  digeativa  lyiUm.    It  iocfudea  aoine  of  tho  Thvae  eggs  when  immature  am  triatiipi. 


niireBei 
■boominj 


ENTOZOA  227 

Terj  irregnlar  in  shape,  bnt  when  impregnated  developed  or  emhryonio  stage  of  the  other, 

are  encloeed  in  oval  shelUs  within  which  the  pro-  This  opinion  is  based  on  anatomical  grounds, 

ecs8  of  segmentation  is  carried  on.  Whether  it  is  which  need  not  be  repeated  here.  The  interesting 

their  nature  first  to  go  through  a  developmental  discovery  by  Leidy  of  trichinons  pork  teaches  na 

stage  outside  of  man,  and  to  gun  readmission  in  how,  as  we  have  ^own  in  measles,  man  may  in- 

food  or  in  drink,  is  not  known.  The  great  num-  feet  himself  with  the  tricocephalus.  How  he  gets 

bers  in  which  they  are  sometimes  found,  even  the  trichina  is  not  so  easy  to  explain,  as  it  is 

as  many  as  800  or  400,  leads  to  the  belief  that  not  known  whether  the  embryo  on  emerging 

they  may  under  favorable  circumstances  repro-  from  the  egg  has  the  power  of  burrowing  into 

duoe  themselves  in  the  original  host ;  and  the  the  blood  vessels.    If  the  worm  by  wandering 

wanderings  which  individuals  make  upward  upward  deposits  its  eggs  in  the  stomach,  we 

may  be  Ute  promptings  of  a  blind  instinct  to  can  readily  see  how  the  embryos,  if  they  do 

deposit  their  eggs  m  the  stomach,  where  their  possess  this   power,  may  spread  themselves 

diens  may  undergo  the  solvent  action  of  the  di-  throughout  the  body. — One  more  of  tlie  human 

Mtive  process.    Wherever  an  opening  exists  entozoa  is  sufficiently  interesting  to  be  men- 

Idveen  the  intestine  and  any  cavity  or  organ  tioned  here  at  length,  viz. :  iXienlariamedinen' 

«f  the  body,  it  may  prove  a  loophole  for  the  n«,  or  Guinea  thread  worm.    This  is  confin^ 

of  this  active  parasite,  and  in  this  way  to  certain  localities  in  tiie  tropical  regions. 

iDoe  in  strange  places,  as  the  bladder  or  It  is  seldom  over  8  yards  long,  and  is  found 

inal  cavity,  may  be  accounted  for.    At  of  all  lesser  sizes  according  to  ita  age.    The 

tU  efenta,  it  is  impossible  for  it  to  make  an  open-  male  bos  not  yet  been  described,  for  either  its 

ftig  through  the  intestine  or  any  tissue  of  the  small  size  prevents  detection,  or  else  it  never 

hny,  for  it  is  without  the  means  of  doing  so.  occurs  in  man.    In  shape  the  female  resembles 

The  preaenoe  of  ascarides  has  been  attributed  to  a  flattened  cord,  one  line  in  diameter.   Its  color 

Bbwas  and  bad  flour  and  bread.    They  are  most  is  pale  yellow,  and  it  is  viviparous.    Its  head  is 

abvodant  in  moist  localities,  as  sea-coasts  and  circular  and  armed  with  4  straight,  pointed 

tiTcr  valleys,  and  they  may  gain  admission  to  spines,  by  which  it  probably  penetrates  the 

the  intestines  on  raw  nmit,  or  in  mollusca  and  tissues.    It  inhabits  the  subcutaneous  areolar 

krrs  of  insects,  which  abound  in  such  places,  tissue,  and  chiefly  that  of  the  ankles,  feet,  and 

Bad  food  or  the  want  of  food  will  undoubtedly  legs ;  but  it  has  also  been  found  in  the  abdomi- 

ense  their  discharge,  as  well  as  illness,  but  only  nal  pnrictes  and  arms.    It  often  proves  an  en- 

beeause  they  are  starved  out,  and  because  bad  dcmic,  attacking  certain  regiments  in  armies  and 

iDod  and  sickness  generate  an  unhealthy  action  sparing  others.    It  appears  to  follow  the  rainy 

fa  the  intestine,  which  thus  becomes  disagree-  seasons,  and  to  occur  mostly  in  low  and  marshy 

ible  to  them.    So  their  discharge  is  more  fre-  districts.    There  can  be  hardly  any  doubt  that 

neat  in  suomier,  but  it  is  on  account  of  the  this  animal  is  an  inhabitant  of  wet  places,  and 

ovquent  diarrhoBas  which  follow  the  eatiug  of  that  man  infects  himself  only  by  allowing  it  to 

ireen  fruits  and  vegetables,  by  which  they  be-  come  in  contact  with  his  skin.     Those  who 

Mine  sickly  and  are  expelled,  and  not  because  take  great  precaution  against  wetting  their  feet, 

they  are  generated  by  such  food  of  itself;  for  it  sleeping  on  the  ground,  and  bathing  in  marshy 

■nst  take  a  long  time  for  them  to  reach  maturity,  pools,  generally  escape  it.    The  worm  may  lie 

nd  they  are  seldom  seen  before  this  age.  All  at-  coiled  up  or  extended  at  full  length  beneath 

teoiptB  to  produce  these  worms  in  the  lower  ani-  the  skin.   As  many  as  50  individuals  have  been 

ails  by  amninistering  eggs  have  tlms  far  failed,  observed  in  one  person,  but  usually  one  alone 

<»Tlie  muscles  of  man  are  sometimes  found  after  occurs.  If  superficial,  its  growth  may  be  watched 

teeth  to  present  a  sanded  appearance,  which  is  from  day  to  day,  and  it  has  been  seen  to  increase 

cnsed  by  the  presence  of  innumerable  little  more  than  an  inch  in  24  hours.    It  often  lies 

cyrts  scattered  throughout  their  substance,  gen-  concealed  for  a  long  time,  however,  without 

inDy  isolated  but  m  immediate  contiguity,  causing  any  symptoms  of  its  presence,  and  may 

Dme  minute  bodies  when  examined  micro-  thus  be  borne  from  one  country  to  another  by 

■BOiHcelly  are  found  to  contain  immature  worms  its  host.    When  about  to  open  externally,  a 

eoued  up  in  the  narrowest  compass.    When  set  little  boil  is  found  at  some  point  on  the  skin, 

Ave  tliey  unfold  themselves,  and  move  about  in  which  either  bursts  or  is  opened,  and  the  an- 

sBvely  manner.    They  are  cylindricd  and  ta-  terior  end  of  the  worm  protrudes.   It  is  removed 

priiiff.  nnil  thrirnniiin  in  fi  rMifim  njn'iiirfii   They  by  seizing  tliis  and  making  gentle  traction. 

Mi  also  found  in  the  muscular  system  of  the  AU  that  readily  yields  is  wound  about  a  com- 

kif   ^^^  ^^  ^®  Bms^\  intestine  of  man  all  the  press,  and  bound  down  over  the  wound  till  the 

vorid  over  is  often  found  a  small  thread-like  following  day,  when  the  same  proceas  is  re- 

'Wm  oofled  up  or  extended,   which  is  the  peated  till  it  is  wholly  extracted.    Great  care 

MtmephaluM  dispar.     They  sometimes  occur  is  taken  not  to  break  the  worm,  for  serious 

ly  knndreds,  ana  were  formerly  but  erroneous-  results   often   follow    such    accidents.   ^  It  is 

If  MTOOsed  to  be  connected  with  the  diarrhoea  probable  that  the  young  or  germs  inhabit  wet 

if  tjphoid  fever.    Recently  helminthologists  soils,  and  enter  the  tissues  of  other  animals  to 

^-     thooght  they  recognized  sufficient  resem-  attain  their  full  development  after  being  im- 

I  between  them  and  the  encysted  trichinm  pregnated  outside.    The  attempt  of  the  mature 

mentioned,  to  consider  the  one  the  un-  female  finally  to  escape  would  seem  to  imply 


L 


228  SNTOZOA  EXVEXOPE 

thftt^  iu  end  beinff  Accomplished,  it  would  ro-  foand  to  act  as  a  tnio  Termifage  in  tlie  traaU 

tnrn  to  iti  former  home,  and  dvp«Miit  its  yoong,  meat  of  aacarides. — ^The  bibliography  of  bd- 

where  new  hosts  may  ofler   tliemwlves  for  minthology  has  roceiTed  many  Taloatble  addi- 

their  recvption. — We  append  a  liiit  of  well  au-  tions  within  the  last  few  yean,  nnee  it 


thenticated  lielminths  limnd  in  some  stage  in  become  a  distinct  science.    For  a  more  oonplcte 

man.  1.  Cestoidia:  tttnui  •olium;  T.  e  eysti-  account  of  its  progress  than  the  nature  oi  Ihia 

eereo  tenukoUi  ;  7*.  mediocantllata  ;  71  nana  ;  article  allows,  the  following  books  may  ba  r^ 

7!  e  §chinococeo  altriciparUnte  ;    71  s  tehino-  ferredto:  Kiidolphi,  EntMoorumnM  If 


Wfeco  acolieipariente  ;  bothriaeepkaluM  latus,  2.  Jnte*tinaUum  HUtoria  Xaiurali${Z  Tola.  Sro, 
Tbimatoda  :  monatmiM  lentii  ;  diitoma  kepati-  Amsterdam,  1808) ;  Steenstrop,  pablieatiocisaf 
turn;  D,  lanetdatum;  IK  Kettivphytt ;  I).  Kay  society/^  Alternation  of  GeneraiioD"  (Bwvl, 
kmmatohium:  D»  onhlkalmobium,  8.  Tux  a-  London,  1845);  Bremser,  Ueher  Uhemd§Wm^ 
ToiDiA  :  tricocephalus  dinar;  oiyurU  ttrmi-  fn«r  tm /e&riM/^iii/inucA«n(4to.,  Vienna^  1819); 
€ulari$;  a$earulumbricom€»;  itrongyluMgigoi;  Diesing,  Syutema  Ildminihum  (S  voka.  Sto^ 
S,  loHgitaginatuM ;  aneylmtomum  iuodtiuiU;  Vienna,  1850);  Di^jardin,  UUtoir§  •atmnik 
Jllaria  UntU  ;  /!  medinentU,  Many  other  va-  da  kelmintKn  ou  ten  tnfet/mmur  (8tol,  Fvi^ 
rietiesof  the!«e  8  cIsMiHrs  have  been  ob:»cr>'od,  1844);  Van  Dencden,  Ven  eeaUidm  au  ae^tflm 
bat  not  enough  irt  known  of  them  as  yet  to  raise  (4to.,  Brussels,  1850);  Lcnckart,  Bimmuimhi 
them  above  the  \\*t  of  the  strayed  or  the  acci-  %turmer  ttnd  ihre  Entttiekilut^g  f 4to.,  Gimk^ 
dental,  or  to  give  them  a  place  among  the  proper  1856);  Owen,  *' Lectures  on  Invcrttbrata" 
parasites  of  man. — ^The  administration  of  drugs  (8vo.,  l^ondon,  1843^;  KOchenmeiatcr  and  Vca 
in  the  encyiited  stages  of  tapewonn  would  of  Siebold,  translated  in  Sydenham  society  pBbB> 
coarse  be  useless,  and  their  diagnosis  u  oilen  a  cations  (2  toIs.  8vo.,  London,  1857) ;  Leidy,  **  A 
most  difficult  problem  to  the  physician.  Thefol-  Flora  and  Fauna  within  living  Anima&L* 
lowingremarksapply  then  only  to  the  intestinal  Smithsonian  publications,  vol.  v.  (41ol,  Waa^ 
forms.  Nothing snould  be  done  until  the  passage  ington,  1853);  Weinland,  ''lloman  rciToiifarf* 
of  Joints  gives  the  infallible  sign  of  the  presence  (8vo.,  Cambridge,  1858). 
of  the  worm.  All  statements  of  patients  re-  £NTK£C^VST£AUX,JossmA2rronrsBBrsi 
gaiding  their  own  symptoms  must  be  received  d\  a  French  navigator,  bom  in  Aix  in  ITSI^ 
with  much  doubt  A  long  catalogue  of  fearful  died  at  sea  near  the  island  of  Waigcoo,  In  iIm 
and  frightful  ills  is  ascrib^  to  their  presence,  Pacific  ocean,  K.  of  New  Guinea,  July  M,  17ML 
but  probably  in  tlie  minority  of  cases  without  lie  entered  the  naval  service  in  1754,  gndfuJif 
any  cause  whatever.  It  is  true  that  the  worm  rose  to  the  position  of  commandant  of  the  Fma 
feeils  upon  the  nutriment  of  the  patient,  but  fleet  in  the  Eiut  Indies  (1786X  and  in  17871m 
this  has  not  yet  formed  a  part  of  his  orgoniza-  became  governor  of  Mauritius  and  the  l«le  of 
tion,  and  is  not  oxygenized.  Whether  vpilei«y  Bourbon.  In  1791  ho  wasi  sent  by  the  French 
is  ever  cau!«ed  by  tafwworm  is  a  matter  of  great  government  in  warch  of  I^  Peronse,  who  bad 
doubt,  and  more  valid  proof  m  needed  to  show  not  been  heard  from  since  Feb.  17n7.  Hr  fitlsd 
more  tlian  a  ctiinoidence  betwoi*n  the  presence  in  detecting  any  trace  of  htm,  but  ascertained 
of  the  two.  Whenever  a  inrrson  harboring  one  with  great  exa<*tneM  the  outlines  of  the  C  eoart 
of  these  becomes  ill  in  any  way,  from  auy  cause  of  New  Caledonia,  W.  and  8.  W.  cuast  of  New 
inexplicable,  the  paraa»ite  receives  the  entire  Holland,  Tasmania,  and  varioos  other  co^<s. 
blame.  Smie  ^>eotes  cling  more  firmly  than  ENTKE  DOUitO  E  MINlii).  See  Uauo, 
othen,  and  are  mure  difficult  to  dUlodgc.  l>f  ENTKE  KlUS,  a  state  i>f  the  Argentine  o*- 
courne,  unlcM  wo  obtain  the  head  we  fail,  for  the  fetleration.  South  America,  deriving  its  naoM 
9eoUx  ma)' go  on  ]>nHlucing  now  coIunit*s  indeti  from  its  situation,  l>etween  the  rivers  I'ragnay 
nitely.  The  only  war  to  effect  their  removal  is  and  i'arana,  bounded  N.  by  Corriente^  IL  by 
to  render  their  habitation  dlMigreeable  to  them,  rniguay.  S.  by  Buenos  Ay  res,  and  W.  by  fiaaca 
A  lung  1l<  of  anthelniinti(*s  swells  tlio  works  on  Fo  and  El  (iron  Chaco ;  area  estimated  at  Si,uO0 
mati'ria  mi^dira,  but  the  following  are  tlie  only  si].  m.,  ocvupied  by  alternate  trai-ts  of  prairie  ibI 
trustworthy  n*medies :  tlte  roots  of  the  male  swamp  lana,  and  mostly  uncultivated ;  popk  m 
fern,  ]Mimtvraii.itobark,  oil  of  turi>entine,  kou.HM>,  ISm,  uUuit  5o,ihK).  In  the  southern  part  is  m 
and  pumpkin  seed^  all  of  which  should  be  em-  ex(en>ivo  alluvial  plain,  subje\-t  to  annoal  innn- 
ployed  in  cunni'Ction  with  a  subsequent  cour<o  dalioii*!.  The  climate  is  mild  and  btnllhj. 
of  cathartic  modirine.  No  reme«lies  asyet  dis-  Sudden  cliongt-s  of  tem^teniture  never  occw: 
covered  are  of  any  avail  in  the  treatment  o(  tlie  and  fnvtt  U  alniiM  unknown.  Vast  heiUsoa 
trtmatoda^  and  their  pn-M'nco  can  only  lie  c(»r-  horses  and  cattle  roam  over  tlte  prairic«^  and 
rectly  diagniMlicatetl  wlien  tlieir  pasMgo  into  the  exi>«>rtation  of  hidi'^,  hom«,  tallow,  and 
the  «»ut«r  world  is  observtHL  AnM»ng  the  ntniii'  jerki-d  beef  i»  the  chief  source  of  the  wealth  of 
toiita^  tlie  ery eric/Mi,  or  pin  worms,  are  the  tlie  htate.  Parana,  Ybii-uy,  and  Conc«pCHtt  da 
m>r«t  troubK'S4iiiie,  on  acco<mt  of  the  intolerable  la  Cliina  are  the  prinripul  towns, 
itching  caused  by  their  nightly  wamlerings  out-  EN  V  EIJ  )PE,  a  |ia{KT  iMvering  for  a  Ucur,  in- 
side the  intestine.  No  treatment  can  wholly  trod  need  into  general  ui«  in  (irvat  Bniain  •asm 
teiiiove  tlieni,  but  cathartics  aiMl  coM  enema ta  after  the  ]»a«agv  <if  tlie  art  (*f  |tarliamvct  el 
are  llie  best  remedies.  Tli«  administration  of  Aug.  17,  Ibol),  whieh  provided  for  the  pay 
aantooine  or  auow  of  ita  conpoanda  will  bo  of  postage  by  weight  inatend  di^fhm' 


ENVELOPE  229 

of  i>ieoes  of  {taper.  In  1841  it  was  found  that  case  of  omission  to  fnmisli  an  envelope  at  every 
thoat  half  tne  oorrespondenee  imssing  through  revolntion  of  the  main  cam,  the  attendant  most 
the  post  office  of  the  United  fangdom  was  in  instandy  move  a  stop  which  lifts  up  thegmnmer 
•DTolopes;  and  in  1860  100  out  of  eyery  112  and  prevents  the  application  of  gam  to  the  tiible 
kttera  were  thns  protected.  In  the  United  where  the  envelope  idioald  he,  as  also  the  move- 
fStatea  their  adoption  followed  more  slowly  the  ment  of  Uie  fingers,  which  would  otherwise  de- 
■milar  diange  In  postage  introduced  by  the  act  range  the  envelope  last  deposited. — Another  re- 
of  1845;  but  for  several  years  past  they  have  markable  machine  for  this  simple  work  of  folding 
been  almost  nniversally  employed.  For  some  and  gumming  the  small  pieces  of  paper  for  en- 
time  cnv^dopeB  continued  to  be  cut  out  and  fold-  velopes,  constructed  by  M.  Remond,  of  Birming- 
cd  by  hand,  but  the  increasing  demand  led  to  ham.  was  shown  at  the  great  exhibition  of  1851. 
tihte  invention  of  exceedingly  ingenious  machines  To  tnis  the  blanks  are  supplied  by  means  of  a 
lor  Ibnuahing  them  with  extraordinary  rapidity,  hollow  arm,  which  as  it  moves  forward  is  ex- 
fSiit  they  were  cut  into  form  by  diisels,  the  hausted  of  air,  and  in  this  concUtion  coming  over 
piper,  roughly  shaped,  being  held  in  a  templet  the  pile  of  prepared  blanln,  one  of  them  at  the 
er  mould  of  the  jnoper  pattern.  The  folding  top  is  caused  by  the  atmospheric  pressure  to  ad* 
Wit  then  completed  by  hand  with  the  use  of  a  here  to  the  double  tubular  end,  and  is  thus  car- 
enmnon  bone  folder.  About  8,000  were  as  ried  along  till  the  tube  becoming  filled  with  air 
■■ay  as  an  expert  person  could  thus  prepare  drops  the  blank  upon  a  spot  where  by  the  de- 
m  a  day.  In  1845  Messrs.  Edwin  Hill  and  War-  scent  of  a  dabber  it  is  pruned  against  a  sponge 
soa  De  !■  Roe  obtained  in  England  a  patent  for  saturated  with  gum  from  the  receptacles  with 
m  envelope  machine,  covering  also  the  appara-  which  it  is  connected.  The  gum  being  thus  laid 
losfor  eattingout  the  blanks.  By  this  machine  exactly  where  it  is  required,  and  l^e  stamping 
from  46  to  60  envelopes  per  minute  are  pro-  or  embossing  being  at  the  same  time  effected 
dneed,  aD  predsely  alike,  mi^ng  in  a  day  of  10  the  paper  is  next  pressed  into  the  hollow  mould, 
bom,  with  proper  allowance  for  stoppage,  from  and  its  flaps  stand  up  as  in  the  other  machine; 
tT,000  to  80,000,  of  which  not  more  than  one  in  the  plunger  retreats,  and  a  puff  of  air  blown 
1,000  is  foond  to  be  badly  folded.  The  blanks  successively  through  each  of  the  4  sides,  which 
ae  eat  Into  a  lozenge  shape  by  an  instrument  in  are  perforated  to  admit  it,  turns  these  down,  and 
diraeter  like  a  punch  for  cutting  gun  wads,  the  re-descent  of  the  plunger  secures  them  in 
U  enti  ODt  250  blanks  at  once,  and  passes  for  their  places.  They  are  finally  taken  out  by  hand, 
noeeeding  cuts  in  a  diagonal  direction  across  placed  in  a  pile,  and  slighUy  pressed. — In  the 
the  paper,  so  as  to  reduce  the  waste  to  the  least  United  Stat^  hand-mfi^e  envelopes  were  fi»t 
posnble  amount.  The  seal  upon  the  flap  is  next  furnished  to  the  trade  bj  Messrs.  Bell  and  Gould 
■amped  at  the  embossing  press,  and  the  gum  is  and  Mr.  George  F.  Nesbitt  of  New  York.  The 
applied  by  hand  to  this  &p.  A  boy  then  places  former  house  afterward  obtained  a  machine, 
taem  one  by  one  upon  a  small  table  forming  ihe  contrived  by  Mr.  Gerard  Sickles,  which  is  un- 
MwMwg  frame  attached  to  the  machine,  the  in  derstood  to  have  done  good  service,  though  since 
terior  of  which  is  of  the  size  and  shape  of  the  surpassed  by  others  of  later  invention.  Mr.  Nes- 
ondope  when  finished.  A  plunger  fitted  to  bitt  was  not  long  in  securing  another,  whidi  in 
fids  is  brought  down  by  a  revolving  cam  and  general  plan  resembled  that  of  De  la  Rue,  though 
pnastJi  the  paper  into  the  mould,  causing  the  4  much  more  simple  and  perfect  In  his  estiUH 
Mpa  to  stand  up  at  right  angles  to  the  central  lishment  he  employs  about  8  machines,  the  ca^ 
portion  of  the  paper.  The  plunger  is  so  made  pacity  of  each  of  which  is  about  80,000  enve- 
ni  parts,  and  these  are  so  connected  with  the  lopes  per  day.  The  machines  occupy  but  little 
■■rements  of  the  cam,  that  the  portions  cover-  room,  5  of  them  standing  as  they  are  worked 
fag  the  two  ends  of  the  envelope  first  rise  up,  .n  a  space  of  about  18  feet  in  length  and  less 
nd  at  the  same  time  two  triangular  folders,  one  than  4  feet  in  breadth.  Each  one  is  in  an  iron 
■t  cadi  end,  turn  over  and  press  down  the  end  frame,  about  5  feet  high,  2  feet  from  side  to 
§tm,  one  of  them  a  little  in  advance  of  the  side,  and  16  inches  from  front  to  back.  The 
atttf.  Another  portion  of  the  apparatus  now  feeding  shelf  projects  in  front  about  2  feet  more. 
iHflka  a  line  of  gum  on  the  two  end  flaps,  as  The  power  is  applied  to  a  driving  pulley  upon 
wy  v«  thus  held  down.  The  side  portions  of  one  end  of  a  horizontal  axis  or  shaft  along  the 
'^  plunger  then  rise  up,  and  the  side  folders  top  of  the  frame.  The  pulley  is  put  in  gear 
i  the  long  flaps  over,  one  a  little  ahead  of  by  placing  the  foot  upon  a  treadle  at  the  base, 
oUier.  All  4  folders  then  open ;  a  finger-  and  is  thrown  out  on  removing  the  foot  In 
apparatus  advances  from  the  side,  the  the  middle  of  the  axis  is  a  crank  giving  9 
of  the  fingers  tipped  with  caoutchouc,  inches  stroke  and  carrying  the  vertically  moving 
the  envelope  is  lifted  up  with  the  frame  plunger.  Near  the  pulley  is  a  cam  on  the  shaft 
Hi  them,  then  withdrawn  to  one  side,  and  ibr  the  movements  connected  with  the  gumming, 
aoBtayed  to  a  revolving  belt,  by  which  it  is  and  at  the  other  end  of  the  axis  is  the  crank  for 
MRtei  onder  a  roller,  aid  finally  deposited  in  a  working  the  various  other  movements  of  the 
lie  on  one  side  of  the  machine.  The  ap-  machine.  The  machines  are  worked  by  females, 
ia  so  arranged  as  to  admit  of  its  being  one  to  each.  As  the  foot  is  placed  upon  the 
I  for  envelopes  of  different  sizes.  It  is  treadle,  a  blank  cut  by  the  usual  method  is  laid 
■t  the  lata  of  about  one  every  second,  and  in  carelessly  upon  the  feeding  shelfl    It  is  inmie- 


i 


280  ENYERMEU  EKZIO 

dUtcly  taken  along  and  worked  into  Its  exact  miles  of  Dieppe,  and  contains  th«  Mt«  of  aa 

place,  and  a  tecund  in  started  beforu  the  6rst  lias  ancient  FrankLih  cemetery,  explored  frum  lS4f 

reached  the  centre  under  tlie  plunger.     AVhilo  to  1856,  by  the  abb6  Jean  Benoit  I>esir6  CocheC 

tills  is  coining  down,  a  ]»air  of  gumniera,  at  an  II i^  reHeare!ies  have  prored  rery  valuabU  to 

obtuse  angle  to  each  other,  having  received  their  archtoulogical  science.     The  greater  part  of  iIm 

supplies  of  guin  (ntm  the  receptacle  with  w!iic!i  graves  had  been  viulated  at  some  remois  epoch, 

thev  are  connected,  are  brought  over  the  wide  but  a  few  of  them  remain  intacL    One  of  llie 

back  6ap  and  dab  a  little  gum  ui>on  the  e<lges  of  most  remarkable  of  these  is  the  grare  of  a  jovBf 

this.    The  plunger  immediate] j   follows,  and  person,  with  ear  rings  of  bronze,  with  oth 

carries  the  blank  down  through  the  o]K'ning,  pendants  of  gold.    Close  to  the  ear  rings  woe 

which  it  exactly  fit*s  leaving  the  flafts  standing  25  to  30  threads  of  gold,  which  (the  grsatw 

op.    The  plunger  ritws  and  the  two  end  flaps  i>art  still  remaining  interlaced)  aiipeared  to  have 

are  puslie^l  over  in  turn,  and  u|>ou  them  the  back  belonged  to  a  woven  band,  or  fillcL,  which  tine 

ila|i,  fastening  all  three  together.     The  lost  shut-  had  entirely  destroyed.     Similar  relics  wcfe 

ter  dovieii  over  the  fnmt  Aip,  the  bottom  of  the  found  at  Kcrtch  in  1688,  and  sach  iutemieata 

mould  falls  back  upon  its  hinges,  and  the  envc-  with  ornaments  were  common  among  the  aa- 

lopu  falls  through  into  a  tin  slide,  down  which  it  cicnt  Greeks  and  Etruscans.    One  of  the  graiei 

sliije  iuti>  an  upright  tin  Ixix  placed  to  recei^'e  in  the  Saxon  cemetery  at  ChesselKln  the  isle  of 

tliem.    This  box  makes  a  quarter  revolution  on  Wight,  oiiencd  in  1H55  by  Mr.  George  lliOisr, 

its  axis  with  every  25  cnvelope%  and  thcM  are  contained  similar  fiUments  of  gold.  Among  the 

oon.*<e«iuently  arranged  in  the  box  in  piles  of  25,  relics  discovered  at  Enrermea  are  swords,  sebre^ 

crossing  each  other,  ready  for  counting  and  box-  bronze  buckles,  a  Gaulish  eoln  or  rather  ingeC 

ing.    The  new  stylo  of  enve1(»{>o  lately  intro-  of  gold,  which  presented  on  the  rererse  an  ill- 

duced  by  Mr.  Neiibitt,  having  black  lines  on  tho  formed  miniature  hon«  (supposed  to  beloiig  to 

inner  side  of  the  back  flap,  to  serve  as  a  guide  the  era  of  270  to  100  B.  C),  bronae  ear  ria^ 

in  writing  Uie  address  biMbre  the  letter  is  put  in,  necklaces  composed  of  glass  beada,  iruo  axse 

is  intcnd<Mi  to  be  prepared  in  the  machine  by  the  (/raneUcay,  accompanied  by  iron  lanoM  (/f^ 

introduction  of  some  additioiud  ]>arts.    Most  of  fwiAr),  iron  spurs,  arrow  jiointa,  iron  daggers  or- 

the  commercial  ^  lined  envelofK's'^  aropreiiared  namented  at  the  point  with  a  plate  of  brooas 

by  Mr.  Ne<ibitt    They  are  mostly  verr  largo-  and  flunked  by  small  knives^  elegant    hnmm 

sized  cnvcIoi»es  of  iui|>er  with  a  bluish  tinge,  purse  clasp*.  Stc,    The  cemetery  seems  to  have 

secured  before  cutting  to  a  backing  of  cotton,  or  been  of  a  circular  form,  and  was  probably  once 

as  it  is  called,  muslin.    The  whole  is  then  made  covered  by  a  tumulus,  long  since  reniored  bf 

ap,  Uiiually  by  hand.    Thciie  enveloi>es  are  used  the  operations  of  agriculture.     Tlie  abbe  CochsS 

for  protecting  money  and  valuable  pafiers  trans-  (burn  near  Iliivre.  March  7,  1812)  is  one  of  the 

mittisl  in  ci^mineroial  transactions.    Mtrssrs.  Mc-  most  active  French  archa)«>loinsts  of  the  present 

8ped<tu  and  iiaker  art*  hImi  larfsv  manufacturers,  day.     Amung  his  lute^t  works  cm  his 

pru«lui-inK  prohaMy  25,0U(>.fNN>  I'nvelupes  aunu-  in  Xomiandy  arc:  Iai  Sormandu  m 

ally ;  and  J.  i^.  rrehle  probably  a  still  larger  ou  notittt  #ur  d»M  riinttUre»  Rama  ins  et 

nurnlKT,    U'»ing    machines    of    several    kinds.  expLtrt'i   en    yomntnilU   (Kouen,    1S54,    with 

Mc^■«^s.  Hartshorn  and  Trumbull,  of  Wurcosti-r,  plalch),   and    SipnUura   irouloiaes^    /'i-mdnn, 

Ma«!i.,  eiupliiy  aUdit  17  machines,  the  invention  IVantfUf*^  ft  Sarmantlti$  (HiepiN*,  1857). 
of  l>r.  K.  L  Howes,  of  Wtinf-iter,  the  capacity        ENZINA,  or  Encisa,  Jiax  iii  la,  foandflr 

of  each  of  which  is  about  10.<>«h)  a  day.    They  of  the  singular  theatre  in  Spain,  born  in  14^  or 

employ  (tteam  jniwer,  and  prudnre  aUnit  45,-  14C9,  dkil  in  Salamanca  in  1534.     He  waseda- 

0(K».Of^i  en veiOfMni  annually.     In  these  machiues  catod   at   the   univorniiy  of  Salamanca,   speaft 

tlio  enveli»|fes  placiHl  in  a  pile  are  brought  up  s«Hue  tiiue  in  the  hi.»usi-holtl  of  the  tir^  dukeef 

frL>m  U-tieath  the  table  by  a  counteqNHM:*.  and  Alva,  afterward  wont  to  Rome,  where  he  be* 

tlie  to] I  one  is  immediately  taken  up  by  the  gum-  came  a  priest,  and,  from  his  »kiU   in   nratie, 

ner,  which  Cftnes  down  U|H»n  it,  and  leaves  tho  chapvl  master  of  Iahj  X.     In  151V  be  maie  e 

re<{uircd  quantity  uf  gum  in  the  ri^sht  place  to  ]tilgrimage  to  the  Holy  Land.     At  Wast  6  c«l»- 

secure  the  end  and  bst-k  flafi — tho  fmnt  one,  as  tions  of  his  coIliHtotl  workiS  divicKnl  into  4  partly 

in  all  moi-liine^  being  tir^t  gummeil  by  liand  and  were  publish<.*il  from  141^  t4i  1516,  cimteiniof 

drii*d.     The  pafnT  drop|»t.<«l  liv  the  pirniner  is  lyrical  p«>etry,  i^onirs,  and   s«*veral  dearriptiTa 

then  taken  by  a  carriage  uiidfr  a  dmiMe  plungtT,  jMHiU!*.     Hut  Itis  most  imftortant  works 


tlie  outer  ikortion  of  which  fon*f4  it  down  inti>  dranuitio  coniiKMttionii,  which  he  calieil  A>fnr- 

the  uioiilil,  an«l  an  inner  part  f>>iIow«,  turning  Mfut'irionr*.   llicy  are  in  the  naturv  of  cck^fpicik 

over  till*  ri:tp't  in  succemion.     .\Aer  the  iilun;:er  intersper^-il  witli  iH>ng<s  but  deficient  in   drs- 

rises  tiio  lNitto!u  of  the  mould  in  pre«%iil  up  by  matio  structure.   They  werv  first  reprvaeoicd  l«e- 

a  spring,  and  tljo  vnveIoi»e  brought  again  ti*  tho  fore  the  duke  of  Alva,  an«l  in  14>i  cuuf^bMe 

surface  i-*  taken  by  the  same  carriaf^*  ba4*k,  and  U»i:an  to  ripn.-sent  them  publicly, 
delivered  uiiun  a  plido  whidi  drojMS  it  into  a        KNZIO,  anatnralsonof  KnNlericIKrmpccur 

reci-ivtT.  of  (tennany.  l»i>m  in  1224  or  122.*i,  dic^  m  ii^«- 

£N  VKKMKr,  a  ^mall  town  of  France,  in  the  bitnta,  March  14  or  15.  1272.    He  wm  haDd««««)e« 

department    t'f    S*ine*Infi«rieure,    Nonnandy ;  aciNnnpUjihiHl,  and  chivalric,  an«l  t«ii»L  adi^iio- 

po|>.  about  1,500.     It  is  situated  within  a  few  guiidied  |>art  in  the  contests  U  his  father  w«:h 


EOCENE  £0N  DE  BEAUMONT     281 

the  Goelpbs.    As  etu-Ij  sa  1287  he  accompanied  isting  species.    The  fonnation  is  largely  repro- 

him  to  the  battle  of  Corte  Nuova.     About  2  sent^  m  the  London  and  Paris  basins,  the 

jeen  afterward  he  married  Adelasia,  inarchio-  numerous  fossils  of  which  afforded  the  means 

nem  of  Maasa,  the  widow  of  Waldo  Yisoonti,  and  of  establishing  this  dasaification,  and  of  subdi- 

the  helreflB  of  ^  important  possessions  in  Italy.  Tiding  the  group  into  3  divbions  called  the  up- 

On  this  occasion  he  was  created  king  of  Sar-  per,  middle,  and  lower  eocene.  It  is  recognized 

dinia;  bat  it  was  only  a  nominal  dignity.    A  near  the  southern  coast  of  the  United  States, 

more  sobetantial  one  conferred  on  him  by  the  extending  from  Delaware  south,  the  more  recent 

emperor  was  that  of  goYemor-general  of  Lom-  members  of  the  tertiary  formation  commonly 

baraj  and  of  commander  of  the  German  troops  intervening  between  it  and  the  coast  line.    The 

acaiDit  the  Milanese.    Gregory  IX.  excommu-  locality  best  known  and  studied  is  at  Claiborne, 

niDated  JVederic.  Nov.   11,1289;  the  pope's  Ala.,  where  no  less  than  400  species  of  marine 

anger  increased  the  ardor  of  Enzio,  and  he  con-  shells,  with  many  echinoderms  and  teeth  of  fish, 

«wred  for  his  father  many  towns  in  Umbria.  are  found  in  one  member  of  the  group.    It  is 

At  oommander  of  the  emperor's  naval  force  in  also  met  with  in  Nebraska,  and  in  other  parts 

ISil,  be  defeated,  in  conjunction  with  the  Pisan  of  the  valley  of  the  Mississippi.    The  strata  in- 

iee^  the  Genoese  in  the  vicinity  of  Leghorn,  eluded  in  tnis  division  are  sands,  clays,  marls, 

aaar  the  island  of  Meloria  (May  8),  after  a  pro-  gypsum,  sandston^  limestones,  brown  coal ; 

tneted  engagement.    A  great  number  of  prel-  indeed,  all  tlie  varieties  of  sedimentary  rocks, 

Mea  were  on  board  of  the  Genoese  galleys,  about  &c. 

to  attend,  in  spite  of  the  emperor's  remon-  £0N  DE  BEAUMONT,  Chablbs  GsNSviivE 
ilnBoe,  a  council  convoked  at  Rome  by  Greg-  Louis  Attoustb  Andr^  TiMorntB  j>\  commonly 
«y.  All  these  prelates,  about  100  archbishops  called  the  chevalier  d'£on,  a  French  diplomatist, 
ad  Uflbops  and  8  legates  of  the  pope,  were  cap-  who  owes  his  notoriety  to  doubts  which  long  ex- 
torad;  the  total  nnmber  of  prisoners  was  esti-  isted  as  to  his  sex,  bom  in  Tonnerre,  Burgundy, 
■itod  at  4,000.  The  booty  taken  from  the  Gen-  Oct.  5, 1728,  died  in  London,  May  21, 1810.  He 
one  eompriaed  a  large  amount  of  money,  and  in  was  of  good  family,  was  well  educated,  became 
token  of  thia  aooeess,  the  prelates  were  removed  a  doctor  of  canon  and  civil  law,  and  an  advocate 
tapriaon  in  chains  made  of  silver.  After  this  before  the  parliament  of  Paris,  and  at  the  outset 
ma  other  victories  over  the  Guelphs,  the  Ghibcl-  of  his  career  applied  himself  with  some  success  to 
Bmb  were  defeated,  May  26, 1249,  in  the  bloody  literature.  In  1755  Louis  XV.  employed  him  in 
bittle  on  the  Fossalta.  Enzio  being  made  pris-  a  delicate  diplomatic  mission  to  Russia  in  com- 
ooer,  the  Bolognese  condemned  him  to  pcrpetu-  pany  with  the  chevalier  Douglas.  Favored  by 
il  imprisonment,  and  refused  to  release  him,  a  beardless  face,  he  assumed  the  dress  of  a  wo- 
ihhoQgh  the  emperor  was  ready  to  pay  any  man,  and  blending  a  woman^s  tact  with  a  politi- 
UKNUt  of  ransom  for  his  son.  He  continued  cian's  cunning,  gained  the  good  graces  of  the 
ia  prison  for  24  years,  surviving  all  the  sons  and  empress  Elizabeth,  became  her  reader,  and  hav- 
grnidaons  of  Frederic,  who  all  met  with  a  violent  ing  bent  her  mind  to  the  wishes  of  the  French 
death.  Stories  were  circulated  about  the  at-  court,  went  back  to  Paris  to  announce  his  suo- 
tempta  of  his  friends  to  effect  his  escape  by  con-  cess.  Ho  immediately  revisited  St.  Peters- 
cealing  him  in  a  barrel  of  wine  which  was  sup-  burg  in  male  attire,  passed  himself  upon  Eliza- 
alied  lor  his  table;  it  was  also  said  that  he  had  beth  as  the  brother  of  her  former  favorite, 
ken  imprisoned  in  an  iron  cage,  but  although  was  again  successful  in  his  negotiations,  and  on 
■liietly  goarded,  he  seems  to  have  been  treated  his  way  back  to  France  appeared  as  envoy  at 
with  kindness.  Vienna.  Having  previously  held  a  commission 
EOCENE  (Gr.  « i^r,  dawn,  and  icacyor,  recent),  in  the  army,  ho  was  promoted  to  a  captaincy  of 
the  lowest  group  of  the  tertiary  formation,  bo  dragoons  in  1758,  served  with  the  forces  on  the 
Mned  by  Sir  Charles  Lyell  in  making  the  di-  Rhine,  and  acted  as  aide-de-camp  to  Marshal  de 
Tkiooa  of  tliis  series,  from  the  fact  that  among  Broglie  during  the  campaign  of  1762.  He  waa 
liw  Ibssil  shells  with  which  the  strata  abound,  then  secretary  of  embassy,  and  afterward  min- 
few  Mre  met  with  of  species  identical  with  ister  plenipotentiary,  at  London ;  but  being  su- 
now  living;  and  as  all  those  in  the  next  perseded  in  1768  by  the  count  de  Guerchy,  and 
formation  (the  secondary)  are  extinct,  the  mortified  moreover  by  being  named  secretary  to 
tertiary  strata  may  bo  regarded  as  indi-  his  successor,  he  revenged  himself  by  publishing 
the  dawn  of  the  existing  state  of  the  tes-  a  complete  account  of  all  the  negotiations  in 
m  fanntL  *  The  division  being  based  on  which  he  had  been  engaged,  exposed  many  se- 
proportion  of  recent  species  of  shells  to  crets  of  the  French  court,  and  reflected  with 
ft  which  are  extinct,  which  proportion  in  equal  severity  upon  friends  and  enemies.  Among 
original  arrangement  was  determined  from  the  victims  of  his  slander  was  De  Guerchy, 
examination  of  1,238  species  to  be  about  3^  who  consequently  brought  an  action  in  the  court 
t.,  the  npper  boundary  line  of  the  group  of  king^s  bench,  in  which  D'£on  was  con- 
be  deterrainately  fixed.  New  sets  of  victed  of  libel  in  July,  1764,  and  was  finally  out- 
occasionally  met  with,  which  may  be  lawed.  Meanwhile  he  caused  De  Guerchy  to  be 
either  to  the  eocene  or  to  the  miocene  arrested  on  a  charge  of  an  attempt  to  poison 
vUdi  snccceds  it,  a  group  which  is  character-  him,  but  the  affair  ended  in  nothing.  Ho  con- 
'"^hj  oontaining  a  much  larger  number  of  ex-  tinned  to  reside  in  England,  subsisting  for  a  time 


BOS  EPACT 

by  borrowing  and  Ttrionji  expedient^  and  after-  toy  attainmentii,  bis  rank,  all  combined  to  giva 

ward  on  a  i>cnsion  which  Ijoma  XV.,  notwith*  him  great  influence  in  the  senate  and  in  Ilna- 

atanding  his  mifloondact,  allowed  him  for  his  sc-  sarian  society.     But  whatever  ma;^  hare  beca 

ore!  services  both  in  England  and  Russia,  and,  af-  his  merit  as  an  orator  and  a  politician,  it  waa 

ter  the  return  of  the  count  do  (ruerchy  to  France,  eclipsvd  bj  his  fame  as  a  novelist.    The  fioaa- 

acting  as  the  representative  of  the  court  of  Ver-  cial  crisis  of  1841  having  deprived  his  family  of 

aailles,  though  not  officially  recognijeed  as  such,  the  greater  port  of  their  fortune,  he  resorted  to 

About  17C3  rumors  respecting  hu  «ex,  which  writing  as  a  means  of  support,  and  began  to  pab- 

received  color  from  his  adventure  at  St.  Peters-  lish  a  Ulo  in  numl>ors,  under  the  title  of  A  nUu 

borg,  his  appearance,  his  manners,  and  still  more  Je^y zdje  {^^T\ie  Villuffe  Notary**),  in  which  ba 

from  the  rei>orts  spread  by  his  enemy  I>e  Gaer-  boldly  exposed  the  abases  connected  with  tba 

chy,  became  common  topics  of  conversation  in  rule  of  the  nobles  in  the  counties.    This  novd 

the  British  capital ;  bets  to  a  large  amount  were  had  a  marvellous  success.    A  second  editkio  ap- 

laid  that  he  was  a  m-oman,  and  a  wager  of  this  peared  at  Pesth  in  1851,  and  a  translation  waa 

acMl  became  matter  for  a  lawsuit  before  Lt>rd  published  in  England  m'ith  a  preface  by  Mr.  F. 

Mansfield,  in  which  the  plaintiff^  having  brought  Pulszky,  to  whom  the  work  waa  originally 

witnesses  to  swear  that  l>'£on  was  a  female,  ob-  dedicated.    In  1847  he  produced  a  new  nonl 

tained  a  verdict  for  £700.     In  1777  he  went  to  on  the  revolt  of  the  peasantnr  in  1514,  entitM 

Versailles,  where  Ixniis  XVI.,  for  reasons  which  Mttgyaromdg  Ihl^hen  (**  Iiungary  in  1514'*)l 

have  never  been  made  known,  forced  him  to  During  this  time  he  also  exerted  an  inflnattoa 

exchange  his  dragoon*s  uniform  for  a  woman*s  through  the  newspajier  press.     His  articlea  la 

dress.    He  returned  to  England  in  this  garb  to  the  Pe^ti  Ilirlap,  especially  on  eentralizatioct,  «f 

collect  his  efforts,  and  while  there  was  pbced  which  he  became  the  champion,  while  KoMik 

on  the  list  of  emigrtM  by  the  revolutionary  tri-  defended  the  autonomy  of  the  counties,  were 

banal  established  during  his  absence.     He  sup-  collected  in  1846  in  a  volume  at  Leipsie  nndv 

ported  himself  in  London  by  the  sale  of  his  li-  the  title  of  ^  Reform.*^    After  the  outbreak  ef 

brary,  by  pving  exhibitions  of  his  skill  In  fenc-  1848  EotvOs  mas  appointed  minister  of  pvblia 

ing  with  tlie  famous  Mons.  St.  (reorgo  and  Mr.  Instruction  under  tlie  Batthyanv  administratioaL 

Angelo,  and  by  a  pension  from  George  III.    lie  Ho  brought  forward  a  comprehensive  mrasoie 

made  one  more  visit  to  his  native  country,  and  for  the  improvement  of  eaueation,  which  waa 

wider  the  name  of  Madame  d*£on  petitioned  strenuouslv  opposed  upon  sectarian  groODds,  boi 

the  nafional  assembly  for  leave  to  serve  in  the  was  warmly  supported  by  Kossnth  and  adopC- 

army;  but  obtaining  nothing  but  applause  by  ed  by  the  diet.    Eotvos,  however,  withdrew 

his  request,  he  passed  the  rest  of  his  days  in  pov-  from  the  cabinet  on  occasion  of  the 

erty  in  Enirland,  retaining  till  his  death,  either  tion  of  Count  Lam  berg,  and  retired  to 

through  liabit  or  for  convenience,  the  garb  which  until  1851,  when  he  retume<l  to  his  native 

had  been  forced  upon  him  33  years  before.     A  try.     \\U  most  important  and  reoent  w«trk  is  oa 

post  mortem  examination  left  no  doubt  of  his  the  **Intiuenreof  the  I^eading  Ideas  of  the  19th 

Deing  a  man.     He  wrote  a  number  of  historical,  Century  on  the  Slate**  (2  volii.,  1851  and  1H&^ 

political,  and  otlior  works,  filling  13  vols.  Nvo.  Hungarian  and  Gennan  by  the  autiior).  in  which 

YS}'>,     See  Ai  ROBA.  he  exprewes  his  confidence  in  the  faithfalnea 

£(>TVoS,  Jii7j>cr,  baron,  a  Hungarian  author  of  the  age  to  humanitarian  ideas,  notwtthsUod* 

and  rtati*sinan,  l»i»rn  in  Hudo,  Si*|it.  3,  is  13.    His  ing  its  uiilit.iriaiii»m. 

education  was  compk-ted  at  tlio  university  of         EPACT  (Or.  firacror,  added),  a  nnrober  m* 

Pesth,  and  at  the  age  of  17  ho  cominenciMl  his  tniduiMHl  into  the  (rregorian  calendar,  intend 

literary  career  by  a  translation  of  Goeihv's  Hot*  ed  to  express  the  motMrs  age  (in  day>i  on  Jaa. 

von  Arlichingen.    This  was  foilowM  by  two  1,  and  thus  to  determine  its  age  on  March  SL 

original  comcdii-s  and  a  tr:igc<ly.     In  1^30  ho  EsL^ter  Sunday  was  apfkointed  bv  the  council  ef 

travvlK-«l  through (lermany, Switzerland,  France,  Nice  to  be  the  first  Sunday  after  the  fin4  fol 

mad  <in*at  Hritain.      In   1^38  he  became  the  moon  following  the  vernal  eouiuox.    Bni^intbe 

editor  of  tlie  liudapetti  Arriilvnyr^  a  work  in  church,  this  Sunday  is  found  by  a  funnala  whkk 

which   the   uikj^i  eminent  Hungarian   men  of  is  not  strictly  correct,  so  that  Ea»tor  U  sameh 

letters  tiMik  a  [mrt.    He  (Contributed  to  it  a  novel  times  on  a  different  Sunday  from  what  the  dirr^ 

entitle<l  the  **  Cartliu^lan.**  m-hirh  made  him  at  tion  (»f  the  C4>uncil  of  Nice  would  lead  U\  U  the 

onee  tlie  favorite  of  tlie  Hungarian  public.     A  e(|uinnx  and  full  moon  were  fought  by  atir^ 

pamphlet  i«Mued  by  htm  on  pri^in  refurm  pro-  nomical   tables.     The  epart  u^nially  givc^  the 

duced  a  d«*ep  impn<ii»iou.     His  elotiucnt  defence  mo(m*]i  age  one  or  two  dsys  too  great.     To  find 

of  the  **  Emanripatitin  of  the  JrW!***  was  Ptill  the  epact:    Fnmi  11  times  the  guidon  numVcr 

more  remarkaMe.     In   the  great   controventy  subtrai^t  lo,  and  divide  by  .HO;  the  remaiiuicr  is 

about  K«iMUth*s  /VWt  Ilirl'tp,  Ei*tvit4  i*!(|muM>d  the  epoct  if  (he  dato  is  in  tlie  17ih  century.    Fur 

his  cmu^,  am!  published  a  pomphlvl  in  ls41  de-  tlie  iHth  and  19th  centuries  subtract  one  fn^m 

fending   him   against   the  Cfjnm.Tvative   Iratli-r  thii  remainder:  fortheSOih  and  31ft  •ubtrart 

finkhi'nyi.     As  one  « if  the  leaden  of  the  n|i{K»*  S.     Subtract  the  epact  fnim  24  ((^r.  if  it  is  a 

sltion  in  the  uppvr  hduieof  the  Hungarian  di«-t,  larg«T  numUT  than  24,  frv>m  54 1.  and  thr  n^- 

Edtvr»s  achieved  a  diAtinguifhed  (KMiiiion.     His  mniudiT  will  show  the  numlierof  dav«  fn««ii  the 

readineei  in  debate,  his  flne  pretence,  his  liter-  21ftt  of  March  to  the  next  ecclesiastical  (M4 


EPAIONONDAS  238 

actual)  full  moon;  and  the  following  Sandaj  excluded  from   the  treaty,  and  war  speedily 

(diseoTered  by  the  dominical  letter)  will  be  commenced.    Twenty  days  after  the  debate  at 

£ait€r  Sunday.  Sparta  the  contending  armies  met  at  Leuctra. 

EPAMINONDAS,   a   Theban  general  and  Cleombrotns,  the  colleague  of  Agesilaus,  com- 

ttatgaman,  bom  in  the  last  quarter  of  the  5th  manded  the  Spartans  and  their  allies,  Epaminon- 

eeatmy  B.  0^  died  on  the  battle  field  of  Manti-  das  was  Boeotarch,  and  Pelopidas  led  the  sacred 

nea  in  80S.    He  was  the  son  of  Polymnis,  of  a  band,  lately  organized  and  already  distinguished. 

Adngnisked  though  rather  poor  Theban  family,  Departing  from  the  usual  habit  of  drawing  up 

reckoned  among  those  that  were  believed  to  the  armies  in  line  for  a  general  engagement 

have  sprung  from  the  dragon's  teeth  sown  by  Epaminondas,  whose   numbers  were   inferior 

Oidmiis.    Endowed  with  rare  gifts  and  per-  to  those  of  his  adversary,  arrayed  his  best 

•emuee,  he  acquired  not  onlv  that  bodily  troops  on  his  left  wing  to  the  depth  of  50  shields, 

development  and  ^  military  skill  which  were  with  the  sacred  band  in  front,  advanced  en 

ngttded  as  essential  in  Theban  education,  but  khelon^  keeping  his  right  and  centre  a  litUe  to 

aho  those  accomplishments  which  belonged  to  the  rear,  and  attacked  the  Spartan  right,  where 

Am  eohi vated  society  of  Athens,  but  were  little  Gleombrotus  and  his  chief  officers  were  stationed. 

cwedfin*  in  the  home  of  Pindar.    He  schooled  The  shock  was  terrible,  and  after  a  short  strug- 

Ui  Ugfaer  faculties  by  diligent  study  and  inter-  gle  the  Thebans  gained  a  decisive  victory.  Four 

eoQTM  witii  philosophers,  one  of  whom,  the  hundred  Spartans  with  their  king,  and  1,000 

Fjrtibagorean  Ly^  a  Tarentine  exile  who  dosed  other  LaccKlflsmonians,  were  among  the  dead. 

Uidaja  in  Thebes,  he  revered  as  a  father.    But  The  whole  of  Greece,  including  Thebes,  was 

l^iloaophy  with  Epaminondas  was  not  only  a  surprised  by  this  issue,  so  fatal  to  the  might  and 

ipeealalive  study,  he  modelled  his  life  accord-  glory  of  Sparta,  though  she  still  obeyed  her 

iif  to  it.    Self-possessed,  modest,  indifferent  to  laws,  mourning  not  the  victims  but  the  survi- 

dbphy,  he  despised  riches,  lived  poor  when  at  vors  of  Leuctra.    Epaminondas   pursued  and 

tte  hoc^t  of  power,  and  was  a  strict  observer  strengthened  his  success  by  promoting  the  union 

of  trvth,  though  often  acting  as  a  diplomatist,  of  Arcadia  and  the  foundation  of  Megalopolis,  as 

With  Pelopidas,  a  man  of  congemol  patriotism,  its  centre,  against  Sparta,  and  in  869  invaded 

he  was  earlj  connected  by  the  ties  of  tried  the  Peloponnesus  together  with  some   other 

ftiendsbipy  though  the  date  of  the  battle  in  Theban  commanders.    As  their  term  of  service 

vUeh  he  saved  the  life  of  his  friend  cannot  drew  to  a  close,  he  and  Pelopidas  persuaded  their 

be  fixed.     Wlicn  Pelopidas,  after  the  treacher-  colleagues  to  continue  the  campaign,  and  to 

on  oecnpation  of  the  Cadmea^  the  citadel  of  penetrate  into  the  heart  of  Laconia.    Thisprov- 

Ihebes,  by  the  Spartan  general  Phoebidas,  and  mco  was  now  ravaged ;    Sparta  itself  barely 

the  execution  of  the  l^er  of  the  patriotic  escaped  being  taken ;  Mcssenia,  its  oppressed 

,  Ismenias,  conspired  with  a  number  of  dependency,  was  restored  to  liberty,  with  a  new 

ves  against  the   tyranny  of  Leontiades  capital,  Messene,  about  the  site  of  the  ancient 

his    colleagues   the  polemarchs,  Epami-  Ithome.    An  army  from  Athens,  which  had 

is  tried  to  dissuade  his  friends  from  their  marched  to  assist  Sparta,  failed  to  check  the 

Uoody  attempt ;  but  when  the  first  deed  of  return  of  the  victorious  Thebans  tlirough  the 

Mnrjnce  was  done  (379),  and  the  contest  isthmus.    This  being  achieved,  Epaminondas 

transferred  from  the  houses  of  Archias  and  appeared  before  the  tribunal  of  Thebes  to  an- 

Leontiades  to  the  open  market  place,  ho  imme-  swer  for  retaining  his  office  beyond  the  legal 

diitely  Joined  the  exiles  in  arms  and  incited  the  time,  and  was  acquitted  amid  the  acclamations 

to  storm  the  Cadmea.    But  the  com-  of  the  people.    In  the  spring  of  the  following 

of  the  Spartan  garrison  evacuated  the  year  he  again  penetrated  into  the  Peloponnesus, 

on  capitulation.    This  revolution  opened  but  on  his  return  failed  in  an  attempt  on  Corinth, 

liMpolitical  career  of  Epaminondas;  and  though  being  repulsed  by  the  Athenians.    He  subse- 

ha  is  scarcelv  mentioned  in  the  following  period  quently  accompanied  the  army  sent  to  Thessaly 

flf  7  7^^^  auring  which  the  military  strength  to  rescue  Pelopidas,  who  had  fallen  into  the 

■sd  political  infioence  of  Thebes  were  gradu-  hands  of  Alexander,  the  tyrant  of  Pherte.    This 

d(y  developed,  the  great   trusts  with  which  expedition  failed,  but  Epaminondas  saved  the 

ht  was  honored  in  871,  both  as  a  diplomatist  army,  and  having  been  made  commander  of  a 

asd  as  a  general,  prove  that  his  services  to  new  expedition  for  the  same  purpose  (367),  suc- 

Ui  eoantry  were  highly  appreciated.    At  the  ceedcd  in  delivering  his  friend  without  striking 

mat  congress  held  that  year  in  Sparta,  for  a  blow.    His  influence  at  home,  however,  often 

tta  poipose  of  regulating  the  affairs  of  Greece,  attacked  by  enemies,  was  not  always  strong 

ha  defended  the  rights  of  Thebes  and  its  as-  enough  to  moderate  the  aggressive  spirit  of  his 

r  in  Boeotia  to  their  utmost  extent,  state,  which  he  had  raised  to  the  leadership  of 

_  on  taking  the  oath  of  the  new  treaty  Greece.    Strengthened  by  a  navy  and  an  alli- 

iar  Thebes  separately,  but  for  that  city  as  ance  with  Persia,   the  former  the  work  of 

t  of  the  Bosotian  confederation.    When  Epaminondas,  the  latter  of  Pelopidas,  the  The- 

is,  the  energetic  king  of  Sparta,  arose  bans  oppressed  their  neighbors  of  Thessaly, 

ti'  isfence  of  the  autonomy  of  the  B<eotian  their  confederates  of  Boeotia,  and  their  allies 

Epaminondas  claimed  the  same  for  the  of  Arcadia,  and  evinced  not  only  an  overbear- 

of  Iiaoonia.     The   Thebans  were  ing  spirit  at  every  international  complication, 


SM                 EPAXOMEBIA  EFtE 

bat  alv>  wanton  cmeltj  in  the  <Ie?tnietion  of  road  tliere  in  inaaj  pUres  paiuiig  OTer  hnbite- 

the  re  vol  tf  J  Orchomeniu  in  Arcadia.    The  coo-  tiont  the  existence  of  which  b  denoted  oii]j  bj 

Mfiai-ore  was  a  defection  of  nearlr  all  the  ^Vrca-  chimneys  jutting  np  on  each  tiJe. 

dian«,  and  a  htrctcg  southern  coalition  again<  EPAULETTi^  (rr.  ipaule^  thonlderX  am  or- 

ThcUr^.     Kapid  abd  decUire  a^tiun  alone  conld  namental  badjre,  or  mark  of  distinctko,  worm 

aave  the  ^uiirvmarj  of  that  »tate,  and  Epami-  on  the  (ihoolder  bj  niilitar]r  men.    ItorigiBitoA 

noodas  therefore,  again  iaradcd  the  Pelopoo-  nnder  Louis  XIV^  from  the  ribbon  which  hdd 

neiui  at  th«  hea<]  of  an  impr.i»iD^  army  of  licfo-  tlie  sword  belt  in  place  on  the  fch«Mikler.     Epos* 

tian\  Eub>i;an«,  Theualiana.  and  Locriana,  which  U-ttes  are  worn  cither  on  one  ihouMer  or  both^ 

was  soon  ioinvd  by  truo}is  from  Slcvon,  Tegea,  bj  both  naval  and  military  officen,  Mad  m 

3lep!i!o|K>!ii,  Messenia,  and  \t^j9,  'Theenemj  varied  to  denote  distinctions  of  rank. 

coucentrau-d  his  forc«  at  yUntiucOi.    This  waa  £p££,  Chablu    Micbil»  abb^  do   F,  am 

cumfio«ed  ruainiT  of  Acha>ans,  Elcans,  and  Ar-  instructor  of  the  deaf  and  domb,  bom  at  \i 

cadian^  while  tLe  old  AgesiLios  was  approach-  eaiUoa,  France,  Not.  6, 1713,  died  Dec.  9S,  17' 

ing  from  Sparta«  and  the  Athenian  contingent  On  arriving  at  manhood  he  commenced tho  i 

was  ex|*ectvd.    Having  vainly  tried  to  provoke  of  theology,  and  gave  in  his  adhesion  to  thodo^ 

the  allien  to  action  Iwfore  tho  arrival  of  the  trinea  of  the  Jansenista,  on  which  aceoanft  Ui 

Spartans  and  Atheuian.4,  Epaminundas,  aware  bishop  refused  him  ordination,  anleai  bo  wonIA 

of  tlie  circuitous  route  of  Ageailaus,  made  a  sign  a  certain  formula  of  doctrine.    Thb  te 

rapid  ni;rht  march  from  Tegca  to  aurprise  Sparta,  would  not  consent  to  do,  and  tboogh  oobi^ 

which  wat  saved,  however,  by  Age^ilaus  being  quently  admitted  todeaoon*s  ordon»  bo  waotoU 

in  time  atipri«cd  of  the  danger,  and  by  the  ad-  tJiat  he  need  not  aspire  to  any  higher  ordinatfoa. 

mirahle  bravery  of  his  bon  Archidamus  and  Full  uf  grief  at  this  decision,  he  boeomo  a  rta* 

•ome  other  youth*.     Efiaminondas  now  tnmed  dent  of  law  and  was  admitted  totho^or;  bll 

to  buq>ri!<e  Mantinva  while  the  enemy  marched  at  this  juncture,  his  old  friend,  M.  do 


to  tlie  rescue  of  Sparta,  but  tho  arrival  of  tho  nephew  uf  the  great  pnlpit  orator,  hariog  boiA 

Athenians  fru*tmtefl  this  attempt  also.      He  promoted  to  the  see  of  Trovea,  offered  aim  a 

finally  dotermint-d  on  a  pitched  battle,  which  canonry  in  his  cathedral,  and  admitted  him  10 

was  fought  on  tho  plain  between  Mantinea  and  priest's  orders.   Uo  fulfilled  hia  new  dntioa  wilk 

Tegi*a  (3f;2).    The  plan  of  thoTheban  general  zeal  and  propriety;  but  hardly  had  bo  n0tlh 

was  similar  to  that  adopted  at  Leuctra,  and  tho  Ushed  himself  in  what  he  hoped  waa  hit  lii^ 

issue  would  probably  have  been  tho  same,  had  work,  before  his  kind  patron  died,  mud  hia  pbflO 

not  his  ailvauce  been  interrupted  by  a  javelin  waa  filled  by  a  Jesuit  bishop,  throngh  whoio  il^ 

wound,    lie  fell  with  the  |N>iut  of  the  broken  fiuenoe  he  was  deposed  from  the  pnosthood, 

B|K*ar  sticking  in  hU  bn'a>t.     Ho  was  still  alive,  It  was  while  depressed  by  this  sudden  fbsngi 

but  tho  ex  t  rati  ion  of  t!ie  £i|»ear  hea«l  would  have  in  his  prospects  that  l>e  r£|it-u*s  attentioo  wm 

tenninatod  his  pain  with  hiA  lift*.     Having  been  first  called  to  the  unfortunate  claai  to  whoso 

OH^^urcd  that  hU  shield  was  not  liWt  and  that  tho  wuliare  he  subse4|uently  devoted  his  life.    CA 

Tbehans  were  victorious,  ho  inquired  for  two  of  ing  one  day  upon  a  neighbor,  he  fonnd  that  sho 

his  genoraK  but  wo-t  told  that  they  were  dead.  IimI  two  daughters  who  were  deaf  and  damh|lhol 

**Then  IctThvhes  make  \ivwcti  withtlie  enviny,**  a  benevolent  privftt  had  endeavored  to  ouftviy 

said  he,  atid  drew  out  the  wea|>ou  with  his  own  some  ideas  to  them  by  picturc^s  bat  that  bo  woi 

hand.     In  reply  to  his  friend^  who  regretted  dead,  and  there  was  no  one  who  cooM  teoob 

that  he  died  chiltlles.%  he  haid :  **  1  leavo  two  tliein.  Tonched  by  their  mijtfortune,  bo  reool? od 

fair  daughtens  Ix*uotr:i  and  Mantinea.*'     Epaiut-  to  undertake  their  instruction.    I'p  to  this  liao 

nondtts  raukn  among  the  greatest  men  of  (ireece,  tho  only  successful  attemptj  at  imitnicting  tho 

and  14  d^*M*ribvd  by  Nepoa,  in  accordance  with  deaf  and  dumb  had   been  by  the  prooeoi  of 

the  ronrurriu^c  te^limonii'S  of  tho  iirwk  hiiito-  articulation.    A  few  |)ersi>nS|  less  than  SO  te 

rian«.  a^  a  man  adorned  with  every  virtue  and  all.  in  a  period  uf  270  years,  hod  beoa  wisk 

stained  hy  un  vice.  infinite  pams  taught  to  prononnce  words  iadi^ 

KP.VNOMKUIA,  a  remarkable  town  in  tho  fere ntly  well :  in  moiit  cases  their  understaDdia| 

islandof  Santoriu,  theanrivutThcra.  intholire-  of  the  meaning  of  words  Uius  commaaicoM 

ciaii archi|H'Iairo.     It  Li  i»ituated  on  the  facoand  was  imperfect;   but  it  was  reserved  tar  Do 

edges  of  a  tall  dilT  at  the  extremity  of  a  pri>-  r£|K'e  to  inaugurate  the  syi^tem  of  i 

mout4iry  on  the  N.  W.  end  of  tho  i^-luiid.    Tho  by  natural  signs.    Pervira,   WallLs, 

house<«,  many  of  which  aro  excavated  fr(»m  tlie  li^>net,  and  Ponce  had  initmcted  a  few 

rock,  are  place«l  one  ahuve  another,  15  or  20  rirb  men,  and  men  of  high  rank,  but  bo 

deep,  the  lowest  t»eing4<N)  feet  alH>ve  the  water,  only  tlie  improvement  of  thine  who  coold 

Tlivy  ore  appniached  by  means  uf  a  winding  pay  for  instruocion.     When  he  cucnmeoeed  bio 

ruad  an<l  fttairoan-H  cut  iu  tlio  rlitT,  and  reaeliing  labors  as  a  teacher  of  deaf  mntea.  I^  Tfip^  wao 

from  tho  ha*M«  to  tlio  summit.     Viewinl  fnun  not  aware  that  any  works  hail  beea  written 

tlie  s«*a,  nothini;  can  be  more  striking  than  tho  u|Mm  the  subjci't.    Some  time  aAer  he  oorHSea* 

apiH'amuri*  of  thl<«  town,  with  its  d  welling«i  high  tolly  obtxune«l  a  copy  of  Ikmet's  tUd^tetitm  dd  Im 

above  tho  masts  of  the  largekt  iihip4,  or  [n'rched  UtroM  in  S|ianisli,  and  loarnvd  that  laBigaoce  ia 

on  the  edge^  <if  frightful  precipires.     On  tho  order  to  r«>ad  it.     Hut  the  idea  of  iMng  tho 

aum:nit  tho  stvuo  is  scarcely  less  singular,  tho  natural  aigoa  and  geatures  to  comouDiooU  m* 


XFERIES  EPHESIANS                   285 

ftmation  to  the  deaf  mute  was  nnqnestiona-  Upper  Hnngary.    In  1687  the  imperial  general 

Uj  original  with  hioo.    It  was  the  application  Caraffii  established  here  the  famous  bloodj  tri- 

of  a  ]»iiicip]e  which,  in  eenerol  terms,  he  hod  bmial  which  cansed  the  torturing  and  execution 

amirad  in  youth,  that  ideas  were  substantive,  ofa  very  large  number  of  patriots,  especially  Prot- 

and  had  no  necessary  connection  with  words  estonts.    The  executions  took  place  on  the  public 

written  or  spoken ;  to  find  the  means  of  pre-  square  before  the  windows  of  the  general,  and 

MBting  ideas  to  the  mind  of  the  deaf  mute,  death  on  the  gallows  was  regarded  as  compara- 

without  the  intervention  of  words,  was  the  tively  mild  and  merciful.    In  1848  and  1849  £pe- 

fNiblem  which  De  r£p6e  set  himself  to  solve,  ries  was  successively  in  the  possession  of  the  revo- 

■ad  in  the  gestures  and  signs  by  which  mutes  lutionists,  of  the  Austrians,  and  of  the  Russians. 

vm  aoeoatomed  to  convey  their  thoughts  and  EPERNAY,  an  ancient  French  town,  capital 

(to  others,  he  found  the  key  to  its  solu-  of  the  arrondissement  of  the  same  name,  in  the 

To  extend,  amplify,  and  systematize  this  department  of  Mame,  situated  in  a  fertile  valley 

ge  of  signs,  was  thenceforth  his  work,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  river  Mame,  20  m.  from 

it  was  well  done.    Others  have  since  intro-  Oh&lons,  on  the  railway  from  Paris  to  Stras- 

id  many  and  important  improvements,  but  bourg;  pop.  in  1856,  9,182.    It  presents  a  live- 

tta  imndation  was  laid  and  the  walls  of  the  ly,  bustling  appearance,  and  has  a  number  of 

■pMitiiietnre  reared  by  him.    From  1755,  the  manufactories,  a  theatre,  a  public  library  of 

Hsef  his  first  establishment  of  a  school  for  10,000  volumes,  and  a  fine  city  hall.    It  is  the 

dnf  nnitea,  till  his  death  in  1789,  a  period  of  great  entrepot  of  the  trade  in  Champagne  wine. 

Myaan,  he  supported  the  school  entirely  at  his  EPHAH,  one  of  the  measures  in  use  among 

upeuae^  receiving  no  remuneration  from  the  Hebrews,  both  for  things  dry  and  liquid. 

public  or  private  sources.    As  his  school  As  a  liquid  measure,  it  was  the  same  as  the  bath 

became  lai^  and  his  patrimony  was  but  or  firkin,  and  contained  about  7i  gallons.    As  a 

he  was  compelled  to  exercise  the  most  dry  or  hollow  measure,  it  was  one-tenth  of  the 

l(|H  economy.  Even  in  his  76th  year  he  insisted  homer,  and  was  equal  to  10  omers  or  gomers. 

m  dspriving  himself  of  fire  in  his  own  room  in  It  held  a  little  more  than  1^  bushels  of  our 

mint  to  siHtain  his  school.    But  though  thus  measure.    There  was,  however,  a  difference  be- 

■nilBUt  and  economical  in  his  own  expenditure,  tween  the  measures,  weights,  &c.,  of  the  He- 

m  voold  not  reodve  the  chfldren  of  those  who  brews  before  and  after  the  captivity. 

aUe  to  remunerate  him,  nor  would  he  EPHEMERA  (Gr.  r^^cpor,  that  which  lasts 
i  eren  from  crowned  heads  any  pension,  a  day),  the  name  given  by  Linnaeus  to  a  genus 
It,  or  gratuity.  When  the  ambassador  of  of  insects  of  the  order  neuroptera,  so  named 
le  II.  intimated  to  him  that  his  royid  from  their  appearing  in  the  winged  state  only 
desired  to  make  him  some  valuable  for  the  short  period  of  a  day,  though  in  the 
^fts  for  his  service  to  the  unfortunate,  he  asked,  larva  and  nymph  states  they  are  said  to  live 
aiaspecialfavor,  that  she  would  send  him  some  beneath  the  surface  of  the  water  for  2  or  8 
rant  deaf  and  dumb  child  from  her  dorain-  years.  Appearing  above  this,  in  the  air,  gener- 
whom  he  might  educate.  To  Joseph  II.  of  ally  toward  the  evening  in  fine  summer  wea- 
who  pressed  him  to  receive  the  annual  ther,  they  provide  for  the  continuation  of  their 
I  of  one  of  his  estates,  he  replied  by  race  and  die.  Though  but  frail  and  delicate  in- 
wttfotst  that  he  would  send  him  some  per-  sects,  they  have  been  found,  in  certain  districts 
whom  he  might  instruct  in  the  art  of  teach-  in  France,  covering  the  ground  in  such  enor- 
tbe  deaf  and  dumb,  and  who  might  then  mous  numbers  that  they  have  been  collected  by 
ish  an  institution  for  them  in  Austria,  cart  loads  for  manure.  One  species,  the  ephe- 
the  first  his  methods  of  instruction  were  mera  albipennis,  or  white-winged,  is  sometimes 
i;  in  this  he  was  imitated  only  by  Heinicke,  seen  in  such  quantities  by  the  banks  of  rivers, 
of  IUlo  spirit  Widlis,  Pereira,  and  Braid-  that  tliey  whiten  the  air  and  the  ground  like 
an  kept  their  processes  secret,  designing  drifting  snow, 
la  kaive  them  as  heirlooms  to  their  families.  EPHESIANS,  Epistlb  to  the,  one  of  the 
Alranxe  statoe  has  been  erected  to  the  memory  canonical  books  of  the  New  Testament,  written 
tf  Sto  l^£p£e  at  Versailles,  and  a  bass-relief  by  St  Paul  during  the  earlier  part  of  his  im- 
fhsid  fai  toe  church  of  St.  Sulpice,  by  citizens  prisonment  in  Rome  (about  A.  D.  62),  and  com- 
if  Sweden.  In  the  imperial  institute  of  the  monly  believed  to  have  been  addressed  to  the 
fanddnmbat  Paris,  a  tablet  commemorates  church  at  Ephesus,  though  Marcion,  Grotius, 
voith  and  his  noble  deeds.  In  1855  the  and  others  have  maintained  that  it  is  the  epistle 
anmversary  of  the  establishment  of  to  the  church  in  Laodicea  which  is  usually  sup- 
school  for  deaf  mutes  was  celebrated  at  posed  to  have  been  lost,  and  Archbishop  Usher 
~  I,  and  was  largely  attended  by  delegations  that  it  was  a  circular  letter  intended  for  no 
ioititntions  for  the  deaf  and  dumb  in  other  church  in  particular.  This  epistle  is  written, 
of  Europe.  says  Macknight,  as  it  were  in  a  rapture,  and  ex- 
lES,  a  town  ofnorthem  Hungary,  on  the  presses  in  on  elevated  style  the  fulness  of  the 
.  MIHtal  of  the  county  of  Saros,  in  the  dis-  apostle's  joy  on  learning  the  steadfast  faith  of 
Msl  ciTKaachan;  pop.  about  9,000.  It  is  one  the  church  which  he  had  founded.  Without 
if  tta  most  ancient  and  interesting,  and,  after  presenting  any  strictly  marked  divisions,  it 
the  most  beautiful  of  the  towns  of  treats  especially  of  the  mystery  and  blessedness 


286  EPHESU3  EPHOBI 

of  the  ftchomo  of  rodcmption,  tnd  doses  with  be  aHowed  to  inscribe  hU  own  name  upon  th« 

cxhurtationH   to  varions   duties^  to  fortitude,  frontispiece.    Tlie  pride  of  the  Epbesians  reject- 

watrhfiilnc^  and  prarer.  ed  the  offer,  and  it  was  restored  bj  the  eonbiaed 

ZrilESUS,  one  of  the  13  Ionian  cities  of  Asia  and  enthusiastic  efforts  of  all  the  Ionian  citia^ 

Minor,  situated  on  the  west<;m  coast,  near  the  under  the  direction  of  the  architect  Dinocratac 

mouth  of  the  Caystrus.    According?  to  the  le-  The  right  of  asylum  extended  for  a  itadHia 

pends  it  was  founded  by  the  Amazons,  when  around  it;  but  this  pririlege,  which  canaed  th« 

they  descended  from  the  banks  of  the  Thermo-  town  to  bo  orerrun  with  criminalSi  wasabottsbaA 

don  to  combat  Theseus.    It  was  inhabited  by  by  Augustus.    Under  the  emperors  tba  Bwdak 

the  Cnrian!*  and  Lclegea,  who  were  expelled  and  of  £phi*sus  bore  a  representation  of  the  templiu 

succcediMl  by  Ionian  colonies  under  Androclus,  Ephesus  was  risited  A.   D.  64  by  St.   Paal^ 

stm  iif  Codrus,  tlie  last  king  of  Athens.    The  whose  preaching  occasioned  a  famona  tnmalL 

Greek  genius  of  the  new  inhabitant^  the  mild-  and  to  the  Christiana  there  he  directed  one  or 

ncss  of  the  climate,  the  richness  of  the  soil,  the  his  epistles.    It  was  the  seat  of  one  of  "tha 

favornble  Itcation  for  commerce,  and  above  all  seven  churches  which  are  in  Asia«**  and  the  Id 

the  worship  of  Diana,  which  was  said  to  have  oecumenical  council  was  held  there  in  43U  ta 

been  instituted  there  by  the  Amazons,  made  this  the  reign  of  Theodosius  II.    Upon  a  part  of  tht 

city  the  most  im|»ortant  metropolis  of  western  site  of  ancient  Ephesus  w  the  Turkish  Tillafa 

Asia.    It  was  governed  by  a  senate  and  bjr  dep-  of  Ay  a  Soulook,  and  the  entire  disappearmDee  cf 

utics,  and  maintained  its  independence  till  the  so  huge  a  mass  as  the  temple  of  DianA  caa  oa^f 

reii^u  of  Cr(s<»u:«  of  Lydia,  who  attached  it  to  his  bo  accounted  for  by  suppoaing  thai  thm  maim* 

kingdom.    It  then  passed  snocessiwly  under  the  rials  were  carried  away  and  incorporated  iaUm 

power  uf  Persia,  Macedon,  and  Rome.    The  Ro-  other  buildings.  (See  **Ephesas  ana  tbe  Tcnala 

man^  governed  it  as  tlio  capital  of  western  Asia,  of  Diana,^*  by  Edward  Falkener,  London,  1957.) 
by  tlifir  pruconsuls,  and  made  it  the  centre        EI'HOD,  one  of  the  articles  of  the  oflUal 

of  a  great  cotumcree.    It  was  called  by  Pliny  dress  worn  by  the  Ilcbrew  prieata,  oonsutinf  flf 

**the  light  of  Asia.''    It  declined  early  in  the  two  nartS|  one  co%*ering  the  breaai  and  the  octe 

middle  ages,  and  at  present  its  site  is  covered  the  i>ack,  and  both  united  npon  the  abonldar^ 

with  rubbish  and  vegetation,  and  there  remains  and  sometimes  described  as  thrown  orar  tka 

only  the  remembrance  of  its  post  history  and  of  shouldent,  hanging  down  before,  croaaad  open 

its  mognificezit  temple  of  Diana.    Ephesus  was  the  breast,  and  then  carried  round  the  waist  la 

one  uf  tlie  cities  which  claimed  the  honor  of  hav-  serve  as  a  girdle  for  the  robe.     It  woa  of  two 

ing  given  birth  to  Homer.   It  was  the  birthplace  kinds :  one  of  phiin  linen,  for  the  prieata ;  and  Iha 

of  the  fainoU!i  pointer  Parrhasius,  and  fierhapt  other,  for  the  high  iiriest,  *^of  gol<L  and  blM^ 

of  A|iell<r*i,  uf  the  philosophers  Ileraclitus  and  and  purjde,  and  stcarlct.  and  fine  twined  Uneo,^ 

Hermotiurus  and  of  the  i>uet  Ilipponax,  the  in-  richly  ciiibruiderctL    On  the  shoulders  of  the 

ventor  uf  the  panxly.     Rut  its  chief  glory  and  high  priest^s  ephod  were  two  onyx  stooeSi  sal 

ornaiiKMit  wa*  itii  magnificent  temple,  soon  after  in  guM.  having  engraved  on  them  the  names  of 

the  deNtnictinn  of  which  hj  the  Guths,  the  city  the  12  triU's,  6  on  each  stone;  and  wberi  il 

ilMrIf  went  to  decay.  The  nrst  foundation  of  the  crossed  the  breast  was  a  squarv  ornament,  caUal 

temple  was  anterior  to  the  arrival  uf  the  Ionian  the  |K.vtoraI  or  breoiitplate,  in  which  were  sal 

cttlonies  in  A-ia  Minor,  wlio  found  the  worship  12  precious  stones,  each  Iwaring  the  name  cf 

of  Artemis  or  Diana  already  established  there,  one  uf  the  12  tribes  engraved  on  iL  The  ginfia 

It  was  etilargi**!  ainl  7  times  rr^tored  at  the  ex-  was  probably  woven  mith  the  eplmd,  or  nvan  IC; 

pen^e  of  all  Ama,  and  Uramc  one  of  tho  7  won-  so  that  c<»ming  out  from  it,  on  each  aide,  it  w« 

diTs  of  tho  World.     Itn  K-ngth  wa«  425  fcit,  and  brouglit  round  under  the  arms  like  a  sash,  aal 

iti  width  *220  ftvt.     Its  nwif  of  ci-ilur,  re<>tins  on  tied  on  the  breast,  thus  securing  both  the  ephol 

a  marl  lie  eiitaltlature,  wa^  hU|ip<ir  It'll  by  127  or  and  thu  robo.     The  ephod,  or  something  hka 

12*«  ciiiiiiiin\  t*.!)  iVit  high,  carh  of  tlieni,  ac>*urd-  it,  and  called  by  the  Kaine  name,  was  worn  bf 

ing  to  riiiiv,  tlie  gilt  of  a  king.     Tlio  Htatuc  of  others  lic^ide  the  priestn 
the  gi><lile^  Dt:ina  wax  of  ivorv,  and  furni«>hed        EI'IIOKI  (Ur.  ttpapo^  to  ovcraeeX  popolv 

mith   ix>|ui«iti  ly    wri>ii;!ht    pJden   ornaments.  magi!»trateri  at  Sp.nrta  from  the  earlie<  tiasc^ 

Thin  w.ai  tin*  I«r;r**t  of  tljo  Greek  tiMuple^  ocrti-  The  oritrin  uf  the  office  was  variously  ascribed  M 

pvitig  fimre  th:iii  4  tinii*4  the  arei  of  the  Tartlie-  Lycur^nLs  to  Theo|M>mpu«,  and  to  llie  era  of  Iho 

non  ut  Ath<ri«.    The  anrhitecinral  beatify  of  the  fir»t  Me4M.>nian  war.  but  it  aecms  to  have 


interior  wa«  Ii.  itrhienul  by  iho  pre<k*nce  of  the  t«>«>  ancient  for  it4  in<(titution  to  be  hisU>rieaO|f 

niu^tcrpiiivHof  tlif  iiiiMtcminintartiotsandtho  tnuvd.     The  authority  of  the  ephori  was  d^ 

mraldi  w  liif-U  it  rtkiitain*'«l  waw  f|tialleil  only  by  signed  as  a  counterpoise  to  that  ol  the  kings 

I' Inch  Al- 


thut  at  Dilplii.     During  tho  night  im  wliich  Al-  council,  and  hence  Ci^x^ru  has  inuitntcd  a 

cx-ihilt-r  wan  I'orn,  in  'AM,  tliis  niagniticent  Atruc-  pari s« in  between  the  S|>artan  eplioralty  and  tho 

iun  wa«  hiirni-'l  {•*  th«)  ground,  by  the  caprice  of  K«inmn  tribunate.     They  were  5  in  number,  and 

a  r<  rt  III!  Krii*triitM«.  wlio  avnwed  that  he  had  cho^'U  from  and  by  the  people  with*>i]t  any 

ni>  I'thiT  i'l>j«H:i  tlinn  to  iinniiirtaii/e  his  name,  qualification  of  age  or  property.     The  tD«)de  eC 

litilii  Utir.  whin  th««  Mfi«-«*donian  kin^  had  their  election  is  nol  now  known.   ArittoCle  raai 


il   III"  <iriiii.Pi*.  bi«  i.rtV  r,^l  to  nbiiild  the    it  puerile,  and  it  is  »upp«.»«c«l  lo  ha«e  l**n  bf 
i>  uiih  ill  fiifnirr  maguidccnce,  if  hemight    aome  speciet  of  loL    They  held  thcir 


EPHBAEM  SYBIJS  EHO                        287 

ftr  oiM  yeir,  enteriDg  npon  it  at  the  antnm-  published  by  Pins  Zingerle,  at  Innsprnck,  from 

aal  tdbtioei,  the  bmnning  of  the  Lacedffimonian  1880  to  1888.    A  tasteful  English  translation 

yetr.    They  met  daily  and  took  their  meala  to-  of  several  choice  hymns,  songs,  and  homilies 

(echar,  in  the  building  in  which  foreigners  and  was  made  by  Henry  Bargess  ('^  Select  Metrical 

■mbMMdon  were  entertained.    They  had  jadi-  Hymns  and  Homilies  of  Ephraem  Sy ras,"  2  vols. 

tmX  authority  in  civil  cases,  and  the  power  to  London,  1853).    A  new  complete  edition  is  ex- 

Budsd  semtinies  into  the  conduct  of  all  magis-  pected  to  be  published  soon  in  Germany  by  Als- 

trateiL    In  early  times  the  privileges  of  the  office  leben,  who  in  1853  wrote  a  life  of  Ephraem. 

w«re  soeh  that  in  the  hands  of  able  men  it  might  EPHRAIM,  a  city  mentioned  by  St.  John 

ba  made  an  instromentof  unlimited  power,  and  as  *\near  to  the  wilderness,''  with  no  farther 

In  later  times  even  the  kings  were  called  before  clue  to  its  position.    The  wilderness  referred  to 

ili  tribmia],  and  the  assemblies  of  the  people  is  doubtless  the  wild  and  rocky  desert  of  Judaa, 

wera  eonvened  only  by  its  authority.    During  and  the  town  is  located  byEusebius  8  m.  and 

tta  Pek>ponne8ian  war  the  kings  became  com-  by  St.  Jerome  20  m.  N.  of  Jerusalem.    Dr. 

|l0tdy  nnder  the  control  of  the  ephori,  so  that  Robinson  identifies  it  with  the  modem  Taiyibeh, 

the  latter  received  foreign  ambassadors,  sub-  5  m.  N.  E.  from  Bethel,  and  overlooking  the 

•eribed  treaties  of  peace,  and  sent  out  armies ;  desert  country  which  lies  between  it  and  the 

aai  even  on  the  battle  field  the  king  was  at-  valley  of  the  Jordan. 

toaded  by  8  ephori  as  councillors  of  war.    The  EPHRAIM,  2d  son  of  Joseph,  the  founder  of 

ifhoralty  is  thought  by  Mdller  to  have  been  the  the  tribe  of  Ephraim.    This  tribe  occupied  one 

«BN  of  the  instability  and  final  dissolution  of  of  the  finest  and  most  fruitful  territories  of 

fti  BpMtan  atate.    The  kings  were  obliged  to  Palestine,  in  the  very  centre  of  the  land.    It  in- 

coBt  popular  favor  in  order  to  uphold  their  eluded  most  of  the  province  afterward  called 

■omr,  and  thus,  contrary  to  the  spirit  of  the  Samaria,  and  contained  many  of  the  historically 

Bpsrtan  constitution,  the  government  became  a  most  distinguished  places  of  Palestine  between 

dnoeracy  instead  of  an  aristocracy.  The  ephori  the  Jordan  and  the  Mediterranean,  having  the 

keme  at  length  assodated  with  all  opposition  tribes  of  Dan  and  Bei^amin  on  the  S.  and  of 

Id  the  extension  of  popular  privileges,  and  the  Manasseh  on  the  K    It  was  crossed  by  the 

iflee  was  abolished  lor  a  time  by  Agis  and  mountain  range  bearing  its  name.    The  tribe 

Gbomeneai    It  was,  however,  restored  by  the  of  Ephrmm,  numerous  and  influential,  often  ap- 

Bsnian^.  pears  as  the  representative  of  the  10  tribes,  or 

EPHRAEM  STRITS  (the  Syrian  saint),  the  the  northern  Hebrew  state,  both  in  historical 

WMt  prominent  instructor  of  the  old  Syrian  and  prophetical  passages  of  the  Scriptures.    It 

chnreh,  and  one  of  the  most  prolific  theological  held  for  a  long  time  the  ark  and  the  tabernacle 

vrifeers  of  the  early  Christian  church  in  general,  at  Shiloh. 

lied  probably  in  878.    He  was  first  teacher  at  a  EPIC  (Gr.  rtrcKOf,  from  rtror,  speech),  one  of 

sebcKH  in  Nisibis,  and  afterward  took  up  his  the  8  styles  of  poetical  composition,  distingaish- 

sbode  at  Edessa,  which  was  already  becoming  ed  from  the  lyric  by  representing  action  rather 

the  centre  of  Syrian  scholarship.    He  subse-  than  emotion,  and  from  the  dramatic  by  repre- 

nently  lived  near  Edessa  as  a  hermit,  devoting  senting  events  through  narration  instead  of 

dl  his  time  to  prayer,  the  study  of  the  Bible,  through  imitative  action.  In  a  general  sense,  it 

md  the  writing  of  theological  works  against  the  may  embrace  all  poetry  and  fiction  that  are 

mains  of  paganism  in  his  country,  and  the  chiefly  of  a  narrative  character,  as  the  media)val 

keresies  of  nis  times.    It  is  believed  that  he  metrical  romances  and    the  modem  novels; 

ioanded  at  Edessa  a  theological  school,  and  spent  but  it  is  more  properly  applied  to  poems  which 

8  years  in  Egypt,  where  he  is  said  to  have  be-  follow  the  history  of  national  or  niythological 

aoDie  acquainted  with  Basil  the  Great,  to  have  events  of  momentous  interest    The  epic  gives 

been  c^rdiuned  by  him  a  deacon,  and  to  have  external  and  plastic  views  of  life,  deals  with 

vritten  works  in  the  Coptic  language.    He  was  masses  of  men  animated  by  the  same  political 

aaUed  by  his  countrymen  the  cithara  of  the  Holy  or  religious  idea,  and  illustrates  the  character 

Giioat,  and,  because  he  transplanted  Greek  learn-  and  problem  of  a  nation,  or  civilization,  unlike 

into  the  Syrian  church,  the  prophet  of  the  the  drama,  which  treats  of  individual  character 

L    His  ascetic  and  exegetio  works  were  and  fortunes.    Thus  the  conquest  of  Troy,  the 

in  the  early  church  so  highly,  that  pas*  theme  of  Homer^s  "  Iliad,"  was  an  object  of 

were  fircKjuenUy  read  from  them  at  the  national  and  religious  enthusiasm  to  all  the 

a  meetings.    Hymns  and  prayers  which  Greeks ;  the  conquest  of  Jerusalem,  the  sub- 

ribed  to  him  are  still  in  use  in  the  Chal-  ject  of  Tasso^s  Oerusalemme  Liherata,  was  a 

Syrian,  and  Maronite  churches.    Some  of  matter  of  highest  interest  to  all  Christendom ; 

Mi  nmerous  works  are  extant  in  the  original  and  the  sacred  subjects  in  Dante^s  Divina  Com" 

flfriaei  many  others  exist  in  Greek,  Latin,  and  m^ia  and  in  Milton's  "  Paradise  Lost'^  may  be 

JUBCoian  translations,  and  many  are  lost.    The  regarded  as  typical  of  Christian  thought  and 

eomplete  edition  was  published  at  Rome  civilization.    The  Bamayana  and  the  Mdha- 

178S  to  1746,  in  6  volumes,  8  of  which  Iharata  are  celebrated  ancient  Indian  epics,  and 

\  the  works  in  Syriac  with  a  Latin  trans-  the  French  romances  of  the  trouvhe*  and  the 

S  the  Greek  texts.    A  good  German  German  Nihelungenlicd  are  of  an  epical  char- 

of  a  large  portion  of  his  works  was  acter.   Other  epio  poems  are  the  Persian  ShcLhr 


238  EPICIIARMUB  KPiOUBUS 

Xamfh  of  FirduHi,  the  **  Odrwic^**  of  Homer,  est,  and  with  groat  faith  in  Roman  inaanef 

and  ihe  Araonautiea  of  AfHAUmiDB  in  Greek;  society  thej  caroil  little  for  the  aolutio 

the  **  ^ntrid '*  cif  Virgil,  the  "  Pharsalia**  of  La-  mctaphymcid  problems.    Seneea,  Epictetm 

can,  and  the  Punica  of  Silius  Italicofl,  in  I^tin;  Marcus  Aurehns  were  only  monlists,  and 

the  **  Lusiad**  of  CamoOns  in  Portugneae;  tho  stoicism  was  only  Roman  heroUm  rednoei 

Amucatia  of  Ercilla  in  Spanbh;  the  Orlando  system.     Their  philosophy  woa  a  acbeii! 

Furioto  of  ArtoHto  in  Italian;  tho  Uenriade  of  practical  duties,  hnd,  regarded  abalnrtly 

Voltaire  in  French ;  and  the  **  Messias^  of  Klop-  neither  tliorough  nor  consistent.      Thos 

stock   in  Crennan.     Goethe*8    Hermann   unJ  prucloimed  the  reason,  but  reason  with 

DorotKea  also  may  be  called  a  domestic  epic.  became  merged  in  c^m  and  unswerving 

£riCIIARMU8,  a  Greek  dramatic  poet,  the  pose.    They  demonstraled  a  proTid«?nc« 

founder  of  tho  old  Doric  comedy,  born  on  the  their  providence  was  destiny.    Tlie  teac 

i«Iand  of  Cm  about  640,  died  in  450,  or,  accord-  of  Epictetus  are  summed  up  in  the  fun 

ing  to  Lucian,  448  H.  C.    lie  repaired  to  Syra-  **  Bear  and  forbear/*    Recognizing  only 

cuse  in  484  or  493   B.  C-.,  where  ho  passed  and  reason,  his  highest  conception  of  Vii 

tlie  remainder  of  his  life,   and  at  tho  court  to  be  passionless  in  whatever  cirrnmstj 

of  Iliero  he  made  acquaintance  with  several  ^* Man,** he  said,  ^*is  but  a  pilot;  obs«rv 

|ioets  nm<»ng  whom  was  .Ivichylns,  the  father  star,  hold  the  rudder,  and  be  not  distract 

of  (rrcek  tragedy.    Ho  conceived  the  idea  of  thy  way.**     Epictetus  himself  b  uipposi 

transfi inning    the    loosely  constructed  farces  hare  committed  nothing  to  writ ine.     Tbi 

of  which  the  Sicilian  comedy  consisted  into  edition  of  all  the  remaining  works  of  A 

pieces  as  n'gnlar  and  correct  as  the  Athenian  is  that  of  Schwcighuuser,  in  the  cnllcctio 

tragedies.     Ho  effected  as  great  a  reform  in  titled  JCpictrtra  Philotnpkim   J/^nunwnl 

comi'dy  as  if*!iichylus  in  tragedy,  diminishing  yoK  8vo.,   Leipsic,   If^OO).    Tlicy   were 

the  number  of  tlie  actors,  iutrot^ucing  a  more  translated  int«)  English  by  Elizabeth  C 

elegant  and  poetic  language  and  a  more  elabor-  (London,  175H). 

att;  plot.     Ho  was  the  author  of  62,  or,  accord-        EPICURUS,  a  Grecian  philo«opoer,  br 

ingto  others,  of  SJS  comedies,  of  which  only  tho  the  island  of  Saro(»s  in  342,  dtinl  in  27«> 

titles  remain.     His  works  m'ero  especially  es-  The  son  (»f  a  ctilonist  from  Ganrcttn^  a  d 

teemed  by  Plato,  who  has  made  many  quota-  of  Attica,  he  rervivotl  his  early  cdaratH 

tiuns  from  them.  his  nativi'  island.     When  IR  year*  t-f  a^ 

EPICTETTUS,   a  Roman  stoic    philosopher,  went  to  A  then  ^  whore  he  beranif  a  jiuf 

born  in  Hierapolis,  in  Phrygia,  in  the  first  cen-  Pamphilius,  and  an  ailmin-r of  tliv  dtMtr.n 

turv  of  our  era,  dic<l  near  tho  middle  of  the  2d  I>fnuM*ritu«t.     In  hin  23d   voar  l.«r  ri.tum 

contnrr.     Ho  was  in  his  youth  a  Mave  of  Epa-  hi;*  family,  then  Itvin;;  at  I'olnphttn.  trai 

J»linHlituSy  who  w&s  one  of  tho  guards  of  Nvro.  fur  t(i>viTal  yours  nnil  finally  in  hi^  :^>:h 

t  wa-)  under  the  training  of  this  cruel  mas-  s<*ttliMl  at  AtfirU'*.  There  hocsTaMi-htil  a* 

tor  t!int  he  di'VcIi>piMl  tho  admimblo  paticnoo  of  philnsiitthy,  and  hi4  faiui^  hhiii  a!tr»r 

for  whicli  ho  wan  di>tingiii!)he<l.     Epaphroditus  gr<.>:it  fiunil>iT  of  M'hulaM.     Wit!i  t!irin  hr 

haviufT  once  struck  him  heavily  u|M>n  the  leg,  btituted  a  nmitnunity  wliich  hxs  alw:tw 

ho  said   to   hiH  ma'^ter:   **  You  will  break  my  cnnMilered  a-*  a  ukhM  nf  it*i  kind.     Ho  «•::, 

leg.**    Tho   preiliction    was    si>eedily   fulfilled,  the  ri->]iort  and  lnvo  of  his  fiilli»wer«  ;«i  » 

when  (ho  pliilo^ophio  «la>o  paid  a;;ain  calmly;  do;:ree  thnt  his  H:i>inpthad  almost  the  ^x 

'*  l>id  not  I  toll  \ou  vou  would  bri'ak  it  ?**   Thi-«  orat-le-.     No  i>thor  unriont  H'h(i«»l  of  p!jil.<" 

extreme  insenMhility  t«>  pain  was  a  fundamental  Iuls  evinroil  a  cohesive  (h-iwit  Ci^ual  t>*  tL 

prinriplo  in  the  phiIo««iphy  of  Epictetus.     He  EpicnriH.      EpioiiroaniMn  lixs,  in  thf  r»i'.:r 

Decaine  a  frii*d  man,  though  neither  the  cause  time,  Uvonie  ulnio^i  a  hynonymo  of  ^-r^-u 

nor  the  time  of  this  chan^i*  in  his  condition  U  or  at  lea^t  a  rotinnl  \oluiitiiouM:es«.  nhtU 

known.     He  was  involved  in  tho  pr«>scription  in;;  m'lLs  further  fniin  the  meaning;  ^f  hti 

by  whieh  liomitian  bani^hisl  all  philoM>phers  trinos.    It  is  true  that  he  tau^'ht  «tx^iM<tMk« 

frum  Komo,  and  retired  to  NioofMklLs  in  Ejiinis  thu  hi^he»t  eutl  ami  i»tir|MiM.>  of  huTiian  \:U 

where  ho  opened  a  m'IkhiI  (»f  Moicism,  and  hold  this  uonl  wa>  intiiwU^il  to  dosi^rn.'ite  a  %Xa 

tho^*  c«>n Vernations  wit ich  have  iH'en  presiTVod  Miprome  mmtal  Mi«s  to  U*  att.iiniii  **t\\ 

tit  us  in  the  *'  Manu.ir*  and  **  Philiviophiral  Ia-c-  tem|KTanro,  chastity,  and  a  healthy  iiiti  Il«. 

tures*' w hit -h  Were  c<imj>ilo«l  from  his discour«09  dovtlopniont.     That  Mi^s,  r«in'»i«!injr  ib  a 

by  hi4  pupil  .\rrian.     Hi'  prttbal'ly  returned  to  fi-ot  ro |m»m.>  nf  mind,  in  an  iiju-lilTi-i?:i  i 

Home  at\or  the  deatli  of  lKimiti.in.  but  no  other  mental  fai-ultios  and  pa»«ion«.  is  \^  7\.\\^ 

details  of  his  life  have  l»eon  preserved-     I.iko  v*Ty  tlilTorent  fn»m  the  ^tato  ••!' miu'!  »?»  • 

tho  i>tlior  fttoii^  philtXM^phcrs,  he  taught  by  hin  Moio<i  r«insidoreil  a.s  the  aome  of  human  jx 

example.    He  e^teemeilphilos4ipliy  to  ln^neitlier  ti<iii,  althoii^'h  thoy  wi-re  the  mi**t  uv.r*  iei 

pn>roun<l  •{MH'uIation  nor  oli>«]Ueut  disci>ur*«,  but  advor^aries  uf  KpiiMireain*tm.     lVr**>;iAliy 

the  love  and  prat'tirv  of  virtue.     Tho  few  \\n-  criru**  w.i<i  a  man  of  un^nUifil  muroliTy.   Hi 

mans  who  cull ivate*!  phil'Htiphy  Worn  all  ech*o-  a  mo«t    voIiiniiniiii«    uriter  (!rf>Ai7;M^vrt 

ties  and  Platonists  in  metaphyNirs  and  i»toii*s  in  ^ays  hio;^'nes  Li«  rtiu*.  nho  estimate'*  t)  oj 

moral  philoM.tphy.     Ethics  was  tho  only  part  of  Iht  of  hi^  work^  at  .'!•*•>  nr  niitrv.     He  i-s 

philosophy  io  which  they  took  a  serious  inter-  of  having  never  usc<i  any  i|Uotauuas  in  urd 


EPICURUS  EPICYCLOID                 289 

■well  Mb  Tolnmes.    Few  of  his  writings  have  rns  flows  directlj  from  his  natnra*  philosophy. 

been  preserved,  but  a  full  analysis  of  his  doc-  The  human  soul,  according:  to  him,  is  a  deli- 

trines  is  to  be  found  in  Diogenes  Laertius,  and  cate   and  extremely   mobile   substance,   con- 

thiSitaken  in  connection  with  numerous  passages  sisting  of  the  minutest  round  atoms.    Its  ele- 

in  the  writingi  of  Lucretius,  Cicero,  Plmy,  and  ments  are  warmth,  air,  breath,  and  another 

otheriigiTesasafullinsightintohisphilosophi-  nameless  substance  on  which  sensibility  de- 

calsjitenL    Within  the  present  century  a  frag*  pends.  While  the  8  first  named  are  distributed 

ment  of  his  book  on  nature  has  been  recovered  through  the  whole  body,  the  4th  has  its  seat 

from  the  ruins  of  Herculaneum,  and  published  by  principally  in  the  pectoral  cavity,  and  is,  as  it 

Ordli  (Leipsic,  1818).   Philosophy,  according  to  were,  the  soul  of  tlie  soul.    The  soul  is  not  im- 

^MCiima,  is  the  exertion  to  obtain  happiness  by  mortal ;  nevertheless  death  is  by  no  means  to 

mioning.  The  supreme  bliss  (cvdaifuwrio)  is  en-  be  considered  as  an  evil,  since  there  remains  no 

Jojinent  mnd  perfect  freedom  from  pidn.  Enjoy-  consciousness  of  annihilation  after  death.    Of 

nent  is  either  passive,  when  a  perfect  repose  of  all  objects  filling  space  infinitely  delicate  images 

mind  is  its  principal  condition,  or  active  (rjdovrj  are  secreted.    These  images,  coming  into  con- 

mrmmiiManKfi  and  cvfuyijo-ca).    The  former  is  tactwiththeorgansof  sense,  create  perceptions. 

prderable  to  the  latter.    It  is  the  state  of  ab-  The  conceptions  of  ima^nation  are  arbitrary 

Bolote  absence  of  piun.    Sensations,  whether  combinations  of  such  debcate  images  of  real  ob- 

ifieeable  or  disagreeable,  are  of  the  same  na-  jects.     By  frequent  perceptions  the  human 

tirs;  it  is  only  the  consequences  which  consti-  mind  attains  to  general  abstractions,  which  are 

Irts  their  difference.    Hence  it  is  the  province  merely  collective  conceptions  of  the  features 

of  reason  to  cUscem  them  according  to  the  ulti-  common  to  a  larger  or  smaller  number  of  indi- 

Bite  effect  they  produce.    Virtue  in  itself,  ir-  vidual  perceptions.    Since  the  senses  are  the 

iwcctive  of  its  consequences,  has  no  value,  receivers  of  mechanical  secretions  of  objects 

]i  IS  merely  the  result  of  wisdom  and  sagacity  (images),  the  knowledge  obtained  through  them 

(^yiw|ytg),  which  prove  to  man  that  happiness  is  real  and  objective,  the  only  correct  standard 

a  obIj  to  be  attained  by  charity,  pcacefmncss,  of  truth ;  but  the  workings  of  imagination,  be- 

tMoperance,  patience,  self-command.    Human  ing  likewise  the  result  of  sensitive  perception, 

or  natural  rights  are  merely  restraints  of  indi-  although  an  indirect  one,  point  also  to  existing 

vUnsl  action,  imposed  by  the  necessities  of  so-  realities.  Hence  it  follows  tliat  the  universality 

cisl  Ufe.     It  is  self-interest  which  enjoins  us  to  of  the  belief  in  the  existence  of  a  Supreme  Be- 

do  right.  The  repose  of  mind  which  constitutes  ing  is  proof  conclusive  of  such  existence.     The 

hmnan  happiness  being  continuously  disturbed  gods  are  living  beings  of  human  shape  but  co- 

\n  the  uncertainty  of  the  relations  of  man  to  lossal  proportions.    They  also  consist  of  atoms. 

tiEe  uuverse  and  divinity,  Epicurus  proposed  They  are  immortal,  although  their  bodies  are 

to  dispel  that  uncertainty  by  a  reconstruction  of  similar  to  the  human  body.    This  contradiction 

the  stomistic  theories  of  Democritus,  in  the  fol-  is  explained  by  a  certain  equilibrium  of  con- 

Iwing  manner :  Nothing  comes  from  nothing,  trasts  in  the  universe  (ta-ovo^a).    The  gods  are 

That  which  exists  can  never  be  annihilated,  living  in  eternal  bliss,  that  is  to  say,  in  absolute 

AH  matter  consists  of  atoms,  and  these  are  un-  inactivity,  in  the  quiet  enjoyment  of  sublime 

diangeable  and  indivisible,  although  filling  a  wisdom  and  virtue.    The  spaces  between  the 

eertain  space.    Beside  shape,  volume,  gravity,  different  celestial  bodies  (intermundid)  are  the 

nd  motion,  they  have  no  properties.    Their  seats  of  the  gods. 

mmber  is  infinite,  their  shape  indefinitely  va-  EPICYCKE  (Gr.  cttc,  upon,  and  kvkXop,  circle), 

lied.    The  universe  is  infinite,  and,  considered  the  path  of  a  point  moving  uniformly  in  the  oir- 

•s  A  miit,  unchangeable,  for  the  aggregate  quan-  cumference  of  a  circle,  whose  centre  moves  uni- 

ti^  of  matter  remains  always  the  same,  how-  formly  in  the  circumferen.ce  of  a  second  circle, 

ever  its  component  parts  may  combine.    The  whoso  centre  may  move'^  in  the  circumference 

vuTerse  cannot  be  the  product  of  divine  ac-  of  a  third,  &c.    The  epicycle  is  famous  in  the 

lloii,  or  else  the  existence  of  evil  could  not  bo  history  of  science,  as  the  first  attempted  hypoth- 

■eeooDted    for.    The    atoms   blindly   drifting  esis  to  explain  the  irregularity  of  the  planetary 

ttraugh  infinite  space,  and  declining  some-  motion.    The  discussion  of  this  curve  was  an 

vbsl  from  their  course  (through  an  accidental  admirable  mathematical  drill  to  the  early  as- 

ense^  the    nature  of   which    Epicurus  fails  tronomers.    In  modem  times,  the  epicycle  is 

te  explain),  are  mingled  together,  shove  and  used  in  order  to  express  in  a  few  words  the  nu- 

farii  one  another  (the  chaos),  until  the  homo-  merical  value  of  periodical  functions  of  an  un- 

■HMOOs  ones  associate.    The  light  round  atoms  known  law.    Thus  if  the  fluctuations  of  the 

Ue  atoms  of  fire)  are  pushed  upward,  where  thermometer  for  a  day  be  observed,  the  size  and 

Mj  form  the  celestial  bodies ;  those  which  initial  position  of  several  circles  may  be  calcu- 

Me  eomewhat  heavier  form  the  air,  while  the  lated,  such  that  if  the  centre  of  the  2d  move 

^M^iflit  are  precipitated  as  water  and  earth,  uniformly  round  the  Ist  once  in  24  hours,  the  dd 

h  ft  similar  way  the  different  objects  on  earth  round  the  2d  once  in  12  hours,  the  4th  round  the 

as  Cnrmed.    But  the  whole  process  is  mere-  8d  once  in  8  hours,  &c.,  the  height  of  the  oen- 

}f  fli  accidental  aggregation  of  atoms ;  higher  tre  of  the  4th  or  6th  circle  will  ;bo  the  same  as 

eadi  and  ^vine  laws  are  mere  inventions  of  that  of  the  mercury. 

tihe  himan  n^d.    The  psychology  of  Epicu-  EPICYCLOID,  the  path  of  a  point  in  the  cir- 


240  EPIDAURUS  EPEOERiaS 

cnmferonce  of  a  ciirle  rolling;  upon  tho  circnm-  giren  locality,  depending  on  mum  tempomiTv 

ferenco  of  another  circle.    If  the  rolling  circle  accidental,  and  generally  ina|>preciabU 

rolls  upon  the  inside  of  tho  stationary  circle,  the  differing  in  this  rcepect  from  endeinio  d 

cnrve  m  colled  a  hypocycloid.    When  the  point  or  those  developed  nnder  the  infloenea  of 

generating;  the  curve  U  not  in  the  circumference  constant  or  periodic  cause.  Many  diseasM,  ordi- 

of  the  rolling  circle,  but  inside  of  it  on  a  radius,  narily  sporadic,  may  beoome  epidemic  mider  ecr- 

or  outiiide  on  a  radius  prolonged,  the  curves  are  tain  ill-understood  conditions ;  or  soaia  saw  dia- 

called  epitrochoids  or  hypotrochoids  (Gr.  rpo-  case,  introduced  by  contagion  or  other  fkrorabla 

;(Midi}f,  circular).   Epicycloids  and  hypocycloids  circumstances,  may  apread  epidemically.    Tha 

are  remarkable  from  the  fact  Uiat  whenever  limits  of  this  work  will  not  permit  even  an  alla- 

the  diameters  of  the  two  circles  arc  in  exact  nu-  sion  to  the  phenomena  of  development^  priigrea^ 

merical  ratio,  tho  length  of  the  curve  is  abo  in  and  treatment  of  thb  great  category  of  disaasea; 

numerical  ratio  to  tlie  diameters.     They  also  the  investigation  of  their  causes  is  eztreoielv  di^ 

contain  several  curves  interesting  from  their  ficult,  and  has  given  rise  to  the  moat  fanciral,alH 

physical  pro|>erties;  for  instance,  if  the  circles  are  surd,  and  contradictory  opinions ;  and  the  sols- 

of  equal  size,  the  epicycloid  becomes  the  cardi-  tion  of  the  problem  of  a  single  one  inTolvw  a 

oid,  which  is  the  caustic  produced  by  reflection  rigorous  examination  of  the  constitution  id  tha 

from  a  circle,  when  the  luminous  point  is  in  tho  air,  the  conformation  of  the  soil,  tha  Batare  cf 

circumference  ;  if  the  rolling  circle  is  half  tha  the  food,  and  even  the  social  habita  of  a  oooa- 

diamcter  of  the  stationary  circle,  the  epicycloid  try.    The  progressive  sciences  of  meteorokfj 

b  the  caustic  produced  by  the  reflection  of  par-  and  physical    geography  will    probablr 

allel  ravs  from  the  inside  of  a  circle,  while  the  tlirow  additional  light  upon  these  diflcnli 


hypocycloid  becomes  a  straight  line.  tions ;    the  most  important  sanitary  and  hyg^ 

EPl  I )  AU  RU.S  (tho  modem  Epidavro),  an  an-  nic  improvements  often  depend  npon  tharaflDoril 

dent  city  of  Greece,  in  Argolis,  on  the  Saronio  of  apparently  trifling  cansea  of  diicaaa,  and 

ffuli^  enclosed  by  high  mountains,  and  which  the  consideration  of  this  matter  is  now  adiva^ 

formed,  together  with  its  small  adjacent  ter-  engaging  the  attention  of  both  phyaiciaaa  and 

ritory,  an  independent  state.     According  to  municif^l  authorities.    Ilaving  aacertainad  tha 

Strabo,  it  was  founded  by  a  Carian  colony,  and  cause,  or  the  epidemic  tendencT  of  tha  laaM^ 

originally  named   Epicarus.    It  subsequently  the  treatment  must  depend  on  the  natnracf  tha 

received  an  Argivo  colony,  and  became  a  part  disease  and  the  constitution  of  the  patient;  ars 

of  the  I)oric  league,  of  which  Argos  was  tho  when  remedial  measures  seem  powaiiasi^  Ika 

head.    It  had  an  aristocratic  constitution,  was  physician  can  do  much  to  check  an  t^kinh 

an  important  commercial  city,  and  colonized  by  inspiring  confidence  and  moral  oonraga,  ml 

yK^iim ;  but  it  rapidly  declined  in  the  6th  con-  by  withdrawing  tlie  attention  of  a  oommBnity 

tury  li.  (\,  its  commerce  passiing  into  the  liands  from  the  continual  consideration  of  any  so^ 

of  tho  «fi;;inetan9.     It  wa^  chietly  di^tinguislied  posed  cauikM.  Experience  has  shown  that  can* 

foritHPpIendid  temple  of.K^KruLipiusi,  I Kroring  the  ncM,  cheerfuInesA,  absence  of  fear,  attention  la 

invTiption:  **  Let  only  pure  souU  enter  here,*'  the  ordinary  rules  of  health,  avoidance  of  ob> 

which  MoikI  a  little  to  the  west  of  the  city,  on  vious  causes  of  disease,  the  precantion  not  ta 

till*  ruad  to  Argoii,  betWi.-en  two  tnountai^^  in  a  make  any  sudden  cliange  in  food  and  habita  af 

thickly  wo<Kltf4f  grove,  in  which  it  was  unlawful  life,  and  e»p«*cially  total  abstinonoa  from  ndvai^ 

fur  any  oiio  to  be  born  or  to  die.    The  temple  iiavd  or  lauded  specifics,  are  the  best  means  eC 

wai  Ui-ar  tlio  centro  of  this  sacred  grove,  and  avoiding  epidemic  dbeases  or  of  passing  lighllj 

cotitainei!  a  chrysi^Iophantine  statue  of  the  god,  through  their  attacks.    The  human  constitotkn 

which  repreM.'nte«l  him  a»  seated  upon  a  throne,  may  become  acclimated  to  epidemic  disaasss  in 

holding  in  one  Imnd  tho  head  of  a  ser|K>nt,  and  malarious  climates,  ad  is  shown  by  the  trrafir 

in  the  other  a  »tiiff,  while  a  dog  Uy  at  his  fe^«t.  mortality  among  new  c<imen;    m  tha  whita 

Near  tlie  temple  there  was  the  Tholus,  a  cir-  races  there  is  no  acclimation  against  endcmks 

culur  lit ruct  lire,   containing  medicines  fur  all  of   intennittent  and   bilious  fevers  and  oChcr 

di!iea.Hi'«,  a  thentre,  tho  bath   of  .iSitculapius,  mamh  diseases,  as  the  experience  of  cor  aooil^ 

and  other  tern pIi-«  de^licated  to  I^iana,  Venus  em  states  and  the  Pontine  marshes  of  Italy  fU^ 

Themi^  Ilygi'ia,  and  A|»oll(».   Pilgrimages  were  pnn'CA;  negroes  to  a  certain  extent  beouiDa  ia- 

uuMle  to  thi*  tern  pie  by  the  wick,  and  every  4  suMcptiMo  to  the  effluvia  of  the   rica  flcid^ 

year^  a  fo*«tivaI,  with  nui^cal  and  gymnaktio  but  not  so  much  so  to  the  causes  of 

exerci<K-s  was  here  c^*Iebrated.    The  wealth  of  on  tlie  cotton  plan  tat  ionsL    The  smallest 

this  tempi'*  became  the  pliimler  of  Koman  con-  ture  of  negro  bliK>d  is  a  great  protection 

quemrii.  Smioof  its  fuundat it »ns  ore  still  traced,  yellow  fever,  and  a  quarter  mixture  has 

and  the  thriitre  whicii  was  a«ijari-nt  to  it  is  one  considered  as  perfi*ct  a  safeguard  as  b  t* 

of  tho  be^t  pre^rviMl  of  all  the  old  Grevk  edi-  tion  against  small  |Ktx.     Negroes  suffer  nhjra 

ficos.    The  moilern  Epi«Uvro  Ls  a  small  village,  than   whites  from  cholera,   ty|dH>id   disfasra, 

noied  as  (he  plarv  of  asuemUy  of  the  fir^t  Greek  plague,  and  small  pox,  and  are' much  lesa  liaUa 

con^rres*  in  I'^^l.  to  intermittents  as  wvU  as  jellow  l^tr.    iSsa 

EPH»KMI('  MSEASES(Gr.  •?«.  upon,  and  Accumatiux). 

3*}«ior,  (i^nplo)    ore  thi*M*  which  a(t.ick  at  the  EPIDERMIS.  nrCiTicLa,  the  thin  scmi-traBa> 

same  time  a  great   number  of  perkons  in  a  parent  pellicle  which  coven  tha  Mrftoa  of  tba 


EFIDOTE  EPILEPST                   241 

dermiB  or  corinm.    It  is  composed  of  layers  of  bincd  princes  survived  it ;  the  war  of  the  sons 

teffeDated  or  pavement  epithelinm  cells,  of  a  was  styled  that  of  the  **  Epiffoni,"  and  the  only 

flattened  oval  or  polygonal  diope,  and  about  Argive  hero  that  fell  was  iEgialens,  the  son  of 

fViy  of  an  inch  in  diameter;  each  cell  contains  Adrastns.    In  this  second  expedition  Thebee, 

a  nncleas  with  several  distinct  paler  granules,  abandoned  by  its  inhabitants,  was  razed  to  the 

The  cells  are  developed  from  germs  supplied  by  ground. 

the  basement  membrane,  nourished  by  the  snh-  EPILEPSY  (Gr.  cTriXa/i/Soyo),  to  seize  upon). 

jaoent  vessels,  and  cost  off  externally  from  time  This  is    one    of  the    most  horrible   diseases 

to  time,  to  be  succeeded  by  others;  when  first  .hat  afflict  mankind,  and  it  is  not  surprising 

formed  they  are  spherical,  gradually  becoming  that,  in  ignorant  ages,  in  Rome,  in  Egypt,  and 

dry  fend  flattened ;  the  deeper  layers  are  more  elsewhere,  epileptics  were  considered  as  having 

distinctlj  cellular,  while  the  outer  ones  are  excited  the  ire  of  the  Divinity,  or  as  possess- 

Kale-like.    The  epidermis  has  no  vessels  nor  ing  supernatural  powers,  on  account  of  which 

nerves,  but  is  pierced  by  the  ducts  of  the  seba-  they  were   worshipped.      This    was    due   to 

eeoos  and  sweat  glands,  and  by  the  shafts  of  the  violence  and  extraordinary  force  developed 

the  hairs  or  feathers.   The  rete  mucosum  seems  by  the  muscles  in  epileptic  convulsions ;   the 

to  be  composed  of  the  same  microscopic  ele-  screaming,  the  changes  in  color,  and  the  contor- 

ments  as  tne  overlying  epidermis,  being  the  tions  of  the  face,  the  biting  of  the  tongue,  fol- 

principal  seat  of  the  pigment  cells  which  give  lowed  by  a  comatose  state  and  afterward  by  a 

tbe  color  to  the  skin.    The  epidermis  covers  degree  of  mental  alienation.     There  are  so 

die  whole  exterior  of  the  body,  even  the  front  many  varieties  of  epilepsy  that  it  is  impossible 

of  the  eye,  and  is  continuous  with  the  epithe-  to  give  a  definition  of  the  disease  that  will  ap- 

fiua  of  the  internal  mucous  membrane ;  it  is  ply  to  them  all.    However,  in  most  cases,  epi- 

thickest  in  those  parts  most  subjected  to  fric-  lepsy  is  characterized  by  convulsions  and  loss 

tiflo,  as  on  the  heel  and  the  palms  of  the  hands,  of  consciousness,  occurring  at  longer  or  shorter 

whm  it  becomes  almost  as  hard  as  horn.    Its  intervals,  during  which  the  patient  is  almost  in 

m  is  to  protect  the  sensitive  true  skin  from  good  health.    Ilie  absence  of  fever  in  epileptics 

nedianical  injury  or  the  contact  of  air ;  in  the  serves  to  distinguish  their  affection  from  mcnin- 

fiviag  body,   when  abraded,  it  is  speedily  re-  gitis  and  other  inflammations  accompanied  by 

placed;  but  when  removed  by  maceration  or  convulsions.     The  loss  of  consciousness  also 

otherwise  after  death,  the  cutis  underneath  soon  distinguishes  epilepsy  from  hysteria.      As  in 

becomes  brown  and  dry.    The  chemical  com-  most  nervous  diseases,  a  hereditary  tendency  is 

position  of  the  thick  epidermis  of  the  heel  has  among  the  most  frequent  predisposing  causes  of 

been  found  to  be  very  nearly  the  same  as  that  epilepsy.    Louret  aod  Delasiauve  endeavor  to 

of  the  corneous  matter  of  nails,  hoofs,  horns,  show  that  it  is  very  rarely  inherited ;  hut  the 

and  hair.    The  epidermis  is  familiarly  seen  in  testimony  of  many  others  leaves  no  doubt  about 

the  occurrence  of  blisters,  whether  produced  by  the  frequency  of  this  predisposing  cause.    Epi- 

friction  or  the  application  of  irritating  sub-  lepsy  often  appears  in  the  oflfepring  of  persons 

•tmces,  constituting  the  raised  portion  under  who  have  had  various  other  nervous  complaints. 

which  the  fluid  is  effused.    The  epidermis  not  Bouchet  and  Cazauviebl  say  that  out  of  180 

e&lj  prevents  evaporation  from  the  dermis,  but  epileptics  80  were  descendants  of  persons  who 

afao  prevents  absorption  of  fluids  from  without ;  had  been   either  epileptic,   insane,  paralytic, 

11  is  well  known  to  the  physician,  that  in  intro-  apoplectic,  or  hysteric.    As  regards  the  predis- 

dncing  medicinal  agents  into  the  system  by  the  posing  influence  of  sex,  there  is  no  doubt  that 

cDdermic  method,  the  process  is  rendered  very  women  are  much  more   frequently  attacked 

aonadi  more  rapid  and  effectual  by  previously  re-  by  epilepsy  than  men.     As  regards  the  influence 

Moving  the  epidermis  by  a  blister.  of  age,  we  find  by  a  comparison  of  the  statistics 

EPIDOTE    (Gr.    trnMufit,  to  increase),  a  given  by  several  English  and  French  authorities, 

idncral  of  the  garnet  family,  being  a  silicate  that  the  most  frequent  periods  of  life  at  which 

of  almnina,  oxide  of  iron,  and  lime.   The  species  epilepsy  begins  are  early  infancy  and  the  age 

iBfdiides  several  varieties,  as :  1,  epidote  proper,  of  puberty.    Epilepsy  often  appears  also  in  very 

esDcd  also  pistacice,  or  the  lime  and  iron  epi-  old  age ;  Delasiauve  remarked  that  out  of  285 

dole;  2,  lime  epidote ;  3,  monganesian  epidote ;  epileptics  the  disease  began  in  10  when  they 

i|  eerium  epidote.    The  mineral  occurs  crys-  were  from  60  to  80  years  old.    In  fact,  there  is 

^■n^— ^  and  in  granular  masses.    Ilardness  6-7 ;  no  age  that  escapes.    As  regards  climate,  noth- 

spcaficgravity  3.25-3.5.  The  colors  are  general-  ing  very  positive  has  been  established,  but  itseema 

If  TUioQs  shades  of  green.  The  finest  specimens  probable  that  the  disease  is  more  frequent  in 

m  brooght  from  Arendal  in  Norway.    They  not  and  in  very  cold  than  in  temperate  climates. 

m  abo  obtained  at  Franconia,  N.  11-.,  Haddam,  Although  wo  have  no  scientific  data  to  rely  upon, 

GoDiL.  and  at   numerous  localities  in  which  we  think  that  the  extreme  variations  of  the  cli- 

Cfptauine  rocks  are  found.  mate  of  the  United  States  are  among  the  causes  of 

EPIGOM   (Gr.  tmyoyoi^  descendants),  the  the  greater  frequency  of  epilepsy  in  this  country 

y  BOBS  of  the    7  Argive  heroes  who,  under  than  in  England,  France,  and  Germany.  Uerpin, 

eoomand  of  Adrastus,  besieged  Thebes.    The  with  others,  states  that  epilepsy  is  more  common 

of  thefiithers  was  styled  that  of  the  *^  Seven  in  persons  of  low  stature ;  but  even  if  this  be 

Thebes, -'  and  Adrastus  alone  of  the  com-  true,  Herpin  is  wrong  in  considering  the  short- 
TOL.  vn. — 16 


L 


242  EPILEPSY 

BMB  of  stAtcrc  a  prediKposiiip  cause  of  tho  dis-  phenomenon.    Xot  only  hnvo  w©  known  th* 

ease,  as  iu   nmnpr  of  tho  ca<«<>d  <in  wliioh  ho  first  hyinpttirn  ni>t  to  l>o  tho  fame  in  «ii!Ti*rrr.t 

crouudithisvioivit  »  partly  tho  ifithicncouf  i-iti-  epiloptirs  hut  in  tho  bamo  uno  wo  hnvo  ^"cn 

ic|>sy,  already  vxistin^  in  cIiiMhiKMl  or  in  aito-  ditrcronn*;!  in  this  re<ipi><'t  in  8  ditf^rfnt  attarks. 

lestcvUL'o,  that  has  pro  von  ted  I  ho  dovohipniont  of  Sonio  opiloptic^  rortaiidy  arc  vxof  ;>tion4  to  t!K» 

the  hody.     Variou**  ntalfurniationd  of  the  ho«!y,  rulo  advancinl  hy  I)r.  C.  J.  H.  William*,  whicJi 

and  C8|Krcially  of  tho   cruniuni,  aw  oortaiuly  u  tliat  tho  tirst  manifo station  of  an  at:.v-k  i« 

among  tliu  mo^it  fro4Uont  prodis]M>sin;;  rau»os.  a  palpitation   of  tho   hoart.     Many  phv*iri&r.ft 

Woak  constitutions,  as  iimvod  hy  K^ipiirul  and  tliiiik  t!io  MTo:im  is  titc  finit  ^vmptom.     It  oftifn 

latoly  hy  I>r.  C\  li.  Katkiino,  arc  favuruMo  to  tho  U,  hut  tho  pulonoss  uf  tho  face  usually  preccdt.-^ 

produotionof  oiiiU'p!*3*.    Ainon^otlicrprodi.»pus-  it.     Sonio  i'piloj»tios  do  not  Boroam.     A*  foua 

inic  i-uuMra  are  dontitionf  tho  fir>t  apiK-aranoo  Jind  as  thoso  syniptvims  have  ap|K.*arvdf  a  ripd  tetanic 

tho  cosKution  of  n)on>truatiun,  onanUiu,  aiul  tho  or  at  loast  tonic  s!>:L«m  takes  plaiv  in  the  liming 

ahuso  of  alcoliolic  drinks.     Ahnost  all  kinds  of  and  tho  pat  ion  t  kiUa.     Respiration  14  Mi9{>end- 

diik*asi'S  ni:iy  produce  o])iIopiy,  hut  among  tho  od,  and  tho  faco  hocomes  quite  injeetvJ  vitb 

principal  wonm!»t  ph&co  thcM.*  airocti(»na  iu  which  hlack  hlood,  and  as»uuios  a  hideous  a^pcct  both 

the  hlood  hocozuod  altorod  or  dizninbhod  in  it^i  from  the  spasms  of  ih»  muscled  and  the  hlarkish 

amount,  and  i»rgauic  allV-ctions  of  the  mem-  or  hluinh  hue.    SomotimcD  a  monientxu?  reUs»- 

brazics  of  tho  corohro-spizial  axis  and  of  certain  tion  is  then  ohserved  in  the  limbs;  but  almoa 

parts  of  this  nervous  contro.    Anothor  very  |>ow-  at  once  clonic  convulMons  m-cur  everywhere  in 

erful  cause,  tho  iuduoiiro  of  which  has  boon  do-  tho  trunk,  tho  limbs,  the  face,  and  often  in  the 

monstratod  by  Marshall  Hail  and  rocontly  bv  various  internal   organs  of   the   bladder,   the 

Ku^^^laul  and  Jonnor,  and  by  Hrown-Sotpiurd,  1>owvls,  and  even  In  tho  uterus.     The  moath 

ia  oxco^five  loss  uf  blootl.     I*roguancy,  |»artnri-  then  ejocta  a  frothy  sali%'a,  oden  reddened  with 

tion,  and  menstruation,  froipiontly  cause  epiU*p-  blood  from  tho  bitten  tongue.     Tlie  re**  iratorr 

sy.     A  ttunor  on  a  uorvo,  nr  any  cause  of  irri-  muscles,  aHer  tho  tirat  spasms  which  prod 'ice  the 

tatiozi  on  the  trunk  or  tho  tonninal  part  of  any  scream  and  sutTocatiou,  causing  a  punslinc  or 

K*n^itive  nvrvo,  and  oitecially  iu  tlio  hkin  or  hissing  M)und,  1>ec(»me  rilaxod,  and  then  tho«e 

a  mucous  mouilirano,  vory  often  produces  it.  employed  in  inspiration  contract,  and  alm^i*:  at 

A   Wound,  a  burn,  wnnns  in   tho  bowoLi  or  Mion  aa  air  has  reached  the  lungs  t!ic  oinraW 

else  who  re,   Mono  in  tho   bladder  or  in   other  Kions  cease  or   notably  diminis-h.     Oniinari.'y 

places,  a  foroigu  body   in   tho  ear,   d:c.,   are  tho  lit  is  over  in  a  fowniinutos;  bat  it  h  a^i 

known  to  have  cau^rd  epiloitsy.     It  is  (|uitc  cor-  unfreiiuently  the  case  that  aflor  agoueral  relu- 

tain  that  groat  mental  oxcitonient  or  emotion  atitm  another  seizure  comes  on.  and  K>:n«.ti'ac<§ 

has  oripnated  e]Mloifsy  in  many  ca.M.-s,  but  it  matiy  oivur  with  vory  .•thortinti-nnission*.    I^r- 

k:c t:ii>pr<jbabiet hat  t ho  diMTiLSo  w:l<«  nut  produced  iiig  tho  whole  time  the  fit  hi'^tf  the   pV.io:.*  i< 

by  thi>M-cauM-'>.butha-'i*nly  UonlirMU^'htti*n;uii-  deprivi.-*!  of  con*riMU*ni-»"8,  and    when   ho   rr- 

ifot  itM-lf  by  t!ii*«kind  of  exciicnicnt. — WliL-n  a  c(»vers  he  romomli.Ts  iiothin;;  that   h.*.«  t^kra 

conipkto  fil  i**  alNiut  V*  take  pLiiv,  it  is  u-ualiy  place  in   the  nii-an  time.     In  •«>mo  ca.v^  the 

proicili  ill'V  ^4)nK■'-en^;ltillno^^«•nle  chan;:ein  tlio  holzure  i<  folio  wetl  by  a  prolitnged  coma,  e:>tli:-j; 

mil  A  of  the  ]Mitiont.     If  a  M-n^ation  pr(.fL-tU-?i  the  M>n)otime'<i  in  death.     ^Vhi-n  tlio  patient  rc«**irrn 

lit,  it  c(i!n«  <  nu><>t  frc'iucntly  I'roni  miiho  part  of  from  a  tit,  oveii  if  it  has  ni*t  bifn  a  viry  lovrr* 

tho  e>kin,  attil  c'>pcci.4t:y  iVom  tiiat  of  tlio  tin^iTs  one,  lie  usually  feila  extremely  fati^«.^i  a::d»cf- 

ort'K"*.     'l!ii:^  Mi.sitiiin  ii  Well  kiiiiwn  umhTtho  fcrs  from  hradaclu*.     Fortunately,  howevi-r.  h« 

iianiv  of  4i'/rif  tj>il'y*i''-t.     'rin-re  \^  i\»  mucli  va-  KH>n  fal!'^  a^hvp,  and  onlioariiy  is  alrni>«:  a^  vt:3 

riety  a**  ri-jjariN  the  kind  and  tijo  inten*»!ty  cf  the  asu»ual  u  hen  lie  wuke**  up.  oxi^-pt  \\iXi.  l!.t  hc*l- 

iezi«:iti«>n  a-*  tlu-re  i^  i:i  re*>;'ect   to   its  p-iint  of  ache   ami  the  fatigue  ^!ill  e\i^?,  tht»*:j.i  Ritvh 

■tartinp:.     M«r»t  fn.iKeiitlv.  Imwiver,  the  aura  is  diniiiii«!icd.     Wli.n  many  ti:*  hav^-  t.ik-  :.  \  iA.r. 

a  »«nNiti«in  »if  c-Iil,  of  icirnin;^,  or  that  kind  of  eviu  u:  >oniewh;il  I'U^  interviiU,  --.ich  a*  tcfct^ 

ik'nvi'.ii'fi  prtKhii'id  by  a  ilrafl  \*i  coM  air  on  a  al  week*,  nuntal  il«  ran^cment  oft*r>  s:j^-rv«.o*\ 

limit  I'd  part  of  \\.v  b.«!j. .     .Sin;v*im'-  tljc  ri'ira  and  in  this  nay  epihji^y  )ca»U  t-*  i:i^a:.s:y.     la 

ftar;-*  fn  ni  ilio  «.\e  or  ll.i*  lar,  uic!  tlu-n  a  lhL"»h  b«.>:i*e  caM-*  the  liti  re«  ur  at  re;:ular  ]"-n  •!♦;  ia 

of  hpTlit  or  M-n.e  o:Inr-ui-al.«in  ciiiiir*  from  the  other-*  thev  return   uith  e^erv  return  vi  l'*« 


rettti;k,  or   p«i '.liar  »mc.::,i!,   an-    hi-arih     St-me     circr.ni*t;ini'e^  which  >*vm  to  h.i^o  ra^zsc^l  th« 
epiicptici  I'ti-.iiie  ;:;iv,  otlur**  iii<j  iriitu!,  Minn     tir-*.,  "iich   a-  men>trualii'n.  privna-'icy.  ihr  as- 


llu'V  are  al"'ii:  to  l.;»%f  a  tj:  ;  in  o'.l.i  r-  slif  ;it-  tV.unce  of  cert:iin  nMMmN  iVi .     T!i«rv  ;*  «*.l-!i 

tack  i-  ar.ni'iiicrd  I  v  N.r:.r  eli.i:i.rr  in  ;!.»•  ili;:!—  j:r»:i:  repTularity  in  tlie  Kr.pT'.h  of  tl.e   ir.ur»il« 

ti^e  f-.ii:i  :»•■::-.     Wli.'ii,  r  |r.n»lid '-r  ni-t  b\  :in  belwct-n  l!ic  lils,  a:.ilTh.v  Ci-ii.e  i  \i  r*  i!a\.crc-^ 

aura  i-r  l>v  uriy  i!i.ii»;:e  in  i!.i-  f'lnc'.'.i.i,-*  nf  liio  \ii-^.k,    ivcry    nfHith.  \x\.  .i*.    irrv«-;'..ir   h  <■». 

Vikriii-.;-  or^v.r  -s  a  *  .i::.|  !i  N-  .i::,iik  i;^:.;i!I}  li..:.:.i  Mai^y  paticiit-*  have  \i"ry  I'itl'i-ren!  '.!i*.ir\:;l«  *v- 

WitS  :l:i  4  \\T*  nil'  p.ili  ;.•  ->  •  I  t!i.-  \.i*  •■.  :iJ.d  :it  t!.o  twteit  their  Miccv«.*ive  ti:".     N  r;.e  l.a\f  cixr.y 

»nn:i'  :inj«*  •  r  hi;irlv  •xi   i!m  r*-  art-   i-iiiirut  !ui!i-»  lis-  a  dav,  otlier-*  oi.i-  tv»rv  C  i:v  :it'.^  w»r  f^.,rr 

of  h'Verjkl  iiiUM-let  lif  i!.i-  l",4-*-,  l!ir  Or.  .ni.il  i].v  wnT.     lKla*ia;i\e  lui-nr'..  :.-  a  «-a>»e  ri  »h..  hi'.o 


n«"k.  t  ib-4  r\ini  ill!  iji-t  a.;r»e  n"  ri,::iril*  tlie  niiinlKT  of  tit- wa-*  -,.','nj  in  a  mi:.:!..  B-:  '.  .e 
fir*t  maiiiff'.atiuu  of  a  :!:.  jri-iul  Iv  U.  »...m  t!.e  frrmtir  the  n•l!n^*■r  .•:*  Ii>  :!.i-  Iv*.*  \..«ltfr.:  !*..y 
■cixure  dwa  ud  alway*  \k%Hi  w.:h  the  h^niv    gtuerallv  are.— -Wv  ha\e  al.'xady  Kud  tl^  It: 


EPILEPST  248 

Tarieties  of  epilepsy  are  nnmerons;  and  among  a  time  this  force  diminishes,  and  in  most  cases 

them  the  two  principal  especially  require  to  be  it  becomes  less,  and  even  much  less,  than  in 

noticed.    In  a  complete  fit  of  epilepsy  there  are  healthy  people.    Now  the  nature  of  epilepsy 

tvo  distinct  features :  1,  the  loss  of  conscious-  seems  to  consist  in  an  increase  of  the  impressi- 

neas;  2,  the  muscular  conTulsions.  Each  of  these  bility,  or,  in  other  words,  of  the  reflex  excita- 

nay  exist  alone.    In  the  case  of  a  seizure  con-  bility  of  certain  parts  of  the  ccrebro-spinal  axis, 

fisting  only  la  the  loss  of  consciousness  without  In  most  cases  of  epilepsy  these  parts  ore  the 

coDT^sions,  we  have  the  so  called  epileptic  medulla  oblongata  and  the  neighboring  ports 

vertigo,  which  is  a  form  of  epilepsy  that  fro-  of  the  encepholon  and  of  the  spinal  cord.    But 

qnently  exists  alone,  and  also  coexists  often  with  the  seat  is  not  constant,  and  may  be  sometimes 

Uie  form  of  the  disease  in  which  the  attack  is  limited  to  the  oblong  medulla  or  extended  to 

complete.    In  this  last  cose  the  patient  some-  other  parts  of  tlie  cerebro-spinal  axis.     Dt. 

timcfl  has  a  complete  seizure,  sometimes  only  Brown-S^uard  has  tried  to  explain  this  mys- 

a  more  or  less  prolonged  attack  of  vertigo,  terious  phenomenon  of  loss  of  consciousness.    It 

Whether  vertico  exists  alone  or  coexists  with  seemed  very  strange  that  at  the  same  time  that 

complete  attach  it  is  a  very  dangerous  affec-  certain  parts  of  the  encephilon  were  acting 

tion,  not  for  the  life  of  the  patient,  but  because  with  great  energy,  another  part  should  be  com- 

to  of  simple  vertigo  lead  more  frequently  to  pletely  deprived  of  action.    This,  accordingto 

inanity  tlion  complete  fita  of  epilepsy.    The  the  above  named  writer,  is  very  simple.    The 

CMes  of  epileptiform  convulsions  witliout  loss  of  blood  vessels  of  that  part  of  the  brain  which  is 

conscioosncss  are  not  so  frequent  as  the  cases  the  seat  of  consciousness  and  of  the  mental 

«f  wnnle  vertigo.    They  are  particularly  pro-  fiiculties,  receive  nerves  from  the  medulla  ob- 

doeed  by  injuries  to  the  nerves  or  to  the  spinal  longata  and  the  spinal  cord;  these  blood  vessels 

eoid. — ^The  nature  of  epilepsy,  the  material  and  when  they  are  excited  contract  and  expel  the 

djjnimical  conditions  of  the  ports  which  ore  of-  blood  they  normally  contain,  and  it  is  known 

feeted  in  the  animal  organism,  have  been  great-  tliot  all  the  functions  of  that  port  of  the  brain 

If  iUnstrated  by  the  researches  of  modern  pliys-  cease  when  they  do  not  receive  blood.    Now, 

iologists  and  practitioners.    Dr.  Marshall  Hall  when  the  excitation  that  exists  in  the  beginning 

tbo^fat  the  seat  of  epilepsy  to  be  chiefly  in  the  of  o  fit  acts  upon  the  medulla  oblongata  and  its 

medalU  oblongata,  and  tnat  its  nature  consist-  neighborhood,  it  produces  at  the  some  time  the 

ed  in  an  increased  reflex  power,  at  least  in  the  contraction  of  the  blood  vessels  of  that  part 

beginning  of  the  disease,  and  also  that  the  con-  of  the  brain  which  we  hove  mentioned,  and  a 

vulsions  were  the  results  of  the  asphyxia  caused  convulsive  contraction  of  the  muscles  of  the 

by  the  closure  of  the  larynx  (laryngismus),  face,  tlie  eye,  tlie  neck,  the  larynx,  &c.,  all  ports 

lliis  theory  is  in  opposition  to  several  facts,  receiving  nerves  from  the  some  source  as  these 

In  the  first  place,  although  laryngismus  almost  blood  vessels.    In  this  way  the  loss  of  conscious- 

always  exists  and  certainly  concurs  in  the  pro-  ncss  is  explained.    The  following  table  from  Dr. 

duction  of  asphyxia,  and  in  so  doing  generates  Brown-Sequord^s  work  on  epilepsy  shows  how 

coovnlsions,  it  cannot  be  considered  as  the  cause  the  principal  phenomena  of  epilepsy  are  gener- 

cf  joonvulsions,  os  it  does  not  always  exist,  and  ated : 

aa  there  is  one  kind  of  convulsions  (the  tonic)  Causbl                             EpFzcn. 

whLcfa  precedes  the  asphyxia.     Beside,  there  i.  suiting  of  an  excitation  L  Contraction  or  the  blood 

an  more  powerful  causes  of  asphyxia  in  the  ^*?,*  **^°'**'J\®u®' *"  ^*"      teasels  ofthe  brain  proper 

•.^.         *-     .       ,   ,.        .      ,1       1      •      J    xu^  citable  part  of  the  ncrrous       and   contraction   of  some 

eODOltlon  of  circulation  m  the  brom   ana  the  eyatem.                                      muadea,  by  a  reflex  acUon 

spasm  of  the  muscles  of  the  chest.    Then,  as  from  the  central  seat  of  the 

renrds  the  increased  reflex  power.  Dr.  Hall  a.  contraction  of  the  blood  2.  ilS^f  consciousness. 

acknowledges  that  this  power  is  diminisned  m  Tcfrsoisof  the  brain  nroT>er. 

persons  who  have  been  epileptic  for  some  time.  »■  Aocumuiation  of  hlnA  at  8.  Spasm  of  the  larynx  and 

C                  ^       1     .^    Ai        ii          xi_    A  al       I*  the  base  of  the  eiiccpn.ilon,       of  the  moscles  employed  in 

We  cannot  admit  therefore  that  the  disease  due  to  its  expulsion  from      expiration. 

eonsists  in  the  increase  of  this  power.    Another  ^  the  brain  nropor,  ic, 

fteorj  has  been  recently  proposed  by  Dr.Brown-  *•  p®iSS?y  itSiS.            "  *"  ^'^       "^^ 

SEqaard.     Guided  by  experiments  on  animals,  6.  Asphyxia.                        6.  General  clonic  convulsions. 

fa  which   he   produces  epilepsy,  he   has   found  ^  Exhaustion     of     nervous    e.  cassation  of  the  convul- 

H  wuivu    miv   ^a^^uv^^^  ^1 1  x^^oj,  .  x/      t«  power,  except  of  the  part       sions and  return  of  resplra- 

Oat  the  reflex  power  is  composed   of  two  dlS-  of  the  nervous  centres  cm-       tlon. 

find  powers,  one  of  which  he  calls  the  reflex    ^  ployed  in  respiration.  

fee  and  the  other  the  reflex  excitability.     He  ^'  ^'"'^  ^'  respiration.          7.  Eetnm  of  consclonsnesa.^ 

taibondthot  the  reflex  force  moy  be  very  much  — ^The  first  thing  to  be  done  for  on  epileptic 

Aninished  while  the  reflex  excitability  is  very  is  to  find  out  the  cause  of  the  disease,  and  to 

■Bch  increased.    This  lost  power  is  the  power  try  to  get  rid  of  that  cause  if  it  still  exists, 

flf  fanpreseibility  of  the  cerebro-spinaJ  axis;  in  Very  often  epilepsy  depends  upon  some  external 

epileptics  this  impressibility  is  very  much  aug-  cause  of  irritation  which  may  easily  be  removed ; 

■eat«L    TTie  sligntest  excitations  may  produce  it  is  of  the  greotest  importance  to  discover  if 

itAiz  actions  in  them.    In  tlic  beginning  of  there  is  anywhere  such  on  irritation,  and  as  the 

ipQepsy,  usnally  the  other  reflex  power,  which  patient  may  not  be  aware  of  its  existence,  it  is 

ii  the  force  manifested  in  the  reflex  actions  of  necessary  to  look  for  it  everywhere.    Of  the 

fte  cerebro-spinal  axis,  is  increased ;  but  after  various  modes  of  treatment,  the  most  powerful 


L 


244                   EPDfEXIDES  EPIPHTTES 

are  those  means  of  pxcitinir  the  Mn  wliich  ino^  olK  \n  PaloMine,  abont  310,  died  Vaj  12.  4A3. 

readilj  pruduco  a  c!ianp2  yi  the  nutrition  of  ttie  He  wa.4  of  Jewish  parentji^.  but  fallin;:  in  « i:h 

enccphalon   and   spinal  cord.      All  physicians  Christian  toarherA  was  baptized  hj  tho  bi^hi'p 

know  wlmt  these  nieaiH  nro.     One  ot  th«  must  Lucinn,  and  fniiu  his  vouth  dwell  in  lh«?  dr«- 

efficacious  remedies  is  l>vlladonna.     Plivsiciuns  erts  of  E^ypt  amon^  tho  inunk«,  wht»^  vir- 

alioald  not  despair  of  curing  their  patients,  and  tues  he  ailinircd  and  wh«j>e  inude  of  lifir  h«* 

should  not  change  a  mode  of  treatment  until  adopted.     There  he  joined  to  the  prarti«>r*  i>f 

they  hare (^ven  it  A  fair  trial;  and  patients  and  penitence  the  labors  of  ^tndy,  and   ma.'4«Ti^l 

their  families  should  remember  that  the  rules  the  Hebrew,  Egyptian,  i^yriar,  irn^ek.  and  I«&t  -i 

of  hygiene  mOMt  be  followetl  by  epileptics  much  Ian;;uages.    At  the  a;re  c»f  *2o  he  rcturnt.^1  X**  ht« 

more  doselv  than  b J  those  afflicted  with  almost  native  country,  and   fi>unde«l  a   inon&«terT  i>f 

MUX  other  disease.  which  he  was  for  :V)  yean  the  MUfnTiitr.     He 

EPIMENIDES,  a  poet  and  hero  of  Cnossus,  wrote  several  l>o«»k'*  for  the  instruction  uf  t5*e 
in  the  island  of  Crete,  flourished  in  the  7th  ceii-  numerous  monks  whom  he  ha<1  under  hi^  rare, 
tury  B.  C.  He  was  a  con  temporary  of  the  seven  He  wa**  invito<l  in  367  to  the  bij»hopric  of  C'-n- 
wise  men  of  trreece,  ainon;;  whom  he  is  sotnc*  stantia  or  Sahunis  (»n  the  inland  of  Cyprus,  azk! 
times  counted  in  place  of  Periander.  He  was  in  thi<  station  he  became  kmim'n  as  an  aniens 
principally  occupied  with  iH)Utics  and  le;;i:ila-  adversary  of  the  doctrines  of  AriuA  and  A[<'Ui- 
tion,  but  of  his  treatises  on  tliese  subjects  lioth-  narius,  and  of  many  of  the  writinir«  of  On::eo : 
Ing  remains.  He  also  wrote  a  poem  upon  tho  yet  it  is  remarkable  that  he  was  almost  the 
A^gunaatic  exi^edition,  which  is  lost.  There  are  only  Athanasian  bi>hop  who  was  sparer]  by  the 
many  fabulous  accounts  of  his  life.  He  is  said  Arians  then  in  the  height  of  their  (Miwcr.  He 
to  have  pasi(e<l  57  yearn  in  profound  sleep  in  a  visited  Rome  in  382.  where  he  tirit  met  with 
cavern,  and  to  have  (Kxsesscd  tho  marvellous  St.  Jen>mo.  He  sulisequently  maile  a  ji turner 
power  of  separating  himself  from  his  bo<Iy.  to  Jerusalem,  where  he  ha<l  a  livelr  rt>nlf-al 
fhe  Athenians  sutTering  from  a  plague  in-  with  the  Oritreni*«t  pat rian^h  John,  an«i  then  re- 
voked his  aid,  and  he  removeil  the  Krourge.  paired  to  C<»nstantinop1e,  m-here  he  ti^tk  part 
His  life  wa4  prolonged  according  to  some  to  against  ChrysiKtom.  He  died  at  !*ea,  while  re- 
tho  age  of  220  years.  turning  to  IVprus     His  most  imiNirtant  w<.rk 

EPINAU  a  town  of  France,  capital  of  the  is  his  Panarium,  a  disconno  directr«l  Bxain4 

departmentdt  Vo'iges  andnf  miiirri>ni1is<«i>Tnent  here^ie^  <»f  which  ho  counted  NX     (>f  all  the 

of  its  own  name.  225  m.  E,  S.  E.  from  Paris;  Grei-k  fatht^rs  lie  wrote  in  the  poon»«t  Myle.  t»l- 

pop.  of  the  arri»udioSi'iiiont  in  IS.')*!,  im;.:j:js,  and  scure,  unpolishefl,  and  without  onler  or  ri.nn«,r- 

of  the  town  lo.UO.     It  lies  at  the  fmit  of  the  tion.     A  standanl  eilition  of  hi-  work«  U  \\M 

Vosges    mountain'*,  and    is  diviih'd    into  two  of  I>ionysins  Petavin«»  (2  voN.  ful..  Pari-.  1''22  . 

nearly  eijual  part-*  by  the  river  Mo-M-He.  nlmig  EIMPHANYtiir.  firi»^Kfin,apjtararitv.  ir.a:..- 

the  banks  of  which  there  are  tine  pmini-nadi  <i.  festation),  a  fe-tiv;U  ol'  the  Ciiri->tian  rb ':rr i . 

Its  tortiftrati'MH  are  nnw  de^troycil.  and  it  has  instituted  to  connnemorate  the  ap^K-ariinrr  irf 

only  the  ruin-*  of  \xn  old  caMle.     It  ha-*  a  col-  Jesu*  Cliri'»t  to  the  magi  or  wi'-eme.i.  wJjn  ca'Te 

lege,  mn<HMini.  and  pulilir  li!»rary  of  l*i.no«»  vul-  fn»m  the  e:i>l  bringing  liiin  pri-^-nt-.     h  i*  wj*- 

unies;  tanneries  and  maiiutaetories  ot'rutlery.  brH:e\l  v>n  Jan.  6.     It  is  often  calbil  the  '*?iia::- 

cop|>er,  china  ware,  paper,  and  oil.     Mar  die  in  festation  of  Christ   to  tho  ifvntile-."  and  t^rf 

quarrinl  in  tho  viiinity.  (in*  k  t  hr.nh  tonus  it  the  theoi.iiany.  nr  a;  ;•*».-- 

RPINAY.  I^if'iriE  Klorenck  PfcTRoxiLLK  i»E  an»v  of  (;i».V     The  ca-tcm   (  nri*?iin-  irivf  :: 

LA  Live  n'.  a  French  authon"*-*,  Nirn  in  1725,  a!-o  iIk*  name  of  "fea*t  of  lifrht ;"'  in  ilnm.kr.j 

die«l  April  17,  17^-l.     She  was  nnliappily  mar-  it  U  known  a-*  the  ''festival  of  the  lhrv^»  b*ly 

ried,  and  while  vi-t  yotin;»  Ik  came  tlie  nii-itrcs«t  kings;**  and  ?-»me  of  the  early  fatherHti«»k  i:  lo 

of  Jean  Jaciiue<i  KonsM>an.  with  whom  »he  lived  Ik»  tlie  day  of  our  Saviour'*  baj'ti-fs:.  mhra  a 

till  he  became  jeiLlou<«  of  (trinim,  wh'»m  he  hiM  Voii'e  fn»ni  heavt-n  dcclare«l :   "  T.' i-  i^  my  l*- 

hiin-clf  intHNliici'd  ti»her.     !!•■  wa- aUi»  jcalmw  lo%o«l  Sm,  in  whom  I  am  wrll  pKa^**!!." 

of  her  friend*  I>iilcr.»t   and   I»*II..iba.!i.      She  EPIPHYTES  ((Jr.   #ri.  ujion.    and  ^H-r«.  to 

alterwanl  maintaincil   intimate  n-lation*  with  grow).    Thi- title  has  betMt  giv*n  to  th<i«^- ^t-p^ 

Grimm  until  hi*  departure  from  Franiv,  wlu-n.  table  par.i-«i:i-i  vhich  are  fouiwl  n;mn  man  »■  J 

under  the  gui<laiico  nf  hiiliTut,  >ht'  Ciiniiniud  other  anitMaN.     Thi>^*  which  g^ow  within   tb-* 

his  literary  corrojMnuh-niv  with  th.»  -Mivrrci;.*!!!*  cavi:ii-«  of  the  ^aI^e,1re  r.dletl  F.NTt»riiYTtv    Iri- 

of   Euri>|H*.     She   wn»te   an   ediicatii»n:il    »i»rk  asmnch,  howi-vir,  a*  nodetini'e  hne*xinlvdr«»n 

entille<W«»/irrri#if4«'f.ji*r/wii//j>,  t«»  whii*h  apri/e  lietwitn  tlie  two,  and  a<  vmne  •in^-ii*  !»*■!•  «cii:  1 1 

wa?*  aw.inlrd  by  the  Fri-urh  ar.iih-my  in  17**i.  Kith  c1:ihs*'\  ihey  will  f'«r  cttrivi-niinie  •cikc  J* 

Her  "  .Memoir*  and  (*orrr-p»»inhni'i."  «J  vul*.,  cuii^idireil  ti*:.vlher  in  tho  pn"-ent  urticN*.     !l 

Pari*,  IMMj  t<i»ntain*  manv  unpuMi-hml  httt-r^  is  onlv  within   a   few   viirs,  an<!  *  n -«•  itikK 

of  Kou-**'a'i.  iJiilcrot,  and  (rriinm.  ami  aSo-ini!*  attention  has  l>een  riven  fi>  the  •tndy  «»f  tr>:»- 

'i  intormatii»n  tm  French  jMhivty  and  cliarw  -  tin;amic  Imtany.  that  the  full  natiirv  anil  ir:!:«^- 

tlie  l*»th  crntury.  Lmci*  uf  the  diseases  ertMTc<l  by  mar.y  of  tv*«« 

^  IPlI.Wns.  Saixt.  afathi-rof  thechnrch.  growth-*  has  U-en  n.v«igni2i-i],  and  the  N?stf  tu 

Iff  I'on-'tantia  unnre  anciently  Salani>\  thvir  rt^intaiKMUS   ge:ier»t;on    Uvn   ir^'«i    '  l^ 

n-,  l»oru  iu  the  district  vf  KlcutUvr(>>]>«  Thvv  all  belong  to  the  fungi  and  a7ga*,  but  « • 


EPIPHYTES  246 

are  not  jet  sofficiently  advanced  in  oar  knowl-  essential  elements  for  reprodnction,  it  grows  at 

edge  of  cryptogamicD  to  attemnt  any  minate  once,  be  it  on  the  onter  surface  or  within  the 

d^sification,  or  to  distinguish  between  these  body.    At  first  the  growth  may  be  merely  sa- 

two  orders.  Robin  and  KQchenmeister,  how-  perficial ;  but  soon  the  vcgetatiTe  process,  the 

ever,  divide  them  according  to  their  supposed  mycelium,  begins  to  seek  nourishment  in  deeper 

place  in  the  vegetable  kingdom,  while  Virchow  soil,  and  its  filaments  penetrate  all  tissnea,  wher- 

and  his  followers  classify  them  into  those  really  ever  the  minutest  hole  is  left  for  its  entrance, 

pathognomonic  of  disease,  and  those  accident-  The  spores  or  mycelium  may,  by  acting  as  a 

ally  occurring  in  it    For  this  last  arrangement  foreign  body,  produce  absorption  in  a^acent 

the  two  following  conditions  are  necessary,  viz. :  parts,  and  thus  make  way  for  their  progress  in- 

the  constant  occurrence  of  the  parasite  in  the  ward  indefinitely.    When  once  the  spores  gain 

disease,  and  the  positive  result  of  inoculation,  admission  we  may  see  the  same  result  as  when 

There  are  some  who  say  that  even  this  is  not  we  plant  the  seeds  oflarger  vegetables  in  the  soil, 

enoogb,  and  that  the  fungus  may  carry  the  matter  They  send  forth  their  sprouts  upward  and  down- 

ofooDtagion  attached  to  itself,  and  that  this  prop-  ward,  pushing  before  them  whatever  resists 

agates  the  disease.    Sch6nlein  throws  out  such  their  progress.  But  if  in  addition  to  the  sprouts 

a  hint  with  regard  to  animal  parasites  when  he  we  should  have  our  seed  increasing  by  self-divi- 

advises  oar  cleaning  the  itch  insect  with  brush  sion,  and  to  an  immense  extent,  what  would 

and  bath  before  proceeding  to  inoculate,  and  follow?    What  wonder  then  if  this  process,  car- 

Qemens  of  Frankfort  asks:  *'If  we  were  to  find  ried  on  beneath  the  less  yielding  skin,  ^ould 

eoostantly  in  the  vaccine  matter  one  and  the  lead  to  inflammation  and  destruction  of  the 

tune  fungus,  by  the  transportation  of  which  parts?    The  oidium  albicans  mtij  produce  detiih 

new  Tariola  existed,  which  should  we  call  the  in  an  infant  by  stopping  the  oesophagus  or  wind- 

trae  inoculating  matter,  the  fungus  attached  pipe.    Impaired  vision  may  be  caused  by  the 

to  the  lymph,  or  the  lymph  attached  to  the  growth  of  a  fungus  within  the  eye.    Atrophy 

fporest^    The  dwelling  places  of  the  crypto-  and  deformity  may  result  from  their  presence 

gamis  seem  as  universal  as  their  growth  is  sim-  in  the  hair  and  niuls.    Erosions  of  the  skin,  and 

pie.    Deep  under  the  sea  are  b'ing  beds  of  the  inflammation  they  create,  may  bring  on 

a]g» ;  within  the  bowels  of  the  earth  tliey  may  swelling  of  glands.    Parasites  may  also  prove 

be  fbond ;  the  air  we  breathe  contains  them,  and  ixy  urious  by  irritating  the  nervous  system,  as  in 

the  winds  waft  them  from  pole  to  pole.    They  pityriasis  ttnicolor^  or  chemically.    The  vinous 

ibrm  the  chief  means  of  resolving  dead  matter  fermentation  is  brought  about  b^*  the  action  of 

into  its  original  elements,  and  are  present  and  a  fungus  on  sugar,  by  which  it  is  resolved  into 

are  gi>ne  with  a  rapidity  alike  inconceivable,  carbonic  acid  and  alcohol.    Now  saliva  changes 

No  wonder  that  men  believed  in  the  spontane-  the  starchy  compounds  of  food  into  sugar,  and 

ous  development  of  tliese  forms,  for  their  ap-  the  presence  of  a  fungus  may  convert  this  in  turn 

pearance  in  certain  situations  seems  otherwise  into  alcohol.    So  too  the  sareina  f^ntriculi  and 

inexi4icable.  The  animal  parasites  live  mostly  on  the  oidium  albicans  may  cause  the  acetous  and 

the  living  tissues  of  man ;  with  the  vegetable  lactic  acid  fermentations  respectively.  The  very 

the  reverse  is  generally  the  case,  and  it  is  those  decay  of  vegetable  parasites  may  produce  pu- 

parts  already  decomposed  or  diseased  which  tridity  in  tlieir  masses.    There  is  not  the  slight- 

ibrm  their  chief  support.    They  usually  attack,  est  ground,  however,  to  believe  the  presence  of 

<r  better  succeed  in  establishing  themselves  fungoid  growths  in  the  body  or  atmosphere 

vpoo,  parts  not  intimately  connected  with  the  has  aught  to  do  with  the  spread  or  cause  of 

sjileni  and  superficial,  and  therefore  less  able  epidemics.    We  see  then  that  vegetable  para- 

to  resist  their  influence ;  or  else  they  attend  upon  sites  are  able  to  work  a  multitude  of  evils  upon 

long  disease,  when  the  strength  of  the  body  is  mankind,  but  tlie  extent  thereof  must  be  in  pro- 

alnady  wasted.    This  cannot  be  said,  however,  portion  to  the  condition  and  size  of  the  organ 

«f  every  species.    The  character  of  the  soil  ex-  affected.    Although  they  may  in  some  instances 

crrises  an  important  influence  over  their  growth,  be  as  troublesome,  as  dangerous  to  life  even, 

■ad  may  in  fact  change  it  entirely.    Indeed,  we  as  their  animal  relatives,  still  we  are  not  so 

hardly  give  any  general  rules ;  for  some  much  shocked  to  have  our  head  covered  with 

an  acid  nutriment,  others  alkaline ;  some  the  sporules  of  the  favus  plant  as  with  pediculi, 

upon  the  outside,  where  there  can  be  no  though  both  are  marks  of  unclean]  in  ess,  or  to 

wamth,  otiiers  within  the  heated  cavities  of  know  that  our  stomach  is  filled  with  sareina, 

Aebody;  some  thrive  best  in  light  and  pure  as  to  suspect  that  a  frightful  strongylus  lies 

v;  others  in  darkness  and  carbonic  acid ;  some  coiled  up  in  our  kidney.    Before  discussing  the 

fif6  in  fluid,  while  others  are  always  found  dry.  various  species,  it  will  be  well  to  describe  in  a 

Jx  wiD  be  seen  then  that  all  these  points  must  few  words  the  nature  and  growth  of  fungi,  re- 

\m  taken  into  consideration  before  we  attempt  ferring  for  further  information  to  the  article  on 

to  tetiujf  them,  and  a  universal  parasite  killer  Fuxoi.    They  consist  of  organs  of  fructifica- 

ii  aa  impossibility,  for  what  is  death  to  one  tion,  and  a  nutritive  apparatus.     This  last  is 

ipaekj  may  be  the  food  of  another.    The  effect  called  mycelium,  and  is  made  up  of  threadlike, 

af  Uwir  presence  on  man  is  as  various  as  that  more  or  less  compacted,  elongated  cells,  which 

a(f  the  animal  parasites,  though  less  dangerous,  interlace  and  have  no  intimate  connection.     It 

the  plant  has  found  its  favorite  and  has  such  an  indefinite  form,  and  differs  so  little 


246  EPIPUYTES 

In  TArioiiR  8i)ccicii,  that  from  it  alono  wc  cannot  mnltitudcs  of  rcgctable  vporM  will  be  fonnd. 

dUtinguish  them.     It  varies  frroatly  alsto  accord-  Wo  know  not  but  in  each  breath  of  air  we  in- 

ioff  to  tho  condition  in  which  it  growis  and  hale,  each  draught  wo  raise  to  onrIi|ift,arv  lark- 

whether  it  bo  viewed  damp  or  dry.    It  may  in;r  germs*  which,  if  thev  tlnd  a|»n>per  nidu^ 

exist  without  bearing  fruit,  a<«  a  tree  may  re-  may  make  of  U9  a  dwelling-i»lace.    What  Dt«d 

nuun  btfren  in  uncongenial  soil,  but  no  ^iiecies  then  to  cnll  to  our  aid  the  theory  of  siiontane- 

oan  exbtt  without  it,  thougli  it  may  be  reduced  ous  development  to  account  for  the  prevone 

to  a  very  low  development  when  compared  to  of  fites  ^>  dangerous,  tliat  neither  time  nor  the 

the  fruit -bearing  Hystem.     Subtile  forniH  of  my-  {Mtwcrs  of  chemistry  avail  aught  against  tht*m, 

celium  have  the  power  of  i>envtruting  to  rvmnte  which  are  s«)  subtile  in  their  invinihility,  and 

parts,  and  lying  uormunt  for  a  Ion;;  time.     Tlio  may  be  wafted  fn>m  one  point  of  the  earth  to 

reproductive  M'stem  c<inHi{«t!i  of  FiKire:*,  wliirh  another  by  wind  and  wave  / — Among  the  m*j< 

are  very  small,  and  in  some  spec  ion  are  enr1o*ie<l  im^Kirtant  of  the  vegetable  paraVitf^  of  man 

in  re(*eptacK*s.     Their  numl>er  in  literally  incaU  v»  the  oidium  alhieann^  which  behings  to  the 

cnlable,  and  they  increase  with  iiunun<ie  rn-  s:ime  genun  an  the   fungus  which  lia<«  proved 

pidity.     They  float  freely  in  water,  and  their  such  a  destructive  \Hfsl  to  tho  vineyards  *4 

walLi  are  very  stmng,  si»  that  they  are  well  cal-  southern  Europe  and  Madeira,  viz. :  tlie  ouHum 

enlated  to  travel  far  after  leaving  tlieir  birtli-  Turlrri,    It  fonns  the  disease  called  aphthv, 

place.     Their  di  mi  native  mzo  enable*^  them  to  which  shows  itself  on  the  mucous  uiembran^. 

gain  admi*ision  of  I'ourso  into  the  smallest  crev-  generally  on  tlio  tongue  of  infants,  as   a  tvft, 

ioea  of  the  skin  or  elsewhere,  and  tliey  are  cafia-  white,  pasty,  slightly  elevated  pntcli.     On  the 

Ue  of  withstamiing  great  extreme^  of  temiKT-  lips,  however,  where  it  U  exfKiHNl  to  the  atmo- 

atnre,  so  that  after  U'ing  kept  in  a  dry  state  for  sphere  and  becomen  dry,  it  ibrms  dark  bn>wii 

a  long  la|Ho  of  time  they  are  found  to  iM>sses!i  cni>ts.     Its  seat  Is  tin^t  the  afi[K-r  surface  of  tiie 

their  entire  pristine  vitiility.     The  whole  plan  epithelial  cells,  but  MKfn  its  tilament.**  ]»rnrtrate 

of  tlieir  development  is  htill  little  known,  and  aeeply  lietween  them,  and  can  no  longer  be 

there  b  good  rea<4oa  to  U-lieve  that  many  of  moved  by  art.     It  is  found  also  in  the  n< 

them  aru  impcrfiH*tlv  dvveloi>ed  states  of  other  windpipe,  stomach,  and  intestine.     It  may 

phuits^  whicti,   if  they  attained  tlieir  pn)|K'r  cur  in  persons  of  every  age,  but  esjieciafly  in 

sphere,  might  present  a  more  complex  struc-  yoimg  chiMren  and  old  iiidividuaK  owing  to 

ture;  and  when  we  ctmsider  the  vj^-t  number  tho  liquid  form  of  their  fnod,  which  ani>w4  any 

of  forms  into  which  a  Miigle  germ  may  de veil »p  accumulation  in  the  mouth  to  remain  vndi*- 

Itself  according  to  the  soil  in  which  it  happens  tnrbed,  and  to  the  long  >W^\>  neco«sarv  to  lhr«e 

to  gniw,  their  real  numlier  may  lie  reganled  as  ages.    It  is  of  fre<pieiit  (K^currence  iJso  in  the 

ci)iiiparutively  small,  and  this  view  is  adopted  la^t  st.ngcs  of  many  di^H-a^i-s,  nhin  the   niuo^cs 

by  Mtine  eminent  dermatolo;;l«ts.     We  are  not  nionibrane  U  covere«l  with  nitnvenons.  di-rufn- 

oMige«l  tci  iK'lieve,  therefore,  that  di'«tim*t  ^^onns  iNisable  matter.     Airnrding  to  Kii«'heniiu-;'*trr, 

arc  tl«»ating  aUiut  in  the  atni(>*iph(-re,  Xn  nrroiint  its  appearance  is  due  to  rat.irrli  of  the  niacos» 

for  all  the  s|K*rii>H  which  are  fniiinl  in  *>in;:n!:ir  membrane,  wliirh  is  \ery  commi'U  in  old  ajo 

and  uiii(]iie  situations;  ami  it  i-iniprolialiK*  tliat  and  infancy,  and  tliin  in  without  donbt  the  nifi>< 

such  matriiH'S  ho  the  human  ^ki^  ninl  miif>>>u>i  fri'tpieiit  prt.'4li>]Kt^ing  cau^v     liobin  aciMianU 

membruiie,  ho«ifs  4if  dead    !n»r-es  JL'c.,  flionld  ft»r  its  pn-M-nre  on  the  nipples  of  nurMs  by  tJ.« 

pnidure   fungi    jt^fnliar  to  theniM  l\\'<i.     Siime  snp|MiM'd  l:u*tic  aiMd  D'ai'tion   ppKlucid   thrre, 

Sirey  direi'tly  u|Nin  lining  ti^MieM.  while  othepi  but  it  is  more  pn>bable  that  the ditt-a^c'l*  tnr.«- 
lestroy  thuin  tirst  and  induce  dre4iin{Hi<«l:iiin,  fi-rred  thitlier  with  tin*  murut  fnan  the  chlM'f 
Wfore  the  profnT  condition**  for  their  tli.-Vi*liip-  nio'ith.  and  t»ec«)nu"«  attaehifl  by  the  rxt^n- 
meiit  are  attaiui-il.  The  fat  t  <if  pt««>.i!ile  iiuM-n*  ^ion  of  the  myri'Iium  inti>  the  eiiiihrlium.  vit- 
iation on  healthy  •iubjei-t.'*  proves  that  tlie  prv<«-  dium  ha*«  aNt>  bei*n  found  in  tlie  mils  an^!  an 
ence  of  MMiie  fitrro**  at  lea«>t  io  the  e^H-ntial  eaiiM*  the  «urfa(*e  of  ulcere.  On  tho  dio«aoe  coIirO 
of  the  di'AtMi'H*  otniieeteil  with  them.  The  fact  diphtheria,  ^liich,  br;;inning  in  Knix-r.  !:ia 
that  myri-lium  may  exi-t  for  u  long  time  (hir-  within  the  hi'^t  two  vears  ^pread  over  l!.o  r^-n- 
Uiant,  till  pnifM  r  rondiiioiis  are  pn>vide«l  fi>r  its  tinmt  of  Kuro[K',  and  ha<t  n-arhiil  thi^  •(•!« 
further  develtip:nrnt,  will  4  xp!aiii  the  ^nl^K'n  of  tlie  ori*aii.  this  paraMte  U  foiii:%l  to  !•«  a  o-n- 
ap|varaniv  of  a  funirns  in  varioi:s  iKi-uliar  !>itii-  htaiit  attendant.  Wliether  its  prv^rnrt*  raii*<4 
ation«.  In  tht<  putat**  di-^i-a-f.  f«»r  iiiK*anfe,  the  the  infl.intniatiori  of  i!ic  thnat,  or  is  m<'rtdy  tho 
hotrtftia  ii*/f»f.tna  may  ^llOW  it'^i-li'iii  a  fi>w  hour-i  ri"*itlt  of  a  proftT  nidiiH  otfvred  it  by  th.«  •>('«Mt. 
on  tlu«  fn-^hly  rut  Mirfaie  of  a  tu'-«T,  ai  ■!  on  fit*  diM-a^e,  i*  not  ea.-y  !i»  drt^nnine.  In  oil.tr 
mi<*ri»^*>>pice\aMiin.ttii»ii  ^^l■  timl  iii}i'<!itiiii  trav-  ra-r<«  it  M-i'm'«  ti»  give  little  trouMi<  a«  a  pt  r>irU 
rr«i{iir  ih<'  «vIU  in  all  diriviion*.  Thiypp»w  rule,  llmn^^h  in  \ery  Tttnn-.:  childnn  it  may  ;  - - 
within  nuts  and  i*;:.;  ^ln'lls  in  ilu«  r-ixiiu-*  ,>f  dsuv  ditVirulty  of  l-r%-athin;r  ur.d  mallow.'. •. 
ttimatot-o  w!irti  no  ie-ioii  tif  t^o' w:i!I<*t\iot«.  aiitl  The  nlt*i  ration  whii'li  is  »nmitimt-s  f^icnd  :« 
are  di*^i*l"|itd  with.n  tin-  l-r.^ri-  of  I'iri!*.  in  ih»»  pr>>fiaMy  caU'^i!  hy  tlie  a(*coMipan«ing  rata-T*!. 
eye  and  b!a!iUr  of  man.  n:. it  t^n  t'lohuh-s  nf  That  it  is  roiit.ipous  is  «!immii  hy  ii«  n^  •! 
niilk  H  ithin  the  uiMers  <if  rt*\\*,  \j,  t  ai:y  riMi::i  »pn -ad  in  largi*  foundling  u-^Iums  and  by  din*  t 
remain  uii'UtturlN-d  f»ir  ai.y  Kii^.'th  of  tifn-*,  and  ex|H*riiiient.  It*  tran-fer\Mire  fn»m  «»«••  rp«"s.:S 
then  examine  the  duj»t  whii  h  ha<T  Culle4.te<],  and  to  another  in  such  localities  is  easily  iioder»U».id 


EPIPHYTES  247 

when  ire  consider  their  cnstoms — ^tlie  nipple  marked  yellow  and  ronndish  cmsts,  which  smell 
taken  fix>m  one  child  and  given  to  another,  feed-  vilely,  and  consist  of  spores  and  mycelium.  From 
iog  Turions  children  with  the  same  spoon,  and  so  one  point  this  fungns  may  spread  over  the  whole 
oa,  How  it  appears  in  sporadic  cases  also  is  scalp,  producing  baldness  and  scars.  Fortunately 
not  difficult  to  explain,  believing  as  we  do  that  it  is  of  rare  occurrence,  for  a  cure  is  almost 
it  19  an  ordinary  form,  which  may  grow  on  impossible.  The  trieophyton  tonsurans  and  71 
many  sabstances,  and  be  transported  in  the  form  sporuloides  also  cause  baldness  when  they  attack 
ofitsspomles  in  all  directions  by  the  air. — ^Noth-  the  hair,  and  the  former  produces  the  disease 
ing  more  than  a  sketch  can  be  given  of  t^e  called  ringworm  which  is  so  prevalent  in  asylums 
rarioos  diseases  caused  by  these  parasites,  and  for  children.  Th^microsporon  AudouiniY\kQ^R\s^ 
their  treatment  must  be  entirely  omitted.  For  attacks  the  hair,  and  the  M.  mentagrophytes  the 
convenience  sake  they  may  be  divided  into  the  beard.  The  only  vegetable  parasite  which  is 
3  foDowing  groups :  those  of  the  alimentary  found  upon  the  skin  alone  is  the  M,  furfwr^ 
caoal,  of  the  scalp,  and  of  the  skin.  In  the  first  which  is  the  cause  of  the  eruption  which 
we  place  the  oidium  aTbieam  already  described,  is  known  as  pityriasis  tersicolor.  Several  of 
tad  here  too  belongs  the  torula  eereci^ics^  or  the  above-mentioned  species  may  take  root 
jisst  plant,  its  near  rehitive,  which  is  met  with  upon  the  skin  as  well  as  the  scalp,  but  they 
oeeaaonally  in  all  the  fluid  excretions  of  the  never  form  a  well  marked  disease  like  the  latter. 
body.  It  forms  the  ordinary  cholera  fungus  in  Various  kinds  of  cryptogamise  have  been  ob- 
the  vomitns  and  intestinal  discharges  of  this  served  in  other  situations,  as  within  the  ear, 
disease,  and  is  often  found  in  the  stomach  and  eye,  lungs,  and  nails,  but  the  descriptions  of 
fttached  to  the  walls  of  the  intestine  after  them  are  very  defective,  and  we  hardly  know 
death.  Its  usual  presence  in  fermenting  fluids  where  they  belong.  It  is  probable,  however, 
has  led  to  the  belief  that  it  was  the  cause  of  that  they  are  species  of  fungi  which  have  acci- 
Rch  change,  and  we  know  that  when  added  as  dentally  found  a  favorable  place  for  develop- 
Teast  it  acts  as  a  true  ferment ;  but  we  do  not  ment. — Man,  however,  is  not  the  only  animal 
know  bat  that  the  peculiar  chemical  change  infested  by  the  vegetable  parasites.  Upon  the 
may  offer  merely  the  conditions  for  its  sudden  mammalia  it  is  true  that  few  have  been  ob- 
appearance  and  rapid  growth.  It  is  another  served,  but  this  remains  an  almost  unexplored 
form  of  the  penieilium  glaucum.  Another  field  to  future  investigators.  Many  birds  bear 
plant,  found  most  commonly  in  the  fluid  of  the  them  in  their  respiratory  apparatus,  especially 
atomach,  is  the  merismopoedia  (or  mrcina)  ten-  the  owls,  which  inhabit  damp  and  shady  re- 
trieuh\  which  has  Wen  usually  placed  among  treats,  frequented  by  fungi.  More  curious  is 
the  algae.  It  has  been  found  also  in  the  urine,  it  to  find  within  the  close-shut  cavity  of  an 
in  the  intestinal  canal,  and  in  the  lungs.  Its  egg  mycelium  spreading  throughout  the  con- 
presence  in  the  stomach  of  man  probably  causes  tents,  and  changing  them  by  a  peculiar  chemical 
00  symptoms  whatever;  and  Hasse's  pretended  action.  Here  the  upholders  of  the  theory  of 
dyspepsia  attributed  to  this  parasite  is  without  spontaneous  generation  thought  to  have  demon- 
aay  fonndaUon,  for  it  has  been  cultivated  in  the  strative  proof  of  the  justice  of  their  views.  The 
stomach  of  rabbits,  and  no  trouble  caused  by  its  phenomenon,  a  rare  one,  is  produced  by  the 
pnsence.  It  is  supposed  to  bo  present  most  admission  of  spores  within  the  oviduct  before 
freqoently  in  patients  sufiering  from  some  the  egg  shell  is  formed.  Fish  are  often  taken 
gntric  disease,  organic  or  otherwise,  but  this  is  covered  with  vegetable  growths,  which  impede 
to  be  accounted  for  by  the  fact  that  such  only  their  motion  through  the  water  as  the  barnacles 
Tonut,  and  afiford  material  or  stimulus  for  investi-  act  upon  ships.  A  great  many  species  have 
ntion.  If  we  remove  from  our  teeth  the  yel-  also  been  described  which  are  found  only  upon 
wvisfa  white  deposit  which  collects  after  the  their  gills  and  in  the  cellular  tissue.  In  an 
neg^t  of  the  tooth  brush  for  several  hours,  we  aquarium,  whenever  an  injury  happens  to  any 
duil  find  by  microscopic  examination,  in  addi-  of  its  inhabitants,  the  wounded  surface  is  seen  at 
tioa  to  the  detritus  of   food,  a  cryptogamic  once  to  bo  covefod  with  fungoid  growths,  which 

St  called  Uptothrix  huccalis.     It  is  to  be  often  attain  a  large  size.    But  it  is  the  insect 

d  In  all  persons,  however  cleanly  they  be,  tribe  which  suffers  most  from  this  cause ;  for 

aid  ibrroi  a  large  part  of  the  tartar  which  their  diminutive  size  is  little  able  to  cope  with 

eoDecta  about  the  teeth.    It  grows  with  great  the  parasite,  which  when  once  fastened  increases 

npidity  after  eating  sugar,  and  has  been  seen  in  at  their  expense,  till  it  exceeds  them  in  size  and 

toe  ftomach.    Of  the  parasites  of  the  scalp,  the  destroys  them.    Flies  may  bo  seen  at  certain 

mAmion   Schdnleinii   is   most   of   all    to  be  seasons  struggling  through  the  air  with  long 

faaded,  on  account  of  the  deformity  and  disa-  stems  attached,  the  mycelium  of  which  spread- 1 

meable  odor  it  gives  rise  to.    It  produces  the  ing  inward  stops  their  breathing  tubes.    Cer- 

fame  known  as^ariM,  porrigo  farom,  or  tinea  tain  species  of  spharia  grow  within  the  larva 

The  spores  first  settle  upon  the  epi-  of  insects  in  China  and  Australia,  and  complete- 

of  the  head,  and  send  forth  the  myce-  ly  mummify  them,  so  that  they  resemble  twigs 


fin.  which  penetrates  the  hair  follicles  and  of  wood,  from  which  sprout  forth  branches. 

iMib'  the  whole  course  of  the  hair  itself.    Ipe  The  most  important  of  all,  however,  in  an 

Ur  becomes  pale  and  lustreless,  breaks  easily,  economic  point  of  view,  is  the  hotrytis  bizseiana^ 

md  b  nuToonded  at  its  base  by  concentrically  which  is  so  destructive  to  the  silkworm.    Thii 


S48  EPmUS  EPISCOFAL  CHURCH 

diteate  ii  called  moBcardine.    Tho  vpores  enter  King  I^nrrhiu  (295-272  R  C.)*  vbo,  in  flpite  of 

the  air  tubes  of  this  worm,  ending  tbeir  myce-  tho  wi^  reuonstnuiocs  of  bis  chief  miDirter 

lium  through  its  tissucM,  and  always  cause  ita  Cineas,  destroyed  his  armies  and  ruined  tbe  state, 

death.    Afiu r  this  tho  plant  pusties  its  fruit-  in  brilliant  campaigns  against  the  Romans  aod 

bearing  sterns  into  tho  outer  world,  and  con-  othcri^.   Oppressed  by  the  neighboring  Maccdoo, 

Terta  its  victim  into  a  muss  of  mould,  from  the  Epirotes  w«ro  delivered  by  their  ancient  en- 

which  fresh  lipores  aro  sent  off  to  spread  tho  emies,  tho  Romans,  but  proved  faithless  to  their 

disease.    Altliough  it  only  attacks  the  Uirvse,  it  deliverers.    They  supported  against  them  both 

may  by  inoculation  bo  cultivated    U|>on  tho  Antiochus  tho  Great  of  Syria,  and  PeneiM  of 

chrysalia  and  moth.    Tho  intestines  of  insects  Macedon.      They   were    subdued    by    Panlus 

and  wonns  which  livo  in  decaj'cd  wood  aro  Jimilius  (168  B.C.)i  and  cruelly  chastised.  No- 

olten  found  filled  with  most  curious  forms  of  morous  cities  were  destroyed,  and  15(l,CM)0  of 

Tegetativo  life,  as  Dr.  Leidy  has  shown  in  tho  tho  inhabitants  wero  sold  into  slavery.     Emnm 

case  of  the  iultu  Urre$trU,  and  tho  very  en-  was  now  a  province  of  Rome,  and  shared  tho 

focoa  which  dwell  within  their  intestines  are  fato  of  its  eastern  dopendencies.    In   143S  it 

eovered    with   similar   growtlis. — Those  who  was  conquered  by  tho  Turks,  from  whom  it  waa 

would  pursue  this  subject  still  further  will  find  wrested  in  1443  by  tho  famous Scanderbeg,  prinea 

mnch  to  interest  them  in  the  following  works :  of  Albania.    On  his  death  in  1466  it  was  rMon- 

Robin,  HUtoire  naturelU  d^s  rt^itaux  panuiti*  quercd  by  Mohammed  II.,  and  has  since  been 

(8  vol^.  Bvo.,   Paris,   1853);    KQchenmeisler,  ruled  by  Turkish  pashaa,  among  whom,  in  tbo 

••Manual  of  Parasites,"  transUted  by  tho  Sy-  early  piut  of  tlie  19th  century,  Ali  of  Janina  dis- 

donham  society  (2  vols.  8vo.,  London,  1857) ;  tinguished  himself  by  hb  Crimea,  talents^  and 

Berkeley,  *' Introduction  tu  Cryptogamic  Bot-  revolts  against  tho  authority  of  tho  soltan.    The 

any  ;**  and  Leidy,   '*  Flora  and  Fauna  within  insurrection  of  tho  Suliotea,  in  southern  Epina^ 

Living  Animals,*'  in  tho  *^  Smitlisonian  C<mtribu-  ended  in  their  own  ruin.    As  volunteers  they 

tions  to  Knowledge,*'  vols.  v.  and  vi.  (Washing-  promoted  tho  indeiiendenoo  of  Greece  withoot 

ton,  1853  and  *54). — ^Tho  term  EinrnTTEs  is  also  achieving  their  own.    Tho  modem  inhabiianta 

applied  by  botanists  to  nlanU  which  grow  ui>on  of  Epirus  ore  mostly  Arnants. 
other  vegetalileSy  but  which  do  not  dvrivo  their        EriSCOPACY,  that  form  of  chnrch  goven- 

nourishmont  from  them.    (See  Aiu-Plants).  meut  in  which  bishops  aru  established  as  chief 

EPIUUS,  next  to  Thessaly,  tho  largest  prov-  rulem  of  tlio  ecclesiastical  body,  sufierior  u> 


inoe  of  ancient  lircece,  in  tho  S.  part  of  modem  priests  or  other  clerical  offiferti.     (See  Bbia««p, 

Albania,  bounded   N.  b\'  tho  territory  of  tho  Clkiigt,    Emiland  (Ciii'srii   of),     Epucopal 

Graco-Illyriuu  tribes,  £.  by  Theiisaly,  S.  by  Ctirnrii    (PmrrKhTANT),  METHomsra,    Romas 

iEtolia,  Acarnania,  and  tho  Ambracian  (;ulf,  now  Catiioui?  Chi  itcii.) 

aulf  of  Arta,  and  W.  by  the  Ionian  si-a.    Tho  EPISCOPAL  CHURCH,  Pboteotaxt,  in  the 

Ceraunian  mountains  t<eiiarutcd  it  from  (Grecian  United  States,  tliat  errle!iia<«tical  budy  w  Lich 

lUyria ;  the  Pindus  fainouH  in  myth(»lo^y,  fn>m  claims  to  bo  an  otl*shiM>t  fn)ni  tlie  i-huri'h  of  Ecj;- 

Thei«ily.    Its  climate  wa<«  niiM,  its  Miil  lesd  for-  land.     Previous  to  tliu   Amcrioan    revi>IutK>a 

tile  than  tlmt  of  other  part^  of  (rreei^o.     Tlio  iuenil»ers  of  the  churoh  of  England  wcrt*  ct>i'.<- 

river  Arlu-rou  rci-civt-il  the  waters  of  tlieC«>oy.  ht:intly  s^*ttling  in  all  parts  of  the  colonli-:*.     la 

tos  within  its  limit!^  and  tlowt-d  into  the  Ionian  Maryland  e^ptM.•ially  t>Ky  wen*  very  nunu  n<:n 

aeiL    Both  rivi-r.4  figure  in  my  tholojry  as  streams  and  in   161*2  they  seem  to  have  coivi^:itnt«<il  a 

of  tho  infenial  re^non.     Epirus  was  divided  into  mi\foritr  of  tlie  |M>puliition  »uthcieutly  lar«^r  to 

the  districts  of  Cllaoni:^  Molossin.  and  Tlies-  establi<«[i  tlieir  religion  as  tho  religion  of  the 

protia,   luuned   after   the   nio^t   numeriMis  and  C4»lony.  Ina«.*conlanco  withtlietraditiunai  vi^ws 

powertul   of  its  ancient  trilK*!*.     Itn  niti^t   re-  of  the  mother  ehureh,  they  held  to  the  Oii«'<*«:Cy 

markable  places  were:   I>odona,  witli  the  an-  of  the  epincojud  otfioo  in  order  to  give  vaIid:tT 

cient    orarle  of   Jupiter,    with    its    prophetic  t<>  certain  of  the  eceIe»iiL<«tiral  functiocw.     No 

rustling  tr^-o,  sacre*!  gr»ve,  and  splendicl  teiu-  bishop,  however,  was  provided  for  them  until 

pie;    Cano|>o   and  liuthrotum,    with    harlnirs,  after  the  i>eace  of  17^-1.     Up  to  that  lirr.e  the 

chiefly  communirating  with  tho  iM>rt  of  Hrun-  Epise(tpal  chun^h  in  this  country  was  und«-r  the 

dnsium,  now  liriudiM,  in  Hiutlu-ni  Italy ;  Am-  overs*i(rht  of  tho  bLiIiop  of  liuiidon,  arid  Amer- 

bracia,  tho  capiL-d  of  King  Pyrrlius  and  hia  do-  lean  canditlatA'S  for  the  ministry  were  under  the 

accndantj^  on  the  gulf  of  the  Huno  n.inie;  Ni-  ne«*es>ity  of  cn»9*»ing  the  Atlantic  in  order  to 

oopolis    (city   of  victory),  on   tho  same  gulf,  obtjiin  onlers.     Etforts  had  indi<ed  been  4M.'vcral 

(bunded  by  (K-taviunu^  Ancu-tus  in  cum  mem-  times  made  in  the  old  country  t«»  secure  an  rpi.^ 

•oration  of  the  battle  of  .\rtitiiii,  near  the  op-  copato  in  the  colonit*^;  but  the^»  efforts  were 

ptAite  tdiori'.     Tlitf  EpirtiteA  hud  tlieir  share  m  always  defeated!  by  a  twuftild  iiiflumce.     Thrrv 

(ireciaii  fame  and   hi**ti*ry,   thuu;;h   the  other  wa^  in  En;;Iand  an  nnfriondly  fi.t>ling  toward  t!.e 

(flri.iki  i\u\  not  consiiUr  them  as  ln-Ion^ring  to  nioaMin*,  fi >r  the  most  part  grow  mgtruti if  c«rta.n 

the  Hellenic  rnce.     P\rrhus  i.r  Ni-<ipttilcmiis  lMtliiii*:d  complications;   and  there  w&«  i:i  t.^e 

the  N»u  of  At'hilie%  lK.vaiiie  kin^  of  Khinis  uiwr  C4il<inies  a  gmnl  deal  of  jealou«v  of  cpiM^v^pwi, 

the  Trojan  wur.     0!\mpias  tho  nrnther  of  AI-  ari-in^  from  the  ex|H-nen«-e  v{  the  conne<it->Q 

cxander  the  <ireat,  wa.s  a  priiireM  of  tl.is  coun-  I  etween  ehun*h  ami  state  in  the  mother  rouLtrj. 

try.     I5ut  their  most  di»tinguialied  man   was  Uisliojis  without  lordly  titlee  and  princviy  in- 


EPISCOPAL  CHURCH  249 

■ 

eomefl^  and  anthority  in  part  at  least  of  a  po-  disciplino,  or  worsfiip,  or  farther  than  local  cir- 
iitical  character,  were  nnknown,  and  hy  many  cumstances  require/*  And  it  tias  been  hold  that 
beliflTed  to  be  impoflsible.  It  is  also  affirmed  in  consequence  of  this  declaration  in  the  preface 
thit»  especially  in  New  England,  a  fear  that  if  to  the  American  prayer  book,  as  well  as  on 
the  colonial  dependency  of  our  country  on  the  general  principles,  the  Protestant  Episcopal 
crown  of  England  should  be  much  longer  per-  church  in  the  United  States  retains  all  the  com- 
petoiUed,  the  establishment  of  an  episcopate  mon  and  canon  law  of  the  English  church,  ex- 
aka  that  in  England  would  be  inevitable,  con-  cept  in  so  far  as  ^Mt  may  have  been  deemed  in- 
tribnted  mach  to  the  zeal  which  characterized  applicable  by  its  local  circumstances,'^  referred 
the  itmggle  for  American  independence.  In  to  in  the  preface,  or  modified  or  repealed  by 
th»  state  of  things,  as  was  natural,  when  the  express  legislation.  The  Protestant  Episcopal 
war  had  actually  broken  outeome  of  the  church  church  in  the  United  States  retains  from  the 
of  England  people,  and  morAspecially  those  of  church  of  England  the  Apostles*  and  Niceno 
the  northern  states,  were  opposed  to  it,  and  be-  creeds,  the  XXXIX.  articles^  with  a  slight  modi- 
came  what  were  called  tories;  while  others,  and  fication  in  reference  to  the  connection  of  the  civil 
especially  those  in  the  southern  states,  heartily  government  with  the  church,  and  the  catechism 
eipooaea  the  cause.  Washington  himself  was  a  and  baptismal  offices.  But  for  the  communion 
dmrch  of  En^nd  man  before  the  revolution,  office  it  has  rather  followed  tlie  Scotch  than 
and  after  the  treaty  of  peace  he  remained  and  the  English  church  in  placing  a  i>rayer  of  con- 
died  in  the  communion  of  the  Protestant  Episco-  secretion  and  invocation  of  the  Holy  Ghost  upon 
ptl  chnrch.  Mr.  Duchd,  the  first  chaplain  to  the  consecrated  elements  before  the  administra- 
eongresB,  was  a  chnrch  of  England  clergyman ;  tion  of  them  to  the  communicants,  and  has 
and  Biahop  White  of  Pennsylvania,  the  first  even  added  to  the  Scotch  service  a  few  words 
prending  bishop,  was  from  the  first  an  ardent  making  still  more  unambiguous  the  eucharist- 
fiiend  of  American  independence.  As  early  as  ,  ical  character  of  the  sacrament.  The  American 
Ang,  1782,  a  plan  had  been  proposed  for  a  union  church  has  also  stricken  out  from  its  form 
and  omnization  of  *^  the  church  of  England  for  visiting  the  sick  the  formula  for  private  ab- 
people  into  an  independent  branch  of  the  church  solution;  and  in  the  exhortation  preceding  the 
of  Christ.  Ko  organization,  however,  was  com-  administration  of  the  holy  communion,  it  has 
pletcd  until  Sept.  1785;  but  before  this  the  Epis-  omitted  the  direct  reference  to  and  advice  in 
copalians  of  Connecticut  elected  the  Rev.  Samuel  favor  of  private  confession  to  the  priest,  and 
Seabnrj,  D.D.,  to  be  their  bishop.  Dr.  Seabury,  absolution  from  him.  In  this  revision  of  the 
in  consequence  of  sonie  political  obstacles  to  his  offices,  Bishops  Scubury  and  White  were  chielly 
ntting  his  ordination  in  England,  went  to  Scot-  instrumental  as  the  guiding  minds,  and  Bishop 
und,  and  was  consecrated,  Nov.  14,  1784,  by  3  White  has  left  behind  his  testimony  to  the  liar- 
Seottish  bishops,  Robert  Kilgour,  Arthur  Petrie,  mony  and  agreement  of  views  and  feelings  with 
ind  John  Skinner,  at  Aberdeen.  The  general  which  they  cooperated  in  the  performance 
eonrention,  however,  which  met  in  1785,  made  of  this  task.  In  the  offices  of  institution,  es- 
application  to  the  English  church  for  the  conse-  tablished  in  1804  and  set  forth  with  alterations 
craUon  of  more  bishops  of  the  American  church,  in  1808,  the  word  ^^  sacerdotal "  is  introduced 
For  this  office  Dr.  William  White  of  Pennsyl-  as  describing  the  functions  of  the  Christian 
Tinia  and  Dr.  Samuel  Provoost  of  New  York  ministry.  This  is  regarded  as  significant  and 
had  been  designated  and  elected,  each  respect-  giving  definitivcness  to  the  view  taken  of  the 
hrtiy  by  the  parishes  in  the  states  to  which  nature  and  offices  of  the  Chnstian  ministry  in 
they  belonged.  They  were  consecrated  in  the  this  branch  of  the  church.  The  theory  of  the 
Ijmbeth  palace  chapel,  Feb.  4,  1787,  and  on  Protestant  Episcopal  church,  like  that  of  the 
fiepL  19,  1790,  James  Madison  of  Virginia  English  church,  is  that  in  order  to  be  a  valid 
was  in  like  manner  consecrated  for  the  Anier-  branch  of  the  church  of  Christ  it  must  have 
iem  church  in  Virginia.  In  1789  the  gen-  the  Uoly  Scriptures  and  the  ancient  catholic 
cral  convention  met,  consisting  of  the  then  creeds,  the  ministry  in  an  unbroken  line  of  suc- 
ViAops  (although  Provoost  took  little  or  no  cession  from  the  apostles,  and  in  the  exercise  of 
part  in  its  doings),  and  clerical  and  lay  lawful  jurisdiction ;  and  that  the  Christians  of 
from  each  of  the  states  in  which  any  any  nation  w^ith  these  conditions  constitute  a 
organization  had  been  effected.  At  national  branch  of  the  church  of  Christ,  totally 
ttk  meeting  a  constitution  and  laws  for  the  or-  independent  of  the  jurisdiction  and  authority 
pwation  and  government  of  the  church  as  a  of  any  foreign  church  or  bishop,  subject  only 
mfindal  brancli  of  the  catholic  church  of  under  Christ  to  the  authority  of  the  universal 
Gbrirt  were  adopted.  The  English  prayer  book,  church  in  general  council  assembled ;  and  that 
Mivrisedand  adapted  to  the  altered  political  as  such  they  have  jurisdiction  over  all  their 
dreomitances  of  the  country,  was  set  forth  to  members  and  authority  in  matters  of  faith  to 
Vi  «nd  in  all  the  congregations  after  Oct.  1,  interpret  and  decide,  and  in  matters  of  worship 
ITNi,  and  it  remains  unchanged  to  the  present  and  discipline  to  legislate  and  ordain  such  rites 

a.    In  the  alterations  thus  nuule  in  the  Eng-  and  ceremonies  as  may  seem  most  conducive 

fcrmolariea,  it  is  declared  that  *' this  chiu^h  to  edification  and  godliness,  provided  they  be 

ktar  from  intending  to  depart  from  the  church  not  contrary  to  the  Holy  Scriptures.   The  Scrip- 

€f  Eo^bod  in  any  essentiid  point  of  doctrine^  tures  and  the  creeds,  as  already  said,  the  Prot- 


250           EPISGOPAL  CHURCn  EPIBOOFIUB 

ostnnt  EpiJtcopAl  chnrrh  has :  the  luinistrr  also  the  bishops  in  the  actual  exercise  of  ep 

it  haHobtaiiK'tlthroiif^h  the  ministry  of  the  En;;-  jurisdiction,  and  of  clerical  ant!  lar  del 

lish  cliiirrli,  and  prcser^v*  in  m'cunlaniro  with  4  of  each  order  chosen  from  cac'h  di«»c<.-s<i 

the  of'<*!o>i:i'>ticAl  canons  and  usages  which  have  convention.   They  sit  in  2  houses^  and  m 

I»rev:iih-d  from  the  days  of  the  ajtostles.     Itsi  ih  the  concurrence  of  both  hon9e4  nece«; 

rijrht  to  lawful  juris<liction  mu>t  stand  on  cir-  the  pa>sagu  of  any  canon  or  law  of  the  c 

cun)<tan(*i»(  and  favtA  i»eculiarly  it.4  own,  and  but  also  a  concurrence  in  case  it  i^  ns\ 

found  in  it**  liistory  and  condition.     In  tlie  first  each  of  the  3  ordem,  bishops  prie«it<,  an< 

platv,  it  w:H^tluntcd  by  members  of  the  £n(;li>h  in  order  that  any  measure  may  U-comi 

church,  and  m  what  was  then,  and  continued  and  so  binding  upon  the  church.    The  r<ii 

to  be  until  the  A nu'riean  colonies  became  an  in-  tions  in  money  for  church  obji*ctN  ov 

dc[K.*n(h'itt  national  M»viTeignty,  a  part  of  the  alM>ve  what  was  «ti>ended  in  ervctine  t 

£ngli>h  dominions.    The  Si'ttlen  of  Jlune^town  pairing  church  enitices  and  in  the  i*upf 

came,  in  the  lan^age  of  their  charter,  to '*dis-  the  panK'hial    ck-rgy,   amountetl    in    V 

covi-r  and  to  pro^>cute  eftW-tnally  the  full  pos-  $l,27ll,47l»  Ul.    lliis  8um   was  alnuM  • 

ik*s>ion  of  all  such  heathen  lands  as  were  not  expended  in  support  of  the  poor,  and  in  « 

actually  iH»..sesM.*d  by  any  Chri>tian  nrinco  or  ing  the  mis^Mons  diocesan,  doini->tic,  and  f 

iK-opIi*,**  and  "to  e<*tublish  there  both  the  do-  In  consetjuence  of  its  total  dixHinnectioi 

minion  of  tlie  British  crown  and  the  jurutdiction  tfie  state  and  political  compUcatiiMi'*,  the  I 

of  the  Knglisli  church,  providcfl  always  that  the  tant  Episcopal  churdi  has  hail  a  degrt-e  i 

htutiitcs  devi^.-d  bliiiuld  Im>,  as  near  as  conve-  ty,  harmony,  and  rteace,  unknown  tot  Lei 

liieiitly  might,  agreeable  to  the  laws  and  iM)]icy  church  in  Englimu,  and  its  incrvase  by  ; 

of  England,  and  not  against  the  true  Christian  parison  of  statistics  shows  a  gain  in  ni 

faith,  OS  profe^si'd  in  the  church  of  England.**  of  20  or  30  i>er  cent.  al>ovv  the  increnM? 

They  n-mained  a  part  of  the  English  chun-h  so  population  of  the  country  since  the  iim« 

long  as  the  ctdonies  remained  a  |iart  of  the  Eng-  organization. 

li>h  dominions  and  deiK*ndencies.   Holding  with  EPISCOI'irS,  Sixox,  a   I>ntch  thi« 

the  Engli-h  chureh  tliat  episcopid  ordination  is  whoso  original  name  was  Bischop,  bom  i 

i)efe<«ary  to  valid  juristliction  and  the  due  ad-  aterdam,  in  1583,  died  there,  April  4.  ItVt: 

niini'«tration  of  the  racraments  anywhere,  the  was  educated  at  lA*yden,  receiving  the« 

Pntto-'tant  Epis4-or»al  chun-h  lias  di»reganled  the  instnictions  from  (romar  and  AnniniiN;  i 

organizations  of  the  various  I'mtestunt  denom-  attachment  to  the  Amiinian  system  ex|«t* 

inatiuns  iii  the  country,  as  none  of  them  have  to  the  enmity  of  the  then  dominant  0;ili 

what  she  regards  as  a  valid  episcopate.     She  party.     In  1610  he  became  a  pa*»tor  in  a 

diH-%  hiiWevef.  ni-knowK-d:;e  the  validity  of  tlio  near  Rotterdam,  and  in  1611.  n<it\vi:*i«* 

«>rili-r<i  1  ontVrred  in  the  Km  nan  t\ithi>Iic  church,  his  youth,  he  w:is  chosi*n  one  of  !•  i:iii.i-!i 

but  di<«n-u'urils  the  claim  of  her  ministry  to  ju-  were  to  defend  Anniniani>m  in  n  <*••!::*•  rt- 1 

ri^ilii'tiiiii  uiihin  the  I'nited  States.   ThiswtmM  |Miinted  by  tlie  stat^.**^ general.     In  It'tli  , 

folhfW  from  the  fart  of  lur  tir<«t  institution  in  invited  to  fill  the  choir  of  theo!i>;ry  a!   I 

thi*  nmiitry,  U-in;;  planti-il  hire  not  only  l>e-  which  Gom.ir  hod  ju<*t<)uittiil.    lU  :. -w  1 

fore  t!ie  I.iinian  ('aThi>li<'N  IkuI  maile  a  pernin-  the  object  ttf  unceasing  alt  arks,  nnd  \«:\<»  i 

nent  •M'tiUineht.  but  by  t!ie  EnL'li<-h  t'hurr!i.  and  with  e<iual  iIlju^tic^»  of  bi'in:*  a  ST:t.::i.'!. 

in  ti  rntiiry  u  hirli  it  !•«  elainuHl  at  that  time  be-  Ihivingcombined  with  the t*Mth«>lir«t> >  rui 

lnng.il  to  iti  jiiri<^lii-tiiin.     In  this  Mate  of  farts  e>tantism;  and  the  {Mtpular  anitni.*.!y.  h 

the  rntl-^tant  Epi^'upid  I'hurch  ha-*  always  re-  exrileil  in  religious  cau^*?*  at  lh.i!  i  ra.  \ 

ganb-d  t!ie  Ki*nii«h  rlergy  :is  M'hi^matie^  ami  directed  again*>t  him  and  hii  fa'i>i!y.      I 

intruili-ra,   |Mi-»«*^ing  no   riirlil   to  juriMlirtion  the  synml  of  I>ort  wa«  c:dle«l.  and  Er-v 

until  •»»;■  h   time  as  they   hhall  confonn  to  the  with  Hitne  of  his  friends  prt-Mnttd  l.:r:> 

di><':rjrii*.  i!i«4-ii>line.  anil  wiir-hip  4 if  the  IVot-  fore  thai  a*»*i'inbly.     Hut  Maurii-o  i  f  < 

c-iant    Epi-^r.ijial   rhtirch,   and    Huhniit  U*   her  under  wh(»^«  an>pici-s  the  sM;i"l  wa^  b* ! 

auth'«ri'v, — The    di»HV*«'S    of    the     I*n»ti-tanl  <»piH.iM'd  to  parti*;ms  wb<i  priv.i  ho^l  .^!  :h 

Epi^->>;<.d  i'liurrli  enrre«pi>nd  in  numUr  and  ex-  time  civil  and  religious  liUrty.  and  tl."  . 

ti  :»t  w  i!!i  the  Mate-.  e\eept   tliat  NeW  Yi»rk  has  inns  fiiun<l  themMlvi»«i  c-Xi'Uldiil  fn  t:»  t.tki 

two,  li'i.l  i<*he:>  are  fa-t  It-in;;  or:»anized  in  tin*  other  part  in  the  conference's  th.u:  th^: 

terriii»niv    'I  he  rhun  !i  ha-  mi—inn-  in  Afrira,  swerini;4|Tio-!ions     KpiM-i'piu*  :ht  n  lal-:' 

1'hin.i,  and  (irii-ee.     It  ha*  ."*.♦  l-i-lmpM,  in<  led-  up  hi^  jk-u  to  defend  his  faith  :  !.*:•■  \rr..\ 

if>«'  the  mi-"'i«iiiiin  lii-liiip'..  omt  •JJ»'hi  ihri.'y,  n-inoiiMrant  « b'r-pjynien   w^ro  d«  ;   =-  I. 

a!.-l  .•»^■■»I!  'J""'. »  i'i<iii!'riiiiraiit  niemlKT-,  umI  tin  y  refu-kd  to  nni»«niv  fur  tht  !■.:•.•*  !l 

i'ji  I'll.",  a  {>"i>u!ari<>:i  e^tiM.itiil  a!  a*'i»nt  2.'»"»,-  t'<iniiani'eof  fiaMoral  dulit-.  liny  ni  n  '  a' 

0  •'».     Ill  eaeh   diiM'e-i"   tin  re    i-  .'in  orgaiii.'i  ■!  Ki'i-^-opius  livid  in  re:irtine:i:  in  I(.*-.iV.v 

1  ••:i\,.ii:  .,?!  e.iti-i-rih::  I  if  bj-l.iiji.  •  1.  r;;y,  and  l.iy  Fraiux*  till  lt*rj»i,  when,  m-'fe  t-  !•  nu:!  \  ri 
di  1  ^r.itf-  1  lii»-i-n  hy  the  pei-ph-.     Tin  -e  eonviii-  |.avin;rprevailiNl  in  Il'illand.  he  nSurr«d  t 
tl>iii-  n>>it   aitniial!}.  asid    pni\iile  fur  all  li.i>  preai'he«l  at  Ib*tt«rilan],  antl  af^f-r  1»* '4 
di-t:i:!-<ir  h't'.d  aitd -]*ei'i!ir  K::i'>!;itiiin.     Theil.'*-  t!;i'«ih'gy  in   thi»   new  ct'llcin*  etaMi^l.t-tl 
cr*i  -  are  »T/arM/ri!   iii!n  II  ;:eni Tal  eiiii\e::li«':j.  frieUiN  in  Ani-ti-rdasn.     To   .\n:i:n;':»  ! 
which  meet^  uuce  iu  'J  years.     It  con»ibtA  of  ail  the  distinction  of  having  founded  tfa«  tc 


EPISTOL^  OBSOURORUM  EPIZOA                       251 

Epboophu  was  tbe  theologian  who  first  devel-  glands  and  follicles,  on  the  serons  nnd  synovial 

oped  its  ideas  with  skill.    Beside  his  many  con-  membranes  and  the  coats  of  the  blood  vessels 

tiorersial   pieces,  the  most  important  of   his  and    absorbents.    The    two    principal   among 

vritiiigs  is  the  Inttitutiones  Theologia.    A  col-  the  nnmerous  forms  of  epithelial  cells  are  the 

iNtioQ  of  his  works  was  published  by  Conrcelles  tessellated  or    pavement  epithelium,  and  the 

(S  Tob.  foL,  Amsterdam,  1650).  cylindrical    epithelium.     The   tessellated    epi- 

EPISTOIufi    OBSCURORUM    VIRORUM  thelium  lines  the  serous  and  synovial  mcm- 

^lecters  of  obscure  men,  the  word  ohscuri  being  branes,  the  blood  vessels,  the  follicles  of  most 

intended  to  mean  at  the  same  time  ignorant  and  of  the  cutaneous  and  mucous  glands,  and  many 

illibenl  persons),  a  collection  of  satirical  letters  parts  of  the  mucous  membranes ;  the  cells  are 

ia  do^  Latin,  published  anonymously  in  1515  generally  flattened  and  polygonal,  forming  by 

and  1517,  the  first  part  at  Ilagenau,  by  the  their  contact  a  kind  of  pavement,  and  the  num- 

karoed  publisher  Angst,  the  second  at  Basel  ber  of  layers  is  usually  small.    The  cylinder 

bj  Fkvben,  though  Venice  is  named  on  the  title  epithelium  covers  the  mucous  membrane  of  the 

p^ge  as  the  place  of  publication.    These  letters  alimentary  canal,  the  larger  ducts  of  the  glands, 

■n  ooosnicuous  in  the  histoiy  of  the  reforma-  the  vas  deferens,  and  the  urethra ;  its  cells  are 

tioD  in  Germany.    At  that  time  John  Pfefier-  cylinders,  arranged  side  by  side,  one  end  resting 

kDcn,  a  converted  Jew,  and  Jacob  Hoogstraaten,  on  the  basement  membrane,  the  other  forming 

we  foremost  among  those  in  Cologne  who  en-  the  free  surface.    These  two  kinds  pass  into  each 

desTored  to  keep  down  the  light  of  independent  other  at  various  points,  giving  rise  to  various 

tiioagfat  developed  by  the  study  of  the  classics,  transition  forms,  and  both  are  often  fringed  with 

A  Tiolent  literary  feud  between  them  and  the  delicate  filaments  or  cilia,  varying  in  length  from 

Eberal  thinkers,  Reuchlin  especially,  caused  the  j^.U^  to  j.^'j^  of  an  inch.    (See  Cilia).    Cil- 

pnblication  of  the  EpUtohr^  a  keen  and  caustic  lated  epithelium  is  found  in  the  cerebral  cavi- 

Htira  on  the  ignorance  and  perversity  of  the  ties,  the  ramifications  of  the  bronchi,  the  air 

de^  at  that  time.  There  was  nmch  uncertain-  passages,  with  their  nasal,  frontal,  maxillary,  and 

t^  in  regard  to  their  authorship.    Reuchlin,  lachrymal  appendages,  the  posterior  faucet,  and 

Ezamns,  and  Ulric  von  Hutten  were  severally  Eustachian  tube;  their  function  seems  to  be  to 

■nposed  to  have  been  the  authors.    But  care-  expel  the  secretions  of  these  various  membranes. 

fill  investigation  has  shown  that  there  was  a  The  epithelial  like  the  epidermic  cells  are  in  a 

Itt^  number  of  contributors,  including  Ulric  state  of  continual  separation  and  renewal,  more 

Ton  Hutten,  Herman  van  den  Busche,  £.  lless,  rapid  according  to  the  activity  of  the  connected 

Peter  Eberbach,  Rhegius,  Sommerfeld,  Ca?sa-  function;  the  introduction  of  nutrient  matters, 

Tins,  Pirkheimer,  Wolfgang  Angst,  and  Jacob  the  separation  of  effete  substances,  the  various 

Fuchft,  for  the  first  volume,  and  beside  them,  products  of  secretion,  and  the  development  of 

Herman  van  Nuevar  and  F.  Fischer  for  the  sec-  the  reproductive  particles,  are  effected  by  the 

ood.    The  EpUtola  were  prohibited  by  the  pope  agency  of  epithelium  cells. 

inl517,  in  consequence  of  which  their  popularity  EPIZOA  (Gr.  cwt,  upon,  and  fwov,  an  ani- 

aneased.    The  book  has  been  frequently  repub-  mal).     This  term  as  used  by  Owen  signifies 

Bdicd.    The  best  editions  are  those  of  Frankfort  only  a  singular  class  of  humbly  organized  artic- 

(1M3),  London  in  12mo  (no  year  given),  that  ulate  animals,  which  infest  the  skin,  gills,  and 

ifited  by  Maittaire  at  London  (1710),  a  new  edi-  eyes  of  marine  animals.    "We  shall  give  it,  how- 

tioB  by  Rotermnnd  (Hamburg,  1827),  another  ever,  a  much  more  comprehensive  meaning. 

If  Munch  (Leipsic,  1827),  and  the  latest  by  G.  and  describe  under  it  the  most  important  of 

BSdung  (Leipsic,  1859).     The  latter  includes  the  external  parasites  of  the  animal  kingdom. 

dw  a  8d  volume,  published  for  the  fii-st  time  They  all  belong  to  the  order  articulata,  and  to 

b  1689.    Tbe  8atiric:il  form  of  the  EpistolcB  has  the  classes  Crustacea^  arachnida,  and  imecta. 

anvcral  occasions  been  imitated  by  more  mod-  Beginning  with  the  first  of  these  divisions,  we 

«B  authors.     One  of  these  imitations  is  Fpis"  shall  find  that,  like  the  entozoa,  many  of  them 

M*  ybra  Ob^etir&rum  Virorum^  published  by  possess  limited  powers  of  locomotion,  and  con- 

fnt  Schwetschke,  at  Halle  (1849),  as  a  satire  sequently  must  pass  the  whole  term  of  their 

n  tbe  German  parliament.  existence  upon  the  animals  they  infest ;   but 

EPITHELIUM  (Gr.  cwi,  upon,  and  6n^Tj,  a  that  as  we  ascend  in  the  scale  of  organization, 

Bip^),  the  layer  of  cells  lining  the  internal  and  come  to  the  arachnida,  and  especially  the 

in  lorfaees  of  the  body,  continuous  with  the  insecta,  there  is  no  longer  this  dependence  upon 

MUennis  which  covers  the  external  surface  a  fixed  position  for  sustenance  and  habitation, 

■  tt«  skin.    It  arises  from  cells  like  the  ep-  andthat,  more  independent  of  the  will  of  others, 

liiniiia,  which  are  developed  and  thrown  off  they  only  make  use  of  their  hosts  for  accidental 

b  tbe  same  manner  in  both  structures ;   the  nourishment,  or  compel  them  to  take  charge  of 

l|ilfadiam,  however,  serves  for  totally  distinct  their  young  while  in  a  helpless  condition.     Wo 

yvpoies  in  the  animal  economy,  as  from  the  sliall  consider  the  most  important  of  theni  in  the 

Mft  and  moist  surfaces  covered  by  its  cells  order  of  this  classification,  referring  for  their  anat- 

m»  elaborated  the  various  secretions  of  the  omyand  general  description  to  the  articles  respec- 

Isdy.     A  continuous  layer  of  its  cells  may  be  tively  devoted  to  these  classes.     I.  Cruttacea, 

tlie  whole  length  of  the  alimentary  canal,  The  parasitic  representatives  of  this  class  are 

the  other  mucous  membranes  into  the  confined  to  the  poecilopodous  entomostraca,  and 


L 


252  EPIZOA 

arc  fonnd  only  Tipon  nurino  ftninudfii  being  in  tnre  sUto  they  hare  hot  8  pun  of  le^ 

fact  tlie  pubstitutca  for  initootii,  which  cannot  4th  they  acquire  later.     Before  taking 

livi'  bi'neath  tlic  watiT.     Tlieso  are  again  »ub-  true  niiteis  however,  it  will  be  best  to  U 

fliviiliHl  into  tlie  lertuadtr  nnd  the  9iphoruf§tomft,  brictly  two  f^?ne^a  which  are  fuond  oi 

wliii'h  together  formed  Owcn*«  olann  of  epizoa.  viz. :  linguatula  and  dtmodex.    The  lir<t 

Tlio  tonner  of  tliet>e  have  for  a  long  time  nuzzled  time;!  calle<l  pfntattomumj  has  an  eii»t 

the  naturalist  on  account  of  their  i>eculiar  ai>-  cylindrical  Ixxly,  made  up   of  altoniati 

ucunince.    Aristotle  and  Pliny  described  them ;  and  const riction««  and  is  about  half  au 

LinnxMi!*  placed  them  among  the  uiollunca;  De  length.    Its  head  in  aniivd  with  two  larp 

Lunari'k  rvmovvd  them  to  the  annelidea ;  and  resembling  the  th<irn  of  a  roM*  bu*>h.    hi 

C'livier  arrang(.-d    them  among    his  intestinal  enclo!<ed  in  cartilaginous  or  balcareoun  r 

worms.    The  form  of  thu<ie  animals  is  very  the  surface  of  the  liver  in  negroc!t.     A 

various  and  fantastic,  but  tliey  are  mostly  of  an  8i»ecies  {L,ferox)  is  now  and  then  met  « 

elongated  8haiH\  with  tubular  necks  of  a  horny  po$i  mortem  examinations  encvicted  on  i 

coUMStency,  at  the  end  of  which  is  the  mouth  face  of  the  liver  of  whiter  but  is  htill  « 

armed  witli  !»harp  implement.**,  by  which  tliey  found  in  the  frontal  sinnset  of  the  hii 

attach  thein*ielves  to  the  eyes,  gilK  and  ilesh  and  dopn.      The  demodex  foUicuiyrum 

of  ti^lles,  and  suck  their  blood.    The  females  also  the  generic  names  aeanu  and  •f<*u(H 

have  long  plumose  ap|>endage3  attached  poste-  is  the  pimple  mite  or  dweller  in  the  filli 

riorly,  which  are  the  ovaries.    The  males  are  im-  the  human  nose.     As  long  ago  as  the 

perfectly  known.    The  young,  when  first  hatch-  of  the  17th  century  it  was  known  that  i 

ed,  are  of  an  oval  tihaiK\  and  |>Oiisess  natatory  mal  inhabited  the  comedon,  but  not  unt 

limbs,  by  aid  of  which  they  NX*k  their  proi»er  was  the  subject  invesitigated,  by    IIi'xi 

ho<it^  and  which,  when  this  object  is  accom-  Simon  at  the  same  tune.     Tlie  head  of  t! 

pushed,  are  either  transformed   by  uietamor-  cntscopic  (lara^te  is  se|iarati-<l  fnHn  i:«  K 

phosii  into  gra*ipiug  organs,  or  are  lost.    They  a  Lalf-moon-sliniH.*d  con?»trictii»n,  and  i«  fi 

are  often  found  in  great  numl>ers  attached  to  ed  with   a  double-jointetl  p.ipilla  annc< 

tlie  same  fi^h,  and  Mjnie  are  even  G  or  8  inches  shaq>  hooks  or  mws.    The  4  pain*  of  h 

long.    They  occasionally  excite  even  the  largCHt  short,  and  c<msist  of  3  Joints  which  nio\ 

fewurd  or  sun  fish  to  buch  a  state  of  desperation  difliculty,  and  are  tipjHNl  according  ti»  !h.i 

by  the  torments  they   infiict,  that  they  da.xli  thorities  with  3  chiws,  t4>  others  witl:  b 

themselves    uuon    the    beach.     They   inhabit  tSeveral  foniui  are  met  with  owing  to  did 

both  fre!>h  and  salt  water.     The  tiphonMtonui  of  age  an«l  si>x.     Fin>t  we  si.*e  one.  tl.*- 

are  of  a  higher  order.     They  have  an  oval,  flat-  like  tail  of  which  is  S  tinier  the  len;.th 

teued  ImkIv,  which  is  partially  pmtecti'd  by  a  Innly.    The  contents  tif  thin  oxtreiiuty  ar* 

hunl  hhield  or  carapace,  and  are  provided  with  ular,  ami  of  a  dork  cdlur.  con<«i«tInj  •/  ! 

.'i  or  4  pairs  uf  feet  armed  with  sharp  daws,  bules.     In  another  ftinn  tlie  ^l)a|>••  !•«  r.^a 

by  UK-aiLt  of  which,  and  sucking  di-ks,  they  fix  same,  but  the  whole  animal  i*<  MnalUr.  a 

theniM-Ive-i  to  the  skin  of  ti>hes,  and  soft  p:u*ts  but  3  pairs  of  le^  ;  tliis  i*<  un<liMibtii!!y 

of  Crustacea  and  other  u4Uutio  animals.      I'ar-  ture.     Still  a  thinl  pre<M>nts  it-^lf  iii:!i  .• 

tieular  ^pe^ie••  generally  infe<«t  particular  fishes ;  like  that  fir»t  de*><*riU.*«l.  but  wiili  a  !.;&• 

and  as  K^uTely  any  ti^li  is  free  fri»m  them,  wo  t remit y   n«»  longiT   than   the  ImnU,   a:.^ 

may  thus  f«irtn  an  estimate  ni  their  numhiT'*.  {Hiinted,   eonicul    fonn.    display  in  j    tra: 

They  move  with  rou  side  ruble  rapidity  over  the  chit  i  noun  ring<i.     It  Mt-niH  murli  nii<r«-  p! 

botlf  of  the  ti*li,  and  may  leave  it  for  another  to  con'<ider  this  the  male,  than  ti*  •iipj-** 

ho!*t.     The  cnli'ji^  wt  which  as  many  as  !iO  iir  the  tails  of  the  former  varietii><  r\*nrii:kll 

4U  have  bieu  removed  from  a  single  CiMlii*>h,  otf  or  shorten.     No  definite  interin!  •:! 

are  generallv  found  on  weak  or  diM.*asod  ti'«!ies  has  vet  bfen  m.<i<le  out.     Wetll  unii  *^mu 

on  the  parietes  of  t)ie  mouth    and   bnmrhial  observer<i  think  they  have  made  out  « :*.) 

ravitiei,   but  are  unable  to  suck  their  blotKl.  ImmIv  of  the  female,  and  in  tlie  ti«-M.  r:.* 

Fi<>lii-rnien  eall  tliem  ti*>h  liee.     Tlie  cyamu*  is  furtus  without  eXfrtMultie<«;  and  if  ti«f  t< 

N<imetiine«4   fituiid    in  ;*u<  h  numlH.'rs  ui»on   the  they  are  vixiparous.     They  are  f'>Lii-!  t> 

wlial^-s  tif  the  -"MtlitTn  <H*ean,  a-*  to  entirelv  in  t!ie  hair  follirU"*  of  tlie  ni»***  i«f  th'-  k  i 

htrip  them  of  their  epiilermi«>,  and  t»i  prxHlufe  a  ^kinlled  ihtnuus  but  ma*  W  met  u-.:*; 

uiiite  e"Ii>r  re<'i»^ni/efl  at  a  cuni^iderable  di^-  brea-t  i>r  back,  or  where\er  c<immI"L< 

tani'e.     None  « if  the  eru-taivout  para*>ite<i  an.»  ixciw  cHVur.  iif  whirli,  when  pre*»r.:   •;. 

e\er  found  on  tirre»trial  unimaN.     11.  Ariich'  Ur!>,  tlu-y  muy  U*  the  can  «<,  alt  h*>.:^h  <:«: 

uilt.     In  thi^da-!*.  lu-urlv  alliiil  tit  the  in*^<'t«,  thev   (M-ea«ii>n   \ix*  trouMe.      Th**    ar\    \ 

Ml- lind  a  iNHly  dividttl  intit  twii  priiiripal  part*>,  f>»-.:nil    witli  thi-ir  hinder  eitrvnttv    r.^ 

\ :/..  eepholothorax  anil  aMomen,  and  pmxidiil  snrfaiv.  and  either  rluM*  !••  tlie  hsur.  *  r 

Mitii  4  pair*i  of  le^^.     The  ulMlnnien  may   Ih.-  oanaN  of  the  fat  glainK  i:{>«in  the  <^^  r<  I. 

s  i!*ili\itled    into   K*\eral   M-jiuents     The  i»nlv  whieh  tliev  live.    Thvir  tiiTum-nei- »»  vvi 

par.k«ite>>   iK-longinir  to  it  .ire  included  in  the  erul,  ur.d  tn  tind  them,  we  ha\f  i>:.l>  !•>  « 

u.-«Kr  ijcdriii.!  or  mite*.     The-n?  are  minute  ani*  tin-  fi'lliele;*  i»n  the  .Mde*  of  the  h-^m*  \^ 

nia!-.  in  \«hieh  the  he.iil.  thorax,  and  alNhmun  t!ie  t'in;jir  naiN.  and  to  luM  t^  th*  r  c< 

are  blended  in  one  oval  ma-v*.     In  their  imma-  beneath  the  microM-Mpe  a  drop  uf  «.*il,  \} 


EPIZOA 


253 


tiie  mhrnoeana  matter  is  rendered  clear.    In  the 
deid  body  they  wUl  be  found  mnch  more  deeply 
Hfted,  as  if  tiiey  had  sought  warmth  by  pcne- 
tnttng  toward  the  centre  as  the  periphery  be- 
erne  cold.    The  aearus^  or  tarcopta  sedbieij  or 
itch  insect^  will  be  folly  considered  in  the  arti- 
de  Itch,  and  may  therefore  be  passed  by  with- 
eot  farther  notice  here.    Still  other  forms  of 
or  sarcoptes  are  sometimes  met  with  on 
transferred  to  him  from  the  beasts  on  which 
tiiey  Utc.    Their  occurrence,  however,  is  purely 
ae^eotal,  and  they  are  never  known  to  repro- 
dnee  in  such  situations.     The  eruption  they 
flsose  may,  it  is  true,  be  of  long  continuance, 
\nt  only  because  fresh  infection  takes  place  by 
eootinued  contact  with  the  animals  affected. 
Iha  sareoptes  of  the  various  domestic  quadru- 
piAi  produce  upon  them  the  disease  known  as 
muoge^  and  are  specifically  different.    The  mite 
of  the  cat  and  lion,  however,  resembles  and  is 
pobably  identical  with  that  of  man ;  so  that  it 
■  a  question  whether  these  lower  creatures  got 
itch  first  from  their  noble  master  man,  or 
The  parasite  of  the  horse  is  largo 
to  be  visible  to  the  naked  eye,  and  its 
of  borrowing  and  of  reproduction  is 
the  same  as  that  of  the  tarcopUi  hominU, 
b  prodaces  a  dry  scaly  appearance  of  the  skin, 
vhicfa  is  sometimes  called  "scratches."    The 
dkcew  and  dried-fruit  mites  may  likewise  live 
for  a  short  time  on  the  skin,  but  cause  nothing 
than  a  passing  irritation.    The  family  of 
or  ticks,  is  also  a  great  plague  to  man 
«d  beast.     They  live  on  moss  and  dry  foliage, 
oa  sonny  hillsides,  and  in  groves  and  thickets, 
■d  never  fail  to  attack  grazing  cattle  and  pass- 
as  by.     They  bore  into  the  skin  with  their 
ifctrp'  proboscis  armed  with  horny  barbs,  and 
nmain  banging  till  the  body,  at  first  minute 
■d  flat,  beoDmes  swollen  with  blood,  even  to 
tlw  size  of  a  bean.    To  tear  them  away  is  im- 
famkAib  on  account  of  their  recurved  barbs,  and 
ptA  caution  and  patience  is  necessary;  for  if 
vioienoe  is  nsed,  the  head  remains  behind,  and 
■BMS  inflanunation  of  the  part,  which  may  last 
fbr  months.    Generally  long  and  gentle  rubbing 
vkh  tome  essential  oil  will  make  them  quit  their 
IbU  voluntarily.    They  lay  a  vast  number  of 
^gk^  and  their  multiplication  upon  oxen  and 
kones  is  si»metimes  so  great  that  the  animals  die 
tf  ohanstion.     The  ffamoiida,  beetle  lice,  are 
mites  parasitic  on  birds,  reptiles,  and  in- 
land both  land  and  water  beetles  are  some- 
fonnd  covered  with  them.    The  derma- 
ymu  avium  abounds  in  great  quantities  in 
Md  cages  and  hen  houses,  and  lives  upon  the 
Ulod  of  their  inhabitants.    Numerous  cases  are 
i  neord  of  their  presence  in  great  numbers  on 
Mobs  who  frequent  such  localities,  penetrat- 
Vk  nd  living  beneath  the  epidermis.    They 
indaee  the   disease    occasionally  met    with 
Masg  the  wretched  and  filthy  sick  of  tlie  poor, 
Am  searuitu.    Colonies  of  mice  are  often 
lifatcd  with  similar  parasites.    Another  mite 
Mhr  to  the  Ixodes  is  the  leptits  autumnalu 
4  £vQpe,  which,  living  in  grass  or  grain  or 


upon  fruit  bushes,  gets  upon  the  reapers  and 
passers  by,  and  causes  pustules  and  sores  by 
the  Inflammation  it  excites.  It  is  of  a  red  color, 
whence  the  name  of  the  disease,  rouget,  A 
similar  parasite  is  the  hSte  rouge  of  Martinique, 
which  often  renders  necessary  amputation  of 
the  8oldier*s  limbs  it  infests.  III.  tnsecta.  In 
discussing  this  divbion,  we  shall  consider  the 
parasitic  insects  of  animals  in  order,  beginning 
with  those  of  the  mammalia.  The  human  body 
serves  as  a  residence  for  several  of  these,  the 
best  known  and  most  numerous  of  which 
are  the  pedieulidcBj  or  lice,  which  belong  to 
the  apterous  ametabola^  or  wingless  insects 
without  metamorphosis.  Of  these,  4  are  pecu- 
liar to  man :  P.  eapitie,  P.  aestimenti^  P.  tabet- 
eentium^  and  phthirius  pubis  or  inguinalis. 
The  color  of  the  head  louse  is  a  grayish  white, 
and  it  is  supposed  to  adapt  itself  to  the  color 
of  the  hair  of  its  host.  Tne  males  lare  smaJler 
and  less  numerous  than  the  females.  The  eggs, 
which  are  bean-shaped,  cling  to  the  hair  as 
soon  as  laid,  probably  by  means  of  some  gluti- 
nous matter  secreted  by  the  female.  After  re- 
maining as  nits  for  6  days,  the  young  emerge, 
and  at  the  end  of  18  days  more  are  capable  of 
reproducing.  Each  female  can  deposit  60 
eggs  in  all.  The  presence  of  lice  is  easily  de- 
tected, for  we  may  see  them  with  the  naked 
eye,  and  their  eggs  attached  to  the  ends  of  the 
hair  cannot  escape  detection.  Even  when  the 
old  are  at  work  beneath  the  disgusting  disease 
they  create,  the  females  creep  forth  to  deposit 
the  nits  upon  the  fine  ends  of  the  hair,  perhaps 
because  too  great  heat  is  prejudicial.  A  mere 
itching  is  the  first  symptom  of  lice,  which  leads 
in  simple  cases  to  scratching  and  slight  excori- 
ations of  the  scalp.  Let  heads  so  infested,  how- 
ever, remain  for  months  uncombed  and  uncared 
for,  and  such  cases  will  result  as  are  often 
seen  in  European  hospitals.  A  specimen  is 
brought  in  with  hair  all  matted  together  in 
flakes,  and  looking  as  if  sand  and  molasses  had 
been  poured  upon  it  and  dried.  The  stench 
emitted  is  loathsome  and  sickening.  On  raising 
the  hair  a  frightful  mass  of  filth,  pus,  scabs,  and 
lice  is  visible.  The  scalp  is  found  covered  with 
crusts  of  blood,  with  open  ulcerating  sores,  and 
with  thick  and 'elevated  scabs,  from  beneath 
which  on  pressure  pus  flows  freely.  The  ears, 
too,  may  be  converted  into  a  suppurating  sur- 
.  face.  The  P.  vestimenti,  or  body  louse,  is  much 
larger  than  the  preceding  species.  The  head  is 
longer,  and  its  color  dirty  white.  This  animal  is 
seldom  if  ever  found  on  the  body,  but  inhabits 
the  seams  and  folds  of  clothing  next  the  skin, 
where  it  deposits  its  eggs.  Its  bite  causes  the 
same  itching  as  that  of  the  P.  capitis,  but  the 
results  are  different.  The  scratching  brings  on 
papules,  which  become  excoriated,  and  eczema 
appears.  The  clothes  adhere  to  the  skin,  which 
brings  on  exudation,  ancHastly  pustules  appear. 
In  some  cases  constant  scratching  produces  such 
a  hyperaemia,  that  a  deposition  of  pigment  fol- 
lows sufficient  to  color  the  whole  skin  like  that 
of  the  negro.    The  P.  tabeacentium  of  writers 


254  EPIZOA 

lia.4  lonpror  antonnm  and  a  hirfrcr  and  moro  difi-  croataro^  and  the  wliolo  bodj  mar  bo 
tiiictl y  M.'parato<l  tlif>rux  than  tlio  two  preoe<Iin{;  with  the  cru|ition  thojr  |»n»iliic«*.  T 
PIKMtifS,  and  an  indi'<tiiictly  rinf;^^!  abihimvn.  found  ponvrullj  wherever  iiuui  cziot\ 
It  inhahits  the  skin  itself,  living;  in  itit  fold  U-  not  in  South  America,  Kew  Hi>llanil,  < 
no:ith  the  opidenniii,  and  produced  the  disea*<o  nesia. — Tlie  tica  {puUx  irriUinM)  l^iOonj 
calh'il  ph thirin*U.  I atu wenluHH'k  overcame  hi^i  h<»lometubolou!<<i/^ Ajpf^ra, or  hoppiui: 
nuiure  to  Mic!i  un  extent  an  to  cuUivute  a  (*olony  which  under};o  a  ctimiilete  uetainurphi 
«»n  his  (»wn  le;;  for  a  con^ideruhle  time,  and  by  head  i.4  vhort  and  roumlvd.  The  eye  i; 
e^tiniaiioii  found  that  cme  female  mi^ht  in  8  The  mouth  is  provided  with  two  4*ji»int< 
woL-ki  bec<imc  the  frrandmtither  of  5.(KJ0.  It  id  with  a  long  tongue  protected  aUivc  h} 
pmpcr  tti  state,  however,  tliat  H)mo  of  the  best  double  up|>er  jaw,  and  a  Hort  uf  up|H.'i 
autliuritie'i  deny  tlie  existence  of  any  such  8|>e-  lip  or  Ui^-ter,  and  below  by  a  prnjectin 
cies.  The  phthirius  pubis  M  considerably  jaw.  Tiic  thorax  i;*  provided  wiili  2 
broader,  and  has  a  shorter  iK>sterior  extremity  stigmata,  and  with  3  pairs  of  legs  the 
than  itn  relatives.  Ilh  legs  are  long,  and  the  which  are  ^*emingly  situated  on  the  he: 
hindermo>*t  two  are  armed  with  immenM  claws.  2  hindermost  are  compovied  of  man 
It  i:<  very  ^low  in  its  motions,  and  has  no  eyes,  joints,  whicli  are  very  long,  and  fun 
Thi-i  ^pei*ies,  as  its  name  implic*,  is  found  most  means  by  which  its  enormous  ]eai»**  ar 
fre^piently  on  the  pubes,  but  oiranionally  on  tho  They  are  provided  also  with  long  Joubl 
bi>ar«l,  eyebrows,  and  hair  of  the  breast  and  The  posterior  segment  is  covered  with  ! 
axilhu,  where  it  bite»  dinrply  into  the  skin,  and  or  rings  lapping  over  each  other,  &s  •.hi 
live-  u|Hm  the  bliKid  of  its  liost.  When  pres-  a  roof.  Tho  color  of  this  parasite  i»  a 
ent  in  numbers,  these  parasiti'S  cause  an  intol-  ttniwn.  The  male  is  smaller  than  tl 
erable  itching,  anil  may  be  seen  sticking  firmly  m.»x,  and  tho  abdomen  is  tlatter  and 
to  tho  surface  of  the  botly  like  bla(*k  s|iecks  of  The  eggs  arc  oval,  white,  and  c^overi^ 
coal.  Kuclienmeister  has  found  on  Uio  heads  glutinous  matter.  In  6  days  after  tht: 
of  an  Egyptian  nmmniy  and  a  Xew  Zealand  i^av-  Mtion,  either  in  dust  or  beneath  tlie  nail 
age  nits,  the  claws  of  which  differ  somewhat  worm -I  ike,  jointe<l  larvw  without  fv% 
in  Mze  from  those  of  the  ordinary  sftecies.  Lico  forth  from  them.  In  1 1  days  more  the 
are  a  world-wide  iK*st,  and  no  nation  seems  oi»e  themselves  in  a  tliin  cocim>u,  fn>! 
free  fnun  them.  According  to  Aristotle,  they  at  the  expiration  of  11  days  they  enu 
inu'-t  have  been  a  great  plague  among  tho  feet  animids.  It  is  a  disputed  | •«.•'( nt 
ancients,  and  Airman,  Sy Ihi.  and  Philip  II.  are  the  males  arc  paraMtic;  Kuchenniti-tt 
re|H)rted  to  have  die<l  of  them.  It  is  pnib-  from  the  structure  of  their  hea«l  1 1,  a:  ' 
aMe,  lK»wever,  tliat  some  other  parasite,  a**  the  nut.  Little  n^iil  )»e  said  here  a^•>:lt 
mites  ^''^**  confoundetl  with  them. — Ki>ing  a  tonis  of  this  in^^Tt,  whieh  in  h>>nic  ri*ui. 
step  higher  among  the  insiK'ts  we  come  to  tho  Italy,  Turkey,  and  (fermany,  i-.  -u^  'i  an 
h<iHiitufaMii^  or  tho^e  with  an  inci»nip1ete  me-  able  nuisance.  It  bites  all  the  liinv, 
taniorpho-is.  In  the  onler  hemipUra  we  tind  night,  aiid  is  never  Kiti'^tiM.  It^  b.to, 
the  eunej  Ucinhiriut  or  a^anthiii  IrrtnUirUi,  pPMlurtive  of  more  itehin;:.  d'^i-'*  n  •:  i^ 
Tiie  lH.'dlMig  has  a  small  hea<l,  from  which  pro-  great  irritatii>n  the  xifanthi,i  pn*!! :.'•«. 
jert  2  Iitng  Ujoiiitetl  antenna'.  IWhind  the  horny  covering  or  mail  pr<itt-t-t'>  t^.t- 
roiiiptMind  eye<i  are  ^ituated  2  small  tran^^pareiit  U-ing  cru<«hu4  exrept  by  a  wunih  rf.:'.  «!. 
llapi  c»ivi»reil  with  bristles  which  aro  the  niili-  pre '•mi  re,  and  their  alert  >«.n'K-«  ti;;i*  '.e 
ment4  of  wingo.  The  thorax  i"*  broad  and  short,  avnid  tlie  hunter's  hand,  unle^-^  i:  t-^- : 
the  aUIominal  sivnieiit  very  large,  broad,  ami  and  experience<l  one.  IXxk*  puUx  j"  nrl 
tlat.  The  eg-.rs  are  li»ng  an«l  cylindrical,  and  chiL*«»,  jigu'er,  or  ^and  lUa,  ai  it  i-  \ 
are  furni-^hed  with  a  Mem,  by  whieh  in  the  called,  \*  sm:Jler  than  it-  ri'.:ftT:\i-,  a;, 
hprim;  the  tVrnale  tixe<*  tliein  u|M>n  objeets.  It  probi>M'is  l(in;;er  than  it-i  Um1\.  I:  : 
io  of  a  reiMi«h  brown  color,  ami  ha'i  a  very  di«-  o;ily  in  the  Wi-t  Indies  and  tr«>(<i. .«!  ri. 
ji;;reeaMe  iNltir,  «  hiili  ari-e^  from  two  glands  S»ut!i  Amerii\i.  It  inhabit'^  tlie  «.u.<l  ar.> 
th.it  mutain  a  rid  and  granular  matter.  This  .  iu  the  *>talU  of  aniinaU,  and  it  i«  •  i.'.y 
]H.-«t  i{iliii)fil<4  the  rre vires  of  beds  walls  an<l  pregnati'il  female  thut  i^  fmnd  t.n  i\.\ 
furniture.  i»r  where\er  it  r.m  tinil  a  ninvenient  Itore-*  tU-eply  into  the  Aaw  in  tinl.  r  :•• 
pliuv  t(»  ciiueeal  itM-lf  by  il:iy.  It  will  bnlge  in  hiT  vu'gs  and  as  *^^>n  a-  an  attJii  !.::••.! 
garments  al»o.  but  alwav«  emergf«>  at  nitrltt  to  tainnl  her  hinilermo^t  <M'^-nKnt  .•wi!'.« 
pri-y  upon  t!to  biiH^il  of  man.  It-*  priMl;iii<ry  wmMK-rful  manni-r  lN'i.e;i:h  the  >ki'j.  «• ! 
eXi'iimiiin's  liowe\er.  are  nt*t  wholly  ci»ntW)u«l  l!ii<r:iX  and  In  ml  ai>}»«-ar  a^*  apj-*  :.iA.'* 
til  I) If  nu'ht,  fiir  whvn  present  in  the  dorhiru'  M.i'1'b-r  nf  the  j-ize  of  a  pi  a  at  l.::u  -. 
they  liiic  a«»  »ill  !■*  ilay.  The  ••kin  of  -•■•ne  MHiTaiijS  tlie  eg;;*  i»r  l.ir\*e,  w  J»:eh.  i*  i: 
iii'lu  i!ii.il'«  fK'cni'*  ijUitc  in<M'n-tMe  til  their -finj,  bri*ken  during  reiiiii\al.  are  s^a'.itri*!  \ 
Willie  u}Hin  Mthi-r*  it  raii*e«  great  bn-al  irrila-  t)n' ti-.-iu-s  an^l  giit- riv.- to  irii'il-le-- ii.. 
tl«in.  I  he  bljrk  pi>iiit  -eeu  in  the  rent  re  of  whii'h  may  at  tiniei  ni  et^-ttatc  ~.*..p 
tin*  ■•p'lt  is  faU''!.-!!  by  ihf  coa^'ulatinu  uf  Il«  pre-enre  raii-i  *  mi:ih  pa;n.  at!>!  \'* : 
tiie  bliMtd  lift  ia  th"  Wt.iiiiid.  Simctitne<«  a  unitijured  may  Ih- e!ri  i-tol  »inip!y  h  .t.'.  a 
{•er»ou  ia   literally   almost  devoured  by   theM}  as  5ouu  as  the  b welling  tok^a  place. — ^^ 


EFIZOA  EPROUVETTE                 266 

mention  sereral  forms  of  insects,  tho  snpjilrting  its  own  species  ofparasite,  and  some- 

r  which  are  occasionally  found  either  times  more,  which  lives  upon  the  feathers  and 

some  part  of  man,  but  thej  are  to  be  blood  of  its  host.    Insects  also,  fortunately, 

ipon  more  as  an  accidental  occurrence,  are  made  a  dwelling  place  by  other  insects,  and 

ich  need  only  be  alluded  to  here.    Tho  thus  their  rapid  growth  and  the  consequent 

some  onknown  cutrus  are  sometimes  destruction  of  vegetation  held  in  check.  Ich- 
1  beneath  the  skin.  They  form  pimples  neumon  is  tho  name  given  to  these  unnatural 
bich  flows  a  moisture,  while  around  parasites.  They  are  small  flies  with  slender 
e  skin  is  red  and  painful.  Ilumboldt  bodies,  and  there  are  many  species  known, 
is  South  American  travels  Indians  with  probably  as  many  as  there  are  of  caterpillars 
ta  of  their  exposed  bodies  thus  aflected.  and  moths.  The  female  deposits  her  eggs  in 
itestinal  canal  the  larvsa  of  anthomyia  tho  ]arv89^upsB,  or  eggs  of  other  insects  and 
and  eanieularii  are  sometimes  found,  spiders.  When  she  has  found  her  proper  host, 
wa  vomitoriay  or  bluebottle,  sometimes  a  caterpillar  for  instance,  she  seizes  it,  and  de- 
its  lanrsd  in  open  cavities  of  tho  body,  posits  her  egg  in  the  skin  behind  the  head.  The 
u;  eye,  or  wherever  else  moistnro  and  larva,  soon  emerging  from  tho  egg,  eats  its  way 
>  found.    The  common  flesh  fly,  M.  along  within  the  caterpillar,   avoiding  those 

and  the  Jf.  domestical  also  deposit  parts  essential  to  life,  and  by  the  time  the  latter 
ga  at  times  in  hot  weather  either  on  has  become  a  chrysalis  the  former  is  nearly 
Hinds  or  moist  places  of  the  body,  and  mature.  It  lies  quiet  for  a  time  to  undergo  meta- 
»  appearance  known  as  '^  live  sores.^'  morphosis,  and  awaking  once  again  a  perfect 
m  are  sometimes  deposited  in  a  highly  animal,  bores  its  way  out  from  the  cocoon 
d  condition,  so  that  they  become  mag-  of  its  murdered  host,  and  flies  forth  in  quest 
1  in  a  few  hours.  Quadrupeds  also  are  of  fresh  victims.  Thus  it  is  that  nature  keeps 
by  lice,  almost  without  exception  each  in  check  its  most  destructive  creatures  by 
•ecnliar  to  itself,  though  sometimes  one  means  so  insignificant  and  unseen. — For  fuller 
s  known  to  live  upon  several  animals  information  on  tho  crustacean  epizoa,  see 
ime  genus.  They  increase  with  great  Koussel  do  Vauz^me,  Sur  U  cyamus  cetiy  in  the 
upon  such  beasts  as  are  kept  in  dirty  Annalfs  des  sciences  naiurelUs  (Paris,  1834); 
Kldom  cleaned,  and  poorly  cared  for,  Burmoister,  Beschreihung  einiger  neuen  oder 
ft  frequently  are  seen  upon  old  horses,  tceniger  hehannten  Sehmarotzerhrebse^  in  the 
use  irritation,  roughness  of  skin,  and  Novcb  Actiones  Natura  Curiosorum^  vol.  xix. 
iur,  in  consequence  of  tho  disposition  (Berlin,  1835);  Kollar,  Beitrdge  zur  Kenntniss 
tiosts  to  bite  and  rub  the  affected  parts,  der  lemdenartigen  Crustaceen^  in  the  Annalen 
\  abound  upon  several  animals,  and  are  des  Wiener  Museums  der  Katurgeschichte,,  vol.  i. 
species  in  most  instances.  But  the  (1835);  Dana  and  Pickering,  ^^Description  of 
inent  and  troublesome  pests  of  tho  her-  the  Caligus  Americanvs,^^  in  the  "  American 
re  various  ccstri  or  breeze  flies.  The  Journal  of  Science,"  vol.  xxxi.,  p.  235 ;  Baird, 
ecnliar  to  the  horse,  for  instance,  pro-  "  British  Entomostraca"  (Ray  society,  Lou- 
ie well-known  disease  called  hots,  don,  1850). — ^For  arachnida  and  insccta,  see 
a.)  Another  si)ecies,  (E.  ovis^  deposits  Bracy  Clark,  ^^  Observations  on  the  Genus 
in  the  nostrils  of  sheep,  usually  about  CEstrus^^'*  in  tho  *'  Transactions  of  the  Linntean 
sen  in  each  individual.  The  larva)  are  Society,"  vol.  iii.  (London,  1797) ;  Treviranus, 
ehed,  and  creep  by  means  of  their  2  Ueber  den  Bau  des  Nigua^  in  his  Zeitschriftfur 
books  upward  into  tho  frontal  and  Fhysiologie^  vol.  i v.  (1831);  Brant  and  Katze- 
f  sinuses.  Thero  tliey  remain  until  burg,  Medicinische  Zoohgie  (1833) ;  Duges, 
•  undergo  metamorphosis,  when  they  Eecherches  sur  Vordre  des  acariens^  in  the  An- 
gain  their  wings,  and  repeat  the  same  nales  des  sciences  naturelles^  vol.  i.  TParis,  1834) ; 

The  larvse  are  composed  of  12  seg-  Burmeister,  '^Manual  of  Entomology,"  trans- 

aude  the  head.    Sheep  fear  these  flies  lated  by  Shuckard  (London,  1836),  and  Genera 

and  often  huddle  together  with  their  Insectorum  (fiavYxWy  1833-'46);  Newman,  "Ilis- 

Me  to  the  ground  to  avoid  them.    Tho  tory  of  Insects"  (London,  1889) ;  West  wood  on 

IS  of  their  presence  aro  sneezing  and  a  *^  Insects"  (2  vols.,  London,  1889),  and  biblio- 

ft  of  glairy  mucus  from  tho  nostrils,  graphy   tlierein  contained;  Denny,  Monogra- 

■ddom  do  serious  injury.    The  (E.  horis  phia  Anoplurorum  Britanniat  (London,  1842)  ; 

eggs  on  tho  backs  and  sides  of  oxen  Dujardiu's  Memoires sur  lesacanens^  in  the  ^n- 

ib    Tho  larvffi,  hatched  by  tho  heat,  nales  des  sciences  rthturelles^  vol.  iii.  (1845) ;  Sie- 

ft  the  skin,  and  by  increase  of  size  form  bold,  *'  Anatomy  of  Invertebrata,"  translated 

H  large  as  pigeon's  eggs.    They  live  by  Burnett  (Boston,  1854) ;  Wedl's  Grundziige 

s  pas  their  presence  produces.    After  der  pathologischen  Anatomic  (Vienna,  1854) ; 

Mj  make  a  larger  aperture,  and,  creep-  KUchenmeister,  "  Manual  of  Parasites,"  trans- 

MNC  a  proper  placo  m  which  to  become  lated  by  tho  Sydenham  society  (London,  1857). 

k    The  fly  when  discovered  creates  a  EPOCH  (Gr.  ciroxi;,  a  fixed  point,  an  epoch), 

rieamongcattle,  and  drives  them  often  a  starting  point  or  era  from  which  to  dato. 

io  the  nearest  pool.     Birds,  too,  are  (See  Ciironolooy.) 

linfMted  by  lice,  each  species  generally  £PKOUY£TT£,  an  instrument  for  testing 


256  EPSOH  EQUATOR 

the  projertilo  force  of  pinpowder.    It  consists  iog  the  walls  of  caTes,  in  thefonn  of  an  efl 

of  a  tiinall  harrol  of  great  strength,  in  which  a  cenco,  and  also  in  sWky  fibres.    In  the  Man 

certain  ({iiantity  of  iiuwdor  is  exiilodiHl,  and  the  care  in  Kentucky,  loose  masses  of  it  ar« 

force  L'Xcrtcd  ii  measured  l>y  the  extension  it  adherinj;  to  the  roof  like  snow  halU,  a 

pHNluco!*   ni»on   a  spring,  or  the  distance  to  many  uther  caves  of  the  western  fttattM 

whicli  a  heavy  weight  is  raised.     Tlie  effect  is  found  u}K)n  tlie  walls  or  mixed  with  the 

alMie-^ti  Hint  I'd  hy  the  distance  to  which  a  ball  of  upon  the  tli>or.     It  occurs  in  siime  of  :h« 

known  Wfiglit  is  thrown  fnini  a  small  mortar  sum  quarries  near  Paris,  and  in  other  pax 

by  a  certain  quantity  of  powder.     The  French  France ;  and  wherever  water  become*  cL 

formerly  u^mnI  a  mortar  for  an  eprouvette  of  7  with  gyi>sum  or  sulphate  of  lime,  and 

inolies  calibre,  and  the  te>t  of  ttie  {Miwder  was  over  riK'ks  containing  carbonate  of  mag 

for  3  ounces  to  throw  a  ci»p|>er  globe  weighing  the  sulphate  of  magnesia  is  likely  toapp«aj 

Co  \h*.  to  tlie  di*itan(*e  of  3(K)  feet.  the  result  of  mutual  decompusition  of  th 

£1*S<.>M  (Sax.  Ehb$ham\  a  market  town  of  salts.     Hydrated  sulphate  of  magnesia  c^ 

Surri*y,  Kngland,  on  the  margin  of  Ranstead  of  1  equivalent  of  magncMa,  20 ;   1  of  »u!{ 

d<iwns,  15  m.  S.  W.  of  Iwondon,  un  tlie  Ix>ndon,  acid,  40 ;  and  7  of  water.  63=  123  ;  or.  per 

OoVdon,  and  Epsom  railway;    jiop.  in  1851,  magnesia  10.26,  acid  35.62,  and  wat«T  . 

3,3'JU.     At  one  time  it  seemed  destined  to  be*  It  crystallizes  in  4-sided  prisms  with  rvi 

Come  a  prominent  watering   place,  in   conse-  dihedral  summits,  or  4-side<l  pyramid:*, 

quence  of  the  disiwerv  of  mediciiud  springs,  hardness  14  2.25,  and  s)»ecilir  gravity  1.75 

impregnated  with  sulphate  of  magnesia,  from  crystals  effloresce  slightly  in  the  air.  and  il 

which  the  celebrated  Eps^im  halt  was  uianu-  contain  any  chloride  of  magnesium  this  t»« 

fa4*ture<!.    Tlie  springs  are  no  longer  viMted,  in  their  deliqucM^ing.  Theydissidve  in  thvi 

but  the  town  ha:*  gained  another  attraction  in  weight  of  water  at  60'',  and  in  |  their  « 

the  great  annual  races  held  dur ins  tlie  week  pre-  of  boiling  water.    Sulphate  of  soila  i^  Mtint 

ceding  Whitsuntide  on  tlie  neighlM)ring  downs,  fraudulently  niixe«l  with  K(>Mtm  vdt.     Iri 

They  are  attviide<l  by  30<),0U<)  or  40U,U(X)  per-  cncemay  be  detected  by  di>Milvi!ig  l»>n,n*: 

sons  of  every  clav«  i»f  S4»ciety,  and  the  gnind  water,  and  precipitating  witli  a  iMiiling  ^^ 

stand  oi\  tlie  race  course,  eriM-teti  in  lS2«»-*3o,  i^  of  carbonate  of  {Hitash.     UnU-NS  thl»  prt-ri 

cai»alde  i»f  holding  7,50i>  |>er>(»ns.     The  chief  of  carlnmute  of  magnesia  anuunt   m hen 

exeitenient  centres  in  the  race  for  the  Derby  t«)  34  grains,  sulphate  of  s« Mia  is  no  doui-: 

stake<*.  wliicli  takes  plai*e  on  Weiliu'Mlay.  ent.     The  salt  is  murh  us«-d  in  niolii  i:: 

EI^OM   .^ALT,    the   name  given   in  phar-  cathartic,  and  Inking  of  a  miM  aiid  ct»--li: 

macy  to  the  hydrati.*d  sulphate  of  mairneMii,  ture,  is  particularly  ailapted  t«i  t!ie  tr*  at rr.. 

uhieh  Wits  ohtaintnl  as  far  back  as  the  viar  fevers  and  inl!uninmti»rv  air«rti'iri*.     lii 

\*uTt,  by  vva|Mir:iting  the  waters  of  some  niin-  diiini  dose  is  nn  oimre,  and  i!:t'*  i-  ^a. ! 

erjil  -priiig-  at   Ep*>oin.     Sea  water  was  alter-  deprived  of  its  bitter  ta-te,  aitd  ri  ii-!*  ri*! 

ward  t'lUinl  to  eoiitain  it,  the  brine  reiiiaiiiing  palatable,  by  being  di'^'Hilvcd  in  n!«'  .t  .\  \ 

after  the  >eiKiration  of  tlie  e<tuiiii<>n  siilt   nMi-  water,  and  ImmIihI  a  few  inintites  v»  itl:  !f  i 

si<«tiiu   *>f  tiie  suljdiate  of  niagni>Ma   and    the  of  tunnir  acii!  ur  2  or  3  drar!iiii«  «>f  p'lioti 

eliloriile^  lif  nia;;neMiim   and  ealriuni.      It  was  f^t*.  struine'l.  ui:d  •tWertened  w;:h  »..j:.r. 
rea'lily  u^taine>i  by  enlliTting  tin-  lir-l  crystals         EQlWlIoN  \\jiX.  tT'/uo,  to  make  e  j»::. 

wliit'h  fiiriiieil,  and  w.a-hin^  them  with  a  ^trong  algi'bniic  i«i«ntenre  atVirmiM}*  the  «^i::.il.t/  • 

siilutii III  4it' tlie  •^anio  *>alt.     An  excellent  quality  quantities.     Kquutioiis.  hoWc\vr.  atk-  i.- 

i-*  niauufai'tiired  at  Halt ini>>re  ami  rhiladi-lplii:!,  only  in  simple  al^-bra,  bet  in  all   :':.e   } 

from  tlie  mineral  ni:urnesite.  a  -ilirimi-i  hydrate  braneheH  «»f  ealculiis,  lu'enrdinj   ti»  l!.o  j« 

of  majne'-ia.  uhieh  i^  fniirtd  in  the  si-r|K*ntii:e  principles  explaiiK'd  in  the  artiiio   Ait«L& 

of  tliat  regimi.     The  niirural.  reiliired  ti*  pi>w-  Kgi'ATin.s  or  Paymcnt:*  is  an  ariil.tni-E:' .i 

der.ii  dt^iidvid  in  mlplitirie  a<  iil.     The  pr«i-  for  linding  the  moan  or  avi-r.ije  t-.m*- !'»r  j 

duet  biMn;;  liried  i-  ralriiied   in  nnltT  t-i  d Ill-  several  sums  due  at  S4*par.ile  linni :  t?.*:*. 

\tn-*v  the  sulpliate  of  iri»n,  and  nitjvert  it  into  tij'ly  each  sum  bv  thenunilH-r  ol  t!.i\-.  :"-» • 

the  |HTiixiile  of  in  in.     It   i^  then  (ii-si'lvi-d  in  day  befure  the  tir^t  fiiN  liiie  u:.t:l  :*.a;  • 

w.iier.  and  any  ipiu  prr-^-nt  is  preei|>itat'-d  hy  duo;  divide  tho   sum  I'f  lhe*o  |r.t!.iir«   *. 

sulphurrl   of  linie.      The  crystal*  fl"  nilphnte  win ilo  aim >unt  due.  and  tlie  •t.:iit;t  r.t  »  ..'  * 

of  m:i^ne«ia  are  soparate^l  and  dis«.il\vd  a;:ain  number  of  tla\s  tn  Ih*  eixint*^!  !ri>*:i  *.l  •■  -'j 

to  riirM|i!>te  thtir  p'.iritiiMlii>n.     This  ^a!t.  ui:d  f«»ro  the  lifst  falls  due.  — Efji  mi"J»  '-r  1: 

c.ilriiK-il    i;iajn<  «ia    als«i.    hav.-    be*  n    pnpari-il  tlie  ditn-renee  of  time  U-twet-u  a  tr:..«  «*•:; 

from  the  doloiiiito  iif  nia;;rie'>ian  rurboiuitf  nf  and  u  tnie  rl«K-k,  as  exi'laine*!  ui.<lir  l*\\ . 

li by  th.'  pr.N  vs,  i.f  Mr.  Willi.4in   Henry  of         K^^V XVi  »U  (l.at.  ir/«<...  !,•  make  r  ^uk! 

Ma!jr!u-stir       Thi- niiner.d  w:isealeiiud.  anil  tho  rle  roinil  llie  earth  midway  bttwiti  l),v  j 

lltii"   atid    ni:u:n«stA   were   thtn   r  »nvi  rted    int«i  ni  eulled   Ih«-:iUsi*  wluii   till*  sun  :s^er:;-ji 

hy. Irate*  by  sj.niikliii;:  i^ith  wat.r:  the  former  this  eirvle  (March  2i>  and  S*-pt.  2'.  t'.e  ilr 

Has  •hsso!\iil  trit  by   a  mininiuru  quantity  of  ni,;ht  are  i>ipial  in  all  parti  of  li.i*  «•  vti. 

hyiiriH-hl'irif  arid,  ami  thi*  hitler  wa*  convert-  tvleilial  e<pi:ittT  is  a  eircle  in  the  hea«t:'.% 

ed   into  a  sulphate  by  Hijlphurir  aejil. — Epstun  way  betwicu  the  |n.1cs.      Whm  the  •u-,  ,  r 

salt  is  also  found  an  a  luincral  substance,  inerust-  the  cvle»tial  equator  he  is  vertical  at  tLa  «<|i 


EQUATORIAL  EQUITY                      267 

EQUATORIAL,  belonging  to  the  equator,  a  that  period  they  were  generally  the  farmers  of 
fCQgraphical  and  astronomical  term.    An  cqna-  the  public  revennes,  under  the  name  oipublir 
torial  signifies  an  equatorial  telescope,  that  is.  cani.    As  such,  though  their  merits  are  ez- 
a  telescope  which  revolves  on  an  axis  parallel  tolled  by  Cicero,  who  belonged  to  their  order, 
to  the  axis  of  the  earth,  which  renders  its  mo-  they  seem  to  have  been  despised  by  the  Roman 
tioQ  parallel  to  the  plane  of  the  equator.    (See  people.    Under  the  empire,  owing  to  the  hete- 
Qbbektatobt.)  rogeneous  elements  of  which  their  increased 
EQUINOX   (Lat.    <gquus^  equal,    and   nox^  body  was  composed,  they  gradually  sank,  and  in 
■i^tX  the  moment  when  the  sun's  centre  crosses  spite  of  efforts  to  restore  their  influence,  they 
the  eelfistial  equator ;  the  vernal  equinox  being  disappeared  from  the  stage  of  political  life  under 
■boot  March  20,  and  the  autumnal  about  8ep£  the  later  emperors.    In  general  the  history  of 
SQL— Equisociial  Ldte  is  a  name  sometimes  the  Roman  knighthood,  as  a  political  institu- 
proi  to  the  equator. — ^The  EQinofocriAL  Ponrra  tion,  is  involved  in  great  obscurity, 
ve  the  points  in -the  celestial  equator  at  which  EQUITY.  In  a  general  sense,  equity  is  natural 
Am  son'a  path  crosses  the  equator ;  these  points  right,  but  as  used  in  jurirorudence  it  denotes  an 
B  slowly  westward,  as  explained  in  the  ar-  administration  of  law  with  reference  to  the  par- 
EdJPTio ;  the  movement  is  called  the  pre-  ticular  circumstances  of  a  case,  in  contradis^c- 
on  of  the  equinoxes. — ^Equc^octial  Colurb  tion  to  the  ordinary  method  of  adjudicating  by 
ii  a  celestial  meridian  passing  through  the  equi-  a  rule  of  general  application.    This,  however, 
■eetbl  pointa.  is  a  theoretical  rather  than  a  practice  view,  for 
EQUlTES  (plural  of  the  Lat.  eqttes^  horse-  equity  as  distinguished  from  strict  law  is  neces- 
■nX  or  knignts,  an  order  of  the  people  in  sarily  administered  by  uniform  rules.    A  judg- 
It  Rome,  which  in  some  respects  may  be  ment  founded  upon  the  particular  circumstances 
ired  with  the   English    gentry,     llieir  of  a  case,  without  any  reference  to  principles 
is  attributed  by  Roman  historians  to  the  applying  in  common  to  such  case  and  to  others, 
ition  of  Romulus,  who  is  said  to  have  se-  would  hardly  deserve  the  name  of  a  judicial  de- 
kctod  the  first  800  out  of  the  3  chief  divisions  of  cision,  but  rather  would  be  an  arbitrary  opinion 
ftepabicians,  and  to  have  divided  them  into  8  unregulated  by  legal  analogy.    In  other  words, 
CBifairiefl,  named  Ramnensea,  Titienses,  and  Lu-  it  would  be  the  capricious  adjudication  of  a  court 
eemea»  corresponding  to  similar  names  of  the  8  not  bound  by  any  precedent.    This  has  never 
patrician  tribes.     Tarquin  Ibe  Elder  added  8  been  the  nature  of  equity  as  administered  in  any 
■ew  patrician  centuries,  and  Servius  Tullius  12  country  where  laws  have  been  prescribed  for  the 
■tw  ones  from  among  the  richest  plebeians,  regulation  of  society.    At  an  early  period,  it  is 
Tber  formed  a  regular  military  body,  being  true,  many  cases  would  occur  which  were  not 
flbGged  to  serve  on  horseback  in  time  of  war,  provided  for  by  legislation.    In  these  a  discretion 
■id  were  divided  into  turma  of  30  men  eacli,  must  be  exercised ;  but  every  case  when  decided 
■bdivided  into  tens.    They  were  also  called  becomes  a  precedent,  and  thus  in  time  the  equi- 
MitTA,  and  their  chiefs  tribuni  eelerum,    Polit-  table  or  exceptional  law  acquires  a  systematic 
\aStf  they  seem  to  have  represented  an  aristoc-  form  and  obligation.    Another  class  of  cases  is 
WET  of  wealth  in  opposition  to  the  aristocracy  where  a  positive  law  is  productive  of  some  in- 
of  birth,  particularly  after  they  became  a  dis-  dividual  hardship  not  contemplated  in  the  en- 
body  of  the  people  by  the  institutions  of  acting  of  the  law.    Relief  may  then  be  afforded 
Tulliusw     Under  the  republic  the  knights  by  the  intervention  of  an  equitable  power,  whose 
enrolled  by  the  censors  and  consuls  for  a  office  is  not  to  abrogate  or  interfere  with  the 
ce  of  5  years,  being  supplied  by  the  state  oi)eration  of  the  law  according  to  its  real  intent, 
with  a  large  sum  for  the  purchase,  equipment,  but  to  afford  exemption  in  cases  which  were 
■d  maintenance  of  a  horse,  but  with  no  per-  probably  not  foreseen,  and  therefore  could  not 
■ul  pay.    Every  dictator,  immediately  after  have  been  intended.    Again,  there  may  be  an 
lb  appointment  by  the  senate,  had  to  select  a  omission  in  a  law,  whether  it  be  statutory  or 
ider  of  the  horse,  called  magUter  equi-  derived  from  custom,  to  provide  for  cases  of 
During  service  they  had  no  vote  in  tlie  non-compliance  by  reason  of  casualty  or  some 
iblies  of  the  centuries.    At  the  time  of  the  cause  not  involving  serious  fault.    Thus  where 
of  Veil,  when  the  want  of  cavalry  was  forfeitures  or  penalties  are  consequent  upon 
felt  by  the  Romans,  a  new  body  was  add-  the  failure  of  strict  performance  of  an  agree- 
M  to  the  ancient  knighthood,  consisting  of  a  ment,  there  is  an  obvious  distinction  between 
b|B  number  of  young  volunteers  who  offered  intentional  neglect  and  accidental  failure,  espe- 
ti  inter  the  ranks  at  their  own  expense.    The  ciaUy  if  in  the  latter  case  it  was  by  inevitable 
Mvk&ights  received  a  regular  pay,  but  had  no  misfortune.    There  is  here  room  for  equitable 

RuA  no  share  in  many  distinctions  enjoyed  relief  m  the  one  case  without  impairing  the  op- 

t  old  order.  Gradually  they  coalesced  into  eration  of  the  law  in  the  other,  to  which  alone 

VMktous  and  wealthy  middle  class,  placed  it  Justly  applies.    It  is  indeed  difficult  to  distin- 

ftfficallT  and  socially  between  the  patricians  guish  with  exact  precision  the  line  that  divides 

^l^beians^  and  were  so  recognized  by  a  law  culpable  negligence  from  excusable  omission ;  or 

y^fas  Gracchus  (123  B.  C).     Of  the  privi-  again,  to  determine  how  far  actual  disability 

■pttftjorymen  which  the  same  laws  bestowed  should  be  a  ground  of  relief  from  legal  obliga- 

^fot  them,  they  were  deprived  by  SjUa.    At  tion.    A  man  of  small  capacity  for  business  may 

VOL.  TIL— 17 


258                     EQUmr  EQUITY  OF  REDEMFTIOK 

make  iniproriJont  contracts  which  ho  cannot  iQpcnodc<l  br  tlio  recent  itatatory  proriVionA 

ftdAl,  or  another  who  baa  ordinary  sagacity  may  in  England  and  tho  Unit^^d  StAtes,  by  vbirh 

still  by  accident  bo  doprired  of  tho  means  of  parties  ore  niaile  competent  wit  neves  in  all  ih« 

paving  debts  which  ho  has    fairly  incurred,  courts.     (See  EviDEsrs,  and  aL>o  Cham  uit.) 

WLere  no  fraud  is  involved,  the  obligation  of  EQUITY  UF  liEDEyinriOK,  the    interest 

contracts  cannot  as  a  general  rule  bo  abrogated  which  tho  ai»*nor  of  lands  retains  flili*r  hsTln^ 

by  a  court  of  e«iaity.    Hardship  will  soinetiiues  mortgaged  them,  or  rather  after  the  murt^aije 

occur,  and  there  is  a  natural  impulse  to  give  re-  has  become  due.     Hy  the  commt.»n  law,  aiH>D  th« 

lief  in  tho  individual  cano ;  but  such  leniency  non-payment  of  the  sum  itecureti  by  ihv  mort- 

often  reiK>ated  is  fouml  to  bo  productive  of  coun-  gago  at  tlio  day  when  due,  there  was  an  al«o» 

terbaluui-iiig  conse«)uences  not  at  first  anticipate  lute  forfeiture  of  tho  mortgaged  property ;  tot 

ed,  and  tho  necessity  of  a  general  rule  becomes  courts  of  equity  inti^rfered  and  compelled  tho 

apparent.     Tho  discretionary  power  of  tho  Uo-  mortgagee  ujion  tender  to  him  of  tiio  am<KinL 

man  prmtor  was  at  first  unrestricted.    Soon,  really  due  to  deliver  up  the  premises,  and  b« 

however,  his  discretion  was  brought  under  cer-  was  also  obliged  to  account  for  tho  pmdts  if  b« 

tain  rules  from  which  ho  was  not  allowed  to  had  been  in  possession.    At  an  early  period  a 

depart.     It  is  true  that  annually  when  each  mortgage  was  considered  to  bo  a  eonveyanea 

pneti>r  went  into  office  ho  made  a  formal  publi-  subject  to  bo  defeated  by  tlio  payment  of  a 

cation  of  tho  rules  by  which  ho  would  be  gov-  cified  sum  at  a  certain  time,  tho  murt 

emed  in  liis  administration  of  tlio  laws  during  being  in  the  mean  time  entitled  to  tho  {■ 

his  tenn  of  office,  wliicli  might  allow  tho  infer-  aion  as  the  legal  owner;  :iud  even  since  tho 

ence  that  he  hod  an  arbitrary  liberty  to  disregard  clinngo  introduced  by  tho  courts  of  eijaity  im 

former  precedents;  but  practically  it  was  but  respect  to  tho  right  of  tho  mortgageor  to  redecBi 

the  adoption  of  tho  edict  of  his  predecessors,  tho  old  theory  lias  still  so  far  prevailed  in  £ag- 

with  ocivibionol  modifications  suggested  by  en-  land  tliat  tlie  right  of  posseft«ioa  was  deemed  to 

Urging  fXiH-rience.    The  Englisli  equity  system  pass  with  tho  mort^jrage.    Altlioogh  latCerty  th* 

was  early  diswvcred  from  tho  ordinary  admin-  mortgageor  lias  usuallv  retained  possessiuo  ontS 

istration  of  law,  and  lios  ever  binco  remaiuud  tho  debt  has  become  Jue,  yet  Uiis  is  only  by  th* 

separate.     Yet  tho  equitable  principles  main-  assent  of  the  mortgagee ;  and  unless  a  stipoUsko 

tainetl  in  tlie  court  of  chancery  could  have  been  to  that  efifect  is  contained  in  the  mortgage,  thsffv 

applied  by  the  common  law  courts,  and  to  some  b  nothing  to  prevent  tho  mortgagee  from  inaia- 

extent  tho  latter  have  K-en  compelled  to  admit  taining  an  action  of  ejet-tment  to  obtain  pnim 

moditications  into  their  practice  by  analogy  to  sion.     Yet  notwithstanding  this  apparent  lepl 

equitable  proceeilin(r<.    Tlius  the  nvnalty  of  a  ownership,  tho  e<iui tabic  doctrine  is  tlia:  tLa 

bond  \va.t  furnivrly  held  to  be*  the  debt,  and  to  bo  mortgagi-or  in  the  real  owner  until  forcckc^re, 

rctNiVeniMe;  yet  after  the  court  of  chancery  u:avo  so  far  at  lea.*«t  that  his  c>tate  descc-ads  t^>  Lm 

ri'ltef  ujmn  the  payment  of  the  real  del>t,  which  hcim,  or  may  Ik*  devit^ilor  othorwiM*  con%vvc4 

wa.4  U'>ii;illy  hiH;t'itieil   in  tlie  condition  of  the  by  him,  subject  only  to  the  rijxht  of  the  tu/>jrt- 

Ikmi-I.  tho  ntinniim  law  courts  ;nivo  the  same  re-  ga^ee,  which  ri;;Iit  in  to  hM  the  land  as  a  t^ 

lief  u:  any  time  iK-fore  j(i«lgment ;  though  if  pay-  curity  fi»r  payment  of  the  debt.     An  iucvL^rro* 

ment  ot'  iho  amount  really  duo  was  not  prior  to  ity  is  however  ^till  Mifiered  to  eiL»t  in  •corral 

that  time  tendered,  judk'nient  could  bo  entered  particulars.  Thu'*alea.Hematleby  thenitirt^a^TNT 

for  tho  }inalty  and  enfurevil  by  eie<'ution  tor  tho  can  be  avoided  by  tho  mort^nigiv,  while  on  tba 

whole  amount.     A  MUiilar  chango  hiLt  also  taken  otiier  hand  a  lease  by  t!io  rnort^.ige^  i*  Miljed 

place  u  itli  ^e^^ard  to  mortgage^.   (See  K^riTT  of  to  the  limitation  of  his  C!*tato,  autl  oi«  |iayinc&l 

hii'CMiiioNM     A^rain.  the  conveyance  of  lands  of  tho  mortg:ige  will  iva.'-e.     So  the  wife  of  tins 

to  u-i*s  U'lwne  a  iK.n)l:ur  hubject  of  eijuity  iiir-  mort^'ageor  was  held  not  entitK<d  to  d>^«rer  b«^ 

imlirtioii;  t!te  use  not  being  reav'uized  at  law,  caiiM.*  he  hadonIyaiie«piity  of  redempti-^n.t^tlia 

but  Uit:.;  enfonvfl  in  chancery.    Tho  statute  of  wife  of  the  mortj;:igee  was  alv)  etcludi^i  on  tbo 

UM.'^('J7  n«-iiry  Vill.)  wu.s  intended  to  make  the  ground  that  the  estate  whii'h  he  had  mas  in  tha 

uv*  ro,:;)i/.il-io  a«i  the  real  title  in  courts  of  roni-  nature  of  a  tru**t.     Hut  now,  by  tho  ttatclsS 

mtm   l;iW,  l»!it   tiiis  efVeet  Wii*  defeated  by  tlio  and  4  William  IV..  c.  U*."),  the  **»juily  of  rtdrtt^ 

over-ni^v  ^'ripii?  of  tlie  jud^je-,  \i  here!»y  a  li:ii-  lion  issubjei  t  tti  d«>»  er  and  curte*y.  In  the  Tailr 

itatiiin  of  a  M.-oond  u.^»,  »*  if  u  eunveyanre  was  ed  .^t^itcHthe  i-iuily  diK'trlno  hat  K-^n  hiCi|r»jwa 

mailf  t«»  \  fir  th^  um?  of  H,  in  tr«-l  fur  C\  Wit*  carriM  out  with  more  «i»n»l*tency.     Th«  it»4lf* 

held  not  to  be  w  itliin  the  *«tatute ;  ainl  tho  Ci>urt  g:i^o  is  con^dered  merely  as  a  fircinty.  v^.kb 

of  ihaitivrv  ntTuin  intrrviiied  to  enforce  t^'.icU  can  l*o   made  av:uLdile  onlv  br  a  sale  aaicr  a 

•  •          • 

M.v<>n<l  11*4.'  under  tho  name  of  a  tru^t,  and  h-os  det^ree  of  a  court  i^r  undt-r  a  Power  uf  tale  ajo- 

cver  >:niV  retained  exrlii^ivo  j'>:ri-*'li«.'ti>in  of  tliat  taineil   in  the  niortg:ige  it<K!i.     I'ttil  such  MJt 

cla<^  of  ra«<-4  in  Knghuid.     Ano:!ier  iHvnliarity  the  fee  of  t!ie  iMate  it  in  the  ii>itrtOi^'«*r.  aad  ho 

of  tho  K(i;:!i«h  e>]iiiiy  !iy4:om  was  fi>rnierly  the  has  the  entire  di.«i»0'*iti'.m  i*{  \U  iioipt  Cjki  tbm 

riglit  of  fallin;:  i:p«.>n  tlic  defendant  in  the  a«'tion  lii-n  of  tho  morti;l^^*  will  continue  a«  ajai£.<  aU 

to  testify,  tiril  by  a  i^ worn  answer  to  t]ii'  foni*  |K-r*4in«  tj  whom  the  laiuU  may  descend  t.T  bo 

plfflnt,  and  then  by  eianiination  njnin  a<*i'ount-  conveyed;  tho   niortgiCiHir  ritaitui   fuARC^Kjoa 

ing.  and  in  vari.nuutlo  t  ra^-«,  at  th*e!e«'ti<>n  of  until  Muh  r>a!o.  un!e-*s  his  right  is  diit-*tctl  ly 

the  compkiiuaLt.     Hut  thii  diatiuctiifn  h.i!i  been  a  court  of  e^juity,  by  rea:iun  of  tho  iasulSctocy 


EQUIVALENT  269 

ef  the  mortgaged  lands  as  a  eecnrity.    So  the  tiona,  which  are  convenient  in  calculations,  and 
estate  of  the  mortgageor  is  subject  to  the  lien  of  can  be  easily  retained  by  the  memory.    Another 
a  jad^ent,  and  may  be  sold  on  execution,  and  table,  in  which  the  equivalent  weight  of  oxygen 
bo  wife  is  entitled  to  dower  except  as  against  is  assumed  to  be  100,  has  been  much  used  on 
the  mortgagee,  and  even  as  against  him  unless  the  continent  of  Europe.    It  was  proposed  by 
die  Joined  m  the  mortgage.    This  is  on  the  sup-  Berzelins,  mainly  it  would  seem  for  the  purpose 
poation  that  the  mortgEige  was  made  subsequent  of  discountenancing    a   theory    advanced  by 
to  marriage;  if  made  before,  the  dower  of  the  Prout,  that  all  the  equivalent  numbers  arc  sim- 
vife  would  of  ooorse  be  sublect  to  the  right  pie  multiples  of  that  of  hydrogen ;  superiority 
of  the  mortgagee.    8uch  in  the  state  of  New  was  claimed  for  it  on  the  ground  ^at  as  oxygen 
York  are  the  incidents  of  the  estate  of  the  mort-  is  the  most  abundant  of  all  the  dements,  and 
gigeor,  Qsoally  though  not  with  strict  propriety  since  the  greater  number  of  bodies  studied  by 
termed  the  equity  of  redemption ;  the  same^stem  chemists  are  compounds  of  it,  calculations  would 
hai  been  generally  adopted  in  the  other  states,  be  simplified  if  its  equivalents  were  regarded 
EQUIVALENT,  CinunoAL.    It  is  a  matter  as  equal  to  100 ;  in  which  case  it  is  only  neces- 
cf  experience,  that  when  an  element  enters  into  sary  to  add  100,  200,  800,  &c.,  to  the  equivalent 
riiwnifa]  combination  with  another  element,  weight  of  the  clement  with  which  oxygen  is 
il  does  80  in  a  fixed  proportion  which  may  be  combined,  in  order  to  ascertain  the  equivalent 
ci|Ji cased  in  numbers.     This  ratio  is  termed  weights  of  its  several  oxides.    The  equivalent 
Ae  eombining  equivalent,  combining  propor-  of  sulphur,  a  very  common  element,  would  also 
tioQ,  equivalent  weight,  or  simply  the  equiva-  have  a  simple  expression,  being  equal  to  200. 
kat  of  the  element.    The  term  atomic  weight  These  instances,  however,  do  not  ut  all  com- 
if  ate  Qsed  synonymously  by  those  who  accept  pensate  for  the  high  numbers  by  which  the 
fte  atotnio  theory.    Each  of  the  elements  has  other  equivalents  must  be  represented ;  num- 
ki  own  special  combining  equivalent,  and  is  hers  which  cannot   be  remembered  witliont 
faeapable  ci  nniting  with  other  elements  except  great  difficulty,  and  which  render  even  the  most 
fak  this  proportion  or  some  multiple  of  it.    The  common  calculations  extremely  laborious  unless 
eqnralents  of  compound  bodies  are  represented  logarithms  are  resorted  to.    Berzelius,  who  be- 
\j  the  snms  of  the  equivalent  numbers  of  all  lieved  that  the  equivalent  numbers  should  be 
tiie  elements  which  enter  into  their  composi-  regarded  as  entirely  accidental  and  unconnect- 
tkn.    The  weights  of  the  equivalents  of  the  ed  with  each  other,  desiring  to  give  them  the 
elements  are  ascertained  by  determining  experi-  roost  accurate  possible  expression,  introduced 
BMntally  how  much  of  each  is  required  to  re-  the  custom  of  attaching  to  them  large  decimal 
pbce  the  others  in  their  combinations  with  fractions ;  indeed,  the  power  to  do  this  which 
lome  well-known  element,  the  weight  of  the  is  aflforded  by  the  high  numbers  of  his  system 
equivalent  of  which  has  been  assumed.    Thus,  has  always  been  claimed  as  one  of  its  advan- 
me  quantity  by  weight  of  each  element  which  tages.    The  accuracy  of  thus  employing  several 
votes  with  one  equivalent  of  oxygen  to  form  a  decimals,  in  cases  whore  the  process  by  which 
protoxide,  analogous  to  water,  is  usually  con-  the  result  has  been  obtained  is  liable  to  errors 
ridered  to  represent  its  equivalent.    A  knowl-  of  considerable    magnitude,   was    long   since 
edge  of  the  exact  weights  of  the  equivalents  is  pointed  out  by  Erdmann,  who  has  called  atten- 
tf  the  first  importance  to  chemists ;  all  calcu-  tion  to  the  fact  that  no  greater  or  lesser  num- 
kfions  regarding  the  composition  of  bodies,  ber  of  decimals  ought  to  be  given  than  the  ex- 
m  in  analysis,  or  of  the  quantities  of  materials  periment  justifies.     All  tables  of  equivalents 
t»  be  employed  in  the  manufacture  of  com-  heretofore  published  are  more  or  less  defec- 
poonds,  being  based  upon  them.    As  the  equiv-  tive  from  neglect  of  this  truth.    The  equivalent 
dm  nnmbers  express  nothing  but  the  relative  numbers  have  been  recently  thoroughly  in- 
Vttghts  in  which  the  elements  unite  with  each  vestigated  and  revised  by  Dumas,  who  has  again 
e^r,  it  is  evident  that  the  weight  of  any  one  brought  forward  and  upheld  Front's  theory, 
■yiiident  may  be  arbitrarily  chosen  as  a  stand-  which,  owing  to  the  vigorous  opposition  of  Ber- 
M  to  which  all  the  others  shall  be  referred ;  zelius,  had  found  but  few  supporters  of  late 
it  it  esBential  only  that  the  relation  be  strictly  years.    Most  of  the  equivalents  thus  far  studied 
^barred.    Tables  of  equivalents  are  thus  con-  by  Dumas  are  simple  multiples  of  that  of  by- 
itoneted,  in  which  the  equivalent  weight  of  each  drogen.    To  this  rule  there  are,  however,  sev- 
if  the  elements  is  attached  to  its  name.    Scv-  eral  exceptions ;  among  which  some  are  multi- 
mi  ftandards  have  been  selected  by  different  pies  of  i,  while  otliers  are  multiples  of  i  of  an 
llcowts ;  only  two,  however,  have  ever  been  equivalent  of  hydrogen.    It  may  be  mentioned 
■Merallj  used.    The  equivalent  weight  of  hy-  that  it  is  still  a  matter  of  doubt  whether  the 
tiyu,  being  smaller  than  that  of  any  otlier  equivalents  of  several  of  the  elements  should 
litmBBtf  was  regarded  as  unity  by  Dalton,  not  be  regarded  as  twice,  or  that  of  others  as 
vbo  referred  all  the  other  equivalents  to  it.  ^  of  those  ordinarily  admitted ;  a  change  which 
nb  ijBtem  has  always  been  generally  adopted  would  greatly  simplify  certain  portions  of  chem- 

Sllie  chemists  of  Great  Britain  and  the  Unit-  ical  science.    This  question  has  been  warmly 

States.     It  possesses  the  very  great  advan-  discussed  for  several  years,  and  many  chemists 

t^gttbitin  it  the  equividents  are  represented  habitually  employ  equivalents  thus  modified; 

Vf  ■nan  numbers,  many  of  them  without  frac-  in  this  article,  however,  the  most  conmion 


260 


CRABD 


tRABD 


usage  of  chemista  will  be  Adhered  to.  The 
numbers  in  the  annexed  table  of  enuiviilenU 
have  been  taken  in  part  from  Dumas  memoir, 
(CompUt  rendu*^  xlvi.,  952X  and  in  pari  ^m 
Kapp  and  WilVs  JahresUricht/ur  Chemity  &c^ 
for  1857.  For  convenience  of  reference  both 
the  hydrogen  and  oxygen  scales  are  fnven ;  the 
Duml>erft  of  the  latter  being  readily  obtained  by 
dividing  those  of  the  former  by  the  fraction 
^\*.  The  names  of  thow  elements  which  from 
their  variety  are  comi>aratively  animportant, 
are  printed  in  italics ;  tne  e<]uivulentd  of  a  few 
of  these  have  not  us  vet  been  detennined. 


«f  Ito 


Alunlnnm. 
AatlmoBj  (9Ubii$m\ 
Arwnlc 
Bartnm. 

BtHBUth. 

Boron. 

Bromine. 

Oidmiun%, 

Cakluin, 

CwboB. 

Cerium. 

Chltfrioe. 

Chrumlom. 

Oi>bdL 

ihlmmtbimm  (Tt&UlnmX 

Copper  iCnprofli). 


jMawmu 


Plnorla*. 

iSimcim 

QmII  (AiuwdX 

lIjrilrufviL 

lotline. 

JrUimim, 

Iron  ( FvrramX 

LiUntAiinitm, 

Lroil  (IMumbttin). 

LUAium. 

Mjurn*'^um. 

Mefcurv  ^  1 1  jrtirarfyroxD  X 
MUyf'Janum. 

jVio//«iiiit. 

NilnitfrlL 

Hori  w  f  ^ 

#>tiniiiiM. 

iHjitpn. 

i\uut*lium, 

Fhti9|ihoruft> 

PUtiouui. 

PuiM^luiu  vKAllSBiX 

fHUrvU. 

HUrer  (.Ir^ntumV 
tWnlium  tSaUIUlu). 
Htruat.-.ui. 
flalbhar. 

T»rbtumk. 

Tin  ^^tMiBQinV 
TlUnmm. 

I'raxklum. 

IlfrtkM^ 

Zinr. 
Jtr(-«M|iaiiA. 


Al. 

Hb. 

At. 

Ba. 

Bl. 

& 

Br. 

i± 

Ca. 

C. 

C*. 

C^ 

Cr, 

iVfc 

Ta. 

Cn. 

D. 

K. 

n. 
o. 

An. 

II. 

1. 

Ir. 

>\'. 

Pb. 
la. 
Ms. 
Mn. 

Hi;. 
M.I. 

NL 

Xb, 

N 

No. 

iH. 

o. 

IM 

r. 

PL 
K. 

Kb. 
Ku. 
K\ 

hL 

Ac 

>». 

Hr. 

S 

T*. 

Tb 

Th. 

hn. 

Tl. 

W. 

1*. 

V 

Y. 

Zn. 

Zf. 


Hssl 


1^75 
IJino 

ssjo 

1090 

M.oa 

9i».iiO 

ana 

47.00 

avdt> 

Ml70 
WJW 
$f%.^ 

Sl.-rt 
4awU0 

'.'w.w 

4*0 
197.UU 

lt7.<)0 
t».UO 

47.«»-l 

t.tM> 
12  .V» 
t7.V> 

4rt«» 

•  ■  •  •  • 

U*JO 

■  •     ■  •  • 

99.M 
him 

fll.««> 

4lM^> 

Sl'»» 
lilr»<*» 

4.{  ::> 

1«IM 

s\a* 

St  73 

n40 


ObsIW 


in.973 

ifita^oo 

997.00 

8aai5 

19195 

1000.00 

700.00 

93«)J» 

73.00 

449.75 
99175 
9»175 

ttfO.no 


soaou 

(M.75 

944100 

1100 

1»f7.00 

1M7JH) 

&V>Ui) 

fr«7iM> 

l:flKI.73 

n7-'» 

10S.» 

9U75 

0Ul>.HO 

869w75 

'  I73iu6 

1:M&(«) 

€«1:j5 

I£S.i75 

Oi^<H> 

i»au.ife» 
»-»:.•« 

&««.^73 
9(«».4i» 
NKiOO 

•  •jt.AI 

SI1.M 

ll.%>.<«> 

7.'<ii  •■) 

^ft;ao 

4t'W..i:5 


flu  A  HI  \  S(:iiA»riB.N',  u  French  miiniiLicturcr 
of  iiiii'tiral  m4tniMu-nt'ijH*ni  in  Slra.'»!M»ur^', April 
5, 1752,  «liv*l  in  I'aiwy  hoar  Tari-*,  Auk*.  o,  l^ai. 
Hi:*  futhrr,  a  cabtni-t  niakvr,  d}iii^  in  m^edy 
circumjftanccfl,  he  went  to  Tarb  at  the  age  of 


16,  and  apprenticed  himself  to  a  maker  of 
sichords.  Possessing  a  remarkable  iuvv 
faculty,  he  soon  rose  to  the  posititm  of  fon 
and  hi:*  ingenuity  bude  fair  to  be  of  gre;it 
fit  to  his  employer,  when  the  latter,  muv. 
Jealousy,  disniiMied  him  fVom  his  svrncv. 
other  harpsichord  maker  who  had  reci-iv 
order  for  an  instrument,  the  constructii 
which  baffled  his  ingenuity,  offered  htm  i 
tain  sum  to  undertake  the  work,  provider! 
the  employer's  name  hhonld  appear  in  c\> 
lion  with  it.  Tlie  instrument,  when  comp 
excited  so  mach  admiration,  that  Ute  o 
was  compelled  to  confess  that  it  w&4  tbo 
dnction  of  £rard.  Attention  was  at  unce  d 
to  the  young  workman,  who  was  ai>(>lied  t 
a  variety  of  now  instruments  which  p 
wished  to  have  constructed,  and  wh«>  so«in 
much  increased  his  reputation  by  thv  pn 
tion  of  A  clavecin  mieanique^  or  mechanical ! 
aichord,  which  contained  several  improve! 
on  the  instruments  in  use.  The  duoh«« 
Villeroy,  a  woman  of  taste  in  music,  wb^h 
retain  him  in  Iter  service ;  but  preferring  hi 
ert^,  ho  declined  her  tlattering  offi-rs,  an 
mamed  in  her  hotel,  where  a  »uitabK< 
room  had  been  fitted  np  for  him,  only 
enough  to  execute  several  idcaa  which 
suggested.  It  wiki  here,  in  1780,  tliat  he 
structed  his  first  pianoforte,  an  in<«trQ 
which,  though  invented  a  number  of  year* 
vioufl,  was  then  almost  unknown  in  » 
and  the  introduction  of  which  into  that  < 
try  may  be  said  to  date  from  thi«  tiir.«. 
connection  witli  his  bnithcr  Jean  Ha;>:i7>: 
soim  after  established  a  manufactory  «f  p 
fortes  in  Pari^  which  gradually  UiMii.c 
first  in  Euro|»e.  Among  hi:*  invcnti«m«  «: 
in^t rumen t  with  2  key  boards,  one  fi»r  tho  j 
and  one  for  the  orguii ;  one(»f  i»hic!i  «  sl^  1 
with  a  slidiu;?  key  Injurd  fur  tran^iiH^^in*:  th< 
sic,  for  the  use  of  Marie  Antoinette.  I  »uhr.j 
revolutionary  i>eri(MK  the  brother*  tr.kr»I 
to  Engliuid,  and  e>taMi.tliod  a  iiianuf^%-* 

{>ian(»s  and  harps  in  lA>nd<»u;  but  in  iT.** 
».i.Ktien  returnitf  to  Paris,  and  thcno^f  r\\ 
life  was  pa.s.^kNl  lietween  that  city  anl  \j*i 
lie  constnictvd  tlie  first  fn'and  piani^s  with 
gle  action  over  made  in  I'aris ;  ^ul»^o^nt-:.l 
180S  much  iniiiroved  the  mechaiii^^m  of 
in.>«tniment,  ami  in  l^'23  C4»mpletv«l  hi*  iz 
tiuus  in  thi.H  department,  by  the  pn*«!u4-*.i«ii 
his  grand  piiuiu  witli  rvfieating  m^^vca 
In  iHll  his  double  ai'tion  harp  apf«ear\' 
I>ondon,  where  it  became  so  pi>pular,  iLs: 
sinelo  }  ear,  instnimenti  t4>  the  value  ot  i 
Oou  Were  tkild.  His  la.*»t  im|H>r1ant  w«Tk 
the  grand  organ  conMrooled  l»i'twc\n  1*^27 
lK:in  for  tho  oha|H'l  n>>al  i«f  tln^  Tui:i 
Ihiriuf;  the  \'X<  4o  yoar<  uf  hi4  lifehi*iuv%: 
faculty  M.vMii'il  nevvr  idlo,  and  of  the  15  «. 
inventions  fi>r  wliich  he  ttn^k  out  f^at^atis 
one  was  (Krfcrto^l  h ithout  clo»e  stady  acii 
iK*ated  ex^HTinunU,  The  cvlebrity  mLwfc 
instnnneiii.t  have  guincU  remains  uiidimixiu 
and  £rard   pianos   arv  ttiU  mwupatii^i 


ERASMUS  261 

roundness,  fblness,  and  beauty  of  tone. — He  was  His  two  years'  stay  in  that  country  was  made 
racceeded  in  the  firm  by  his  nephew  Jean  pleasant  by  the  attentions  of  the  nobility,  and 
BunsTEOBPHtsPiEBBS,  bom  in  Paris  in  1794,  the  friendship  of  the  most  eminent  English 
died  at  the  chateaa  La  Macette,  Aug.  8,  1855.  scholars.    He  was  presented  at  conrt,  studied  at 
He  possessed  much  of  the  inventive  skill  of  his  Cambridge  and  Oxford,  became  the  associate  of 
uncle ;  pnbli^ed  in  1849,  Notice  9ur  les  pianot  More  and  Golet,  and  added  to  his  previous  ac- 
StrarienEtpagne^tnltalie^enSume^en  Rut'  quirements  a  thorough  knowledge  of  Greek. 
w,  Ac,  and  rebuilt  in  1850  the  organ  con-  For  several  years  after  his  return  from  England 
ttrncted  by  S^bastien  £rard  in  the  Tuileries,  he  led  an  unsettled  life,  teaching  in  various  cities 
which  had  been  destroyed  during  the  revolu-  of  France  and  Holland,  translating  the  ancient 
tion  of  1830.    His  death  is  said  to  have  been  classics,  investigating  the  text  of  me  Scriptures, 
caused  by  grief  at  the  injury  done  to  his  estate  and  continually  increasing  his  acquaintance  with 
It  Fassy  by  the  construction  of  a  railroad.    His  the  scholars  of  Europe.    In  1505  he  again  vis- 
kst  work,  a  piano  estimated  at  $5,000,  was  ited  England,  received  from  Cambridge  the  de- 
presented  by  his  widow  to  the  lottery  opened  gree  of  bachelor  in  theology,  and  was  presented 
m  behalf  of  the  sufferers  by  the  Crimean  war.  to  Archbishop  Warham.    The  presents  received 
ERASMUS,  DEsiDKRiTja,  a  Dutch  theological  during  this  visit  made  it  possible  for  him  to  re- 
and  daarical  scholar  and  writer,  bom  in  Rotter-  alize  lus  long-cherished  wish  to  visit  Italy.    His 
dam,  Oct.  28, 1467,  died  in  Basel,  July  12, 1536.  stay  there  lasted  nearly  8  years,  and  was  divided 
He  was  the  natural  son  of  Gerard  Praet  and  between  the  cities  of  Turin,  Bologna,  Padua, 
Margaret,  the  daughter  of  a  physician  of  Seven-  Venice,  Florence,  and  Rome.    At  Tnnu  tlie  de- 
bemiL    He  himself  received  the  name  of  Qe-  gree  of  doctor  of  theology  was  conferred  upon 
tara,  but  afterward  assumed  its  Latin  synonyme  him.    In  Venice  he  resided  with  the  famous 
Besiderius,  the  Greek  translation  of -which  fur-  printer  Aldus  Manutins,  while  his  collection  of 
nihed  his  surname.    He  was  sent  first  to  the  **  Adages "  was  in  press.    In  Rome  he  was 
•dKMl  of  Gronda,  and  afterward  to  the  cathedral  treated  with  great  regard  by  the  pope.    In  1509, 
al  Utrecht  to  become  one  of  the  choir  boys,  on  the  accession  of  Henry  VIII.,  ne  was  induced 
At  the  age  of  9  he  was  transferred  to  the  mo-  to  go  back  to  England.    On  the  journey  thither 
Baade  achool  at  Deventer,  whore  he  applied  he  composed  his  Morim  Encomium^  the  "  Praise 
hnuelf  with  great  diligence  to  the  study  of  the  of  Folly,"  in  many  respects  his  most  remarkable 
dasRCs.    In  1480  both  his  parents  died,  and  his  work.    On  his  arrival  he  was  received  by  his 
mooaetic  tutors  sent  him  to  the  school  of  Rom-  fnend  More,  was  presented  with  a  living  by  the 
bddna  at  Bois-le-Duc,  that  ho  might  fit  him-  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  which  he  resigned 
felf  for  the  priestly  state.    For  some  years  he  for  a  pension  of  £20,  and  accepted  professorships 
xensted  their  wishes,  and  neglected  the  studies  of  theology  and  of  Greek  at  Cambridge.    In 
'vfaich  they  arranged  for  him ;  but  in  1486,  after  1514  he  returned  to  the  continent  at  the  invita- 
ba  had  been  prostrated  by  a  prolonged  fever,  he  tion  of  the  archduke  Charles,  afterward  Charles 
m  persuaded  by  a  friend  who  haid  just  come  V.,  from  whom  he  received  the  appointment  of 
\mk.  from  Italy  to  embrace  a  life  so  free  from  ex  royal  councillor,  with  a  small  salary ;  a  sinecure 
ofeementand  so  favorable  to  study,  and  entered  as  which  allowed  him  to  reside  where  ho  chose, 
t  novice  into  the  convent  of  Stein  near  Gouda,  and  in  which  he  employed  his  time  almost 
rfwhich,  a  year  later,  he  became  a  regular  broth-  wholly  with  literary  pursuits,  correspondence, 
fc    The  discipline  of  the  convent  at  Stein  was  theological,  polemical,  and  satirical  writing,  and 
loiitrict,  and  the  distaste  which  Erasmus  showed  with  editions  and  translations  of  many  of  the 
ftr  aseetic  practices  was  not  reckoned  as  a  sin.  less  known  Greek  and  Roman  classics.    With 
Ha  waa  allowed  to  study  in  other  than  theolo-  Reuchlin,  his  only  rival  as  a  linguist,  he  carried 
lied  treatises,  and  his  reputation  as  a  classical  on  a  spirited  controversy  concerning  Greek 
tMar  was  aoon  widely  spread.    In  1492  he  pronunciation ;  and  the  theory  which  ho  main- 
^m  selected  as  a  companion  by  the  bishop  of  tained  has,  until  the  present  century,  been  gen- 
Ombray,  and  was  ordained  to  the  priesthood,  erally  received  in  the  schools  of  Europe.    With 
ftMBms  remained  with  his  patron  at  Cambray  Luther  his  dispute  was  still  more  sharp.    The 
I  Tcan,  when  he  went  to  study  at  the  college  monk  of  Wittenberg  was  at  first  a  warm  friend 
tr  Montaiga  in  Paris,  where  he  supported  him-  and  admirer  of  tho  great  scholar ;  but  finding 
■If  with  difficulty  by  taking  pupils.    Ills  studies  that  tho  liberal  spirit  of  Erasmus  was  not  ready 
We  interrupted  by  serious  sickness,  which  left  to  adopt  the  extreme  tenets  of  tho  reformers,  he 
ii  liim  the  sc^eds  of  a  constitutional  malady  front*  at  first  expostulated  with,  then  ridiculed,  and 
vUdi  he  suffered  all  tho  rest  of  his  life.    On  then  denounced   his  former  friend  as  a  time- 
Ifi  leCnni  from  a  visit  to  relatives  in  Holland,  server,  a  coward,  and  a  foe  to  truo  religion. 
Ii  Mtabliahed  himself  in  Paris  as  a  teacher  of  Erasmus  was  equally  unfriendly  to  tho  monastic 
literature.    Among  the  numerous  and  habits  and  to  tho  subtleties  of  the  scholastic  di- 
shed pupils  whom  his  reputation  at-  vinity,  and  exercised  his  wit  on  both  of  these ; 
the  one  who  was  able  most  to  befriend  but  he  had  no  love  for  theological  quarrels,  and 
I  a  young  English  nobleman,  William  no  wish  to  draw  upon  himself  unpopularity  or 
Lord  Montjoy.    By  this  friend  ho  was  persecution.    He  welcomed  the  reformation  as 

i  an  annual  pension  of  a  hundred  crowns  a  movement  of  free  thought,  but  deprecated  its 

1m  would  take  up  his  residence  in  England,  excesses.    He  disliked  all  dogmatism^  as  well  aa 


262  ERASMUS  ERASTTS 

all  oztravAgAnco  in  relii;it>us  rhetoric,  and  would  scholar  aiid  critic  than  as  a  thinker  or  rea^^iOvr. 

havo  tho  rtifiiniiord  cuutiuo  tlK*inM.*lvvs  to  tho  Ho  exposed  the  ahiuea  cf  the  conreou  and  th« 

}»atent  vicoii  of  tho  luonkn  and  civrgy.  leaving  ineonsifltvncies  of  tho  scholasttic  theolot;^,  hot  he 

artido  Uie  iMh»ibIo  error:*  iu  doctriac.     Ilizi  mid-  produced  no  now  creed  and  argued  in  fziror  of 

die  oourM)  in  regard  to  the  rffonnutiun  brou^^ht  no  horuticul  doctrine.     His  defence  of  ttie  ri^Lt 

upon  Itiui  tho  ccn:«uro  of  Zi'uliits  iu  bt»ih  parties,  of  reason  agaiust  authoritjr  was  weak  and  cva- 

In  1521  he  had  tiken  up  his  reaidcuco  iu  Uosel,  sivc.    But  ho  royived  the  studj  of  the  Scrip- 

where  ho  was  presently  colled  ou  to  nKHlioto  turos  in  their  original  tongue,  affinniHl  the  m^io- 

between  tho  Catliolic  luogUt rotes  aud  the  ri:iing  rior  value  of  early  Christian  le:itiiu<mic:s  and 

Protestant  party.    IIo  could  only  o«ld  fuel  to  gave  an  imi>ulse  to  biblical  and  patrUtic  invc^ 

tho  flanio  by  his  moilerato  counsel    Tho  iiisur-  ligations.    IIo  was,  it  maybe  fraid,  the  moiC 

reetion  of  Feb.  1521)  completed  tho  overthrow  gifted  and  indostrious  pioneer  of  motlem  schot 

of  tho  aiithoritios ;  the  Homun  Cot!iolic  reli;;ion  arship. — Erasmus  published  in  1516  ibo  firrt 

was  definitely  prohibited  in  tho  city,  and  all  edition  of  tlio  Greek  Testament  fmm 


who  hod  opi)Osed  tho  new  doctrine  were  com-  scripts,  which  has  been  regarded  as  Lis  gnrXUA 

polled  to  depart.    Tliough  Erasmus  hod  already  work.    His  complete  m'orks,  with  a  biiigraiihT, 

t>een  coudeuinwl  as  a  heretic  by  tho  college  of  m'ero  publidhed  aller  his  death  by  Hcalos  Che- 

tho  Sorbonno,  ho  could  not  endure  tho  society  of  nanns  (9  vols,  ft*).,  Basel,  lo44W41).     Another 

tho  meu  who  were  now  in  |)ower.     IIo  changed  more  complete  edition  was  pnbli»lit.-«l  ot  LAvdca 

Uie  ploco  of  hi<4  residence  to  Freyburg,  where  by  Lo  Clerc  (10  vols,  fol.,  Ii03-*0).     Of  lb* 

he  remained  from  152D  to  1535.    In  vain  did  ^*  Colloqui^-s,^*  his  most  famous  work,  m  gnal 

tho  Cathiilic  ]>orty  try  to  win  him  bock  to  full  number  of  editions  hove  been  publiiihcd .  tha 

communion,  and  in  voin  did  tho  refurmers  at-  best  is  that  of  Am&tenlam  (1G50).    The  Jf^rim 

tack  him  by  Jest  and  sarcosm.    Ho  answered  £ncomium  also  ^>assed  through  m  great  nisa- 

the  libels  of  Cieldenlmucr  by  pungent  r<;joinden,  ber  of  editions ;  it  w^as  ironshited  into  Gcnnaa 

ho  e vailed  tho  suimnuas  to  the  diet  at  Aughburg,  and  illustroted  by  Holbein ;  tho  laieMi  vdilica 

andhis^Ketractations,**  tliough  promised,  Were  is  thot  of  Havre  (IS3U).    Tho  other  iuo»t  ta^ 

never  publi**hed.     Ho  declined  more  tlum  one  portant  m'orks  of  Erasmus  aro  tho  C*^ia  Fcf^ 

tempting  offer,  and  while  he  m*as  not  unwilling  ho^rum;  the  Ad*igU*rum  Colltctauta  ;  the  Im^ 

to  aixvpt  additions  to  his  scanty  income,  did  not  tise  Dt  LiUro  Arbitrio^  which  was  answctwl  bj 

caro  to  obscure  his  literary  fame  by  tlio  more  Luther;  tho  ParacUMiM^  an  oxhortati«»n  totM 

imiKxsing  dignity  of  a  place  in  tho  sacred  col-  study  of  Christian  philosophy ;  the  vulmnr  of 

lege.    In  1535  ho  returned  to  Basel,  where  an  EpijminmaUi;    tho    Autiltarlmirffrum    LUer; 

attack  of  gout  com{>eIle4l  him  to  remain,  and  Lin*jua^  a  satirical  work;  an  explanati<.»n  of  tht 

wIkto  he  dicil  iu  tlie  arms  of  his  friends.     His  ^A|K)»tIes'  Cree*!;^'  KccUs'uut^^  §iu  dt  £^:^^ 

l:\<  (Liys  Were  choeriHl  bv  tliu  friendly  visits  and  Courinahdi^  in  4  biK)k>;  and  the  iiuuu-f.M:  cvm- 

nu'S-^^i^eH  of  di'(tii>gui>heil  men  both  of  the  Trot-  lection  of  *'  Kpi>tles**  whit'h,  [K:rhop4  n«**rv  t^AB 

estoiit  ond  of  tho  Cotholir  porty.     In  tho  midst  any  other  of  his  m-4*rkN  >how  the  cUurai:t«.r  of 

of  >oViru  tiufTering,  ho  w:ks  uMo  to  retain  his  the  man.     Of  his  purvly  ckL^Mcul  work*,  th«?» 

culiniK*srt,  and  to  piirMie  his  wontol  lalor.H.     His  are  editions  of  iH-nireo,  Suettiniu^  Aiir\I:.;»  Vi£* 

dvutli  was  hirnvnti-d  o-*  a  publir  calamity  ;  along  t^ir,  Ammionus  Murecllinus,  Eutrr*plu.>k  Qa.&aia 

proc«*!<hii>n  of  mo^i-*(r.*itc!»  aiid  students  follow-  Curti us,  Cicero  Ik-  ({r/u*iV«|  thv  **Tum-uIii.  \^'j«h 

vd  his  futieral;  and  thu  bc^uot  of  his  whole  tions**  Pliny  the  Elder,  Livy.  and  Tert:.«>\  vho 

pn»|K.*rty  to  tlto  a^vd,  the  inmr,  ond  the  orplion,  mos  his  favorite  among  the  Ijitins,  »»  f'ialarcii 

Kvuh-*!   to  justify   the   inonuineiit  whirh  was  and  Lucian  men'  among  the  ttrixk:^     IU-  alsa 

er^vted  til  him  in  t!to  cathednd  ot  lioM.*!,  and  iiubli>hedtraiL<ilutionsfrom\eD«*phou,  I.<«<raU^ 

which  still  remains  the  cliivf  ot>ji.i-t  of  interest  Kuripide%  and  Ijbanius,  ami  iM^uvd  lAlitK^o*  dC 

i:i  that  etlifltv.     Era^miH  w^ls  ^matl  in  ^taturo,  l^olvuty,  Peino^thenes,  and  Ahatoile.     A^;!*^ 

with  li;{ht  lioir  and  li^'ht  Uue  eye>.     His  |»<»r-  hi;*  w or Lh  are  al**!)  many  controversial  a^. I  V^ 


trait  hy  IIi>!lH.iu  repn-'-ents  his  look  as  sickly  MTiptural  eXiMt.Mtions,  and  liturgiiol  trea:.«^>.— 

and  his  l'.ux*  rm  thin  and  wrinkled.     He  was  fond  The  lite  of  I^asmus  lia^  l^een  written  \  \  lUjIai 

w 

of  luxurious  li^in^r,  but  uiiaMe  frwui  phyMcal  Hlien.'iiiu>,  Mclrhi<ir  Adam,  Meruit.  Nri-»ih&s 

w oak ni->!«  to  gratify  his  appetites.     His  timidity  and  Uaye,  in  I^ain;  by  Henke  a:*d   W^Ii^  ia 

Wa**  exi*t»^>i\e.    Ho  dre.pled  to  }4ay  in  the  Uei^h-  (ierman;   bv  IA•^ e.<u|Ue  de  Ihiii^y.  Ha}!*.  I*^* 

bi»rhtNMl  ^»f  any  ri>iit:c:ioU'i  di^'O.'-^.'.  and,  in  spito  lart,  aiid  Nisard.  in    Frent.h;  autl    \\  JwTtl^ 

of  his  rationalt-tlo  tendencies,  Was  fre<)Ucnily  Kni,:ht«  anil  Charli-s  Butler,  in  Eii,;l>!i. 

lunittiil  by  tuii^T-tiiiiiu^  l'«  ar.<i.     He  had  a  tino  KUASTl'S  (LtKHk^iiK  Ti(«»MAi\  a  Si««<^  y-^}^- 

n.'iiivc  h'<inu»r,  a  k<  i*:!  e:ijo}n>eiit  of  w  itty  dis-  rian  aiitl  theological  iNileUiic,  Ivrii  ir.   !-^^^ 

ciKir^*,  nuA  t%x\  :i''i-uratc  ive  iov  every  form  of  Sefit.  7,  ltVJ4. died  in  Ita^^l,  Dec.  'J\,  \%'<\.     lit 

U'atitv.     His  t:t«to  was  at  relined  a-*  his  know  I-  ptUiii«.il  thenlojv  and  Ktvrjtufv  in  1«>a>c1.  «L>«n 

v^L'f  was  proiIi;;iiMi<^     lie  w.is  \ir.sid  in  all  tho  he  nam>wly  vR'ai^^tl  dealh  by  the  f'stT^*  ^B 

St  Utile  1  of  his  a,:c;  in  nil  t^t  lift  }iem  he  excelled.  1514.     He  Lexi  ^;u<;ied  mi^irlne  in  l><-li.^:vs 

His  reuilin,;  woi^  v:kni'n%  but  nut  di-ultor^.    IIU  prai  ti^sl  thi^  prtil'i^^sinu  with  ri.:ua.''L^^  l^*  ».»<• 

tri-a:i**'s  wero  tini-lied  pnalurtion-,   Mnil  their  ce>^.  and  after  i'^ing  for  many  \tar»  |   ••:«<««.€ 

»!vIo   it   alu.vs  eKar,   t!>*win^   un-1   elo«peut.  of  phy-ii*  at  Heidi  ll-iT,:,  ol'tain<.U  •:»  1'^*  l^ 

KrAftatxs  aided   the  relormaiiou  ra'.her  as   a  chair  uf  ethics  ut  Uom: I.    A»kiifui  praft.t.vCjir, 


ERATH  ERCELLA  Y  ZUSlGA            263 

reljiog  on  indnction  from  experience  rather  his  T^orks  was  one  of  nniversal  chronology,  the 

thin  on  dogmns  and  theories,  he  was  a  formida-  fragments  of  which  form  tlie  hasis  of  the  system 

ble  opponent  of  the  reveries  of  Paracelsus  and  adopted  by  Bunscn  in  his  work  on  Egypt.    He 

his  discipl^^    His  principal  theological  coutro-  also  wrote  versos  on  numerous  scientifio  subjects, 

Tersy  was  with  Datiienns  and  Beza  concerning  a  commentary  on  the  astronomical  poem  of 

the  doctrine  of  excommunication.    He  held  that  Aratus,   and  treatises  on  comedy  and  on  the 

codesiastical  censures  should  extend  only  to  di>  Homeric  poems.    A  number  of  other  works 

Teigenoes  in  theological  opinion,  and  not  at  all  are  attrijbuted  to  him  upon  doubtful  grounds, 

to  rices  and  immorality,  which  were  civil  of-  None  of  his  writings,  excepting  a  few  brief  frag- 

ftnces,  and  properly  punishable  only  by  tem-  ments,  remain ;   but  Strabo  and  other  later 

poral  magistrates.    In  some  of  his  writings  he  writers  made  great  use  of  his  geographical 

leems  to  fkvor  the  principle  that  all  ecclesiasti-  works. 

eil  anUiority  is  subordinate  to  the  civil  power,  ERCILLA  Y  ZU JTlGA,  Alonbo  db,  a  Span- 
which  is  the  doctrine  commonly  recognized  ^  ish  poet,  bom  in  Madrid,  Aug.  7, 1533,  died  about 
EraBtianism.  1595.    He  was  a  scion  of  an  ancient  Biscayan 
ERATH,  a  central  co.  of  Texas,  comprising  family,  and  after  the  death  of  his  father,  For- 
ptrt  of  a  fertile  and  well  watered  district  near  tunio  Garcia,  who  was  a  member  of  the  council 
the  flonrces  of  Brazos  river ;  pop.  in  1858,  766,  of  Charles  V.,  he  resided  with  his  mother, 
ofwhom  42  were  slaves.    The  surface  is  gener-  whose  family  name  (ZuAi^)  he  adopted,  at 
aOy  nndolating,  but  there  are  some  eminences  the  imperial  court,  where  he  was  educated  as 
<ii  the  S.  and  N.  £.  borders.    The^soU  in  the  one  of  the  pages  of  the  future  Philip  II.    He 
vaOejB  is  excellent ;  the  uplands  are  less  fertile,  accompanied   him  on  his  travels  abroad,  and 
but  afford  good  pasturage.    Timber  of  various  was  in  England  in  1554  when  Philip  married 
kinds  covers  about  i  of  the  surface.    Stephens-  Queen  Mary.    About  this  time  the  Araucanians 
▼me  is  the  capital.    The  county  was  formed  in  Chili,  whose  territory  had  been  invaded  by 
from  BoMue  and  Coryell  in  1856.  the  Spaniards  in  1537,  rose  against  them,  and 
ERATO,  one  of  the  nine  muses,  daughters  of  many  Spanish  knights  then  at  the  British  court 
Jopiter  and  Mnemosyne.    In  the  theogony  of  volunteered  to  serve  in  the  war.    Ercilla  join- 
Hesiod  she  holds  the  6th  place  among  them,  ed  this  expedition,  in  which  he  distinguished 
Her  name  was  derived  from  the  Greek  word  for  himself  as  much  by  his  prowess  on  the  battle 
lore,  and  she  was  the  protectress  of  nuptial  field  as  by  the  heroic  spirit  with  which  he  bore 
ceremonies,  and  the  muse  of  erotic  poetry.  She  the  difficulties  attending  the  wanderings  in  the 
disputed  with  Mercury  the  honor  of  having  in-  wilderness  and  the  painful  warfare  with  its 
vented  the  lyre.  savage  inhabitants.    In  an  interval  of  the  war, 
ERATOSTUEXES,    a    Greek   astronomer,  he  had  the  misfortune  to  be  involved  in  a  duel 
geometer,  geographer,   poet,  and  philosopher,  during  a  public  tournament  which  was  held  in 
bom  in  Cyrene  in  276  B.  C.,  died  about  196.  honor  of  the  accession  of  Philip  II.  to  the 
He  pos^fiscd  a  remarkable  extent  of  learning  throne.    Ercilla  and  his  antagonist  were  both 
and  versatility  of  talent,  and  was  variously  ordered  to  be  put  to  death,  and  it  was  not  with- 
Bimed   by  his   contemporaries  the    "  cosmo-  out  difficulty  that  Ercilla's  sentenco  was  com- 
grtpher/'  the  "measurer  of  the  universe,"  the  muted  to  imprisonment.    This  occurrence,  how- 
'^  second  Plato,"  and  the  "pentathlete"  or  victor  over,  served  rather  to  increase  than  to  diminish 
fai  5  contests,  his  erudition  in  each  department  his  love  of  adventures,  and  he  had  no  sooner 
being  thus  represented  under  the  figure  of  a  recovered  his  liberty  than  he  set  out  on  another 
tictory  obtained  over  ignorance.    lie  had  for  dangerous  expedition  against  the  sanguinary 
BMSters  Ariston  the  philosopher,  Lysanias  the  Lope  de  Aguirre.     In  1562  ho  returned  to 
gmnmarian,  and  Callimachus  the  poet,  and  he  Spain,  and  shortly  afterward  resumed  the  life 
completed  his  education  in  Athens.    His  fame  of  a  wanderer,  travelling  several  years  on  the 
iwuied  Ptolemy  III«,  king  of  Egypt,  who  in-  continent  of  Eurow.    In  1570  ho  came  back  to 
Tiled  him  to  Alexandria  and  intrusted  to  his  Spain  and  married  Maria  do  Bazan,  an  accoro- 
on  the  renowned  library  of  that  city.    He  is  plished  lady  of  the  house  of  Santa  Cruz.  In  1571 
■id  to  have  died  of  voluntary  starvation,  to  he  was  made  knight  of  Santiago,  was  employed 
vhiefa  he  was  led  by  regret  for  having  lost  his  on  different  missions  by  Philip  II.,  and  served 
itl^t.  His  most  important  work,  the  rcaiypa^cxa,  for  some  time  as  a  gentleman  of  the  bed- 
treated  of  tho  nature  and  form  of  the  earth,  chamber  of  Rudolph  IL,  the  emperor  of  Ger- 
vhich  he  supposed  to  be  a  motionless  globe,  of  many.     Little   is   known  of   the  history   of 
iUiitfgnitude,andof  tho  countries,  towns,  lakes,  his  latter  years.    His  literary  fame  rests  upon 
livm,  and  mountains  which  mark  its  surface.  La  Araveana^  the  most  celebrated  of  Spanish 
Btwasthefonnderof  geodesy,  and  was  the  first  epics.    It  is  in  37  cantos,  and  celebrates  the 
toeompate  the  magnitude  of  the  earth  by  the  as-  war  with  the  Araucanians,  in  which  the  poet 
twmuuiical  method  still  in  use.  (SceEAirrn.)  Ho  himself  was  engaged.    It  is  remarkable  for 
sunsted  the  construction  of  tho  large  armiUc^,  tlie  accuracy  of   its  historical,  geographical, 
cruedcircular  instruments,  which  were  long  in  and  statistical  information,  and  in  the  glow- 
MB  in  Alexandria,  devised  a  method  for  dis-  ing  picturesqueness  of  its  descriptions   it  is 
eovering  tho  prime  numbers,  and  resolved  the  unrivalled  in  Spanish  poetry.     Cervantes  in  his 
ynUem  of  the  duplication  of  the  cube.    Among  "  Don  Quixote  "  goes  even  so  far  as  to  declare 


964  EBDL  EBETRIA 

it  e<jnal  to  the  fn^at  epics  of  Italr.    Voltaire  ia  Attica,  established  the  foAtival  of  thePanathenipa, 

the  lutrodiiction  to  \m  Ilenriade  also  expresses  and  fonnded  un  the  Acnipidis  the  tempW  whu*h 

great  adiniratiun  of  the  poem,  which,  liowever,  after  him  was  calle<l  the  Erechtheum.     lU  hit 

be  does  nc»t  fieem  to  have  reail.     Ercilla  wrote  wife  Pasithoa  lie  liad  a  son  whtnn  he  Daiii«d 

the  Unit  and  bi«it  part  of  thi^i  jMicm  on  the  bat-  Pandion.     ilo  in  alito  paid  to  have  dM-idi-d  the 

tie  field,  but  did  nut  live  to  cumplvto  it.    The  dit^pute  between  Minerva  and  Keptmiv  fur  th« 

first   15   cantos  m'ero  published  in  Miulrid   in  po&H*«riion  (»f  Attica,  in  favor  oi  the  puddt«i| 

1669,  the  iK.'Ctmd  part  of  tiiu  poem  in  1578,  and  and  to  have  introdn<^.Hl  the  u<io  of  chariou  vi'Ji 

the  third  part  in  15'J<).    A  continuation  of  tlio  4  hor^tesi,  for  which  ho  was  Mt  anion^r  tlie  ^Xms% 

poem  in  33  cantos,  written  bj  Osorio,  appeared  as  Aurifra.    The  myths  connecte<l  with  the  lif« 

m*15*J7,  and  has  been  tmmetimci  printed  in  of  tlio  second  Ervrhthcus  are  the  £lvu»i&iaa 

connection  with  the  work  of  Ercilla,  to  mhich  war.  the  sacritlce  of  one  of  his  cLiu^rhter!!,  and 

it  is  much  inferior.    The  best  editii»ns  of  La  tlie  suicide  of  the  three  others,  in  con<«^uc&e» 

Araucana  are  those  published  at  Madrid  in  of  a  response  of  the  oracle,  and  his  U,>iu^  killod 

1776  and  lH*2s.  bj  Jupiter  mith  a  tlaz^h  of  lightuinir.  at  the  rt- 

EKhL.,   MioiiAKL  Pirs,   a  German   savant,  quest  of  Neptune.    The  Erechtheiis  of  I>i«idt)rw 

born  May  5,  lb  15,  died  Feb.  25,  1848,  otViciated  came  from  E^ypt  with  grain  in  time  nf  CamiDi^ 

as  profess«ir  of  comparative  anatomy  and  phys-  was  made  kin^,  and  established  the  Elvusinlaa 

iolo^y  at  the  nniversity  of  Munich,  and  left  a  festivals.     Another  Erechtheus,  the  Mm  of  I>ar> 

variety  of  writinj^s  in  connection  with  those  danns  and  father  of  Tros  in  llinm,  i;*  faUK^  aa 

sciences.     In  lb36  and  lKi7  ho  accompanied  the  richest  of  mortals^  in  whose  fields 

Hchubert  on  his  travels  to  the  East,  and  uiscov-  8,000  beautiful  mares, 
ered  that   the  surfaiH)  of  the  i)eail  sea  was        EKEGLI,  or  Eiekkm  (anc.  Jleraelt^i),  a 

aituate<l  far  below  the  level  of  the  Meditor-  port  t^iwn  of  Asiatic  Turkey,  on  the  Hlurk 

raneaii.  pop.  5,00o.    It  has  a  go<id  harlior,  and  expurta 

EKDMAXy,  Otto  Liyyfc,  a  German  chemist,  timber,  silk,  and  wax,  in  exchange  for  ci>luoial 

bom  in  Dri'sdcn,  April  11, 1S04,  and  since  1830  produce,  tobacco,  and  iron.     Shi^Hbuildiog  ia 

Erofes>or  of  chemistry  at  tlio  univer>ity  of  carried  on  to  N>me  extent.  A  few  traces  art 
eipMc.  In  1843  ho  e^taMi<*hed  a  chemical  found  here  of  the  ancient  Ileraolea,  which  was 
laborator}'  at  Dresden,  which  is  <»ne  of  the  best  a  town  of  coni«iderable  im|Mirtan(v,  and  noted 
in  Gennany.  Ho  devoted  much  time  to  the  asone  of  the  htations  of  the  1u.<km>  (irev^ks  vn- 
chemical  ai):dyi'is  of  indigo  and  other  dye<  derXenophon.  Near  thistown  i^aokalfirldex- 
stutTs,  and  his  writings  embo4lying  the  result  tending  lor  about  84i  m.  al(»ng  the  vh^re  o^ 
of  his  inve">ti;ratiou.s  are  not  only  useful  to  men  the  Hlack  sea.  The  cual  miiie^  an*  wurLeii  ixb- 
of  St'ionre.  but  al-Mi  to  nuTciiaiits.  A  4th  edition  der  tho  diriTtion  »if  2  Eu;:!i*h  i-nymt-  r-.  ve'd- 
of  his  iyhrftHfh  lUr  Chrmir^  and  ft  2*1  edition  ing  alK>ut  6o.ikki  Imuh  annually.  'llitr«-  aro  S 
of  hi'i  fimn^lriMM  lUr  M'tiiirrul-iu/ir,  Ap|K.-:Lred  other  towns  of  the  wuno  nanii*.  nU'.-  ^.tii^Uti  ia 
at  Ix'ijfMC  in  I  V>2.  Ik'side  hts  (»tlaT  writings,  the  di^t^l^t  <>f  KniiU'h.  in  A^iatir,  and  the  other 
which  are  contained  in  the  fKTi«Mliral  K*ientitio  in  the  diittrict  ttf  Galii{H»lts  in  KMrt»|K.M:i  Tu*kry. 
prvss  of  Gt  rmany,  he  prepared  tlig  r»tli  edition  Tlie  latter  has  a  harbor,  and  is  the  »«.«•  ul'  a  Grv«k 
of  Si'hedel'^    WtMrtnUxihm^  and  piibli>Led  in  bii^hop. 

1827  an  int.  re-ting  treatiM;  <»n  nickel.  EKEMACVl'SIS  Mir.  v^iMfin.  by  di  jnx-^  ztzA 
EttiCUrS,  one  of  the  ol(!e*>t  pxls  <if  the  iravcrif,  a  burning i.  the  n:une  k'iven  l-v  I..cl>i^  to 
Grei-ko  and  K'iniaiH,  >4>n  of  ('li:uis  and  Ni^rLt.  the  >1<jw  cunibii^iion  or  tixidaiii»a  1\^i<h  tokflt 
He  waH  changed  into  a  river,  intii  which  he  had  place  in  org.mic  Mib«»tance'«  wlu-n  e\p  •***!  to 
been  preci|»itat«Hl  fur  havin;:  .I'i-i-ted  the  Titan-*,  the  intlueiico  »if  the  air,  ;uid  whiih  r.- ■♦;:->  t  i!!:cr 
The  term  Hn.>liu^  wa<«  freipuntly  ai»i'lieil  to  a  in  tho  fiinnati«»n  (»i'the  ]iulvi-ni!fii',  '<r<*«i;i  !«^> 
portion  t»f  tho  p:u;an  infirnn,  a  dark  anil  stance  calleil  huinu<*,  as  in  the  dvciy  ■»(  \ri««i« 
gltMitny  •.pa«'»«  Ifneath  the  earth,  thri»u::li  wliicli  til»re,  or  in  Ninu*  in«»n'  hiijlily  o\:iIa*td  o -ra- 
the yiiiils  "f  the  ju<«t  iiao<«ed  i>n  their  w.iy  to  en«  poiin«Is,  a^  when  alctiliol  i<«  cniivi  r:«  i  it.l<<  a>xljC 
joy  t!ie  eternal  and  (k'li;:]itfal  lile  of  KlyMinn.  B«"id.  It  i*  the  first  rhan,;e  in  the  |.r<-  » -v-  k.4 
EHKl'IlTHErs,  itr  Kj:ii  iirn<iMi--i,  the  naino  femientatinn  and  putrel'ai*:it»n.  a:.d  i-  ;-eivr.'.<4 

of  a  fabnlMH  In  ri>  uf  Attica,  ^r  aec<inliitg  to  by  any  cium'S  t!iat  am-t  the-M-.     T: i*j»a 

•ome  hit«'r  writer*,  «if  t*ii  i^t-mius,  i»f  whi>ni  of  the  air  llr*t  ai't-*  ujniu  the  lodr  jj^;*  c  i:;ii::«d 

the  y"nii,:er   wa»  tin*  graiid'Xin   i»l"  the  elder  in  t!ie  organic  *ub-tan«'e<,  the  carl-  ir.  *,.*.. ^t 

Homer  de-MTJlK--*  Eret  ht!ie:is  a*  an  nntuchtlinn  oxhil'itint;  no  tendency  t«i  u:;!:e  wtt.,   ;:    i:*::il 

and    ki:i4   of    Atheii-..    un-l    the   »M»n    of    (i.-i-.i  the  •.iih-^tainv  hns  Ut  n  r.iiM*«l  t  •  a  h:,-l.  !t;!j%r« 

(Earthi;  he  »*.ts  e*l':ca:iil   by    Minerv;i.      Tho  ature.     Moisture  in  t!ie  a>  i-^In  dite*  t;  e  :rw 

on»»  »h"t:i   .\;*<iIi>Mhirus    nientifiiH   nn*l«r  this  iv**,  and  in  Minie   in-::uji  f*  ^xj-i-irt-   !••  •.^# 

name  w.-!-*  tlio  ^*x\  *if  Vulcan  anil  Atthi-,     Mi-  uctiou  of  alkaline  lH»»l;i«i,  aifl  ir;  i»!i.i  >  t^-.:-^t 

Derva,  wJ;.i  ri-artd  h'.ni  M-«Tetly,  ;:a\o  !.i:n  in  a  nith  other  diH-a\  ing  sii!i>tiUiCt  *,  \%  l«  ,-%-»xa.-*  *.*• 

che>t  ti«  Tari'lr' »**•"!  ai.d  Iht  *i-tt  r-*,  wIpi,  o|n-ri-  induiS'  W. 

ing    it    fr..m    ruri«»-;?v,   kiw    in  it  a   ■K*q'enl,         KKKlKlA,  .in  unei^-n!  riry  i-f  th*-  :-'.^'i  I  of 

wero  M-iz'-l   with  nuidiie**,  and   tJiP-w   thein-  Eu)»«i':i. -itiint.d  a  lif'.c -.■mth  of  i  fial*  >.  •»;■••*• 

Sfhe*  d'».*ri    t!»L«    A«  TojHili-*  i»r   i:iT.i   t!.e   t-a.  ri\nl  it  ua-^  in  coiniiurce.    It  Ma«  I-'.iuh^l  i -vr 

iIkvingex|ieUedAmphictT<i;i,  he  became  Ling  of  to  the  Trojan  war,  and  at  an  corl^  (<n^*i   l^ 


ERFUBT  ERIO                        265 

rich,  powerful,  and  one  of  tbe  chief  mari«  or  Erfhrt  parliament,  was  held  there  in  the 

time  states  of  Greece.    It  was  early  engaged  in  charch  of  St.  Augustine. 

dispotes  with  the  Chalcians,  and  for  having  ERGOT  (Fr.  ergot,   cock^s   spur),  a  protu- 

pven  sasistanoe  to  the  Ionic  cities  of  Asia  in  beronce  which  grows  out  in  a  curved  form  re- 

tbeir  revolt  from  Persia  it  was  razed  to  the  sembling  a  cock's  spur  from  among  the  grains 

groimd  bjr  the  Persians  in  490  6.  0.    It  was  of  the  plants  of  tbe  graminacea^  or  grass  tribe, 

floon  rebailt  S.  of  the  old  site,  and  took  part  as  wheat,  barley,  and  especially  rye.    As  it 

in  the  Peloponnesian  war.     The  philosopher  is  most  commonly  met  with  in  the  lost,  the 

Itenedemoa.  a  disciple  of  Plato,  here  established  substance  has  been  known  by  the  name  of 

s  celebrated  school  of  philosophy.    The  ruins  spurred  rye  (seeale  cornutum).    Its  origin  has 

of  thisdty  are  still  visible.  been  ascribed  to  various  causes.    Some  have 

ERFURT,  a  cirde  of  the  Prussian  province  thought  it  to  be  the  seed  altered  by  a  diseased 

of  Sazooy,  bounded  N.  by  Hanover  ana  Bruns-  growth,  caused  by  the  attack  of  an  insect,  or 

vick,  E.  by  Merseburg  and  Saze- Weimar,  S.  by  unfavorable  circumstances  of  moisture,  heat, 

I7  Saze-Gotha,  Saze-Meiningen,  and  Saxe-Wei-  &c.    De  Candolle  thought  it  a  fungus  occupying 

mar,  and  W.  by  Hesse-Cassel ;  area,  1,806  sq.  nL ;  the  place  of  the  seed,  and  called  it  sclerotium 

pop.  846,000.    About  half  the  land  is  arable,  and  elavus.  But  the  evidences  are  now  generally  re- 

tfae  ^ef  products  are  com,  tobacco,  hops,  seeds,  garded  as  conclusive  of  its  being  the  grain  itself, 

and  salt.  Great  numbers  of  cattle  are  also  raised,  diseased  and  deformed  by  the  iulucnce  of  a  para- 

and  mines  of  copper,  lead,  and  iron  are  worked  sitio  fungus,  attached  to  it  from  its  earliest  devel- 

in  the  drdes  of  Weissensee  and  Schleusingen.  opment.   This  fungus,  distinguishable  by  the  mi- 

Haxrafactories  of  iron,  cotton,  and  woollen  fab-  croscope,  has  been  detected  in  other  parts  of  the 

nea^  and  many  miicellaneous  articles,  are  nu-  plant;  and  the  white  dust  or  jr/>ori^/a  on  the  sur- 

meroofl. — ^Ebfubt,  the  capital  of  the   above  face  ofthe  ergot  will  engender  the  disease  in  other 

nofince,  and  of  Thuringia,  is  situated  on  the  plants  if  scattered  in  the  soil  at  their  roots  or 

Gcra,  about  midway  between  Gotha  and  Wei-  applied  to  the  grains. — ^Ergot  as  collected  for 

mar;  pop.  83,800.     It  was  formerly  a  city  of  medicinal  purposes  is  in  solid  grains  from  i  to  IJ- 

eoDsiderable  importance,  having  at  the  end  of  inches  long,  of  cellular  structure,  the  cells  con- 

the  16th  century  had  nearly  60,000  inhabitants,  taining  oily  particles.    Its  aqueous  Infusion  is 

It  is  a  fortress  of  the  2d  class,  and  derives  great  claret-coloreo,  has  an  acid  reaction,  and  possess- 

tfntegetical  importance  from  its  situation  on  the  es  the  peculiar  properties  of  the  substance.    It 

nulitary  high  road  of  central  Europe.    The  fort  was  early  used  in  medicine  to  expedite  parturi- 

of  Petersberg  within  the  walls,  and  the  citadel  of  tion  by  promoting  tlie  contraction  of  the  uterus. 

Cyriiksburg  without,  contribute  to  its  strength.  It  possesses  poisonous  qualities,  and  when  the 

Erfort  contains  14  places  for  Protestant  worship,  grain  contammated  with  it  has  been  employed 

MTcral  Roman  Catholic  churches,  and  a  syna-  in  making  bread,  as  has  sometimes  occurred  in 

gogae.   The  cathedral,  originally  a  fine  Gothic  France,  terrible  epidemics  have  followed  its  use. 

ttractore,  has  suffered  much  from  war,  but  has  ERIO  IX.  (according    to  some    historians 

been  repaired  by  the  kings  of  Prussia  within  the  VIII.),  king  of  Sweden,  called  after  his  death 

present  century.  It  contains  one  of  the  most  mas-  St.  Eric,  tiie  son  of   *^  a  good  and  wealthy 

■ve  bells  of  Germany,  called  Maria  Ohriosa,  yeoman "  (in  the  words  of  an  old  Swedish 

mdin  popular  parlance  5uMnmz,this  having  been  chronicle)  named  Jedward,  died  May  18,  1160. 

the  name  of  the  bell  melted  during  the  nre  in  His  mother  was  Cecilia,  sister  of  a  former 

1S91.  Of  the  many  convents  which  existed  here  king.    Bis  wife  was  Christina,  also  of  royal 

tiD  very  recently,  one  only  remains,  the  Ursuline  blood.    He  was  elected  to  the  throne  of  the 

mmery,  with  a  school  conducted  by  the  nuns.  Upper  Swedes,  or  as  it  was  called  the  *"*■  royal 

Tbe  fine^  modern  churches  are  the  ^ar/iMM;r-  chair  of  Upsal,"  in  1150;   and  was  the  first 

JtinMe  and  the  August inerl'irch^.    The  most  sovereign  in    Sweden  who  saw  Christianity 

iMeresting  religious  building  of  Erfurt  is  the  firmly  established  in  Upper  Sweden.    With  a 

Aogustinian   convent,  in  which  Luther  lived  view  to  the  spread  of  Christianity  he  undertook 

tat  several  years.    The  convent  is  now  used  by  a  crusade  against  the  heathens  of  Finland ;  and 

dbe  MartinMtift  as  an  asylum  for  orphans  and  by  transplanting  Swedish  colonists  thither,  laid 

fcr  odier  charitable  purposes.    Luther^s  cell  is  the  foundation  ofthe  conquest  of  that  country. 

wdl  preserved,  and  contains  his  portrait,  Bible,  On  his  return  to  Upsal,  he  was  attacked  by 

■id  other  relics.     The  university,  opened  in  a  Danish  prince,  Magnus  Ilenrikson,  and  in  tho 

1S9S,  and  once  the  4th  in  Germany,  was  closed  battle  that  followed,  at  East  Artis  (modern  Up- 

ii  1816.    Tho  royal  academy  of  popular  sci-  sal),  he  fell  covered  with  wounds.    His  virtues 

Meet  is  remarkable  for  its  extensive  library,  and  the  austerity  of  his  life  procured  him  tho 

Tha  congress  of  Erfurt  (Sept.  27  to  Oct  14,  reputation  of  a  saint ;  but  he  was  never  canon- 

U06)  was  attended  by  Napoleon,  Alexander  ized.    His  rule,  which  at  first  extended  only 

€f  Roana,  and  many  German  sovereigns.    In  over  Sweden  proper  (or  Upper  Sweden),  sub- 

1818  the  town  was  taken  by  the  Prussians,  sequently  embraced  Gothland  (Lower  Sweden). 

after  a   bombardment   which  destroyed    188  The  effigy  of  St.  Eric  is  preserved  upon  tho  arms 

Inana.    From  Nov.  24,  1848,  to  Aug.  4,  1849,  of  the  city  of  Stockholm ;  and  his  remains,  long 

tiba  tofwn  was  placed  in  a  state  of  siege ;  and  in  the  objects  of  veneration,  are  in  the  cathedral 

Xarefa  and  April,  1850,  the  Unionsparlament^  of  UpsaL 


266                       ERIO  ERICSSON 

ERIC  XIV.,  kin^  of  Sweilcn,  tho  son  and  introdnco  tko  titles  of  baron  and  count  ict<: 

»uccosM>r  of  (f  untavii!*  Vasi,  bom  Doc.  13,  15;J3,  8we<lon. 

died  Fvl).  2i»,  1577.  Inyoiith  he  w(isdi!4tifif:ui!th-  EKICSSOy,  Jonx,  a  distinguished  invvntoi 

ed  for  liiH  haiulM)ino  ]>vr>4m,  hin  iiitoUigcnce,  and  en);inccr,  bom  in  theproTince  uf  Wenne- 

and  numerous  arooniiilishiiients ;  but  his  pas-  land,  Swollen,  in  18<»3.    The  son  of  a  minins 

•iuuHto  aiid  su^iiii'iouH  di:«iH)!tition  and  iminoder-  proprietor,  his  earliest  impressions  were  derirej 

ate  iinlul^enrc  in  ploiisure,  earljr  awakened  tho  m)rn  the  engines  and  machinerj  of  the  niinM, 

apprehiii>ii>iisuf  hi;!  father.    Toward  his  broth-  In  1814  he  attraote<l  the  attention  of  the  oel<N 

ers  who  hud  U-eti  create<l  dukes  by  the  king  brated  Count  Platen,  the  intimate  friend  uf 

Jointly  witli  Iiiinsvlf,  with  tite  government  of  Bema<lotte,  and  being  appointed  a  cadet  in  th^ 

Certain  pntviueeit,  he  always  ontertaineil  feel-  engineers,  was  employed  as  a  niftU^r  at  tin 

ings  ttf  jejiluu.^y  and  hostility,    lie  Mureeded  to  grand  bhip  canal,  where  be  set  oat  the  work 

the  throne  in  loOn.  inheriting  from  his  father  for  more  than  600  soldiers.    In  1820  he  entered 

the  giMhi  will  of  hin  people,  a  full  treasury,  and  the  Swedish  army  as  an  ensign,  and  was  sooo 

a  pro*>perous  iind  liuppy  kingdom,  and  inaugu-  promoted  to  a  lieutenancy.    His  regiment  being 

rated  his  rei^n  by  exi»ending  what  soeme<l  to  stationed  in  the  northern  highlands,  where  an  afr- 

the  Swi-«les  inrredil'le  hunm  on  the  festivals  curate  government  surrey  was  in  progresa.Ehesp 

and  pageants  attending  his  con  mat  ion.    Gus-  son  surveyed  upward  of  50  miles  of  territory, 

tavus  liiul  >hi»rtly  before  his  death  inado  over-  detailed  maps  of  which,  executed  by  his  own 

ture^  of  marriage  to  £liz;ibeth  of  England  in  hands,  are  yet  in  the  archives  of  Sweden.    la 

behalf  of  hi.t  hju  ;  and  the  latter,  beside  keep-  1826  he  obtaininl  leave  of  absence  for  a  ria^it  to 

ing  alive  the>o  negotiations,   ui>ened  similar  England,  with  the  view  of  introducing  his  ia- 

ones  with  Mary,  queen  of  Scots,  the  princess  vention  of  a  tiamo  engine,  which  he  had  cxhib- 

Renee  of  Lorraine,  and  tlie  princess  of  Ilessc.  ited  in  a  machine  ojf  about  10  horse  power. 

He  avoided  tiie  emliarra><«niont  which  a  favor-  This  engine  did  not  meet  his  cz|)ectations.  and 

able  reply  to  his  several  otVers  might  have  caused  involved   heavy  expenditure,  which   indortd 

by  marrying  Katrina  Mansdotter,  tho  daugh-  him  to  resign  his  commission,  and  devcrte  him- 

ter  of  a  iH-tty  otlieer  of  his  guard •<,  whose  beauty  self  to  mechanical  pnrsnits.    Kamerona  invca- 

attraeted  his  ntitieo  as  Mio  was  (telling  fruits  tions  followed,  among  which  may  be  meniAoiMd 

in  the  market  place  of   StcK'khoIm.     Katrina  the  steam  lioiler  on  the  principle  of  artiScial 

seems  to  have  been  hineerely  attached  to  Eric,  drafY,  for  tho  introduction  of  which  EricMoo 

and  remainrd  true  to  him  amid  all  his  surceed-  Joined  the  established  mechanical  houw  i»f  Juh& 

ing  mi>i'i)r tunes.    During  nearly  his  whole  reign  Rraithwaite.    After  having  lieen  applied  to  n»> 

he  was  en:::t^-vd  in  wars  with  Denmark  and  merous  boilers  for  manufacturing  |)uqi«iae«  ia 

ridaii'l.  in  liie  i  onr>e  of  whi«-Ji  the  Swedes  ac-  London  with  sui'co<s.  effecting  a  gr^-at  i^rinx 

qiiirul  l'ri'!!i  the  latter  country  the  Haltie  prov-  of  fuel  and  di-iK'n^ng  niith  the  hugo  »m«.4e 

inci^iif  Ijvnnia  and  Kevil,  althou^di  at  great  stacks,  this  invention  wa**  aiipliml  tii  n:i«sy 

Ci»:*:  of  men  an<l  ini*nL-y,  \\}i4>!e  pruvinces  having  ]o(*i>mt>tion  on  the  LiveqKK»l  and  Manchi^<«r 

Iha'U  iK)M>}ii;]ate«i  t.>  hupply   the  army.     Tho  roil  way  in  the  fall  of  Is'Ji*.     The  dirt'Ctur*  Lad 

aiiintu>:t\  nt'  the  king  toward  hin  hn  it  hers  in-  offered  a  prize  fur  the  U-^it  hK<i»iniittve  «^nfi:J^, 

creaMtl   with   vvsir-,  and   finally  K-d  to  violent  and  within  7  weeks  of  the  time  of  trial  Eric*- 

me.i'^uri-o.    ,1tihn.  the  v!ile>t,  \\a<i  besieged  in  his  KUi   lieanl   of  tho  otfiT,   planned   an   rrr'&^« 

cattle  at  .\l'>i.  and  i-oiidenmi-d  to  a  long  im-  executed  the  working  drawings,  and  roir. pitted 

}iri««»itnu:it.  and  t!ie  t>:liiT<«  were  in  constant  tlie  machine.     The  li;:hte'»t  and  fa>ti^  t-r^xM 

ear  of  tJ.iir  li\i  *,     Erie  ;rradiuilly  MirreudiT*  d  started  on  this  (kcca-ion  wa*  the  No\tlty.  m  Lioi, 

hini'^if  t'l   a  «-:.re«T  of  t\r.inn\   imdi-r   which  gui«le<1  by  it-*  inventor  Eric^Sitn,  Mart«<d  t«!f  at 

the    wlio'.i*    kiii;:ili;ni    groani  •!.      A '-si-m nation  the  rate  of  /lo  miles  nn  hour.     The  prirrryit 

K-ranir  tViipit-ni,  and  nndt-r  the  intluence  of  (>f  artiticiul  draft,  which  chararteri/i-d  ll.i*  cc- 

the  T**yii\   t'.t\i>riie,  (n>ran  ]*ehr-M  n,  H>me   of  gini\  i"*  vet  ntaiueil  in  all  Ifnttmotive  r;v^nr«; 

the  oMr^t  ni»!>ilit\,  indudnij  tlir  .^ture  family,  but  a  ditVvn-nt  m<>ile  ctf  pnnlucim*  it  wa>  atvi' 

Wi-re   put   t'l    lUalh.      In    ih^'    m:d->t   of  theM*  dentally  di mm tviTrd  mi  !kO«itt  after  the  di^pla.*  tif 

C'Xc« HM">  he  w.i^  attai'LviI  I'V  a  tit  of  m:ulne«>s,  the  Ni'Velty.  that  tho  ontjinal  invt-ntor  lit-nicd 

the   I  !)V<-t    of  rtUixr^^*,   anil    for   MVond   tiays  no  athantage  froTii  it.     Thi*  llghtn^-^^  and  r«>«n- 

Wandefid  a!>:ii*   ;n   tlio  f>ir«  ^t.     Mi'*  oppri«>si-d  pactiiv^n  of  thin  toiler  h*d  to  many  niw  m\*. .-' 

brothir-*  J.'lin   a;.d  lliar'n"*  ha^in*:  al  length  cations  <if  ^tt•a^^  and  amon;r  othipk  tt»  Y^x^ 

ri-tn   in  r*  iKKii-t^  In*  man-hiil  tif  meet  them,  hon'si  con*i!ruriitin  of  a  «iteam  tire  rtijeine.  »hsf^ 

ai«d  a!'!«  r  a  ili^j-^rate  «i';.:!iit   w;i.*  ovt-rcume  wa«»  entirely  Micci-.-ful.     A   similar  riigir^*  i4 

and  I  jp*.  iTi  •!  in  I'lO**.     Hi*  wat  di|Hi<.od  hy  a*"l  greatt-r  powrr  ho  huh-M-ijuently  (tii;«trT.ctrd  ftc 

vl  tl.o    >>%iil.«.h  dtt :,   ai.il  alti-r  Iai:gi:i«!iing  U  the  king  i«f  Tru-MiL     Kor  thi*  inTenti>*b  be  r^ 

\va.-'«   Ki   ir:».  n,  w  uh  |Hii«iii,i4l  J.y  itiKt  i»f  his  Ceivvd  tin-  pri/*-  nu-ilal  of  tlie  m«^haiiii-«'  in»li- 

iTxti.ir    i'l.n,   who    hu'l    n;i'i ( t •Itil    to    the  tutt>  if  NiW   York.     In   }^^'.\  he  rt-dusx^  tp 

thri-:.!.     l:i   tin    lM-;»ii.nin^  of  l,i-»    ni^'u    Eric  prai'ti«v  hi^  long  clirri-hed  pn-j^vl  I'f  a  c*!.  ric 

diop!.i)«l  t  :i'  '.'v  ail'!  h  .^'i-Lit:'.-!-  -ki'.l.  and  mailo  enciJu*,  nn«l  siiSmittt'*!  the  ri-M:lt  t^*  ihc  «cuc* 

ikvir.il  j  y..  :••:'•  r\ !'  rii.<«  in  t!.«-  (i\ii  aul  icclf-  tilic  \ri>r!il  in  I.<*ndi>n.     The  in%«-ntit>n  cxriud 

sia-T..  .il  ^  •->•::. Mil  nt  nf  th*-  kii;,:  [•■in.     Hi-  was  vvry  ti-neral  iiit«'re«»t.  and  hrturv*  m«rv  dcIi** 

a  paiiL'U  if  uti  ikwX  dciitici,  and  wa»  the  lir>t  to  ered  iu  explanation  and  illu»trati«w  uf  its  pnn- 


ERICSSON  EBIDANUS                     267 

ciple  bj  Dr.  Lardner  and  by  Professor  Faraday,  caloric  engino  in  the  ship  Ericsson.  It  pro- 
Dr.  Andrew  Ure,  having  witnessed  its  per-  pelled  this  ship  of  2,000  tons  from  New  York 
ioriiiance,  was  liberal  and  daring  enough  to  say  to  Alexandria  on  the  Potomac,  in  very  rough 
that  the  Inyention  wonld  throw  the  *'*■  name  of  weather,  in  the  latter  part  of  Feb.  1853.  On 
hk  great  coantryman  James  Watt  into  the  this  trip  the  engines  were  in  operation  for  73 
■hftde.^  Sir  Richard  Phillips  records  that  he  hours  without  being  stopped  for  a  moment,  and 
MW  the  first  model  machine  of  5  horse  power  without  requiring  the  slightest  adjustment,  the 
vith  "  inexpressible  delight  ;^'  but  the  high  consumption  of  fuel  being  only  5  tons  in  24 
tenperatiue  so  affected  its  working  parts  that  hours.  At  Alexandria  she  was  visited  by  the 
it  WW  not  available  as  a  practical  machine,  president  and  president  elect,  the  heads  of  de- 
ErienoQ^fl  attention  was  next  directed  to  navi-  partments,  a  large  number  of  naval  officers, 
gatioD,  the  result  of  which  was  the  invention  and  many  members  of  both  houses  of  congress, 
of  the  propeller,  and  of  that  new  arrangement  and  subsequently  by  the  foreign  uiinisters  in  a 
of  the  steam  machinery  in  ships  of  war  which  body,  and  by  the  legislature  of  Virginia,  then 
has  revointionized  the  navies  of  the  world,  in  session.  Ericsson  was  invited  hy  a  commit- 
Erienon  sought  to  bring  these  inventions  to  tee  of  the  legislature  to  visit  Richmond  as  the 
the  fiiTorable  notice  of  me  British  admiralty,  guest  of  the  state.  The  secretary  of  the  navy 
md  was  listened  to  with  polite  but  incredulous  recommended,  in  a  special  communication  to 
ittentioii.  He  took  their  lordships  on  a  trial  congress,  the  passage  of  a  resolution  author- 
trip  in  a  vessel  constructed  with  his  new  pro-  izing  him  to  contract  for  the  construction  of  a 
peUer,  bnt  he  could  not  induce  them  to  believe  frigate  of  2,000  tons  to  be  equipped  with  calorio 
what  the  J  saw.  He  found  a  more  confiding  lis-  engines,  and  to  appropriate  for  this  purpose 
tHier  in  Capt.  R.  F.  Stockton  of  tbe  U.  S.  navy^  $500,000.  This  recommendation  failed  in  con- 
hf  whose  influence  with  the  administration  oi  sequence  of  the  pressure  of  business  at  the  close 
ttsft  time  at  Washington,  he  was  placed  in  a  of  the  session.  But  notwithstanding  the  surprise 
poation  to  carry  out  his  plans.  In  1839  Erics-  and  admiration  that  this  achievement  excited  in 
son  esme  to  New  York.  In  1841  he  was  em-  the  scientific  world,  the  speed  attained  was  not 
ployed  in  the  construction  of  the  U.  S.  ship  of  sufficient  to  meet  the  practical  exigencies  of 
war  PHnceton,  on  the  very  plan  which  had  commerce ;  and  the  repetition  of  the  engines  on 
heen  received  with  such  indifference  by  the  this  large  scale  could  not  be  undertaken  at  the 
British  admiralty.  She  was  the  first  steamship  charge  of  individuals.  In  the  midst  of  numerous 
tm  bnilt  with  the  propelling  machinery  under  mechanical  pursuits,  Ericsson  has  since  devoted 
tiie  water  line  and  out  of  the  reach  of  shot,  himself  to  perfecting  the  caloric  engine.  Step  by 
Mr.  Mallory  of  Florida  asserted,  in  a  recent  de-  step  he  has  been  advancing  to  admitted  success, 
bate  in  the  senate  of  the  United  States,  that  has  developed  his  invention  in  machines  with  cy- 
the  IVinc^ton  was  the  foundation  of  the  present  lindcrs  varying  from  a  diameter  of  6  mches  to 
Mflsm  marine  of  the  whole  world :  and  that,  one  of  82  inches,  and  is  still  engaged  in  adapting 
heieafter,  in  maritime  war,  those  who  send  it  to  all  the  various  uses  which  call  for  it.  It  is 
■iling  vessels  to  sea,  send  them  but  to  be  cap-  now  applied  to  purposes  of  pumping,  printing, 
tiled.  The  Princeton  was  distinguished  for  hoisting,  grinding,  sawing,  turning  light  machin- 
nmerons  mechanical  novelties  beside  the  pro-  cry  of  various  kinds,  working  telegraphic  in- 
fcQer ;  among  which  were  a  direct-acting  steam  struments  and  sewing  nuichincs,  and  propelling 
Mine  of  great  simplicity,  the  sliding  telescope  boats.  More  than  200  of  these  engines  are  in 
dnmney,  and  gun  carriages  with  machinery  for  successful  operation.  Tlie  extent  of  power  at- 
•hedung  the  recoil  of  the  gun.  In  the  U.  S.  tainable  has  not  been  ascertained.  Ericsson  still 
firinon  of  the  industrial  exhibition  of  all  na-  labors  with  the  vigor  and  enthusiasm  of  boy  hood. 
tioDS  in  London  in  1851,  Ericsson  exhibited  the  While  engaged  in  carrying  out  his  inventions.  It 
iatance  instrument,  for  measuring  distances  at  is  a  conmion  thing  for  him  to  pass  16  hours  a  day 
isa;  the  hydrostatic  gauge  for  measuring  the  at  his  table,  in  the  execution  of  detailed  mcchan- 
Tolnme  of  fluids  under  pressure;  the  recipro-  icol  drawings,  which  he  throws  off  with  a  facility 
fluid  meter  for  measuring  the  quantity  of  and  in  a  style  that  have  probably  never  been  sur- 
which  passes  through  pipes  during  defi-  passed.  (See  also  Atmosphebio  Engine.) 
periods ;  the  alarm  barometer ;  the  pyro-  ERIDANUS,  the  Greek  name  of  a  largo 
'j  intended  as  a  standard  measure  of  tern-  northern  river  which  .^Ischylus  confounded 
ire  from  the  freezing  point  of  water  up  to  with  the  Rhone,  but  which  later  writers  made 
melting  point  of  iron ;  a  rotary  fluid  meter,  identical  with  the  Roman  Padus,  or  modem  Po, 
principle  of  which  is  the  measurement  of  the  chief  river  of  N.  Italy.  According  to  Ue- 
'  by  tho  velocity  with  which  they  pass  siod  and  the  tragic  poets,  PhaSton,  son  of  Heli- 
fa  apertures  of  definite  dimensions ;  and  os,  in  a  futile  attempt  to  guide  the  chariot  of  his 
lead,  contrived  for  taking  soundings  at  father,  was  struck  with  a  thunderbolt  by  Jupi- 
withont  rounding  tho  vessel  to  the  wind,  ter,  and  fell  into  this  river.  His  sisters,  the  He- 
Independently  of  the  length  of  the  lead  lino,  liadsd,  were  changed  into  poplar  trees,  and  their 
these  he  received  tho  prize  medal  of  the  tears  into  amber,  for  which  this  river  was  chief- 
cddlntion.  In  1852  he  was  made  knight  of  the  ly  famous.  The  name  was  also  given  to  a  river 
of  Yaaa  by  King  Oscar  of  Sweden.  In  of  Attica,  which  flowed  into  the  Ilissus,  near 
year  he  brought  out  a  new  form  of  Athens. 


268  £RI£ 

ERIE,  the  nnmo  of  conntics  in  3  of  the  Fnitcd  tho  principal  ports  on  the  lake,  and  the  onl  j 
Btati'!*.  I.  A  W.  CO.  of  X.  Y.,  bonlcring  on  import^int  one  bolonfring  to  Penn^rlvania.  The 
Ijiko  Erit'.  lif>an(lo4l  N.  by  tlio  Toni'wamla  and  city  fitjind^  \i|M>n  an  clcvatiHl  blulf  coininandinf 
8.  by  t!itf  Oittarnu^iw  (Tcck ;  area,  about  1>50  s<].  a  fine  view  of  the  lake  and  harbor.  The  ttnecU 
m. .  IX ip.  in  iNM.  152.407.  It  is*  drained  and  are  brooil  and  regularly  laid  out  at  right  aDgi<«i 
Fupplivil  with  water  fKiwcr  by  DufTulo  creek  and  near  the  centre  of  the  city  is  a  large  and 
and  M-Vi-ral  othor  Miiall  streumH.  In  tho  X.  beautiful  park.  Tho  custom  hou^  and  pott 
]tart  tlie  •>iirfa<v  in  undulating,  and  tho  K)il  well  office  occupy  a  handsome  marble  stnictare« 
adapted  to  grain;  in  the  S.  it  in  hilly,  and  hero  which  coftt  about  $100,000.  There  arv  19 
the  lan<l  i>  nmre  suitable  for  grazing.  Wheat,  cliurchen,  2  very  largo  first  class  hoteK  a  door- 
oats  and  grit-it  are  the  Maplen.  The  produc-  ishing  academy,  a  public  library,  7  newspapiffi^ 
tiuns  in  K»o  were  2>C>.7!2t»  bushelsi  of  wheat,  a  bank  and  numerous  banking  oflBcvA,  several 
T24,7(7  fif  i>at-<,  4><3.2*2S  of  Indian  com,  V8.011  largo  flouring  mills,  factories  of  various  kind^ 
tons  of  hay,  l,sr.ri,i32  lbs.  of  butter,  and  2,03*<,-  and  2  exteniiivo  founderies  and  machine  shop^ 
81(2  of  ^hcvM.^  There  were  3  munufactoriv!*  of  at  one  of  which  railnmd  cars  are  mannfactnrra. 
agricultural  implements,  0  furnaces,  9  m'oollen  Tlie  public  K-hools  are  among  the  best  in  the 
milK  4:i  gri-t  mills,  151  miw  mills,  31  news-  state.  A  heavy  trade  in  coal,  lumber,  and  stavct 
j»aper  othres  155  ehurcho^  and  309  scluwl  is  carrietl  on,  which  gives  employment  to  a  laf|g« 
Loi:m-4.  Iron  ore,  limestone,  brick  clay,  and  nnml»er  of  vessels  and  men.  Large  quantities 
wut«r  Cement  are  foiutd  in  considerable  ({uan-  of  whitefish  and  luko  trout  are  caught  and  shii^ 
titles.  The  cnunty  is  travers<*d  by  G  railroads,  ped  from  this  i>oint.  They  are  taken  with  ciu> 
and  by  the  Erie  canal,  which  connects  with  nets  in  deep  water  a  few  miles  N.  of  the  harbor. 
Kiagnra  river  at  IMack  K<Krk,  and  has  its  ter-  Tho  Lake  Shore  railroad  paves  thnmgh  the  city, 
minus  at  Huir:d(»,  the  (H)uiity  seat.  Organized  The  Sun  bury  and  Erio  railroad,  which  connect! 
in  1^21,  and  nainv<l  from  Ijike  Erie.  II.  A  co.  Erie  with  Philadelphia,  and  which  (June.  1^) 
of  reim.,  fonuing  the  X.  W.  extremity  of  tho  is  rapidly  ai>proaching  completion,  and  the 
Ftate.  Intnleriiig  on  New  York,  Ohio,  and  Lako  and  rittsburg  railroad,  part  of  which  is  in 


iliv".     lu   !»»"•»  tho  pPKluctions  were  433,»»«j2  tnms  conte^^t  in  1>*53,  '54,  and  \Vi  with  tlkv  riil- 

lU-hel'i  <if  Indian  eurn,  147,>^25  of  wheat,  433,-  rouds«  known  at  the  **  Erie  railroad  war."     Erie 

V*»5  «»f  o:i!'».  171,.S55  of  potatoes  r»'i,422  t<»ns  of  Is  ineluded  in  the  colleeti<tn  district  of  Prt^iae 

hay.  2'»2.*^»3  Ib-J.  of  butter.  :aid  ."33,74>*  of  ma-  l>le,  the  foreiirn  commerce  of  mhieh  for  they 


Erie ;  area,  74 o  <n|.  m. ;  |K»r».  in  1H50,  38,742.  ning  order,  have  their  termini  here ;  and  a  Itna 

^Vith  the  exreption  <'f  a  high  ridge,  several  called  the  Erio  city  railroad,  an  extem^iun  of  the 

miles  diotjiiit  from  the  lake,  and  running  nearly  New  York  and  Eric  railroad,  lias  Itven  projected. 

paralKl  uith  its  ^hore,  the  hurface  is  generally  Erie  is  ct>nnected  with  the  Ohio  nver  by  the 

rolling  anil  wvll  waterwl.     Its  N>il  is  clayey,  Erio  exten^on  of  the  Pennsylvania  canaL    The 

and  iu  t be  S.  pjirt  produces  giHHlcn>p<i  of  grain,  town  po^<te^ses  great  commercial  a^lvantijee^ 

The  S.  |Miriiitii<«  of  the  county  are  mainly  oi^cu-  and  will  probably  ere  b»ng  Ih*  the  3<!  in  M/e  and 

pied  by  ]  a^tiire  ]and>i.     lirain,  potatoes,  maplo  imfHtrtance   in  Pennnylvani.u     It  wouM   have 

iiu;:ar.  IiiiuIm  r.  and  duirv  priMlure  are  the  Ma*  (K'cupied  this  po-^ition  alreadr,  but  fiT  a  di 

I 

4 

pie  Mi;:ar.     Tlure  wi  ro  57  <hur<he«*.  5  news-  ending  June  3i),  1A5M,  was  as  follows :  value  of 

paper  otliee-*.  uud  *.i.343  pupili  attending  public  exjMirts,  |4l».iriO;  of  imports  fl.**-**' ;  entran***^ 

beh'xiN.     Iri»:i  is  the   prinrip;d  mineral:  Hlaie  73  wsm-Is  of  11,403  tims;  clearanci'^  74  Tr^«ck 

and  hand>tono   underlie  murh  of  the  Mirfnre.  of  1 0,305  tons.    The  enn»lle<i  and  rnvn-«»'«l  t.^o- 

FiTnunl   in   1  **••<».  ar.il  nainisl  fr»»m  Ijike  Erie,  nnce  «»f  the  di*trict  was  7,744.     In  17!H  <«a. 

wbiili  fi»nn-*  it-i  entire  N.  W.  iNiundury.     Cap-  "Wayne,  when  on  hiaway  to  the  Mai:rne**.  c»t.tb" 

it.-il,  Kri.\     III.  .V  \.  Ci*.  of  Ohio,  iHinlering  on  limbed  a  garrison  here;  an«l  on  hiart-tnm  :n  17H 

Lake  Kri«'  h'kI  SaniIu^ky  bay  :  are.i.  250  !i«|.  ni. ;  he  died  in  a  small  b»g  cabin,  and  wiu»  buried  rt 

jNip.  in  Iv.o.  ls,5r,s.     It  i^  draine<l  by  IIun>n  tho  f»»ol  of  the  flag-staff.     Hi*  remain*  i»er*r*- 

and  Wrmil  •-:»  rivrr*,  and  cro-^iil  by  h<*ver:d  moveil  by  his  nm  in  l^f^^  and  taktn  tti  Iwia- 

railroai!*.     N».:r  Hunm  river  are  SiVond  an-  ware  county.     Tlte  mo^l  prominent  evirt  ji  ilia 

ciii;:  I'lii-.ndn  ui'A  en<lii»ureN  an^l  at  SjUidu!»ky  hi>tory  t«f  Krie  was  the  I'Uilding  and  <*•;■•  ^rfi^f 

are  ♦•Mtn»i\o  .jiiarrit-i  of  \aIiiablo  Iinu*itone.  of  Perrv's  fliet  during  iIk«  war  of  I'^li-'IS. 
llje  ^u^fa^  e  :■*  p  :.*  rdly  b-vi  1,  t!ie  m/jI  alluvial         EKIK  I.akk,  tbe  m*M  Miutlienn-f  the '«  jr 


and  %  \e<  i-«!Mi;:)y  frrfilo.     (train.  Iniy,  w<h>].  but-  lake^of  tbe  N.  Vnite^l  States  and  •>(  O.naitx  srid 

t«T.  ar.'l  frtiitH  uw  t!.i«  ibicf  Maple*.     In  1^58  tbf  b»we>t  of  the  ehain,  eH'^pt  lake  Or.tAr-\ 

the  pri!.eij.;tl  priM'iirtion'*  Were  «•« '1.713  ItNlieU  wbieli  lies  IhIow  it  to  the  N.  K.     T!.«'  Nfictlarr 

<'f  h  'li-iM  o-rn.  and  11>.1?1  of  wheat.     Capital,  line  In-twe^'n  the  two  rountrie*  pA*-**  Ihm^itf^ 

Sainbi-ky  i.':*}.  the>e  wutt-rt.     li«»th  t)te  Ukisr.aiiK"*!  lie  near,  r 

KKIIl.  a  I  i'y  and  the  *o.it  of  jriMice  of  Erio  in  the  extrn-ion  of  the  line  of  the   r.^tr  Sc 

CO..  I\iiii..  oitri.'itril  on   Ijike  Erie,  nearly  Uiid-  Ijiwreneo,  the  tuitlet  of  all  tin  "^' l***!!***!^?  frr^ih 

way  \m  t»i  t  n  ItuiVulo  and  I'bvtUnd.  on  one  of  watt-r.     The  mean  len^^th  t*f  Ijike  Erie  i«  r^ti> 

the  l\::*  <  l.nrUtTH  on  the  lake-,   Pn'*-i|ue  Nle  mated  nt  240  ni. :  in*  an  briailth.  4"  iiv  ;  rUva- 

bay,   ni-.ir'y    5  in.  b •:!;:,  and  ov«r  half  a  mi!c  ti^-n  ab«*ve  tlie  K-vcl  of  the  •>«•»,  *»'»"i  fvrt .  ar«-^ 

wiiJe;  i-ip.  i:i  1M«».  o.412;  in  l^S".  7.2l»0;  in  •.♦.♦•■••»  -i-  m.     It*  Mirfjue  i-  HXl  ftel  a^•«»**•  l^.A^ 

1^5'.^  bctwei'Q  }\J^wO  and  12,iKM.^    It  b  one  of  of  Lake  Ontario,  this  great  descent  betc^  maKW 


•  ERIE  269 

in  the  Niagara  river,  wLicli  connects  the  two  forming  a  terrace,  the  height  of  which  at  Geve- 

UkeA.     The  form  of  the  lake  is  not  very  irregu-  land  is  103  feet  above  the  water.    Owiug  to  the 

lar,  its  nmTimnTn  length  exceeding  the  mean  by  shallowness  of  the  lake,  it  is  readily  disturbed 

only  abont  15  m.,  and  the  breadth  varying  from  by  the  wind ;  and  for  tliis  reason,  and  for  its 

80  to  60  m.    Its  western  extremity  receives  paucity  of  good  harbors,  it  has  the  reputation  of 

from  the  N.  the  waters  of  the  upper  lakes,  being  the  most  dangerous  to  navigate  of  any  of 

dischafged  by  the  Detroit  river.    At  this  ex-  the  great  lakes.    Long  continued  storms,  with 

trcmity  are  many  islands  clustered  together,  the  wind  setting  from  one  extremity  of  the  lake 

the  lai^est  one  abont  14  m.  in  circumference,  toward  the  other,  produce  disastrous  effects  upon 

Thej  are  well  wooded,  with  a  fertile  soil  de-  the  land  to  leeward  by  the  piling  up  of  the  wa- 

rived  from  the  limestone  rocks  of  which  they  ters.    From  this  cause  the  city  of  Buffalo  at  the 

are  composed,  and  to  some  extent  they  are  foot  of  the  lake  has  suffered  serious  damage  in  its 

under  cultivation.    The  pecidiar  features  of  lower  portions.   The  return  of  the  waters  after 

Like  Erie  are  its  shallowness  and  the  clayey  na-  the  storm  lias  in  some  instances  been  so  rapid, 

tore  of  its  shores.     While  Lakes  Huron  and  when  driven  along  by  a  wind  setting  in  the 

Midblpin  present  a  marimnm  depth  of  1,800  same  direction,  that  powerful  currents  are  pro- 

fset,  Lake  Superior  a  mean  depth  of  900,  and  duced.    In  Oct.  1833,  a  current  thus  caused 

Like  Ontario  of  500  feet,  the  maximum  sound-  burst  a  passage  through  the  peninsula  on  the 

lage  in  Lake  Erie,  except  near  its  lower  end,  N.  coast  called  Long  Point,  and  excavated  a 

nr^  exceed  120  feet.     The  U.  S.  engineers  channel  more  than  9  feet  deep  and  900  feet 

fMmd  8  divisions  in  the  floor  of  the  lake,  of  in-  wide.    The  natural  harbors  aroundjthe  lake  are 

rniMinfl,  depth  toward  the  outlet.    The  upper  few,  and  these  have  required  artificial  improve- 

portioD,  above  Point  Pellee  island,  has  a  level  ment.    They  are  generally  at  the  mouths  of 

Dottom  with  an  average  depth  of  30  feet.    The  the  small  rivers  which  flow  into  the  lake,  the 

anddle  portion  takes  in  the  principal  part  of  channels  of  which  are  carried  far  out  into  the 

the  lake,  extending  to  Long  Point    The  bottom  lake  by  piers,  constructed  on  one  or  both  sides. 

il  here  level  also,  and  from  60  to  70  feet  below  Erie  in  Pennsylvania  has  a  large  natural  harbor, 

tiie  sor&oe.    Below  Long  Point  the  depth  varies  formerly  known  as  that  of  Presque  Isle,  which 

from  60  to  2i0  feet.   Its  bottom  is  a  light  clayey  has  been  protected  by  a  breidcwater.     The 

lediment,  which  rapidly  accumulates,  as  noticed  principal  harbors  on  the  8.  side  are  those  of 

in  the  account  of  the  diving  operations  for  Cleveland,  Sandusky  City,  and  Toledo.    On  the 

tbe  recovery  of  the  safe  of  the  steamer  Atlan-  K.  shore  there  is  a  harbor  called  Port  Mait- 

tie.    (See  Divixo.)     The  material  is  derived  land,  at  the  entrance  of  Grand  river  near  the 

from  the  wearing  away  of  the  strata  that  com-  E.  end  of  the  lake,  and  this  river  is  navigablo 

pose  Its  shores.    On  the  S.  side,  from  the  mouth  for  small  vessels  for  some  distance.    Other  har- 

ef  the  Cattaraugus  in  New  York,  near  the  E.  bors  on  the  same  side  are  Ports  Dover,  Burwell, 

otremity  of  the  lake,  through  the  strip  on  its  and  Stanley ;  the  last  the  most  important,  as  tho 

eoiit  belonging  to  Pennsylvania,  and  almost  to  port  of  the  productive  region  of  this  portion  of 

fitadnsl^  in  Ohio,  the  rock  formations  are  the  Canada.  Lake  Erie  drains  but  a  narrow  margin 

Fortage  and  Chemung  groups  of  the  New  York  of  country  around  it,  and  receives  no  rivers  of 

tp^bODj  a  series  of  easily  disintegrated  blue,  importance.    The  Manmee  is  tho  largest  on  the 

gray,  and  olive  shales,  associated  with  beds  of  American  side,  entering  the  lake  at  its  S.W.  ex- 

paj  sandstone.    Tho  western  extremity  and  tremity,  its  course  being  nearly  on  the  extended 

vbole  N.  coast  is  made  up  of  the  limestones  line  of  the  river  St.  Lawrence  and  the  two  lakes 

of  the  Helderberg  group,  which  by  their  do-  Ontario  and  Erie.    Sandusky  river,  further  E. 

eonmosition  form  a  clayey  and  muddy  soU.  in  Ohio,  rises  about  GO  m.  to  the  S.  of  the  lake ; 

Seautonea,  too,  are  associated  with  these.  Both  but  more  to  tho  R  the  rise  of  the  surface  to  the 

rides  thus  furnish  the  materials  for  sediments  of  N.  reaches  nearly  to  the  lake  shore,  determining 

a  aatore  to  be  readily  distributed  throughout  the  drainage  in  the  opposite  direction,  which  is 

the  lake.    Along  the  coast  tho  loosely  aggre-  that  of  the  general  slope  of  the  strata.    The 

oted  products  of  the  disintegrated  strata  are  lake  was  early  navigated  by  sailing  vessels 

Deqaently  seen  forming  high  cliffs,  which  ex-  bmlt  upon  its  shores.    As  many  as  7  steamers 

tnd  back  into  elevated  plateaus.    Tho  rivers  were  running  upon  it  in  1830,  and  not  long 

at  deep  channels  through  these,  discharging  afterward  it  became  the  great  thoroughfare  of 

dbe  excavated  matters  into  tho  lake.    The  un-  travel  between    New  York  and  the  N.  W. 

dflfgroond  water  courses  penetrate  through  the  states,  the  steamboat  lines  running  from  Buffa- 

htm  of  the  cliffs  and  undermine  them,  and  the  lo  to  Chicago.    Tho  construction  of  railroads, 

vafiea  aid  to  break  them  down.    Slides  are  of  upon  which  travel  is  more  direct  and  uninter- 

freqnent  occnrrenco.    The  water  takes  up  the  rupted  in  winter,  has  caused  these  lines  to  be 

•iiflij  materials,  and  is  rendered  turbid  by  disused.    Tlie  lake  is  usually  closed  to  nav- 

ftam  a  long  way  out  from  the  land.    This  may  igation  in  the  early  part  of  December,  and 

Ba  aecn  on  both  sides  the  lake ;    and  about  continues  more  or  less  frozen  over  till  March 

Obveland  in  Ohio,  the  wearing  back  of  the  or  April.    In  the  season  of  navigation  an  im- 

•oirt  fine  has  been  particularly  remarked.    For  mense  amount  of  transportation  is  done  upon 

40  BL,  extending  E.  to  Fairport,  the  shores  are  it,  and  its  commerce  nas  been  estimated  to 

if  tbis  character,  the  stratified  days  and  sand  amount  to  the  annual  value  of  $220,000,000» 


270  £RI£  * 

In  the  year  cndinf;  Jnno  80,  lft58,  there  were  nchooncr  Scorpion,  f^ai]ing  Mister  Cliamplin, 

built  at  tlic  Amorican  purt«  (in  the  lake  136  mounting;   1  long  24  and  1  SS-noand  cairoo- 

ve^!!<'l!« ;  and  on  JuIt  1  (»f  tlie  Mime  year  tlic  ado,  wtun  !ttatione<1  alieafl  of  the  Lawrence,  and 

repisteriMl  tonnage  of  tlie?*  ports  was  57,11 1  the  schooner  Ariel,  Lient.  Packet?,  of  4  short 

ton^.     On  tlio  American  Mde  there  are  26  light-  12-pounderH,  on  her  weather  bow.     The  brig 

hou!ies  and  lH.*acon.s  and  on  the  Canadian  sido  Caledonia,  Lieut.  Turner,  of  8  lon^;  24-poaiid- 

10.    Tlie  conmmiiication  with  I^ke  Ontario  is  er%  came  next  to  enfrage  the  Ilanltr.     Thm 

tlirouf^li  the  Welland  canal,  constructed  arro:»  Niagara.  Master  Comdt.  J.  D.  Elliott,  of  20  gTza% 

the  Canadian  peninsula.    The  fisheries  of  Lake  2  long  12s  and  18  32-iiouDd  carronadesc  cant 

Erie  are  of  little  imiMirtanco  compared  with  neit  to  engage  the  Queen  Charlotte.      TIm 

those  of  the  upiicr  laki'^  where  the  same  kinds  6omers  Sailing  Master  Almy,  S  long  12-Poiiad* 

of  fish  are  mf  ire  abundant  and  of  l>etter  quality,  ers ;    the    Porcupine,   acting   Sailing    jlai4cr 

Tlie  chief  varieties  taken  are  lake  trout  and  Senat,  1  long  d2-ponnder;  the  Tigrvss,  Lte«L 

vhitofi**h ;  other  varieties  are  sturgeon,  si^quit,  Conklin,  1  long  24-pounder ;  and  the  Trippc, 

muskelungo,  black  l)a.*«,  white  bass,  and  Oswego  Lieut.    Holdup,    afterward    Captun    ThomM 

bass,  several  s|)ecie8  of  pike,  &c. — Battlb  op  Holdup  Stevens,  1  long  82 -pounder,  wert  sC^ 

Laeb  Erik.    In  the  war  of  1812  lietween  the  tione<l  in  the  rear  to  engage  the  Lady  PreToit 

Uuitetl  States  and  Great  Britain,  the  naval  su-  and  Little  Belt.    In  all,  9  ves8ela»  monntiag  M 

periority  on  Lakes  Eric  and  Ontario  became  an  guns,  with  490  officers  and  men.  Of  the*^  9  tc^ 

object  of  nmch  moment  to  the  belligerents,  and  sels,  two  only,  the  Lawrence  and  Niagara,  ccnU 

eorres|>ouding  efforts  were  made  on  both  sides  to  be  considered  regular  veMels  of  war.     Tb« 

Bccure  it.    The  general  command  of  tlie  Ameri-  other*,  having  for  the  moat  part  been  bnSh  for 

can  naval  forces  in  these  lakes  was  held  by  Com-  commercial  purposes,  were  very  idigbt  and  with- 

nodore  Isaac  Chauncer,  who  was  employed  on  out  bulwarks.    The  guns  of  the  Amerioaaa  wtr« 

Lake  Ontario,  m'hile  the  immediate  command  seneraUy  of  heavier  calibre  than  those  of  th§ 

on  Lake  Erie  was  given  to  Master  Commandant  British  squadron,  though  they  were  9  fever  \m 

Oliver  Hazard  Perry  of  Rhode  Island,  who  at  number.    The  force  of  the  British  as  to  veij^ 

the  time  he  was  assigned  to  this  important  ser-  of  metal  has  been  variously  stated,  thoogb  all 

rice  was  only  27  years  <if  age.    A  eouadron  of  accounts  agree  as  to  the  vessels  and  the  nom- 

9  sail  was  e«iuii>|>ed  by  Perry  at  Erie.     Tho  ber  of  guns.    It  seems  beyond  doubt  that  thm 

cnemr  had  command  of  the  lake,  and  main-  tm*o  squadrons  were  of  nearly  eqnal  stren^tlL 

taine<i  a  close  blockade  of  the  port  while  the  Perr}'*s  line  was  formed  about  10  A.  M.,  wmi 

squailron  was  preimring  for  service,  and  had  it  lH)re  up  for  the  enemy  ;  the  Liwrence  be«r- 

they  l*ein  nion*  enteqirising  would  doubtless  ing  at  her  main  a  siiiiare  blue  flag,  upcm  vhic^ 

have  di^tnivi-*!  it  tn-fore  it  was  ready.     Early  irereihedyingwowof  Ijiwn-nce: '•lK»n'tg:Te 

in  Au^'.  1"^!:),  Perry  nmnngiMl  to  get  his  sqnad*  up  tho  hhiji.**    The  day  was  l<eantifnl  and  vrry 

rt»n  i»ut  of  tlio  iM»rt,  whirh  was  ctToctwl  with  bright,  and  the  lake  jivrfectly  smtH'th.     Tbi 

great  cliflitMilty :  ami  <m  tlte  muniing  of  Si*pt.  10,  American  sijuadnm  sti^'red  for  tlie  head  of  tht 

while  Ivii!;;  in  Put-in  K'ly,  A  hiirbtir  among  tho  Briti>h  lino,  ufxm  a  cimrsc  whirh  f<>nncd  an 

]<a-^  i«Iun<!s,  near  tho  W.  extremity  of  the  lake,  angle  of  alNiut  45^  with  it.     At  aUiUt  11  h.  45 

he  div*'>ViTrd  the  British  Npiadmn  in  theoflinc,  m.  the  I)etniit  ojK'ned  her  fire  U|M»n  tlic  Law* 

and  iiiiiiiediatfly  iiki'iit  i>ut  to  meet  it.     This  renco;  hi gnal  was  now  made  for  each  vessel  to 

s«iua(lri>n  rim-ioii'd  nf  C  s:ii!,  ci>mmandi-<l  by  engage  her  dcMirnateil  fipjKtncnt,  and  in  a  few 

CoiiiiiKMhire  KiiIhtI  Ileriiit  BorrlAy,  an  otlic^T  minutes  tho  act  inn  with  the  leading  veueU  b^ 

of  exiK-riein'e,  w!io  liail  si-rvi<l  ui.der  Nolf»on  at  came  genind  and  ex t namely  K-ver**.     The  Brit* 

TrafjJjar.    A-^  the  Anieriraitji  ^t«H>d  out,  it  was  ish  fire  »<vn>s  to  liave  bei-n  at  fir^t  principally 

diM'>iv«rfi1  that  the  enemy  had  hnvo  t<>  on  tho  directed  ufNin  the  I^wn-nce.  whirh  ^inffvrvd  tcr* 

{Hirt  tai-k  in  Hnininart  line  aliood,  the  wind  light  ribly.     At  2  h.  3n  m.,  <iut  of  loi  jH-nont  who 

fnnii  tJie  S.  E    The  British  line  was  com{NiM.Hl  conij-osi-tl  the  complement  t»f  tliat  m-*^  wbcfl 

as  f«'ll<»»  -  :  Tlie  P«'ho«»niT  l'hii«|»oway.  of  1  L»ng  she  went  into  lu^t inn,  there  were  only  In.  Inclod* 

9-iMi!:niKr;  the  tl.v  ^}l:p  I^-tniit.  (>f  19  pin<«,  ingPerry  himM'lf.  notdi!^Me«l;22ha«l  U<*€n  kfil- 

rnnrij.ally  Imi-.;;  24  and  12-iHMinder»;  the  brig  c<l,  CI  woundi-d,  nndevi-ry  gunrendeml  in«ffee- 

lunti-r,  (tf  10  pin^  of  li^rlit  nilibre.  prinripally  tivo  by  hh*it.     In  this  di**iKrnite  ciind:!:<'n  «/ 

h>ns  6  and  4-|M.iiiidi  rs  and  I'J-iMiund  carn»n-  hi*  own  ve*-el,  IVrry  deti-rminiil  to  ^h:ft  Kia 

»dvj»:  li.e  -hii,  i^iieru  Charlotte,   of  17  gn"S  fla;:  to  the  Nia*:Ara:  and  leaving  t!:o  I  jntyRoe 

l>»tij  I'Jo  and  *.*«  ai.d  24  piund  rammadi'^;  tho  in  cimmiaiidnf  l.ieiit.  Yaniall,  he  ^t.'v.te^  is  }^ 

K*hix>t:iT   I-a«!y  PreMM,  **f  V\  jnjn«>,  litujr  l*-*,  l^iat  fur  that  ve*M-l.  then  aUiut  half  a  m:>  to 

f^^  f\r:«l  12-jrf'niiil   earntnadi"* ;  (^liooner  Littlo  wii:dwiurd.     }l\^  p:Lv»age  t*»  her  m  as  a  f- r!l«*2f 

lk!t.  of  :•  iTiitiN  1  \"i\ii  I'JiNiundi-r  and  2  hm;*  one,  tlio  hlmt  falling;  tl/ukly  an^i.d  h;*  U  i;« 

6*;  III  all.  »j  ve'*'**-I%  ninuntin;;  tVJ  frun^  with  and  coverii;^  her  erew  wiili  ^I•ray.     T^r  I^w- 

B"2  •'iVnvr^  and   nun.     IVrrv    m  funm-d    hi-*  roiioe  rnr.tinueil  tn  l»o  the  main  t'bj«vt  ff  tho 

lint*  Ufi  t«»  bi'.iig  the  ht-aviiot  %•(  hi*  vi-i*tN  oj»-  etu-m\*!(tiri>.  and  U'ingre<hnH^I ti»a:xi»n«»r«rk, 

|N«iti'   t!i»'  hra\'K*<t  «»f  the  i-noniy.     StUctir.j;  was  n miKlltil  tn  ^t^lke  M<»n  af^i-r  Perry  l«ft 

tlie  :!.u"  "liip  iKtri-it  us  !»!•»  ar.ta;;"!.i-t,  he  t«H.k  lur.     Ijitt-r  in  the  erjL'atfeu.iriT,  hourvir.   Kif 

the  le:ul  in  the  luiwni.ro  bri,:  of  2«'  guns,  2  cnlurs  wvre  aguhi  h>>i!»tiih     A*  IVrry  rr.«wcd 

luu^   12»  and   \^  U2-j'OUDd  carrunade«^     Tho  tho  gangway  of   the   Niagara,  CapL   EUK<t 


ERIE  ERIGENA                      271 

Tolimteered  to  bring  up  the  small  vessels,  which,  vessels  as  conld  be  used  for  the  service,  codp* 
owing  to  the  lightness  of  the  wind,  and  their  erated  efficieutlj  with  Gen.  Harrison  by  trans- 
very  doll  sailmg,  had  as  yet  taken  but  little  porting  troops  and  stores.  Detroit,  which  hod 
part  in  the  engagement.  Perry  gladly  acceded  been  captured  by  the  British,  was  immediately 
to  this  proposition,  and  Elliott  inmiediately  left  evacuated,  and  the  whole  territory  of  Michigan 
the  Niagara  to  execute  it  At  this  moment  was  released  from  the  occupation  of  the  British 
she  was  about  500  yards  to  windward  of  the  army  and  from  the  horrors  of  an  Indian  warfare 
prindpal  force  of  the  enemy,  nearly  abeam  of  which  had  prevailed  there.  Congress  bestowed 
the  Detroit,  and  had  suffered  very  little.  Perry,  gold  medals  upon  Perry  and  Elliott  for  their 
ordering  the  signal  for  close  action  to  be  made,  conduct  in  the  action,  and  appropriate  rewards 
bore  up,  and  passed  through  the  enemy^s  line,  upon  the  officers  and  men  generally.  The  re-  , 
rakbig  for  some  time  at  close  quarters,  with  mains  of  the  officers  killed  in  the  battle  were 
destructive  effect,  the  Detroit  and  Queen  Char-  buried  at  Put-in-bay  island,  and  on  Sept.  10, 
ktte,  which  at  this  critical  moment  had  fouled  1858,  the  comer  stone  of  a  monument  in  com- 
ctch  other.  The  Caledonia,  and  the  smaller  memoration  of  the  victory,  and  in  honor  of 
vessels  which  had  now  come  up,  were  closely  the  dead,  was  laid  on  this  island  with  imposing 
*"g*g*"g  ^®  British  to  windward ;  and  their  ceremonies.  The  remmns  of  Perr^-^s  flag  ship 
vtaids  being  thus  under  a  heavy  cross  fire,  the  Lawrence  and  the  Niagara  are  sunk  in  the  K. 
Detroit^  Queen  Charlotte,  Lady  Prevost,  and  side  of  the  bay  at  Erie. 

Hanter  struck  at  3  o^clock,  their  colors  coming  ERIGENA,  Joiix  Scotus,  a  scholastic  phi- 
down  about  7  minutes  after  Perry  opened  his  losopher,  bom  near  the  beginning  of  the  9th 
fire  with  the  Niagara.  The  Chippeway  and  century,  in  one  of  the  British  isles,  history 
little  Belt  endeavored  to  escape  to  leeward,  does  not  determine  which.  His  name  Scotus 
but  were  pursued  by  the  Scorpion  and  Trippe,  is  supposed  to  favor  the  claim  of  Scotland  to 
to  which  vessels  they  surrendered  about  an  hour  have  given  him  birth,  and  Erigena  that  of  Ire- 
kter.  On  taking  possession  of  the  British  ves-  land ;  but  the  latter  is  the  more  probable,  espe- 
sds,  they  were  found  to  be  very  much  cut  to  cially  as  Ireland  was  the  original  seat  of  the 
pKees,  especially  the  Detroit  and  Queen  Char-  Scots.  The  same  obscurity  covers  the  last  years 
lotte.  Their  loss  was  41  killed,  including  the  gal-  of  his  life;  it  is  probable  that  ho  died  about  875, 
knt  Capt.  ilnnis  of  the  Queen  Charlotte,  and  but  whether  in  France  or  England  is  uncer- 
U  wounded,  9  of  whom  were  officers.  Commo-  tain.  The  most  learned  doctor  and  extraordi- 
dore  Barclay  was  carried  below  severely  wound  nary  thinker  of  his  time,  his  life  is  best  ex- 
ed  esriy  in  the  action,  but  soon  returned  to  his  plained  by  supposing  him  to  have  been 
deck,  where  he  remained  until  ho  received  an-  educated  in  Ireland,  where,  as  it  is  reported, 
other  serious  wound  by  a  grape  shot  in  the  right  a  colony  of  philosophers  ha^d  preserved  almost 
diodder.  Toward  the  close  of  the  action,  intact,  during  the  tumults  of  barbaric  inva- 
vhen  informed  that  further  resistance  was  im-  sion,  the  traditions  of  the  Alexandrian  school  of 
possible,  this  heroic  officer  caused  himself  to  philosophy  elsewhere  completely  lost.  Some 
be  sgun  carried  on  deck,  that  he  might  be  con-  old  anntdists  identified  him  with  another  John 
Tiooed  of  the  fact  by  personal  observation,  who  died  a  martyr,  by  which  confusion  Eri- 
The  American  vessels  also  suffered  severely,  gena  enjoyed,  in  some  localities,  the  honor  of 
Their  loss  was  27  killed,  including  Lieut.  John  saintship.  According  to  a  contemporary  writer, 
Brooks  and  Midshipman  Laub  of  &e  Lawrence,  Pmdentius,  bishop  of  Troyes,  he  was  not  a 
and  Midshipman  Clark  of  the  Scorpion.  Com-  priest,  and  belonged  to  no  religious  order.  He 
modore  Perry  bestowed  high  encomiums  in  his  passed  over  to  France,  to  the  court  of  Charles 
flAdal  report  upon  his  officers  and  men  gener-  the  Bald,  before  847,  where  he  was  placed  at 
alhr,  particularizing  Capt.  Elliott,  Lieuts.  Yar-  the  head  of  the  school  of  the  palace,  and  whero 
Biu,  Smith,  Edwards,  Turner,  and  Packet t ;  he  engaged  in  the  grave  religious  discussions  of 
CtpL  Brevoort  of  the  9th  infantry,  who  volun-  his  time,  concerning  grace  and  the  eucharist, 
tseced  for  duty  as  marine  officer ;  Sailing  Masters  and  in  sublime  philosophical  speculations  which 
X^jkxr  and  Champlin ;  Pursers  Hambleton  and  had  been  rare  sinc«  the  death  of  Proclus.  Tho 
MoGrath ;  Midshipmen  Forrest,  Laub,  Clark,  esteem  in  which  ho  was  held  is  shown  by  the 
Svartoot,  Webster,  and  Claxton.  The  greatest  double  task  which  the  king  imposed  upon  him, 
ittcntion  was  bestowed  upon  the  wounded  of  translating  into  Latin  the  Greek  works  of 
prisoners,  which  was  handsomely  acknowledged  tho  pseudo  Dionysius  tho  Areopagite,  and  of 
Bj  the  enemy,  and  a  lasting  friendship  sprang  composing  a  treatise  against  the  doctrines  of 
noil  this  occasion  between  Barclay  and  Perry.  GodeschaTc  or  Fulgentius  about  predestination. 
CSnmiodore  Barclay  subsequently,  on  a  public  He  says  in  one  of  his  works  that  he  feared 
in  Canada,  declared  that  *'  Perry's  neither  authority  nor  the  fury  of  unintelligent 
to  his  prisoners  alone  would  have  minds  enough  to  make  him  hesitate  to  de- 
him,''  and  gave  as  a  toast :  *'  Com-  claro  loudly  what  his  reason  made  evident  to 
Perry,  the  gallant  and  generous  enemy."  him,  and  his  writings  manifested  a  freedom 
results  of  the  action  were  highly  impor-  of  thought  and  a  philosophical  audacity  which 
The  American  naval  supremacy  on  the  quickly  alarmed  tnoso  who  had  invoked  his 
like  was  completely  established,  and  tho  U.  S.  aid.  lie  affirmed  tho  eucharist  to  be  a  remem- 
sfndnw,  together  with  such  of  tho  captured  brance  or  commemoration  of  the  sacrifice  upou 


272  ERIOMEIER  ERLACH 

the  crcH^:  and  in  finsworing  those  who  anni-  diflTorent  colors  of  the  ffpoctrnm ;  the  diainc-ter 

hiUtcd  tlic  troetlom  of  the  will,  he  elevated  of  these  circles  l>ein(;  pronortionate  to  tl.at  of 

the  niorul  nature  of  man  to  the  exclusion  of  the  ohiectA,  and  al.^o  to  tlie  distance  of  tbe«« 

the  et!ii*a(\v  nf  grace.    Ili^  vivws  were  con-  from  the  surface  upon  which  the  circles  are 

demniHl  l»y  the  cuunciU  of  Valencia  in  855,  and  formed.    The  instrument  is  thus  described  in 

of  LanfOVH  in  859,  and  Puih*  Nicholas  I.  de-  Brewster*s  ^^  Optics  *' :  *' It  is  formed  of  a  piec* 

mandvd  liisdisf^'uceof  CharK'stlteBald.    From  of  card  or  a  plate  of  hrani,  having  an  apertmv 

Uiis  jKtint  iiiforuiation  ctmceming  his  career  is  of  about  |\  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  io  the  centra 

cutirvly  wanting',  and  thtiugh  there  are  tradi-  of  a  circle  abont  i  inch  in  diameter,  and  per* 

tjons  of  liiH  huvint;  rvsideil  at  Oxftird,  it  is  not  forated  with  about  8  small  hole^.    The  fibres 

Certain  that  he  lv!\  France,  or  that  the  king  or  particles  to  be  measnretl  are  fixed  in  a  alkler ; 

oWved  the  mandate  uf  the  i>o|>e.    Many  of  his  ana  the  eriometer  being  placed  before  a  rtmof 

works  are  l<i>t,  including  the  treatii«es  De  Cor-  light,  and  the  ere  assisted  by  a  lens  ajiplied  be> 

port  tt  Siijj^uinc  hominiy  lit  Ymtme  Ihi  (ex-  hind  the  small  hole,  the  rings  of  ct>loni  will  b« 

cepting  an    unimiK>rtant    fragment),  and  IH  seen.    The  slider  must  be  then  drawn  oat  or 

EgrtMU  tt  lietjrtmki  Anima  ad  Ihum.    His  punhed  till  the  limit  of  the  first  red  and  gnca 

lno^t  iniiMirtont  work  remain;*,  Jte  DirUiont  Xa»  ring  (the  one  selected  by  I>r.  Young)  cuincidet 

furtp.  whicU  wa.4  tirst  Tmbli*«luHl  at  Oxford  in  with  the  circle  of  |>erforation%  and  the  index 

ICKl.  and  was  republished  in  1838,  with  notes  will  then  show  on  the  scale  the  sire  of  the  ptf- 

br  Schuter.  at  Munsler  in  Germany.    A  com-  tides  or  fibres." 

plete  ab<«tr!ict  of  it  is  given  in  Sharon  Tnmer*8        EKIVAN,  or  RrasiATC  Ansncna,  n  Tm^ 

*^  ilihtory  of  the  Anglo-Saxons."     It  contains  Caucasian  government  of  Rnssia,  divided  into  7 

all  bin  pIiiliKMiphy,  in  the  form  of  a  dialogue  circles,  bounded  N.  and  E.  by  Georgia,  S.  by 

between  master  and  pupil  u|H>n  the  nniverse,  Persia,  W.  by  Turkish  Armenia;   area,  aboot 

nature,  and  what  is  termed  that  grand  uni-  6,000  sq.  m. ;  pop.  about  410,000,  of  whom 

Ter»ulity  of  U*ing  which  embraces  at  once  God  120,000  are  nomaaic  and  gypey  tribes,  who  m 

and  man.    Tlie  human  intelligence  is,  accord-  all  Mohammedan,  while  the  rest  are  Armenians 

iug  to  him.  inhabited  by  emanations  fh)m  the  The  principal  river  is  the  Aras  or  Araxea.   Tbt 

divine  intelligence ;  our  ideas  are  pure  the  principal  mountain  is  Mt.  Ararat  in  the  amith. 

ophanies  or  manifestations  of  the  Creator  in  The  coimtry  b  rich  in  salt,  and  in  gold,  silver, 

his  creature.    He  divides  nature  into  4  catego-  and  other  minerals.    Although  the  gowrameat 

rivs:  1,  (iinl,  «ho  iiosiie«se<i  and  diffuses  life;  is  still  frequently  called  £ri  van,  after  its  Persian 

2,  the  tiT'^t  cauiies  or  eternal  ideas  by  which  name  Rewan,  its  more  recent  denominatioa 

he  ai'coinitli.xhes    his  work;    3,   the  sensible  is  Russian  Armenia. — Erivak.  the  fortified  caf  4- 

worM  of*  the  creation,  of  wliich  man  is  the  bum-  tal,  is  situated  on  the  Zenghi,  an  affluent  i< 

mit  :  4.  (unl  it*!  he  !»h:ill  l)e  fit  \ti>t  when  the  the  Aras,  40  m.  X.  E.  fmra  Mt.  Ararat,  and 

perfect!  d  wurM.  it-  destiny  ln-ing  uc<'()inpli>hed,  116  m.  S.  W.  from  TiHis;  jiop.  15.000.     It  is  tiM 

fihidi  ri-tnrn  Ut  him.     lie  Ki'ks  with  anxious  seat  of  an  Annenian  patriareh,  who  re^idi^  ia 

enthii*>i:i'*iii  to  |ihuv  the  world  An<l  man  in  the  a  monastery   in   the  vicinity,   h&.4  a  U-autiful 

bt)-^>ni  uf  t!ie  I>eity.  niul  to  roK*  them  with  di-  mostjue,  a  large  bazaar,  a  cannon  f<ium]rry,  asd 

\inity.      It   i-*   riinnrkuMe    that,   though    his  manufactories  of  monicco  leather  and  of  €^4t«^ 

writ  ink'-*  \i\t**n  « i'rU-.i:i^tlr:d  do;nnas  wt-n*  quirk-  fabrics.     It  is  ^tnlngIy  fortitii'd,  \^  a  station  for 

ly  ciin<Kinniil.  t!ti.re  wivi  no  mie  in  theUth  cen-  caravans  from  Titli?*  and  Erznrum,  and  hxt  cro- 

tury  eiihi-r  ut  court  or  in  the  church  able  to  siderable  trade  with  Turkey,  Tersia,  axid  HuflNA. 

nndtrMaiul  lii-i  iihiliiH4.|>lii(*al   views.     It  was  It  is  thonght  to  have  been  fuun«!e«l  by  ac  Ar- 

not  tiii  liio  loiii  century  that  the  council  uf  menian  king  in  the  lift  ciutury  of  oar  rn^  and 

PariodiM-iiverci]  their  {'iintltci^tic  character,  and  formerly  oi'cui'it^l  a  t^ite  nearly  one  mile  di<aDt 

Condi inntd    them.     AtVr  tho  barbarous  ages  fn»ni    its  Tire»ent    |M»iiion,   to   which   it   was 

whlt-h  iMlI'^wid  tlie  northern  inv:L<«iiin!(,  Eri^wia  transferreJ  in  1C35.    In  the  virinity.  un  a  b'Aj 

ro<^'  *>iiiliKn!y   t<>  the  lici^rlits  i^f  metAph^bics,  rock,  is  an  immense  oval  citaih-I,  and  tlte  rvm- 

undirttMik  t«i  ridinv   t!ie  C'hri>tian  fuith  to  a  nants  of  ruine<l  cities  are  found  in  the  MirrtMUi^ 

M*i(*ntitji'  '>\-!<ni.  un<l  f«iniuU-«l  the  philosophy  ing  rlain.     In  the  Iftth  century  it  l>ecaRie  the 

of  thr   nui]tl-f   i\jv^.     n«'  was   intimate  with  rt^iJence  of  the  Persian  kings  of  the  S»phuB 

Uk'  iih-a-  *'(  l*)<*titt;i»,  ]*nH*Iu4,  anil  the  (irei-k  dynasty.     Several  time?*  bcMep-d  and  ra{*t::r«d 

f:ith«-r-.  ii:.<l  ha-  l>i  i-n  ratikiil  a«i nt  oncf  the  I:L»t  by  the  Turks,  it  n'turne<l  vA\i\*r  Wr^'an  d<4cH 

€»f  thf  N\-'»  riattii.iftts,  aiid  the  lir-t  of  the  scho-  nation  about  the  middle  of  the  l**:h  ivr.turr.  Tb« 

ltt.-tii-.  Ru<«<inns  were  repnlM»«l  fn»m  it  i!i  1*^»<.  let  !«.w>k 

ilKIf  »MKTF.K  Mir.  tpiw^  wchiI.  and  n^rpop^  a  it  in  1S27,  and  tluirgineral  Pa>kevitt-h  ivrvtv^U 

inv:i-:irt  i.  :ih  i:i«;riin:fnt  inventi-d  by  I)r.  Thimias  the  surname  t»f  Eri%:m!*ki.    It  was  continued  lo 

Yo'in«»  :.ir  tit  tcrniini:!,;  t!»e  dinnutrn*  of  ili  !i-  the  Husmah^  by  treaty  in  the  f ''.Imiini:  j*ar. 
cutv  il'-f  «..  ii*  th«»M'  «f  wiM.l,  and  al^»  thedlam-         EKL.VCII,  a  di»trirt  in  the  S»i^  cai;t&fQ  «^ 

I'tiTs*  »»l'iniii'i:e  L'h'hulc^  ta*  tlt't-n*  <»f  the  lih-nl^  lU-m ;  jM.p.  C.^T't.     Itnchitf  t'»wn.  I'f  i!k?  •isnm 

dec.     !!•>  {  riitr:{>ie  tl«  jh  nd«  i\\*Ktu  t}:v  fac  t  t!iiit  nnme.  on  the  lakeof  Hienm*.  and  una  j^purof  :h« 

a  porti'ifi  (.f  the  ^l.atl'fw-*  cu'-t  by  tluM'  *n!;ill  Johmi»nt  ({m>i».  aN»nt  1,'»»<»),  contain*  t!.c casitU 

ohj«it-.   I'l.ii.  •!  ia  I'ri'iit  of  a  ^trunj:  li^'ht,  as-  of  Krlach,  the  cradle  »'f  tlie  noble  Swlw  faxa.Iv 

•uuivs  tile  I'vrm  of  concentric  cirelvs  of  the  of  that  name.    Many  of  its  munbvrs  went  ccni- 


EBLANGEK^  ERMINE                      278 

nent  genenia,  and  stnrdj  champions  of  the  lib-  '49  for  tho  patriotic  spirit  of  its  inhabitants,  and 

erties  of  Bern. — ^Rudolph  of  Eblach  achieved,  as  the  place  wlience  both  Dembinski  and  Gorgey 

Jolj  21, 1339,  a  brilliant  victorj  at  Lanpen  over  started  for  their  chief  campaigns  against  the 

the  count  of  Kjrdaa  and  his  allies.    He  was  as  Anstrians  nnder  Windischgrutz. 

geneitHis  as  he  was  brave,  and  became  the  tutor  ERMAN,  Paul,  a  professor  of  physical  science 

and  potectorof  his  enemy's  children.    He  was  at  Berlin,  born  in  1764,  died  Oct.  11, 1851,  offi- 

mardered  in  1860  by  his  son-in-law,  Jost  von  ciated  first  at  the  French  gymnasium  in  Berlin, 

Badfloi.  then  in  the  military  school,  and,  when  the  nni- 

ERLANGEK,  a  town  of  Bavaria,  in  tho  circle  versity  was  established,  at  the  latter  institution 

of  Upper  Franconia,  on  the  river  Regnitz,  on  until  his  death.    His  contributions  to  science 

the  nolway  from  Bamberg  to  Nuremberg,  and  embrace  a  wide  range  of  subjects,  and  more 

oa  the  Ludung9'£janal ;  pop.  11,000.    It  has  especially  magnetism  and  electricity.    Having 

a  fimoQS  university,  opened  Aug.  23,  1743.  been  for  some  time  the  academical  secretary 

which  is  the   only  Protestant  institution  of  for  tho  physical  sciences,  he  became  on  the  re- 

the  kind  in  Bavaria.     It  is  attended  on  an  organization  of  the  academy  joint  secretary, 

avcfage  by  about  500  students,  and  possesses  with  the  celebrated  astronomer  Encke,  of  both 

Realties  of  theology,  medicine,  &c.,  a  museum  the  physical  and  the  mathematical  class.    The 

of  natural  history,  a  botanic  garden,  and  a  li-  galvanic  prize  instituted  by  Napoleon  I.  was 

bcary  of  about  100,000  volumes.    Erlangen  is  awarded  to  him  by  the  French  academy  of 

renowned  among  German  towns  for  the  pleas-  sciences  in  1806.— -Gboro  Adolf,  son  of  tho 

aatDMS  and  cheerfulness  of  its  appearance.    It  is  preceding,  born  in  Berlin  in  1806,  pursued  at  the 

divided  into  an  old  and  new  town.    The  latter  is  university  the  study  of  natural  history,  which 

opeeially  well  built,  and  owes  its  origin  chiefly  he  afterward  continued  at  KOnigsberg  under  the 

to  French  Huguenots,  to  whom  it  was  assigned  instruction  of  Bessel,  whom  he  accompanied  to 

M  a  rendence  by  Margrave  Christian  Ernest  in  Munich  on  a  scientific  journey.    Between  1828 

1686,  after  the  revocation  of  the  edict  of  Nantes,  and  1830  he  performed  at  his  own  expense  a 

la  lemembrance  of  this  prince,  the  new  town  is  journey  round  the  world,  chiefly  with  the  object 

frequently  called  Chrbtian  Erlangen.   The  town  of  making  a  series  of  magnetic  observations, 

bat  manufactories  of  hosiery  and  gloves,  and  Hansteen,  who  hud  been  sent  by  the  Swedish 

aany  breweries.    A  monument,  designed  by  government  on  a  similar  expedition  to  western 

Sehwanthaler,  in  honor  of  Margrave  Frederic  Siberia,  was  his  fellow  traveller  as  far  as  Ir- 

of  Baireuth,  tho  founder  of  the  university,  kootsk.    Hero  the  two  savants  parted  company, 

adorns  the  public  square.    There  are  5  churches  Erman  proceeding  alone  to  Eamtcliatka,  whence 

in  the  town :  2  Lutheran,  1  Dutch  Reformed,  he  sailed  to  tho  Russian  colonies  in  America, 

1  French  Reformed,  and  1  Roman  Catholic.    A  and,  by  way  of  California,  Tahiti,  Cape  Horn, 

eoovention  of  German  naturalists  was  held  here  and   Rio  Janeiro,  returned  to  St.  Petersburg 

IB  1840,  and  of  German  philologists  and  orien-  and  Berlin.     A  description  of  his  journey  is 

tiliiU  in  18ol.  embodied  in  his  Reise  urn  die  Erde,  durch  Nord- 

EBLAU  (Hung.  Eg€r\  a  town  of  Hungary,  AsienunddUbeiden  Occane  in  den  Jahren  1S2S. 
Mpital  of  the  county  of  Heves,  situated  in  a  ^29,  vnd^ZO ausg^fuhrt^  in  einer  historischenund 
deep  and  charming  volley,  on  the  river  Erlau,  einer  phyMalischen  Ahth^ilung  dargentellt  (5 
ta  affluent  of  tho  Theiss ;  pop.  18,400,  chiefly  vols.  8vo.,  Ikriin,  1833-'48).  An  English  trans- 
Roman  Catholics  and  Magyars.  It  has  weekly  lation  of  a  portion  of  his  travels,  by  W.  D.  Coo- 
fuiii  linen  and  cloth  manufactories,  and  an  im-  ley,  entitled  **  Travels  in  Siberia,  including  Ex- 
portent  trade  in  wine,  Erlau  wine  being  the  cursions  Northward  down  tho  Obi  to  the  Polar 
Mt  red  wine  of  Hungary.    There  are  2  warm  Circle,  and  Southward  to  the  Chinese  Frontier," 

r'sgt  here,  much  resorted  to  for  diseases  of  appeared  in  London,  in  1848  (2  vols.  8vo.).    He 

skin.    The  town  has  4  suburbs  and  many  has  also  published  separate  works  on  tho  courses 

stately  public  buildings.     The  cathedral,  the  of  the  river  Obi  and  on  tho  animals  and  plants 

CMseopal  palace,  several  churches,  and  tlie  hos-  collected  by  him  on  his  journey,  and  has  con- 

Mtal  founded  bj  Eomuromy,  are  the  most  nota-  tributed  largely  to  PoggondoHTs  Annalen  and 

be  edifices;  and  the  college  (formerly  the  uni-  other  scientific  periodicals.    Since  1841  he  has 

writyX  with  library  and  observatory,  is  tho  edited  tho  Arcnio  /urtcissenachajtliche  Kunde 

friMipal  learned  institution.    Erlau,  important  ton  Rufsland^  which  b  exclusively  devoted  to 

—  bishopric  from  the  time  of  St.  Stephen,  new  scientific  researches,  connected  with  the 

the  seat  of  an  archbishop  in  1804.    In  geography,  ethnology,  and  geology  of  Russia. 

times,  though  it  possessed  strong  fortifi-  Many  Russian  savants  cooperate  with  Erman  in 

it  suffered  much  from  the  Tartar  and  this  publication,  which  is  one  of  the  best  au- 

invasions,  especially  in  1552,  when  it  thorities  on  the  subjects  of  which  it  treats.    He 

under  the  heroic  Stephen  I)ob6  tho  is  now  (1859)  professor  of  physical  science  at 

assaults  of  an  immense  Turkish  army,  the  university  of  Berlin. 

in  1596,  when  it  was  given  up  to  the  Turks  ERMINE,  a  name  given  to  several  weasels, 

hj  tke  foreign  part  of  the  Austrian  garrison,  of  the  genus  putorius  (Cuv.),  inhabiting  the 

/L^wmtrnkg  the  remnants  of  the  old  fortress  the  northern  parts  of  both  hemispheres,  and  which 

tomb  of  Dobo  is  still  shown  to  visitors.    Erlau  in  tho   winter  season  exchange  their  brown 

oonspicaoas  during  the  revolution  of  1848-  color  for  a  white  livery  more  or  less  pure.    The 
VOL.  vn. — 18 


EamptAD  ermine  (P.rrminea,  Linn.)  it  about  roar  hit  grain,  potAtAC^  Moi  gTOMrt;  it  will 

to  inclii-i  Iiing,  wiili  the  tuil  linlf  lliu  Ivnptli  of  mxhi  nil  a  icmnary  uf  tliu  lu^vit  tUisuhI  aficid 

tlie  IiihIv:  in  llic  Miiiinitr  Kimin  U  is  ntldiith  of  llio  wliciit-Ii>viii^  t(r»UDd  H|uirrt'I«.     Ititnvt 

bmiTTi  ulnirp,  wliili^li  Ih'Iow,  with  lti«  li)>  uf  tho  thy,  Rnd  liiu  tii-i-n  so  fur  doriiuaitcaud  as  lit  Im 

tail  blaL'k ;  in  tlii*  livvry  it  i*  rnlUiI  tltv  rioat  in  ciii|>l<iyi'i]  likv  llio  forti't  iif  £un>|M:  in  liuntiBR 

Great   ItriUiii.     In   11k-  wiiiU-r,  liuwt-vtr,  tha  liarvd ;  it  ii  c.i^ily  (akvri  in  anj  kind  of  irsp.     1: 

nppcr  parti  bvcnniu  wliita^,  with  a  j^elluir  tint  ii  not  roniiuoti  anyulivrc;  it  prufurt  stmif  tv- 

bvueatii,  ihu  ti|i  of  the  tikil  ri'muiiiing  bluck  at  (riuriii,  and  isM>lilary  oiidiiucliirDal  in  i[*babil«. 

aU  KaMio*;  in  Ihii  color  iho  fur  wu.^  funiitrly  ibuugh  occBhiiinully  svcn  atalUiourtof  tlieday. 

highly  ]iriivil,  Ajici-ially  fur  nriiai Hunting;  par-  It  iii  a  pcxir  hwiuiiDiT  aiul  avMtl*  voter,   ai.il 

■iM.-iita  Mrtitiniug  lo  rovidty  and  iitliiin  uf  dig-  iwvly  aMViidi  irvi-ii  eiieja  when  porMiM!.  TU 

nity;  fur  tliu  |>urity  of  it'  whitvni-iM  it  wan  ynuufc,  fn>n)  4  loT  innianbvr.  art- DumbvtwccB 

takon  an  the  cmbleiii  nf  the  iReiim)|>tibility  and  the  lait  of  March  nnd  itui  la^t  of  Ifay,  accortl- 

tlie  intoKriir  which  i<li<)uUI  (.'huractcriiu  a  judjtc.  Ing  to  latitude.    The  coat  i«  lilicd  twicu  >  year, 

ThU  animal  id  widi-ly  diiitributed  iu  nurtlicm  in  OctoberandMarrh,tlicaatumufurb««oiaiBg 

Eam|>c  and  Asia,  extending  its  ranpseven  to  the  white,  aod  the  Kprihg  brown.  Acconling  tu  Mr. 

bighett  lalitudvd  visited  by  man.     Its  habits  are  Baird,thi9  fixM-ius  cunnoL  be  ecriainly  traced  X. 

■anguinary,  liko  IhuMi  of  all  of  itx  gi-niis,  thnu^h  of  JilBuachusvtId  our  Vi.  of  Widconiin;    it  haa 

{turn  itM  HiiiutUT  fUv  it  d(H-«  U-i-i  iJiiM^liiff  in  the  Ixtrn  taken  ut  Furt  Smith,  Ark.,  and  {irvbabty 

Iknn  yard  tlian  the  jHiWat ;  it  allack^  and  kills  ia  found  in  niCKit  of  the  Mtutbi-rn  and  MiutLweit- 

rala,  luice,  niolcd,  and  yuuDf;  jmnltry,  nucking  emitatea  at  adistancisfrum  tlie  fvaciiul.   TIm 

their   bbx-l ;    it    dftcn  duinvstivated   itnelf  iu  most  atriking  difTvrenres  twtwccii  tbL<  and  Dm 

buuscii,  wlwre  its  de^lruction  of  ruts  and   mice  £ur())ican  enninu  are,  that  in  Iltu  latter  the  caa- 

In  inn  niin|ien*ati-s  fur  it«  (l.tmagu  to  tlio  farmer  dal  vvrtebnc  are  only  t  the  lenptb  uf  tlie  bead 

in  tlte  hen  hmi'ie.     TIkti)  aru  at  lean  S  Nurlh  and  body,  the  lerniiniJ  Imirs  being  nearlv  |  tlirir 

Amerintn  wcom-U  cniitliil  to  the  name  uf  er-  length,  or  frun)  11  tu  H  inches;  while  in  the 

mine;  but  it  U  very  iti)[ir<ibaMu  that  the  /'.  er-  funuerthew  vertehrm  arc  nearly  J  the  length 

Minni  ii  funnd  n[N>n  tbi->  o'ntUient.     Ae  ani-  of  the  boily,  the  haira  brine  only  aUnt  i  U 

mal  culled  ermine  by  Aiiiliibuii  and   llaelinion,  their  lcnt;lJi,  or  nut  tnoro  tlion  1^  iticbe*;  ia 

and  ron-iilt-reii  by  thi'ni  the  same  as  the  Euro-  our  species  the  ears  and  naked  poniun  of  ibe 

[lean  anitnul,  was  tirst  duwritied  ai  a  distinct  nose  are  larger;   the  euloratiun  alto  differ*  ia 

■peciiM  by  Dekiy  as  P.   Svrtbaraeeiuu.     TIio  the  mnrti  prealer  vxtenikm  of  the  liitht  ruUn 

Ciilur   in    BumiiK-r   i*   che>Inut  brown    above,  on  the  lower  |>arts  and   inside  of  the  limb*  in 

whiti-h  ti-low  Olid  on  (Ik-  iiiiier  siirfaco  of  the  the  Eurojican  aniinid.  aiul  in  Iba  greater  e<-r-.- 

liiTilii;  eJi;uiif  n)i|itrli[<  white,  anil  end  iif  tail  parative   vitcnt  ff  ihc  blu>.'k  ti|>  tu  the  \»... 

bhu-k;  in  »i[;tvr,  iiinorllii-mhitituiles.  thcbuirv  there  arc  4  MX-nd  and  *J1  lUiidul  v.ru-br.i  im^^r 

areMinHV  while  fr.)ni  the  r.«>ls  exivjit  i.n  the  ermine,  and  ..nly  3 of  ihe  f.-rmer  ani)  19tl"*M'* 

cndof  thel.iil.  whiilii'  l>Ui'k  foruli«ut  1]  inch-  latter  in  the  Eiin>|>ean.     The  little  »nuuic(i>. 

e-;  M-utii  ..f  IVT.n-vlvanU  ihc  chanire  l.>  while  KUharitoHii.  Il-riii]'.,  ..r  I'.  .v/.Um.   An,!,  and 

d'"."*  ii'it  liikf  i-'.iiM',  ihi- c.rliir  reninidin;*  brown  llucb.).   whirh  rti'luivii  ihf   liri^'iilicp  »|>mim 

thr.mi:!...iit  tl..r  j.,ir.     Th.'   h.-.i.l  i»   drjirt-^^d  north  of  Ma-tathii-Wtt'.  i*  frum  b  to  >  luebe* 

and  luutv  :  ih<'  c.»i  nre  l.-irp-  and  exltml   far  lung,  eicluMve  uf  the  tail,  whieh    is   »lifht]y 

ml  the  niv:.ii>:  thr  1>i'<ly  it  < I.>n;-:it.^l,  nnd  lui.re  liian  3;  1heci>li>r  in  oummerUdirkelMit- 

the  tuil  i-tl.n<lri<'..!.  iliiiUy  i-lntlivil  with  fnr  nut  bruwn  at-<»e  and  whitish  Uluw,  with  iha 
whxlv  \i\<\A-T  Juw  briiwn,  and  the  end  i/  Ud 
bWk  t  to  nearly  \  uf  it*  length;  ia  wialw 
white  with  a  bluck-tli>iH.'d  tail,  ll  la  ill  all  ir 
and  darker,  w  ith  more  *lciidur  and  deltma  hit 
thsn   the   [ireceiling  ipecies;   Ita  giCft^Uwi 

pi  >n.U  » !.;.  1,  •.',  r.'-..'   nn  ipIlerKive  tnu>ky  fluid.  dUtrihutii-n  Is  from  U"  N'.  lo  MiMidinwHi  M 

The  fur  i- -I..TI.  h  .1  *.rv«.ft.     The  lenirth  to  the  E.  and  VrnnKiv.r .  .-^i;.!  ^  i;*  W.maM. 

nK>ti.ft:.:!i-  V\  t.  11  i:i.he*:  kn).*lh  cf  lail  to  The  lung-Uikd  trTi.l»»i/'.  ^«f  ir^U^  MbU 

en<lt>ri::i:r<:t  t.'T  ii»!ii->,  lliv  l>>ne'<  eltendinit  a)<|>ruaehes  tli>  fomU  in   siu.  b«iac  aki^n 

at>-»it  &i   I'-iiU--.     \:   i>  a  t>'ri«-eful,  <iui<-k,  aud  ineliealunRei'Iivi'e  ottiia  taiLwhtehkllH 

fearle>-iatiiiii:d.  IImi..'  iimIit  hi);' and  liea|>4of  intlies;  the  c  !' .- i:i  •cinifer  b  gdtit  dtnMaa 

»;..ii,s,  :in.l  i:i  bu].  .  i'l  r...  k-.     It  d.>tnij«  rob-  bruwn  aliove,        '     !    >  :   •  .  '  .  n  -  i-Liw.  •■il 

liirs  I'arlful):.-,  nii'l  i!.'!n.-inf-wl.mmhlanter  the  rhio  and                                 "     :■  ,   -  *        ■ 

lh:iuit^:f.  i..i:iit..l  wuh  the  b!.-li.f  asinpila  white,  with  i           .            !:          :^i       -■■ 

vi.-.ini.  It  Ij:!-  nil  williii.  i:-  ri*  h  from  an  in-  broad,  the  hi-  -          ■-       i-  ,   .,-;  u  ;;,  tr.;  O- 

hliiirtii.' {>rM[.'ij>.M- t<i  ki:i  :  it  has  been  known  cars  low  and   lijiTt,  lU   fwt   ar*   Urpi,  w^i 

l...h-tr<>v  4>i  r>»!-  in  :>  •inple  nihtht;  from  iU  well  derriopctt  claws,     ll  b  bead  afcMt  *■ 

veniiH' r'li  l-'<lv  ii  U  iiM.'  t.>  |>iir-i>e  har^t  into  npi       IfljaaBrl   and   riatu  Attn.     \ht   I 


thr  hi'dv  U 
.    lI.i.U.v    1- 

.-I..n;:nt.il,  ni 
itlied  with  fi 

."■eUe'Vl.K 

oire».'h  'f- 

t.-.t.  M  .-..» 

1L..I   l«it.ol 
i.liT  Mir  tine 

end  Willi  fn 
the  M.le.:  I 
of  the  toil  a 

ii,-e  into  thvir  (cal- 
:h  I-  .-a-i..nnlly  (Wniclive  ia  [kiuI- 
il  U  iiin<  ll  more  a  benefactor  to 
ill  by  killing  the  mic«  vliich  <!•• 


ERNEST  AUGUSTUS  EROSTRATUS  276 

and  winter;  the  edge  of  the  upper  lip  is  white ;  berg,  which  he  sold  in  1834  to  Pmssia  for  2,' 

it  is  foand  from  Labrador  to  Massachasetts,  and  000,000  thalers.    He  invested  this  amount  in 

as  far  west  as  Puget^  sound.    Kane^s  ermine  the  acquisition  of  various  domains ;  and  by  the 

(P.  Kaneii^  Baird)  is  about  8^  inches  long,  extinction  of  the  Gotha  line  of  dukes  in  1826,  he 

with  a  tail  of  4  inches ;  it  seems  a  miniature  of  became  duke  of  Gotha.  and  thus  the  first  duke 

the  Earopean  species,  and  is  found  in  Siberia  under  whose  sceptre  Gotha  and  Coburg  were 

and  the  vicinity  of  Behring^s  straits.  united.    lie  was  an  enlightened  prince,  a  zealous 

ERKEST  AUGUSTUS,  king  of  Hanover,  5th  patron  of  science  and  letters,  and  endowed  his 

son  of  George  HI.  of  England,  bom  Jan.  5, 1771,  country,  and  especially  his  capital,  with  many 

died  Kg V.  18,  1851.    He  was  for  many  years  a  beautifhl  structures  and  valuable  institutions. 

member  of  the  British  house  of  lords  as  duke  He  was  the  father  of  Prince  Albert,  consort  of 

of  Camberland,  and  was  a  field  marshal  in  the  Queen  Victoria. — ^Ernest  II.  of  Saxe-Coburg- 

British  army.    Against  the  desire  of  his  mother  Gotha  (or  Ernest  IV.  of  Saze-Coburg),  son  of  the 

he  married,  in  1815,  Frederica  Caroline  of  Meek-  preceding,  born  June  21,  1818,  married  in  1842 

lenbni^-Strelitz,  whose  first  2  husbands,  Prince  a  daughter  of  the  grand  duke  of  Baden.    He 

IiMds  of  Pmssia  and  the  prince  of  Solms-Braun-  gave  to  his  people  a  new  and  more  libcrd  con- 

feli,  had  both  died.    The  grant  which  he  asked  stitution,  fought  against  Denmark  in  1840,  and 

from  paiiiament  on  occasion  of  his  marriage  not  is  distinguished  for  his  literary  and  musical  at- 

being  accorded  to  him,  he  took  up  his  residence  tainments  and  for  his  conciliatory  disposition 

fai  Germany,  but  retumed  to  England  in  1829  in  politics.    He  has  composed  several  operas. 
to  vote  aj^adnst  the  Catholic  emancipation  bill,        ERNESTI,  JonANN  Arousr,  a  German  phi- 

ahhongh  it  was  proposed  by  his  former  political  lologist,  bom  in  Tennstudt,  Thuringia,  Aug.  4^ 

friend,  the  duke  of  Wellington.    His  conduct  on  1707,  died  in  Leipsic,  Sept.  11,  1781.    His  crit- 

tlus  occasion  was  severely  censured  by  his  broth-  leal  editions  of  Greek  and  Roman  classics,  Xen- 

cr  the  duke  of  Clarence,  afterward  William  I V.  ophon.  Homer,  Callimachus,  Polybius,  Suetonius, 

He  ae^n  applied  to  parliament  for  money,  for  Tacitus,  and  Cicero,  are  justly  celebrated  to  this 

^  edacation  of  his  son  (George  Frederic,  the  day,  especially  the  edition  of  Cicero's  writings, 

present  king  of  Hanover),  but  as  it  was  only  and  the  glossary  appended  thereto,  Clavis  Ciee- 

granted  nnder  condition  that  the  young  prince  roniana  (6th  ed.,  llallc,  1831).    His  excellent 

ihoold  be  instructed  in  Eneland  and  in  the  Latin  style  obtained  for  him  the  surname  of 

ipirit  of  English  institutions,  he  was  compelled  the  German  Cicero.    As  a  theological  writer  he 

to  remove  Ills  family  from  Grermany.    Grave  belonged  to  the  school  of  rationalists.    His  most 

imputations  upon  his  private  character,  and  his  distinguished  theological  work  is  his  Inttitutio 

ODDending  opposition  to  all  popular  reforms,  InUrpretis  ^ovi  Testamenti  (8d  ed.  1775),  of 

eombined  to  make  his  residence  in  England  as  which  an  English  translation,  by  C.  H.  Terrot, 

disagreeable  to  himself  as  it  was  hateful  to  the  appeared  in  Edinburgh  (2  vols.  12mo.,   1833- 

people.    On  the  death  of  William  IV.  (June  '43). — His  nephew,  August  Wii^elm  (1733- 

20, 1837),  the  crown  of  Great  Britain  devolv-  1801),  edited  the  works  of  Livy  (1769)  and  Am- 

ed  on  Queen  Victoria,  and  the  succession  to  mianus  Marcellinus  (1773),  beside  many  others, 
the  throne  of  Hanover  being  limited  to  the        ERNST,  Heinrich  Wilhelic,  a  German  vio- 

male  line,  the  two  countries  were  separated,  linist,  born  in  BrQnn,  Moravia,  in  1814.    He 

and  the  duke  of  Cumberland,  eldest  surviving  studied  in  the  musical  conservatory  of  Vienna^ 

brother  of  William,  ascended  the  throne  of  where  Maysedcr  and  Paganini  befriended  and 

Hanover  under  the  name  of  Ernest  Augustus,  instructed  him,  and  subsequent  to  1831  in  that 

Here  he  became  notorious  for  his  tyrannical  of  Paris.    From  being  known  chiefly  as  a  per- 

di^kosition.     His  first  act  was  to  abrogate  the  former  at  chamber  concerts  in  the  latter  city,  he 

eoDstitntion  of  1833,  which  had  been  sane-  gradually  extended  his  reputation  over  Europe, 

tioned  by  William  IV.    In  1848  he  yielded  for  where  he  has  for  many  years  ranked  among 

a  time  to  the  exigencies  of  the  moment,  and  the  first  living  violinists.    As  a  composer  for 

mnted  a  more  liberal  constitution.    Shortly  the  violin  ho  has  produced  the '^  Elegy,"  a  *^Car- 

Mbre  his  death,  he  concluded  a  treaty  with  nival  of  Venice,"  and  other  successful  pieces. 
Fnusia,  by  which  Hanover  Joined  the  (xcrman        EROS,  in  Greek  mythology,  the  god  of  love, 

IMbereiV  (Sept.  7,  1851).    He  was  succeeded  first  mentioned  by  Hesiod.    lie  was  the  impcr- 

bj  his  son,  Georg  V.  (bom  May  27,  181U),  the  sonation  of  the  elemental  principle  of  love,  the 

pment  kinff  of  Hanover.  first  god  who  sprang  into  being  from  the  world^s 

£BN£ST  I.,  duke  of   Saxe-Coburg-Gotha,  egg^  harmonizing  the  discordant  elements  of 

bom  Jan.  2,  1784,  died  Jan.  29, 1844,  succeeded  the  universe  and  binding  human  kind  together 

Uifiitfher,  Duke  Francis,  on  the  throne  of  Coburg  in  sympathy.    The  Eros  of  the  later  poets,  very 

m  &ne8t  HL,  Dec.  9, 1806.    He  was  successive-  different  from  the  cosmogonio  Eros,  was  a  wan- 

lif  eonnected  with  the  Prassian  and  Austrian  ton  and  handsome  youth,  the  son  of  Aphrodite 

wniea,  in  the  war  asainst  Napoleon,  during  and  Zeus,  and  the  inspirer  of  violent  sensual  # 

vUch  his  dnchy  was  for  some  time  in  the  pos-  passion.    He  is  the  Cupid  of  the  Latin  poets. 

umkm  of  the  French.    In  reward  for  his  ser-  (See  Cupid.) 

itai  against  Napoleon,  territory  comprising  a       EROSTRATUS,  or  Herostratus,  an  Ephesian 

MpdatioQ  of  about  25,000  was  added  to  his  who  lived  in  the  middle  of  the  4tlL  century  6. 

ooyi  indn^g  the  principality  of  Idchten*  C,  and  whom  a  deed  of  infamy  has  entitled  to 


276  SRPENIUS  ERSE 

m  place  in  hirtoTT.  On  the  night  in  whioli  Alex-  in  conncftion  with  a  general  literarr  gMiiiU\ 

andor  the  Great  wan  born,  in  the  yvur  3.j6  H.  Tlii:i  workist  i»in{;ularljcbaracteri»ticof  lfvni..v« 

C,  he  set  fire  to  the  temple  of  Artemis  at  Ephe-  ehiboratencss.     No  fewer  than  tt  volaiuvj*  yAH- 

BOit,  which  wa«  speedily  bunietl.     When  it  was  gem€in€$  liepertorium  tier  LiUratur,  Jc:.a  ;A2.d 

ascertained  who  liad  fierpetrated  the  sacrilege,  Weimar,   17S^3-1809)  were  rcouired   to  tp;r*- 

the  incendiary  was  arretsted  and  put  to  the  tor-  mize  the  literary  pn»ductious  of  15  year»  1 17^  V. 

tare.    Ikriiig  asked  wliat  had  pr(»mpted  him  to  ISO*)).     It  should,  however,  be  borne  in  UtiLd 

the  commiswion  of  such  an  act,  he  replied :  '^  A  that  not  only  books,  but  alK>  n<W!*pa|*or  ai:d 

yearning  fur  immortality,"  whereon  the  Ephe-  nia^razine  articles,  were  recorded  in  tLU  pal»- 

aians  parsed  a  decree  conMgning  his  name  tuob-  lication;   and  one  of  the  most  extraordinftry 

livion;  but  thU  ordinance  proved  a  vain  niea^-  features  of  it  was,  that  even  the  critici$m.>  to 

nre,  for  Tlieoi»ompu4  secured  to  the  criminai  the  which  the  respective  literary  productions  U^d 

object  of  his  aspiration,  by  making  mention  of  bi*en  subjecti-d  were  referred  to  with  the  atni<*!i( 

him  in  his  history.  precision,  ditlerent  marks  U'ing  used  to  dr^i^- 

EKI'ENIUS,  orVA5ERPBN,TnoMAfl,aDntch  nate  the  adverse  or  favorable  dtaracter  of  the 

orientalist,  bom  in  Gorkum,  Si*pt.  7, 1584,  died  comment.    While  this  was  in  prugreM,  be  pro- 

in  Leydeii,  Nov.  IS,  10:24.     He  was  educated  jocted  a  universal  cyclopiedia  of  modi-m  littrr- 

at  the  university  of  Leyden,  travelletl  in  Eng-  ature,  which  he  carried  oat  so  far  as  to  puLlUh 

land,  Francis  Germany,  and  Italy,  and  perflated  6  volumes  on  French  literature,  Das  geUArU 

himself  at  Taris  and  Venice  in  Arabic,  Turkish,  /VanireiVA,  and  also  an  edition  of  the  i«ain«  ia 

Perwan,  and  Ethiopic.    In  1612  ho  returned  French  ander  the  title  of  La  Framtt  Littirait 

to  Holland,  was  aii{>ointed  oriental  professor  (171)7-1806).     He  was  also  engaged  daring  ih« 

at  the  uuiverAity  of  Leyden,  and  established  a  same  period  in  various  editorial  labors,     lu  IK4 

preas  in  his  own  house  for  the  printing  of  Ara-  he  was  invited  to  fill  the  chair  of  geografiLy  and 

Die  works.    He  was  subse«]ueutly  appointed  statistics  at  the  university  of  Halle,  a&d  fn.a 

oriental  interpreter  to  the  Dutch  government,  1808  to  the  time  of  his  death  he  acted  at  ti-e 

in  which  ca{iacity  he  hail  not  only  to  translate,  same  time  as  chief  director  of  the  aniver^ity 

bat  also  to  reply  to  tlie  various  despatches  of  the  library.    He  crowned  the  labors  of  his  life  tv 

Asiatic  and  African  princes,  which  the  extent  establishing  in  conjunction  with  Grulicr  DU  d.'i- 

of  the  Dutcli  commerce  at  that  time  rendered  gemfine  Encyklopddit  dtr  T\'istett9eh*\rt€tm  v&J 

Tery  numerous.     Ho  wrote  numy  iniiMirtant  KuntU^  th«»  1st  section  comprising  from  A  to  (i, 

works,  es|H.*ciaUy  on  subjects  connected  with  the  of  w  hich  1 7  volumes  (the  fir^t  ap|>varinfi  in  Lir:;»- 

Arabic.  Bic  in  1H18)  were  edited  by  Ench  andCmUr. 

EKK.\nr>.  CnARLr.4,  a  French  painter  and  Al\er  Er«ch*s  death  that  section  was  cvLtis- 

arcliitci  t.  iMini  in  N:uitvs  in  lt>o6,  died  in  Home,  ued  by  (iniUT,  and  on  his  death  in  I8ol  ^t  SL 

^ay  ITi.  Iti'^tl.     He  wa<«  in<itrii<'ti-«l  in  i>aiming  H.  F.  Meier  and  lUniuum  Brockhaus.    TU-  td 

by  his  father,  and  iH.'rfe<'ti-«l  bin  knowUdfre  at  sei'tion,  to  comprise  the  letti-rs  H  to  N.  is  uutlif 

Itunie.     On  his  n>turii  to  France  lie  gradually  the  etiitorial  care  of  A.  (f.  HotTman  i>f  Jrr^  &::d 

T*K<*  to  itnineiice  in  his  J>^■fi•^.^ion.     In  ir»48  the  :Ul  and  la^^t  M.'ctii»n,  frmn  N  to  Z,  andir'JjU 

he  became  one  uf  the  1*2  (imn(UT<i  uf  the  acad-  uf  M.  H.  F.  Meii-r  of  Halle.    Tlie  total  LumUrcf 

eniy  k*(  ]>aiiitinir.    He  wan  vn^a^'id  in  tlie  dcco-  vi>Iumes  puliU»hetl  in  June,  K>V,  was  125.    Tu 

ration  of  the /'uAiu  ruyn/,  Louvn*,  and  other  isthemost  l<ianK'<l  and  elabc»rateGvnnan  cic:«>- 

palace'i.      Hi4    rliicf    chiim    to    niitice    r^Ms,  pa*<  11  a  ex t an t,  and  the  greatest  literary  ac Lie t<>. 

tiowever,  ii(Mm  hii  conmntion  with  the  foun-  nieiit  inGennaiiy  of  the  prcM^nt  c%-ntury.    A^ 

datiiin  i'(  the  Fri*nch  ai*ademy  at  I^»lne,  B'hirh  edition  of  his//. i/k/^ucA  d^rJeutscktn  LiU^jTvr 

was  projictinl  by  him  and  carric-il  into  eliect  »titJ*rJfi(Uiteslii'UnJahrhund(rtMhi»a\/Jjii 

in  lt>t;6.  uith  \-2  pupil 4.  nftusU  Ztit  (2  vuls^  Amstinlain  ar.d  L«.;'><x\ 

EliM'lI.  JouANN  SAMrri-,  a  (i«'nnan  cychv-  lsl'J-'14;  new  and  enlargeil  ed.,Li.iti^:i:.  l^ii- 

pa?«li'>t,  U>rn  in  (fri>->.-*gIi»gHU,  I*ru*>^ian  SileMa,  *2^)  wasi*repared  by  (teisoler,  whoaJtled  :  •  .1  a 

June  *2A,   17(*>ti.  diiHl  in  Halle,  J.m.  lii,  l^-js.  cydoptedia  of  philology  in  IMo  and  vf  \\i\> 

He  atteuiled  in  his  v nut!)  the  univen^ity  of  tlie  iM»phical  literature   in   l^*>i)  {lUbH^^'j'^ii^iarktt 

latter  town  tuiil  that  of  Jena,  and  Wan  utWrward  ILimlhu^h   Jtr  j»hilom*phiaehrti    /ifrni.'*.-   irr 

ronnec  U-d  in  1 1  ai  I  e  w  i  1 1 1  M  e  Um.  1*  s  K-ari  tetl  ]  >e>  IkuU  'hen  ton  </c  r  .If  i  f  fr  Jf»  \*<  tm  J*ihrKu  %derSg 

riwVical^  jAuffr I*. hrU  I ftufsrhltifiJ,  fiiu\  in  Jena  his  au/dir  nruf*U  Zfit,  I^-i|»«ic,   \>^\   >\*..\. 

with  a  p^'Uticol  journal.    He  puMinhed  a  %i>lu-  TIiUh  the  tir^^t  foundation  for  a  thorough  UA^Ur^ 

minous  ci>ll«vtio!i  of  the  dii<-umeut!«  ftiunil  in  (ierman  system  of  bibiinp'aphy  was  U.-!  \y 

Ciennan   ]Kilitiral,  ge«>i;raphii-al,   aiiil  H.-ientitic  Er^'h'^*  indefatigable  indii>try.  while  h:«  tL'.S.: - 

|itriiHliralH  \  lirjtrrtor^nni  ufir  t/iV  alLjitntiuerk  hia-iii  f<»r  cycii'imNliaH  has  luriihed  t!i<.  wirld 

ueut^.Kt nJ,'urt**tlf  un*i titnUn  f-rh-miiM-h^ Summ-  with  iiiitieri^hnble  •>toreho'i->^'S  i*f  i(if'.*ru'.ati«>c 
iunyrn/ur  KniU^eh  re  ib  u  ug,  O'rt^K  ifh  U,  u  ful  tlit         K I  IS  K  or  E  A  lb«B  \  lit  rti§h  \  the  lafiguapc  \^ 

d*tmit  r*  nr.i;iJ.V;*  ir»Mrn«-Ai/lr<-r.,  :t  voU.  I7'.iii.  the  (iael  in   thu    hi^hland^   of  Scv:!;fcnd,   titfy 

*1*'J*.     'liie  apiHTurjUhv  of  thi<*  wcfk  «Teate«l  a  Wing  sufiiiooiHi  to  l>o  an   Iri«h  ^Ern »  cvlony. 

gri'at  •Ki.s»t:>*n  ainttiig  (ivnuau  biMii>^'rapherM.  f/iir/iV  Al)'*tn»uh  is  ttie  i.anie  g-.vin  to  it  li  tie 

His  ilTor;^  were  ^4>  much  eiununigril  by  Hui'e-  hiichlantleri  thenisKl\i*:s  w'hu  wiredrivcD  cxv'rL- 

land  ni.d  other  pronii Ml. nt  Ki\ ant >,  that  ho  wa4  ward  by  the   Cyniri,  and   lu-!:ce   i^erv   lal^-i 

ibducvd  to  uudvnakti  ft  digest  of  liu-rature  is:uU   («:u»r«,  fugitives;.     This  laogaafv,  tliie 


ESSE  EKSEINE                      277 

^anx  of  the  isle  of  Man,  and  the  Erinakh  or  ^'S???^*'?^^  P'^^  h 

Iri*h  of  Ireland,  constitute  one  branch  of  the  ii^ieAi.       Bona  l 

Celtie  or  GaUic  famUy ;  the  other  branch  con-  ^^^l^  Cnc^;  ^  ^^^  ^^^,^  ™jj 

listing  of  the  Cjmnc  of  Wal«s  the  now  exh^^  r^      ^^^^^^^  ^^^^^  j^„„,^     ^^^„. 

Cornish,  and  the  Breizad  {Bos-Breton)  in  France.  lo  (the)  shade  (of  •)  tree  foliage  whose  sounded ; 

The  term  Erse  has  also  been  erroneously  ap-  Dh*aom  a  shieagh    ri        carmig    nan  cda, 

plied  to    the  Scandinavians,  and  especially   to  Leaned  his     spear    against  rock  (crag)  of  cavea, 

th«r  !««»•?«.     Grant  (1844)  attempted  to  ^  Jgig  fJ^b/Ju  IS?'  t  Z  '^ 
denre  the  Gaelic  from  the  Pelasgic    R.  A. 

Armstrong  proves  it  to  be  nearer  to  the  an-  — ^The  principal  work  in  Gaelic  is  the  poems  of 
cient  Celtic  than  is  the  Welsh  or  the  Irish,  and  Ossian  in  the  original,  translated  into  English 
that  it  has  fewer  inflections.  Dr.  Prichard  by  Macpherson,  and  into  Latin  by  R.  Macfarlan 
and  A.  PIctet  have  shown  the  Celtic  tongues  (3  vols.,  London,  1807).  There  are  also  other 
to  be  of  the  Indo-Earopean  class.  The  Gaelic  lyric  and  epic  poems,  military  and  funeral  songs 
was  not  written  till  after  the  arrival  of  tlie  of  the  bards;  the  best  being  of  the  times  jnst 
Romans  in  Great  Britain.  No  ancient  inscrip-  before  and  after  the  Christian  era.  There  are 
tions  or  mannscripts  in  it  have  yet  been  dis-  Gaelic  and  English  dictionaries  by  William  Shaw 
covered.  Its  so  called  Irish  alphabet  consists  (London,  1780),  P.  Macfarlane  O^dinbnrgh, 
of  18  letters,  nearly  of  Anglo-Saxon  shape,  1815),  R.  A.  Armstrong  (London,  1825),  the 
named  from  trees  (ai/m,  elm;  beithe^  birch;  highland  society  (Edinburgh,  1828),  Normaii 
eM,  hazel,  &c).  The  letters  J^  q,  v,  ar,  y,  and  s  McLeod  and  Daniel  Dewar  (London,  1845). 
arft  wanting.  Many  consonants  are  not  pro-  Some  of  these  have  grammars  with  them. 
Bovneed.  The  pronunciation  varies  in  different  ERSEINE,  Ebenezer,  a  Scotch  theologian, 
periods  and  localities.  Dr.  Stewart,  who  trans-  founder  of  the  Secession  church  of  Scotland, 
wed  the  Scriptures,  and  Dr.  Smith,  who  made  born  June  22,  1680,  died  in  Stirling,  June  22, 
a  metrical  version  of  the  Psalms,  both  settled  1756.  The  son  of  a  Presbyterian  divine,  he 
the  orthography.  The  indefinite  article,  the  was  educated  at  the  university  of  Edinburgh, 
neater  gender,  and  a  special  form  for  the  pres-  licensed  to  preach  in  1702,  became  pastor  the 
eat  tense  of  the  verbs,  are  wanting  in  Gaelic  next  year  in  Portmoak,  and  held  that  post  28 
There  are  2  declensions  and  2  conjugations.  A  years.  Here  and  at  Stirling,  where  he  lived 
pecoliar  metaphony  is  much  used,  as :  /ear,  a  from  1731  until  his  death,  he  was  a  great 
iiian;^r,  ofaman; /Air,  Oman!  The  system  of  favorite  with  his  parishioners,  as  well  as  with 
prefixes  and  suffixes  resembles  that  of  the  Semit-  the  church  throughout  Scotland.  The  disscn- 
le  tongues.  The  namerols  are :  aon,  a  k-aon,  sions  in  the  church  of  Scotland  began  in  1720, 
1;  JJU,  a  dhd^  2 ;  triyS;  eeithir^  4;  euig,  eoig^  when  the  book  entitled  the  "  Marrow  of  Mod- 
5 :  W,  «ux,  6 ;  9eaehd^  7 ;  ochd^  8 ;  naoi,  naoth^  ern  Divinity"  was  thought  to  reveal  latitudina- 
•:  dekh^  10 ;  aon  deug^  11,  &c. ;  Jichead^  20 ;  rian  tendencies  dangerous  to  the  prevalent  doc- 
dfifA  ary%»c&^ai2,  30  (lO-f-20) ;  da  fhiehead^AQ  trines.  Refusing  to  take  the  abjuration  oath, 
(2X20),  &c.;  «Mi,  tfiorf,  1,000,  &C.  The  nomi-  and  opposing  the  reimposition  of  lay  patron- 
native  plural  is  formed  by  addingean,  as  <;^r<air-  ages,  as  contrary  to  the  act  of  union  and  to  the 
MN,  harpers.  The  sexes  are  distinguished  by  8  liberties  of  the  Scottish  church,  and  at  the  same 
methods:  by  different  words,  by  prefixing  ban  time  being  one  of  the  most  influential  defenders 
or  Jnin  for  feminines,  and  by  an  adjective.  The  of  what  were  termed  tlio  "  Marrow  "  doctrines, 
personal  pronouns  are:  fni,  mhl,  I;  Ui^  thu,  Mr.  Ei^kine  was  proclaimed  in  many  polemical 
tfaoa ;  e,  ««*,  he ;  i,  $!,  she ;  sinn^  we ;  sibh,  you ;  pamphlets  an  innovator  in  religion  and  a  troub- 
iai^  siad,  they.  The  relative  pronouns  are :  a,  ler  in  Israel,  was  censured  by  the  synod,  and  in 
vfaOi  which ;  an,  whose,  and  to  whom ;  na,  1733  was  solemnly  rebuked  and  admonished  at 
that  which ;  nach,  who  not.  The  possessives  the  bar  of  the  general  a.<tsembly.  Against  this 
are:  mo^  my;  do^  thy;  a,  his,  her;  or,  our;  decision,  he  with  3  other  clergymen  entered  a 
M«r,  if r,  your ;  anjam,  their.  The  interroga-  protest ;  and  as  they  continued  the  conduct  for 
Urea  are:*«>,  who;  eia^  which;  eiod,  what,  which  they  had  been  censured,  they  were  sus- 
Tho  indefinite  pronouns  are:  <^A,  the  rest;  pended  from  their  functions.  This  sentence 
cvtf,  some ;  ^i7«,  other.  Among  the  verbs  are :  was  soon  after  removed,  but  the  deposed  breth- 
fkmUg  mi^  I  wrapped;  phautg  thu^  phaisg  f,  rcn  had  meantime  formed  themselves  into  a 
i&;  ne^tively,  do  phaisg  mi^  d:c.  Abair,  to  separate  consistory  and  received  numerous  ao- 
■j;  tktibiairt'fni,  I  have  said;  airradh^  said;  cessions.    Erskine  continued  to  preach  to  large 

XraiA,  saying.    Verb  to  bo :  ^a  mi,  I  am ;  ta  congregations  at  Stirling  till  his  death. 

(|thoaart;  to «, he  is;  fa«i7i;i,  weare,  ^.;  ERSKINE,  Thomas,  baron,  a  British  jurist 

Mi  VieU  mt,  am  I ;  ehd'n  eil  mi,  I  am  not,  &c  and  statesman,  the  3d  son  of  Henry  David,  10th 

Among  the  prepositions  are:  a,  /i«,  of;  ag,  at;  earl  of  Buchan,  bom  in  Edinburgh,  Jan.  21, 1750, 

aMTjOii;  AAfin;  ^Aarr,  off;  ear,  during;  ^o,  to,  died  at  AlmondelL,  near  Edinburgh,  Nov.  17, 

flf ;  «fiar,  between ;  gti,  till ;  mar,  £l%  like ;  o,  1823.    Having  studied  at  the  high  school  of  Ed- 

frnm;  W,  during ;  re,  ri,rit,  to;  trid,  through,  inbnrgh  and  attended  for  a  while  the  classes  of 

Ac.    The  language  is  very  guttural,  and  its  en-  mathematics  and  natural  philosophy  at  the  uni- 

phome  methods  peculiar.    The  following  is  a  versity  of  St.  Andrew^s,  though  he  was  never 

^n  from  Ossian :  matriculated  at  that  institution,  he  gratified  his 


L.. 


278  £RSEIN£ 

predilection  fornnvnUifobventorinfrthesteryiro  friends  and  Are  not  romparaWe  to  lii«  fp1vni!M 

M  niidsliipin.in.     I>i^iii]>ointi'd  in  liis  hi>iK*  of  ploai  nt  the  bur.     With  an  enthuMa*>ni  fur  ]>••[»- 

promotion,  he  (luit tod  the  nuvv  fur  11  comtni>Mon  ular  lilKTt y,  his  be»t  etforta  were  tho«e  in  df- 

in  the  army.     In  1770,  soon  afivr  his  marri:i{ri*,  fence  of  tlie  free<lom  of  the  riresi«  and  thv  prir- 

he  went  wi'tti  his  regiment  to  Minorca,  where  ho  ile^c*  of  juries,  and  o^uinst  the  doctrine  of  cxi- 

rcmaiui'd  2  yvam.     Iteturning  then  to  London,  strtictive  trvuMjn.     In  his  defencv  of  the  di  aa 

he  iKrttme  known  in  iMH'ivty  us  a  yoimg  officer  of  St.  Asaph,  chargefl  with  lilieliLe  indignanTir 

of  extraordinary  conversational  iM>wrrs.  Aftt-r  0  argued  against  the  Jud<re  who  refuMnl  to  rervive 

years  of  military  service,  during  ino^l  of  which  from  the  iury  the  vonlict  of  **  Guilty  of  pnbli«h- 

tinie  he  w;u«  htationed  in  En;;liNh  country  towns,  ing  only.      One  of  the  most  iminirtant  i  f  his 

he  was  induced  to  turn  his  thimghts  to  the  law;  fipoerheA,  and   perhapii  the  fir>t  in  (TatiTi'^jiI 

his  mother,  a  woman  of  gnat  gifts  of  mind,  np-  talent,  was  that  delivered  in  17>^9  on  the  rri^I 

proved  his  inclination,  ami  in  1777  he  entered  of  Stockdale,  who  was  arraigned  for  publi?-!.!!.^ 

llim^•elf  a  fellow  connnomr  of  Trinity  college,  a  HIkI  against   the  hou>o  of  commoni>.     Mr. 

Cam hridtre,  merely  to  obtain  a  degree  whirh  Burke'sarticU-sof  impeachment  against  Wanvn 

would  kliorten  his  postage  to  the  bur,  at  the  Hastings  had  been  printed  and  sold  thri»r.gh*>i;t 

aamo  time  bi-coming  a  htudent  at  law  of  Lin-  the  kingdom  U-fore  the  commencement  ff  th« 

coin's  inn.     In  order  to  master  the  technical  trial,  and  their  masterly  invective  prodti<*rd  a 

part  of  his  profession,  he  perfornKsl  tlie  laU'ri-  deep  and  general  imprecision  ufNin  the  puMl'? 

ous  duties  of  clerk  in  the  otVice  of  an  eminent  mind  against  Mr.  Hastings.     To  neutralir*-  cir 

pleader,  but  a  ludicrous  panHly  of(iray*s  '*H:U'd''  rei>el  this  effect,  a  pamphlet  wa.s  written,  it  hi>-h 

whidi  he  pulili^hed  in   the  **  Monthly  M:^:a-  StiK'kdale  publi>tied.  containing  severe  reSloc* 

sine"  proves  that  he  found  time  to  indulge  his  tion*  upon  tlie  ci induct  of  the  managers  of  the 

wit  and  fancy.  Many  ofhis  evenings  were  passeil  impeachment.     The  pamphlet  was  de«'mv<i  ti- 

Id  a  debating  asHiciat ion,  where,  after  tlie  exam-  bellous;  and  in  op|Nt^ition  to  the  sentimtxit*  of 

pie  of  Titt  and  Burke,  ho  trained  his  talents  to  a  whole  people,  and  to  the  mo<*t  mighty  c«n;*  :- 

that  eurp&'«sing  strength  whirh  afterward  gaini-d  nation  of  talent  that  ever  letl  a  pn>!^eca'I«>n, 

him  the  reputation  of  the  tlr^^t  of  Engli>h  udvo-  amid  what  he  himself  describes  as  the  **  t!aie 

cates.    He  also  at  this  time  stud ietl  a  few  of  tlio  of  passion  and  of  prejudice,**  Mr.  En>kice  cn- 

icreatest  miHlels  of  oratiiry  till  he  almost  knew  dertonk  the  defence  of  Stockdale,  and  f'*;.iS- 

tliem  by  heart.     lie  was  coIKhI  to  the  bar  in  Ii*«hed  his  reputation  as  the  mo^C  con'^unirr.Attf 

177H,  and  at  once  secured  a  rapid  pucces-s  by  advtN*.nte  of  the  ago.     Coinl'ining  tlie  ttri.i-l 

his  brilliant  defence  of  Captain  I  tail  lie,  ]in»Si>-  prerision  with  the  higliL^t  oratorical  and  rhe- 

cuted  for  11  Ik*1i in  I«ord  Sandwich.    In  a  strain  of  toriral  elTort-*.  be  re*^MK-d  hi-*  client  fntm  t?.e 

VvlieiiKiit  invertive  :L;;uiii.'>t  tin*  earl,  be  wa«*  in-  puni^hniirnt  whiih  a  nation  swnivd  *!•  f«'n-'.r»^! 

terruptcil  by  the  jihL'e,  whi>  toM  hitntltat  Lonl  t<»  awanl  him.     Tlie  ih'etrine  v\p<>*.:i;>h  •!  i:i  ?  .4 

Saiiduieh  w:i«i  n^t  loniiallv  bit'nre   the  ci'urt.  pK-a  and  s:ii«e!ionid  bv  the  vvn!i«'t  U-.jf::«»  :*•* 

•  •  • 

*•  I  kn«.i\v  tliat  he  is  niit,'*  n  plii  d  tlio  uiidaiinteil  f(»undatii>n  of  ti.e  liUrty  of  the  pn-ss  in  E:.j- 

advi^-al.', '•  br.l  fur  that  v*  rv  ria«'in  I  will  I'ring  land.     In   170*-*  beu«-ttd  as  e<»iMi*%l  !•>  T!.  ■'•,!« 

him  b»  fi^re  t!.e  ri»iirt.**     In  177'J.  Mr.  Er-^kiiie  Puinc.  pro*triited  a-*  a'itli«»r  **f  tin-  "  IlicI*'-    f 

appi-nrtd  at  till*  bar  i>f  the  liiiii*>e  I'f  eominon^  as  Man,"  and  wa**  tlu-nf't.r  dtprivKf  %*(  t!i,-  .  *.-e 

CouiiM'l  r»r  a  b«Kik'«eIIrr  a;:alii«t  tin-  nmni'pi'ly  <if  att«»rney-gi!ur:d    to   the   prini'O    if    Wi'i«, 

of  the  t^fto  uni^ifoitii  H  in   I'rinritig  altnaiiaC'^.  which  he  hail  held  fur  m'VitiI  y(-ur<«.      Mr    T.r  — 

The  iirinii*  mini-ter,    Li-nl    N»»rtli,   ha«l  intro-  kiiie  was  f^r  2">  }tars  inL'ti^reil  i^p-n  tji-  r:— ! 

dui'ed   a   bill    ti>   renew    this    ni«*nMpiiIy,    and  iniportant    raM's    in    F!ng!ahd.    li-.;    ]..<    ;:.  ><t 

th«>'>gh  opp<i«ition  tii  it  wa**  mn'^i'lfreil  a  de«»-  anlmiii'*  ttfi-rts  w«  re  in   17'.'l.  wlien  !n    ^nc 

perote  utttiiipt.  the  measure  wa^  triumphantly  the  di.ath-b!iiw  ti»  the  di-rtrine  t-f  «*. .n^trii  V i ^? 

rejei-t»-d,  many  frii-nils  nf  t!.c  ministry  aflirniing  trea-'»n.     Ilartly,   Munie  T»H.ke.  Tlielw.iI',  a- J 

that  u!V.T  Mr.  Er^kiue's  -peerh  liny  e«njlil  not  scitral  other  p»  tmiu**.  wi-re  nrrr-ti  ti  .vmI  i-i  r.-.- 

Cttn-^-iftitif'.^ly  i!«Mith«Twi^*  than  vnttaiMin-t  it.  n. it  ltd  to  the  t^wer  nn  rharj;*'  if  p»'*.!ti'  al  o  ::- 

In  K'^l  he  gaiiinl  aip'thcr  grin!  triumpli  in  s<-  spiraty  iin«l  high  trra-'M.     TIj^-  trial  cf  !!v^!y 

curing  tl.e  ni-ii;i!t:il  ff  I.i-rd  (ieorjo  (iordon,  bi-;:an  <  K  t.  'jy,  »ind  the  p.'[»':!ar  i::!*  re-t  wa«  *  ■  h 

impe.M  bed  f'»r  Ir.  a-»ii  a^"  i!n'  Inad  of  thf  "  no  that  a  dviiM*    iiU'li   pri->*il    around    thi*    i-. ••.rt 

ptijHTy"  r'.«»:i  r*.    Hi- np*.,  rli  wa^  a- reniarkaMo  an*!  n'ik'le  it  uhni»«.i  imiHi-oi!  !e  f-r  !}.f  ;■:■!«•  * 

lor  urguint'iit  .i*  f".r  i  ii»'jU' n- •-,  ati'l   wn'*  aj»-  to  priMVid  to  ar.d  fn>m  tlnir  ram.!.-. -.     Te 

plaudi-d  by   I»r.  J«»hi.*iin   a-*  haviii;*  pri\r!it«d  iiiiliiMneiit   •■t.iti'!  '.»   o\irt   a*  ?»   of   ? -.h    tr-«- 

the  j«re«  edetit  of  h.i!.;:ii  j;  a  mail  f.  If  i-i'ii-lruitive  •n-ii,  !i!l  tin-  trial  tiirmd  al::;'»-t  *'■'.*  in  t^* 

trea-Min.     He  rei-i\«d   iii   17*"  5.  at  t!ie  ••u;.';:!'-*-  iptt -tii-n  tif  tn  :i-«'iJaMiMtiti  ii!.- n      !?•  jri-    •'?• 

tion  i*(  tljf   \in«Tal'lf   I."rd   Mari-?*..  Id,   a  ^llk  in::«*  ci»:itiiin*d  t'»  tlie  S:h  day.  anl  tl.  •  »*  ■• 

gown  !i:jI  ilii- p.iit  nt  I'f  prm  d«  uif  u»  the  bar.  fi-rii'  ».f  the  bar  wa*  niar-inl'i- il   .irar.*:    r' c 

and  lh«"  *.i;  le  ^t-a.- w.-i^  rit«iri;'-d  t<>  parlinmi-tit  pri-Mini-r  anil  bji  nrh!ai:rti  •!  di  f»iab  r  :   \  ■.'.  :*•• 

as  ni«*inl-»T  fi»r  riir»-Mi«-'i!!i.    lb- wa- a  ^uppi  rt»T  uMlily  and  *l«"pi»riei- ff  Fr^kiin*  p-iiri^'d  ai«r- 

of  E"i,  aii'I   ah-'i.4»f.l  tl..it   niiiii-tiT**  fai!iM(><t  di' t  of  ae'j'iitta!.  and  f-ri  «-.l  tJu- bijbi -t  »•!•:■. -* 

Ea-«t  Iiidia  bill.  \  »t  '.:-  par!:ai:ii  nf.try  •»prii!.i  -,  ti^-n  ewii  fr.ini  hi*  i'pj»-.?n'T!:«       Mr    T  -•*♦■  «  •.• 

thifii^'b  t'li  \    lia-.e  pr"^.il!v    ]■- •  :i    tjiwK  rrati  •!,  nrrai/ii-d   Nnv.  1",  a*'!  j  rii:,i»i!'i'-i  •!  ::  t   ^'y 

diaapl^oUitcd     the     l.io'U    el|n.ctatioliS    Kit    hia  No\ .  •'.' ;   his  ac<^ui::al  w^s  k-Ilo««.d  \}    ll.al 


D<r*:i:<r 


EBT8IFELAS  279 


cf  Mr.  Thelwall ;  and  the  government,  in  de-  the  chief  foundation  of  his  fame  is  his  nnmerons 

epair  of  oonvictinff  anj  of  the  supposed  trai-  speeches,  which  retain  in  print  the  brilliancy  of 

ton&,  abandoned  the  other  indictments.     Mr.  thought,  copiousness  of  imager^',  elegance  of 

Erakine  looked  with  favor  upon  the  attempt  at  diction,  and  much  of  the  fervor  which  rendered 

social  renovation  in  France,  and  throughout  them  so  successful  when  delivered.    A  coUec- 

tbe  discussions  upon  French  afiuirs  at  this  pe-  tion  of  his  speeches  at  the  bar  connected  with 

riod  he  opposed  the  interference  of  England  on  the  liberty  of  the  press,  and  against  construe- 

behalf  of  tne  Bourbons.    His  pamphlet  entitled  tive  treason,  by  James  Kidgeway,  appeared  in 

**  A  View  of  the  Causes  and  Consequences  of  London  in  1810-^11  (4  vols.  8vo.),  followed  in 

the  War  with  France  ^'  rapidly  passed  through  1812  by  a  collection  of  his  speeches  at  the  bar 

48  editions.    After  the  peace  of  Amiens  he  vis-  on  miscellaneous  subjects,  and  in  1847  by  his 

ited  Paris,  and  was  presented  to  Napoleon,  who  speeches  at  the  bar  and  in  parliament,  with  a 

however  passed  him  with  the  dry  remark,  Vou$  memoir  by  Lord  Brougham  (4  vols.  8vo.). 

iU$  UgiMte  f    Upon  the  death  of  Pitt  in  1806,  EBWIN  of  Steinbacii,  the  principal  archi- 

and  the  formation  of  Lord  Grenville^s  coalition  tect  of  the  cathedral  of  Strasbourg,  bom  at 

ministry,  Mr.  Erskine  was  appointed  lord  high  Steinbach,  near  Bohl,  in  Baden,  die<l  Jan.  17, 

chinoeUor,  and  created  a  peer  under  the  title  1318.     The  principal  tower  of  the  cathedral 

of  Baron  Erskine  of  Restormel  castle.    This  had  been  completed  in  the  7th  century  under 

ministry  was,  however,  dissolved  within  a  year,  the  reign  of  Dagobert.    It  was  partly  built  of 

ud  he  resigned  his  office  before  having  had  wood,  and  w^as  reduced  to  ruins  by  lightning 

occasioii  to  display  all  his  ability  in  it.    lie  and  successive  fires.    The  nave,  commenced  in 

piiMd  the  remainder  of  his  life  in  retirement  1015,  was  only  completed  in  1275.    Erwin  was 

and  comparative  indigence,  and  unhappily  a  then  request^  to  furnish  designs  for  the  deco- 

flceond  time  married.    In  1815  ho  received  the  ration  of  the  interior  of  the  church,  and  for  Uie 

order  of  the  thistle,  and  he  took  part  for  the  last  construction  of  two  new  towers  and  a  facade 

time  in  the  house  of  lords  in  1820  on  occasion  upon  the  site  of  the  ruins  of  the  old  tower. 

of  the  trial  of  Queen  Caroline.    Lord  Erskine  The  work  was  commenced  Feb.  20,  1276,  and 

vas  doubtless  tho  greatest  of  English  advocates,  the  foundation  stone  of  the  new  structure  was 

tod  his  eloquence  may  be  compared  without  laid  May  25,  1277.    Tho  architect  died  when 

disadvantage  to  that  of  orators  as  illustrious  as  the  work  was  only  half  finished ;  it  was  con- 

Rtt,  Fox,  Burke,  and  Sheridan.    With  an  ani-  tinned  by  his  son  Johannes  (died  March  18, 

mated  counteuance,  polL^hcd  manners,  great  vi-  1339),  and  was  subsequently  continued  chiefly 

vacity  oi  mind,  an  easily  modulated  voice,  and  a  after  his  designs,  which  are  still  preserved  at 

character  that  seemed  always  young,  he  could  Strasbourg,     liis  daughter  Sabina  assisted  him 

lend  himself  admirably  to  every  variety  of  senti-  in  the  decoration  of  the  interior  of  the  church ; 

meat.     Ilis  sympathetic  disposition  made  him  and  another  of  his  sons,  Winhing  (died  in  1330), 

always aeek  a  look  of  applause  in  his  listeners,  and  was  also  an  architect  of  some  distinction.    Tho 

he  onoe  stopped  in  the  midst  of  a  harangue,  whis-  remains  of  this  family  of  architects  are  interred 

pering  to  a  friend  that  he  could  not  go  on  unless  within  the  cathedral. 

that"  wet  blanketofa  face"  opposite  to  him  were  ERYMANTIIUS,   in  ancient  geography,   a 

removed.  However  completely  absorbed  in  pLil-  river  and  mountain  of  Arcadia,  in  Greece.    The 

osophical  discussion  or  in  the  intricacies  of  a  case,  river,  according  to  some  the  modern  Dimitzana. 

he  was  always  alive  to  the  emotions  expressed  in  rises  on  the  frontiers  of  Arcadia  and  Elis,  and 

the  faces  of  the  jury,  which  he  made  the  guide  flows  into  the  Alphcus.    The  mountain,  situated 

oC  his  oratory.     He  has  the  honor  of  having  to  the  east  of  the  river,  formed  the  western 

presented  to  parliament  the  bill  for  the  aboli-  point  of  the  northern  barrier  of  Arcadia,  and 

tioa  of  the  slave  trade,  of  having  pleaded  the  was  covered  with  forests.    It  was  in  this  moun- 

came  of  the  Irish  Catholics,  supported  propo-  tain  that  Hercules  chased  and  killed  the  famous 

■tioiu  for  the  refonn  of  the  penal  laws,  and  wild  boar. 

Boken  and  written  in  behalf  of  tho  strug-  ERYSIPELAS  (Gr.  cpvo),  to  draw,  and  frcXar, 

oiiig  Greeks.     His  noblest  efforts  were  in  be-  neighboring,  from  its  tendency  to  draw  in  the 

Eu  of  constitutional  ft-eedom,  and  during  the  neighboring  parts),  St.  Antuont^s  Fire,  or  in 

Bomentous  struggles  of  the  period  in  which  lie  Scotland,  Ross,  an  inflammation  of  tho  skin 

lifcd  there  was  no  public  man  who  had  greater  characterized  by  redness,  swelling,  and  burning 

p*'*^!^  influence.    There  was  a  little  of  vanity  pain,  commonly  spreading  from  a  central  point, 

m  hia  character,  and  ho  often  conversed  with  and  sometimes  affecting  the  subcutaneous  cel- 

Ur.  Parr,  who  was  remarkably  conceited,  when  lular  tissue.    Idiopathic  erysipelas  almost  inva- 

iMMt  elaborate  compliments  were  paid  by  each  riably  attacks  the  face ;  freciuently  it  is  preceded 

to  the  other.    Dr.  Parr  on  one  of  these  occa-  by  loss  of  appetite,  languor,  headache,  chilli- 

dooi  promised  that  he  would  write  Erskine's  ness,  and  frequency  of  pulse ;  a  spot  now  makes 

tiyitipTi ;  to  which  the  other  replied  that  *^  such  its  appearance,  commonly  on  one  side  of  tho 

M  iitention  on  the  doctor^s  part  was  almost  a  nose,  of  a  deep  red  color,  swollen,  firm,  and 

taqitation  to  commit  suicidc.^^     Ho  wrote  a  shining,  and  is  the  seat  of  a  burning,  tingling 

paBtical  romance  entitled  *'Annntas,  a  Frog-  pain.      Tho  disease  gradually  extends,   often 

■Hat"  (published  anonymously,  8vo.,  2  parts,  until  tho  whole  of  tiio  face  and  hairy  scalp 

London,  1817),  and  a  few  political  treatises ;  but  havo  been  affected,  but  it  is  exceedingly  rare 


L 


280  ERYSIPELAS  ZRmOLMkS  6EA 

for  it  to  pa.«9  upon  the  trunk.    Ofton,  while  another  (^ryW/i^laj  amfttilafu) ;  In  thb  maniirr  it 

■till  adlvaricnif;  in  une  direction,  tl^e  part  ori-  may  i»aM  in  turn  over  aliuc»t  every  part  of  the 

Sinally  artVcti><l  i;*  rvsturctl  to  itd  normal  con-  auriace. — Inplilopnonouserysipelajitbe  prccnr- 

ition.      Ciinitnonly    large    irrvirular    vet«tcle4  lory  nymptonis  are  more  con^tut  and  Mvere,  tb« 

{pklyr(auf)  tlUeil  with  hiTuin,  precisely  f^iniiUr  pain  more  viulent,  the  priMtration  frrvattr;  the 

to  tho>e  pr<Mliu*i*il  hy  n  K*altl,  make  thvir  a|»-  red net»  is  most  strongly  marked  along  tlie  tmnLi 

pearancc  on  the  inflamed  bkin.     The  pulse  is  of  tlio  lymphatic  vessels,  and  the  lympliatic 

frequent,  tlivre  is  total  loss  of  appetite,  head-  glands  are  swollen ;  the  swelling  of  tlie  tikin  is 

ache,  prostration,  ri'stU^tness,  and  sleeplessneius  more  considerable,  it  soon  aswunies  a  pasty  con- 

and  c«*iiitiiouly,  particularly  at  night,  more  or  sistenco,  and  pits  strongly  on  pressore.    A*  th« 

les!*  dilirinui  is  pre^'ut.     Tho  coiM])Iaint  runs  diiteaso  advances,  the  pain  snbaideA,  the  rvidnrM 

its  courM.*  in  al'out  a  week,  and  the  general  is  diminished,  and  fluctuation  becomes  evident : 

iymptoin<«  ordinarily  ahato  t^nnewhat  U>foro  if  left  to  iti^rlf,  the  skin,  gradually  thinned  and 

any  de«>line  is  notii*ed  in  the  UK':d  intluiiimation.  distended,  sloughn  over  a  larger  or  smaller  HMce, 

In  itself  ery«i|>i-las  of  the  face  is  onltnarily  un-  and  pus  mingled  with  shreds  of  dead  ceUalar 

attende«l  witli  dungi-r;  hut  where  it  occurs  in  tissue  is  discharged.    The  disease  indeed  teeoM 

the  ciiurM>  \y(  othir  and  exhausting  disi^ases,  it  <»ften  to  bo  in  the  cellular  tissue  rather  than  a 

adds  nmeli  to  tlio  gravity  of  the  pn>gno«is.     In  the  hkin,   and    sometimes  the  cellular  tisMW 

fatal  ca.*>^>s  the  delirium  i^  apt  gradually  to  lapso  throughout  a  limb  appears  to  bo  affected.     It  is 

Into  coiiia.     Erysipelas  is  sul>je<'t  to  epidemic  adisieasc  of  gn^at  severity,  and  when  extensive 

influenres;  in  certain  hnlm^us  it  is  exci^edingly  often  proves  fatal  under  the  beatt  trratntcuL    In 

¥revalent,   wtiile  in  others  it  is  rarely  seen,  its  treatment,  the  same  general  principles  apply 

he  attack  i^  fuvoretl  by  overcrowding  and  de-  as  in  simple  erysii»elas.    The  patient's  stren^ 

ficient   ventihition.     IIo?*pitaIs,  i>articularly  in  should  be  sup|H>rted  by  a  nutritions  diet,  and 

the  ^pring  of  the  year,  are  iiiK^ted  with  it.  tonics  and  stinmlants  must  often  lie  freely  ad- 

Tho  writer  recollects  a  cmwded  wan!  in  tho  ministered.    The  mnriated  tincture  of  iron  may 

basement  of  liellevuc  hospital  (New  York),  in  hero  also  be  reported  to  with  great  advaatagv. 

which  ft»r  M'Vi-ral  Wi*eks  every  patient  that  was  Early  in  tho  disease  the  skin  should  be  fit^y 

plare<l  in  it  underwent  an  attack  of  erysii>elas,  divided  down  into  the  cellular  tissue,  tu  relirie 

and  many  were  atTected  a  second  time.    Certain  tho  constriction  of  the  parts  and  afford  an  early 

nnheult  hy  stute^i  of  the  system  predis|H»se  strong-  oi>ening  to  tlie  dis4*harges. 

Xto  the  di>4*as<.',  and  an  unwliolesomc  diet  and        ERYTHEMA  (Gr.  c^^mi,  to  reddenX  aa 

e  ahuM.*  nf  alctiliolio  stinmlants  are  ct>inmonly  affection  of  the  skin  chanu^teriiAtl  by  a  flight  red* 

citi'd  amtittg  it"^  caUM*4.    We  ha\e  si-en  that  sim-  ness  without  determinate  fonu.     It  is  general> 

pie  eryMpvl:L'>  i«  rarely  faial;  cun<*i-4Uently  re-  duetotheartii>nofM>mes|K'cial<-an'H'.  asthrbest 

c^^'orics  are  cniiininii  under  a  great  variety  of  of  the  sun.  &c.    Where  it  i?*  prinluci-d  l-y  the  fr.C' 

treatiiient.     I'-Maliy  it   ri'ipiirv^  nothing  more  tion  of  two  contiguous  surfaces  as  frt^iMbtly 

than  to  initve  the  Ihiwi-N  hy  a  mild  lusative,  occurs  in  infants  and  in  tle->hy  ]H*rH^nN  it  i>  often 

and  At'lt-rw  anl  tu  <»iip;ii>rt  the  «y«teni  hy  the  ad-  caIU'<l  inttrtrojo.    Lrythftna  ttdlo^um,  ihesc^cr- 

miiii-: ration  of  nutr:nie:it.  and  it'  nere*>Nirv  the  e!»t  fnrm  of  the  diMii>e,  i<»  chanicteriztti  I  «  li.o 

use  of  «iuiiiine  and  wine  winy.     Where  there  it  eruption  of  iiiinieruus  nnl  ^|Nlt.<«  from  ^  of  on 

great  priMriitiiin,  stintuIantH  may  Ik.'  freely  ail-  inch  tti  an  inch  in  their  hingi-^t  (verticmi*  diAzu- 

niini>tere«l ;  lately  it  I. a<  heen  )>riipi>Ned  to  treat  eter.     ThcM.*  s|M»tM  are  hlightly  elevated  ;  a7'«r 

all  ca^-i  hy  the  a«lmin:-t ration  of  t!.e  tincture  a  few  days  their  c*»lor  deepens  and  po.'^ir^ 

of  the  muriate  of  irun  in  di'M"i  of  from  lo  to  tlirnugh  variou>  shades  of  Mue  and  yrlh**.  t:ic 

SO  drup-  eiery  2  iKiur-*.  and  this  niethiMl  ha.-*  skin  re!*umes  it>  nt»rnial  ml^r.     The  a]1'eriit.<fi 

been  fiiund  eminently  MietH-^ftil.     A  great  va-  i<>  apt  to  hi*  attended  with  fever,  di  pn'^:i»n  uf 

riety  of  external  api'Ii<*ation'i  have  at  ditVerent  strength,    and   derangement  of    the   dii:\»t:ic 

tinu-o  tK-in  ri  I  ommendeil — tijo  n'^e  of  blisters  organs.     Simple  erythema  netd«  n<>  trvarnuLl 

appli«-d  tn  the  rent  re  (if  the  intlann.ii  part,  of  U'Wiud   the  euiphiwuent  of  MNiihiiig   appli«-a- 

an  epithi  III  of  nil  n-uriai  ointm«'tit.  the  hpplu'.i-  titins;  in  intertrigo,  tlie  uml«  of  on  ttl>Mirl^rnt 

tion  of  nitrate  of  •>il\ir  and  of  tim'ture  uf  iiMlini*,  ]Hi\ider,  a*^  l}Cfi|iiMlium,  stanh.  &t ..  n;a«  U  *i- 

dcc.    .\  •>iiii;  le  uu«h  «<f  lead  an>l  npiuiii,  applied  vi^ahle.     Ervthema  no(h»?>uni  i^  U«t  treated  iy 

by  mean- of  liruti  rl>it!i^  satiiratid  it  ith  it,  is  diet.  reM,  and  a  mild  laxati\e;  in  s«tme  ra»«« 

comnioi.lv  gra'.ifiil  t"  t!ie  patit-nt.  and  an^imers  toiiirs  and  inm  mav  tie  um-«1  iftith  ai!%aiitace. 
every  pur] hiM*.    >y-t.-m.iiif' writers  make  a  H-p-        KKYTUK.E,  an  Ionian  city  uf  A*U  MiK<  r. 

arate  \.triety  of  :he  er\  ^iN-la'^  i*f  Uew-tMirn  chit-  on  the  si-a-c^a^t  at  the  extremity  of  a  ^uioil  :*rr.- 

dren :  it  prt-^iit^  iw  ix-i-uliarity,  hi»wever.  ex-  insula.     It  had  a  fine  harlior,  in  fn*rit  of  mn:th 

cept  it-  great <r  •:ra\ity.  in  o'miMoii  with  other  iftere  4  small  i*>les  calUd  lltppi.  and  it  «*•  a 

diM.-aM  •>,    y.i    »i:«  !i    dtiit-ato   orgaiiiom".     Wlieii  s«-heme  of   .Vlexander   the  iir\-al  to  LsidoXv   it 

ery^ifM  la-  of  th"  a^^hanen  fxi'tir'*  in  new -hum  ti«L'i-ther  witli  tlie  adjacent  mountain  of  Mxn^ 

childrtn.  it  r.iTitmtinly  hu<i  it<«  tiiini  of  origin  in  from  the  niaiiiLind  by  mean^  of  a  ronol.    It  ««• 

the  n-iintlji  i:i\i>Ii'«l  i:nihihr,il  iiinl.     In  ^•<I||e  fanieil  fur  its  ^ih\l  or  pn*phetic  wotnoii.    h«  »^*.tf 

case*  er,^  •:{•«!  I*,   ari-iutf  generally    from   k.iuo  U  «»<eupie<l    by   the   m«Hlem   lilUiTf  tif   lutrv 

injury  i»r  »  \i  "r-.-iTii-n.  -liow -.  a  !tiiden<  y  !•»  ad-  mlnre  there  are  many  ruin*  of  the  old  cxty . 
vaiiiv  in  ouc  dircitiun  while  it  pOASvs  a»ay  in        EikYTlili.E.VN  bEA  (lir.  t^l^pi,  f^n^ 


EBYX  ERZROUM                   281 

red,  roddj),  in  ancient  geography,  originally  W.  S.  W.,  about  100  m.,  and  covers  an  average 

tlie  name  of  the  whole  expanse  of  sea  between  breadth  of  abont  30  m.    At  its  western  extrem- 

Afirica  on  the  S.  W^  Arabia  on  the  N.  W.,  Gre-  itj  it  connects  with  the  range  called  the  Fioh* 

drosiaon  theK.,  andlndiaontheN.K,  inclnd«  telgebirge,  wheoe  the  White  Ulster   has   its 

ing  the  two  great  gulfs,  the  Arabian  and  the  source.   The  river  Elbe  defines  its  £.  extremity, 

Pernao.    In  this  wider  sense  the  term  seems  to  flowing  toward  the  N.  through  the  valley  that 

have  been  used  by  Herodotus,  who  designates  separates  the  Erzgebirge  from  the  Winterberg. 

by  it  both  the  Indian  ocean,  of  the  shape  of  On  the  N.  the  range  slopes  gently  toward  the 

wldeh  he  was  ignorant,  and  the  Persian  gul£  plains  of  Germany,  but  on  the  8.  the  descent  is 

diitingn idling  however  the  Red  sea,  the  yam  mf  more  precipitous,  with  deep  and  narrow  valleys 

or  weedy  sea  of  the  Hebrews, which  he  calls  the  running  down  to  the  valley  of  the  river  Eger, 

AnlHan  gull    The  term  17  yorci;  Gakavtra  (south-  which  flows  £.  to  the  Elbe.    The  highest  eleva- 

era  sea)  appears  in  some  passages  of  the  same  tions  are  W.  of  the  central  part  of  the  range. 

hiftoriaa  as  identical  with  the  Erythrroan,  in  Here  are  the  summits  of  Keilberg,  4,212  feet 

oth«n  as  designating  the  more  distant  and  less  above  the  sea;   Fichtelberg,  8,968;  Sohworz- 

known  region  of  the  latter.    Later  and  better  wald,  8,988 ;  and  Auersberg,  3,248.    These  ore 

Ittfomied  geographers,  distinguishing  the  sepa-  granitic  peaks,  but  toward  the  Elbe,  where  the 

nfta  parts  of  the  sea,  applied  to  its  main  body  granitic  rocks  give  place  to  sandstone,  the  ele« 

ths  name  of  Indian  ocean,  and  to  its  great  gulfs  vation  declines  to  a  maximum  of  1,824  feet, 

the  names  ofPersion  and  Arabian,  while  the  term  The  range  is  traversed  by  6  great  roads,  the 

Eiythrean  sea  (Lat.  Mare  Rvhrum)  was  vari-  most  important  of  them  connecting  Prague  with 

cuU  nsed  bv  different  writers  until  it  became  Dresden  and  Chemnitz.    The  valley  of  the  Elbe 

wwfinfd  to  the  Arabian  gulf.    The  origin  of  the  admits  the  passage  of  the  range  by  the  railroad 

same  is  doubtful ;  it  is,  however,  probable  that  which  runs  from  Dresden  to  Vienna.     The 

it  b  derived  from  the  Phoenicians  (or  red  race ;  Erzgebirge  have  long   been  famous  for  their 

Or.  ^otrnf  and  ^oinxor,  red),  who,  according  to  mineral  productions.    Of  these  the  most  im- 

Herodotns  in  Uie  opening  of  his  work,  **  for-  portant  are  silver  and  tin,  the  annual  product 

merly  dwelt  on  the  shores  of  the  Erythrssan  sea,  of  the  former  metal  amounting  to  about  720,000 

whence  they  migrated  to  the  Mediterranean,"  a  oz.,  and  of  the  latter,  from  the  mines  of  Saxony, 

lUtement  confirmed  by  the  critical  researches  to  about  140  tons.    Crude  cobalt,  called  zaffre, 

cf  Rawlinson  and  others.  is  produced  in  Saxony  to  the  amount  of  400 

EBTX,  an  ancient  town  of  Sicily,  occupying  tons,  and  in  Bohemia  200  tons.    Lead  is  ob- 

the  side  of  a  mountain  of  the  same  name  (now  taincd  to  the  amount  of  400  or  600  tons,  iron 

Monte  S.  Giuliano),  on  the  N.  W.  coast  of  the  isl-  from  3,500  to  4,000  tons,  and  copper  about  80 

and,  near  the  promontory  of  Drepanum.  Above  tons.     Other  mineral  products  are  gold,  found 

it  was  a  temple  of  Venus  on  the  summit  of  the  in  small  quantity,  mercury,  arsenic,   bismuth 

moont^n.    It  early  became  a  dependency  of  antimony,  zinc,  manganese,  and  sulphur.    Coal 

Carthage,  was  for  a  short  time  under  the  sway  is  found  in  the  lower  country  near  Dresden  and 

of  Syracuse,  was  captured  by  Pyrrhus  in  278  Zwickau,  and  porcelain  clay  at  Auo,  12  m.  S.  E. 

B.  C,  again  reverted  to  the  Carthaginians,  and  from  Zwickau.    This  is  used  at  the  royal  manu- 

in  the  1st  Punic  war  was  partially  destroyed  factory  at  Meissen. 

by  Hamilcar,  who  converted  it  into  a  fortified  ERZROUM,  a  province  or  cvalct  of  Asiatic 

camp,  removing  the  inhabitants  to  Drepanum.  Turkey,  comprising  the  greater  part  of  Turkish 

A  few  years  later  it  was  taken  by  the  Romans,  Armenia,  and  bounded  N.  by  Trcbizond,  E.  by 

but  the  city  was  subsequently  surprised  by  Ha-  Persia  and  the  Russian  dominions,  S.  by  Koor- 

mikar  Barca,  and  made  his  head-quarters  till  distan,  and  W.  by  Seevos ;    pop.  ditVerently 

the  conclusion  of  the  war,  while  the  Romans  estimated  at  110,000  and  600,000.    It  consists 

oontinaed  to  hold  the  temple  as  an  impregnable  mainly  of  lofty  table-land,  the  elevation  of  which 

The  site  of  the  ancient  city  is  now  is  estimated  at  6,000  feet,  traversed  E.  and  W. 

npied  only  by  a  convent,  and  that  of  the  by  several  ranges  of  mountains,  between  which 

ifne  by  a  Saracenic  castle,  now  a  prison,  sur-  lie  rich  and  extensive  valleys.    Cultivation  is 

loottded  by  the  town  of  San  Giuliano.  here  well  attended  to,  and  the  soil  produces  a 

ERZBERG  (Ger.,  ore  mountain),  a  mining  profusion  of  excellent  fruits,  rye,  barley,  and 

&trict  in  the  circle  of  Bmck,  Styria,  so  called  flax,  and  furnishes  pasturage  fur  large  herd^ 

from  a  mountain  of  the  same  name  which  for  of  cattle.    The  climate  in  winter  and  spring  i^ 

njpfvard  of  1,000  years  has  yielded  vast  quonti-  severe,  and  in  summer  the  heat  is  exoessivo. 

fwiof  iron.     About  800,000  cwt.  of  ore  of  the  The  rivers  Euphrates,  Aras,  Koor,  and  Tcho^ 

bcit  quality  are  annually  extracted  from  these  ruk  have  their  sources  here.    The  niountain3 

wmii^  and  indeed  the  mountain  might  almost  are  inhabited  mainly  by  Koords,  who  acknowl- 

be  ci&ed  a  solid  block  of  carbonate  of  iron.    In  edge  at  most  a  nominal  allegiance  to  the  sultan. 

Utt  a  colossal  iron  cross,  25  feet  in  height,  was  — Erzroum,  the  capital  of  the  above  province, 

cneted  on  its  summit  by  the  archduke  John.  and  the  principal  city  of  Armenia,  is  situated 

SBZGEBIRGE  (Ger.,  ore  mountains),  a  range  on  the  Kara-su  or  W.  branch  of  the  Euphra- 

of  nonntaina  on  the  boundary  between  Bohe-  tea,  in  a  beautiful  plain  about  6,000  feet  above 

Ida  and  Saxony,  and  in  its  southern  portion  the  level  of  the  sea,  80  m.  long  and  20  m. 

^jiaf  diiefly  in  Bohemia.    It  extends  E.  N.  £.,  broad ;  distance  from  its  nearest  seaport,  Tre- 


L 


282  £SARUADDON  ESCHEAT 

bizond,  120  m. ;  pon.  in  ia54t  40,000.    A  In-  ITo  peopled  Samaria  bj  colonies  draini  cbi*3j 

plu  wall  of  Mono  which  noarlr  surruiiml.H  tho  frmn  Haby Ionia.  Hi^  liuildiiif;^  eqnallvtl  in  uia^< 

old  part  of  tho  town,  and  a  larpi'  nutv^ivc  cita-  niticvncc  those  of  hid  predeci-Mdn.     One  in< 

del.  enroinp:i.<vcd  hy  a  double  wall,  and  haviuf^  vcription  8(>eakH  of  30  temples  erected  bj  hiza 

4  stout  ^;it<"i  <'overed  with  platen  of  iron,  aro  in  AsHvria  and  MeAO|iotamia,  ^  shining  with  m!- 

itii  prini-ip.'d  ditenoes.     The  citadel,  however,  ver  and  gold,  aa  splendid  as  the  saa.**    One  of 

14  c«inini:iuded  by  a  hill  in  the  neitrtilajrhood.  the«o  cditices  is  that  known  as  the  S.  W.  p«Iar« 

The  htnet:!  an.*  narmw  and  tilthy ;  the  houses  at  Niniroud,  which,  as  stated  br  Mr.  Lajarv!, 

are  mostly  uf  wikmI,  niud,  or  brick;*  drietl  in  the  "  answers  in  its  general  plan,  more  than  an; 

sun  ;  and  t!ie  wlK»h*  city  i^  infested  with  savage-  building  yet  discovered,  to  the  description  io 

Iu«>kin;;  do^^.     The  princiftal  buildings  are  the  the  Bible  of  the  palace  of  Solomon.**     Another 

Greek  and  Annenian  churched,  and  the  cu>tom  was  erected  at  Nineveh,  and  called  the  paUrc 

Lou^\  lii^^«>ide  which  there  are  about  40  mos4pies  **of  the  pleasures  of  all  the  year,*'  "  a  |»alac« 

and  iiiiuieruus  caravan ^-rais.    Outhido  of  the  such  as  the  kings  his  fathers  who  went  before 

city  are  4  tiuburbn.     The  caravans  travelling  him  had  never  made.'*     In  the  construct iuo  of 

from  Teheran  to  Mecca  usually  halt  here,  and  his  palaces  he  employed  Syrian,  Greek,  and 

an  actiie  trude  is  curried  on  with  all  tho  adja-  Phoenician  artists,  as  well  as  workmen  fnniialMii 

cent  Countries.     Shawls,  bilk,  cotton,  rice,  indi-  him  by  princes  of  Syria  and  Cyprus.    His  work* 

go,  toliuci-«>.  and  madder  are  iiiiiM)rted  from  tho  seem  to  imlicute  a  long  and  prosperoiis  reign, 

east,  and  liro;iih*loth,  chintr^  cutlery,  &c.,  fn>m  lie  was  succeedeil  by  hi:*  son  AssJiur-bani-pal, 

the  we^t  by  the  lilack  sea.     The  exports  are  or,  according  to  Oppert,  by  a  Tiglath-I^lcvcr. 
furs,  gall,  ai)d  live  htock.    £rzn>um  was  built  bj        £.SCALAI)E  (Fr.,  from  Lat.  $caU^  a  lailderl, 

the  ein|KTor  TbeiMlooius  II.  aUmt  A.  I).  415,  in  military  atfairs.  an  attack  on  a  fortitiril  pUea 

and  nail  lid  Tlu'(Mio>io[>oli<t  in  honor  of  its  found-  by  scaling  the   walls  with    ladders*   with^tut 

er.     It  wiK  twice  de!*tr4>yvd  by  tiro  and  pillage,  tho  fonnalities  of  a  siege,  or  raiding  rvgular 

and  in  1-^2'J  was  biken  by  the  Russians.     Its  works  to  protect  the  men. 
presiut  name  is  bUpiNiM.d  to  be  a  corruption  of        E^^CAMHIA,  a  W.  co.  of  Florida,  separated 

Ardzronm^  tlie  laiiu  of  Rome,  the  Turks  fre-  from  Alabama  on  the  W.  by  the  IVrtlido  riTcr, 

quently  a]»plying  the  word  Kuuni  (or  Kome)  to  bounded  K  by  the  E-icambia,  and  S.  by  tha 

any  territory  anciently  recognized  as  a  part  of  gulf  of  Mexico;  area  1,110  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  liM, 

res.     It 


the  Kniiiun  or  Kyzantine  empire.     Its  i>o>ition,  4,351,  of  whom  l,:i32  were  hlavi 

whii'h   ciiniiiiands  the    road   from    PerMa    to  mostly  of  a  level  and  not  very  prwlncti re 

Cun«t:LntiuopIe,  renders  it  Mill   an   imjiortant  try.  covered  with  ex tenMve  pine  fore»ta.  In  1830 

iniliiary  ihM,  as  it  wa-t  in  the  time  of  its  Hy-  ityirldiHl  4.1O0  bu>hels  of  Indian  corn.  4.150 

caiitiiii' in:i«tiT<*,  and  al-o  a  point  of  great  com-  of  sweet    jHttattK-s  and  10J50    Um.    of    ncr. 

iiK-nial  intiTi-^t.     Jt  i-*  tin*  sf:it  of  the  Turkish  There  were  0  chunhes  and  2  newspajter  « dine* 

govi'ri>iir-;.vucrjl.  df  tlu-  Kii;:!!^!!  and  otiier  fur-  in  the  county,  and  *JtjU  pupiN  attei.dir.^  puMte 

cign  <  (>h-ii!<i.  and  tlir  loi-iis  of  the  transit  trade  N'h<i(il<.     Named  from  Esiainbia  rivcr.     Ca^u- 

K'twtiit  K'lri'po  an<l  Trrbi/i>iid  on  tbe  one  hiiiid  tal,  ren'>a<'i»Ia. 

am!   r.  nir.il    A-ia  un«l    iVr-i.i  on   t!ie   other.  ESCWKl'MKNT  (It.  wnrpn,  s\*^\^  of  a  ws"< 

^H.■\lT.ll  A:ii"  ri<;in  ini^^iiHiartL-s  re-ide  here.  in  genh^gy,  a  ^telp  di-clivity  or  pri-i-ipict.*.     The 

K>Al:liAI»iH)N.  Hi>n  and  Mn<v'«'Mir  uf  St-n-  term  i-*  nio*l  ctimmonly  emploji-d  in  f«.'rti£ca- 

niU'lirri*!.  l^it.jr  i,f  .V-^yria,  reipird  in  the  I-t  tion,   in  whirh  it  designates  any  sti-«'p  *:•■;# 

half  «'t' iiK*  7tt(  ciiitur\   H.  i\     He  is  tlie  Sar-  formed  to  opjMiM.^  the  progress  wf  tho  tr.«'iiiT. 

ch«'i)i):i  Mt*  Tt.liit,  ilic  ANiradinu^  uf  the  Canon  In  a  fortress,  the  warp  is  the  exterior  sloj^r  \d, 

of  l*t"!*  tiiv.  ii!id  t!.e  A'^'*}iur-:ikli-l4ldina  of  tito  the  w:dl  wliich  Mip|Mirt!<»  tho  rampart. 

n-Ci-ritU  il.-Miivvred  .\*>'>\riun  in-4-riptiM[is  FVwin  ESCIIKAT  (law  Fr.  rjrA/r,  fnnn  r«-ltfi>  or 

tilt*  l.it^T.  •-••iiipan-d  with  xi  fi-w  pit^-a^^.-^  in  the  echoir,  to  fall  out,  or  la(>M-),  a  failurv  in  the  rctf* 

]H>.)k"«<':    K::ik'«' «-,  xix.  ;i7».  Naiah  (x\x\ii.  oH»,  uiar  descent  of  lauds  whereby  tho  fee  re-vrrta 

Kzr.-k  i:\.  *J-.  ami  Tobit  li.  21  •,  the  hi-tury  of  back  to  the  ori;:iiial  gruntororhis  htir*  if  thrT 

hit    ii  i.vi  ii::t\    U>   Miniiiii-il  Up.    zu'rurding   to  can  I'e  ftnitid.  and  if  not,  then  to  the  iwrnri^n, 

Cfitirj'    U.iwiii  -••n'-*  '•  K**ay  on  ihr  lli^Inry  of  who,  according  to  tlie  feudal  tenure,  w»*  ibe 

A*-.M..i."  ;M  \i  I.  i.  *•!"  hi*  "  IhnKh'tii-i."  as  f«il-  original  HMin*e  of  title.     J^uch  a  f4»lur\»  luay  oe- 

hiu«;   1{.-  (  II rill]  !.i*  arm*  oV(.r  all  .V'*ia  be-  cur  tor  the  want  of  heirs,  iir  of  hurh  liri.-^  aa 

t Hit- II  !).«•  r.:«i:i:i  ^'tili*.  the  .\rna-nian  nioun-  can  inherit  the  particular  eMato.     Tli^ 

tairi".   a:.d   ilic    Mt  diti  rraiit  an,    in.ule    war   on  but  rarilv  Iiuppi-n  as  rt.*lH*cts  an  BK<>i:.tc 

Kj>|»!.  I  ■••.'MuTiil  Sulmi,  (.'ilji  1:1,  ih»"  i-iitihtry  uf  in  fw,  ina^niuih  as  heirs  may  lie  Mii:ght  to  tba 

tin'  <iir:.r.   •r  >:vA\  part-  »•!'  Aruh  n;;i,  .M(.tlia,  reniu!e««t  decree  i»f  ct*llateral  f^H!Vin,:tiinilT  oo 

Mi:i:..ci,   .4;:-I   I'thi-r  « ••un'rii'*.     In  >>i*iana  ho  failure  of  hni-al  dcM't-ndant*;   but  tt  i«  not  an 

c.-i>r::<  ;i'l<  •!  w  .\\i  :lir  "^m  ni'  MiTiHi;ii  !i  liulfulaii ;  unIri"{Ucnt  (•^'currviiiv  w  here  tho  e«tatr  |»  Inn* 

on    .1:1  •in  r    -'T'.  TvUii:K*'  at   hi*  n'urt,  he  Ik.-  itid.  as  in  the  c.i«o  of  a  niarria,:^' »«.!:Ie9»ir.t  b»T 

htfWtil    a    :«r:.!iiry    on   the   i'KL<  t-f   llio   \\t-  whii'h  the  estate  i-i  t»»  d*-Hv!id  to  llie  i*k>«  «*f  ifci 

hian  g'iir*.      ll-.irliaiiili'n  aMi«-.iri    tn   have  heM  niarrtjk'e.  or  of  nn  estate  tad  by  «  hieh  a  hmiLa* 

hi*    i   '.iri    «.  .rr.i  t;:!!!"*    at    Sin«\rli    and    *i-nie-  tjun  is  m.iilo  to  the  lieir-^tif  a  man**  l«^\  l•^ot^J«T 


tinir*  a:  ll.i  .\  ;.»:i.  Id  u  hii  h  latii  r  i  i:y  Man:i**«-h,     h|K."i'ir:eil  h*'irs.  In  lh*.*e  an^l  ana'*V**o«  in*?j 
king  uf  J  udaii,  m  an  led  priauuer  by  his  captalas.    U|»un  the  failure  of  the  heirs  JvsignaXcd,  •ItiAM^k 


ESOHEAT  ESCHENMAYEB                283 

there  maj  be  others  capable  of  inheriting  gener^  which  arise  in  England  upon  the  failure  of  par- 
ally,  the  title  to  the  land  reverts  to  the  grantor  if  ticular  heirs  do  not  occur  nere.  Properly  speak- 
no  other  proviaioo  has  been  made  in  the  deed  ere-  ing,  an  escheat  to  any  private  individual  is  un- 
iting the  estate.  The  escheat  in  each  a  case  is  known  to  our  law.  Not  only  feudal  incidents, 
Mid  to  be  printer  dtfeetum  danguinis.  It  may  but  the  theory  upon  which  they  were  founded, 
liao  oocor  by  an  obstrnction  of  tlie  descent  pnTp-  have  been  abrogated.  In  respect  to  idiens,  a 
tor  iilietum  tenentif^  that  is,  when  there  has  been  statutory  provision  similar  to  what  has  been  en- 
a  coQviction  of  felony;  in  which  case,  according  acted  in  England,  as  above  mentioned^  removes 
to  the  old  phraseology,  there  was  a  corruption  all  disability  of  inheriting  by  reason  of  an  ioter- 
of  blood,  M>  that  the  man  thus  convicted  was  vening  alien  ancestor.  Where  property  is  pur- 
deemed  in  law  to  have  no  heirs.  A  distinction  chased  by  an  alien,  or  has  been  otherwise  ac- 
WH  made  between  treason  and  other  felonies,  quired,  as  by  claim  of  inheritance,  there  being 
Li  the  former  case  forfeiture  to  the  crown  inter-  no  other  heirs,  although  by  operation  of  law  it 
nned  and  prevented  the  escheat  of  the  lands  to  escheats  to  the  state,  yet  is  hb  title  good  until 
theorigioal  proprietor;  in  the  latter,  the  lands  divested  by  some  proceeding  on  the  part  of  the 
of  die  felon  were  intercepted  by  the  crown  for  state  to  enforce  the  escheat ;  that  is  to  say,  it  is 
a  year  and  a  day^  and  then  escheated  to  the  lord  valid  against  all  other  claimants,  and  even  against 
■  the  fee.  By  statute  64  George  III.,  c.  146,  the  state  itself  until  judgment  has  been  rendered 
BO  attainder  for  felony  except  treason  and  mur-  by  some  court  declaring  the  escheat. 
tela  now  permitted  to  defeat  the  right  of  the  ESCIIENBACil,  Wolfram  von,  a  German 
\m  or  other  person  wlio  would  by  law  be  enti-  minnesinger,  belonging  to  the  circle  of  poets 
tied  to  the  estate,  except  during  the  life  of  the  which  near  the  end  of  the  12th  and  the  begin- 
dfeoder.  By  the  common  law  bastards  were  ning  of  the  13th  century  frequented  the  court 
lot  deemed  to  have  any  heirs  except  of  their  of  the  landgrave  Hennann  I.  of  Thuringia  in 
own  bodies,  for  beinff  without  lawful  parentage,  the  castle  of  Wartburg.  lie  was  of  noble  birth, 
they  can  have  no  collateral  kindred ;  therefore  received  the  honor  of  knighthood  from  the  count 
apoa  the  death  of  a  person  of  illegitimate  birth,  of  Ilenneberg  (Poppo  Vll.),  fought  under  the 
leaving  no  issue  and  without  will,  his  lands  es-  banner  of  different  lords  in  the  civil  wars  of 
daated.  So  in  the  case  of  a  man  dying  intes-  the  time,  gained  by  his  songs  the  hospitality  of 
tale  leaving  onlv  alien  relatives ;  as  they  could  many  noble  dwellings,  and  made  his  longest 
lot  inherit,  his  lands  would  escheat.  Formerly  abode  at  the  court  of  Eisenach,  in  the  moun- 
it  was  held  that  there  could  be  no  descent  even  tain  castle  of  Wartburg,  where  the  landgrave 
to  natoral-bom  subjects,  between  whom  and  the  Hermann  collected  the  most  illustrious  miunc- 
deeeased  there  were  lineal  or  collateral  alien  singers.  Thither  he  went  in  1204,  was  associat- 
aMestors  through  whom  they  would  be  obliged  ed  with  Heinrich  von  Ycldeck,  Wolthcr  vou  der 
tod«m ;  but  the  statute  11  and  12  William  III.,  Yogelweide,  and  neinrich  von  Ofterdingcn,  and 
e.  6(,  provides  that  an  intermediate  alien  ancestor  engaged  with  the  last  in  1207  in  the  poetical  con- 
ihaU  not  impede  the  descent  to  one  otherwise  ca-  test  known  as  ^*  the  war  of  the  Wartburg/'  \vhic(ji 
[able  of  inheriting. — ^The  law  of  escheat  in  the  was  at  length  concluded  by  the  magician  Kling- 
Loited  States  varies  from  the'English  in  several  sor,  and  the  legends  of  which  were  collected  in  a 
particolara.  Thus  for  illustration,  taking  it  as  it  wonderful  poem  about  a  century  later.  Esohen- 
ansCainthestateofNew  York,  to  which  there  is  bach  afterward  sang  at  other  courts,  and  died 
a  general  conformity  in  the  other  states,  the  ulti-  between  1219  and  1225.  Some  of  his  poems  are 
■Mte  property  to  lands  is  deemed  to  be  in  the  peo-  original,  and  others  arc  imitations  of  troubadour 

e;  aod  whenever  in  any  private  ownership  there  songs  and  trouv6re  romances.  They  display  depth 

k  fiulore  of  descent  by  want  of  heirs,  the  prop-  of  feeling  and  a  mastery  of  language,  and  Frederio 

ait)  cscheata  to  the  people,  or,  as  is  more  common-  von  Scldegel  has  even  called  Eschenbach  the 

^aaid,  to  the  state.    The  escheated  lands  are  to  greatest  poet  that  Germany  has  produced.    The 

la  held,  however,  subject  to  all  the  trusts,  en-  first  critical  edition  of  his  works  was  by  Lach- 

nnbranoea,  &c^  that  they  would  have  been  had  mann  (Berlin,  1833).    They  have  been  adapted 

Ihorf  descended ;  and  authority  is  given  to  the  into  modern  German  by  San  Marte  (Magdeburg, 

aavta  of  the  state  to  direct  a  conveyance  to  the  1836-^41,  2d  ed.  1858),  and  Parcival  aud  Tiiu- 

fatlSm  equitably  entitled  thereto.    Conviction  rel  by  Simrock  (Stuttgart,  1842;  2d  ed.,  1857). 

af  any  criminal  offence  except  treason  produces  ESCHENMAYER,    At>olf   Karl    August 

■0  isrfeitare  of  lands  or  personal  property ;  and  vox,  a  Gernmn  philosopher,  born  at  Nencu- 

the  ptmishment  is  imprisonment  for  life,  burg,  in  WUrtemberg,  July  4,  1768,  died  Nov. 

icoarict  is  deemed  civilly  dead,  and  his  heirs  17,  1852.    From  1811  to  1836  he  taught  phi- 

by  immediate  descent  as  they  would  upon  losophy  and  medicine  and  afterward  i)ractical 

~  death.    In  the  case  of  outlawry  for  philosophy  at  the  university  of  Tubingen.    He 

there  is  a  forfeiture  of  lands  to  the  state  produced  a  great  variety  of  writing!^,  chietly 

the  life  of  the  offender.    The  lands  of  a  on  philosophy.    His  religious  views  arc  stron«rly 

dying  intestate  who  is  illegitimate  do  not  tinged  with  mysticism,  and  several  of  his  writ- 

inly  escheat,  but  descend  to  his  mother  ings  are  directed  against  the  theories  of  Hegel 

if  Mng,  or  if  ahe  is  dead,  to  the  relatives  on  and  against  the  ^^  Life  of  Jesus^^  by  Strauss.   His 

of  the  mother.    As  estates  tail  do  not  principal  work,  Religionsphilosophie^  appeared 

;ia  the  United  States,  many  of  the  questions  in  Tabingen  in  1818-'24  (3  vols.  8vo.). 


284  ESCHSCnOLTZ  ESOCRIAL 

E5CTTSCIT0LTZ,  Johatcx  FRiEnmcn,  a  Got-  itAnn.    Tho  wholo  edifice  i«  built  of  whi' 

man  naturAlist,  t>orn  At  Dnqmt,  Nov.  1,  1703,  Fp<>tto<l   with    frrar,   rcMomMiti);    frmnii 

ditNl  tlicro.  May  11»,  IH.'U.  Ho  at-companiod  Kot-  quarrioil  on  the  wte.     The  Doric  i<  the  | 

2ehuc*H  i*x[»iHlititm  of  «liscovorjr   (1h15-'18)  as  injj  onlcr  of  architecture.    Tlie  mi»^t  • 

ph>>i('iAn  and  n.itnrali<t,  and  Itocaine  on  hin  re-  foHture  of  the  editice  i;*  the  charrh.  Ixiilt 

turn  i»rnfosM>r  of  nuilicine  and  director  of  the  eral  imitation  of  Jjt.  Peter's  at  Rome, 

irK)l(i;rical  museum  of  t!io  univeriiity  of  Dorpat,  form  of  a  (ireok  cro«  with  a  cnp«»l.i  a 

to  which  !io  pri»«onteil  liis  mineralf>pical  ct>llec-  towers.    It  contains 40 chaneln  with  thvii 

tion.     He  alMi  joined  Kotzobue*ii  nvw  expe<li-  and  U  374  feet  hmp,  S30  broail.  diviiK'*! 

tiim  in  1H23,  puhli!»!)ed  an  account  f»f  it  at  l>in-  aisles  l)ave<l  with  l»iack  marble  and  ri«« 

don  after  his  return  (1>^20K  and  furnished  a  the  dome  riMn^r  330  feet  fn>m  the  iif**\ 

descri]>ti(»n  <if  2,400  FpetMi'S  of  animali  to  Kot-  grand  altar,  90  feet  hi^h  and  50  fct-t  ' 

lehue's  Xme  Reiu  «w  </i>  Wtlt  (Woimar  and  composed  of  jasper  ami  folded  bronze. 

St.  IVtersburp,  lS3iM.  Azuolopcal  mai»  of  these  te<m  pillars,  each  lA  fi»ct  hiph,  of  n-d  an 

animals  was  published  by  liim  in  ni*rlinn^29-  jasper,  HUpport  an  estrade  on  which  the 

*33i.     AmonfC  his  other  most  important  works  plaoetl.     rurphyry  and  marbles  of  the 

UhU  Sj/ffftn  <irr  Aliif^phen:  einf  auffahrlirhe  description   incru^t  tho    walls,  and  on 

JitJirhrfiftun^  alter  medutenartigtn  StrahlthUre  9ide  arc  statue  portraits  of  the  kinp*.     I 

(Horlin.  ls*29).  Tinder  the  hi^h  altar,  so  that  the  h«>«t 

ESiH'I:!  AL  (Sp.  Eitroriah^  a  palace  and  man-  rai««e<l  alM>ve  the  dead,  is  a  mau«4>K-um  \ 

ftfdi'UmofthekinfTiof  Spain,  Mtuate<I  in  Escorial  Philip  IV.,  fmm  a  desi^rn  after  the 

de  Ab:ijn,  a  town  of  S.^kh)  inhabitants,  in  a  bar-  pantheon.     This  burial-place   is  3ft  f«>e 

ren  ri'jnon  2.970  fwt  alMive  the  *iea,  on  the  S.  E.  ameter,  with  walls  of  jasiK-r  and  bUr 

dope  of  the  Sierra  (luadarama,  in  New  Cast  lie,  ble.     Hero  the  remains  of  all  ttie  Sf  >vfn 

25  m.  N.  W.  fnmi  Madrid.    The  correct  title  of  Spain  wnce  Charles  V.  n»|H>«e  in  nirl 

this  cvli-braled  palace  is*' El  real  sitio  de  San  alwve  anotlier.     Another  burial-pKici* 

Lorenzo  ol  real  del  E«coria].*' M»  called  from  hav-  of  tho  chap<'ls  is  calUnl  the  nanthei>n 

\Ti^  l»een  built  iu  fulfilment  of  a  vow  made  by  infantas.     K*veral  fine    paint  in  )^    ad*i 

Philip  II.  tliat  he  would  build  the  most  ma^mifi-  chun'h,  but  it  i»  much  fuom  of  it«  t-ni 

cent  monastery  in  the  world,  if  St.  Ijiwrence  ments  t>ince  it   was  plimdere«l  by  the  , 

would  pive  him  victory  over  t!je  French  in  tho  Ben%'ennto  Cellini's  marble  "Chriftl,"  rr 

battle  ( 'f  St.  Quent in,  1557.  St.  I^nTence  suffer-  to  Philip  by  the  duke  <»f  Tuscany,  and  I 

e<l  marty  nloin  by  Iteint;  bntiUnl  on  a  frridiron,  and  from  Harcelon.-!  on  men's  <ihou1der«,  i«  ^til 

by  a  ipiaint  conceit  of  the  kiniror  his  architects,  here,  and  an  immen*<-ci»]K'ctiiin  of  ^atni! 

the  jrruund  plan  !•»  in  the  fnnn  of  apridiron.  with  ama"*****!  by  tlie  foundi-r  may  al"M>  Ik-  -h**  \ 

hanille  and  bar->  runiplfie.     Vnltaireand  other  interior  of  the  chun*h  is  a  triumph  i<?'  a 

Fri'uch  writer*  have  riaimed  f»r  :i  Frenchman  tural  effect,  prantl.  ma-ifive,  ami  •••!«  inn. 

MiUi'il  I.onis  Vo\\   the  liun«»r  »'f  having  l»een  Mops   are   i»   coh>-<ial   Matuei   in   jrm:;.! 

the  areliite«t  nf  the  EMMiriril.     It   is,  however,  mnrlile   heails   arid    li»nd\    and     t*;^'    • 

beyotnl   dnubt   that   .lii:in    Haiiti'^ta  ile   Tuli'«b>  ThcM*  ari*  called  l!iekir>i>  of.Iiida'ii.    T!;« 

coiiiinniivd  it  fri)!n  hi<  own  plan-,  and  on  his  funn-*  one  side  c»f  artmrt,  farink*  a  llnil; 

deuili.  ill   iri»*.7.  it  wa-*  contiriufil  hy  his  pupil,  tured  j»ortal,  wliirh  MjK'ii'*t»ii-ef"roti  r 

Juan  th*  llerrtTa.     The  fuundatii'n  was  com-  i-^h  inonareli.  oruv  w!ieu  he  i-*  r:irri»i!  \ 

meruvil  on  St.  Lawrenec*-*  day,  April  23,  ITifiH.  it  after  hi'»birtlu  and  onro  aftt-r  l.i«»i!f  .if! 

Twfiitv-oiie  y«-ar^'  lalN»r  and  a   ^^m  e»|Ual  to  3  nobles  and  3  j»rie-t«*  I»tMr  hirn  t-*  iht 

^l,\iMMi,iNNi  Were  fxpenih'd  in  completing:  the  Tlie  royal  ap.irtinenl««  ciMttain  li?i!^'  wi.r 

Wi»rk.     The  ImmIv  nf  t!ie  irriiliron  i*  n*pre**»nt-  notice,  excvptinp  two  pirtnre  piK»  ru- 

e<l   by   17  rari;re«i    i-f  build intr^,  cro-.Mm:   earh  whieh,    however,  mi»^t    of  tlio   rhe/*   i 

oth*T  at  rijhl  aii^rle*.  fonniiii!  a  (•nra!U*h*cr.im  have  bn-n   ri'movi^l   fo   Mailrid.      ih«* 

eUflo-ine  I'l  i**»nrt*.  willi  a  »Mpiare  tom*er  2*»<i  r<H»m   «»f  the   pn-at.    library    \%    1*»4     I 

ffit   in   livi/ht  tlniikiii;:   e.ich  of  the  4  corners  len;rth.  Ji2  in  >iitllh.   an«l  HO  in   h«i;:*i? 

of  till'  br.iMinj,  th^s  npreM-ntinp  a  pridimn  re-  ceilinps  wen'  painttt}  in  fn**co  b'l  Hart*!- 

verM d,  t!ie  tiiWfrs  btiiij;  tlic  upturn*-*!  feet.     A  Cardiieci.     Thr    hbniry    »a*   Mid    Uf 

wifi;:  •!•'•'»  fi-i  t  lo'ij  ri'pri-*>i'fil«  tin*  liandle  <if  tho  Freneli    inva*>ion    to    liavo    ri'nt.'i'.n^-^! 

iii){iKiii«ii?.  Mild  ennr.iin*  the  rnval  apartment^,  print*-!  and  4.".'m»  MS.   voImui'"*.  *«i*  » 

Til*' jiviT;iji*  !h  i^dit  of  t!ie  ualU  i"*  •'•'•  fiH-t.     Tlie  no   aemrati*   e^-Timite  of  i»*  pr»Mi'»r 

tiital  leiiiTfh  of  the  buildini;  it  74^  fii-t  N.  and  It  i*  U'liev*-*!  t*»  contain  U'tw«*t»  4  •*•• 

S.  .in-l  r.NO  fr.t   K    ai.d   W.      It  ct»ntain>4  tlio  (nn»  MS.*^..  of  which  rif.7  ar.- <;r*-,k. '^  I: 

T'V.-il  p.ilme,  r">:d  I'liipil.  niona*l« TV  Hilli  2'»<)  and  1>"0  Arable.     The  Ar.i*ir   M**S 

ci  IN,  2  enlU'iri-.  :i  fh.iptt-r  hoUM--*.  :t  librarii**,  acce-«*iMe  t«i  vi'^itor*.     A  j-^mioT!  i-:  tJ  *• 

B  pr«  at  lril\  O  tJontiiT.irif*.  3  ho-pital  halN.  ^17  wa««  de-troy <^1  liy  tire  in  1»*71,  nrnl  .i^-^»*i  i 

Citlur  li:i!!-,  tf  riffi-t.iri**. .%  infinuaru*-,  a  eo'inl-  The  p-m-ral  a-pn-l  of  the  K"^':;ri.il  i*  li 

I*'**  iiuniSer  of  n]'arTni*-ni4  f»tr  n:tendan:«.  •*•»  fn'-hly  envtol  pile,  ri-inc  fnmi  tS--  n- 

«tairi-iiM«,     1.1  lo    \%ii:th»u4   liMikini;    ouIwmp!  plantation*,  and  TTmrt- impivinj  f"^*?!!  !•« 

and  l,ri7'<  inw:inl.  or,   ineludin;;  o»ithon«»t*.  4.-  tmb-  than  from  jrraniK  nr  iif  ari'hif*vt;:r* 

Ot.iU  windows  iu  all,  bi>»ide  14  pates  and  bO  foun-  E.  and  W.  terroeest  overlook  ibc  iilu]<«> ; 


ESDBAS  £SN£H                       285 

tnd  W.  sides  front  the  mountain,  and  are  con-  seat  of  Claremont  Ilonse,  bnilt  bj  Lord  Cliye, 

nected  with  the  viUage  by  a  subterranean  gal-  afterward  occupied  bj  the  princess  Charlotte 

hry  tunnelled  in  1770  as  a  means  of  communi-  and  Prince  Leopold,  and  still  later  the  residence 

otkm  daring  storms.  of  the  ex-king  Louis  Philippe  and  his  family. 

£SDR  AS,  Books  OF,  two  apocryphal  books  of  Esher  place,  one  of  Cardinal  Wolsey's  man* 

the  Old  Testament,  given  as  the  3d  and  4th  books  sions,  is  also  in  this  parish. 

of  Earn  (the  2d  being  properly  the  book  of  Nehe-  £SK,  the  name  of  several  rivers  of  Scotland. 

miahX  in  several  manuscripts  of  the  Latin  Vul-  L  A  river  of  Dumfriesshire,  formed  by  the  junc- 

p^  as  well  as  in  all  printed  editions  anterior  to  tion  of  the  Black  and  White  £sk,  runs  a  short 

the  deereeofthe  council  of  Trent,  which  declared  distance  along  the  English  boundary,  enters 

the  two  additional  books  nncanonical.    In  the  Cumberland,  and  falls  into  the  Solway  frith, 

Engjiih  aathorixed  version  of  the  Apocrypha  after  a  course  of  24  m.    IL  A  river  of  £din- 

tfaey  are  called  1st  and  2d  Esdras ;  in  the  Cle-  burghshire,  formed  1^  m.  N.  of  Dalkeith  by  the 

■Motiiw  and  Siztine  versions  of  the  Vulgate  they  junction  of  the  N.  and  S.  Esk,  flows  N.,  and 

appear  at  the  end  of  the  volume,  being  inserted,  empties  into  the  firth  of  Forth  at  Musselburgh, 

it  expressly  stated,  in  order  to  **  preserve  from  IIL  Nosrn  Esk,  a  river  of  Forfarshire,  rises 

Wng  altogether  lost  books  which  had  been  among  the  Grampian  hills,  flows  S.  £.,  chiefly 

■omatimea  cited  by  some  of  the  holy  fathers."  along  the  boundary  between  Forfarshire  and 

Id  aU  the  manuscripts  of  the  Septuagint,  the  first  Kincardineshire,  and  enters  the  German  ocean 

fftbese books,  or  the  so  called  8d  of Eizra,  pre-  near  Montrose;  length,  22  m.    It  has  valu- 

ddet  the  canonical  books  of  the  Jewish  scribe,  able  salmon  fisheries.    IV.  South  Esk,  a  river 

vUeh,  in  this  version,  include  that  of  Nehe-  of  Forfarshire,  rises  in  the  Grampians,  flows 

■iah.    It  is  a  recapitulation  of  the  history  re-  S.  and  S.  £.,  and  enters  the  German  ocean  near 

Irted  in  the  canonical  book  of  the  same  name,  ihe  mouth  of  the  H  Esk.    It  forms  a  large 

latanpened  with    some  interpolations  taken  basin  at  Montrose,  but  is  navigable  only  a  short 

bom  i  Chronicles,  Nehemiah,  and  other  sources,  distance  A*om  the  sea.    It  has  salmon  fisheries. 

It  is  written  in  an  elegant  style,  resembling  that  ESMERALDAS,  a  province  of  Ecuador,  in 

flf  Qyoimachua,  though  it  appears  to  be  rather  the  department  of  Quito,  lying  about  the  mouth 

a  Tcnion  than  an  original  work.    The  name  of  the  Esmcriddas  river ;  area,  1,600  sq.  m. ; 

adage  of  the  author  or  translator  are  unknown,  pop.  estimated  at  5,518.    It  is  on  the  coast, 

Iba  Sd  Esdras  or  4th  of  Ezra  is  of  a  difiTerent  and  has  several  harbors,  of  which  the  most 

from  its  apocryphal  predecessor,  and  important  is  that  of  Esmcroldas,  the  capital 

to  owe  its  place  among  the  nncanonical  of  the  province.  Its  soil  is  fertile,  and  pro- 
of the  Ola  Testament  only  to  the  his-  duces  abundantly  cacao,  tobacco,  indigo,  and 
torical  name  which  it  bears.  It  contains  a  num-  many  kinds  of  fniits.  Its  mountdns  are  cov- 
bcr  of  viuons  resembling  those  of  the  Apoca-  ered  with  valuable  forests,  and  have  unex- 
Ijpea,  related  in  a  style  acknowledged  by  promi-  plored  mines ;  its  rivers  arc  rich  in  gold,  and 
Mat  critics  to  rise  occasionaUy  to  great  sublimity  emeralds  were  formerly  found  in  such  abnnd- 
if  thoo^t,  eaerej  of  conception,  and  elegance  ance  as  to  have  given  the  name  to  the  province, 
of  expression.  This  book  also  is  supposed  by  ESNEH  (the  ancient  Laiopolis  or  LaU),  a 
some  to  be  a  translation,  from  the  Ilcbrew  or  town  of  upper  Egypt,  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
GUdee.  But  both  the  original  and  the  Greek  Nile,  lat.  25°  30'  N.,  opposite  Taud,  and  28  m. 
tnulation  mentioned  by  Clement  of  Alexandria  S.  S.  W.  of  Thebes ;  pop.  about  4,000.  It  is  a 
hning  been  lost,  the  b(>ok  was  believed  to  exist  dirty,  poverty-stricken  place,  with  mud  houses, 
obIj  in  the  old  Latin  version,  until  more  recent  and  was  selected  in  1834  as  a  place  of  banish- 
dHooreries  enriched  biblical  literature  with  Ara-  mcnt  for  the  Ghawazee  or  dancing  women  of 
Ue  and  Ethiopic  translations.  This  book  is  as-  Cairo  and  other  females  who  offend  against 
oribed  to  Ezra  the  scribe  by  Clement  of  Alex-  the  rules  of  the  police.  It  is  the  emporium  of 
■dria,  and  was  regarded  as  prophetic  by  most  the  Abyssinian  trade,  contains  manufactories  of 
if  the  fathers  of  the  church,  though  it  does  not  cotton  goods,  shawls,  and  pottery,  and  is  a  cele- 
ippear  to  have  been  known  by  Joscphus.  Jabn  brated  camel  market.  It  was  anciently  a  city 
Mposes  the  author  to  have  been  a  Jew  educated  of  great  size  and  importance,  the  remains  of 
kAialdea,  and  converted  to  Christianity,  who  which  are  mostly  buried  under  large  moynds 
iwiiiLid  about  the  beginning  of  the  2d  century  covering  the  adjacent  country.  In  tlie  centre 
if  our  era.  Dr.  Laurence  maintains  that  the  of  the  modem  town,  however,  surrounded  by 
WHthar  was  a  Jew  who  lived  shortly  before  the  filthy  hovels,  stands  the  portico  of  a  great  tem- 
OMitian  era.  He  accordingly  rejects,  as  in-  pie,  in  a  fine  state  of  preservation.  It  is  sup- 
tnolatknia,  the  first  two  chapters  of  the  book,  ported  by  24  massive  and  elegant  pillars,  each 
mdi  ftunish  the  chief  argument  for  his  ac-  5i  feet  in  diameter  and  40  feet  high.  The 
ariitenoe  with  the  doctrines  of  Christianity,  portico  is  112  feet  long,  53  feet  broad,  and 
kLeabelievea  the  author  to  have  been  contem-  covered  with   sculptures   and    hieroglyphics. 

with  the  author  of  the  book  of  Enoch,  or  On  its  ceiling  is  a  zodiac,  like  that  of  Dende- 

to  have  written  the  latter  work  himself,  rah ;  over  the  dedication  at  the  entrance  aro 

a   village  and   parish  of  Surrey,  the  names  of  Tiberius  Claudius  Ca?sar,  Ger- 

on  the  S.  W.  railway,  15  m.  S.  W.  of  manicus,  and  Vespasian,  and  within  occur  those 

;  pop.  of  parish  (1851),  1,441.    It  is  the  of  Tngan,  Uadrian,  and  Antoninus.  It  is  known 


286                    ESPALIER  ESPABTERO 

to  be  a  work  of  Roman  times,  and  wan  finished  upon  cnpalicm  and  trrllifio«  br  carefal  at 

in  tlie  rcijrn  of  W'spiiiiti.'in.     In  1843  Mvlicmct  and  any  rcquiMto  form  combining  boa 

AH   bad  it  cleared  of  the  rubbisb  which  filled  utility  can  be  secured  for  ornament aI  pi 

the  interior,  and  it  is  now  used  ai  a  cotton  T!io  ohject  in  fruit  culture,  however,  v 

wari'liotme.  cure  an  abundance  of  fruit  bods  in  conHi 

OrALIER  (Fr.,  from  Lat.  pnlta^  a  pole),  a  it**,  while  affording  sufficiency  of  liirht  a 

kind  of  trvlliik-work  u<«ed  in  horticulture,  on  shine.     For  thi;*  pur|>ose  no  other  plan « 

M'liich  to  arraufre  the  hranches  of  fniit  trees,  n>  as  fva.Mblo  as  the  esiudier ;  but  since  the  d 

to  train  them  into  a  horizontal  direction,  and  to  of  the  pear  on  the  quince  stock  has  liee 

exiN»^  them  to  the  light  and  heat  uf  the  sun.    It  tised,  standard  trees  of  dwarf  dimension* 

is  cm  ployed  in  the  I'nited  States  wliero  it  is  dc-  can  be  {tianted   near  each  other,  and 

8irv<l  to  produce  a  great  variety  of  fniits  in  small  trained  like  shmbn  or  bushes,  are  prefer 

enrliisuri'S.   Tlie  espalier  is  fastened  to  the  walls  ESPAKTEHO,  JoAqriN  Baldoiibbo. 

or  higli  fences  of  the  ganlon,  and  dwarf  pears  and  Vittoria,  a  Spanish  soldier  and  statrsmi 

peaches  are  trained  in  thii  way.     In  England,  Feb.  27,  179*2,  in  Ciranatnla,  province  of 

applet  cherrie^  plums,  and  even  gooseberriea  lical.     He  is  the  son  of  a  wheelwright,  i 

are  tlius  trained,  tlie  espalier  not  being  always  some  instniction  in  his  native  villairo  an 

fastened  to  the  walls.    In  France  and  other  parts  neighboring  town  of  Almagro,  enlinted 

of  Euroi>e  the  fastened  espalier  is  principally  as  a  common  soldier,  subse«{uently  atten 

use«l.  and  tlie  ]>each  and  nectarine  are  raisetl  on  military  school  at  Cadix,  was  maile  Mib- 

Buch  frames.     Tlie  esjialier  thus  permanently  ant  in  l^H.  engaged  in  IH15  in  the 

secured  {KMisesses  homo   advantages  over  the  Venezuela,  attained  in  South  America 

system  of  nailing  the  tree  to  the  wall,  which  rank   of  general,   and   in    lh*24  was   i 

renders  it  more  difficult  to  remove  the  insects  Madrid  as  a  bearer  uf  despatches  for  the 

that  are  apt  to  brei'd  between  the  branches  and  nient.     He  returned  to  South  America  I 

the  mull,  and  to  wahh  and  clean  the  trees.     In  year  only  to  witness  the  triumph  of  lii>li 

American  forcing  houses,  the  peach  is  common-  to  be  thrown  into  prison,  fnan  which 

ly  trnine<l  on  espaliers,  so  forme<l  that  the  great-  caped  after  a  few  months'  detention.     A 

est  amount  of  surface  can  be  fairly  ex]K>se<l  to  arrival   in  Spain  ho  displayed  a  large  t 

the  sun   and  air. — ^To  train  to  esjialieni,  the  derived,  it  was  said,  from  gambling  in 

fruit   tree  is  M-lected  when  young,  after  the  America.     In   1h27  he  marrie<l  the  b 

buds  have  made  their  fir^^t  year's  growth.    The  daughter  of  a  m-ealthy  gentlenuin  <*f  L 

stem  <ir  trunk  should  lie  clean  and  straight.     It  He  was  one  of  the  fir>t  to  declare  hir 

i*  ti»  Ik*  rarofuUy  pi ante<l  in  a  properly  prepared  favor  of  the  meaMiro  brought  forwani 

iMirder.  and  heudiil  down  jiM  l»t.'fore  it  l>egins  cure  tlio  siiccev«ion  to  tlio  thrtiue  t*i  I< 

t(»  pii^h  out  for  growing.     When  the  buds  have  and  the  ri-genry  during  li«r  rninfrity 

pu-Iicd  and  grown  :)  or  4  in(*lK*s,  it  should  re-  mother,  Qul-imi  ChriHtina:  and  i>n  the  b 

c.-ive  A  iuniiiier  pruning.     One  KhtKit  is  train-  out  (»f  civil  war  nfier  King  Fenliuand 

ed  |HqH*ndirulurly,  und  the  others  are  laid  In  •ri-  (S*'pt.  2y.  iKJ.'ii,  he  tiMiVs  a  ritu*pii«.i 

ztiiitully  ali'Ug  the  trellis  bars,  one  or  two  each  agnin«l   the   Oirliots    UM-nme    ri*iiinia2 

hide  of  the  Mem.  and  lilxMit  9  inrhes  ap.irt.     If  chief  of  the  pro\inre  of  Hi-M-ay  i.I.in.  1 

the  extrL-niity  of  the  K-nding  vlun^i  be  pinclied  and   Sinm   after  tirld-mar-hul    ati<l    lit ;: 

otT.  leaving  uliout  15  inrhes,  the  Mini  me  r-f<irnied  gt^noral  of  the  rttynl  forcen  i.hine  2*». 

bud<«  will  pn^h  out  in  turn,  and  the  lower  ones  Although   n<it   always  ^u^•'e!>M'lll   iie%i\ 

upon  it  r.re  to  l*e  trained  out  hi iri/ontally  AS  they  ('arli'<ts  h»'  di*i»layed  nion*  n-int  and 

grow,  at  nearly  eiiual  diotanoo  apart.     The  ex-  than  any  of  his  roMeamU'^ ;  and  ha\  inc  pr 

tremilir*  of  then'  branches  are  t«>  Ik*  shc»rtened  Ma<lrid  againM  the  inMirg\'nt<  (.Vujr    1? 

in  nu'ain  Mime  time  previous  to  the  next  spring's  was  appointed  gent  raMn-eh  iff  uf  t.'ie  a 

gritwth.  and  in  niid**uinmer  the  buds  niMin  the  the  north,  vieeroy  of  Navarre,  ai^d  m 

Iciul i II g  shoots  are  to  be  all  nibbe<l  off,  excepting  lowing  month   eaptain-freneral  *i  the 

the  3  upfM'nmM  :  "2  of  theM'  are  to  l»e  train-  province4.     S^in  Altera nnl  he  droVf  t, 

til  oi:t  horizontally,  and  the  upfHT  ii  to  W  the  liM^  from  the  pooiiion  of  Kurhan.t.  and.  i 

li-.tdt-r.     ]ly  thi*ire|ie:ited  pnmin;;And  pinehin;;,  by  the  Hriti^h  tU-tt,  rai-4^1  the  hu».v  if 

short  hteni^  art*  pnHlt:fi-<l,  and  in  due  time  tint  (Ihr.   24.    IKMW,  on    whith  i.<t*a^i«.'n    1 

fruit  bi.'iring  bmii  will  ap|K'.ir.  which   in  the  cn*atrd  count  f>f  I.uchana.     In  the  mcj 

I  tear  are  t<f  {N-ruliar  form,  gn.>wing  upon  what  revolution  wa<4  rife  in  Mailrid.  rfMii:tr.| 

are  tirhiiirallr   r:dii-il  fruit  (ipMr<.  and  in  the  pr<H-!ainatii>n  oi'  a  new  c«>n!*titu!:>«n.  J 

{•tarh  and  plum  an*  di-^tingiii-hed  by  their  ful-  1K'}7.  to  which  F.*>partero.  a«  a  mrntb«r 

ne»^  an«l  roundn<*<"*  and  <*ther  di*»*iinilaritii«  to  constituent  cortex  gave   hi^  aiiht-rvn'*' 

b  af  bniN.     Fan  training  on  e«palier.i  is  prm*-  forced   the  Aniiy   of   I>on    CArbM,   wlin 

ti<HiIiAith  tlie  |>«ai-h  And  nertiirine  e^iK-iially,  Advance«l   to   the   waH*  of  Mi^lnd  <.S 

ainl  »<inii'tin>r4  with  tite  ai>rieot;  thi^  con*i*»t4  Is.'Ci,  to  n*tre.nt,  and  drove  it  liark  air 

in   training   the   branches  hi  as  to  i^pr^'A*!  ob-  Kbro.    (>n  April  27,  1n!Ih,  {|^(l,-f«.^r^  i>n 

liij'ifly  npManl  like  the  r.-ivo  or  sticks  of  a  fan.  gii«  the  aniiy  of  the  (*ArIi«t  p-neral  N«i: 

H'ith  the  (H-ar  an«l  apple  the  horizontal  mode  ii  MH>n  afterwanl  m^ar  IVnacemwla  that  v 

adopted.    iUnj  dowering  ahmbs  cad  be  traiiicd  (iuerguc :  aud  after  gaioing  new  and  uo; 


ESPABTEBO  ESPINEL                     287 

Tktories  in  May,  1839,  he  was  created  (Jane  1)  received  on  board  an  English  ship  of  war  in 

agrandeeof  the  first  class  with  the  title  of  duke  the  bay  of  Cadiz,  July  80,  whence  he  soon 

of  Vittoria  and  of  Morella.    Skilfully  availing  afterward  set  sail  for  England,  arriving  at  Fal- 

hhnself  of  the  dissensions  and  calamities  of  the  mouth  Aug.  19.    He  resided  in  London  until 

Garliata,  and  of  his  personal  acquaintance  with  Dec.  29,  1847,  when  he  was  recalled  to  Spain 

their  general,  llaroto  (the  successor  of  Guergue),  and  created  a  senator.    lie  took  his  seat  in  the 

who  had  been  his  companion  in  arms  in  South  senate,  Jan.  13,  1848,  but  soon  retired  to  Lo- 

America,  he  succeeded  in  concluding  a  conven-  groAo,  and  took  no  part  in  the  government  until 

tioo  with  him  at  Bergara  (Aug.  29,  1839),  by  July  17,  1854,  when  an  insurrection  broke  out, 

which  24  battalions  of  veteran  Garlist  troops  which  again  drove  Christina  and  Narvaez  from 

acknowledged  the  supremacy  of  the  queen,  the  country  and  replaced  Espartero  at  the  head 

Don  Carlos  fled  to  France,  the  few  troops  that  of  the  government.    His  administration  was 

rmiaiDed  devoted  to  him  were  dispersed,  and  marked  by  violent  debates  in  the  cortes  on  the 

Gibfera  himself  the  most  formidable  Carlist  political  institutions  of  Spain,  by  the  agitation 

letder    after   the   death   of   Zumalacarrcguy  of  the  question  of  the  estates  of  the  clergy,  by 

(18S5),  was  at  length  overpowered   by  £»-  a  severe  financial  crisis,  and  by  various  other 

MrterOy  and  compelled  to  follow  his  master  to  difiSculties  at  home,  while  the  Crimean  war 

ranoe  (Joly  6,  1840) ;  and  thus  the  war  with  created  some  embarrassment  in  foreign  rela- 

tfaa  Garitsta  was  at  an  end.    But  the  strife  of  tions.    With  a  view  of  consolidating  his  govern- 


political  partiea,  in  which  Espartero  now  took  a  ment,  he  had  appointed  O^Donnell,  the  princi- 
cunent  part,  continued  to  distract  the  pal  leader  of  Chnstina^s  party,  minister  of  war^ 
A  law  interfering  with  the  freedom    but  this  coalition  could  not  last,  and  Espartero 


«f  speech  in  the  ayuntamientoi  or  town  coun-  resigned  in  July,  1856.    His  resignation  was 

dK  passed  by  the  government  and  opposed  by  followed  by  outbreaks  in  Madrid  and  other 

fi^iartero,  became  the  signal  for  an  insurrection,  towns,  in  which  Espartero,  however,  who  has 

Strtero  made  a  triumphant  entry  into  Madrid  since  lived  in  retirement,  did  not  take  any  part. 

Valencia,  whither  he  had  been  summoned  ESPINASSE,  Espbit    Chables   Mabie,    a 

hj  Christina,  who  proposed  to  place  him  at  French  general,  born  at  Saissoc,  Audo,  April 

the  head  of  a  new  administration.    But  in  2,  1815,  killed  at  Magenta,  Juno  4^  1859.    He 

dM  coarse  of  a  stormy  interview  with  him,  served   in  early  life  in  Algeria,    assisted  in 

the  qoeen  suddenly  determined  to  resign  her  the  coup  d'etat  of  Dec.  2,  1851,  and  became  an 

offiee  of  regent  (Oct  10,  1840),  and  retired  to  aide-de-camp  of  NaiK>leon  III.    In  the  Russo- 

France.    Espartero  became  the  chief  of  the  Turkish  war  he  was  at  first  imsuccessful  in  an 

fOTemment,  and  was  confirmed  in  his  position  expedition  in  the  Dobrocya  (1854),  where  ho 

Df  a  decision  of  the  cortes  (May  8,  1841),  by  and  his  troops  were  prostrated  by  the  cholera ; 

which  he  was  appointed  regent  of  Spain  during  but  he  distinguished  himself  in  1855  during 

the  reminder  of  the  minority  of  Isabel.    He  the  battleof  thoTchernaya  and  the  storming  of 

raiiAed  the  encroachments  of  the  holy  see  as  the  Malakoff,  and  was  appointed  general  of  di- 

wdl  as  those  of  the  extreme  republican  party,  vision.    His  devotion  to  Napoleon  and  his  un-* 

foelled  an  insurrection  in  favor  of  Christina  compromising  energy  of  character  caused  him 

aider  O'Donnell,  at  Pamplona,  defeated  the  to  be  made  minister  of  the  interior  and  of  pub* 

Mtempts  of  Concha  and  Diego  Leon  to  seize  lie  safety,  Feb.  8,  1858,  Orsini^s  attempt  upon 

tiM  yonng  queen  and  to  bribe  the  army,  re-  the  emperor^s  life  being  made  a  pretext  for  in* 

Sied  the  unruly  spirit  of  the  people  in  the  vesting  a  soldier  with  the  functions  of  a  civilian. 

oe  provinces,  and,  on  Nov.  18,  1841,  sub-  But  dictatorial  and  unpolished,  ho  could  not 

Barcelona,  the  focus  of  the  revolutionary  maintain  himself  in  his   office.    M.  Dclangle 

y«Jitw>Un«  and  the  discontented  industrial  pop-  became  his  successor  (June  14,  1 858),  while 

ML    But  within  a  year  the  country  was  the  general  received  a  scat  in  the  senate.    Ho 

.  in  open  rebellion.  A  new  and  bloody  con-  was  among  the  first  to  join  the  army  in  Italy, 

broke  out  at  Barcelona.    Espartero  took  and  fell  early  in  the  battle  of  Magenta. 

ftt  town  (Dec.  1842)  after  a  heavy  bombard-  ESPINASSE,  Mllb.  de  l\    See  Lebpinasse. 

Mat    Violent  outbreaks  took  place  iii^many  ESPINEL,  Vicente,  a  Spanish  poet,  born  in 

rf  the  provinces.     His  refusal  to  grant  an  Ronda,  Andalusia,  about  1540,  died  in  Madrid 

*"■  city  to  political  offenders  who  were  parti-  about  1630.    His  father^s  name  was  Francisco 

of  Christina,  and  to  dismiss  some  of  his  Goma,  but,  according  to  a  prevailing  custom 

who  had  taken  a  conspicuous  part  in  among   the    ancient    Granadan   nobility,    ho 

g  the  Barcelona  insurgents,  sealed  the  adopted   the    name  of  his   maternal  grand- 

of  his  administration.    His  cabinet  re-  mother.    The  incidents  of  his  life,  like  the  dates 

Mpmd,    Bevolntion,  promoted  by  the  agents  of  his  birth  and  death,  are  surrounded  with 

liQiriatina  and  supported  by  Concha,  O^Don-  obscurity,  but  it  is  certain  that  he  was  educated 

mIi  and  Narvaez,  spread  over  the  land.    The  at  Salamanca,  and  that  ho  led  an  adventurous 

Jala  of  Barcelona  declared  the  majority  of  life  in  various  parts  of  Europe.    In  the  latter 

JHbd  (Jane  13,  1843),  and  deposed  Espartero.  part  of  his  life  he  held  an  ecclesiastical  office  in 

;,  pnttins  himself  at  the  head  of  the  nis  native  town,  though  he  passed  much  of  his 

Its  at  Valencia,  entered  Madrid,  July  22 ;  time  in  the  capital.    Ho  was  through  the  whole 

deserted  by  all  parties,  was  of  his  career  moro  or  less  in  pecuniary  trouble. 


e\ 


288               ESPIBTTO  SANTO  ESQUDIAUX 

and  died  in  (nvnt  povcrtr,  althaagh  he  was  tho  edition  of  his  work^  without  the  IHdllo  J 

nciptiMit  uf  n  iK.'n«ioii  fn»in  tlic  archbishop  of  was  publi:>hed  in  Madrid  in  1840,  and  cm 

Tolodo.     liii  ri'stlcM  and  MircaMic  disposition  cludiuf;  it  in  Taris  in  185fl. 

contribute*!  not  a  little  to  a^^ravato  his  diffi-  ESQUIMAUX,  a  name  given  to  a  race  w 

cultii*!s  and  alivnati**!  from  him  Cervantes  and  the  m>Ic  inhabitant!)  of  the  sliorcs  of  all  tin 

otlivrit   of   hii(  friends.      He  was    prominent  bays^inlets,  and  ifJands  of  America  K.  of  h 

anionic  the  Siiuni»li  (KHfts  of  the  16tli  and  17th  N.,  fromtlie  E.  cooHt  of  Greenland  tu  Ik-l 

centurteft,  uiid  the  tirst  |K>ctical  productions  of  straits.     Their  habitations  stretch  olon 

liOfie  de  Veica  were  Mibuiitted  to  his  criticism.  Atlantic  on  the  coa^^t  of  Labradur  to  the  i 

Some  of  Iiis  eaneiofu$^  reJomlilloM^  pastorals,  of  Belle  Isle,  and  they  are  found  on  the  I 

and  elegies  are  spirited,  pirtureM]ue,  and  harmo-  as  far  as  Uie  peninsula  of  Aliaska,  and  ei 

niuus  in  vvr^itioatioll.     lie  was  also  proficient  some  extent  on  the  opposite  coa>t  of  A«ix 

in  niuM(\  ci>ni|K>sed  the  music  for  the  funeral  entire  length  of  coaat  under  their  cimt 

■ervicti  on  occasion  of  the  death  of  Philip  II.,  computed  at  not  Ivas  than  5,400  mile*  < 

and  is  said  to  have  added  a  6th  string  to  the  sive  of  inletn,  and  the  language  spoken  thr 

guitar,  wliich  K)on  led  to  the  invention  of  Uie  ont  this  great  range  U  intrinncallj  the 

0th.    But  his  chief  wurk  is  his  sprightl3r,amns-  The  name  of  Esquimaux  is  derived,  m 

ing,   and  cliarAi-terisiio  **  Life  of  Marcos  de  ing  to  Charle%'oix,  tirom  the  Algonquin 

Obregon"  {h\iacion€$  dt  la  tida  drl  t9cudero  likimantici^  which  signifies  ^'etUers  o^ 

Miirroi  de  Ohrtgon)^  which  fin^t  appeared  at  fish.^*    6ir  John  Kicharason,  bowe%'er,  t 

Barcelona  in  1018,  and  has  since  pasMKi  through  it  is  of  Canadian  origin,  and  derived 

several  iilitionn  in  Snain,  of  which  that  of  the  phnue  Ceux  quimiaux  {miaulmt}^  "' 

Madrid,  l^SiU,  is  tlie  lust.    An  English  trans-  who  uicw,**  referring  to  their  peculiar  ftb« 

lation  was  uiaile  hv  Algernon  I^mgton  (London,  they  surround  tradmg  ves^'hi  in  tluir  1 

I81ti).    Tieek  wrote  an  imitation  in  Qemian.  lie  adds  that  the  word  is  unknown  to  th 

Voltaire  accuricd  lie  Sage,  who  was  no  favorite  quimaux,  whoinvariabW  call  tlieins<*)vi'>  / 

with  the  Mge  uf  Feniey,  of  plaffiarism  in  con-  ^*  the  ]»eople.^'    Crantz  describes  thc'iireiE 

nection  with  this  work,  and  denounced  the  ern,  between  whom  and  the  oilier  tribes  c 

*^Gii  Bias*' as  taken  entirely  from  Espiners  quimaux  there  are  few  points  of  ditTi-rtrD 

**  Marcos  de  Obregon.**  a  small  but  well  proportioni-d,  bmad -^hulll 

ESIMK I  TO  SANTO,  a  maritime  province  of  peoole,  generally  less  than  6  fevt  in  hi 

Brazil,  l»uunded  N.  by  the  i>nivince  of  Baliia,  witu  high  clieek  bones,  fl.*u  fun^  Mnall  li 

H.  by  Kio  Janeiro,  W.  by  Minas  Geraes,  and  less  black  eyes,  ruund  chcek-s  Mnall  Ita 

£.  by  the  Atlantic ;  area,  2«),(K>0  sq.  m. ;  pop.  flat  noses,  hmall  round  niouthn.  liing.  rtn 

acronling  ti»  government  returns  published  i»  coal-black  hair,  large  heads  and  I  in  il-i,  oikI 

Is-jti,  61.u«Kt,  alnnit  i  being  Mnves;    capital,  Kifl  hands  and  feet.     They  nnjt  out  thv  t 

Vittoria.     It  !jas  a  lieulthy  clininte  and  a  rich  and  are  inclinc«l   to  cor]»uIency.     Tlivir 

but  ill  cultivated   mW,  wateretl   by  numenms  is  t>f  a  dark  gray  color,  but  the  f.icv  I  p'l 

rivL-rs  wliirh   ri^c  among  the  Cordilleras  and  blue.     This  broun  cnlor  K'cms  ni't  alt>v 

flow  into  tiio  A:Luiiii\     Camnvs  as<*end  the*H)  natural,  because  their  thildnn  are  U^rn  a- t 

Btrvnnis  marly  to  their  K)nn'es  and  coasting  as  others,  but  i*«  due  in  part  to  their  hal  it* 

ve.-^-eK  Carry ii.g  on  an  exiN»rt  trade  in  rum,  they  are  con^tant]y  h:uidi ing  gn*aM.\  mid ik 

nnrvtim-d   Mitrar,  niandioca,  tlour,  rice,  mnize,  W{i.sh   theniM.'Ivcs.      I^r.^son  deM-riU*  tht. 

cottim,  timber.  d\eotiitV%  dni;:4,  nnd  salt  ti^h,  sui»erstitit»us  to  excev^  and  iMX><H-^*>^tI  *■(  i 

frequent  the  dvip  and  sife  harlM^rs  forme<l  at  va^ue  r«.-Iigious  K'ntiuK-nts  which  |i«.t->»J 

their  nil  Kith  4.     Along  the  co:f*t  are  the  islands  tho  northern  trilK"«.     Polygamy  U   ]  rsi-1 

cuUetl  the  A!*ro]h(i4.     ( »|»{)o>ite  tt»  them,  on  tho  and  women  are  reganlctl  it<  creatnrt-s  i>f  a 

river  Caravrllas,  [•*  tin*  town  of  Caravellas,  the  ferioronler,  to  Ik*  dU^iKnk.tl  uf  by  tin*  tmn  an 

nio^t  t'oninieroial  town  uf  tlieiTovince,  and  ifin-  ing  to  their  iilea'<nre.    Their  dwellings 

tainint;  a  <firnian  tolmiy.     The  interior,  c(»v-  nun*t  in v:iriaMy  built  near  the  M-a-^orv, 

ered  iAi:h  nti*'inta!n4  un<l  diiiM)  forests  is  pciK  either  pemuinent  ur  temporary  u(V>)r\!!i:^  U 

pud  uliuo-t  whiiiiy  by  Indian*.     Among  thooo  Htuutiun  and  the  materi:U'«  at  the  di^f^M 

art*  the  H<>t iH:udi.»A,  nu*e«l  lor  their  bravery  and  the  workman.     In  (ireenland,  «hir«  ilttir 

CannihahoMi.  manent  dwelling  i-*  built  uf  !>tone  iirKDtK 

E>rK«  )NrEI>.V,  JiVifc  iiK,  a  Spani-^h  poet,  bom  turf  a**  a  Mib«»titute  fvr  mortar,  it  i*  u-uaiij 

at   Aliin.-ndr.ilijo,   K-tremuilura,   in   IM"^,  died  niuro   than   t»  or  8  tVit  high,  and  i«  cor 

Ma\  'il,  IhtJ.     Tiie  lilieral  |M>litio:d  hentinivUts  by  a  thit  nnif  of  wikkI  and  turf.     I:  li^«  Dri 

of  hi^  earl>  virtiouins  canH.-d  hini  to  Ik.'  H.-nt  for  d'.Mtr  nor  chimney,  and  the  l1o«.r  i«  d:%.ii«d 

^o[lu•  time  into  e\i]e.    While  in  Kramv,  he  t'Hik  compartments  by  hLin<  attatln-d  to  \Ia-  \ 

part  in  the  rtvolntion  of  ls;:u.     I'ndt  r  tlie  nd-  that  Mip(>ort  the  TinY.     luiA-h  family  ha.*  a  i 

ni)niMr.itMn  of  K^partt-ro  he  rereivid  a  dij  lu-  rate  apartment,  and  ear!i  apartuM'bt  a  «d 

Uiatir  appfininunt  al  ti.e  n.v^UM  IMO».    ll«>de-  of  Mai  skin  dried,  whit  h  i«  white   and  U 

vo'.nl  much  attentii^n  tti  lUnin''*  work«,  ^»hi«h  partiit.     lUnrheH  z^re  u^d  as  H-at«  during 

lie   i-ndf.k>i>ri-4l    !•>    imitate.       IIi<4    bt-ot    {HHin.  day  uMil  :e*  roiirhv*  d'.irinkX  the  nirht«  the 

thonch  iii.tiniohvd.  it  \ii^  J\l  I  fiiMo  Muntlo,  and  di::;;  hiing  coiiip«i«ifI  i>f  n  iinWr  ^kiks.     Ic 

LU  Inrst  novil  b  hia  /Vn  Sihchif  Syaldatla,    An  bert  sound  the  huUMrs  are  made  of  wvmI, 


ESQUIMAUX  289 

It  Regent's  baj,  according  to  Sir  John  Ross,  to  mn  on,  and  is  placed  well  forward.    Mach 
the  roof  is  arched,  and  the  habitation  sunk  8  taste  is  displayed  upon  the  bow  and  stem  of 
feet  in  the  groand,  a  description  of  house  gen-  the  oomiak,  but  the  Esquimaux  chiefly  prides 
eraDj  found  among  the  Esquunaux  of  Labrador ;  himself  upon  the  beauty  and  speed  of  Ins  cmk^ 
bat  Uie  most  remarkable  houses  are  those  built  in  which  ne  defies  the  storm,  and  does  not  hesi- 
of  the  bones  of  whales  and  walruses  described  tate  to  approach  and  give  battle  to  the  polar 
W  Sir  Martin  Frobisher  and  Sir  Edward  Parry,  bear  and  other  monsters  of  these  high  northern 
Tliej  also  frequently  construct  dwellings  of  seas.    Next  to  his  boat  the  Esquimaux  attaches 
BDOW  and  ice.    Both  Dr.  Kane  and  Dr.  Rae,  most  importance  to  his  sledge,  which  is  drawn 
boROwing  the  soggestion  from  the  natives  of  by  dogs.    It  is  sometimes  constructed  of  wood, 
this  high  polar  region,  constructed  dwellings  of  but  bone  sleds  are  almost  exclusively  used  at 
fliow,  which  they  found  to  be  both  useful  and  Schismareff  inlet  and  Regent's  bay.    At  Re- 
agreeable.    The  dress  of  the  Esquimaux  con-  gent's  inlet  the  sled  is  made  of  a  number  of  sfd- 
BitB  of  ftirs,  in  the  preparation  of  which  they  mon  packed  together  in  the  form  of  a  cylinder 
exercise  a  degree  of  ingenuity  superior  to  that  about  7  feet  long,  encased  in  skins  ts^en  from 
of  die  most  snlful  furrier.    The  wilAer  coat  is  canoes,  and  well  corded  with  thongs ;  2  of  these 
uoaUj  made  of  seal  skin,  while  the  summer  cylinders  are  pressed  into  the  shape  of  runners, 
eoat  Gonaists  of  that  of  the  reindeer ;  but  every  and  having  been  left  to  freeze,  are  secured  by 
Tiriet  J  of  fur  is  occasionally  used.    At  Prince  cross  bars  made  of  the  legs  of  the  deer  or  musk 
Wiffiam's  sound  the  natives  wear  skins  of  the  ox.    The  bottom  of  the  runner  is  then  covered 
tea  otter,  fox,  raccoon,  martin,  seal,  and  water  with  a  mixture  of  moss,  earth,  and  water,  upon 
fowL    At  Scliismareff  inlet  those  of  the  rein-  which  is  deposited  about  half  an  inch  of  water^ 
deer  and  doe  are  generally  used,  at  Resent  in-  which  conceals  in  the  act  of  application.    Hiese 
let  Uioae  of  the  polar  bear,  and  at  MelvLUe  pen-  sleds  travel  more  lightly  than  those  shod  with 
iBBiiIa  those  of  reindeer.    The  overcoat  is  sup-  iron ;  but  as  they  cease  to  be  of  service  when 
pBed  with  a  large  hood,  often  bordered  with  the  temperature  rises  above  ^e  freezing  point, 
white  fur  of  the  deer,  which  when  drawn  over  they  are  then  taken  to  pieces,  and  the  fish  being 
the  head  presents  a  lively  contrast  with  the  eaten,  the  skins  are  converted  into  bags  and  the 
dark  face  of  the  wearer.    Those  worn  by  the  bones  are  given  to  the  dogs.    The  l^uimauz 
females  have  a  much  larger  hood  than  those  hunt  with  bows  and  arrows,  spears,  and  slings. 
xmd  by  the  males,  which  not  only  furnishes  a  They  are  fond  of  ornaments,  and  carve  with 
eorerizig  for  the  head  but  a  cradle  for  the  in-  much  skill.    Capt.  Logan  informs  us  that  he 
fent.    Tlie  boots  of  the  females  are  remarkable,  found  on  the  £.  coast  of  America  models  of 
and  are  sometimes  made  so  large  in  the  leg  as  men,  women,  and  children,  of  beasts,  birds,  and 
to  resemble  a  leather  sack,  which  gives  a  sin-  fishes,  executed  in  a  masterly  style,  and  with  no 
niar  and  ludicrous  aspect  to  the  whole  figure,  mean  knowledge  of  anatomy.  The  ivory  or  wol- 
Theae  capacious  pouches  are  used  as  pockets,  rus  tusks  of  which  they  form  their  models  are  cut 
la  temporary  beds  for  infants,  and,  when  in  the  by  continued  chopping  with  a  knife,  one  end  of 
vicinage  of  white  men,  as  receptacles  for  stolen  the  ivory  resting  on  a  soft  stone,  which  serves  as 
nods.    As  they  are  much  upon  the  water,  they  a  block.    To  smooth  and  polish  the  work  when 
devote  considerable  attention  to  the  construe-  finished,  a  gritty  stone  is  used  as  a  file,  and  kept 
ton  of  their  boats.   These  ore  of  two  kinds,  the  constantly  wet  with  saliva.    The  impressions 
miai  or  men's  boat,  and  the  oomiaJc  or  women's  of  Dr.  Kane  and  Dr.  Rao,  the  two  most  recent 
boat    The  caiak,  nrst  described  by  Baffin,  is  travellers  among  the  Esquimaux,  ore  somewhat 
adqited  but  for  one  person ;  it  is  about  16  feet  at  variance ;  while  Dr.  Kane  had  reason  to  doubt 

S\  8  feet  broad  in  the  centre,  and  1  foot  deep,  their  good  faith  and  to  suspect  them  of  treach- 

bears  a  resemblance  to  the  weaver's  shuttle,  ery.  Dr.  Rae  found  them  simple,  well  meaning. 

The  bottom  is  rounded  and  has  no  keel.    The  and  trusty.  Richardson  represents  them  as  scru- 

ftme  is  kept  stretched  above  by  22  little  beams,  pulously  honest  toward  each  other,  but  utterly 

ad  2  strong  battens  run  from  stem  to  stem,  regardless  of  the  property  rights  of  strangers. 

vUck  towara  the  centre  are  attached  to  a  hoop  They  subsist  almost  exclusively  upon  fish  and 

if  bone  of  sufficient  size  to  admit  the  body,  animal  food,  which  the  rigor  of  the  climate 

Ike  frame  is  entirely  covered,  with  the  excep-  enables  them  to  eat  raw,  and  in  large  quan- 

tfoa  of  a  circular  hole  in  the  centre,  with  fresh-  titles.    Fat  of  animals  and  fish  oil  constitute 

4iMiul  seal  or  walrus  skin.    When  complete  their  chief  delicacies.    Mr.  John  Simpson,  who 

fte  boat  weighs  about  60  pounds,  and  is  so  was  physician  of  the  ship  Plover,  Com.  Ma- 

eoMtmcted  that  it  can  be  carried  on  the  head  guire,  which  wintered  twice  at  Point  Barrow 

witfaoDt  the  aid  of  the  hands.  The  oomiak  is  from  (1852  and  1854),  wrote  *^  Observations  on  the 

ID  to  85  feet  long,  8  feet  broad,  and  capable  of  Western  Esquimaux  and  the  country  they  in- 

neonmiodating  from  10  to  20  persons.    It  is  habit,"  which  ore  contained  in  the  "Further 

eonposed  of  me  same  materials  as  the  coiok.  Papers  relative  to  the  recent  Arctic  Expedition 

"^  "  often  furnished  with  a  lug-sliaped  saiL  in  search  of  Sir  John  Franklin,"  presented  to 

of  the  intestine  of  the  walrus,  sewea  the  English  parliament  in  1855.    lie  states  that 

ar  with  ffreat  skill  in  breadths  of  about  4  their  principal  settlements  at  Point  Barrow, 

,  and  weighing  less  than  4  pounds.    The  Cape  Smyth,  Point  Hope,  and  Cape  Prince  of 

has  a  neat  ivory  sheave  fur  the  halyards  Wales,  are  ii^abited  during  the  whole  year ; 

VOL.  vnj — 19 


290  BSQUIRE 

bot  Wainwright  inlet,  Icy  capo.  Port  Clarence,  irbich  conld  be  gained  only  in  the  pnifeMioii 
and  Norton  sound,  tiio  coasts  of  Kotzebuo  dT  arms.  In  the  ages  of  chivalry  tlue  cylbce  uf 
found,  and  other  settlements  and  huts  along  esquire  followed  that  of  Talet,or  page«and  was 
the  coast,  are  only  inhabited  during  the  winter  the  last  degree  of  apprenticeship  before  attain* 
and  doiierted  in  summer.  Their  commercial  ing  the  honor  of  knighthood.  (See  Chit alkt.) 
places  are  King-ing  on  Cape  Prince  of  Walet,  E^uires  were  attached  to  the  courts  of  grvas 
Besua-Iiiig  at  the  moutli  of  the  Nu-na-tak,  Nig-  lords  and  to  the  persons  of  knigiits,  and  wert 
a-lek  at  that  of  the  river  CobriUe,  and  Nu-wu-  divided  into  various  classes  according  to  the 
ak  on  Point  Barter.  Four  or  five  A&iatic  boats  ofiices  which  they  performed.  The  e»quir«  oif 
are  engaged  in  Uio  trade,  and  land  their  frci^t  the  person  acorn panied  his  master  almost  erery- 
at  Sesuu-ling,  where  a  species  of  fair  is  held  to-  where,  carried  his  helmet,  armor,  shield,  gaunt- 
ward  the  end  of  July,  which  is  distinguished  lets,  and  banner,  held  the  stirrup  when  he 
not  only  for  its  active  commercial  but  also  for  mounted,  anned  him  at  the  moment  of  comhai, 
ita  pleasant  social  cliaracter.  Dealers  who  re-  gave  the  martial  cry  as  he  entered  battle,  and 
side  on  the  shores  of  the  Nn-na-tak  tike  the  supported  him  if  he  was  overthrown  in  tht 
most  active  part  in  the  business,  and  distribute  fight.  The  esquire  of  honor  did  the  boours  of 
the  merrhandise  am<iiig  the  people  of  the  inte-  the  castle,  made  preparations  for  festive  aasem- 
rior.  Tliey  eitlier  forward  them  or  bring  them  blies,  conducted  guests  to  their  chambers,  and 
annually  in  sliips  to  the  river  Colvillo,  where  dressed  and  undressed  his  master.  In  war  be 
they  meet  their  friends  from  Point  lUrrow.  In  kept  guard  over  the  prisoners  taken  by  bis 
the  beginning  of  August  the  goods  are  token  mas^ter.  The  esqnire  of  the  chamber,  or  ebam- 
from  tiience  to  Point  Darter,  wliere  they  are  berlain,  had  charge  of  the  gold  and  silver, 
bartered  fur  English  and  oUier  products.  Ac-  esiMcially  of  the  plate  for  the  table  scnrice. 
cording  to  )lr.  Simpson,  Sir  John  Franklin  was  These  3  esquires  were  treated  with  confidence 
mifetakon  in  his  belief  that  a  Russian  settlement  and  familiarity,  and  were  permitted  to  ap- 
ezisted  on  the  Colville  river,  and  that  the  Rus-  P||[OAch  their  master  or  mistress  at  any  time. 
sian  settlers  were  called  Nu-na-tang-menn,  this  The  esquire  trenchant  always  stood  aft  tbe 
being  the  name  applied  by  the  Esquimaux  to  repasts,  and  his  office  was  to  carve  tbe  Bcatt 
the  dealers  from  the  Nn-na-tAk,  who  are  the  fac-  and  distribute  them  to  the  guests.  The  csdura 
tors  of  the  Russian  implements  and  wares  which  of  the  stable  was  an  imfiortant  officer,  bis  aaly 
are  found  along  the  N.  ci»ast. — It  is  a  question  being  not  only  to  take  charge  of  the  horsey 
with  w!iat  i>ortion  of  the  human  family  the  Es-  but  also  to  keep  the  arms  of  tlie  knigbt  in 
quimaux  are  to  be  classiticd.  Most  ethnologists  good  condition,  and  to  guard  against  any  dcfiKt 
liave  c'IxsimmI  them  with  the  yongolians  ;  both  which  might  be  dangerous  or  fatal  to  his  master 
Hr.  (tuIUtin  and  Mr.  I)u|>onceau,  however,  give  in  battle.  E^^juire^  of  all  cla^MMt  wens  deToUd 
to  thi-m  the  hame  origin  oa  tliat  of  t!ie  hunting  to  learning  the  arts  and  rkill  of  their  mA^Srr, 
trilK'A  of  Ntirtti  American  Indian^,  an  opinion  exitecting,  usually  nut  before  7  yearn  of  si-r«ice, 
in  wliii-f)  Dr.  Prichuni  entirely  coincides.  Mr.  their  elevation  to  the  dignity  of  knighlh<x^ 
Ualliitiij  savH  that  *'  there  dtii-?*  not  M't-ni  to  be  with  t!ic  right  to  a.v«ume  gulden  spur*.  After 
any  fr^'lid  foumlatiun  U»t  the  opiniun  of  tliuso  the  decline  of  ehivolry  the  title  of  eatquirv 
will)  witnld  a!i<Tibe  to  the  K^}uiinuux  an  origin  nmineil  in  France  attorhetl  to  various 
different  from  that  <»f  the  Nt>rth  American  In-  Tlie  office  of  grand  e-^iiuire  or  e«iuerry  was 
dian#.  The  color  and  feature  are  esMrntiolly  of  the  mottt  conMderaUe  in  the  kingdom,  « ith 
the  >.in)e,  uiid  the  ditTerenru^  whirh  eiii^t,  pur-  extensive  pri-rogativcs,  and  the  dii»{*o^  uf 
ticulttiiv  in  Mature,  may  be  euMily  accounted  nunieruUA  Mnaller  offieeA,  huch  a^  the  emjuirrs 
fur  by  tlu*  rip»r  of  climate,  and  partly  perha|Hi  of  the  htaliU-«.  L'i»on  the  entrance  uf  the  kus^ 
by  tlif  n:itare  of  thvir  fiiMl.**— Si<  **Synt>pMS  into  cities,  hv  morchetl  immetliatvly  lieft»r«  him, 
of  the  Iiuliun  TrilieH  of  North  America,"  by  carrung  the  royul  sw(»rd.  I'imiu  the  dv*lh  ftf 
AlU-rt  (iallatin,  in  Archiroltftjia  Amcric*ina^  vul.  the  king  the  hopk'S  and  hAnivsM*A  of  tlie  ru«a] 
ii.  (W<Tri-«t«-r,  l^:{t•),  aiid  the  narrutivvs  uf  Muble  iKcanie  hiA  pn>iKTty.  This  oAte  and 
Franklin  anil  the  other  arrtic  explorers.  thork>  de|>endi'nt  ujion  it  were  »u[ipre«#«d  at  tLe 
ESi^riKE,  orS<jrii:K  (I^t.  tfutt/er;  old  Fr.  revolution,  were  revive«l  under  the  empirv  and 
ftruur,  a  ^hieliMieariT).  tiriginally  a  warrior  the  re!iti»rutii>n,  ogain  diMipi>eare«i  in  l?vK\  aa4 
anneil  vi  itli  ^.Meld  ami  Juvi  lin.  I'nder  the  later  M>nie  of  them  have  been  re«-»taMi*khrd  by  Nas^»- 
Koiiian  eni|MroM  tlie  r.rime  wai«  applied  to  leon  III.  In  England  the  title  uf  equine  W 
suKlivrt  of  the  iiio^t  afiiirovetl  \alt»r.  to  whom  h»ngfi  by  riu'ht  of  birth  to  the  font  of  tootle 
e<«|KTi.iI!y  wa-i  a"oi/i;e<l  tlie  det'enre  of  the  sons  of  duke^  and  marquiM-s;  t^t  all  the  wcs 
palai't-  xi!id  per-Min  **{  the  i  miK'nir.  The  name  of  earK  viMHtunt^,  and  han»ii4;  to  the  tMir*( 
wa4  Bill i|.ti«l  in  Kranre,  fn mi  the  earliest  i»eriod  sotK  of  barumts  and  of  knightji  vf  all  ibt 
of  tlie  itiiiiiun  li\.  to  de^ijjnate  thoM.*  holding  onlen>.  Tlie  title  i<  a!*«»  gi\en  to  the  o£e«n 
the  f.r*t  rank  in  the  army,  w  huv*  bravery  was  of  the  kinL''!^  court  and  hi>u«c>huld ;  to  i^e 
rewanSfl  with  free  grants  of  land,  and  whi»  officers  of  the  onny  and  na^y  do«n  to  tbe 
were  »:yli«l  gentlemen  or  nnble^.  Hy  de-  captain  inclii«ive ;  to  dui*tor«  uf  law,  l^arr.*- 
gnv«  tlie  <{i:ality  of  nobility  wa.«  di-tininii^hed  ters  phyMcians  justices  of  the  }ieace  while  ta 
fn  »Tn  that  uf  e^^uire,  and  a  |»erM»n  ennobled  for  ruin  mission,  and  the  vheritrs  of  c«»nntM  for  lA, 
civil  S4*rvirvs  could  Dot  take  the  hitter  title,  The    heads   of  many  old   familiee  an    also 


ESQUIROL  ESSENES  291 

deemed  esqairea  by  prescription.    The  title  is  Fathers  and  other  Teachers  of  the  Catholic 

DOW  hardly  more  than  complimentary  in  Eng-  Church  on  the  Necessity  of  Bible  Reading,"  8d 

land,  as  in  the  United  States,  and  is  Tery  gener-  ed.,  Sulzbach,  1822),  and  Pragmatiea  Doetorum 

illy  affixed  to  the  names  of  gentlemen  in  the  CkiikoUcoTum  Tridentini  eirca  Vvlgatam  !)&• 

iOMrseription  of  letters.  ereti  Sentum  n6G  non  lieitum  Originalia  Uimm 

fSQUIROL,  Jban  Stiinns  DoxnnQUX,  a  Te$tantium  ffistaria,  a  prize  essay  (Sulzbach, 

French  physician  and  philanthropist,  bom  in  1816;   German  translation,  Tdbingen,   1824). 

Tonkmie,  Jan.  4, 1772,  died  Dec.  12, 1840.    He  His  views  on  this  subject  did  not  meet  with  the 

was  pnrsoing  his  studies  at  Paris  when  the  rcTO-  approbation  of  the  bishops  of  Qermany  or  of 

hition  broke  oat,  and  led  him  to  enter  the  medi-  the  pope. 

cil  serrioe  of  the  amiy.  In  1794  he  attended  the  £SS£,  a  French  village  in  the  department  of 
mHitary  hospital  in  Narbonne,  and  on  his  retnm  Hle-et-Vilaine,  near  Vitry ;  pop.  1,800.  In  its 
to  Paris  he  became  Dr.  PinePs  assistant  in  the  environs  is  one  of  the  finest  druidical  monn- 
SafyitrUre,  and  took  at  the  same  time  an  able  ments  of  France,  called  Roche  aux/ees,  consist- 
part  in  the  editing  of  Pinel's  medical  journal  ing  of  43  lar^  rough  blocks  of  stone,  84  np- 
{Mideeins  dinique).  In  1799  he  found^  a  In-  right,  supportmg  8  others  which  form  a  roof. 
natie  asylum,  which  became  the  model  of  all  ESSEN,  Hans  Henbik,  count,  a  Swedish 
amilarinstitntionsafterwardfonnded  in  France,  general,  of  Livonian  descent,  bom  in  Kaflfts, 
and  aabseqnently  spent  much  time  in  visiting  West  Gothland,  in  1755,  died  July  28,  1824. 
the  ▼mrioQS  Inxiatic  asylums  of  France.  He  He  was  educated  in  the  universities  of  Sweden, 
waa  appointed  physician  to  the  ScUpStriire  in  and  his  attainments  as  well  as  his  graceful  and 
1811.  In  1817  he  opened  a  course  of  clinical  chivalric  bearing  caused  him  to  become  a  fa- 
toctarea^  in  which  he  pointed  out  the  reforms  vorite  of  Gustavus  IIL  He  accompanied  that 
■eeded  in  the  treatment  of  lunatics,  and  at  prince  in  his  travels  abroad  and  in  the  cam- 
the  flame  time  he  prevailed  upon  the  govem-  paign  of  Finland,  was  of  great  assistance  to  the 
flMnt  to  appoint  a  commission  on  the  subject  king  in  the  course  of  this  campaign,  and  waa 
of  which  he  became  the  most  prominent  and  with  him  on  the  fatal  night  when  Gustavus, 
naloas  member.  The  new  lunatic  asylums  at  although  wamed  by  Essen  against  the  designs 
Rouen,  yantea,  and  in  the  other  French  cities,  of  his  enemy,  persisted  in  attending  the  masked 
m  well  as  many  other  improvements  calculated  ball,  where  he  was  murdered  by  Anckarstroem. 
to  benefit  the  insane,  owe  their  origin  to  his  In  1795,  after  having  accompanied  the  duke  of 
benevolence.  In  1823  he  became  inspector-  Sddermanland  and  the  young  prince  Gust^vns 
feneral  of  the  university  for  the  faculties  of  Adolphus  to  St.  Petersburg,  Essen  was  ap- 
medidne,  and  in  1825  physician-in-chief  to  the  pointed  governor  of  Stockholm.  Subsequently 
royal  institution  for  the  insane  at  Charenton.  he  became  governor-general  of  Pomerania  and 
In  1880  he  was  deprived  of  his  offices  in  conse-  of  ROgen;  and  in  1807,  as  commander-in-chief  of 
qunee  of  his  opposition  to  the  July  revolution,  the  Pomeranian  army,  he  distinguished  himself 
bat  he  continued  to  the  time  of  his  death  in  by  his  defence  of  Stralsund,  and  brought  about 
the  practice  of  his  profession.  lie  contributed  an  honorable  trace  with  France.  But  the  kinff 
naay  important  papers  to  the  Eneychpedie  dei  was  dissatisfied  with  Essen,  and  himself  assumed 
fiat  du  m<mde^  and  to  the  great  JDietionnaire  the  command  of  the  army,  which  caused  him  to 
immieneei  medicale$.  In  1838  he  published  a  retire  from  active  service  until  the  accession  of 
Buie  elaborate  work :  Det  maladies  mentaleSy  Charles  XIII.  to  the  throne.  Charles  created 
flWMiJt'i  Ce$  mnulei  rapports  medieal^  hygUnique^  him  a  count  and  member  of  the  council,  and 
^midko-Ugal  (Paris,  2  vols.  8vo.)  appointed  him  ambassador  at  Paris.    Here  his 

ISS,  HsiNRicn  Lbaxdbb  van,  a  German  Ro-  efforts  were  successful,  and  Pomerania,  before 

■la  Catholic  theologian,  bom  in  Warburg,  West-  passing  eventually  into  the  possession  of  Pras- 

tfia,  in  1772,  dic^  in  Afiblterbach  in  1847.  sia,  was  for  a  short  time  restored  to  Sweden. 

entered  the  Benedictine  order  in  1793,  and  Under  Bemadotte  he  marched  in  1813  at  the 

oAdated  as  pastor  in  a  village  from  1799  to  headof  the  Swedish  army  against  Norway ;  and 

1811,  when  he  became  pastor  and  professor  of  when  the  two  countries  were  united,  he  became 

theoiogy  at  the  university  of  Marburg.    Con-  governor  of  Norway,  with  the  title  of  Norwe- 

jHBtly  with  his  cousin  and  fellow  Benedictine,  gian  field  marshal  and  chancellor  of  the  univer- 

KbI  van  Ess  (1770-1824),  he  published  a  new  sity  of  Christiania.    In  1816  he  was  removed 

Gennan  translation   of  the   New   Testament  from  this  position,  but  in  1817  he  was  made 

9^miwick,  1807;   20th  ed.,  Sulzbach,  1830),  governor-general  of  the  old  Swedish  province 

vUeh  is  highly  valued.    They  also  published  of  Scania. 

Db  AUe  Tistament  (Nuremberg,   1819),  and        ESSENCES.    See  Essential  Oils,  and  Ez- 

Af  HeUige  Sehrift  Alien  and  Neuen  Testa-  tbacts. 

Mate  (Snlzbach,  1840).    He  made  himself  wide-        ESSENES,  a  remarkable  Jewish  sect,  not 

\f  lunni  by  his  endeavors  to  promote  the  mentioned  in  the  Jewish  or  Christian  Scrip- 

9mSaig  of  the  Bible   among   the    Catholics  tures,  and  concerning  whom  the  only  original 

of  Qaiuiany,  for   which   purpose    he    wrote  sources  of  information  are  passages  in  the  works 

Jmmig§  ams  den  heiligen  Vdtem  tind  andem  of  Josephus  and  Philo,  both  of  whom  lived 

Itkrwm  der  hUk.  Kirche  uber  doe  nothtoen'  about  the  time  when  the  Essenes  had  reached 

dif$  BUdUesem   0^  Extracts   from   the   Holy  tbeir  highest  point  of  development.    Philo,  a 


fSa  ESSENTIAL  OILS 

■ 

^iiriple  of  the  Alexandrian  pliiIo«<)pliy,  and  at-  bo  obtainc<1  bj  cxpreMing  the  partA  containing 

trarttfd  by  thoir  inystirul  and  si»voulative  turn,  them,  ta  the  rind  of  the  oraogi*  and  Ku>*<n; 

5 Wen  tlie  fulIiT  instriirtinn  oai corning  their  and  Kimetimcs  they  are  w>  cvanc^vnt  m  to 
(tctrincs.  Ji>so|iliiis»,  who  lived  in  Palestine  ei*caj>o  in  the  ordinary  mode  of  wearing;  tl^m 
where  the  conini unity  tluuri>!ied,  and  wasi  ac-  by  distillation  with  water.  The  inechJd  thtrn 
Cordinic  to  his  own  »itutenient  in  early  life  a  adopted,  as  in  securing  the  oil  in  which  lii-s  the 
menilKT  of  it,  treats  of  them  particularly  in  delicate  fragrance  uf  the  tubero!^?,  nari'i!Ma«» 
their  outward  ri'lut  ions.  The  Eiisi'nes  first  appear  jasmine,  d:c.,  is  to  arrange  the  flower*  in  lay - 
in  hi>tory  in  t  he  huter  half  of  the  2d  century  u.Ct  era  with  cotton  imbued  with  some  fixed  and  in- 
as  a  s<.»ciety  of  piouMy  disiH>sed  men,  who  in  the  odorous  vegetable  oil.  This  graduaUy  al«orU 
Bolitudes  on  the  Wi*stem  side  of  the  Dead  Bea  the  volatile  oil  of  the  flowers,  &ud  when  tL« 
•ought  a  retreat  from  the  corruptions  and  con-  cotton  is  afterward  digested  in  alcohol,  the 
flicts  of  the  world.  They  lived  un  austere  life,  volatile  oil  is  taken  up  by  this  fluid,  and  an  e*- 
held  their  pro]K*rty  in  mmnion,  wore  a  white  sence  is  obtained.  It  may  in  K>me  caK-i  be 
robe,  prayed  and  meditated  continually,  made  separated  also  by  distilling  the  cotton  with  water 
frequent  ablutions,  for  the  mo!»t  iiort  renounced  or  alcohol.  The  odor  of  the  oil  is  ulU-n  \cu 
marriage,  and  often  practised  meuicine.  On  ac-  agreeable  than  that  of  the  plant,  which  b  pr\'b- 
oount  of  the  latter  practice  ikime,  as  Bellermann  ably  owing  to  its  greater  concentration,  aa  by 
and  Gfn'iror,  identity  them  with  the  TherapeutJB,  dilution  it  is  made  more  pleasant.  The  oils  are 
and  find  the  origin  of  their  name  in  the  Aramaic  often  colored  some  shade  of  red,  brown,  yrIU>v, 
word  KCX,  to  cure.  They  sacrificed  no  animals,  fS^^^  ^^  ^1°*-N  ^"^  ^^*^  ^*  ^*^^  always  fixed, 
and  instead  of  going  themselves  to  won»hip  in  the  Their  taste  is  hot  and  pungent,  bat  nuJle  plct*- 
temftle  of  Jerusalem,  ther  sent  their  ofierings.  antly  aromatic  by  diluting  them.  8ome,  hov- 
Contenming  logic,  metaphysics,  and  even  ph^s-  ever,  are  i»oisonous.  They  bum  witti  a  bright 
leal  science,  as  useless,  they  gave  their  attention  and  often  smoky  flame.  The  feeling  of  then 
only  to  ethics,  recognized  no  other  authority  upon  the  hand  is  not  greasy  like  that  of  the 
than  their  own  sacn*d  books,  and  taught  the  fixed  oils,  but  rough,  and  a  cork  moist«ii«d 
equality  of  men  and  the  entire  supremacy  of  with  them  grates  harshly  when  turned  in  the 
destiny.  Abstinence  and  labor  were  the  chief  phial.  Their  specific  gravity  varies  from  U.MT 
features  of  their  life.  Their  number  at  the  be-  to  1.17.  Thev  boil  at  various  degree*,  lome 
ginning  of  the  Christian  era  was  al»out  4,0<)0,  at  32u^  F.,  and  a  few  otliers  reuuire  a  higher 
and  during  the  religious  and  iM>litiral  btorms  temi>erature.  £x|N>sed  to  the  air  and  light  at 
which  sweiit  ovi-r  Palestine  in  the  l»t  and  2d  ordinary  temiteraturess  they  absorb  uxy^a, 
centuriis,  they  di-^WK'arLtl  from  view,  i»erhaps  become  of  a  darker  color,  of  thicker  consi^u-s- 
by  l»eiiig  4'<infouiiili-tI  witli  tlie  Chri>ti:m  a'<<*eti«'s.  cy,  and  are  finally  changinl  into  re^in,  »«M.ii.:i:..<« 
In  the  trliH-urity  wliich  covers  t!ieir  origin  and  into  acid  CitmjMMmd-i.  Mo<>tof  them  run «:«:.  IJie 
the  s{*eciulities  of  their  condiu't  and  iilea^  they  the  fixed  oils,  of  a  thin  fluid  and  aM^Iid  pr^^lu^C, 
have  been  variim^ly  conipured  totlieitld  Ileiirew  which  may  Ik;  sep;irati'd  at  a  cold  tem(«erA:'«ri} 
ichtHiN  of  prophet'*,  the(iri*ek  I*ytluigoreansand  by  compressing  the  sulwtonce  betwivn  f<'.0.<  \jif 
stoic-,  the  Christian  monks,  and  the  nuMleni  i».iper.  The  camphor-like  product  rallid  by 
Qiiuki.T<t.  Ik*  C^uiiicey  has  Hiu;;)it  tfi  identify  iWrzelius  stearoptene  i>  retained  within  '^m 
tliem  witli  the  early  ('h^i^tian^  w  If),  ^urruundeii  folds,  while  the  oily  fluid  calK-d  ei:uo|.%iA*  ( j.«0«« 
by  dangv'-s  a.-«umfd  the  name  and  mkhIo  of  life  thrnugh.  The  ultimate  anaI\sisot  the  «.-:«««  :.^:aI 
of  the  K*«Miu-9  as  a  div^*i^\  alike  imiK-iietrable  oils  atfords  in  mo^t  in>tance9  carbon,  hjdr-^a, 
to  .lewi.-h  or  K<»iiian  eiieniie-i,  and  to  timid  and  oxygi-n.  Some,  how evi-r,  pro vv  tol-eii* 
or  tri-ai-lK-rouH  brrthn'n.  M<'n(i;;riipli-i  on  the  drt»carbon,  iHintaining  no  oxygi*n  ;  and  in  :!.r«o 
£<«^'ni-s  havi*  been  writti-u  l»y  lU-lUTnianii  (IUt-  the  pro[»ortion  of  carbtin  is  iK-twi-vn  k*^  and  ^9 
lin,  l^^'JI  t.  Sauer  (Breslau,  IvJl'i,  and  LeutlK'chcr  i>erixnt.,  and  of  hydnici-n  Utwivn  11  and  13 
(.Xni^tcrdani,  ls">7).  |»er  cent.,  which  would  be  ixprvvK-d  by  ihv  f.c- 
(ISSKNII.VL  <>IL^,  calh-d  also  vi>latile  oilt,  mula  i\  1I«.  Nitrogen  is  found  as  a  0'C*:i:- 
and  di*>tiik-il  f'lU,  oily  priHlucti  derived  from  uent  of  some  of  them,  and  >u!phLr  i»  ukI  *-.:h 
plants,  generally  by  di-tilling  purtion-i  i*f  them  in  tlie  oils  of  muMurd  aiitl  of  hursi*  radi^!..  T^ 
with  water.  The  aipieinis  vapor  vihich  pa>^-s  a^rreeuble  odors  ri'talned  by  many  of  the  oils 
over  carries  \iith  it  the  vajM»r  of  tlie-H.*  oils,  cau-n;  them  to  l»e  largely  uW  in  |i^rfumrfy. 
though  their  iNtihi:;;  pi lint  i^  often  higher  than  Their  nu'^lirinid  pro]*erties  ali^o  nndir  tsj^y 
that  of  wattT.  They  rMudenM*  ti>;;etlier  in  the  of  them  valuable  agents  in  pharmacy.  «»- 
receiver  of  the  ht ill,  tl.i*  f til  r>>nitii<>n]y  l!ii:iting  |»ei'ially  as  {Kiwerful  hlimulaiiL'^.  S.>n:<  arw 
n|Ni:i  the  wiktt-r,  M>inet>nies  sink  in:;  beneath  it.  largely  emphivetl  in  the  manufui-tuiv  of  |a.:.U 
A  p<»rt Kin  appears  til  !•<•  taken  lip  by  till' water,  antl  varni**!ies,  and  !M*nie  have  Uxn  u.441!  f.« 
givinc  t<i  it  the  |H-euliar  ("h'r  a:id  prMiHTtie-^  of  illuminating  puriMi<H.-s. — nMHUtio!  oils  anr  'r^ 
the  <pil  in  a  lev«  drgr«-^\  Thi<>  i-eju! i-> I  medicated  quently  lulult^  rated.  The  pre<««'nctf  of  !Lii>l 
and  perfumed  wattr.  The  oils  co'itain  in  a  oiU  luidisl  in  them  for  tliin  p ur| ••.»««- may  l«  ^lo- 
ci •neentmttil  fi>rni  tlie  fr.ip:r:Ln<i>  uiA  k-^f<-ii\\ii\  teeN*!  by  the  grea«y  Main  left  ui**'n  |*a|^-r  n:i.':.*- 
pro|MTtie«  <if  the  I  loiit,  iir  f*'  thf  |<ir!iMn  of  it  tened  viitli  the  liipiid  autl  exiK»^-d  t4>  heV.  -i^- 
emplM^eil,  ai:d  wht-n  kept  i!i«^']\«-'l  in  a!>'i>hiil  cieiit  todriveotf  the  \olati*e  oil.  A!»A'I.- «  '•» 
cou.ttitutc  tlie  v»»vLces.    They  may  bt^metimes  detvcti'd  by  various  tcstj,  as  by  addii.^  «. 


ESSEQUIBO  ESSEX                      298 

•nd  agitating  the  mixture,  which  becomes  mil^  of  about  460  m.,  much  of  which  lies  through 
if  alcohol  is  present,  and  the  bulk  of  the  oil  is  magnificent  forests,  enters  the  Atlantic  in  the 
reduced  as  the  fluids  separate  on  standing,  by  N.  W.  part  of  the  colony,  by  an  estuary  14  m. 
the  alcohol  leaving  it  ana  going  with  the  water,  wide.  It  forms  many  islands,  3  or  4  of  which, 
A  piece  of  potassium  as  large  as  the  head  of  a  of  considerable  size,  are  in  its  estuary.  The 
pin  will  remain  nearly  15  minutes  in  contact  manati,  or  river  cow,  the  electric  eel,  and  the 
with  a  dozen  drops  of  pure  oil  without  change ;  peri  or  <miahy  a  voracious  fish  about  2  feet  long, 
bat  if  it  disappears  in  5  minutes,  the  oil  con-  remarkable  for  the  strength  of  its  jaws  and 
tains  at  least  4  per  cent,  of  alcohol ;  ifitdisap-  teeth,  are  inhabitants  of  it^  waters.  Its  en- 
pears  in  one  minute,  it  contdns  at  least  25  trance  is  dangerous  even  for  small  craft,  on  ac- 
per  cent.  Fused  chloride  of  calcium  is  also  count  of  numerous  banks  of  mud  and  sand,  and 
osed  to  abstract  alcohol  from  the  oils.  When  its  course  is  obstructed  by  several  falls  and 
the  high-priced  oUs  are  adulterated  with  the  rapids,  the  lowest  of  which  are  50  m.  from  its 
cheaper  lands,  a  thorough  practical  acquaintance  mouth.  They  can  be  passed  by  small  vessels, 
with  the  physical  properties  of  the  oils  can  though  not  without  danger.  At  a  distance  of 
■lone  serve  to  detect  the  imposition.  The  odor  45  m.  from  the  sea,  where  it  enters  the  low 
of  oil  of  turpentine  when  used  for  this  purpose  plain,  the  river  is  a  mile  wide,  and  gradually 
is  eoncealeo,  until  the  oil  is  dissolved  in  alco-  mcreases  in  width  to  its  mouth.  One  of  ha 
hoi,  and  water  is  added,  when  both  the  odor  sources  was  reached  by  Sir  R.  Schomburgk,  in 
and  flavor  are  easily  recognized.  The  oils  re-  lat.  0^  41'  N.  Its  principal  affluents  are  the 
qpare  to  be  kept  in  small  bottles  entirely  filled,  Ripununy  or  Rupunoony  (220  m.  long),  Masse- 
wdl  stamped,  and  excluded  from  the  light. — By  roony,  and  Cuyuni.  The  Dutch  formerly  ha^ 
means  of  recently  devised  chemical  processes  on  the  banks  of  this  river,  indigo,  cacao,  and 
artiflcial  essences  imitating  the  flavors  of  various  cotton  plantations,  all  traces  of  which  are  now 
choice  fruits  are  prepare  from  substances  covered  by  the  dense  vegetation  of  the  forests. 
whksh  woidd  seem  entirely  unfitted  for  produo-  Grold  has  been  found  along  the  upper  course  of 
ing  Boch  results.    Thus  butyric  acid,  a  product  the  stream. 

oibatter  or  putrid  cheese,  being  converted  into  ESSEX,  the  name  of  counties  in  several  of 
sa  ether,  cannot  be  distinguished  from  that  pre-  the  United  States.     I.  A  N.  E.  co.  of  Vt., 
pared  from  the  pineapple,  and  may  be  used  bounded  N.  by  Canada,  and  E.  by  the  Ck)nnecticut 
•qpally  well  with  the  latter  to  fiavor  rum  to  river,  which  separates  it  from  New  Hampshire ; 
poduce  the   celebrated  pineapple    rum.    The  area,  790  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1850, 4,650.    It  is  trav- 
Rtid  fusel  oil,  separated  from  brandy  and  whis-  orsed  by  the  Grand  Trunk  railway  from  Port- 
key  in  rectifying  these  liquors,  produces,  when  land  to  Montreal.    The  surface  is  rough  and 
&tilled  with  si3phuric  acid  and  acetate  of  pot-  mountainous,  with  numerous  small  lakes  and 
ash,  an  essence  of  pears ;  and  if  for  the  acetate  ponds  scattered  over  it.    The  soil  is  well  water- 
of  potash  bichromate  of  potash  bo  substituted,  ed,  but,  except  in  the  valley  of  the  Connecticut, 
die  product  is  an  essence  of  apples.    By  similar  not  remarkable  for  fertility.     Potatoes,  oats, 
methods  a  variety  of  other  flavors  are  obtained ;  and  grass  are  the  staples.    In  1850  the  prodnc- 
and  though  when  concentrated  they  are  acrid,  tions  amounted  to  94,124  bushels  of  potatoes, 
they  become  very  agreeable  when  used  as  fia-  45,597  of  oats,  14,972  tons  of  hay,  292,615  lbs. 
Toring  in  proportions  of  a  drop  to  an  ounce  or  of  butter,  and  122,821  of  cheese.    There  were 
two  ounces.    At  the  great  exhibition  of  1851  8  churches  in  the  county,  and  1,666  pupils  at- 
tihe  ices  prepared  for  the  refreshment  of  the  tending  public  schools.    Organized  in  1792,  and 
visitors  were  fiavored  by  these  artificial  es-  named  from  Essex,  England.  Capital,  GuildhaU. 
tencesw    Some  of  the  choicest  perfumes  are  by  11.  A  N.  E.  co.  of  Mass.,  bounded  N.  by  New 
■mOar  chemical  processes  prepared  from  sub-  Hampshire,  and  E.  and  S.  E.  by  the  Atlantic 
fltanees  which  seem  strangely  foreign  to  their  and  Massachusetts  bay,  and  traversed  by  the  Ips- 
Bitare.  wich  and  Merrimack  rivers,  the  latter  of  which 
ESSEQUIBO,  a  district  of  British  Guiana,  is  navigable  as  far  as  Haverhill  by  vessels  of 
aow  united  with  the  co.  of  Demerara,  and  com-  200  tons ;  area,  about  500  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1855, 
wislDg  the  regions  drained  by  the  great  river  151,018.     The  surface  is  generally  rough  and 
ran  which  it  takes  its  name ;  pop.  in  1851,  the  soil  hard  and  rocky.    It  is  carefully  culti- 
H'SS,  of  whom  about  15,000  were  natives  of  vated,  however,  and  in  many  places  has  been 
fte  district.    Nearly  all  the  land  west  of  the  rendered  very  productive.     The  chief  sources 
XBeqnibo  river  is  fertile,  but  uncultivated,  and  of  wealth  are  commerce  and  the  fisheries,  for 
pmMed  almost  wholly  by  small  tribes  of  In-  the  prosecution  of  which  the  long  line  of  sea- 
OBiL    Essequibo  was  settled   by  the  Dutch  coast  broken  by  beautiful  bays  offers  great  ad- 
ll  1W7,  and  surrendered  to  the  English  in  vantages.    The  interior  towns  are  extensively 
ITW,  but  was  restored  in  1783.    It  was  agdn  encaged  in  the  manufacture  of  leather,  shoes, 
tdbn  in  1803,  since  which  it  has  remained  a  and  cotton.    The  productions  in  1855  were 
MtUi  colony. — I^sicquibo,  a  largo  river  tra-  186,026  bushels  of  Indian  corn,  1,260  of  wheat, 
ymbkg  the  above  district,  formed  by  the  union  16,192  of  rye,  80,855  of  oats.  290,286  of  pota- 
ofwreral  small  streams  which  rise  in  the  Sierra  toes,  36,894  tons  of  hay,  and  533,853  lbs.  of 
Arieim  or  Acaray,  near  the  S.  boundary  of  the  butter.    There  were  20  cotton  mills,  23  woollen 
iKiitory,  flows  N.  £.  and  N.,  and  after  a  course  mills,  2  carpet  factories,  1  worsted  factory,  1 


294  ESSEX  ESTAINQ 

linen  factorr,  1  silk  fartory,  09  f4'>rf*e^  6  mana-  K>il  is  ^norollv  sandv,  of  littlo  natural  fertiHtj, 

&ctorteA  of  steam  CDKinvM  and  l>uiler.'i,  8  of  other  but  greatly  iinprove<l  by  t!io  om  of  niarU  giui.t\ 

machiniTv,  4  of  iron  railing,  dbc,  4  of  paper,  78  and  Tiine.    The  chief  »taple»  are  wheat  And  la- 

of  car*,  conrlic^  and  wagon:*,  23  of  noap  and  dian  c«)m.    The  productions  in  1850  amounted 

candles,  U  of  gas  3  distilUrioK,  4  breweries,  U9  to  391,bii5  bushcU  of  Indian  com,  104,840  uf 

tanneries,  and  15  >>oat  yanU.     In  1X39  it  had  wheat,  and  57,747  Wya,  of  butter.    There  wrr* 

23  newsiiaiKTii  and  iniigazinos,  and  204  church-  11  churchcR,  and  216  pupils  attending  puUic 

es.     Itailroa4l4  leading  to  Boston,  (ilouceitter,  schools.      The  county   was   foniied   in    Vt'Ji, 

PortMuouth,  Portland,  Manchester,  and  nuiuer-  Capital,  Tappahannock.    Valuo  uf  real  catatv  ia 

ous  other  jtlaceis  pA^  t!i rough  the  county.     It  185rt,  |2,001*,435. 

was  organiztil  in  1642.    Svatd  of  justice,  iSaleni,        ESSEX,  a  S.  W.  co.  of  Canada  Trc<.  com- 

Ipswich,  and  Newburyport.     III.  A  N.  E.  co.  prising  a  peninsula  between  Lake^t  St.  Clair  and 

of  y.  Y.,  b4»nlcring  on  I^o  Chainplain,  and  Huron,  antl  having  an  area  of  677  sq.  m. ;  \Mjp, 

partly  bountloil  on  the  X.  by  the  river  Au  Sa-  in  1851,  16,817.     It  is  traverMrd  by  the  Gr«at 

Die;  area,  1,656  n^.  ni.;    pop.  in  1655,  28,539.  Western  railway,  the  W.  terminus  uf  whit^h  ii 

The  cttuntry  ahmg  the  lake  bhoro  is  tolerably  at  Windsor  in  this  county.     Capital,  bttod- 

]c%'el,  but  the  N.  W.  part  is  occupied  by  the  Adi-  wich. 

ronducuiountain*,  which  are  cove  red  with  thick        ESSEX,  a  county  on  the  E.  coast  of  Enf- 

fore!»ts.   Taliawus  or  Mt.  Marcy,  5,337  feet  high,  land,  bounded  S.  by  the  river  Thanieak ;  grea:«»t 

is  the  prinripal  nuinniit,  and  tlie  higheitt  in  tho  length  from  S.  W .  to  X.  E.,  60  ni ;  greatest 

state.    The  county  is  draine<I  by  the  head  waters  breadth,  45  m;   area,   1,657  sq.  m. ;   pi>p.  ia 

of  Hudson  river,  and  by  Ikiuquet  and  Scroon  1851,  869,318.     Except  in  the  N.  W^  wbcr« 

rivers,  which  atford  valuable  water  ]>owcr,  and  there  is  a  continual  succotsion  of  hill  and  dali^ 

Las  numerims  Mnall  but  picture!«<pie  lakes.    Tho  the  surface  is  nearly  level,  and  in  the  S.  and  E  b 

■oil  is  Well  watered  and  productive,  yielding  fair  partly  occupietl  by  largo  marches.     The  toil  is 

crops  of  Indian  corn,  hay,  antl  potatoes.    The  fertile,  and  the  fanns  are  accounted  among  th* 

productions  in   1H55  were  46,493  bushels  of  best  in  the  kinphim.    (train,  e»pectaUy  wb«at| 

wheat,  105,369  of  Indian  com,  234,946  of  oaU,  which  is  of  excellent  quality,  is  the  atapl*  yny 

818.021  of  IM>tatoe^  3<M40  tons  of  hay,  625,543  duction.     The  production  of  veaL   for  wLirk 

lbs.  of  butter,  and  134,735  of  wool.     There  were  E»sex  is  famous,  fonns  an  important  branth  cf 

8  woollen  mills,  2  canling  mills,  25  iron  mann-  agricnltural  industry.     Valuable  ti»herM  aad 

factories,  2  furnai'es,  1  pu|»ermill,  16  grist  mills,  oyster  be<l.H  fumi>h  employment  t«i  th«  inbab- 

73  saw  mills,  3  uewsp:ii>er  otfices,  176  bcliools,  iiants  of  the  coa!«t  and  ailjaceut  Ulands.    A  toot 

and  51  churches.     Iron,  lime>tone,  plumbago,  15,000  bushels  of  oy.-ters  are  taken  r wry  ica- 

ami  marble  are  tho  prinripal  ntineruN.     The  son,  and   a  capital  of  between    i,'i'i«j.t.<^>*.i  atJ 

c<»urity  wa<4  formed  from  u  piirt  of  Chnti>n  in  i.*M),nOo  is  inverted  in  tlie  trade.     >iik  l«  L.aa* 

17l<lK     Ciipit.il.  Kli/abeihtown.     IV.  A  N.  E.  ufactured,  and  >tr:iw  plait  U  niuib*  Tt  L-Liia 

CO.  of  y.  J.,  boiiiulvd  K.  by  Pa-'-aic  rivir.  New-  u>e.     The  principal  channels  of  coin  mi;  Lira:  h-a 

ark  bay,  and  fc^tateu  Nl:inil  >ouiiil.  tmd  W.  by  are  the  K:L*>tern  ('ouutieH  railway  XLi.d  tLi-  r.^i."* 

pass:iir  river;  area  in  \>^oo  (-imv  which  time  Tlianies,  Ixa,  St<«rt,  Chehnvr,  Mour,  axul  C-ii*. 

Unitju  ro.  h:*-*  been  foriin  d  from  its  S.  part),  Chelmsford,  the  ctninty  ton  n,  Ci*h  hi -tir,  lix*- 

450  H{.  m. ;  pop.  lO.l '.•'.!.    Hie  general  eharui-ier  wirh,  and  M:ddon  are  the  rhief  to«t.«.    lU 

of  tho  Mirfai  e   i^  levil,  but  there  are  two  ele-  county  return^  4  menil»er'i  to  parliann:.:. 
Tated  riil^en  in  the  we-^tern  part  known  a?*  Fir>t         ESSE.X,  Eauls  of.     See  L>Kvuu.i  x, 
and  S'eond  moimt.'iin^.      Mueh  of  the  hjW  is         KSSLlN'it.     .Si-e  AM*citN. 
highly  fertile,  priNhu  in;;  grain,  p«»tal(.n-,  and         ESSLlNtiEN,  a  town  of  Wurteml^rg,  Ctf- 

giNNl  pa<^tMrage.      In   Is'/O  it   yiehleil  2'.*7.076  many,  capital  of  a  bailiwiek  of  the  »4iite  lusje, 

bu>heU  of  Indian  Ci*rn,  151,765  of  oat^*,  ir>'.M48  situated  on  the  Neekar,  on  the  railway  tuiaJ' 

of  i»otat.i-.  2'.».1'**7  toii-i  of  hay,  and  :;7\2;J3  lbs.  m.  E.  Kpf  Stutt^'art ;  pop.  7.92o.     It  i*  »  it.M  k- 

of  !»iitter.     There  wi-re  6  cutlery  and  16  eiI;;o  tivoci»mmerciid  and  manufacturing  tc«n.    T^ 

t<N^d  niannf.i«  t••rie^  \'\  iron  fl•underie^  3  bra.^  loeoniotiven  made  there  are  ceUt>ratid,  a.«  svi.* 

founderie-,  1   tj^jic  fitcndery,  13  marhine  hliopii,  hpeoies  uf   wine  called   KuUu^er  i%ie,f>ip^. 

11  patent  h:ith«-r  manufar:iirie->.  16  thmr  mills  It  cont.iins  a  normal  M'hi'ol,  a  »el.iH>l  Ut  t^ 

ITi  paper  n.:Il-.  :>  nlanllfa«'torie^  of  India  rublnrr,  deaf  and  dumb,  a  ragged  h-1h**>U  and  il  et'uir 

8  of  wtMiIK-n.  2  oi  rottiin,  2  of  shawN,  anil  a  li?»)inient  f'r  the  cure  of  nervou<»  aSTt^'t^uri*.    b 

great  niimb«  r  of  miiiur  i<*tabli'*hmeMt«.     There  the  neigh lHirhoo<K  on  the  ]f<*:hii.Urt;.  ;•  Mtc- 

Here  SO  cliun'.'u*.  l»  newspajH'r  otliie^  7,475  ate«l    tho   (ireek    clia|Ht,    *hiih    r<  r.!iuc«  li« 

pupiN  attei:dii:t;  puMir  ^4  !iiti>l4,  and  3,714  at-  htatuo^*  of  t!io  four  vvangeliwl^  \\   I*:iCL«c^ 

lending   ucaiifiiiu't    aiid   i-ther    •mIun-Is      The  and  ThorwahlM-n. 

New  Jer-^y.   Nrw  Jer^-y  central,  and  Morris         E>TAIN(i,    (.'nARiT*    llKCTor,    rocnt  i\  » 

and  E-'mx  r.tilriijdH,  and  the  M«'rrii  canal  inter-  Fr^'nch  naval  otVher.  Utrn  at  the  rl.aStic  «' 

s«Tt  the  ri»;irity.     Or.»nni/i-'l  in  I71ii.     Capital,  Kuvel.  in  .Vuvergne.  in  172i*,  eteentcd  II  !*• 


Newark.     V.  An  E.  « ■•.  tif  Va..  l-onnd'-d  N.  E.  April  2\  17'.'*.   lie  I'.r^t  j»»inid  theann%.Kf^«^ 

by  Uappah:t:  iim 'iw  rivt  r;  arr:u  .tt>o-)?  :;«>tt  v|.  m. ;  nrxler  IjiIIy-ToIUndal    in    India    a«    br,c»k:«* 

iioj*.  in  l**5o,  l«».*Joi;^i,f  wJ.nni  ♦'•,7''J  were  -ia^e*.  anil  wa-*  i:»:»i!e  pri-nur  ut  tlie  Mtije  of  MjOI* 

t  hao  an  uuevvu  surface  in  t!ie  W.  part ;  the  in  1759,  but  released  on  parole.    lie  th«a  clut* 


ESTATE  295 

• 

ed  the  navy,  and  Inflicted  great  damage  on  the  States,  where  there  is  no  limitation  to  particn- 
English  in  the  East,  but  on  his  return  was  cap-  lar  heirs,  it  is  understood  to  bo  the  entire  pro- 
tnred  near  Lorient  bj  the  British  cruisers.   The  prietorship  of  the  lands.    But  in  England  there 
treatment  to  which  he  was  subjected  at  Ports-  are  estates  of  inheritance  in  fee  simple  and  fee 
month,  on  pretence*  that  he  had  broken  the  tail,  the  former  being  an  estate  which  descends 
parole  given  at  Madras,  led  him  to  tow  eternal  to  a  man^s  general  heirs,  the  latter  being  limited 
hatred  to  England ;  and  in  1778,  having  reach-  to  certain  specified  heirs,as  for  instance  to  a  man^s 
ed  the  grade  of  lieutenant-general  of  the  navy,  issue  male  or  female,  or  to  the  heirs  of  his  body 
and  refused  the  rank  of  vice-admiral^  he  took  begotten  of  a  certain  wife.   By  such  limitations, 
command  of  a  fleet  of  16  vessels  designed  to  co-  although  the  estate  descends  to  the  particular 
operate  with  the  United  States.    He  arrived  in  heirs,  yet  failing  them  it  reverts  to  the  grantor 
Delaware  bay  inJuly,  and  in  August  made  a  dem-  or  supposed  onginal  proprietor,  instead  of  de- 
ODStration  agunst  Newport,  obliging  tho  British  scending  to  a  man^s  general  heirs ;  and  so  far 
to  destroy  6  of  their  frigates  lying  there,  but  failed  there  is  an  obstruction  in  the  enjoyment  of 
in  the  main  object,  owins  to  the  inability  of  the  estate,  because  a  man  is  perpetuated  in  and 
the  Americans  to  come  tonis  support  in  proper  represented  by  his  heirs.    In  this  sense  a  fee 
•eason.    His  fleet  was  soon  after  shattered  in  a  simple  is  deemed  an  absolute  ownership,  in  dis- 
•torm,  while  endeavoring  to  come  to  action  tinction  from  a  fee  tail,  which  is  limited  in  de- 
with  the  ships  of  Lord  Howe ;  whereupon  he  scent.    Another  distinction,  however,  was  more 
proceeded  to  Boston  to  refit,  after  a  sharp  quar-  important,  viz. :  that  while  the  former  could 
rei  with  Gen.  Sullivan,  who  wished  him  to  re-  be  conveyed  or  devised,  the  latter  in  theory 
new  the  attack  upon  Newport.    The  count^s  could  not  be,  yet  practically  it  could  bo  alien- 
coarse  was  bitterly  condemned  by  the  Ameri-  ated  by  a  particular  form  of  proceeding  called 
ean  people,  and  some  even  accused  him  of  per-  a  common  recovery.    Yet  a  fee  simple  is  not 
fidy ;  but  in  the  present  instance  he  eeems  to  necessarily  the  entire  proprietorship,  for  it  may 
have  been  ruled  by  his  own  officers,  with  whom  be  subject  to  encumbrances  by  mortgage  or 
it  is  said  that  his  rapid  promotion  on  exohang  judgment  and  otherwise ;  and  smaller  estates, 
ing  the  land  for  the  naval  service  made  him  as  a  lease  for  years,  may  be  carved  out  of  it, 
mpopalar.    Having  refitted,  he  suled  for  the  though  in  such  case  it  would  be  more  proper  to 
'West  Indies,  where  he  failed  in  an  effort  to  call  the  principid  estate  a  fee  simple  in  rever- 
take  &unt  Lucia,  but  made  himself  master  of  sion  or  remainaer.    There  are  also  qualified  or 
the  islands  of  Saint  Vincent  and  Grenada,  and  determinable  estates  of  inheritance,  by  which  is 
had  an  indecisive  engagement  with  Admiral  By-  meant  that  the  estate  may  be  determined  by  some 
Ton.     In  Sept  1779,  he  appeared  off  Savannah  contingency,  and  yet  the  contingency  may  never 
with  the  purpose  of  acting  against  that  city  in  happen,  and  therefore  by  possibility  the  estate 
concert  with  Gen.  Lincoln ;  but  having  first  lost  will  be  perpetual.    The  illustrations  of  this  spe- 
a  favorable  opportunity  for  attack  by  giving  the  cies  of  inheritance  are  for  the  most  part  hypo- 
British  time  to  complete  their  defences  under  thetical,  as  to  a  man  and  his  heirs  so  long  as 
cover  of  a  truce,  he  next  ruined  the  enterprise  St.  Paul's  church  shall  stand.    Sometimes  the 
by  a  precipitate  assault  when  he  should  have  qualification  is  residence  in  a  particular  place, 
besieged  in  fonn.     In  this  action  Pulaski  was  Or  again,  there  may  be  a  restriction  tliat  the 
kille<^  and  DTstaing  was  wounded  in  the  arm.  person  taking  the  estate  shall  not  marry,  an 
He  returned  to  France  in  1780,  was  a  member  mstance  of  which  we  have  in  the  case  of  a  de- 
of  the  assembly  of  notables  in  1787,  was  chosen  vise  by  a  man  to  his  wife  on  condition  that  she 
eommandant  of  the  national  guard  of  Versailles  shall  continue  a  widow.    'When  by  the  limita- 
ia  1789,  and  afterward  went  to  reside  in  Paris,  tion  an  estate  is  to  last  till  a  certain  event,  there 
ythen  he  enrolled  himself  as  a  private  in  the  na-  is  until  the  event  happen  an  inheritance  subject 
tional  guard.     He  gave  in  his  submission  to  the  to  being  determined ;  though  if  the  event  be- 
anembly  after  the  flight  of  the  king,  was  made  come  impossible,  then  the  estate  is  converted 
tdmiral  and  put  on  the  retired  list  in  1792,  but  into  a  fee  simple  absolute.    A  conveyance  by 
fidling  under  the  suspicion  of  the  terrorists,  was  the  owner  of  a  determinable  fee  will  of  course 
iSosUy  led  to  the  guillotine.  be  subject  to  the  qualification  or  contingency 
ESTATE  (Lat  ttatus)^  in  law,  a  term  usually  upon  which  the  estate  depends.    It  may  be  a 
Opressing  an  interest  in  lands,  though  in  a  question,  in  the  case  of  a  limitation  to  a  man 
gnersl  sense  it  is  applied  to  both  real  and  per-  and  his  heirs  so  longias  they  reside  in  a  certain 
mal  property,  as  we  sometimes  see  in  wills  and  place,  what  the  effect  of  alienation  would  be ; 
fte  tike.    But  when  used  with  a  discriminative  but  probably  the  same  rule  would  aj>ply,  viz. : 
■nifieation  to  designate  the  nature  and  limit  that  it  would  be  valid  to  the  extent  of  the 
•  the  interest,  it  properly  relates  to  lands  only,  right  which  the  grantee  himself  had,  but  would 
We  shall  in  this  article  merely  define  the  sev-  be  defeated  by  a  breach  of  the  condition.    If 
<nl  classes  of  estates,  without  going  into  an  this  would  be  inconsistent  with  the  nature  of 
tllHided  illustration  of  their  legal  incidents,  the  estate,  the  restriction  would,  it  may  be  pre- 
L  An  estate  of  inheritance,  which  is  sometimes  sumed,  be  void  under  the  statutory  rule  which 
tT|si)wtd  by  the  term  fee.   Thus  when  we  say  a  has  been  adopted  in  the  state  of  New  York, 
Bm  has  tlie  fee  of  lands,  it  is  meant  that  he  whereby  the  power  of  alienation  cannot  be  sus- 
ha  an  inheritable  estate ;  and  in  tlie  United  pended  by  any  limitation  or  condition  whatever 


S06  ESTATE 

for  a  longer  period  tlian  two  liven  in  being  at  over  after  tlie  determination  of  hw  Interest.  In 
the  cn-fttion  of  the  estate.  II.  An  ef^tMe  for  such  a  ruse  the  tenant  holdH  by  the  mt'rv  Urbe4 
life.  This  mar  bo  either  bv  express  grant  or  by  of  the  landlord,  and  is  !nil{ject  to  being  turned 
operation  of  law.  Of  the  fatter  kind  arv  dower  out  by  Huniuiary  proeeedings.  But  any  art  of 
and  eurtesy,  the  resjMfctive  interestA  of  the  wifo  the  landlord  affirming  the  wrongful  htilding,  at 
and  hu>baiMl,  each  in  the  landi»  of  the  other,  in  receipt  of  rent,  would  convert  the  nakvd  ocrc> 
case  of  f^urvivorshii).  &tated  for  life  as  well  as  pancy  into  a  tenancy  from  year  to  year,  and  if 
inheritance  arc  included  in  the  common  denom-  tlien  determinable  only  at  the  end  of  the  year. 
ination  of  froehold  (libcrum  tenrmrntutn) ;  One  montir^  notice  to  quit  is  re«iuired  by  tut- 
whioh  tvmi  Kccm:}  to  have  been  derived  from  ute  in  Xcw  York  before  taking  fummarr  pnv. 
the  ancient  mode  of  conveyance,  which  was  by  ceedings;  but  G  montlia*  notice  is  neceM«ary  to 
Uvery  of  tici>in,  that  i^s  dtliverv  of  posscMiun  enable  the  landlord  to  proceed  by  artiim  of 
according  to  the  form  of  fvu<ial  invi-stiture.  ejectment.  Tlio  Engliiih  statute  of  frand^  *f9 
Other  ostates  whicli  were  of  an  inferior  naturo  Charles  II.),  which  has  been  generally  revnacted 
could  Ih.*  transferred  witliout  thii*  formality.  It  in  tlio  United  titatcfl,  rci^uires  lease*  for  a  tern 
was  chictly,  however,  as  a  diittinction  from  of  more  than  one  year  to  be  in  wnting ;  and  m 
copyhold  estates  that  the  term  was  used.  The  the  state  of  New  York  a  lease  for  a  teno  ei< 
copyhold  was  originally  an  instate  at  tho  mere  ceeding  3  years  must  be  recorded,  or  it  will  b* 
will  of  the  K>nl,  but  became  established  by  pre-  inoperative  against  snltMijuent  bona  Jid*  por- 
acription,  the  evidence  of  which  was  in  the  rolls  chapters.  Another  dutinction  in  the  nature  of 
of  tue  cotirtH  baron,  whence  the  estate  was  said  estates  has  reference  to  the  time  when  the  ri^t 
to  be  held  by  C4»|iy  of  court  roll ;  and  although  is  reducible  to  iKxuession.  The  right  may  exuH 
it  thus  became  indeiiendont  of  the  will  of  the  prospectively,  and  it  is  tlien  termed  an  estau 
lord,  it  wa<(  otill  deemed  a  bu^e  tenure,  and  the  In  exi»ectancy.  It  is  of  two  kinds :  one  created 
form  of  conveyance  was  bv  surrender  to  the  by  tlie  act  of  parties,  and  colled  a  rvmaindcr; 
lord,  and  a  new  grant  by  him  to  the  alienee,  the  other  by  oi>eration  of  law,  and  calK'«i  a  re- 
admitting him  to  be  tenant  of  the  copyhold  version.  An  estate  in  remainder  I*  what  re- 
upon  tlie  Knnio  terms  by  which  the  estate  had  mains  after  a  particular  estate,  either  fi»r  years 
been  foniKTly  held.  An  estate  for  life  may  be  or  life,  to  take  effect  in  |)Os»eHKion  immediaxely 
either  for  the  life  of  the  tenant  hiniHelf  or  of  after  such  estate,  and  must  be  created  at  tbt 
another  person.  The  latter  is  usually  desig-  same  time,  though  limited  to  commence  in  fos- 
nated  as  an  estate  pur  autre  nV.  III.  Estates  sef>»ion  at  a  future  time.  Thus  if  a  life  r*uaa 
less  than  freehold  are  for  a  tenn  of  years,  or  be  granted  to  A,  with  renuiinder  to  U  fi*r  life, 
at  will,  or  by  sufferance.  Tlie  first  is  for  a  and  remainder  to  C  in  fee,  here  are  !»•«  rr- 
definite  ixriiMl ;  hut  wlmtever  may  l»e  the  length  msiinders  t4>  connnence  in  future,  and  the  « \.'\t 
of  the  perioil,  even  if  it  bhouM  be  a  thousand  property  o institutes  but  one  estate.  Yi-t  in  t-r- 
year»,  it  i-*  »«tiil  infirior  to  a  frefhoM^  and  is  dinar}*  p]iraM.»olngy,  where  ther*.'  i*  but  *•:.■!•  rv- 
cla*>si-d  in  law  i«it!t  ch.ittvl  intere>>t.«.  Thus,  mainder  im-ludiiig  the  whole  re-idue  cf  t!.r  r^ 
up«tn  tiiv  do:it}i  of  the  tehuiit,  UU  lea-*e  i**  in-  tate,  thefee  is  said  to  Ih.*  in  tlie  (K-rson  t<»  «l.i>ia 
ciudid  \%itli  tite  ]K.r*binaI  proiH-rty  t4i  be  udmin-  such  limitation  is  ma<le.  An  i-^tatc  in  r«^cr> 
istiTeil  :i-  :u>Mts  ii>ti-ail  cf  p'in;;  tn  tlie  heir,  sion  is  the  residue  of  uni.M  ate  Ii-lt  in  the  grar.t- 
In  tin.'  s:.iri'  of  New  Vurk,  by  statute,  K-a-H-s  for  or  or  hi-  heirs  or  in  the  heir*  i»f  a  te-tut  *r  a^i  r 
a  tenn  ^f  }rars  are  denoininatnl  t-lintti-U  real ;  the  detenninutinn  of  a  partieular  e*»tati  ^raLt«^ 
they  nre  lnu-!e  Mibjeet  ti>  the  Tu  n  of  a  ju(l;^nent,  or  devi-ed.  The  estate  revvrts  by  t»|t  raziviu  k4 
but  are  t'»  be  a«!niini>ten'*I  a-  {•^-rsoiiul  i-»late  law,  and  n  re««4Tvation  to  the  graiiti-r  hy  lit* 
by  Ml  exeiMitor  or  atlniini^tratur.  An  i>tate  tlewl  w«iiilii  have  i.o  etlVet,  Uiiig  on!*  i^Sattle 
held  by  tl.e  deroa-'Cil  for  tlie  lift- of  ai.«>tlur  |K'r-  law  il«^h"  ]»rt'M'rilK-s.  A  continj^-nt  rtU.u;D4!rr 
son  i-  inr!niK-d  under  tlie  same  nili'".  An  es-  in  uhrn  the  limitation  «letK-nds  u|Nin  a  eot.ttn- 
tate  ht  %\  ill  wa^  whi-n  lands  weri«  iMviipieti  by  genev  whirh  \^  uneirtain  or  may  i;ot  i«-rur  t*!! 
tlie  ti  r.:ifit  lAith  eon'>«*nt  of  t!ic  landlord,  but  atUr  the  dvli-nnihutiiin  of  ti*t*  i  arii'^uLir  r%- 
witlpt'.it  :iMr  n^TOrmfnt  an  to  the  tin:e  the  ten-  tate;  though  it  i-  held  that  sueh  lor.iir.^acy 
ant  sh"i:!<I  be  {iirn.itttd  to  n-niuin.  It  run  niu-t  n\'t  In*  a  remote  iNH»sibilitv.  a«  if  the  l.s:* 
hanlly  U*  ^aiii  to  vxi<*t  at  iirc^t-nt.  a<  the  <-onrts  itation  should  be  to  the  heir*  <<f  a  t  V.'A  i.*-t  }%.l 
Dow  ln'M  a  ti-n:i!H-v  wlure  no  (vrtnin  t*.-na  is  iMirn.  A  «»inj:le  ill'i-trati'>n  of  thi«  k.r.d  i*f  r»- 
agree<!  i:]H>n  to  tn*  from  vi-ar  t<i  v^ar.  and  r«a-  tate  will  K'  sutlicitnt.  If  a  graiit  U'  iv^f  t.« 
sonuMi*  noti<  (' niM«<t  Ik*  p\in  of  tiie  iiiti-ntion  t«»  A  for  lift-,  with  ri-nmimhr  to  the  h<  .r«  ti  K, 
tenninati*  :!.  'H:*'  rin  um-'taiKv  that  di-'tin-  ami  I (  should  >ur\i\v  .\,  inssniurh  a«  !.i  rax.ri< 
guislu*  the  two  k:niN  of  ti'^ii.ry  i- the  rr^Tva-  hnw  hiir-  wliih*  lixin;:.  the  rtUiaiiuivr  vociJ 
tion  of  a  1 1  rr:4':i  rent,  ^^\i.*  h  may  Ih*  either  by  fail  :  biit  if  the  hmitati««n  W  to  .\  ai.d  It  Jurir^ 
cxprt*"*  ajftinnnt.  or  Iv  iinplii  atitiu  iVoni  the  th»  ir  j«'int  li%t-.  with  remaindir  tt»  tin  •u:i> 
noij  t  of  ri-r.t.  If  a  « i-rtain  n  lit  i-*  |»;iyabli\  it  \t.r.  luTr  the  remuiMltr  Mk'xW  t.ike  rtfwt,  l!  o-<h 
cor.*ti!i.t.  -  ;i:i  v!.t:iti'  fr-mj  \iar  t«»  \«iir  :  but  if  it  i-  uiuvrtain  a-  l«»  the  p  r*«in  who  wi«  L»i* 
neitluT  ri :.:  i.t-r  tint*- of  iN*r!i|.:i::.in  hv -;it  itit^l,  the  U  netit  of  it.  An  txre:iliir)  *!i\i*e  *»  a  i!i^ 
it  would  t  ••  a  ti'Ti:ii.i'v  r.!  will.  Ai:  *  ^tatc  bv  iH.«it:«in  of  un  i-tati-  bv  im\\  wbith  wo'-:!i  tuC 
aufferanrc  ■-  w}iire  tlu'  tir::iiit  liii-  \>\ku  in  !•••--  bi>  \ah4l  if  made  \'}  deitl.  a*  a  liti.i;a::>-r.  «f  s 
tcwion  by  lawful  title,  but   wroii^'l'Uly  holds  couting(.ut  remainder.     The  di>tinct4vn  u 


ESTE  297 

the  remainder  mwsi  take  effect  immediately  Este.  BybissonsGnelfoiy.CVrelOandFoIcoI^ 
upon  the  determination  of  the  particolar  estate  the  Este  family  was  divided  into  two  great  Ger- 
or  not  at  all ;  whereas  an  executory  doyise  is  man  and  Italian  branches.    Gaelfo  IV.  was  Al- 
good  withont  a  particular  estate  to  support  it.  berto  Azzo^s  eldest  son  by  his  first  wife,  Xunitza 
Thus  if  a  devise  be  made  to  A,  to  t^e  effect  or  Eunigunde,  a  Bavarian  princess  of  the  Ger- 
OQ  his  marriage,  in  this  case  until  such  marriage  man  house  of  Welf,  who  counted  their  ancestry 
the  fee  descends  to  the  heir  at  law,  subject  to  back  to  the  times  of  Gharlemangc.    He  inher- 
being  divested  by  the  performance  of  the  con-  ited  from  his  uncle  the  duchy  of  Carinthia  and 
dition.     There  is  still  another  distinction  of  the  march  of  Verona,  and  succeeded  to  the 
estates  growing  out  of  the  nature  of  the  posses-  dukedom  of  Bavaria  in  1071.    Through  his  dc- 
sion,  mider  which  head  are  classed  joint  tenan-  scendants,  the  Bavarian  dukes,  Henry  the  Proud 
cy,  tenancy  in  common,  and  coparcenary.    The  and  Henry  the  Lion,  he  became  the  progenitor 
last  of  these,  which  is  a  descent  of  an  inheri-  of  the  elder  or  Grerman  branch  of  the  house  of 
tance  to  feniale  heirs,  in  which  case  they  take  Este,  from  which  the  lines  of  Brunswick  and 
an  equal  interest  in  the  entire  estate,  but  with-  Hanover  (known  also  by  the  name  of  Este- 
out  being  subject  to  the  rule  which  applied  to  Guelph)  and  the  reigning  dynasty  of  England 
joint  tenancy  as  to  the  right  of  the  survivor  to  are  descended.    Folco  I.  (1060-1135),  one  of 
ttw  wb(^e,  does  not  exist  in  the  United  States,  Alberto  Azzo*s  sons  by  his  2d  wife  Garsenda, 
at  least  is  not  distinguishable  from  a  tenancy  in  heiress  of  the  counts  of  Maine  in  France,  became 
eommon.    By  statute  the  descent  of  lands  is  to  the  founder  of  the  principal  younger  or  Italian 
aU  the  children,  male  and  female,  who  hold  as  branch  of  the  house,  from  whence  came  the 
tSDants  in  common.    So  joint  tenancy,  the  pe-  former  dukes  of  Ferrara  and  the  present  dukes 
eoliar  feature  of  which  is  that  the  whole  es-  of  Modena.    Folco  I.  was  succeeded  as  marquis 
tale  Tests  in  the  survivor,  has  been  abolished  of  Este  by  his  son  IJbizzo  (died  in  1190),  who 
in  this  country,  except  in  respect  to  executors  was  confirmed  in  all  his  possessions  by  the  em- 
nd  other  trustees,  and  except  also  when  it  peror  of  Germany  (11841  and  appointed  mar- 
11  ezpresaly  declared  in  the  deed  or  will  creat-  quis  or  imperial  vicar  of  Milan  and  Genoa.  The 
ing  the  estate  that  it  is  to  be  held  in  joint  ten-  foundation  of  their  influence  in  Ferrara  was  laid 
aney.    In  all  other  cases,  where  there  is  a  pos-  in  the  12th  century  by  the  marriage  of  a  mar- 
mnon  of  hmds  by  several  persons  without  any  quis  of  Este  with  Marchesella,  the  last  offspring 
sepantioa  into  specific  parts,  it  is  a  tenancy  in  of  the  Adelardi  family,  the  popular  leaders  of 
eommon;   and  it  is  not  necessary  that  they  the  Guelphs  against  the  powerful  Ghibelline 
thoold  all  hold  by  the  same  title,  or  have  an  family  Taurello.    This  marriage  secured  to  the 
equal  interest ;  it  is  sufficient  if  each  has  an  in-  Este  family  a  great  political  influence,  and  the 
terest,  and  that  it  is  undivided.    Such  an  inter-  possession  of  Ferrara  and  of  other  important 
est  can  be  conveyed  or  devised,  the  same  as  Italian  towns.  AzzoVI.  (1170-1212)  was  placed 
property  held  in  severalty,  and  partition  may  bo  in  1208  at  the  head  of  the  government  of  Fer- 
eompelled  by  either  party  on  application  to  a  rara  with  power  to  appoint  his  successor.    He 
competent  court.    Various  equitable  interests  was  the  leader  of  the  Guelphs  against  Ezzelino, 
x&  holds  will  be  discussed  in  the  article  Trusts,  the  champion  of  the  Ghibcllines.    Azzo  VII. 
—We  have  thus  far  considered  estates  of  a  cor-  (1205-1264)  defeated  Ezzelino,  and  was  hailed 
poresl  nature  only ;  but  there  are  also  incor-  as  the  saviour  of  Lombardy.    Ubizzo  III.  and 
poital  estates,  such  as  rents,  easements,  &c.  Nicolo  L,  sons  and  successors  of  Aldobrandino 
But  the  general  principles  applicable  to  the  II.,  took  possession  of  Modena,  May  13,  1336. 
out  dasa  will  also  apply  to  the  other ;   and  Their  brotlier  Rinaldo  died  during  the  siege  of 
whatever  there  may  be  peculiar  to  any  partic-  that  city,  Dec.  81,  1835;  Nicolo  died  May  1, 
idar  species  of  incorporeal  estate  will  bo  treat-  1346,  and  Ubizzo  in  May,  1352.    The  titles  of 
•djmder  the  appropriate  head.  duke  of  Modena  and  Keggio  and  of  Ferrara  were 
ESTE,  a  princely  house  of  Italy,  from  which  formally  conferred  upon  tho  marquis  Borso  of 
nveral  European  dynasties  are  descended.    Its  Este  (died  in  1471),  the  former  in  1452  by  the 
ttsealo^  is  conflicting  until  the  0th  century,  emperor  of  Germany,  and  the  latter  at  a  subse- 
voiB  which  period  it  is  traceable  to  the  petty  quent  period  by  Paul  II.,  who  held  Ferrara  as 
frioees  who  held  Tuscany  and  other  Italian  a  papal  flef.    Borso  and  many  of  the  succeeding 
MiBS  as  imperial  fiefs  under  tho  Carlovingian  dukes  were  distinguished  for  their  patronage  of 
ittperors.    The  name  of  Este  was  derived  from  art  and  letters.    Ercole  I.  (1433-1505)  was  the 
tWeistle  and  town  of  Este  (anc.  Ate$te\  15  m.  friend  of  the  poet  Boiardo  or  Bojardo,  who  was 
from  Padua,  formerly  a  Roman  colony  of  some  often  employed  in  his  service.    Among  the  dis- 
Bofei,  and  now  a  town  of  about  9,000  inhabi-  tinguishcd  visitors  of  his  brilliant  court  was  tho 
tuts  in  the  Venetian  delegation  of  Padua.    The  youthful  Ariosto,  who  afterward  became  the 
Mn  immediate  founder  of  the  house  was  Al-  prot6g6  of  Ercole's  sons,  Cardinal  Ippolito  of 
liito  Azzo  II.  (born  996,  died  1097).     By  judi-  Este  (1479-1520)  and  Alfonso  I.,  tho  husband 
"* —  management  and  by  grants  from  tho  em-  of  Lucrezia  Borgia  (1486-1534),  who  succeeded 
of  C^rmany  he  ad&d  to  the  fiefs  and  his  father  as  duke  of  Ferrara  and  Modena.    This 
wluch  he  had  inherited  from  his  father  cardinal  of  Este  was  the  same  prelate  who  be- 
ad node  until  they  reached  the  number  of  about  came  so  jealous  of  his  natural  brother  Giulio 
80^  Inehiding  the  margraviate  or  marquisate  of  that  ho  was  accused  of  haWng  caused  him  to  bo 


ESTERHiZT  ESTllKK 

blinded.    lie  inn!«t  not  bo  confounded  with  hb  and  KicholftA  (MiklAs)  IV.  (1 705-1^.') 

nephew,  Canlinal  Ippolitoof  K^tv,  the  vooncer,  tinpui!>!K-d  a;*  a  diplomatist  and  a-*  the  U 

abn>therof  Alfonfiu'sBU(*ceMor,  Ercotell.  (150i^  of  a  ^plondid  picture  pdlery  at  Vienna 

1510),  who  built  the  Estonftian  villa  at  Tivoli  haid  that  the  crown  of  llunf^rjr  wa^  otft 

near  Umnc.    Ercolo  II.  wim  tucocvded  by  A  I-  him  bT  NaiM>Ieon  in  1809,  bat  that  ho  d% 

fon»o  II.,  wlio  w.i2t  the  lust  legitimate  prince  of  it. — pArt  Anthont  (I*ai.  AntalX  M>n 

the  house  of  Efite,  whoHS  court  wa4  renowned  prece<ling,  boni  If  arch  10,   1786,  ofticia 

fur  itHsplondt If,  and  whti^  name,  as  well  as  those  Austrian  am bas!*ador  at  varions  courts  • 

of  his  fiistorK  Lucrezia  and  es[)cciully  Eleonora,  rope,  and  for  liovcral  years  at  that  c»f  M.  , 

arc  a!«iuicinted  witli  the  niisfurtunes  of  the  poet  where  he  lived  in  a  mafrnificeDt  btyle.     Ii 

Toniuato  TasM>.    Tlic  power  of  t!ie  Este  family  he  occupie<l  for  a  few  months*  a  seat  in  th< 

in  torrara  expired  with  Alfonso  II.,  who  died  (rarian  ministry  under  Count  LouiA  llatth 

in  15l*7.    His  nephew  Cesaro  <a  natural  iwn  of  retiriufr  as  MHin  as  it  l>ecame  evident  tl 

Alfonso   I.)  suc<*ei*ded   him,  but  Ferrara  was  political  indcfK^ndence  of  ilunirary  wa^  n' 

celled  by  Clement  VIII.  as  a  papal  tief.    Cesare  sible  without  a  rupture  with  Austria.    lU 

was  aHupelied  to  evacuate  the  citv,  Jan.  28,  present  ropre2«.*ntativeofthe  oldest  branch 

1598,  but  retained  the  duchies  of  ^o<lena  and  Esterhazy  family,  and  the  most  extendi vi 

Itefrgio.    Thefe  duchies  were  taken  by  Na]M)1eon  holder  in  the  Austrian  empire;  his  ]x>!tm 

I.  in  17D7from  the  duke  Ercolo  Hinaldo  (1727-  comprising  manors,  chateaux,  villo^-s.  a 

1SU3),  and  annexed  to  tlio  Cisalpine  republic,  tates  in  11  unt:ary,  amounting  to  hun<l rid* 

The  male  line  exjkired  with  him,  and  his  only  side  these  he  owns  the  manors  of  ri»t:< 

daughter  Maria  jieatrice  (1752-1820),  the  lai»t  and  Si*hwarzl»ach  in  lA»wer  Austria,  <!  a: !ii 

offspring  of  the  Italian  branch  of  the  house  of  liaden,  and  EdeNtetten  in  Havana.    Ihv  i 

£ste^  marrieil  the  archduke  Ferdinand,  8d  son  administration  of  his  Hungarian  p<»^«<-«< 

of  Francis  1.  of  Austria,  who  became  the  founder  at  Eisensitadt,  a  town  12  m.  from  iX-dv 

of  the  family  «if  Austria- Este.    The  possessions  wliicli  contains  a  magniticent  pala<-e. 

of  Massa  l*arrara  were  inlierited  by  her  oldest  park  is  an  orangery  with  400  orange  trf 

•on  Francis  I V.  ( 1 779-1846),  who  was  reinstated  numerous  other  siiecies  uf  exotic  plant*, 

as  duke  of  Modena  in  1814,  and  was  succeeded  of  the  town  aretne  princely  zouli»gir;iI  g: 

by  Francis  V.,  archduke  of  Austria-Estc,  who  Other  celebrated  palaces  c»f  the  prince  arc 

was  duke  of  Modena  in  May,  1859,  when  war  village  of  Esterliaz  (I«ower  Hungary,  a 

broke  out  l>etween  Au^^tria  and  France  and  Sor-  Oedenburg  on  the  lake  of  NiH'^iiilW  a:  \l 

dinia.     The  name  of  E^to  was  adopted  by  the  enna.     The  heir  to  his  title  and  e<*tati«  i<» 

children  of  the  duke  of  Sus-«x  (1774-1843)  and  NinioLAS.  UirnJune  25. 1^17:  marni<!  . 

Ijuly   An;;u^i:i    Murray  de  Anieland  (died    in  a  daughter  <if  the  eari  of  Jersey.  %%!»••  il.v* 

Home,  .March  5.   1^3«M.     The  marriage  of  the  17,  l»^53.--(\»uni  VAirxTJM(  V  %i  fmin  ■.! 

duke  witli  Lailv  Murrav  ha\ing  l»e<>n  deenuHl  a  Iht  oftheI«:in*ichitzbranrhot'tI.c  K*>:(  ^^^J 

violation  of  iIjc  royal  niarriiigt-  act  pa-^ed  in  the  ily.  born  Jan.  2**,  I'^H.  wa>  .Vii-triau  :ii;  ^  - 

rei;;n  of   Conrgt'   III.,  it  wan  annulled  by  the  in  StiM-khulm,  in  Municii,  ami  fn^ni  1'«.'.4  : 

prerogttii\c  court  and  di-^^ilvi-d  in  Aug.  171*4.  in  St.  l*eter*hurir.     iMiriiii;  the  i  riu.i .«:;  < 

TheirtlaML'itcr,  .\u;ru*taKnniiairK?*le,  wjisiuar-  was  deputtd   ihec.   'J**.  Kht)  by  x).»-  A 

ried  in  l**!.*!  to  >ir  Tliuiii:t<*  WiMe  (.'il\erward  court  to  propo«ii«  tenns  of  piaiv  X**  :!;v  } 

Hanin  Trnrm,  \ihodie<i  N»«v.  11,  l>oo.     Their  piVfrnnu-nt,  which  were  aciepttdJiiii    11 
MUi,  .\nju«tut  FriMleric  d'Kote,  a  culiinel  in  the         ESTIIKK  (lleb.   lLnhiM*t\   the  i.:i:i:i* 

anny.  U»rn  Jan.  l;i,  171*4.  tiit-d  in   Deo.  l>*4-'<.  Persian  ijuei-n  of  .Kui^h  •le'Ment,  u, :.-•.] 

After  the  deaih  t>f  William  IV.  lie  claimed  his  suerus  and  aNo  the  title  of  the  \V.\  .  ra 

reciigiiiti<»n  a-i  .i  mcniliT  of  the  roval  family,  that  cuntain**  her  hi<»ti>ry,  and  tht    ir.tt: 

but  the  llnnnveriiin  ci»uncil  of  htate,  to  whom  narrative  of  the  d«li\t'ry  of  the  Ji  «  •  \ 

he  ^ubn)il(^•l  hi<  riaim  in  1^:U,  refii<»ed  to  take  from  a  general  ina'^-zicre  that  wu«  \**  \.X\ 

it  into  ciiixoidiTatiun.      After  the  dt-ath  of  his  <»n  the  l.'ith  of  thi*  month  .\dar,  thr'.i^'i. 

futiiiThi'i  rlainio  to  thodiikc<iom  <»f  Su<*<«ex  were  whole  IVr-ian  enipir«*.     The  lMi>k  i*  <  r.«- 

di«;illou«-l  liv  the  hoTi<^*  of  ImpIs  (July  9,  1M4).  Mualle^t  hi>>toric;d  w<irk«  \^i  the  H*  Sri  u 

I>TElJllAZY   "tT  K^-«7.TKiniAZY)  or  (ialan-  ture-*,  and  oik*  of  the  5  m»  calh-«I  J/*'::*.",  ' 

TiiA.  a  iioiilo  liuii;rari:in  family,  w  hi!  trace  thi-ir  lK-lont>  to  the  IIa:riogrnpha.       It  i«  n  r* 

origin  to  thf    lotji   c<iitiiry,  thtin;;li    thrre   is  remarkaMy    corrtct.    hut    Hinu-w!  .i*.    n 

li'i  authf  ntic  ri-i  ord  of  thiir  exiotnirv  till   the  Ib-I^rew,  and  diotingui:>h«-<l  bv  M'n.i*  r «  v 

lyth.     Thi-  fil-Irol   hraiii  h   I'f  the  tatuilv  were  and  l!»e  total  nl^H-nce  itf  «nv  nNrero^-  !• 

creatt-il  in  1>'''J2  rnuntt  i»f  Forrhtfn<»tvin  Mlung.  notwith>taniliiig    the    iliciiUdly    pr>\  «: 

Frakni»i.  and   a^tt-rw  an!  princes  of   the  t-mpire.  thou;:h    iiot    unnatur.'d.    rxi.rnrt  n.i:>r.    % 

Amiinc  it<  i-iiiiiuiit  lucinU'r^  wt-re  Paul  (llun.  evrntn  relatci).     It  i<*  chi«  ll,^  t!ii*  i  :ri  mt. 

Tab  IV.  I  l«'i...V171:i).  palatine  of  Hungary,  who  which  ha"*  hnl  to  the  coiirbi*i..n  « !"  -•'!:«■  < 

contriI>ti!«-d  anil 'iig  others  to  the  deli vt-ranci- of  that  the  InMik  i^  a  trni:«]a:ion  <  f .  <t  c 

Vienna  in   I*'**;!;  Ni«  hohi^  )Mlklo-»  III.  <1740  from,  a  IVr^ian  chri»nicii-,  ihouirh  i*- *■..•£ 

••17*J'ir.  «^  ho  \i  a<»  a  /i-aii*U!i  pntr>*n  of  M'ience  niiil  ha<»  al<^'  U-i  n  attribtittsl  U*  K/ra.  M'l.'dK': 

art,  ctpt'tioilv   iff  mu"!!',   Ha>«!n   the  CMinpt.'Mr  other  di*tingui*h*-d  Jiw*.     Ihe  l-nk   rj 

having  bcvu  hii  cht|M:l  iiia»tvr  fi»r  3U  years;  how  the  king,  incited  by  Lis  vindiotiTc 


ESTHONIA  ESTRAT8 

mtiiy  who  was  incensed  bythe  independent  TVesenberg,  Leal,  and  Kanda.    Its  governor  is 

>f  the  Jew  Mordecai,  resolved  ui>on  the  under  the  orders  of  a  governor-general  who  re- 

TO  of  all  the  Jews  in  his  dominions,  but  sides  at  Riga,  and  who  has  anthoritj  also  over 

med  from  his  wicked  purpose  by  Esther,  Livonia  and  Courland. — ^The  Estbonians  are  of 

aspired  by  MordecaL  saved  her  nation  at  Finnish  descent,  of  slight  stature,  daring,  and 

k  of  her  own  life.    To  commemorate  the  vindictive.     They  embraced  Christianity  about 

.  miracoloos  salvation  of  their  people,  the  beginning  of  the  18th  centnry,  and  fell  suc- 

le  destruction  of  their  enemies,  Mordecai  cessivdy  under  the  power  of  the  merchants  of 

stber  introduced  the  fast  of  the  18th  of  Bremen,  the  Danes,  the  Teutonic  knights,  the 

the  day  of  danger,  and  the  festival  of  Livonian  knights  (Porte Glaive),  and  die  bish- 

or  lots,  still  celebrated  by  the  Jews  on  ops  of  Riga  and  Ungannia.   Threatened  in  1555 

;th  and  15th  of  the  same  month,  as  days  with  conquest  by  Russia,  they  preferred  to  re- 

irtainment  and  Joy,  and  for  sending  pres-  cognise  the  authority  of  Eric  XIV.,  king  of 

y  each  other,  and  alms  to  the  poor.    On  Sweden,  whose  successors  gave  legal  sanction  to 

mer  of  these  days  the  Megillah  is  read  in  the  rights  of  the  Estbonians  by  various  treaties, 

nagogues.     The  Persian  name  of  the  especially  by  that  of  Oliva  in  1660.    In  1710 

has  b«en  differently  translated ;  and  that  the  country  was  conquered  by  Peter  the  Great 

king  Ahasuerus,  "  who  reigned  from  In-  in  his  war  with  Charles  XII.,  and  was  definitely 

idSthiopia  over  the  127  provinces  of  the  confirmed  to  Russia  by  the  treaty  of  Nystadt  in 

\  of  Persia  and  Media,"  is  a  source  of  con-  1721.    The  population  was  from  that  time  kept 

ory  hyjpotheses  among  critics.    From  the  in  the  grossest  ignorance  and  degradation,  living 

Iff  of  Media  down  to  the  last  king  of  Per-  with  their  cattle  in  miserable  huts,  the  doors  of 

£  monarch  of  that  united  empire  has  had  which  served  idso  for  windows  and  chimneys. 

ocate.   The  claims  of  Xerxes,  the  mighty.  Attempts  for  their  emancipation  were  made  by 

ma,  and  fickle  invader  of  Greece,  are  best  Alexander  I.  in  181 6,  who  founded  schools  among 

ted  by  his    character ;  those   of  Arta-  them.    The  Esthonian  lords  are  chiefly  of  the 

LoDffimanas,  by  the  authority  of  the  Sep-  German  race,  and  to  their  efforts  the  ameHorar 

b  ana  Josephus.    The  apocryphal  addi-  tions  are  to  be  attributed.    There  are  Esthonian 

0  the  book  caused  it  to  be  violently  at-  popular  songs,  of  a  naive  and  melanclioly  char- 
by  Lnther. — By  a  singular  coincidence,  acter,  versified  in  the  Finnish  manner,  that  is^ 

r  Jewess  Esther  also  attracted  the  love  of  metrically  and   alliteratively.    The  oldest  ox 

ty  gentile  king,  Casimir  the  Great  of  Po-  these  is  a  song  of  the  peasants  of  the  canton  of 

83d-1870),becamehismistress,  and  caused  Revel,  which  has  been  sung  from  the  time  of 

t  deal  of  good  to  her  people,  in  a  time  the  introduction  of  Christianity. 

(t  barbarous  persecutions.     Ilcr  history  ESTIENNE,  or  £tienne,  a  celebrated  French 

en  adorned  by  the  romantic  pen  of  Ber-  family  of  printers.    See  Stephens. 

cz,  Bulgarin,  Bronikowski,  Josika,  and  ESTILL,  an  E.  co.  of  Ky.,  intersected  by  the 

;  and  her  memory  is  preserved  by  the  Kentucky  river ;  area  about  800  sq.  m ;  pop.  in 

fLobz6w,nearCracow,once  her  residence.  1850,  5,985,  of  whom  411  were  slaves,    it  is 

B01SllL{Gex,  Esthland ;  Esth.  Wiroma\  well  supplied  with  water  power,  and  rich  in 

nunent  of  European  Russia,  extending  coal  and  iron.    The  surface  is  uneven  or  moun- 

lie  S.  aide  of  the  gulf  of  Finland,  having  tainous,  and  there  are  many  extensive  forests. 

dtio  sea  on  the  W.,  the  government  of  The  soil,  which  is  moderately  but  not  uniformly 

a  and  Lake  Peipus  on  the  S.,  and  the  gov-  fertile,  is  suitable  for  the  production  of  grass 

at  of  8t.  Petersburg  on  the  E.,  and  includ-  and  various  kinds  of  grain,  and  in  1850  yielded 

go  and  some  smaller  islands  in  the  BaJtic ;  291,728  bushels  of  Indmn  corn,  18,629  of  oats^  and 

,998  so.  m. ;  pop.  about  820,000,  consisting  24,150  lbs.  of  tobacco.    There  were  10  churches, 

of  Estbonians  ^formerly  called  by  the  Rus-  and  215  pupils  attending  public  schools.    This 

MimIvX  ^^^  including  also  many  Russians,  county  was  formed  in  1808,  and  named  in  honor 

n%  Swedes,  and  Danes.    Its  capital  is  of  Capt.  James  Estill,  who  fell  in  an  engagement 

which  name  is  also  often  given  to  the  with  the  Indians  in  1782.    Capital,  Irvine, 

government.     The  surface  is  generally  ESTOVERS,  a  Norman  term,  equivalent  to 

tnfy,  rocky,  or  marshy,  and  is  interspersed  necessaries.    The  most  ordinary  use  of  it  was 

Dore  than  200  lakes,  but  produces  abun-  in  reference  to  the  right  of  a  tenant  of  lands  to 

grains,  flax,  and  pulse.    There  are  many  take  wood  necessary  for  domestic  or  farming 

ire  Ibrests  of  firs  and  birches.    The  cli-  purposes.  In  such  case  it  was  an  exclusive  right, 

1  moist,  cold,  and  salubrious ;  the  winter  and  related  to  wood  upon  tlie  leased  premises. 
Mi  fbr  8  months,  and  the  transition  to  But  there  could  be  also  common  of  estovers, 
r  ii  sodden.  The  fisheries  are  productive,  that  is  to  say,  a  right  of  taking  wood  from  other 
ItiiiB  receives  great  attention,  and  the  lands,  either  in  common  with  other  persons,  or 
\  of  cattle^  and  particularly  of  sheep  of  it  might  be  an  exclusive  privilege  appendant  to 
irioo  and  Saxon  breeds,  is  an  important  a  particular  tenement.  The  alimony  of  a  wife 
i»  Latheranism  is  the  prevalent  religion,  who  had  obtained  a  divorce  a  mensa  et  thoro  was 
Ma  are  also  many  adherents  of  the  Greek  formerly  called  estovers,  and  could  be  recovered 

L    The  ffovemment  of  Esthonia  is  divid-  by  a  writ  de  estoveriU  habendis,                                    *j 

»•  &tncts,Bevel,  Hapsal,  Weissenstein,  ESTRAYS,  or   Stbays,  domestic   animalsi 


800  E8TBEAT 

Qsnalljr  desipifttcd  t»  cattle,  which  are  found  travngimco  of  friTolouii  Udios  of  oar  dar* 

wandering  in  enoloMd  laiuK  and  the  owner  of  dies  into  itiKignificanco  coniuared  co  the  f* 

which  i!i  uiiknuwn.    In  England  they  belong  to  di^plnj  of  (rnbricllo  on  all  pablic  oca 

the  proi»rictur  of  tlio  manor  on  which  thejr  aro  Ilonrj  would  have  divorced  himself  (a» 

found,  provide<l  tliat  after  prockmation  in  the  terward  did)  from  Margaret  of  Valui<4, 

churoli  and  two  market  t4>wns  the  owner  does  citimnte  wife,  for  the  purpose  of  nu>in 

not  ap]H.'ar  to  clniut  them  witliin  a  year  and  a  bricllo  to  the  throne  of  France,  if  it  lu 

day.    In  tlie  old  books  e«trays  were  described  been  for  his  niinltter  and  friend  SuHv 

tspecus  fdj^firw,  quod  nulhu  pttit,  »equitur,  ttl  was  the  only  ]>enion  with  wbow  inflmri 

adtocnt ;  therefore  dogs  and  cats  were  not  in-  was  unable  to  cojie.     She  liad  3  cLildr 

eluded ;  A  swan  might  be,  but  no  other  fowl  the  king,  2  sons  and  a  daughter. 
In  New  York,  estrays,  whidi  by  statute  aro  neat        ESTREMA I  >UU A,  a  province  of  Poi 

cattle,  hordes,  and  bhcep,  found  in  enclosed  on  the  W*.  hide  of  the  kingdom,  bftwtt-n  1 

grounds  between  the  months  of  November  and  Beira,  Aletntejo,  and  the  Atlantic  <xvan  ; 

Ai»ril,  may  be  sold  by  the  owner  of  such  grounds  7,256  s<i.  m. ;  p<)^>.  806,000.  It  contain*  th< 

who  shall  have  taken  up  such  estrays,  upon  a  oifLi^^lKmand  lA^iria.    Its  soil  if>watv red  ai 

certain  notice  to  the  town  clerk;  the  proceeds,  tilizul  by  numerous  8tream^  the  ]»rinci 

after  paying  the  exi>cnses  of  keeping  and  of  sale,  which  are  the  Tagus  and  the  Suldji<».     C 

to  bo  |»aid  over  to  the  supervisor  for  the  use  or  fruits,  and  wines  are  produced.    It  ha5  »i 

the  town  unle^  the  owner  shall  claim  the  samo  from  earth(luake^  and  has  unexpKtred  m 
within  a  year  after  the  sale.    The  limitation  to        ESTREMA DrK A,  an  old  provin«v  of 

that  particular  i>eriod  of  the  year  is  probably  be-  in  the  W.  part  of  the  pcninMiIa,  coini>ri<>i 

cause  at  other  times  cattle  aro  often  at  large,  and  modem    nrovinces  of   liadiyoz  and    Ci 

find  sufficient  sustenance  by  the  roadside  or  upon  bounded  N.  l>y  the  province  of  Salamai 

common  lands.  In  com*  of  danmge  done  by  cattle  by  those  of  Tole4h>,  Ciudad  Heal,  and  1%* 

in  encloMd  lauds,  a  different  remedy  is  provided,  K.  t»y  thoH*  of  t>eville  and  lluelva,  and 

Tiz.,  by  putting  tliem  in  a  pound,  and  a  sale  by  tho  Portugal ;  area,  14,743  so.  m. ;   p«  'p.  4* 

pound  master  to  pay  such  damages  and  the  ex-  It  is  entirely  surrounded  t>y  mountain*, 

penses  of  keeping,  unless  the  owner  shall  appear  dividetl  naturally  into  3  parts  by  the 

and  Scuttle  the  some  m-ithin  6  days.    So  where  Togus  and  Guatliana,  and  mto  2  iiorts  I 

cattle  are  at  large  contrary  to  village  or  town  mountains  of  Ctuadalni>e,  San  I'lMni.  ae 

regulations,  the  ordinary  procee<ling  is  to  put  Mamed.   These  mountains  forming  \*\\\  a 

them  in  a  |Kmnd,  and  after  a  certain  time  to  sell  chain,  traverse  the  province  from  £.  Xu  V 

them  for  the  payment  of  the  i>enaltv  and  charges,  form  tho  boundary  U'twcen  itA  t«i»  ] 

ESTREAT    (Ijit,  titractum  ;   !•>.  estrcUJ^  a  diviMtm**.     The  Miil  of  E*trvni:wlura  i^  \i- 

tenn  ^tiIl  in  use  in  crimiiml  pn»ceedings,  by  tile,  and  if  woll  cultivati-d  wuiiM  {T'lin 

which  is  Mgiiitlml  the  extracting  (ir  taking  out  a  cicnt  to  MipiK>rt  a  thinl  of  thf  ]i>]i:'.a: 

record  uf  a  court  fur  the  purjHnic  of  being  pn»s-  Spain;  but  nearly  all  the  largi*  pr.|'r:^t. 

ccutvd  in  another  court,  or  it  may  be  in  tho  same  K-rvc  their  lands  f«>r  the  iiii<»tu ring  i<f  T^*tr 

c».»urt.     To  e'i treat  a  recognizance  is  to  endorM>  s«>  that  t!ie  ajn*i cultural  pnnlurtH  iirv  f*  ■ 

it  by  order  of  the  court  for  proMKMition.     The  little  barley  and  wheat  are  cult ivato!.  nr..i 

u#i' t)ft lie  tenn  pntbably  grew  out  of  the  cufitom  nut^  are  abundant,  and  are  the  pni.r.jtu 

in  Enjjhmd  of  M-nding  all  recogniztmcos  to  the  of  the  inhabitants.      This  pr<ivii.i*v   \*  i 

court  of  t  xrhiNiuer  to  be  proM.*cuted.  from  tlic  Si':i,  and  has  no  great  hi^hw.i\  >. 

ESTKCES,  (iAiiKiKii.K  ii\  mi*«tress  of  Rcrry  its  rivern  are  little  ummI  for  navi^r,*:."- 

IV.  of  Frantv.  lH»rn  in  ITiTLdied  April  10, 15yy.  moiiufaeture^  are  of  m*  import Aii«'r.  a:A 

In  lo*Ji}  hhe  met  lienry  fur  the  tir^t  time  at  the  ne^Iefte<l  mines  of  had.  hilver.   unil  «• . 

chateauofOtuxre'*,  where  ^heri•sided  with  her  was  fi»nnerly  a  part  «»f  the  kinplMi.i  ff 

family.     She  was  fair  and  of  singularly  delicate  and  was  the  hi>t  iir«ivin*v  riini)u«re<l  \  y  .\ 

complexion;  her  even  were  bine,  and  combined  IX.  of  that  kin;;d<im  ;  wheiiri-  tl.e  r..r:  i 

in  a  remarkable  degree  tendemes*  with  brilliancy  tremadura,  from  extrrm'i  ortt,  la*t  r»  j.   .-. 
of  eX{<re<«>ton ;  her  hair  ha<l  a  g«>lden  hue,  her         KSZKK,  EhsEiK,  or  E^-^Ett   illi.n.    /.•: 

f>rehead  was  U»ld  and  largi\  her  whole  prcML-nco  town  and  fitrtrex*  «»f  .\u«»tria,  c.<ipit;d  *>f>'.% 

was  iK'aniii:^  with  intelligi-nc«*  and  instinct  with  and  of  a  circle  of  its  tmn  name,  m:;  tVe 

g(*ntlenes4  and  grace.    She  in-tpin-d  the  French  l»ra\e,  \'.l  m.  from  its  contluen«"o  » »rL  t>.« 

moiutfch  with  a  \  i» ►lent  pa-i-ion,  which,  however,  ul»e  ;  pop.  l*J.ritM».    It  i^  tlte  c«.'ntri- •  f  ihi 

did  nut  interrupt  her  relation  with  her  old  lover,  nuTce  and  indu-try  of  Slavimia.    Fa>*  f  - 

tlie  duke  uf  IMleganle.     The  kingoAUM.H]  h«-rto  corn,  aihl  other  priKluct«  are  held  lur^  4  ;, 

take  M.  de  Liantx»urt  for  her  n<'minal  husbanil,  year.     The  Prave  h:Ls  been  made  avA.li*. 

and  »ulrK*«)UentIy  raised  her  to  the  rank  of  mar-  hteamb<»at  navigation  within  t?.e  U*t  f*-« 

chione^  u(  Munci-aux.  and  in  liV.»5  to  that  of  TIktc  are  1  i\'ithi>lic  and  H  (tre«k  c^   .r  )a 

durhii«s  uf  lU'aufort.    At  the  same  timcholavi«*h-  other  public  inMilutinns  mid  !>u:!d:i  .r-    Tl 

ed  richer  uiK>n  her  in  great  pn •fusion,  and  at  tin*  tre*»«  contains nn  ar^'Ual  luul  barrack «  f<  r  : 

time  (»f  her  death  »he  wa<»  the  owner  of  more  incti.    l)ttrin^  thi'revnlutionArt  ji^r.'*!  %  f 

tlian  12  e<atc%  lome  of  which  aro  to  thin  day  '4'.*.  the  fortress  wasiH-ciipi«l  by  ib?  \\  ir.^ 

pointed  oat  in  tho  vicinity  of  raris.    Tho  ex-  until  Feb.  14,  l!HU,  when  it  surrvndi-rvd 


£TAMFES  ETESIAN  WINDS             801 

AnstrUn  Gen.  Trebereberg.  Not  far  from  Eszek  night ;  but  in  the  spring,  from  the  nnsheltered 

■Und  the  fimioos  bridges  constmcted  bj  Soly-  character  of  the  country,  the  hot  winds  blow 

man  in  1566,  to  fiicilitate  the  entrance  of  the  with  a  fury  imsurpassed  in  any  part  of  India. 

Tnrkiah  armies  into  Hungary.    The  town  was  They  are  succeeded  by  a  wet  season,  in  which 

a  colonj  of  the  Romans,  who  called  it  Mursia.  the  rain  falls  in  torrents.  The  principal  crops  are 

£TAMP£S  (anc.  Stampa)^  an  ancient  French  indigo,  cotton,  opium,  sugar  cane,  rice,  wheat^ 

town  in  the  department  of  Seine-et-Oise,  84  m.  barley,  various  European  vegetables,  and  fruits. 

bj  TaQ  from  Paris ;  pop.  in  1856,  7,947.    It  is  Timber  is  very  scarce.    The  district  was  for- 

situated  on  2  small  tributaries  of  the  Juine,  or  merly  noted  as  .the  haunt  of  numerous  bodies 

£tampea,  in  a  fertile  valley,  and  is  surrounded  of  Thugs,  who  infested  both  sides  of  the  Jumna, 

with  shady  promenades.     Near  the  railway  and  were  not  unfrequently  protected  by  the  na- 

statioa  to  Paris  is  a  ruined  tower  called  Gul-  tive  landowners.  To  so  great  an  extent  did  the 

nette,  the  only  remnant  of  the  ancient  castle  system  ofthuggeeprevul,  that  in  one  year  (1808) 

built  by  King  Robert  in  the  11th  century.  67  dead  bodies  were  talcen  out  of  wells  in  this 

Tliere  are  several  fine  churches,  a  town  hall,  district.  Etawah  was  acquired  by  the  British  in 

and  a  castle  which  is  said  to  have  been  given  in  1801  in  lieu  of  a  subsidy  claimed  from  the  nabob 

appanage  to  the  duchess  d^£tampes  and  other  of  Oude.   It  was  formerly  united  with  Cawn- 

njal  favorites.  The  chief  manufactures  are  soap,  pore,  but  in  1840  was  erected  into  a  separate 

leather,  counterpanes,  woollen  yam,  and  hosiery.  ziUah. — ^Etawah,  the  principal   town   of  the 

There  is  a  considerable  trade  in  wool,  com,  honey,  above  district,  is  situated  on  high  ground  about 

■ad  floor,  and  more  than  40  mills.  1  m.  from  the  left  bank  of  the  Jumna,  100  m. 

£TAIIP£S,  Amra  dk  Pisseleu,  duchess  d\  N.  W.  of  Cawnpore,  and  73  m.  S.  E.  of  Agra ; 

a  miatresB  of  Francis  I.  of  France,  born  in  pop.  23,300.    Ghats,  or  flights  of  steps,  some 

15081,  died  about  1576.    Her  father,  Guillaume  m  ruins,  others  new  and  frequented  by  Hindoo 

dt  Fiaielen,  was  a  country  gentleman  of  Picar-  devotees  for  the  purpose  of  relimous  ablutions, 

dy,  who  was  married  8  times,  and  had  no  fewer  lead  toward  the  river,  across  which  is  a  ferry 

than  80  chUdren.    Anne  was  a  maid  of  honor  and  at  times  a  bridge  of  boats.    A  fort  and  a 

of  the  qneen  regent,  when  she  attracted  the  large  gaol  are  the  principal  buildings.  The  town 

attention  of  her  son  Francis  I.    She  became  was  a  prosperous  and  important  place  under 

his  favorite  mbtress,  displacing  the  countess  the  Mogul  empire,  but  is  now  litUo  more  than 

da  Chateaabriant ;  but  to  save  appearances  he  a  mass  of  ruins,  and  is  generally  described  as 

gave  her  for  a  nominal  husband  Jean  de  Brosse,  one  of  the  least  attractive  stations  in  India.    It 

afterward  duke  d'Stampes.    The  new  duchess  owes  some  commercial  consequence  to  its  posi- 

leeored  lucrative  appointments  to  her  relatives  tion  at  the  junction  of  the  roods  from  Calpee 

and  friends,  and  wielded  a  paramount  influence  and  Cawnpore  to  Agra,  and  has  a  few  bunga- 

in  the  affairs  of  the  nation.    Upon  the  fine  arts  lows  and  other  military  buildings.    A  detach- 

and  in  some  other  directions  she  exerted  a  good  ment  of  the  9th  regiment  Bengal  native  in- 

influence,  but  the  jealousy  which  sprung  up  be-  fantry  mutinied  here  in  the  latter  part  of  May, 

tveen  her  and  Diana  of  Poitiers,  the  mistress  1857. 

€f  the  dauphin  Henry,  eventually  became  a  ETCHING.    See  Enoravhtg. 

woroe  of  calamity  for  her  lover  and  for  France.  ETEOCLES   ksd    POLYNICES,    mythical 

Itvas  chiefly  under  the  influence  of  tliis  feeling  kings  of  Grecian  Thebes,  sons  of  (Edipus  and 

that  Ae  betrayed  to  Charles  Y.  the  movements  Jocaste.     After  the  flight  of  their  father,  the 

of  the  French  army  ;  and  the  disadvantageous  brothers  agreed  to  govern  the  kingdom  alter- 

ticaty  of  Crecy  in  1544  was  due  to  the  intrigues  of  nately ;  but  Eteocles  refusing,  on  the  expiration 

Anne  and  of  Diana.    Anne  was  present  in  1588  of  his  term,  to  surrender  the  sceptre,  Polynices 

It  the  interview  between  Francis  I.  and  Charles  retired  to  the  court  of  Adrastus,  king  of  Argos, 

T.,  and,  according  to  the  gossiping  chroniclers  who  gave  him  one  of  his  daughters  in  mor- 

if  the  times,  even  the  stem  emperor  was  fosci-  riage,  and  undertook  to  sustain  him  in  the  en- 

Htad  by  her  beauty.     The  death  of  Francis  forcement  of  his  rights.     Organizing  accord- 

(1547)  proved  fatal  to  her  power.    Henry  II.  Ingly  that  confederacy  of  Peloponnesian  chiefs, 

Moished  her  from  the  court,  and  she  ended  her  whose    exploits  ^schylus  has  immortalized, 

ii|i  on  one  of  her  estates.    It  is  said  that  she  Adrastus  with  his  son-in-law  marched  against 

mn  devoted  herself  to  religion,  and  that  she  Thebes.     The  success  of  the  belligerents  was 

honne  a  convert  to  Protestantism.  various,  and  many  warriors  were  slain,  when 

ETAWAH,  a  district  of  British  India,  in  the  the  brothers,  to  prevent  the  further  effusion  of 

fcwl  mm  it-go  vemorship  of  the  N.  W.  provinces,  blood,  resolved  to  decide  the  contest  by  single 

buded  N.  by  Minpooree  and  Furruckabad,  E.  combat,  in  which  both  perished. 

hrCawnpore,  S.  by  Bundelcund,  S.  W.  by  ETESIAN  WINDS  (Gr.  cnycrtai,  from  cror, 

CmBor,  and  W.  by  Agra;  area,  1,674  sq.  m. ;  year),  the  name  given  by  the  ancients  to  the 

IgfL  m  1853,  610,965,  of  whom  578,158  were  N.  E.  trade  winds  which  blow  for  about  6  weeks 

Wadooa.    It  lies  chiefly  in  the  Doab  between  during  the  summer  throughout  the  countries 

fta  Jumna  and  Ganges,  but  comprises  also  a  adjacent  to  the  Mediterranean,  especially  its 

mow  tract  on  the  right  or  S.  W.  bank  of  the  eastern  portion.    On  the  sea  they  are  colled 

IwTtM  river.    The  climate  from  October  to  by  ^e  fishermen  meltem^  probably  from  mal 

Marali  ia  deUghtfol,  and  fires  ore  needed  at  tempi^  in  reference  to  the  fury  with  which  they 


ETIIELBALD  ETHELBED  XL 

blow,  ind  the  danfreroas  weather  ther  creat«  aarred  trte  of  the  druida,  where  It  wa«  iDpfioaed 

for  their  pmall  craft.     On  land  ther  are  more  any  magical  sp«^ll  would  be  withont  inllocnce ; 

favorably  roganliHl,  Cicvro  ri'niarkinf;  of  them  and  after  a  conference  he  frave  them  penntMioa 

that  in  Italy  they  are  equally  comfortable  and  to  preach  without  molestation,  tliodirh  be  him« 

•alutary  to  men,  beauty  and  birds  And  likewiso  self  had  no  inclination  to  abandon  the  goda  of 

beneficial  to  vo(Mt,ation,  by  moderating  the  vio-  his  fathers.    The  queen  prepared  A  residettca 

lent  heat  of  the  weather  during  the  season  of  for  the  new  apostles,  and  in  697  Ethelbert  r»- 

tbe  dog  days.     Plinv  and  Seneca  alno  make  ceived  the  sacrament  of  baptism,  and  his  oaa* 

mention  of  them,     fn  the  Ix^vant  they  com-  pie  was  followed  by   10,000  of  his  subjects 

mence  toward  the  middle  of  July  about  9  in  About  600  he  issued  the  eariiest  remain in|r 

the  morning,  continuing  only  in  the  daytime,  of  Anglo-Saxon  laws,  eoniisting  of  ^9 


Tlie  sun  at  that  season  is  powerfully  heating  ments  relating  principally  to  the  amount  of  p^ 

the  surface  under  the  tropic  of  Cancer,  and  cuniary  fines  parable  for  varionstran'gri  mitm^ 

rarefying  the  atmosphere  south  of  the  Mediter-  ETHELBERt,  Sd  king  of  the  An|rlo-8Aioa^ 

ranean.     Currents  of  air  are  thus  drawn  in  son  and  successor  of  Ethelwul(  died  in  865l  B« 

over  the  desert  of  Sahara ;  but  though  in  their  inherited,  in  857,  the  goTemment  of  all  tbo 

nassage  across  the  Mediterranean  they  must  kingdom,  excepting  Weasez.  and  upon  the  dcalb 

become  charged  with  moisture,  the  clouds  are  of  his  brother  Ethelbald  in  860  posaeaaed  hiMdf 

dispersi*d  as  they  pass  the  margin  of  the  hot  also  of  that  portion.    Ills  reign  waa  mnlenaJ 

Bands,  and  the  va[H>r  di«si])ated  in  the  rarefied  by  tlie  invasions  of  the  Northmen,  who  lorkgd 

air  is  swept  cm,  to  be  again  collected  together  the  city  of  Winchester,  landed  on  tbo  ble  «f 

andpreciiiitated  in  a  cooler  region.  Thanet,  pillaged  a  part  of  Kent,  and  made  tbdr 

ETIIELH  ALD,  king  of  Wessex,  son  of  Ethel-  apiiearance  in  Xorthumbria  under 

wnlf^  king  of  the  Anglo-Sazon^  obtained  the  brog. 

throne  of  Wessex  in  H56,  died  in  860.    While  ETIIELRED    (also    written    Ei> 

Ethelvulf  waa   making  a  journey  to  Rome,  Etiibked)  I.,  4th  king  of  the  Anglo-SaxoM^ 

on  his  way  back  from  which  he  married  Judith,  of  Ethelwulf,  and  successor  of  Etbelbert, 


the  young  daughterofthe  French  monarch,  Eth-  ed  the  throne  in  866,  died  in  871.     Ilia  mm 

elbald  fonned  the  project  of  seizing  the  throne,  waa  a  continuous  struggle  against  tho_Noitt> 

A  civil  var  was  prevented  only  by  the  moder-  men.    The  sons  of  the  Danish  chieftain 

ation  of  Ethelwulf,  who  resigned  to  Iiis  son  the  whom  the  Northumbrians  had  p«it  to  death, 

dominion  of  Wessex,  and  confirmed  that  por-  peared  in  East  Anglia,  afterward  took  poaataMa 

tion  of  the  kingdom  to  him  in  his  will.    The  of  the  city  of  York,  and  defeated  and  alcw  tv* 

reign  of  Etiielbald  was  pi^aceful,  but  he  excited  Northumbrian  princes  who  attempted  to  reeov- 

gener.<i]  disapprobation  by  marrying,  contrary  er  it.     Marching  8.  they  took  up  their  w inter 

to  tho  canonical    law,  his  ^tep^lothl•r  Judith,  quarters  at  Nottingham,  whence  thrr  rvtirf4 

Erclc-iasticol   and   p<ipular  di:«plva>ure  forced  witliout  a  tiattle  aftvr  being  fur  scnne  time  b^ 

him  at  U*ngth  to  a  hoparatioii,  and  Judith  re-  loagtu-red  by  EthelrtHl  and  his  brotlter  Alfrs^ 

turniii;r  to  Franco  i-Ii»pi-il  fnun  a  rnnvi-nt  with  Passing  into  East  Anglia,  thoy  burnt  on  their 

Baldwin,  ufti-rward  count  of  Flanders     From  way   the  monasteries  of    Hanlnt^y,  Croyland, 

tills  uninn  dvM*iii(U'd  Matilda,  wifo  of  William  and  MiHicsliamfitvtlo,  ravop-d  thv  nunnrrr  ei 

the  (*nn<|ueror.  and  through  her  the  race  of  Ely,  and  svixed  and  murderi'*!  the  Ea^t  Angliaa 

Encli^h  Mtv«*n*i;rn*t.  king  1-Idmun«l,  who  was  hence  rev«red   as  a 

ETIIKLHEUT,  king  of  Kent,  and  ad  bretwal-  martyr  by   his  subJiH*ts  and   thrir   |<i»-t«n!T. 

da  or  (hiff  uf  thv  Anglo-Sazon  ht-ptarrliy.  Uirn  They  were  met  in  HTl  by  Etholrotl  and  Alfred 

about  M.'i,  a*ic('ndcd  tlic  throne  in  5ri<i,  <lii*<l  in  at  Itoading.  but  were  aMo  t(»  maintain  th«ff 

Clti.  AHthorfprv«entAtivtfof  Ilongist,  hcclaim-  gnmnd.     lieing,  how cvi-r.  4  days  later,  at  Es* 

ed  FUfieriority  among  the  Sax«m  ^tatc^  but  was  cvMlune, attacked  mitli  great  imftctuosity  by  A)* 

twice  diMNimtited  in  battle  in  t!ie  early  part  of  fre<l,  ther  were  routed  and  were  purvucd  ff€  a 

hU  ri'l^rn  by  C\*awlin,  the   [Niwerful  king  of  night  and  a  day.     Witliin  a  fortnight  anociMr 

WesM.'X.     AlH)iit  t>f^^,  how  over,  he  had  acrjuired  battle  was  fouglit  at  lia^ing  in  wLirh  the  iaTiF 

thedignity  of  lire twoldOfCVaw  tin  being  dep<ised,  ders  were  victorious,  and  an  ol»stinate  engage* 

and  dying  a  few  years  later.     The  mo^t  remark-  nient  siion  followe<l  at  Merton.     Ethrlred  St4 

able  cvi'iit  of  Iti*  rri;rn  was  the  intn »duetion  of  of  a  wound,  and  left  to  Alfred  the  tnhchtADea 

the  Christian  rilipun  into  Britain.     II i<  <|iicen  of  hi<  c.nrex. 
Bertha,  a  dau;liter  uf  i'hariUrt,  king  of  Tans,        KTllKLKED  II.,  sumame<l  the  Unready .  kinf 

I)ntf«*SM.*d  t]it«  faith,  and  hi-r  virtuen  an<l  [Mipti-  of  the  Angl<».Sazoii^  son  of  Edgar.  »urcrrwmr  of 

arity  rici>iiiiiieiide«l  it  iMitli  ti»  the  king  and  the  E«lward  the  Martyr,  btirn  in  IH"*^.  a«c«ndn!  tht 

PropK*.     Nor  cituld  it  Ih.*  unknown  to  the  Eng-  tlirone  in  1»7H,  died  in  I^*ndon.  April  2.1.  1**2Il 

li»h  Saxon  I  that  Christianity  ha<I  already  W-  II  in  reign  mas  long,  and  the  m<Mt  cnfortcaalo 

come  the  relijritm  of  their  i>rethrtn  who  hail  in  Anglo-Sazon  history.     The  M^n  «*f  that  B- 

desct'ndt-^l  ajt  cnntpieror^  ttiwanl  ttie  iMtuth  of  frida  whoM>  criminal  ambition  ha<l  caused  tba 

EuroiN*.     In  «%l*ii,  4(1  Italian  and  Fnnrh  monk^  tra;ric  death  of  the  late  king,  he  never  ptMPeMtd 

pent  by  <frrp»ry  the  (in  at,  und«r  t!»o  rontluct  the  afTt-rtion^  of  hi<  subjects  and  wa»  arkoowK 

of  Ai!(rii«tin.  laniU-donthei-Ieof  Thanet.    They  e«lge«l  king  only  biocau«e  ther^  was  ii«>  other 

were  received  by  the  king  beneath  an  oak,  the  prince  of  the  royal  blood.    The  Northnicn 


EXHELWULF  ETHER                      808 

•erend  invasions,  appeared  with  a  formidable  land,  and  thongh  repulsed  and  defeated,  always 

armament  in  991  off  the  coast  of  Essex,  and  carried  off  booty.    In  850-^51,  a  part  of  them 

were  met  at  Ifaldon  by  Brithnoth,  earldorman  dared  for  the  first  time  to  pass  the  winter 

€i  that  country,  who  after  having  foiled  their  ef-  in  England.    Strongly  reenforced  in  the  springy 

forts  for  14  days  was  defeated  and  slain.    The  they  sailed  np  the  Thames,  sacked  Canter- 

kiD|L  listening  to  the  advice  of  Siric,  archbishop  bory  and   London,    and   met    Ethel  wulf  at 

ofOuiterbory,  and  of  many  of  the  degenerate  the  head  of  the  West  Saxons  at  Okely.    After 

nobiUty,  purchased  the  departure  of  the  enemy  an  obstinate  battle  the  Danes  were  defeated 

fromtlie  kingdom  bypayingthem  10,000  pounds  with  a  loss  greater,  it  is  said,  than  they  had 

€i  silver.    A  fleet  fitted  out  against  them  was  ever  before  suffered,  and  other  divisions  of 

rendo^ed  useless  by  the  treachery  of  Elfric.    In  their  forces  were  defeated  by  Ceorle  in  Dev- 

993  the  Danes  were  joined  by  3  chieftains  who  onshire,  and  by  Athelstan  at  sea.    Tet  they 

were  sent  to  oppose  them,  and  then  c«>tured  maintained  their   settlement  on    the  isle  of 

the  cttUeof  Bamborough  and  ravaged  both  sides  Thanet,  but  were  cautious  in  their  ravages  dur- 

cftfaaHumber.    In  994  the  Northmen,  under  ing  the  remainder  of  EthelwulTs  reign.     In 

the  tfflmpf*^  of  Sweyn,  king  of  Denmark,  and  855  the  king  made  a  visit  to  Rome,  accompa- 

(Nav«i  king  of  Norway,  dared  to  attack  the  cen-  nied  by  his  son  Alfred,  who  there  received  from 

tre  ci  the Idngdom,  sailed  up  tlie  Thames,  laid  the  pontiff  the  regal  unction  and  the  sacrament 

Mfe  to  London,  flrom  whicn  being  repulsed,  of  confirmation.    He  returned  through  France, 

they  plundered  Essex,  Sussex,  and  Hampshire,  where  he  tarried  to  marry  Judith,  the  daughter 

asd  haviiw  obtained  horses  were  spreading  de-  of  the  French  kins.    His  son  Athelstan  mean- 

TBitatkmurinto  the  inland  counties.    The  for-  time  had  died,  and  Ethelbald  was  usurping  the 

bwranuft  of  the  invaders  was  now  purchased  by  kingdom,  when  he  returned  and  yielded  to  the 

tfaepayment  of  1 6,000  pounds,  and  in  1 001  of  24,-  latter  the  government  of  Wessex.    He  survived 

000  pounds  of  nlver.  Ethelred  and  his  advisers  this  partition  of  his  dominions  but  2  years, 

thflB  determined  to  rid  themselves  of  the  Danes  which  he  passed  in  acts  of  charity  and  devo- 

hf  a  general  massacre  of  all  of  them  who  were    tion^ • 

reoMining  in  the  kingdom.    Secret  orders  were  ETHER  (Gr.  aiBffp^  the  upper  air),  in  chem- 

WBt  to  every  town  and  county,  and  on  Nov.  istry,  the  name  given  to  a  class  of  highly  volatile, 

U,  1009,  the  festival  of  St.  Brice,  multitudes  of  inflammable,  spirituous   liquids,  possessing  a 

every  age  and  sex  were  butchered.    Next  year  sweetish  taste  and  peculiar  fragrance,  obtained 

Sweyn  reappeared  on  the  south  coast,  and  from  commonly  by  distilling  alcohol  in  mixture  with 

this  time  left  the  kingdom  no  rest.    He  dcvas-  some  acid.  Their  composition  is  somewhat  vari- 

tated  aU  the  country  from  Exeter  to  the  heart  able  according  to  the  acid  employed  in  their  pre- 

of  Wiltshire,  burning  cities  and  villages.    He  paration,  and  this  gives  them  their  distinctive 

eonsented  to  a  peace  in  1007  on  payment  of  names,  as  sulphuric  ether,  nitric  ether,  &c.  Tet 

31,000  poundsL    Soon  the  war  began  again,  and  these  acids  do  not  in  all  cases  furnish  any  of  the 

was  again  momentarily  ended  in  1012  by  the  ingredients  of  the  ether,  and  the  same  ether  may 

psjment  of  48,000  pounds.    In  1013  Sweyn  sometimes  be  produced  by  the  action  of  other 

epcnly  declared    his   purpose  of  conquering  substances  upon  alcohol,  as  well  as  of  the  acid 

^^M*^,  and  having  landed  at  Gainsborough  usually  employed.    This  is  especially  the  case 

lamrhfd  triumphanUy  from  Northumbria  to  with  sulphuric  ether,  and  as  it  contains  no  sul- 

the  waUs  of  London.    Repulsed  from  the  capi-  phuric  acid,  and  is  by  far  the  most  common 

td,  he  marched  to  Bath,  where  he  was  pro-  form  of  ether,  it  is  now  admitted  into  the  U. 

dsBBcd  king  of  England,  and  recognized  by  the  S.  and  London  pharmacopoeias  by  the  name  of 

ftaoea  of  Wessex,  Mercia,  and  Northumbria.  sQther,  as  it  was  before  known  in  common  use. 

This  general  defection  alarmed  Ethelred,  and  This  ether,  it  is  supposed,  was  known  to  Ray- 

ki  led  in  haste  to  Normandy  and  found  an  asy-  mond  Lully,  who  lived  in  the  13th  century. 

km  with  his  brother-in-law  the  Norman  king.  Valerius  Cordus  in  1540  described  the  method 

Ihe  death  of  Sweyn,  2  or  3  weeks  later,  re-  of  making  it.    Dr.  Frobenius  in    1730   first 

~  the  fugitive  monarch,  who  inflicted  cm-  brought  it  prominently  forward  in  apaperpub- 

npon  the  Danish  population  which  were  lished  in  the  *^  Philosophical  Transactions  ;^^and 

ged   by  Canute   the  Danish   successor,  by  a  note  appended  to  this,  it  appears  that  Boyle 

Ihe  yoong  prince  Edmund,  afterward  called  and  Newton  had  both  directed  their  attention 

'IiUDside^'  defended  the  throne  during  the  to  it. — Tlie  preparation  of  ether  was  formerly 

t  years  of  Ethelred.  conducted  by  distilling  in  a  glass  retort  a  mix- 

ETHELWULF,  2d  king  of  the  Anglo-Saxons,  ture  of  equal  parts  of  sulphuric  acid  and  alcohol 

ancoessor  of  Egbert,  ascended  the  throne  at  a  moderate  heat,  and  when  about  one-third 

,  died  in  857  or  858.    Without  the  vigor  of  the  whole  had  come  over,  adding  half  as 

ftiheTy  and  fitted  rather  to  wear  the  cowl  much  alcohol  as  before,  and  again  distilling. 

wield  the  sceptre,  he  began  his  reign  by  But  a  better  method  is  to  conduct  the  process 

_  the  provinces  of  Kent,  Essex,  and  upon  a  larger  scale  with  the  use  of  a  leaden 

to  the  government  of  his  eldest  son  still  heated  by  high  steam  passed  through  in  a 

UL    For  many  years  he  was  occupied  spiral  pipe ;  and  the  alcohol  is  best  introduced 

flritf  with  incessant  contests  with  the  North-  in  small  quantities  at  a  *'  ue  by  a  pipe  which 

Wm  who  annually  made  inroads  into  Eng-  passes  through  the  upper  part  of  the  stUl.    Such 


804                       ETHER  ETHIOPIA 

ifl  the  apparntns  nited  at  the  apothecaries*  hall,  ordinarj  pretrare  it  boils  at  96.S*.    Itj  sf 

London.     The  heating  bj  steain  obviates  the  gravitv  at  68^  is  0.718.    It  ban  neither  ar 

danger  of  expUwitm,  to  which  the  process  b  nor  alkaline  reaction ;  bat  after  bviup  t-x 

liable  wlicn  thu  vaiK»rs  that  e^tcape  come  in  con-  to  the  air  and  light,  a  little  acetic  arid  u 

tact  m'ith  the  flaino  of  a  fire  i>r  of  a  lamp.    The  ed  in  It    Ether  unites  with  alcohol  in  al 

apparatus  given  by  Hrande  is  a  convenient  one  portions.    It  takes  up  j\  of  its  voluuie  cif  i 

eitner  on  a  larce  or  small  M'ale.     In  a  glass  flask  and  water  does  the  same  of  ether.     If  ^ 

are  intriNlucod  8  parts  by  weight  of  concen-  dissolve  more  than  this,  the  ether  may  b 

trated  sulphuric  acid  and  5  parts  of  spirit  of  pected  of  being  adulterated  with  walvr  ai 

wine  of  ^IH.•cific  gravity  0.834.    This  is  set  in  a  cohol.    The  ultimate  constituents  of  snip 

amall  sand  bath,  which  may  be  conveniently  etlier  are  carbon  4  e«mivalents,  hydrogen  I 

heatvd  by  a  gas  light.    A  tliermometer  gradu-  oxygen  1,  or  C4  II«  O,  differing  from  the 

atcd  at  lva^t  to  320^  F.  passes  through  the  cork,  alcohol  (C« !!« OJ  b^  H  O,  or  one  aton 

the  bulb  Wing  in  the  liquid.    Tlivre  is  also  a  of  water.    The  radical  etliyle  consists  < 

tube  reaching  to  the  bottom,  and  expanding  at  II|,  and  ether  is  regarded  as  its  oxide,  al 

top  into  a  funnel.    Tliis  is  intended  to  receive  aa  itsh^drated  oxide.   Ether  is  much  enip 

moru  alcohol  blowW  dropped  into  it  as  the  pro-  in  medical  practice  as  a  narcotic,  anti<ftpMo 

oess  goi*s  on.    A  glass  tube  of  large  bore  con-  and  stimulant ;  a  teaspoonful  of  it  in  a  gli 

Teys  the  vai>or  through  the  condenser,  which  white  wine  is  recommended  by  I>r.  Braa 

b  surrounded  with  cold  water,  and  the  liquid  a  remedy  in  sea-sickness.  It  b  a  stiecific  ii 

dro]w  from  the  end  of  tlie  tube  into  a  proper  tous  headaches,  and  in  burns  ana  scalds 

receiver.     By  keeping  the  temperature  aa  near-  plied  as  a  refrigerant    Its  most  imfiortaii 

ly  as  |)oi4>iblc  to  300^,  the  ebullition  goes  on  nowever,  has  been  to  produce  insensibil 

rapidly,  and  the  quantity  of  liquid  in  the  flask  pain  by  its  inhalation  when  diluted  witl 

may  be  kept  nearly  the  same  for  several  hours,  (See    AxjESTnrno  Agents.)    Several  o 

the  alcohol  as  fa»t  as  it  b  admitted  being  con-  ethers  exist  in  a  natural  state  in  the  fruits 

Tertvd  into  the  vapor  of  ether  and  of  water,  ing  to  them  their  peculiar  flavors ;  and  the 

Thi'se  condense  together,  but  in  the  receiving  holic  liquors  distilled  from  these  fruits  ^ 

Tessel  they  separate,  the  water  sinking  to  the  these  principles  in  combination  with  some 

bottom  t4»gether  with  ^|  of  its  volume  of  ether  Thus  enantliic  ether  combined  with  ena 

dissoh'ed  in  it.    If  a  w«sk  acid  be  used  or  too  acid  forms  the  oil  which  contains  the  frac 

much  alcohol,  so  that  the  boiling  point  of  the  of  brandv  and  some  other  siiirits.    WhiiJ 

mixture  is  reduced  below  260'',  the  alcohol  b  thought  by  Dr.  Frankland  to  owo  its  flai 

apt  to  pass  over  unchanged,    it  is  important  the  oily  liquid  called  nelargonic  ether ;  ac 

to  keep  up  a  rapid,  or  eveu  violent  boiling,  at  a  cording  to  Gregory,  this  U  now  manufsc 

te!U|K;raturo  between  SGo"*  and  SIO"*.    At  about  by  a  secret  proci'^g«,  and  M<ld  at  a  hik-h  yr 

320^  olefiont  gas  and  other  undesirable  pro-  impart  to  new  whihkey  the  flavor  of  oM. 

ducts  are  generated.     By  the  continuous  pro-  ETlIEUECiE,  or  ETiiCKiiHiE,  Sin  (tri»R«i 

cess  of  I)r.  limiide,  a  timall  quantity  of  sulphu-  Engli^  comic  author,  bom  in  1&>A.  dird  j 

ric  acid  limy  le  iimde  tii  convert  into  ether  a  1694.     He  studied  at  the  university  of 

large  quantity  of  alcohol.    It  might  H;rvc  for  bridge,  travelled  ujvin  the  contineiit,  al*aDi 

an  iiiditiiiitu  time  but  for  its  slow  volatilization  the  Mudy  of  law  for  tho  culture  of  let  ten 

and  tlie  pah.r«iiig  over  of  it.s  va|K)r  with  the  others.  l»ecaine  known  as  one  of  the  wits  and  LWi 

Ether  is  puritii^l  by  fchuking  it  in  a  close  vi^ssi'l  of  the  reign  of  Charles  II.     His  coinetht-ai 

witli  twice  itff  bulk  of  water.    AAcr  standing,  tied  the  "Comical  Kevenp,  or  Love  in  a ' 

tliv  vtlier  is  i»oured  ofl^  and  the  water  that  may  *'  Shu  Would  if  Slie  Ctiuld,**  and  thv  **  M; 

be  still  present  b  taken  up  by  mixing  quick  H^nle,  or  Sir  Fopling  Flutter,**  are  marktnJ 

lime  with  it.     Then  by  di>tiiling,  pure  ether  is  spri^'htHer  and  wittier  dialogue  than  had  I 

obtained. — Ether  b  remarkable  for  its  great  In^en  displayed  in  the  Englbh  n^n^ir  di 

Tolatility.     Its  v.a|»or  c^caiies  in  inuring  the  The  author  was  an  aK<oriate  of  Bufk:L| 

fluid  from  one  ve^iel  into  {mother,  h»  that  if  a  Koche^ter,  and  other  gay  court ieni  and  yl% 

lighted  raiuUe  in  near  there  in  dangiT  of  the  sci-ken*  of  the  time,  and  ho  intnHluc^^l  i:p 

whole  U'iii^  sudtKnly  inllnnied.     A  mixture  of  stiigv  tlie  manners  and  chararten  wi'Ji  « 

lo  \o1uiUi-«  of  oxygen  and  one  of  ether  vaiK)r  he  nan  familiar.     lie  al^«>  wrote  a  f«w  r 

explodes  viuK-ntly  by  an  electric  hpark.    The  sou^^  and  ]aMi{*o(»ns.     He   livetl    li'i  l:^ 

vaii^ir  i.H  MM  Much  iitore  den^o  than  air,  lH,'ing  as  wasted  his  fi»rtuiie.  and  died  by  f.ill.i.^  1 

S.5s  t4>  1,  that  it  ran  Ih*  |>oun*d  out  of  one  ve:*-  frtairn  aHcr  a  debauch, 

sel  into  another.  (!L*>plaiing  the  air  in  this  and  ETHIC.^.     S'f  MonAL  PnitrviM^rnT. 

showing  it.-i  pre!*i-ncv  by  taking  tire  on  the  a])-  ETHIOPIA  ((tr.  cucV  t**  burn,  a::*!  e^.  < 

plication  of  a   match.     It.i   rapid   eva(ioration  tcnaiice),  in  ancimt  gecgr:i]>!i},  tbf  ::a!i  r 

|iro«lu(*t.'a  iiiteiiH*  cold  ;  a  few  dnqvs  K'ing  made  gitially  given  by   the  (iretk*  t«<  the  -  -z: 

toctiViT  a  dn»p  of  water  and  then  blown  up^n  purtn  of  the  knnwn  morUl.     I*.   l«  d.».'> 

Uirough  a  tuU%  the  water  i?«  frozen  directly,  the  {HK.in>»  of  Ht*riier  into  (•».•;« rn  a'.il  «• 

£tlH*r  iiMflf,  however,  doi-?t  not  freeze,  even  at  Ethiopia,  and  tlii**  iliotii-.i^t^iu   i«  T%\n  %%< 

166    U-low  zkUk     ItH  bfiling  {tiint  varies  with  Il(Tii«!i>tu%  and  hy  the  burttrvel  a:.>i  K< 

I  uature  of  the  vessel  containing  it ;  at  the  geographers.    Eastern  Ethii'pia  api-vikr^  tu 


ETHIOPIAN  LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATURE  805 

incliided   sonthem  India,  whoso   inhabitants  14th  centnry,  when  a  djnastic  change  made  the 

were  called  Ethiopians  from  their  color.    Tbero  Amharic  the  language  of  the  conrt,  has  ceased 

were  also  other  Asiatic  Ethiopians,  an  eques-  to  be  the  vernacular,  and  is  used  only  hy  peo- 

triaa  race,  of  a  darker  color  than  their  neigh-  pie  of  education  and  learning,  in  religions  and 

bors^  who  wore  crests  made  of  the  hides  and  civil  documents.    This  ancient  language,  which 

manes  of  horses,  and  are  supposed  to  have  has  its  name  from  the  inhabitants  calling  it 

been  a  Mongolian  tribe  which  had  wandered  lesana  geez^  that  is,  language  of  science,  as  it  is 

into  the  steppes  of  Koordistan.     The  name  also  called  language  of  books,  is  of  Semitic  ori- 

Ethiopia  was  more  usually  and  definitely  applied  gin,  resembling  in  roots,  structure,  and  gram* 

to  the  conntry  south  of  Libya  and  Egypt,  be-  matical  forms,  the  ancient  South  Arabian  dia- 

tween  the  Rea  sea  on  the  east  and  the  desert  of  lect  of  the  Himy arites,  which  since  Mohammed 

fiahiira  on  the  west,  and  embracing  the  modem  has  disappeared  from  the  peninsula.  This  favors 

regions  of  Nubia,  Sennaar,  Kordofan,  and  Abys-  the  hypothesis  of  some  historians,  who  suppose 

sinisL    In  a  stiU  narrower  sense,  the  designa-  the  Ethiopians  to  have  been  a  colony  nrom 

tkm  was  restricted  to  the  province  or  kingdom  Arabia.    The  alphabet  also  of  the  Geez  greatly 

of  Mero^  which  was  also  called  the  civilized  resembles  that  of  the  Himyarites,  as  found  in 

EduOTia.    African  Ethiopia,  which  is  called  in  their  remaining  inscriptions.    It  consists  of  26 

^»  BiUe  the  land  of  Cush,  embraced,  according  consonants  and  7  vowels,  which  are  small  marks 

to  Pliny,  45  distinct  kingdoms ;  yet  as  neither  inseparably  connected  with  the  former,  thus 

the  Greeks  nor  Romans  ever  penetrated  beyond  forming  a  peculiar  syllabic  mode  of  writing, 

Kapstey  in  lat.  19°  N.,  we  are  indebted  for  analogous  to  the  Devanagari  and  some  other 

most  aocoonts  of  it  to  Greek  imagination.  Indian  alphabets.    Few  of  these  letters  show  a 

MieroS,  between  the  Nile  and  the  Astaboras,  resemblance  to  the  Phoenician  alphabet,  while 

formed  the  most  powerful  state,  and  had  a  24  of  them  may  be  traced  in  the  Arabic.  There 

tlMocralic  constitution.     The  other  principal  are  no  diacritical  marks ;  the  single  words  are 

fifunons  were  the  Blemrayes,  whoso  aspect  separated  bv  2  dots ;  the  accent  is  difficult ;  the 

was  hideous;  the  Troglodytes,  who  lived  in  modeofwnting  is  from  left  to  right,  the  reverse 

ccvems ;  the  Macrobii,   or  long-lived  men ;  having  been  the  practice  before  the  introduction 

tlie  lehthyophagi,  or  fish  caters ;  and  the  Creo-  of  Christianity  into  Abyssinia.    In  roots,  and 

phagi,  Ghelonophagi,  Elephantophogi,  Strutho-  forms  of  expression  and  construction,  the  Geez  is 

phagi,  and  Ophiophagi,  respectively  the  eaters  poorer  than  the  Arabic  According  to  Gesenius, 

of  flesh,  tortoises,  elephants,  ostriches,  and  ser-  one-third  of  all  the  roots  can  be  traced  distinct- 

pcnts.     Fable  placea  also  in  this  region  the  ly  in  the  Arabic,  and  many  other  words  may  be 

raee  of  pygmies.    Somepartsof  Ethiopia  were  presumed  to  be  of  the  same  origin,  while  the 

aamed  fh>m  their  productions,  as  the   land  roots  of  others  can  be  found  in  the  Hebrew, 

of  cinnamon,  and  of  myrrh,  and  the  Jews  and  Syriac,  or  Gholdaic,  some  being  native  African, 

Phffinicians  went  thither  to  obtain  aromatics  and  a  few  of  Greek,  scarcely  any  of  Coptic  deriva- 

irory.    The  Ethiopian  kings  seem  to  have  been  tion.   The  Geez  has  10  conjugations,  8  of  which 

dioten  from  among  the  priests,  and  the  order  answer  to  those  of  the  Arabic,  the  5th  and  the 

of  mceession  gave  the  crown  to  the  nephew  of  6th  being  peculiar.    A  double  infinitive  is  used 

the  king,  the  son  of  his  sister;  and  in  default  substantively,  this  mood  having  both  an  abso- 

of  an  heir,  an  election  was  made.    The  people  lute  and  constructive  form.    There  is  no  parti- 

mctised    circumcision,  and  embalmed  their  ciple.    The  dual  is  unknown  both  in  verbs  and 

oesd  in  a  manner  similar  to  that  of  the  Egyp-  nouns ;  the  difference  of  masculine  and  feminine 

tius.    They  were  of  an  intrepid,  impetuous,  is  observed  throughout  in  the  2d  and  8d  per- 

ad  violent  character,  and  yet  are  represented  sons.    The  relation  of  the  genitive  is  expressed 

•I  k>Ting  and  practising  justice.    Ilomer  makes  by  an  inflection,  causing  some  changes  in  the 

Jupiter  visit  them,  and  sit  at  their  feasts.    There  terminations,  or  through  the  relative  pronoun ; 

were  many  Ethiopian  queens  named  Candace,  the  dative  by  prepositions ;  the  comparative  and 

Me  of  whom  became  subject  to  the  emperor  superlative  degrees  by  particles.    The  plural  is 

AMQstos.     Under  the  Romans  the  population  formed  by  affixed  syllables,  dn  in  masculine, 

tf  Ethiopia  became  almost  wholly  Arabian,  and  dt  in  feminine  nouns,  on  the  principle  common 

to  continued  after  the  introduction  of  Chris-  to  the  Hebrew,  Arabic,  and  Aramaic,  or  by 

ffaidty  in  the  4th  century.    When  the  followers  changes  in  the  radical  letters,  after  the  manner 

«C  Mohammed  overran  the  entire  region  some  of  the  so-called  broken  plural  in  Arabic.    In 

catnries  later,  the  Arabic  element  gained  com-  the  formation   of  nouns  the   Geez  most  re- 

flete  predominance  in  it.    During  the  middle  sembles  the   Hebrew,  but  it  has  superfiuous 

ages  the  Christians  and  clergy  of  Abyssinia  final  vowels,  modified  in  certain  cases,  in  which 

ware  desi|gnated  as  the  Ethiopian  church.  it  is  analogous  to  the  Arabic  in  its  nunnation. 

EIHIOPIAN  LANGUAGE  and  LITERA-  Beside  a  few  fragments  in  inscriptions,  there 

TORE.    Of  the  different  dialects  spoken   in  are  no  remnants  of  the  ancient  Ethiopian  liter- 

dem  Abyssinia,  the  Amharic  and  the  Tigr6  aturo  of  a  period  preceding  the  introduction 

the  most  remarkable.    The  former  of  these  of  Christianity  under  Constantino  the  Great, 

fittle  affinity  with  the  ancient  language  but  of  works  composed  since  that  time  about 

if  the  country,  the  Geez,  or  the  Ethiopic  prop-  200  are  known  to  European  scholars.    The  Old 

m^  wo  called,  which  since  the  beginning  of  the  Testament,  translated  from  the  Septuagint  by 

TOL,  TIL — 20 


a06  ETHNOLOGT 

Qokoowii  Christian  writera  In  the  ith  centnrj,  title,  this  article  will  be  limited  to  ecfanolap 
It  extant  in  mana8cri|itfl  in  Enropc,  but  unly  a  proper.  History  traces  the  moral  Infloeoeeft  of 
part  of  it  has  been  printed.  The  pMilmfl  were  races  upon  each  other,  bat  ethnologj  Ireats  of 
paUished  in  Echimtic  and  Latin  by  I^«]olf  the  effects  of  physical  agencies  npoo  man,  cuing 
(Frankfurt  on  the  Main,  1701),  and  in  Ethiopic  back  long  anterior  to  written  recordai  and,  en- 
alone  (London,  1815).  The  Tcrsion  of  t!ie  New  like  history,  argnes  from  effects  to  Gaosca,  from 
Testament  appeared  al  Rome  in  1548,  and  in  the  known  to  Uie  unknown.  Pricbard  defina 
the  London  polyglot  Bible.  Of  veniions  of  it  as  the  archaeology  of  tlie  hnman  inhabitanli 
apocryphal  books,  in  which  the  Ethiopic  is  par-  of  the  globe.  The  ethnologist  should  not  only 
ticnlarlv  rich,  sereral  have  been  poblishca,  as  be  a  naturalist,  but  ^hou]d  he  familiar  with  phi- 
tlie  "  Book  of  Enoch,'*  transIiUed  by  Richard  lology  or  the  science  of  languages,  arcbvoingy 
Laurence  into  Englbh  (2d  edition,  London,  1 81)3),  or  the  study  of  human  monuments  and  remain 
and  by  Hoffmann  into  (fcrman  (Jena,  1838),  in  and  physical  geographr  as  lar  as  it  rabtcs  to 
VatiMf  translated  by  Laurence  into  Latin,  and  climatological  and  kindred  infloeDeea  oq  the 
published  in  both  languages  (Oxford^  1819).  races.  It  may  well  be  conceived  then,  fron  the 
btez  in  1840  (London),  and  Atftn^io  Isaia,  difficulties  inherent  in  the  sul^Ject,  and  ttam  the 
The  "  Didascalia,  or  A|»astoIical  Constitution  of  rarity  with  which  the  necessary  qnaliflcatioM 
the  Abyssinian  Cliurch,**  was  published  in  Etbi-  exist  in  obsenrers,  that  the  science  of  ethnologr 
Mrfc  and  English  by  Piatt  (liondon,  1834).  The  is  at  present  in  a  verr  unsatisfactory  thoujh 
S^majtar  contains  lives  of  Abyssinian  saints,  progressive  condition.  The  ancient  wntcra  have 
martyrologies,  and  the  hymns  of  the  Ethiopian  contributed  very  little  to  ethnology.  Amoof 
church,  in  rude  rhythmical  form,  every  8  or  6  tlie  Greeks,  llerodotus  and  Xenophoo  give  a  fMS 
lines  often  ending  in  the  same  consonant,  which  idea  of  the  ancient  populations ;  amoof  tba 
forms  a  kind  of  rhyme.  Tlie  ^>rofano  literature  Latins,  Sallnst,  Csesar,  and  especially  Tadti^ 
of  Uie  Ethiopian  language  is  comparatively  have  supplied  fuller  information,  yet  ao  nnhn 
poor,  consisting  chiefly  of  chronicles,  which  ap>  portant  compared  to  what  they  mtghi  hav*  doM^ 
pear  to  be  of  considerable  interest,  but  have  that  Latham  well  remarks,  in  reference  to  tba 
not  yet  been  generally  accessible.  Of  these  the  GetAandThracians:  "The  coounoneat  slave  deal* 
most  remarkable  are  the  Kfber  ta  Xagtste^  con-  er  of  Bvxantinm  or  Olbiopolis  could  have  loU  m 
taining  the  traditional  and  legenda^T  history  more  than  all  the  learned  men  ever  employed 
of  the  once  mighty  kingdom  of  Axoom,  a  copy  on  such  subjects.**  It  is  only  in  comparative 
of  which  was  brought  to  Eun>pe  by  Bruce,  and  modem  times,  since  the  discovery  of  Amoricai 
a  translation  of  it  appended  to  his  travels ;  and  the  circumnavigation  of  the  globe,  and  the  ex* 
tlie  Tarei  Xaffushti,  or  chronicle  of  kings.  In  plorations  of  Asia,  Africa,  and  the  Faciflc  faj- 
Eurofw  the  Ethiopian  language  wns  ahnojit  un-  ands,  that  ethnology  can  be  said  to  have  begun 
known  until  tlie  tune  of  Jub  Ludolf,  who,  being  to  accumulate  the  materials  ncccMary  for  a  bat- 
assisted  by  an  excellent  native  scholar,  Abbas  ural  classification  of  the  human  races.  The 
Gregoriu'S  made  himsklf  master  of  it,  and  pub-  great  problems  connected  with  ethn<»lnicy  are 
fished  an  a<lniiniblo  dirtittnary  and  grammar  the  unity  and  diversity,  the  geographical  origin 
(Sd  improved  and  enlanrcd  edition.  Frankfort,  or  origins,  the  antiquity,  and  the  future  dcsuay 
1702).  After  a  hmg  interval  tho  interest  in  of  races;  subjects  so  vast  in  themselves  that 
this  langiiAce  and  literature  has  l»eon  revived  they  can  only  l»o  incidentally  alludc<l  to  her*. 
by  the  w«irks  of  Tlott,  I^urencr,  (tosi'nius.  Hup-  The  question  of  mojtt  exciting  interest  in  r«gafd 
feld,  Hoffmann,  HiKliger,  Kwald,  and  others,  as  to  tho  human  races  at  the  present  day  is  that  t/ 
well  as  by  the  contributions  of  iMrnberg,  Blum-  unity  and  divervitv,  which  is  not  only  interal- 
berg,  and  DWbbadie.  ing  to  tho  srientilic  man,  but  has  been  m»de  a 
ETnN(Jl.<  Ki  Y  ((f r.  f^mr,  nation,  and  Xoyor,  stumbling  block  in  the  way  of  |>hila&thropy  oad 
doctrine),  the  H*ienco  wliioh  treat <«  of  tho  rvla-  theology.  £thnoI(>gi»ts  have  divided  thetnfelvrs 
tiouA  of  tho  different  rares  «»r  divi<»ion{i  of  man  into  two  great  schools  on  tli is  point,  of  oc«  t4 
to  each  other,  as  di^tinglliKht^l  from  anthrf»iKil-  which  Prichard  may  bo  comudered  the  ab< 
ogy,  which  con^ider^  the  relatuuiA  of  ninn  to  advocate,  and  of  tho  other  A goMii ;  the 
other  meiiiWni  of  tho  animal  kingdom.  Theso  advances  made  in  zoology.  coin|iarative 
two  distinct  K*ieneeii  make  up  tlio  natural  hii^tory  my,  hiiitory,  ge(»graphy,  philology,  and  ia  the 
of  man.  Ethnology  ha^  l*ovn  made  ^ynonyniuus  inteqtretatiun  of  the  Scripturoik  have  furaubcd 
with  the  natural  and  t!ie  physical  hiittory  of  materials  f«»r  the  earnest  diMussiiin  and  sapmt 
man,  both  of  whirh  rtrirtly  embrace  more  or  of  each  bide  of  the  question. — The  clawAea- 
les4  of  anthroptilof'T.  1^'liile  tho  lattiT  would  tions  of  the  races  of  man  have  been  founded 
require  only  a  single  pair  of  human  l»einiri  for  principally  u|H>n  the  complexion,  nature  of  the 
it9M04]y.  ethnol<»(ry  pre«ti[>|K»M^^\arirty  of  raco5,  hair,  t)hs|ie  of  the  hkuU,  conformation  e€  the 
and  the  greater  tin*  variety  tho  further  do  its  iKrlrift,  and  character  of  the  langua«:v!K  either 
boundarii'^  exteml.  Stiuo  ant ti ore  c«)Utiuo  tho  alt^ne  or  in  combination.  I  jnn»tt\  in  the  £r»t 
tenn  to  tlio  »i>ei'uUtive  |M>rtion  of  tho  Mibj(.*<'t,  edition  of  his  >yaf<niii  .Vti/'«fW,  makes  4  d^w 
calling  t!ie  di*M-riptivo  part  of  the  N-ienre  oth-  sion^of  the  gi'uu^  homc^  founded  upi^n  thecukr 
nogra[>hy.  In  a  K-ience  n>  new  as  thin,  abw  of  tho  iikin,  vie:  1.  Euri»i«ean,  whjti»h:  X 
lute  precision  in  term*  cannot  l-o  ex[>ecte<l.  American,  cop]«ry ;  3,  Aftiatic,  tavny;  and  ^ 
Aft  anthn^pulog}'  has  been  treated  under  its  own  AfricaI^  black.   The  divisions  propooed  bj  Bitf* 


ETHNOLOGY  807 

fon  were  5:  the  IlTperborean  (inclnding  the  in-  Mongol  stock.    He  adopts  the  ill-chosen  term 
babitaots  of  the  polar  regions  and  of  eastern  and  ^  Gaacasian  ^'  from  Blumecbach,  which  has  now 
central  Asia,  or  Laplanders  and  Tartars),  South-  become  both  incorrect  and  inconvenient;  the 
em  Astatio,  European,  Ethiopian,  and  American*  term  originated  from  the  prevalent  belief  at 
Blnmenbadi  adopted  these,  changing  the  names  that  time  that  the  white  races  had  their  cradle 
of  flcyme  of  the  aivisions,  and  more  accurately  in  the  mountains  of  Caucasus,  and  from  the 
defining  their  geographical  distribution.    The  fact  that  some  of  the  finest  known  specimens 
daarification  of  Blumenbach,  fully  given  in  the  of  man  (the  Circassians  and  Georgians)  inhabit 
article  Abthbopologt,  <Uvides  mankind  into  the  that  region ;    as   there   is   no  foundation  in 
5  cUmsm  of  Caneasian,  Mongolian,  Ethiopian,  truth  for  such  a  belief  the  name  has  been 
American,  and  Malay,  and  is  founded  on  the  given  up  by  many  modem  writers.    Fischer,  in 
combined  characters  of  the  complexion,  hair,  his  Synapsis  Mammalium,  divides   man  into 
and  aknlL    This  classification  is  followed  by  homa  Japetieus,  with  the  branches  Caueasieus, 
Lawrence  in  his   "Lectures  on  the  Natural  Arabicus,  and  Indians;  H.  Keptunianus^  with 
Histoiy  of  Man;'*  this  writer  was  among  the  the  branches  Oceidmtalis  and  Papuensis  (the 
fint  to  hint  at  the  possible  diversity  of  origin  Malay  race) ;  ff.  Seythicus  (Calmucks  and  Mon- 
of  the  TBoesL     Before  Blumenbach,  Camper,  gols),  with  the  branches  Sini^us  and  Hyper- 
a  Dutch  anatomist,  attempted  to  classify  the  horens;  H,  Americanus  (South  American  in- 
neeabj  the  sha^  of  the  skull,  and  his  measure-  digenes),   with   the  branch   Patagonus  ;   H, 
meDtSi  constituting  the  facial  angle,  are  still  of  Columbicus,  the  indigenes  of  North  America, 
eonaderable  value  to  the  ethnologist  and  anthro-  eastern  Mexico,  the  Antilles,  &c.;  IT.  jEthi- 
pologist     He  says:  '^The  basis  on  which  the  opicus,  with  the  branches  Coffer^  Melanoides 
cBstinction  of  nations  is  founded  may  be  display-  (Papuans,  Feejeeana,  ^.),  and  Ebttentottns  ; 
ed  hf  two  straight  lines,  one  of  which  is  to  be  and  ff.  Polynesius^  the  Alfooroos,  Australians, 
dmmthroogh  the  meatus  auditorius  or  opening  &c.    Lesson,  in  his  Mammalogies  divides  the 
of  the  ear  to  the  base  of  the  nose,  and  the  other  races,  according  to  complexion,  into  the  white 
tonehiag  the  prominent  centre  of  the  forehead,  or  Caucasian,  the  yellow  or  Mongol,  and  tiie 
aad  fUling  thence  on  the  most  advancing  part  black  or  negro  stocks.    His  later  arrangement 
of  the  Qpper  iaw  bone,  the  head  being  viewed  in  his  Species  des  mammiflres  is  the  following: 
in  profile.*^   This  gives  the  facial  angle ;  and  the  1,  the  white  race ;  2,  the  bistre  black  or  dusky 
oedpital  angle  may  be  measured  in  a  similar  race,  including  Hindoos,  Caffres,  Papuans,  and 
manner.     The  objections  to  this  mode  of  meas  Australians ;  8,  the  orange-colored,  or  Malay 
arement  are  the  varying  thickness  of  the  skull,  race ;  4,  the  yellow  race,  including  the  Mongo- 
development  of  the  facial  cavities,   and  pro-  lians,  Oceanic  and  South  American  branches ; 
Jeetiim  of  the  front  teeth,  and  its  application  5,  the  red,  the  North  American  and  Carib 
to  only  one  part  of  the  skull ;  the  method  of  races ;  6,  the  black  race,  including  the  African 
Ooner  b  better,  which  compares  the  areas  of  and  Asiatic  negroes,  Nigritians,  Tasmanians, 
die  cranium  and  face  sawed  vertically  on  the  Hottentots,  and  Bushmen.    The  divisions  of 
median  line  from  before  backward ;  according  to  Dum6ril  are :  the  Caucasian  or  Arab-European, 
this  meaaurement  the  area  of  the  former  in  the  Hyperborean,  Mongolian,  American,  Malay,  and 
h^est  races  is  4  times  that  of  the  face,  in  the  Ethiopian.    V ircy  makes  2  species  of  the  genus 
aqgro  the  area  of  the  face  being  \  larger.    The  homo  :  the  first  with  a  facial  angle  of  85^  to  90^, 
msrmm  vertiealis  of  Blumenbach  measures  tlie  including  the  white  Caucasian  race,  the  yellow 
Iradth  of  the  skull  and  the  proiection  of  the  Mongolian,  and  the  copper-colored  American ; 
fiMSB,  and  consists  in  viewing  skulls  from  behind  the  second  with  a  facial  angle  of  75°  to  82**,  in- 
aad  above,  the  eye  being  fixed  on  the  vertex  eluding  the  dark  brown  Malay^  the  black  or 
if  caeb ;  the  direction  of  the  maxillary  and  negro  race,  and  the  blackish  Hottentots  and 
mlar  bones,  the  breadth  of  the  oval  contour  of  Papuans.     The  sections  of  Desmoulins  are : 
Iba  bead,  the  form  of  the  frontal  bones,  and  Celto-Scyth-Arabs,  Mongols,  Ethiopians,  Euro- 
ehiuracters  considered  as  national,  are  pre-  Africans,  Austro- Africans,  Malays  or  Oceani- 
in   this  view.     The   comparisons  of  ans,  Papons,  negro  Oceanians,  Australasians, 
made  by  Dr.  Morton  in  his  ethnological  Columbians,  and  Americans.    Bory  de  St.  Yin- 
are  based  on  the  cubic  contents  of  each  cent  amplifies  considerably  the  divisions  of  Des- 
measured  by  noting   the    quantity  moulins,  making  15  stocks  in  8  classes,  as  fol- 
vUeh  they  wHl  hold  of  any  small  granular  lows:  I.  Races  with  smooth  straight  hair,  pecu- 
■biliDce.    The  examination  of  the  base  of  liar  to  the  old  world,  including:  1,  the  Japetio 
Aa  iknll,  aa  suggested  by  Owen,  so  valuable  in  stock  (named  from  Japetus,  whom  tlie  ancients 
Mftmology,  is  of  little  importance  in  ethnolo-  regarded  as  the  progenitor  of  the  race  inhabiting 

fi— CoTier  ^vides  mankind  into  8  stocks :  the  West,  audax  Japeti  genvs^  the  original  seat 

GbooMiaii,  with   the   branches  Armenian,  of  which  is  the  mountain  chains  nearly  parallel 

UhSi  and   S<7thian,  or  Tartar ;  2,  Mongol  to  lat.  45^  N.),  the  Caucasian,  Pclasgic,  Celtic, 

«  Akaic^  with  the  branches  Calmucks,  Kalkas,  and  Germanic  races ;  2,  the  Arabian  stock,  in- 

If— •jiJMMiM   Japanese,  and  Siberians ;  8,  Negro  eluding  the  ancient  Egyptians,  North  Africans, 

•rtthicpian.    He  is  undecided  as  to  the  posi-  and  Adamic  or  Syrian  races ;  8,  the  Hindoo 

0n  of  the  Malays,  Alfooroos,  and  Papuans,  and  stock ;  4,  the  Scythic  stock,  or  Tartars ;  5,  the 

h  fadined  to  rcser  the  American  Indians  to  the  Chinese  stock ;  6,  the  Hyperborean  stock  (La\H 


808  ETUNOLOGT 

Undens  &c.) ;  *i,  the  Ncptnnian  fttork,  iiirUiding  opiaiH,  Aby«.<inian^  Berber?*  aiwi  GnADcIiO«*i ;  2, 

the  Malays  Oceanic  aiM  rupuan  raco;  8,  the  the  Nciitumaii,  including  the  Malays  atMl  I\  !y- 

AQ<«tralaiiian  i^toek.    II.  Roceit  uf  the  lu-w  world  Dc!$ia»s;  3,  tlie  Mon^)I,  including  aL*«o  tlie  Ily- 

vitb  htrai^sht  Lair,  including :  i*,  tlie  Columbian  Perborean ;  4,  the  pn)gnatbuus  (a  tenn  adi>|'trd 

sUiek,  the  North  AnuTican  races ;  10,  the  AnuT-  frum  rrichard),  including  the  Xegnu  IIutt«:c:i>(, 

icau  htui*k,  the  Simtli  American  raci*:};  11,  tlio  Papuan,  and  Alfooruo  branches;  6.  ^the  occi- 

Patagonian  httn^-k.     III.  Cri>p-haircd  or  negro  dental,  including  tho  indigenes  of  Xiifth  and 

raivat,  including  :  12,  the  Ethiopian  »*ti>ck,  or  South  Anu-rica.     I>r.  Prichard.  in  Lis  ^  Natnral 

'  bliw'k  rai'es  of  central  Africa;  13,  the  Cuflfro  History  of  Muir*  (3d  edition,  1S4^),  after  dvfin- 

8t<H*k :  14.  the  Mclanian  f^ttn-k,  or  ruccM  of  Mada-  ing  species  and  varietieii,  devotes  many  pag^  to 

gas4*ar,  Xew  Guinea,  Fi-eji-o  i>land!«,  Van  I^ie-  ebow  tho  influence  of  external  conditiuos  ia 

men's  Land,  kc;  and  15,  the  Ilottenttit  »tivk.  modifying  the  races  of  animals  and  man;  nfi- 

Pr<»f.  Uroo,  in  hl.<4  £*ttii  mr  ht  rart*  humai/us  able  to  find  sjiccitic  characters  in  tlie  diflvnc nets 

(183(*» ),  atlds  many  iiubgenera  to  tlie  divisions  of  of  color,  structure  of  tho  Lair,  fchape  of  the  tkuJL 

Bory  de  St.  Vincent.     Kant  divides  man  into  or  proi>ortions  of  any  parts  of  the  akdetoo,  he 

4  varietieii,    white,  bWk,  coi>i)er,   and    olive,  ]>oints  out  3  principal  varieties  of  couformAtkii 

corresiH»ndingresiH^tively  totlie('auoaMan,Ne-  of  tho  head,  which  chnracterizo   rc^pwti«vly 

gro,  American,  and  Mongolian.    Hunter  makes  tho  savagu  or  hunting,  tho  nomadic  or  «acdcr- 

7  varieties ;  Metz:m  2,  wliite  and  bhu'k.    Luko  ing,  and  the  civilizi'd  races  of  mankind.  Amucg 

Burke,  lato  e<litor  of  the   "  I.4)ndon   Ethno-  African  and  Australian  savage^  Uie  Javs  ars 

htgi^'al  Journal,**  makes  C3  races  uf  man,  28  prolonged  forward,  cons^titutingtLcJprogxiatLoci 

being  varieties  of  the  intellectual  ami  35  of  fonn  of  head ;   among  tho  wanueriDg   Mv-o- 

the  physical  races.     Retzius  divides  all  heads  golians,  tho  ^kuU  is  pyramidal,  and  the  face 

Into  »hort  or  brachy cephalic,  and  long  or  do-  broad  and  lozenge-sha]>ed;  and  in  tLc  civillttd 

lichtH'ephalic,  each   of  whirh    ho  again  sub-  races  tho  skull  is  ovul  or  <fHiptictkl.    There  art 

divides    into    those  with    straight    and  with  numerous  nations  which  present  forms  of  traa- 

prominent  Jaw 4.     Prof.  Zeune  adopts  3  ty|>es  aition  between  these  principal  ones,  acconiis^ 

of  skull  for  tho  eastern  and  3  fitr  the  we>t-  to  their  approa<-h  to  civilization  on   th«  om 

ern  hemisphere,  as  follows:  I.  High  ^k^lls,  in-  hand,  or  their  rela])se  toward  barbarism  on  tha 

eluding :  1,  the  Caucasian  race  in  tlie  old  world,  other.    Ho  makes  a  himihir  division  of  man  irito 

and  2,  the  Ai»paluchiun  in  the  new.     II.  Broad  8  races  according  to  the  relations  of  their  Ua- 

akuUs,  iniluding:  3,  the  Mongi»linn,  and  4,  tho  guages,  which  of  idl  traits  **seem  to  be  the  mk«( 

Caribrares.     III.  I«i>ngskulK  including:  5,  tho  i>ermancntly  retained,  and  can   b«  alMjvn  ia 

Ethitipian,  ami  0,  tlie  Peruvian  ra4'is.    This  is  many  casis  to  have  snrvivc-d  even  Vvry  cia- 

an   ciriH-iIin^rly   unitatiirul   arran^vnieiit. — Or.  siderablu  clianges  iu  phvMcul  and  mora!  cLATkc- 

Prirlianl,  in  his  *•  Itv^anius  inti>  the  IMivMcal  ters."     Cuvier  referred  the  orifiinnl  s^aL^cf:!* 

Hi-t«»ry  of  Muiikind"  U^-O-l^^lT),  rilt  i>  man-  hum.in  race  to  mountain  cha:i>.  the  l'auca.*:Aa 

kind   l«»   7  st^'ik-*  <»r    rl:i-M>  of  nuti.-iis,  tho  to  Ml.  ('uuca>u-»,  the  Mongolian  to  Mt.  Al:*i, 

]»rii:ri|':il  murk  of  d'xiiirtinn  iini'tn^  ^l.iih  is  and  the  Negro  to  tliu  cliuin  if  the  All^*  t:.*.'.^- 

the  inMiiliar  f-Tiii  ol'  t!ie  skull;  tln.-e  arv  :   1,  tains.     The  Hebrew  Si.Tipliiri*^  iii.'vkc  thi  trvii- 

tlie  Inutian  (tho(\iiit*u<»iaii  of  pri-\i«iii-»  wrlier*^).  tionary  bir(h]'I:ico  of  mankind    the  lu:.k«  cf 

in  the  fiTiii  of  tho -kiiil  unci  in  their  pliWt:d  4    rivers,  2   of  whii-h    have   Uin   ri.«'^..zrd 

trait-*  riiHiiiMin.;    Europeans   in*  liidin:;   bonio  as  tlie  Tigris  and  Kuphmtes  in  a  Iax.d  r.  L  in 

A?*iutii*  uii>l  .\l'rii*an  nation-;  2.  the  Turuniun  itr  animal   and  v eget alio  product ior<.      ]\-;t:!.^ 

Mi>ii.:i'!ian;  ::.  tin-  Anit.rii>an,  iiiilmlwu  the  l>-  admits  3  gre.it  cihtris  of  ear]i«.->t  hu&i^'.  « ii.li- 

i|iiitiiaux  and  kindrid  nati^n^;  4,  the  Hottrnti'l  zatlon.  cuinpri*>ing  m«>^t  of  tlie  tnl-\<*  k:ii.«L  U) 

ai.d  Ihithniaii;  r>.  t!je  Ne^Tn:  *\  ili«-  Tapwaii  or  nnti<iulty;  in  his  own  wt»rd!»:  •*  In  oLe  vf  lii-^e, 

W(N.!!\-!iiiired  I*i»Ivni  Man**;  and  7,  tl:e  An-^tra-  the  Siniitie  or  Sy ro.Vrabian  LatA'ti^  t.i<l.jr«?cd 

liun  a:  d  .\ll«»«.pHi  i,:iti.>:.s.     TakiiiL'tlie  rnjor  of  i!jo  himplo  habits  of  Wandering  »]a;htni»  &f 

t)ii-)ta:riLoai>rini  i|  ali  liar.nrt«  r.  Trii  }iar<luiake<  the  splendor  and  luxury*  of  NineVih  ax«d  I'^iy* 

:t gnat  \ jirieii.  - :  1. tia-  im l.ii.ir,  w i:!i  \cry  «lark  Km.     In  a  Mri»nd,  the  hid— Kuroj^ar.  vr  Ja{«:je 

or  Ma- k   hair;  'J.  th«*  x:.:  "Ihus   with   \ili«»w,  |K'op]o  bruu^dit  to  pertVi  tion  tlte  mi<«:ilj.^.^n:s 

r*-*!,  «'r  li^rlit  l-r.-^^n  !  air.  l!-..e  %»:■  li^-lit  ew-.  ai.d  t«f  human  dialnts,  deViinoi  to  l<r«.me.  iL  aT.rr 

fair  hkin;  a!i<l  :<.  t^•*  ItMcfir-.  ^r  alliin'S  with  times   and   un^ler   difiVriiit    tUKlitti.*:.- nv  t^ 

ifchite  i.r  pr.li'  ^^X-iw   liair,  \\r\  >*':i,  fair.  uimI  niother  tonirue  (if  tliu  i.utii>ii<«  of  Kt:n  jv,     Ii » 

d«ii'  ate  ^kiIl.  a!i«l  a  fid  !::;o  t«»  tlie  tliitp-id  «'f  tiiird,  the  laid  of  Ilani,  Wut*r*ii  l»    ti.c  N  if. 

t).«'  «\i-.     A'l  "rdin.:  t'»  tlii-*  ai/Jmr,  « lai.ipliH  w% re  invented  liiiro;:!} I  l.i^al  l.t* rrwlurx' a:>!  ti« 

<•!"  tl.t-f   \ari»'.!v-»  uri'   f.-Mid  in  all  l':.--  r;m -».  arts  in  vhirh   Kgypl  f.tr  M.r|  a*-*d  all  the  rt< 

M.ir:  II.  in  h  -   "Niitiiral    Hi-r.'r,\  <.f  Man  and  if  the  wi'iM  in  the  varliir   fc^'»!»  o(  Lit:,  r^-.' 

M- :A.  >*"  1 1*»M  I.  «!:\  i'li 'I  tJ:.' !.ti!:i.»ii  ta*  *•  irit.i  Thi.'Mj  *!  di\iMt>:.s  i!o  r.i-t  rirr\'*;«:.d  :o  \\.*  S 

l}..- f-i:..ui:j-:,  *r...  k*;  1.  tl.«  .^a;  •!.'■,  ii''.'.«Ii:.:  imliiatid  ly  the  f^-nn  if  the  >kL*.!.  all  •/ 1^4 

t'.i-   r.jr-'j-^ari   1  r.i:.«  h.  t«r  tin-  (  \ '.:.\  !'» '..k*^*.. ,  fiTUur  Uin^' i:;i-re  «t  !•  ^^  ri^  .!!;i<L  ^  d  i.&i  x^ 

T«  ■!•■  ■.:■■,  u:h1   >i.»vi»nii*    nii!;.-:.^.    !:.«•    A~..4!ii'  the  ••\alor  tlaptit  all.iail.    Ti.-.  >j.  rv-.Vra'-ia::^* 

lri'.'*i. 'T  l!,i»  Tart.irii.  ('.iu«  :i-:i ,  S.  i!i'.t:i-.  as.il  Sniltir    r:nv  iin"!'.:«hH   t!.e  >\ri.:.\  Ji  »  s  *>• 

>.i:.»i  rjtii"  I  .iti'-::*:  M. I  tlii- A:r  ..■..!!  lir;*:.*  I.,  .-r  Ar.iV*;   iS.iron   I-arr»y    k;\i    tJ  at   the  A."**oS 

the  MIzraimic  natiot:?  (ancient  K^'vptiuns,  Lthi-  race  luriiiahes  the  mo»t  |>vrfvvt  t;|<  i*f  the  Ls- 


ETHNOLOGY  809 

nun  beftd,  and  believes  that  the  cradle  of  the  given  in  the  recent  works  by  Drs.  Barth  and 

human  funily  is  to  be  foand  in  Arabia;  this  Livingstone.)    The  oceanic  races  Prichard  di* 

race    is  intellectual,   energetic,   and    restless,  vides   into   Malayo-Poljnesian,   Pelagian  Ne- 

Tbe  Egyptian  or  Hamitic  race  he  regards  as  groes,  and  the  ^foorians  of  the  New  Guinea 

indolent,  superstitious,  and  stationary  in  its  own  group  of  islands  ^which  include  the  Austrm- 

land,  which  is  little  else  than  a  vast  sepulchre;  lians).    The  American  races  are  distinguished 

it  is  entirely  unlike  the  negro  races  of  Africa,  from  those  of  the  old  world  by  their  moral  and 

The  Indo-European,  Japetic,  or  Aryan  race  com-  social  traits,  and  by  the  structure  of  their  Ian* 

prises  the  Hindoos,  Persians,  Afghans,  Koords,  guagesL    The  Mexican  tribes,  which,  according 

Armenians,  and  the  nations  of  Europe  with  to  rrichard,  arrived  on  the  central  plain  of 

tfari^  American  colonies ;  he  believes  that  the  Anahuac  from  the  north  in  the  7tb,  century, 

Aryan  nations,  on  their  arrival  in  Europe,  found  found  this  region  inhabited  by  the  nations  which 

the  oonntry  occupied  by  Allophylian  people,  who  have  left  the  splendid  ruins  of  Palenque,  among 

were  also  of  eastern  origin,  but  had  migrated  whom  were  the  Othomi,  remarkable  for  their 

westfnud  at  an  earUer  age.    The  5  great  no-  monosyllabic  idiom ;  the  Esquimaux  and  the 

aadie  races  inhabit  the  large  central  region  of  Athabascas,  with  a  Mongolian  cast  of  counte- 

Afii,  and  belong  to  the  Mongolian  division  of  nance,  extend  across  the  northern  portion  of  the 

tttbors;  they  are  characterized  by  pyramidal  continent  from  ocean  to  ocean;  south  of  these, 

beads  and  broad  faces.    These  races  are:  the  east  of  the  Mississippi,  were  the  Algonquin- 

17grian  in  the  north-west,  from  whom  the  Ma-«  Lenape  and  the  Iroquois,  with  their  numerous 

gran  are  believed  to   have   descended,  and  tribes,  almost  always  at  war  with  each  other, 

cf  which  the  ilnns,  Lapps,  Ostiaks  of  the  Obi,  and  the  Allcghanian  nations  toward  the  south ; 

and  other  Siberian  tribes,  are  varieties ;  the  west  of  the  Mississippi,  the  Sioux  and  the  Paw* 

Tnzldsh.  with  their  nomadic  tribes,  and  the  Ot-  nces ;  on  the  Pacific  coast  tlie  dark  Califomians 

toman  branch ;  the  Mongolian,  including  the  and  the  tribes  of  the  N.  W.  coast ;  in  South 

Galmnd^ ;  the  Tungusian,  in  the  mountainous  America,  the  Andean  nations,  the  Brazilio-Gua- 

TCgion  between  Lake  Baikal  and  the  Okhotsk  rani,  and  the  Mediterranean  or  central  groups. — 

;  and  the  Bhotiya,  inhabiting  Thibet  and  Dr.  Latham,  in  his  ^  Natural  History  of  the  Ya- 


the  Himalaya  chain.    To  the  races  with  pyra-  rieties  of  Man"  (1850),  separates  the  human 
nndal  aknlls  belong  the  fi^-eating  tribes  bor-  family  into  8  primary  aivisions,  the  Mongolida^ 
dering  on  the  Arctic  ocean,  including  the  Na-  Atlantidcp^  and  Japetidce.    The  Mongolidns  in- 
siollos  of  north-eastern  Asia  and  the  Aleutian  habit  Asia,  Polynesia,  and  America ;  their  lan- 
islands  (akin  to  the  Esquimaux),  Koriaks,  Kam-  guagcs  are  aptotic  (without  coses)  and  oggluti- 
tchatkans,  Samoiedes,  and  Eoorllians.    To  the  natc,  and  their  influence  on  the  history  of  the 
Mongolian  division  belong  also  the  Chinese,  world  has  been  material  rather  than  moral. 
Japanese,  Coreans,  the  Indo-Chinese  beyond  tlie  lie  divides  them  into :  a,*  Altaic  Mongolidro,  in- 
Gangcs,  and  the  aborigines  of  India  distinct  eluding  the  Seriform  (Chinese,  &c.)  and  Tara-| 
from  the  Hindoos  (the  latter  belonging  to  the  nian  (Mongol)  stocks,  from  the  latter  of  which 
Arabian  stocli).    Among  the  Alloph^iion  races  are  descended    the    Magyars;    &,    Dioscnrian 
before  alluded  to  as  existing  in  regions  after-  Mongolidae  (the  Caucasian  races  of  earlier  writ- 
ward  conquered  by  the  Syro  Arabian  nations,  ers) ;  <;,  oceanic  Mongolidss,  including  Malays, 
nay  be  mentioned  the  Caucasians,  to  this  day  Polynesians,  Papuans,  and  Australians ;  d^  hy- 
iQOcessfnlly  resisting  the  Russian  power,  the  pcrboreon  Mongolidro,  Samoiedes  and  similar 
Iberians  of  the  Pyr6n6es,  the  Berbers  of  the  nations;  «,  peninsular  Mongolidae,  Coreans,  Ja- 
Athtt  chain,  and  the  Guanches  of  the  Canary  pancse,  and  the  nations  of  the  islands  and  pen- 
fdands.    Among  African  races,  the  Abyssinian,  msulas    of  north-eastern    Asia ;  /,   American 
U  fine  dark,  but  not  negro  people,  is  interest-  Mongolidso,  the  Esquimaux  and  American  In- 
iagas  having  preserved,  *^  in  the  midst  of  Mos-  dians ;  g^  Indian  Mongolidie,  the  inhabitants  of 
lem  and  pagan  nations,  its  peculiar  literature,  Ilindostan,  Cashmere,  Ceylon,  &c.    The  AUan- 
flBd  its  ancient  Christian  church,  ^^ and  having  tida)  inhabit  Africa;  their  languages  are  ag- 
nmains  of  a  wide-spread  Judaism,  and  a  Ian-  glutinate,  rarely  with  an  amalgamate  inflection, 
ga^ge  tt>proaching  to  the  Hebrew.  Of  the  black  and,  with  the  exception  of  the  Semitic  section, 
nees  ox  the  interior  of  Africa  tlie  principal  are  their  influence  on  the  world^s  history  has  been 
tile  Senegambian,  including  the  Mandingos  and  inconsiderable.    He  divides  them  into:  ^,  ne- 
the  Foo^s.    The  true  negro  characters  are  gro  Atlantidae,  occupying  the  central  negro  area 
■Ott  strongly  marked  on  that  portion  of  the  of  the  continent;  &,  the  Caflro  Atlantidro;  Cy 
flOHt  "which  encircles  the  projecting  region  the  Hottentot  Atlantidro ;  <?,  the  Nilotic  Atlau- 
of  vestem  Africa  to  the  inmost  angle  of  the  tidro;  «,  the  Amazirgh  Atlantidro,  or  Berbers; 
lU^  of  Benin,"  the  centre  of  the  slave  trade,  f^  the  Egyptian  Atlantidro ;  ^,  the  Semitic  At- 
T£b  Hottentots  and  Bushmen  of  South  Africa  lantidro,  or  Copts,  Abyssinians,  Arabians,  Syri- 
la  many  respects  resemble  the  nomadic  Mon-  ans,  Hebrews,  &c.    The  Japetidro  inhabit  Eu* 
jJ>— !•  of  Asia ;   the  warlike  Caffres  are  said  rope ;  their  languages  are  rarely  agglutinate  and 
Id  eombine  the  -prominent  forehead  and  nose  never  aptotic,  and  their  influence  on  the  moral 
af  the  Earopean,  the  thick  lips  of  the  negro,  historyofmanhasbeen  greater  than  that  of  cither 
apd  tbe  hign  cheek  bones  of  the  Hottentot,  of  the  others.   He  divides  them  into :  a,  occiden- 
QKDer  details  on  the  kindred  races  have  been  tal  Japetido?,  the  Celts  and  their  branches ;  ft,  the 


810  ETUNOLOGT 

Indf>-GennAnic  Jap«tid»,  the  Eoropefin  and  Ira-  giTos  the  following  entimate  of  the 
nian  ludu-Gvrroans.  In  Uic  article  "  Ethnology**  of  the  earth    in  '*  Pvterniiinn  »  Juunul  **  fur 
in  tlio  ^^  Eocjc'lupoxlia  Britaunica,**  I>r.  lAtham  Jan.  1859.    According  to  him,  tlie  total  fwa- 
gives  a  more  recent  clawiticatiun,  as  follows :  <t,  lation  of  tlic  globe  is  alxNit  1,300,000,000,  diviui,<d 
Asiatics  and  northern  £uropean.i|  Polynesians^  an  follows :  in  Eurofie,  272,000,000 ;  ia  A>ia^ 
and  Americans,   with  the  clas»ei*  Mongolians,  755,000,000 ;  in  Africa,  200,000,000 ;  in  Amcr- 
Iranians,  Indums,  Oceanians^  and  Americans ;  &,  ica,  59,000,000 ;  in  Australia,  2,000,000.     Di- 
oeutral  and  southern  Euroiieans;  e,  Africans  and  Tided  by  races,  there  are  375,000,000  CaucMana 
south- W4»tem  Asiatios^  with  the  claiwes  Semitic,  (the  greater  part  in  Europe),  628,000,000  Moo- 
Nilotic,  CaflVe,  Negro,  and  Hottentot.    In  both  golians,  200,000,000  Malays,  196,000,000  Aih- 
these  classifications  the  di vicious  are  made  on  can:*,  and  1,000,000  Americana.    In  this  csli- 
philological  grounds ;  ho  seems  satisfied  with  mate,  tlio  Africans,  Mtdays,   and  Moogotiana 
the  doctrine:    ^1,  that  as  a  matter  of  fact,  are    probably  overrated,  and    tlie    Americans 
the  languages  of  the  eartlfs  surface  are  refera-  certamly  greatly  underrated.    Divided    by  n- 
ble  to  one  common  origin ;  2,  that  as  a  matter  ligioos,  about  25  per  oenL  are  Christians^  j\ 
of  logic,  this  common  origin  of  language  is  per  cent.  Jews,  46  per  cenL  Asiatic  rdigioos 
prima  /itcie  evidence  of  a  common  origin  for  12|  per  cent.  Mohammedans,  and  151  per  otnS. 
those  who  spvak  it.** — I>r.  Pickering,   in  the  heatlicns;    the     Christiana     include    abooi  | 
'^  Kaces  of  Man,  and  their  Geographical  Distri-  Roman  Catholics,  a  little  more   than   i  Piro- 
bntion*  (1844X  •numcrau^  11  races,  divided  testants,  and  a  littlo  less  than  i  Grevka.^Dr. 
into  4  groups  according  to  complexion,  as  fol-  '8.  G.  Morton,  whoso  principal  works  are  ifaa 
lows :    a.  White,  including :   1,  Arabian,  with  Omnia   Americana    (1839),  and   the    Cramim 
nose  prominent,  lips  thin,  beard  abundant,  and  Ajffyptiaca  (1844X  divides  man  into  tho  fSoikw- 
bair   straight   and    flowing  ;    2,    Abyssinian,  ing  grouiM  in  his  catalogue  of  ikiillsi  Btort  Ut 
wiUi  complexion  hardly  becoming  florid^  nose  convenience  of  study  ai&  examination  than  as 
proniineuC  and  hair  crisped,    b.  Brown,  in-  an  attempt  at  scientifio  classification:  L  Can- 
eluding  :  3,  Mongolian,  beardle«i,  with  perfectly  casiaii  group,  with  the  Scandinavian,  Finai»h  er 
straight  and  very  long  hair;  4,  Hottentot,  with  Tchudic,  Suevic,   Anglo-Saxon,  Anglo- Ancr- 
negro  features,  dose  woolly  hair,  and  diminn-  ican,  Celtic,  Slavonic,  Pelasgic,  Semitic,  Bcr- 
tivo stature ;  5,  Malay,  with  features  not  prom-  bcr,  Nilotic,  ludostauic,  and  Indo-C*hineaeraciis; 
ineut  in  profile,  darker  complexion,  and  straight  II.  Mongolian   gnmp,  with  the  Chinese  and 
and  flowing  hair,    e,  Blacaish  brown,  includ-  Hyperborean  races;  HI.  Malay  gmap,  with  the 
ing:  6,  Papuan,  with  features  as  in  5,  abun-  Malayan  and  Polynesian  races;   IV.  .Vacricsn 
dant  beard,  harsii  skin,  and  crisfted  or  frizzled  group,  with  the  barbarous  andTollccan  ra^v^; 
hair;   7.  Ne^^rillo,  apparently  beardless,   with  V.  Negro   group,  with    tho    native   .Vfri  a:^^ 
diminutive  stature,  ne;(ro  feutureH,  and  woolly  Hovum,   and    Altt»orian  race^;   VI.  the   n.Iii'd 
hair;  H,  Indian  or  Teliu^un,  with  Arabian  fed-  nu'es    CopU,    Nubians,    &c. — Van    A\i\t\z^ 
tures,  and  straight  and  flowing  hair ;  9.  Ethi-  ("  Outline  of  a  new  Natural  Hi»tt'ry  cf  Moa.*^ 
opian,  with  features  intenaediute  between  tho  1S4>^)  l>eUeves  that  there  are  5  »{K<<.ic4  vf  k^ai- 
laht  and  the  negro,  and  eri»|)od  huir.    d.  Black,  kind :    1,  tho  S^*niitit\  including  the  C'»ioaB.Aa 
including:  I'l,  Ati>itraliau,  with  negro  features,  natioiiA  generalh,  of  htrenuuu^  t«  niiKrift2i.i:.: ; 
but  straight  tir  flowiii);  hair;  and  11,  Negn>,  2.  the  Ju|K.'ii(\  im-Iuding  the  M<»iip.iiian  r«h%% 
with  close  wiKiUy  hair,  flattened  noNi',  and  very  Es4iuini»ux,  Azters  and  Peniviaii*,  of  pA>>iv«t 
tliick    lip<.     .Sx  of  tliu  races  are  Aitiatic,  and  teiii|»eniinent;  l^theNhniaeliiic,  in«-!udiii«;u:'MS 
4  .Vfriran,  while   tho    white   race   U  cummon  of  tlie  Tartar  and  Arabian  triln:.'*  and  the  Aim r- 
to  both  hemi<»pheres;  the  Malay,  Negrillt),  and  ican  natititis  of  cjUImuh  toni|i^Taiiu  nt :  4.   ihs 
I*apuan  are  inland  rs«*i'4,  the  other  (5  are  con-  Cana:iiiitii\  in(*luding  Negroi-4  and  .\u«(ralia&\ 
tinental;  tho  Malny  is  a  truly  nuu'itime  race,  of  hlti^vi^^h  teni{K'runient ;  5,  da*  E-^uiiir,  la- 
aiid  tliu  niu«t  widely  jicattered  of  all.     A-wuni-  olml ing  Malays  and  Km^r-hairc*!  Nf,;r«io«;  tli;s 
ing  the ]M ipul.it it m  ot  tho  gl(»be  tobu  94i<>.iMH>,uO<J,  la->t  he H'ganU  \%s  duuhtful. — WiUr  r^duc^-v  tlie 
hegivv^  to  tho  raci-4  the  fulluwing  niinilN.'rs  at*-  fi^riuH  i>f  the  human  |K*IviH  to  4,  nhith  cfrre- 
coining  til  tho  aliuvo  tii^uroH :  1  hai  35ii,iH>»,uoi) ;  Hpoml  tt>  tlie  foniis  t»f  ^knIl  rharart«'ri->ttc  ff  lie 

8,  a<>>t,INH».(»Oi);    5,   12»K0«HIJMJ«);    H,  COjHMI,lMM>  ;  M'VtTal  ra<VH  ;    tllt-H.*  are  the  OVaU  Ulir>t  frY'^lrLt 

11,  55.(i«N>.uiK);  9,  C.^XH^ixrO;  2,  ti.  ami  7,  eat^h  in  Kun»|H*aii<»;  tlie  round,  nui*t  fri'»iUiti:  lu  tie 

8,0(M),UUU;  and  4  and  l'',   ea&h  5():i,ihx).     Ho  Anuriran  nation<«;  the  •Mpiare,  mo^t  n  u.:^  a 

ctiu^idem  talile- lands  a4  tlto  natural  birthphux^i  in  jH-uplo  rrM.inMing  Moiip>iiaii«;  ai.«l  t?.-.  t^l- 

of  civilization,   and  find:*  4    nui'ii,  in   Mexico,  hmtf  i»r  wediTi'-^haiKtl.  unvt  c«*nimi»n  in  tl  <- r^- 

Peru,  ThilH't,  and  Ahy^'«inia;  ho  regards  man  tion<«  of  Afrira.    -Haiuiltim  Smith,  in  Li«  "  N*:- 

as  "  ixk^'ntially  a  pniductii»n  of  the  tnipirs,  since  ural  HiMnry  of  t tie  llumaii  Siit-rii.-<«"  (pK^^toL  «•!. 

he  i«  Uiru  without  natural  elnthiuK;**  ho  thinks  \<A  i,  regards  Tliihi-t,  tht-  (inti  dr*««rt,  aud  '.>^ 

thrr%*isni»middlegn>uiid  l>etWf«.-n  theailmiabion  surn»unding   nnKintain   chains   eithrr    a*   :h« 

of  1 1  dUtinct  ft|iecies  in  tlie  human  family  and  primitive  craillo  of  man,  or  a>  tho  K<ality  «  Lf  r«* 

the  ri-^iurt  ion  to  one,  and  that,  if  the  latter  opiu'  a  p«>rtion  uf  human  bi'inpt  fiund  fiafctv  aTUr 

i«»n   l*e  adi>pti*<i,  it   iniplirs   a   reniral   origin,  nuiio  great  coiivuNiuii  or  ehsn;^  of  the  earth's 

and  that  t>ri/in  pmliahy  tho  .Vfrira:i  continent,  surface;  ho  illiiotr.iti*^  hi«  «iew«  by  a  d.a;:rsr» 

l*rof«  liieterici,  an  eminent  Pnuftiau  statistician,  in  which  the  apex  of  an  e<iuiiatjral  tr..k;.{Se 


ETHNOLOGY  ETIITLE                      811 

eints  to  the  north,  the  soatbem  line  represent-  TorionBlj  modified  forms,  thongh  none  of  them 

I  the  HimAUja  diain  with  its  streams  ending  natnnd  or  satisfactorj,  will  snmce  to  show  tiie 

at  the  Indian  ooean,  the  eastern  similarly'  lead-  imperfection  of  the  science  of  ethnology.    The 

ing  to  the  Pacific,  and  the  western  to  a  sea  limits  of  this  article  will  permit  only  an  allnsioQ 

gradoany  contracted  into  the  Caspian.    On  the  to  the  great  qnestions  which  are  intimately  con- 

aooth  of  this  triangle  he  places  the  woolly-haired  nected  with  tnis  subject,  such  as  the  theories  of 

or  tropical  type,  on  the  west  the  bearded  or  nnity  or  diversity  of  origin  of  the  races;  the 

Ganeasian  type,  and  on  the  east  the  beardless  effects  of  physic^  agents  in  prodacing  varieties 

or  ICongoHc  type. — ^Prof.  Agassiz,  in  the  '*  T^pes  in  animals  and  man ;  the  phenomena  of  hybrid- 

of  Mankind,"  by  Messrs.  Nott  and  Glidaon  ity;  the  geographical  distribution,  migrations, 

(1854),  gives  a  sketch  of  the  natural  provinces  and  affiliations  of  the  species ;  disputed  points 

of  the  animal  world  (see  Fauna),  and  their  re-  in  archseology,  philology,  chronology,  and  phy»* 

latkm  to  the  different  types  of  man,  in  which  ical  geography  ;  and  the  bearings  of  these  va- 

heeondndee^  that  what  are  called  human  races,  rions  researches  upon  the  theological  opinions 

down  to  their  specialization  as  nations,  are  dis-  of  the  day.    If  ethnoloffy  is  to  advance  beyond 

tiBCt  primordial  forms  of  the  type  of  man.'*  the  above  ^ven  views  of  Prichard,  it  is  probably 

He  makes  the  following  realms :  I.  Arctic,  in-  bv  l^e  study  of  philology,  zoology,  and  archa- 

habtted  by  HyperborsBans ;  II.  Asiatic,  by  Mou-  ology,  as  initiated  by  Bunsen,  Lepsius,  Morton, 

gob;  IIL  European,  by  white  men ;  lY.  Ameri-  Agassiz,  Nott,  and  Gliddon,  that  further  light 

can,  by  American  Indians;  Y.  African,  by  Nu-  and  progress  will  beobtdned.    Those  who  wi^ 

Mana.  AbyBmnianfl,  Foolahs.  Negroes,  Hottentots,  to  pursue  this  interesting  and  difficult  subject 

and  Boejesroans ;  YL  East  Indian  or  Malayan,  by  are  referred  to  the  various  authors  mentioned 

Tefingmna,  Malaya,  and  Negrillos ;  YII.  Austra-  in  this  article,  and  especially  to  the  copious  ref- 

fiattybyPi^aansandAustrauans;  and  YIIL  Poly-  erences  of  the  works  of  Nott  and  Gliddon, 

narian^by  South  sea  islanders.    Dr.  Nott,  in  the  and  to  the  Boston  edition  of  Hamilton  Smith, 

aame  work,  after  staUuff  that  in  the  present  state  A  detailed  account  of  the  different  AsiatiCi 

ofoor  knowledge  all  classifications  must  neces-  European,  and  African  races  is  given  by  Dr. 

aarily  be  arbitrary,  says  that  the  5  usually  ad-  Latham  in  his  last  work,   *'  Descriptive  Eth- 

ndttod  great  divisions  of  man  comprehend  many  nology"  (2   vols.    8vo.,   London,  1859). — ^Aa 

original  anbdivisions;  the  nearest  approach  to  to  the  time  that  man  has  existed  on  the  earth, 

a  acientifio  classification  he  considers  that  of  there  is  great  difference  of  opinion  from  the 

Agaasiz,  founded  on  the  relation  of  man  to  limited  Hebrew   chronology   of   abont    6,000 

loological  provinces.    In  a  subsequent  work  years  to  the  nearly  22,000  years  adopted  by 

(**  Indigenous  Races  of  the  Earth,"  1857)  Messrs.  iBunsen ;  according  to  the  latter,  the  flood  took 

KoU  and  Gliddon  give  an  ethnographic  tableau  place  in  northern  Asia  between  10,000  and 

hi  which  the  races  are  divided  zoologically  ao-  11,000  years  B.  0.,  at  which  time  the  Aryans 

eording  to  the  8  realms  of  Prol  Agassiz ;  they  emigrated  from  the  volley  of  the  Ozus  and 

are  also  grouped  physiologically  (after  Desmou-  Jazartes,  and  the  Shemites  from  the  valley  of 

fioo,  Achille  Comte,  and  0.  D^Halloy)  into  65  the  Tigris  and  Euphrates.    In  his  address  before 

fnnities,  7  belonging  to  realm  1  of  Agassiz,  12  the  British  association  at  Leeds,  in  Sept.  1858, 

to  realm  2,  16  to  realm  8,  14  to  realm  4,  8  to  Prof.  Owen  alludes  to  Mr.  Homer's  examination 

Taalm  6,  8  to  realm  6,  2  to  realm  7,  and  8  to  of  the  rate  of  increase  of  the  sediments  of  the 

leahsi  8 — taking  the  numbers  as  given  above,  Nile  in  Egypt  as  a  test  of  the  lapse  of  time,  fix)m 

which  are  somewhat  changed  in  the  last  work,  which  the  existence  of  man  13,875  years  ago  is 

The  aame  realms  have  also  tlieir  corresponding  inferred ;  of  man,  moreover,  in  a  state  of  com* 

rtaMtiH  arranged  linguistically,   after   Maury,  parativo  civilization.    Prof.   Max  Mailer  has 

OawAird,  Logon,  &c.,  as  follows:  realm  1,  with  also  attempted  to  extend  the  history  of  the  hu- 

tibe  FSnno-Ougrian,  containing  6  groups ;  realm  man  race  by  the  perception  and  application  of 

S,  irith  the  Tartarian,  Sinic,  North  and  South  analogies  in  the  formation  of  modem  and  ancient 

Drmridian,  containing  5,  6,  4,  and  6  groups  re-  languages.    The  migority  of  naturalists  will  per- 

nectively ;  realm  8,  with  the  Oagrian,  Iberian,  haps  agree  with  Prof.  Owen  when  he  says :  ^*  I 

lado^ermanio  or  Japetic,  Semitic,  and  Hami-  may  advert  to  the  uniform  testimony  of  differ- 

tSCi  containing  respectively  8,  1,  6,  9,  and  4  ent  witnesses — to  the  concurrence  of  distinct 

groups ;  realm  4,  with  the  northern,  central,  species  of  evidence — as  to  the  much  higher  anti- 

■nd  flonthem,  containing  6,  4,  and  4  groups ;  quity  of  the  human  race  than  has  been  assigned 

raalm  6,  with  the  Atlantic,  Mondingo,  upper  it  in  historical  and  genealogical  records.'' 

Goinean,  upper  Soodanian,  delta  of  the  Niger,  ETHTLE  (Gr.  at9np^  upper  air,  and  vXrj,  mate- 

"  ■    Td    ■                         -  - 


of  the  Tchad,  central  Africa,  Senegambian,  rial),  the  name  given  by  Berzelius  to  what  was 

Gnlnean,  Congo,  Madagascar,  and  Hottentot,  then  a  hypothetical  substance,  which  he  re- 

«OBtaining  4,  9,  8,  4,  8,  1,  2,  4,  8,  8,  1,  and  8  garded  as  the  base  of  ether,  and  of  which  ether 

fioaps;  Kalm  6,  with  the  polyglot  class,  con-  is  the  oxide.    It  was  not  isolated  during  his 

trfning  18  ffroups;  realm  7,  with  the  polyglot  life;  but  in  1849  Dr.  Frankland  obtained  it  bv 

'*~~l^  containing  2  groups ;  and  realm  8,  with  the  action  of  zinc  upon  its  iodide  at  a  very  high 

DM>noslot  and  polyglot  classes,  containing  4  temperature.    It  is  a  colorless  inflammable  gas, 

aaunine  group. — ^The  above  classifications,  withoutodor,  of  specific  gravity  2.00394.  Under 

tts  most  important  and  generally  accepted  in  oressure  of  2^  atmospheres,  it  becomes  a  color- 


812  ETNA 

leas  transparent  fluid.  Composed  of  C«ni,  it  b  circarafcrcnce,  and  the  wbolo  163  feet  Tlie  in- 
represented  bj  the  symbol  E.  ncr  portion  is  inach  decayed,  and  a  public  road 
XTXA  (Ijftt.  .£Vn<i,  probably  from  Or.  mfoi,  passo.4  through  the  clump  of  trees.  This  re- 
to  bnrn),  a  volcano  of  Sicily,  colled  by  the  iiiha-  cion  afTords  pasturage  for  many  herds  and  flockjL 
bitants  of  the  island  Mongibello,  from  the  Sara-  Its  elevation  gives  it  a  cooler  and  more  a|rre«- 
oen  Gilbtl  Uttamat^  or  mountain  of  fire.  It  able  temperuturo  than  that  of  the  lovest  belt, 
rises  from  the  £.  coast  of  the  i^an«1,  midway  At  the  height  of  6,3C3  feet  is  the  Goat^s  CAveni 
between  its  X.  and  S.  extremities.  T!ie  port  of  or  grotto,  freouented  by  these  animals  in  bad 
Catania  is  on  the  pn)longatlon  of  its  S.  f(x>t,  and,  weather,  nnd  rormerly  a  resting  place  for  trar- 
as  the  histor}'  of  this  onco  wealthy  and  highly  ellers,  until  the  shelter  known  as  the  Enirlifh 
populous  town  shows,  is  by  no  means  beyond  house  was  built  immediately  under  the  cone,  aft 
the  reai'h  of  its  deva<*tating  lava  currents.  North  the  height  of  0,592  feet,  at  the  expense  of  sonw 
of  the  mountain  is  the  Valdi  I)emone,  watered  British  officers  who  were  stationed  in  Sicily, 
by  the  river  Alcantara,  and  SO  miles  S.  of  it  Thoupperedgoof  the  woody  refdon  is  estimated 
ia  the  N.  margin  of  the  Val  di  Xoto,  in  which  at  0,279  feet  above  the  sea.  Beyond  it  is  the 
the  waters  of  the  Giaretta  find  their  way  to-  cold  and  desolate  zone  of  the  mountain  called 
ward  the  coast  amid  the  ancient  scoria)  of  the  the  regione  df*erta.  Its  surface  spreads  oat  in 
great  volcano.  The  country  between  these  broad  tracts,  comjmred  to  plains,  which  art 
rivers  is  otvupied  by  tlie  mountain  with  its  va-  rough  and  black  with  the  naked  lava  and  aroriai 
nous  ridge:),  volcanic  cones,  and  deep  denrcs-  or  white  with  drifb*  of  snow,  which  |)erpecnallj 
•ions,  which  cover  altogether  an  area  of  about  cover  the  liighest  summits.  These  also  colkci 
87  miles  in  circumference ;  yet  the  lava  has  in  the  crevices  and  grottos  of  this  nortaoa  of 

Sreail  far  In^yond  these  limits.   In  the  midst  is  the  mountain,  and  biK'oming  eolidified  into  iec^ 

e  ai>ex  of  the  great  conical  masM,  the  highest  they  furnish  most  grateful  supplies  of  this  matis 

summit,   a4  ascert^iined    trignnometrically  by  rial  to  the  inhabitants  of  the  itoand,  and  of  Maltn 

Capt  Smyth  in  1815,  being  1o«k74  feet  above  and  Uic  neighboring  region  of  Italy.    In  l!*2^ 

the  sea.    Sir  J.  Herschel  in  1824,  ignorant  of  when  the  wliole  country  was  parched  with  the 

this  measurement,  determine<l  the  heiglit  by  excessive  heat,  a  quarrr  of  perennial  ice  waa 

careful  barometrical  measurement  to  Ik;  10,872^  oi»ened  under  a  stratum  of  lava,  so  situated  t)]^ 

feet.    The  latitude  of  the  ]>oint  i^*  37'  43'  31"  this  must  have  flowed  in  a  melted  stat«  at  font 

K.,  and  the  longitude  is  ICE.    The  cone,  at  distantf>eriodovcr  the  snow,  which,  as  Mifronted 

the  summit  of  which  is  the  great  crater,  is  in  by  Sir  Charles  Lyell.wa<ino  doubt  protected  from 

the  midnt  of  a  comparatively  piano  region,  9  the  action  of  the  heat  by  a  previoufl  covering  i/ 

miles  in  circumferenee,  tlie  highest  ])oint  being  fine  du.«t  and  »voriic.     Tlie  bi^hof*  of  tlie  dii<««e 

l.KK)  feel  Ulow  the  principal  apcx.  Anmnd  the  derives  a  n* venue  frtmi  the  sale  of  thi-  irt-.  and 

mountain,  at  its  ba^%  is  a  fertile  anil  di-Iiirhtful  what  isobtuiiK-<l  fmrn  a  Muidl  lortioiMin  :f.<*  V. 

region  known  a^  t!ie  regionecnlUi.  Near  Catani.!  Mde  of  the  inonntuin  i^  Kiid  to  amctunt  V*  £\  C<0 

til  is  is  1 1  miles  hn>:ul,  till  one  renche-^  in  ascend-  i»er  aninim.   Tlie  great  crater  U  \\\<mx  a  n.t  iir.*:b:a 

ing  the  reyione  #i7r#'*i,  or  wotnly  »rr'»trict;  hut  of  stones  nnd  allies,  inhieh  ri-k^s  aliHit  l.U")  f*vt 

on  the  N.  Nidc  the  woihI  skirt •«  the  mountain  above  its  ba^,'  in  this  Miowy  tract.    T!if  d:^:^' 

to  within  half  a  mileof  its  foot.  This  lowest  U*lt  eter  of  its  iiiouth  is  estiniate«l  by  diffrren:  :rar- 

is  the  ri'L'ion  of  cultivation  ;  towns  and  viIhi;;os  ellers  at  fn>m  2}  to  4  miles,  and  the  dt  |»th  frra 

are  chMere<I  ufKta  it;  and  in  the  rich  soil  of  COO  to  800  feet.    Sulphurous  Hmoken*tit.r.uo«>Ir 

the  de'-oiniK»e<l  lava  and  tufa  are  fli»uri>hing  aM'emls  from  it,  and  rumbling  noi^*»  arf  .-i*.  x\ 

planUitions   of  olivo*s   vines,  c«>rn,  fruit-s  and  times  heard.    Tlie  view  fn>m  tl.i^  Mimtoit  a£  r-.n* 

aromatic  herlts.     Though,  in  the  frei^ueiitly  re-  ri>e  is  magnifirent.     The  mountain  i'.M^lf.  \}'.r.z 

currim;  eruptions  of  the  volcano,  .somo  of  t!ivso  directly  lK.'neath  the  eye  of  the  obM-rvrr.  «}.:.  h 

are  olteu  •^wejtt  otf,  or  buried  U-ncatli  the  flow  can  pi*  net  rate  ci'cn  into  t  lie  infvriurcorit*  that  «.*« 

of  lava,    the   attr:u'ti«>ns  of  the   de]icioi:s  cli-  di<«triliutt'd  ui>on  it •« thinks,  iiriVH'nt^t lit.' n.«*»!cri- 

mate,  and  <»f  a  soil  so  n-adily  ]inKhu-in;;  the  ne-  ginalfcatnreof  tho!aiKl<*c.iiie.    nK-M-«-«'rA*,  Low- 

cessary  su^tenanre  of  life,  ovcrconn*  the  fear-*  of  cvvr,  are  lu-st  si-i-n  from  the  lower  N-rd.  r*  »'f  the 

a  |»e*iple  familiar  uith  the  danir»Ts  and  n  ruler  di-it  rt  re>r'u>n,  wliere,  a-*  stated  l-y  ^ir  l'].a.*>« 

them  romiiarativi'lv  indilfvnnt  tn  the  :iniiov-  I.vi'II.  tlu  vaM'ord  **oneofthe  m>Mti!fhj^  l?*:i  vd 

anc4*s  «if  the  sharjt  vtilrjuiic  dii-t  tliat,  according  cliarartiri'»tie  6i'eni-!i  in  Ei:n»pi».     Tl.vv  ^tv  •rva 

ti>(*a|it.  Sniytli.  inju  remand  ili-ti  jure  "till- irevi-s  of  cv«.ry  variety  of  hei;;ht  and  s:re,  ai.-!  arr  ar- 

tlM-ir  |K*r«»»»ns,  fnrniture,  and  ltoii<H*s.  TliewmMly  run,:eilin1>rantitnlaiid  picturi-^Njuec't*^':!-   H-  *• 

region  enrireVi  tin*   np'tintaiu  in  a  Ult  tJ   or  ever  uniform  thiv  may  ap|Kttr  mhm  ** .  n  tr- rs 

7  mile*  in  %i  iiltli ;  hiit  tlie  c\ten-ive  fireHt-*  are  tlie  m:i,  or  t!»»»  j-l.iin-*  Nliiw.  i;iithi:.i:i  a*J  1--  :i  '^^ 

mneh  \  roken  in  n|K»n  Iv  tlie  ra\a.:e*i»f  the  livo.  diver>i!ied  than  their  shape  when  we  1.-  k  f.-^  « 

Here  one  p:i.*'<'s  tlimcgh  fincgro\et  of  eheotnut  aUive  iiit'^tlieir  craters.  »>ne*idfof  wl.i-  J.  :•  j<fr.- 

an*l  c«trk  tr^-es,  and  in  lite  hii^'lier  j-ortinim  pirei  trally  lin*ken  down."     Of  the^*  m**-*  vAst}  x.'- 

of  grrat  magnitude  alniund,  li-gi-tLer  iiiih  oak,  ciiniiC'*  T.y*ll  iniinferatos  i\x*  K-»*  tha:;  *h»  »■!..  h 

beeeh,  and  p'»pUr,  nnil  hawthorn  of  iintiii'ii-i*»i/e.  are  of  fi>n«fcidera--!e  dinien-iou*.  ainl  or.e  *./  rh*'**. 

A  cluster  Kti  wjiat  apii-arvd  t  »  he  7  chestnut  call.-*!  Mt»n:e  Mitianlo.  near  Mr^'i  t*.  i*  7'»'  f«xt 

trees   growing   together  1^  di"*«  riln-il  hy  CapL  hi;:h ;  and  the  ilnuMe  hill  Moi-.ti  II.-**;.  m  »r  N":- 

8uytii,  the  lurgea  of  which  measured;]^  feet  in  cvluai,  funued  in  ICCl*,  ii  400  fc«t  ti^h,  with  a 


ETNA  818 

%  milet  in  oircomference.    They  are  pro-  in  order  to  protect  their  town,  were  opposed 

doeed  by  lateral  eroptions  in  the  desert  region  with  arms  by  the  people  of  Paterno,  as  the  new 

or  in  the  wooded  belt  below.  In  the  latter  their  current  threatened  to  bring  destruction  upon 

height  18  aabseqaen tly  reduced  by  the  flow  of  lava  their  habitations.    In  some  places  hills  of  older 

from  higher  aonrcea,  which  gathers  around,  and  lava  were  melted  into  the  flowing  stream,  and 

in  some  instances  buries  them  and  even  pours  thus  swept  away.   In  others  the  cooling  matter 

into  tb«r  eraters. — ^Tho  earliest  recorded  erup*  taking  an  arched  form  protected  the  objects 

tion  of  Etna  is  one  mentioned  by  DiodorusSicu-  upon  the  surface  by  enclosing  them  in  grottos 

Ins,  which  eaosed  theSicani,  who  then  lived  near  of  lava.    Thus  were  preserved,  and  afterward 

the  moontain,  to  desert  its  vicinity  and  move  fur-  obtained  by  excavating  into  the  solid  lava  to 

ther  to  the  soath.  No  date  is  given  to  this  event,  the  depth  of  85  feet,  many  valued  articles  from 

but  it  appears  to  have  happened  before  the  Tro*  one  of  the  churches  of  Mompilierc,  one  of  the 

Jan  war.    The  next  are  8  eruptions  referred  to  towns  overflowed  by  this  eruption.    As  Lyell 

by  Tkooydidea,  of  which  one  was  in  475  B.  0.,  observes,  it  seems  very  extraordinary  that  any 

one  in  435,  and  one  supposed  to  have  been  in  565.  works  of  art,  not  encased  with  tufa,  like  those 

TbeM^  added  to  the  later  recorded  eruptions  to  in  Herculaneum,  should  have  escaped  fusion  in 

the  present  time,  make  nearly  60  in  all.    The  hollow  spaces  left  open  in  this  lava  current, 

most  important  are  those  of  1669, 1755, 1787,  which  was  so  hot  at  Catania,  8  years  after  it 

ITM,  and  1852.  An  earthquake  in  March,  1669,  entered  the  town,  that  it  was  impossible  to 

destroyed  all  the  houses  in  the  village  of  Nicolosi,  hold  the  hand  in  some  of  the  crevices.    The 

dtaited  10  miles  from  Oatania,  near  the  lower  great  lava  current  as  it  flowed  into  the  sea 

Bsrgiii  ai  the  wooded  dbtrict.    Streams  of  had  spread  over  a  width  of  600  yards,  and 

Im  not  many  days  afterward  broke  forth  from  its  depth  was  estimated  at  40  feet.    The  water 

which  opened  in  different  parts  of  the  was  thrown  into  violent  commotion  by  this 

These  destroyed  as  many  as  14  vil*  intrusion  of  heated  matter.     Sounds  louder 

fVom  a  gulf  that  formed  near  Nieolosi,  and  more  terrific  than  peals  of  thunder  were 

Im  sand  and  scoria  were  projected  that  pro-  constantly  sent  forth,  ana  the  light  of  the  sun 

daoed  in  the  course  of  8  or  4  months  the  double  was  darkened  by  the  clouds  of  vapor  that  arose. 

cone  Monti  BossL    A  fissure  12  miles  long  was  The  fish  were  destroyed  along  the  coast,  and 

fmed,  which  emitted  a  most  vivid  light,  and  ex-  many  months  passed  before  the  water  became 

tended  to  within  a  mile  of  the  summit  of  Etna,  again  clear  and  transparent. — ^Tho  eruption  of 

Afterward  5  other  parallel  fissures  opened, which  1755  is  remarkable  for  a  great  inundation  caused 

jEKTe  forth  smoke  and  loud  bellowing  noises,  by  the  flow  of  two  streams  of  lava  upon  a  vast 

These  fissures,  which  were  without  doubt  par-  collection  of  snow.    For  8  miles  down  the 

tiaUy  filled  with  lava,  afford  an  illustration  of  flanks  of  the  mountain  the  torrent  poured, 

the  mann<»r  in  which  the  porphyritic  dikes  are  sweeping  on  the  loose  scorias  and  blocks  of 

temed,  which  are  seen  cutting  the  lavas,  and  lava,  which  were  deposited  in  the  ])lain3  below. 

yn]tjecting  in  the  form  of  walls  from  the  preci-  The  inhabitants  believed  that  the  water  was 

jntoDs  sides  of  the  deep  valleys  of  the  mountain ;  discharged  from  the  crater  it^lf,  and  the  stories 

sod  also  of  the  origin  of  the  trap  dikes  of  older  of  its  saltness  and  of  the  marine  shells  contained 

formations.     By  the  flow  of  Uie  lava  among  the  in  it  are  still  found  in  the  popular  accounts  of 

deep  caverns  within  the  mountain,  its  vaulted  this  eruption. — ^The  successive  piles  of   lava 

ftwadations  were  melted  away,  and  Uie  crest,  which  compose  the  great  mass  of  Etna,  and  the 

rent  with  numerous  fissures,  setUed  down  into  fossiliferous  strata  which  crop  out  on  the  more 

the  vacant  spaces.    To  protect  the  city  of  Gata-  exposed  eastern  side  of  the  mountain,  afford 

■Mi,  its  walls  next  the  mountain  had  been  raised  some  interesting  data  bearing  upon  the  time 

to  the  height  of  60  feet ;  but  the  lava,  irresisti-  that  has  elapsed  during  the  accumulation  of 

Ue  as  the  swelling  tide,  and  as  slow  in  its  mo-  these  materials.    For,  as  observed  by  Ovid  in 

tion,  rose  steadily  till  it  overtopped  the  rampart,  presenting  the  views  of  Pythagoras,  there  was 

nd  poured  a  cascade  of  liquid  fire  into  the  midst  a  time  when  Etna  was  not  a  burning  mountain, 

ef  tna  houses.    Long  afterward,  when  excavated  and  a  time  will  arrive  when  it  will  cease  to  bo 

If  the  prince  of  Biscari,  the  solid  lava  was  such.    This  subject  has  been  admirably  treated 

kranght  to  view,  its  layers  curling  over  the  by  Sir  Charles  Lyell  in  his  "  Principles  of  Geo- 

viD,  ns  if  jost  petrified  in  their  flow.    Its  rate  logy,"  and  illustrated  from  the  drawings  he  pre- 

of  pragreas  varied  greatly  with  the  consistency  pared  in  his  examinations  of  the  localities.    The 

ef  the  melted  matter  and  the  slope  of  the  sur-  lavas,  as  seen  on  the  southern  and  eastern  sides 

,    The  greater  part  of  the  15  miles  of  its  of  the  mountain,  rest  upon  stratified  clay  sands 

to  the  sea  was  accomplished  in  20  days,  and  volcanic  tufa,  which  contain  marine  fossil 

the  last  2  miles  were  only  at  the  rate  of  22  shells,  all  or  nearly  all  of  which  are  identical 

per  hoor.    Its  surface  exposed  to  the  aur  with  species  now  inhabiting  the  Mediterranean, 

n  enurt  of  solid  rock ;  through  the  side  These  strata  form  a  series  of  hills  GOO  to  800 

I  streams  of  the  fluid  lava  often  burst  out,  feet  in  height,  which  extend  along  the  southern 

nd  br  excavating  into  the  great  current  at  margin  of  the  mountain.    They  indicate  that 

■irihli'i  places  the  flow  might  be  diverted  in  the  bed  of  the  sea  has  during  the  existence  of 

MW  direetlons.    Attempts  that  were  made  to  the  present  testacea  been  raised  several  hundred 

ia  tUe  bj  some  of  the  inhabitants  of  Oatania,  feet  above  its  ancient  level.    The  sedimentary 


814                        ETNA  ST09 

•trmta,  iin<l  tho  Itmestone  of  the  newer  ptiocene  a  nuMB  so  manj  thoneand  feet  In  thickar« 

period  upon  which  they  reet,  define  the  origin  of  have  required  an  immenee  acriee  of  afe«  aale* 

the  flowd  of  lava  to  be  within  tliia  very  recent  rior  to  our  historical  perioda  for  Ua  growth ;  yet 

period  in  tho  history  of  the  formatiooa  wliich  the  wliule  moat  be  regarded  aa  the  product  of 

ooiiipo!<«  the  crust  oif  the  earth.    Were  there  a  modem  portion  of  the  tertiary  epoch.**  (LyelTa 

data  furnished  by  long  kept  records,  by  which  **  Princimes,"  ch.  zzr.) 

the  avorage  rate  of  increase  of  Tolcanoes  could  £TOX,  a  town  of  BockiDghamabira*  ^■g'^H. 

be  detvniiined,  the  a|)plication  of  these  to  the  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Thaoiaai  oppositoWia^ 

case  of  Etna  might  furnish  some  approximation  aor,  28  m.  W.  from  London  l^*  road;  pOfL  in 

toward  the  time  tliat  has  passed  whUe  iu  10,000  1861, 8,666.    lu  college,  the  mosl  riMwaied  cf 

feet  or  more  of  layers  of  lava  have  been  acco-  English  public  aehoola,  wm  foandad  by  Kiag 

mulating.    But  the  recorded  observations  of  Henry  VI.  in  1440,  and  endowed  l^  a  gttl  ' 

the  action  of  volcanoes  are  too  incomplete,  and  his  own  demesne  lands  and  tboae  nflnnfii 

this  action  is  too  variable  in  its  nature,  for  any  aome  priories  whose  revennea  had  beta 

data  we  possess  to  shed  light  upon  this  question,  priated  to  reUgious  booses  abroad.    Tba  a 

A  single  volcano,  as  that  of  Jorullo  in  Mexico,  foundation  consisted  of  one  pnivoit.  10 

with  thousands  of  little  cones  about  it,  Is  known  or  fellows,  4  clerks,  6  choriaten^  one 

to  have  risen  at  once  to  the  hciglit  of  more  than  poor  scholars,  and  aa  many  poor  nsan 

500  feet;  while  another,  as  that  of  Ischia,  la  men.    Ilenry  Vl.  Intended  itaa 

known  to  have  lain  dormant  with  no  increase  a  college  in  one  of  the  universities  and 

of  its  dimeusions  for  17  centuries.    The  only  fonnd^  contemporaneously  with  Elon,  Kia^ 

data,  therefore,  upon  which  any  calculation  of  college,  Cambridge,  to  which  Eton  waa  tola 

this  sort  can  bo  based,  must  be  ftimished  by  what  preparatory.    T^  fint  stona  of  tba  bnOA^g 

we  know  of  the  structure  and  history  of  the  was  laid  July  8,  1441.    In  1448  Henry  VL  l» 

volcano  itself    Upon  the  eastern  side  of  the  creased  the  number  of  acholara  lo  70  and  f^ 

mountain  is  a  remarkable  valley  4  or  5  miles  doced  the  beadsmen  to  18.    At 


wide,  called  Val  del  Bove,  which  extenda  far  in    foundation  consists  of  a  provost  apfointad  If 

a»  t  chanla 


toward  the  centre,  and  presents  on  each  side  the  crown,  a  vioe-|»rovoet,  6  fellow^ 

precipitous  walls,  that  attain  at  the  upper  ex-  called  conducts,  10  lay  clerks,  10 

tremity  a  height  exceeding  3,000  feet.    A  aec-  aide  inferior  officers  and  aenranta,  and  70 

tion  furnisihcHl  by  these  walls,  and  the  naked  an,  who  aince  the  reign  of  Gauigv  JIL  kasn 

conical  jicak  1,000  feet  high,  exi»ose  the  struo-  been  called  ^  king's  scholariL^    As  Eton  was  a 

ture  of  nearly  half  the  height  or  the  mountain.  Lancastrian  foundation,  it  sutTerad  nnder  iht 

All  thii  con!»i!(ts  of  alternating  beds  of  lava  and  rule  of  the  house  of  York,  and  waa  mrtaikd  by 

of  briH'ois,  or  Irokon  fragments  of  lava,  which  Edward  ^V.  of  many  of  its  ponseMona.    Meit 

api*i'ar  eAi-h  to  have  been  ]>nM]uccd  by  a  fluw  fortunate  under  the  Tudors,  Eton  was  special^ 

of  tlie  Ht|ui4l  material  dc[M>»ited  u]>on  the  older  excepted  fn>m  the  act  of  parliament  in^ed  ia 

layer  li'mMith  it.     AH  theaio  layers  incline  to-  the  time  (»f  Henry  VIII.  fi>r  the  disM>latiua  ef 

wanl  the  m.s%  as  if  tho  currents  hod  uniformly  colleger  and  chantries.     At  this  period  if«  rrvi* 

flowe<l  in  tliat  lUrection.     Through  then;  [»iles  Dues  were  estitnate<l  at  £1,100.     In  1506,  Iks 

of  ^tnltiru'd  lava  many  of  the  seeondory  conos  total  income  was  £6-'»2.     Its  pre<^nt  inct-owii 

are  ^'en  ]*roje«'ting,  and  in  such  relation  to  the  about  £7,000.   The  cullego  buildings  eooM^t  of  S 

layers  that  it  i^  a|i|karent  they  were  thrust  up  quailrangles,  built  partly  of  fri*eftt«Hi«,  bat  chit^ 

aul«k*<}Ueiitly   to    the    couMilidation   of   these,  of  brick.     The  sch«>lani  on  the  foandatkA  sit 

Turning  now  to  t!io  hi>t4»rioal  nvords,  there  is  lodged  and  boarded  in  the  college,  and  bj  wif 

nothing  found  ia  them  which  would  lead  to  the  of  distinction  are  called  collegers.    Tbcy  «f 

oi>init»n  that  the  altitude  of  the  mountain  has  admissible  from  the  age  of  8  to  16,  and  aaha 

nifttvrially  varie«l  within  the  la»t  2,000  years,  put  on  the  roll  for  admission  to  King*s  cvikf* 

Of  tlie  SO  (MUes  previouiilv  referred  to  as  M-en  at  17,  are  superannuated  andoliliged  to  leave  rt 

u|K»n  itH  tlank^  onl V  one,  Monti  Koswi,  has  liecn  18.     If  put  on  the  nJI,  they  may  r«»otinae  hi 

pr<Nlii«'ed  within  tliis  time.     It  is  hence  reaiton-  19.    The  foumlation  scholars  miM  be  barn  ■ 

able  to  •>ii{>|»o<4»  that  a  great  many  Ci*nturies  England  and  of  parents  lawfully  married.    B^ 


eldi*TK'<l  while  thi^M.'  cones  were  pntdnc#d.     If  the  statute*  they  should  be  Instructed 

We  p»  htu'k  to  the  period  of  the  ori(;in  of  the  clothed  in  some  coarse  unifunn,  but  w 

o1dv«t  ainon^r  tlu-ni,  the  long  »«-ries  of  the  strati-  of  these  jNiintM  are  the  statutes  adhered  Uk.    X 

fieil  lava  l^edi  of  the  \  al  dvl  liore  lie  beneath  email  sum  of  £6  or  £7  fier  annum  is  rbamd  la 

the^.*,  and  utluT  K*rics  of  more  ancient  cones  the  parents  of  every  fi»nndation  scholar  «  bo  art 

still  are  fouml  liiirii*d  umler  thc^  strata  which  able  to  pay  it     Everv  year  the  IS  bead  bo^ 

iloHeil  around  aiid  (H>nceale<l  them  fmm  v'ww,  are  put  on  the  n>ll  of  King's  cuSkga,  bol  00^ 

**  In  the  tUe|»  Motions  of  the  Val  del  Ikive  notli-  tinue  at  Eton  until  there  is  a  vacmncyor 

im;  Mvini  t«>  indicate  that  tho  anciiut  lava  cur-  su|ierannuated.     At  King's  nillegtr  the 

rt'Ut*  i-xi'itMK-*!  in  dimeuMons  thow  of  miMlem  are  maintained  fh«e  of  eipense.  andaflrrSy 

tinir«:  and  t!u-re  are  abundant  pnMif«  that  the  they  nucceed  to  fellowihips.     On  an  avrnigBi 

c«>untK^«  U.iU  of  M»Iid  ruck  and  scoria*  w  vro  acru-  scholan  g«^  to  K  ing*s  college  yeariv.    Thcrt  m% 

inulati'd,  nsnow,in  Bueee»>niun.   On  the  grounds  aim  S  scholarships  at  ICert on  ctAlcge,  Oxfcfi^ 

therefore  already  explained,  we  must  infer  that  fur  foundation  achulan  who  are  nut  ckctad  far 


ETRUBIA  815 

Cng^  ecdlege*    These  latter  are  called  portuh  mffia),  renowned  for  one  of  the  great  victories 

Mte,  or  b]r  oormption,  postmasters.    In  1842  ofiIannibal,tbeyadimonis(Ba8sano),  theVoM- 

Prinea  Albert  inaUtoted  an  annnol  prize  of  £50  niensis  (Bolsena),  and  the  Sabatinus  (Brocciano.) 

§at  prafieienpj  in  the  modem  languages.    The  Of  its  mountains,  the  Ciminios  (Monte  di  Yi- 

laiyw'  number  of  Etoniana  are  not  on  the  fonn-  terbo)  and  Soracte  (Monte  di  San  Oreste)  are 

datwov  and  are  called  oppidans.    Thej  do  not  often  mentioned.    The  testimony  of  ancient 

board  in  the  college.     The  annual  expenses  writers,  and  late  discoveries  of  antique  monu- 

of  an  oppidan  amount  to  about  £150  or  £200.  ments,  comprising  walk,  cloac€B,  tombs  adorned 

Tho  Ml  Ibnn  is  the  highest  in  the  school,  and  is  with  sculptures,  vases,  coins,  &c.,  prove  that 

imitod  in  nmnber  to  22.  Of  these  the  10  highest  Etruria  was  inhabited  by  a  civilized  and  cultivate 

an  t^lad  monitors.    The  head  boy  is  called  ed  people  long  before  the  foundation  of  Home. 

*tha  eaptain.**  The  classes  are  divided  between  They  were  cfuled  Etrusci  or  Tusci  by  the  Ro- 

tta  lowir  and  upper  school.  *  There  are  a  head  mans,  Tyrrheni  or  Tyrseni  by  the  Greeks.  Their 

MMlar  and  a  lower  master,  12  assistant  masters  national  name  was  Rasena.    They  were  re- 

fti  tiba  tqppar  school  and  4  in  the  lower  school,  garded  as  autochthones  by  some  of  the  ancient 

taida  a  mathematical  master.    There  are  also  historians,  and  by  Herodotus  as  descendants  of  a 

■Milin  of  the  French,  German,  and  Italian  Ian-  colony  from  Lydia,  led  there  by  Tyrscnus,  son 

fMML    The  course  of  instruction  is  almost  of  Atys,  an  ancient  king  of  that  country.    The 

wbdlf  dassical ;  mathematics  and  the  modem  authenticity  of  this  story,  however,  though  cor- 

kagugaa  are  only  studied  in  extra  hours.    The  roborated  by  Dionysius,  is  rendered  donbtfol 

■nal  ^aetiooa  take  place  in  the  last  days  of  hj  the  circumstance  that  Xanthus,  the  national 

M|f  avaiT  year.    At  the  elections  of  1858,  the  historian  of  Lydia,  ignores  both  the  expedition 

Md  nnmbor  of  collegers  and  oppidans  was  757,  and  the  name  of  tibe  prince  its  leader.    The  re- 

himgnk  increase  of  26  over  the  year  previous^  lation  of  Herodotus  is  now  generally  believed  to 

ii  ITM,  at  which  period  the  school  was  very  have  been  one  of  those  mythic^  legends  in 

WQiparoioa,  the  number  of  boys  amounted  to  516.  which  the  earliest  history  of  the  ancient  nations 

na  falnek  hat  and  the  white  neckerchief  are  is  wrapped,  and  to  have  represented  the  com- 

diitingiilBhin(^  marks  of  an  Eton  boy's  costume,  mon  Pelasgian  origin  of  the  primitive  inhabi- 

Iba  ayatem  of  fagging,  by  which  the  boys  in  tants  of  Lydia  and  Etruria.    iBut  Uiere  is  suffi- 

iba  low«r  selMxd  are  subject  to  the  orders  of  cient  ground  to  believe  that  these  Pelasgian 

tba  mambera  of  the  6th  form,  is  in  full  vigor  at  Etruscans,  the  relatives  of  the  Umbrians,  Osci, 

fitan.    The  Eton  montem  was  a  peculiar  cere-  Sicnli,  and  other  ancient  Italian  tribes,  received 

Bonyy  Ibmierly  biennial,  but  after  1759  held  a  part  of  their  culture,  which  became  the  source 

triennially  on  whit-Tuesday,  and  discontinued  of  that  of  the  Romans,  by  subsequent  importa- 

riaca  1844.    On  this  occasion  the  boys  marched  tions  from  the  countries  of  the  East,  from 

la  procession  about  1^  m.  to  an  elevation  on  the  Egjrpt,  Phoenicia,  or  Asia  Minor.     According 

Btfb  road  called  Salt  hill,  under  the  lead  of  the  to  Mr.  Layard,  several  representations  on  the 

boy  of  the  foundation  scholars  as  captain.  Etruscan  monuments  bear  no  little  resemblance 

tfiay  spent  the  day,  partook  of  a  bountiftd  to  the  lately  discovered  works  of  the  Assyrians. 

and  dinner,  with  music  and  various  The  influence  of  Grecian  art  and  civilization 

and  collected  toll  from  all  spectators  upon  the  Etruscans  is  evident,  and  it  can  easily 

aid  passers-by.    The  scene  was  vbited  by  great  be  proved  that  it  continued  to  be  exercised  even 

■^bcra  of  people,  and  even  sometimes  by  the  at  the  period  which  followed  the  foundation 

ngral  fiunily,  and  the  contributions,  called  salt,  of  Rome.    It  is  now  generally  supposed  that 

en  known  to  exceed  £1,000.    After  de-  the  Rasena  immigrated  from  the  north,  probably 

expenses,  the  remainder  was  paid  over  from  Rhretia,  now  the  Tyrol,  and  subdued  the 

eaptain,  who  in  1847  was  indemnified  by  more  ancient  Pelasgians,  Etruscans,  Tuscans,  or 

nlbrhbloss  by  the  omission  of  the  cere-  Tyrrhenians,  with  whom   they  were    finally 

Among  the  celebrated  men  educated  blended  into  one  powerful  and  flourishing  na- 

may  be  mentioned  John  Hales,  the  poet  tion.    In  Etruria  they  formed  a  confederacy  of 

r.  Sir  Robert  Walpole,  Harley,  carl  of  Ox-  12  cities  with  adjacent  districts,  which  are  sup- 

ftrl.  Lord  Bolin^roke,  Earl  Oamden,  the  earl  posed  to  have  been  the  following :  Csere  (now 

if  Ohalham,  the  Hon.  Robert  Boyle,  Lord  Lyt-  Cerveteri,  Old  CsQreX  Tarquinii,  in  Roman  his- 

ly  tbo  poet  Grav,  Horace  Walpole,  Stee-  tory  the  suburb  of  the  Tarquins,  Rusellsa  (Ro- 

tbe  editor  of  Shakespeare.  Fox,  Canning,  selle,  remarkable  for  its  monuments),  Yetolonia 

ann|iiiM  of  Wellesley,  the  duke  of  Welling-  (Torre  Yecchia),  Yolaterne  (Yolaterra),  known 

Hannr  Hallam,  and  Lord  Derby.  as  a  watering  place,  Arrotium  (Arezzo),  Cor« 

IBURIA,  or  TusoiA  (called  by  the  Greeks  tona    (Cotrone),    Perusia   (Perugia),    Yolsinii 

fhrAsMidV*  diviaion  of  ancient  Italy,  bounded  (Bolsena),  Falerii  TFalari),  known  by  the  siege 

'Kbv  the  Tyrrhenian  sea,  and  separated  on  the  of  Camillns,  Yeii  (Isola  Farnese),  the  neighbor 

K^  from  Lignria  by  the  river  Macro,  N.  E.  by  and  long  rival  of  Rome,  taken  by  Camillns 

i  Apwmfaiea  from  Cispadine  Gaul,  E.  and  S.  by  after  a  siege  of  10  yeare  at  the  beginning  of  the 

^jnbar  from  Umbria  and  Latiuin.    It  was  a  4th  century  B.  C,  and  Clusinm  (Chiusi),  the 

wen  cultivated  country.    Its  chief  seat  of  King  Poraena.    Other  important  places 

I  the  Tiber  and  the  Amus  (now  Amo) ;  of  Etruria  were :  Piste  (Pisa),  founded  accord- 

ThrasymenQs(nowlakeofPe*  ing  to  a  legend  by  wandering  companions  of 


nSOBIA  EIBCBCAV  LUmUlflB 

Keiior  from  TSm  la  ESi ;  FmoIa  (FtooleX  la  a  kind  oi      ^  di 

Mir  which  CstiliDe  was  defettod,  es  R  C. ;  peu      rei    ▼     tkiBi 

Plopokmia,  ksowii  for  iU  eoim ;  Luiia,  Void,  111111  ao.    Frwmtn  abo  €otmt  fm  tha  Mm^ 

Ae.    Berond  the  fimits  of  their  country  tbej  of*    leofthecopfcderHodttM^' 

WMiMMd  the  land  on  hoCh  ddct  of  the  Po^  <      r  animporteDt  danLr- 

mxn  the  Tldno  to  Bolona,  celled  bj  them  w     dof  tbehiitorxof  E 

Fdsiiia.    Thie  coiuiti7f  which  they  eonqoered  t<      nrice  before  and  aei 

at  the  tune  of  their  immigration  into  Italy,  or  of  Rome.    Through  the 

riiortly  after,  end       <di  waa  divided  into  It  wcro  Etraaeana,  they  bmt  have  < 

eqnal  districtai  wm  1  fr      \h  kind  of  dominion  over  tliair  yo 

bytheChMda.    Thejnwj  aaaome  modem  eritieaaappoaau 

Cornea,  lira  (Elba),  anu  m  1       i^        mum  of  Cliainm,  who  made  war  on 

they  are  fomoaed  to  h»T«        udd^wwotfl  raatoratkwof  TarqninthePron^ 

B.  C.)  a  coofode  w  d      of  £t        .  Bomana  to  a  hnmiliating  traa^. 

Their  navy  waa  pvv  di  had  ]  ome  gained  peace  from  Um 

at  a  leijf  early  permu j  ■  wkvdu       nu  end  war  with  another 

attack  npon  the  Argo,  the  ahip  oi  tiie  athv-  t*      [486  R  CX    Thia  war, 

nanta,  by  Tyrrhenian  marinera.    Their  eommer-  h«      icaa,  laited  for  90  year%  and 

dal  Tcetda  Tiaitcd  the  eaatem  ahocea  of  the  Uof  theEtmaeaD 

If editerranean.    The  inhabitanta  of  Obto  were  atraetkin  of  the 

diraeded  aa  piratea.    The  growth  of  their  com-  1      0  iperiod  by  freonent» 

naerce,  aa  well  aa  of  their  power  on  land  and  ime      incwdona  or  the  I 

aea,  waa  followed  by  a  rapid  derdopment  of  of       Samniteanponita* 

indoitry  and  art,  rdlnement  and  laznry,  in  their  ind  by  the  threataning 

dtiea.    Thdr  coina  in  bronae,  their  nraa  and  ra  nc^borai  the  Ganki 

aeolptnreai  are  proofii  of  their  great  proilclency  ▼«««  of  the  latter  nndar  Pfennig  tta 

In  the  arte;  the  frequently  ooenning  repreaen-  ireat  waa  for  aome  time  the  bom  ' 

tatlona  of  feetire  entertainmenta,  gamea,  raeei^  st         Etruria  and  the  land  af  Ika 

and  dancea,  accompanied  by  nraaie,  prove  their  Ti      waa  however  aooa  pamad  hf 

love  of  recreation,  no  donbt  foatered  by  the  mkwvra  of  VeU  and  FalerU,  and  the  two 

n^dneaa  of  thdr  beaatiftd  dimate.    They  aba  fooght  near  the  Vaffimonlan  laka»  Igr 

bad  nationd  aaNmbliea  for  religiona  and  politi-  FaUna  (810)  and  Pnblina  OotMliaa  ~ 

cd  parpoMfl,  celebrated  at  the  temple  of  Vol-  (M8X  Anally  broke  the  power  of  Sbn 

tmnna  in  VoMniL    Their  religion  reaemblcd  hi  aocid  rektion  to  Rome,  into  which  It « 

most  of  \tM  conceptiona  the  polytheism  of  the  880  1).  C,  waa  changed  after  the  aoetd  war«  la 

Greeks  afMl  Romans;  it  appears,  however,  to  have  reward  for  ita  fiddity,  into  Roman  dtiaa 

been  deeper,  gloomier,  and  leas  fanciful  than  Boon  afterward  Etnuria  saflered  greatly 

that  of  the  former.    The  names  of  many  of  the  revenge  taken  by  Bylla  on  the  | 

their  deities,  who  were  divided  into  higher  or  Marina  in  ita  citiea.  Whole  diatrieU 

hidden  ami  other  gods,  and  were  believi^  to  re-  as  confiscated  estatea  to  the  veCeraaa  of  the 

aide  in  the  remoieet  north — a  notion  cnrrent  tator,  who  afterward  became  the  aecc 

among  the  A«yrtana  and  other  Asiatic  naUona  of  Catiline  (68-82).    Octavianos,  too» 

^saiah  xiv.  13) — seem  to  mark  the  transition  military  roloniea  in  Etmria.    The  kiatarv  tf 

from  the  Grecian  to  the  Roman  forms.    Tina  modem  Etmria,  a  kingdom  created  by  Kfl 

(Jnpitcr),  by  s(»ne  critics  compared  with  Zip,  leon  in  1801,  and  given  to  Looia,  ctowa 

the  root  of  Z«vf,  Zjidoc,  preaidea  over  the  conn-  of  Parma,  raled  after  hia  death  hy  hia 

dl  of  12  e^menim  or  cemj^/lmi,  prohablv  per-  Maria  Lnisa  of  8pdn  aa  regent^  aad  in  Mf 

aonifications  of  the  IS  coostdlations  of  the  n>-  annexed  to  France  aa  a  province,  bdoaf 

diac.    They  had  lunar  and  aoUr  divisions  of  of  Tuscany  (a  name  d^vcd  from  the 

time,  and  cycl«a  of  more  than  a  centorv.    Of  Tnacia).    Among  the  nnmerooa  writara 

their  mimeruos  sacred  books,  the  principd  of  have  treated  of  the  antionitlea  of  Etfwl^  the 

which  were  believed  to  contain  the  revclationa  most  instructive  are  LanaC  Inghirami,  Niihihi^ 

of  tlie  demon  Ta^res.  the  so  cdled  Acherontic  OttfHed  Mailer,  Her,  WadMnath*  H 

taught  how  to  propitiate  the  gods,  to  delay  (ate,  Btenb,  Dorow,  MicakC  Abeken,  6eeki» 

and  to  deify  the  sod.    Many  of  their  religiona  Gerhardt,  Bnnaen,  and  Witte. 

ritea,  those  of  augury  for  instance,  were  ad^ited       ETRrBCAX  I AKGUAGE,  the 

by  the  K(nnan^  who  also  Imitated  their  gamea,  the  ancient  Etmriana.    Dkwydaa  of 

Inidgnm,  and    triurophd   distinctiona.     Their  nasana  and  Bochart  renrd  thia  Eirwei 

priests,  cdled  infumtog,  appear  at  the  same  time  aborigind  language :  Frfrei  makca  k  CMtk 

as  heads  of  noble  familiea,  and  aa  kings  or  Ciampi  and  X  KoUar  Blavoole,  Mieali  i' 

ruWri  of  cities.    They  formed  the  senate  of  the  nese;  L.  Land  derivea  it  ftom  the  Gieak 

confederacy,  which  seems  to  have  consisted  of  JjUio,  and  holda  that  the  Umbrk;   Val 

loosely  connected  independent  and  sovereign  Oscic,  and  Samnitie  are  dialecta  of  it ;  (X  Mil* 

members,  at  a  later  period  raled  by  magistratea  ler  thinks  it  akin  to  the  Greek;  atheta  Arnkm 

elKMcn  annndly.    The  common  people  were  it  from  Rluatia;  and  finally.  Land.  PitmaalH; 

dependent  upon  the  pricatlyariatooratiofrmilMa  and  othen^  tmffjpom  it  to  ta  Himlrtat  a  kn^ 


ETRUSCAN  LANGUAGE                                             817 

iSb/aH*  which  in  1858  J.  G.  Stickel  demonstra*  histriOy  one  who  gesticulates,  an  actor;  hsna 
ted  to  be  the  tratb.  Its  alphabet  consists  of  (colored),  a  tonic ;  Zt/cumo  (possessed  by  a  spirit), 
SI  letters,  almost  coincident  in  form  with  the  a  Tuscan  prince ;  lituu$  (bent),  staff  of  tbe 
andent  Greek  letters,  written  fh>m  right  to  left;  augurs ;  2ar«,  protecting  divinity ;  mx,  daugh- 
bat  corresponding  in  value  to  those  of  the  He-  ter ;  qil  (rolling,  swift),  year  (some  read  riL 
bre  V,  though  not  naed  as  numeral  signs.  The  owing  to  the  identity  of  the  sign  fur  both  q  and 
dement  d  and  the  Hebrew  iameeh  are  wanting ;  r  in  the  great  Perusian  iuscription) ;  d:alt  lion ; 
f  and  the  Hebrew  Uads  seldom  occur ;  but  the  tla^  lamb ;  t/<,  altered  into;  tiMh  JU,  bites  ter- 
«i  taken  from  the  Greek  Y,  exists,  though  want-  ribly ;  ^eti^  I  rest,  my  peace;  teuflU^  thou  risest 
iDg  in  the  Helnew.  The  Semitic  aspirates  and  fire-like.  Of  the  9  inscriptions  explained  by 
gnttorab  are  much  softened,  and  consonants  Stickel,  the  greatest  is  that  on  the  square  aepnl- 
■dt  Into  their  kindred  vowels,  the  latter  being  chral  stone  discovered  in  1822  and  preserved  at 
Boolljwritten  instead  ofbeing  indicated  by  their  Perugia.  It  has  24  lines  in  front  and  21  on 
£Mritie  pointa.  Gnttnral  sounds  are  not,  how-  one  of  the  other  sides,  containing  658  letters. 
•fir,  ^together  abolished.  T  takes  the  place  It  is  a  monument  of  the  expulsion  of  12  and 
^H  and  cognate  letters  are  freely  interchanged,  afterward  of  10  JSatne  (Etruscans)  by  the 
We  anlgcnn  some  examples  of  Greek  and  Latin  Yeltinas  from  the  Apennines  into  the  lower 
wvds  in  their  Etmscan  forms:  TarchnOy  Meurva^  country,  and  of  the  occupation  of  the  lands  so 
iUii^  PuUuke^  EUhmUr&y  Utuse,  IttUy  Hatri^  vacated  by  the  Cleim  (ausu),  about  the  time 
Abl.  lor  Tarqninins,  Minerva,  Menelaus,  Poly-  of  the  foundation  of  Home.  That  on  tlie  pal- 
diw,  Alexandroa,  OdysseusL  Idus,  Adria,  &o.  lium  of  a  man  *'  deprived  of  eyes"  by  a  Clusian 
Tbe  orthography  is  more  tji^  than  that  of  the  about  the  time  of  Porsena  (506  B.  C.) ;  the 
itter andent  Italian  languages.  Pliny  says  that  tablet  represents  "an  old  man  being  tied  to  a 
Iha  Sftmacan  writing  was  prior  to  the  building  tree,  preparatory  to  being  flayed  "  alive.  Of 
of  Borne,  bat  its  origin  is  not  yet  ascertained,  aeveralhundredshortfnneral  inscriptions  known, 
L  Boorget  ^soovered  16  epigraphic  letters,  and  17  have  been  published  as  proofe  of  the  Semitio 
lined  the  value  of  several  of  them ;  Lanzi  character  of  the  language ;  some  of  Uiem  are 
S  more,  and  Montani  one.  There  are  few  biliogual,  witli  a  Latin  part  giving  the  name  of 
which  are  analogous  to  the  Greek  or  the  deceased,  while  the  Tu»»m  expresses  such 
the  terminal «  being  dropped,  and  e  being  sentences  as :  "  While  we  depart  to  naught  our 
frequent  ending ;  thus,  Pele^  Tute^  are  essence  ascends ;"  *^We  rise  IIko  a  kite,'^  £c  Out 
for  Peleus,  Tydsoos.  The  language  is  of  10  mementoes  of  funeral  sacrifices  we  quote 
poor  in  particles  and  simple  in  construction,  the  following :  *^  Raise  the  soul  as  fire  I  it  de- 
There  are  few  words  which  cannot  be  reduced  parts  for  ever ;"  ^^  We  ascend  to  our  ancestors.*' 
to  Hebrew,  Chaldaic,  or  Arabic  originals.  But  Beside  sepulchral  urns,  there  are  inscriptions  on 
Ibir  of  the  numeral  words  and  figures  are  yet  candelabn^  drinking  cups,  and  other  utensils, 
known,  viz. :  5  ihem$\  written  with  the  invert-  all  of  great  antiquity,  testifying  the  efficiency 
ei  rign  of  50  (hemsim),  which  is  the  initial  of  of  the  Tuscans  in  the  arts,  independent  of  the 
ttii  word,  somewhat  modified  to  form  a  Latin  Greek  imitations  of  their  works.  Some  of  these 
Y;  10  (U$enf  from  a  Sanscrit  root),  written  monuments  have  been  found  in  Campania,  some 
wik  the  sign  of  t,  a  cross,  whence  the  Latin  X  in  Etruria  proper,  and  in  other  countries  for- 
farif  this  be  two  Ys  combined) ;  100  (fat^  merly  inhabited  by  Etrurians.  One  occurs  as  far 
obvie  tody,  written  with  the  sign  of  t  final ;  N.  E.  as  Corinthia,  on  a  mossy  rock  in  a  forest 
ad  1,000  (ak€p)y  written  with  the  sign  of  b.  near  Wurumbach ;  it  runs  thus :  Iu>c*e'tiuo\fia 
The  ibllowing  are  specimens  of  proper  nouns  :  mirio8*igtib  (^^  Bring  hither  the  weary  at  seeing 
(rock,  castle,  town),  whence  Greek  this  writing ^^).  This  inscription  appears  to  l^ 
Alri  (hedged  in,  court,  wall,  conflu-  of  later  date  than  any  other.  Of  inscriptions  on 
whence  Adria,  atrium^  and  moat  likely  coins  there  are  but  few.  Under  the  Roman 
M^maq  (wall-strong,  fort-builder)  ;  Mantuha  'emi>erors  the  haruspices  used  Latin  versions  of 
(vat  plaoe),  whence  Mantua,  one  of  Uio  12  cities  Etruscan  rituals,  buch  were  the  libri  Etnuci^ 
wCi^iadane  Etruria,  wliich  was  the  last  to  f^  Etru9cm  diseiplinat  (religion) ;  rituals  on  the 
iMotbe  power  of  the  Oelts ;  Agylla  (roundness),  manner  of  building  cities,  temples^  and  altars ; 
klv  Care  (qere^  city) ;  Tarehna  (roadstead,  on  the  sanctity  of  walls  and  gates;  on  the  tri' 
wway  for  ships).  The  tennination  a2,  taken  btu^  euricBy  military  order,  &o. ;  /ulgurales  and 
ftr  a  petronymic  sign,  signifies  ^^  risen,  rising  ;^'  haruspieiniy  and  the  prodigia  ;  Tagetici,  on  tlie 
ft kiMUid  in  many  proper  nouns,  such  as  Ceic*  ceremonies  {cmremonia^  from  Ccere  or  Agylla) 
mL  GlUnal  {Cilnim  gentUy  to  which  Ma)cenas  of  tlie  earth-born  sod  Tages ;  aeherunticij  on 
Monged,  a  Hocnatial  on  his  mother's  side),  conciliation  with  tne  gods,  &c.  There  were 
Uonl,  I^rthal,  &c. ;  ta  final  is  supposed  to  de-  also  ancient  pastoral  and  augural  songs.  Yarro 
tiiename  of  a  married  woman  by  modifying  preserved  some  fragments,  and  mentions  Etrus- 
oi  the  husband  (like  the  German  inn  and  can  tragedies  by  Volumnius.  The  scoffing  and 
BftTic  a),  as  Lecne-io,  the  wife  of  Licin-  jocular  Fescennine  (so  called  from  Fescen- 
Amoog  Etmscan  words  and  phrases  are  nium,  a  city  of  Etruria)  and  Satumalian  verses 
(ilti^  dayX  whence  idus,  day  of  the  full  were  fdso  derived  from  the  Tuscans.  Cicero, 
(hidden),  God ;  nepos  (greediness),  Aulus  Gellius,  Csecina,  Nigidius  Figulus,  and 
iiiter  (giddy,  staggering),  whence  some  later  Bomans  translated  and  explained 


818  ETTT  EUCLID 

Tarions  Etnucan  boo1c^  of  which   we  have  he  lie,  or  not  f    Br  the  hrpoChefia.  be  lien 

but  fnigmcnU. — In  addition  tu  tlie  atithoritiet  Then  ho  does  not  lie,  for  wliat  he  eayt  b  troe. 

tncnlioned  ab«>ve  and  in  the  article  on  ETRrnu,  T)iu<t  he  Hen  and  does  not  lie  at  the  NHoe  tim^ 

■ee  (iori,  D\feM  delV  a\fah€io  degli  antiehi  Tu*-  which  in  contradictonr.** 
eani  (Florence,  1742) ;  J.  C.  Amadiizzi,  Aipha-        EUKl'LUS,  an  Athenian  poet  of  the  mfaldk 

hetum  Veterum  E(ru$eontm {Home^  1775);  (r.  B.  conicdv,  flourished  about  876  B.  C.     He  wroU 

Venniglioli,  Saggio  di  emgftture,  dec.  (1824);  104  playis  chiefly  on  niTthologicalmhf*^'^  ■"■■7 

J.  Kollar,  Stan>iUiliaSlafj«in9ka{\\eiin^  1853);  of  them  containinjr  |>arodic»  of  p— iaitea  frn« 

'iLommfeti^  yord-Etru*ki$cht  Alphahete  ;\^ix\^'  the  tragedians.     The  fragmenta  of  hU  worka 

ater,  De  Etruria  Regally  (Florence,  1723-*4);  which  remain  have  been  edited  bj  Meiaekei 

'H'inckelmaon  (on  art),  Uhden,  and  Dr.  Frick,  and  are  marked  br  a  pecnliarlj  pare  dicficiOL 
in  archvlogical  ond  philological  periodicalii.  ErCHARIST  (Or.  tv^opitfrui,  thankflfriviBrX 

ETTY,  William,  an  Englisli  painter,  bom  in  a  name  frequently  given  to  the  Micrament  of  UM 

York,  March  10, 1787,  died  there,  Nov.  18, 1849.  LonVs  Kupner,  either  In  allanion  to  the  pi 

lie  wai  the  K>n  of  a  baker,  and  at  the  age  of  12  with  which  tlie  early  Chri«tiani  naed  to 

waa  apprenticed  to  a  printer  at  Hull,  with  whom  brate  it,  or  Itecaune  at  ita  inatitation  our  Savii 

be  remained  7  years.    In  1807  he  was  admitted  **  gave  thank^*^  in  blessing  the  bread  and  wi 

a  student  in  the  royal  academy,  and  waa  also  a  (See  Ix)BD*s  SrppBa.) 
private  iiupil  of  Sir  Thomas  luiwrence  for  a        ELX'LID«   the  most  celebrated  of 

Tear.     lie  reraatcdly  sent  pictures  to  the  ex-  geometer^  flou  riidied  at  Alexandria,  In  the.  _^, 

Libitions  of  the  royal  academy  and  the  Brit-  of  the  first  Ptolemy,  in  the  8d  ccntary  R  C 

Ish  gallery,  which  were  rejected.     In  much  The  Arabic  historians  give  many  aoantlieBtiea^ 

deqwndeiicy  he  sought  the  advice  of  his  old  ed  particulars  of  his  life ;  but  it  Is  only  certata 

master,  who  told  him  that  he  had  a  good  eye  that  he  dwelt  first  in  Greece  and  then  ia  Egyii^ 

for  color,  but  was  lamentably  deficient  in  all  and  probable  that  he  atndied  at  Atheiu  oadcr 

other  rcitpecUi.     Profiting  by  this  hint,  Etty  the  Fucce^v>rs  of  Plato,  and  then  paaacd  ofw 

worked  harder  than  erer,  and  in  1811  had  the  to  Alexandria.    There  he  founded  the  BMKbe^ 

satisfaction  to  see  one  of  his  pictures  on  the  acad-  matical  school,  and  waa  remarkable  k»  his  ani 

emy*H  walU.   By  degrees  he  succeeded  in  build-  In  science,  his  affection  for  leame<l  men,  and  kit 

ing'up  a  reputation,  and  in  1821  his  ^  Cleopatra*8  gentle  and  modest  deportment.  Ftolemy  haviag 

Arrival  at  (*ilioia,^  in  which  the  nude  fenule  asked  him  if  geometry  could  not  be  made  easier, 

fonn  was  de[>icted  with  groat  correctness,  and  he  made  the  celebrate^l  answer  tliat  there  w« 

witli  a  voluptuous  glow  of  color,  brought  him  no  royal  mad  to  getimetry.    To  appreciate  the 

into  considerable  notice.    In  1S22  he  went  to  merit  of  Euclid,  the  state  of  geometry  befcre 

Italy,  and  spent  many  months  in  the  study  of  him  should  Ih*  coni«i<lere<].     Prorlus  givr*  the 

the  Venetian  c(»Iori>ts.     In  1H4S  an  exhibition  iniprohahlo  legend   that  the  Egypt ian*  wrr« 

of  his  work !»  wad  opened  in  I^>ndon,  prominent  obii^cil  to  invont  geometry  in   order  to  find 

among  which  were  the  9  great  paintings  which  lie  again  the  iMtundaricK  of  their  fi«-hK  rffai-ed  ly 

con4idore<l  the  trinin[tliH  of  1 1  is  artistic  career,  and  tlie  inundatiiin**  of  the  Nile.     Thence  it  was 

in  wliifh  he  savHlieaime*!  "to  puiut  Htme  p*eat  brou^^ht  to  (in-ece  by  Tlialo^,  bnl  it  was  fint 

moral  on  the  heart.'*  Thvy  comprise  **  The  Com-  rai^-d  to  a  liU'ral  jsrit-nre,  and  applit^l  lo  the 

bat,**  the  3  **  Jnditli**  pictures,  ^  iWnaiah,  I)avid*s  H>lutiiin  of  ^[K'culative and  thi-oretirol  proMeuk 

Chief  Captain/*  **  rivM^eA  and  the  Sirens,*^  and  by  Pythapirni.     HipfNtrrates  woa  the  fi.*«(  lo 

the  8  pictnn-!!  of '*«)ofln  of  Arc."     Etty  is  con-  write  on   cKinonti*.      Plato,  witlmut  writiag 

Mdere<l  i»ne  of  tho  rhiof  artistit  of  the  modem  j'artioularlr  u|Min  ge<jmetry,  contributed  moeh 

English  Kchiiol.     His  life  has  In'en  written  by  to  it.^  prii;rri*^s  by  his  use  of  the  analytic  mrth- 

A.  <ii]rhrist  (2  vols.  8vo.,  Ix»ndon,  Ib^o.)  cnI,  and  by  the  mathematical  »t,^]e  <if  hisbauk\ 

ETVMOU.KiY.     Si*e  I^anocagk.  and  new  thif»rfniH  wore  adde«l  by  nameft'os 

EriUE.V.     Si'C  Ni<niop<»XT.  b»>s4.T  philo*4)phiT!«.     At  the  advent  of  Eorlid, 

ErHrLlI)F..S  or  Mii.rrr!««  Iho  lie^t  known  Hum-thing  hail  Ik'ou  written  on  propi^rtioQ,  ia- 

of  the  di^eiplfs  of  Euclid  of  Mcgaro.  llouri^hi^il  comnuMiiiurablf*^  bn'i.  Mtlidii,  aucl  perhaps  <^*iiie 

aUiut  the  in:«Mlo  of  tho4th  Ci*ntury  H.  1*.     His  K'<*tion:«;    and  the  inifxirtoiit  projierty  of  the 

life  wa^  a  ^trii/i;le  airainM  AriMotle,  in  wliii-h  right-anglc«l  trian;;le  had  Uvn  di«o*vcr%HL     It 

by  a  captious  ln^'ir  hv  Mmght  tu  pri-vail  again -t  wa;*  thv  i:li»ry  «if  Kuclid  to  unite  in  a  »inglr  S'vk 

gfMHl  M-nM*.     A  )iarti<v:in  of  the  Mctroric  princi-  all  the  «liM*<ivcrics  «if  hi*  priMec«'i«« ir^  and  ta 

plt\  tliat  ihtTe  is  III  it  1  lint;  real  but  what  i<*  ab  add  several  new  oncji  of  hif»  own.     He  »qry  awed 

Ways  «tm\  sinipb*,  and  idcnticil,  ho  imnnMiately  all  other  p'omcti-rsfif  nnti<)uity  in  the  citfarrx* 

found  an  advi-r*>ary  in  thi*  founder  i*i  \\w  creat  pnMtifm  of  his  thiHin-m^  and  the  rigid  «>rt!cr  c/ 

c«inti  iii)M»rary  m-!iim»1  whi<'h  uiaile  ex|N*rienre  liii^denionMratioiii*.    Tlie**  Eh* mint «'*i<f  Euclid 

the  Com  lit  ion  «if  iM'tcnce.     lie  attacke«l  the  {KTi*  K-long  iMith  to  ge«iinetry  and  arithrm.'tic.     They 

IMitetic  dtM'trine,  like  Zeno  «if  Kleo,  by  Mrivin;;  conM««t  <if  Hi  UMtks  written  by  Euclid,  and  2  « tb« 

to  hhow  that  there  i*  none  tif  our  ex|>eriment.il  ers  written  probably  by  H.^pricUt;  andthrv  may 

notion*  which  iIin'*  not  give  plnr^*  to  in«i>lvaMo  W  divided  into  4  part*,  of  which  the  l»t,  ri  cd- 

diffi«-nltie«.     To  thiftend  he  inxentiil  lii»  fanuius  prisinjrtlie  tir*>t  A  iMMtks,  treat*  i>f  the  pn>|«rrtMa 

MiphiMUN  of  which  the  foIl«»wing  is  a  sjH-einien :  of  plane  tip) re*,  and  prv««'nt«  the  the<iry  f>f  pr\>> 

^^olue  one  lii*^  and  says  that  he  lies.     Dues  |*urtiun8;  theSdgi%'cs,inthcSft.>liOwia^t»ii^<k\ 


XUOLID  EUDOOIA                   819 

tiie  general  properties  of  nnmbers;  t])e8d,con-  It  does  not  follow,  however,  that  there  is  bat 
asting  of  the  10th  book,  is  the  development  of  a  single  being  and  a  single  sort  of  good,  for  unity 
all  the  power  of  the  preceding  ones,  and  is  oc-  may  bo  foand  contained  in  various  things.  £u- 
copied'with  a  carious  and  profound  theory  of  did  expressly  taught  that  in  spite  of  their  unity, 
ineommensaraUe  quantities ;  and  the  remain-  being  and  good  clothe  themselves  in  different 
iBg  booka  are  od  the  elements  of  solid  geometry,  forms,  present  themselves  under  different  points 
and  were  so  modi  studied  among  the  rlatonists  of  view,  and  receive  different  names,  as  wis- 
aa  to  receive  the  name  of  the  rlatonio.  The  dom,  God,  intelligence,  and  others.  Euclid  also 
best  known  of  the  treatises  of  Euclid,  after  the  anticipated  Aristotle  in  distinguishing  the  act 
*^Elenient8,^  is  the  "  Data.^'  By  this  name  are  from  the  power,  and  resolved  according  to  his 
derignated  certain  known  quantities  which  by  ideas  of  being  the  relation  between  the  two. 
means  of  analysis  lc«d  to  the  discovery  of  other  EUDIOMETER  (6r.  tvdiay  pure  air,  and  fw 
qoantitiea  before  unknown.  One  hundred  prop-  rpop,  measure),  the  name  given  to  an  instrument 
ositiooa  are  here  collected  which  are  the  most  invented  by  Priestley  for  determining  the  pro- 
eorioos  examples  of  geometrical  analysis  among  portion  of  oxygen  in  the  air,  in  the  belief  that  on 
tbeancienta.  Newton  highly  valued  them,  and  this  depended  its  salubrity.  Many  other  instru- 
KoBUitla  styles  them  the  £rst  step  toward  trans-  ments  have  since  been  invented  for  estimating 
ctndfntal  geometry. — ^The  history  of  the  works  the  amount  of  oxygen  in  gaseous  mixtures,  and 
cf  Eodid  ia  the  history  of  geometry  itself^  both  the  name  is  retain^  for  these,  though  it  has  no 
in  Cfariatian  and  Mohtunmedan  countries,  until  longer  its  original  significance.  In  the  applica- 
iftar  the  revival  of  learning.  They  were  com-  tion  of  the  instrument  for  estimating  oxygen, 
BNnted  imon  by  Theon  and  Proclus,  and  be-  the  gas  is  made  to  unite  with  some  substance, 
cane  the  ronndation  of  mathematical  instruction  as  phosphorus,  introduced  into  the  gaseous  mix- 
in  dM  achool  of  Alexandria.  Of  the  numerous  tnre,  which  is  contained  in  the  upper  end  of  a 
adttkma  and  commentaries  among  the  Orientals,  graduated  glass  tube  inverted  over  mercury. 
that  of  Kasireddin,  a  Persian  astronomer  of  the  The  diminution  of  bulk  caused  by  the  absorption 
IMi  ee&tnry,  was  the  best  The  "Elements"  of  the  oxygen  indicates  its  quantity.  In  other 
wan  reatoied  to  Europe  by  translation  from  forms  a  known  quantity  of  hydrogen  is  intro- 
tfae  Arabic^  the  first  European  who  translated  duced  and  the  mixture  fired  by  an  electric  spark 
Ann  being  Adelard  of  Bath,  who  was  alive  in  produced  by  means  of  two  wires  being  melted  into 
IISO,  and  who  found  his  original  among  the  the  sides  of  the  tube  and  nearly  meeting  each 
Moors  of  Spain.  Campanus,  under  whose  name  other  within.  In  this  case  the  tube  is  made 
thtt  translation  was  printed^as  for  a  long  time  very  thick  to  withstand  the  explosion.  Every 
thcMigfat  to  be  its  author.  The  Greek  text  was  twovolumesofhydrogcn  consume  one  of  oxygen, 
firrt  pnblished  in  1533  by  Simon  Grynoeus  at  whence  the  quantity  of  the  latter  may  be  es- 
Baad,  and  in  subsequent  editions  was  corrected  timated. 

by  comparison  of  manuscripts.  Since  then  the  EUDOCIA,  originally  named  Athenais,  a 
work  has  been  published  in  a  great  variety  of  Grecian  maiden,  who  became  the  wife  of  the 
fdhiomi,  and  translated  into  all  the  European  emperor  Theodosius  II.,  born  in  Athens  about 
and  many  oriental  languages.  The  English  A.  D.  894,  died  in  Jerusalem  about  461.  She 
aduiUt]<ma  by  Simson  and  Playfair  have  been  was  instructed  by  her  father,  the  sophist  Leon- 
widdy  received  as  textbooks  in  geometry.  tinus,  in  the  religion,  literature,  and  science  of 
EUCLID  OF  MsoABA,  a  disciple  of  Socrates,  the  pagan  Greeks,  and  was  as  remarkable  for  her 
ban  about  440  B.  0.  His  first  master  was  personal  beauty  as  for  her  learning.  Leontinus 
Fmnenides ;  afterward  he  became  a  devoted  at  his  death  divided  his  property  among  his  sons, 
&mle  of  Socrates,  at  whose  death^  according  saying  that  the  merits  of  his  daughter  (to  whom 
la  Fbto,  he  was  present.  But  notwithstanding  he  left  only  100  pieces  of  gold),  which  raised 
Ui  aflSBCti<«  for  nis  second  teacher,  he  retained  her  so  much  above  her  sex,  would  be  sufficient 
ftoB  the  Eleatic  school  an  invincible  tendency  to  for  her.  Thus  disinherited,  and  having  sought 
tj^  and  it  was  said  of  him  by  Socrates  that  in  vain  from  her  brothers  a  share  in  the  paternal 
how  to  live  with  sophists,  but  not  with  heritage,  she  went  with  an  aunt  to  Constantino- 
After  the  death  of  Socrates,  his  disciples,  pie  to  solicit  the  cancelling  of  the  will.  She 
J  for  their  lives,  fled  from  Athens ;  and  at  procured  an  audience  of  Pulcheria,  sister  of  the 
MMara,  in  the  house  of  Euclid,  they  found  an  voung  emperor  Theodosius  II.,  and  regent  in 
amna  and  a  new  centre  for  their  studies,  his  name,  who  was  so  charmed  by  her  wit  and 
nto  himself  was  an  ardent  attendant  upon  beauty  that  stie  secretly  destined  Athcnais  to  be 
IWM,  who  taught  that  the  essence  of  good  the  wife  of  her  brother.  Theodosius  himself, 
VM  nii^,  nnity  so  entire  as  to  embrace  immo-  then  20  years  of  age,  was  captivated  at  the  first 

ai;  identity,  and  permanence.     Hence  the  interview,  and  Athenais  renounced  the  religion 

nla  world  has  no  moral  character  and  no  of  her  father,  was  baptized  by  the  patriarch  of 

to  good.  ^   He  taught  also  that  being  Constantinople,  from  whom  she  received  the 

I  only  in  nnity,  identity,  and  permanence,  name  of  Eudocia,  and  was  married  to  the  em- 

tiie  sensible  world  has  no  part  in  ex-  peror  in  421.    She  received  the  title  of  Augusta 

Being  and  good  are  thus  the  same  m  423,  after  having  given  birth  to  a  daughter, 

^  namely,  unity ;  good  therefore  alone  ex-  and  she  requited  the  unkindness  of  her  brothers 

fil^  amd  evil  is  but  the  absence  of  existence,  by  nuJdng  them  consuls  and  prefects.    During 


820                    EUDOXIA  EUGENE 

the  first  20  vcan  tSUsr  her  nuurUgo  Eadocia  took  part  of  tho  henrens  by  itself^  and  was  farroandcd 

lit tlo  part  in  |iuMic  airaira,  which  reniaiuod  in  the  uj  mofing  splicrea,  whoae  matoaUj  roudificd 

bandA  ut'  PuK-heria.    She  translated  \mrtB  of  the  motioDS  made  tho  orbit  of  the  planet,    lie  fink 

Old  Testaineut  into  hexameter  vcnies,  and  a  life  fixed  the  lenii^h  of  tho  year  m  adopted  in  tba 

of  Jcsaa  C'liri>t  composed  iu  rerscs  taken  fh>m  Julian  calendar  at  355}  daji,  and  intiodiietd 

Homer  is  attributed  to  her.    8lie  also  celebrated  celestial  spheres  or  globes.    In  mime  be  atodicd 

in  v«.*n>e  the  Pen^ian  victories  of  Thendusius,  and  the  namencal  relations  of  soond  according  to  tba 

Uie  legends  and  martyrdom  of  Saint  Cyprian,  rapidity  oftlie  vibration  of  the  diorda.    Inaritb- 

Shc  tttleii^^hfiupplanted  Pulcheria.  and  ruled  tho  metic  he  added  8  kinds  of  proportioii  to  tlw  t 

empire  fur  7  years,  from  443  to  450.    Her  court  kinds  known  before  him. 

was  filled  with  learned  men,  with  one  of  whom,  EUDOXUS  of  CTXicrfl»  a  Greek  naviptar 

Paulinu!*,  a  companion  of  her  early  studies  in  of  the  2d  centnry  R.  C.  Expeditions  from  E|ty|4 

Athene  she  cherished  an  intimacv  which  roused  to  India  had  for  a  time  ceased«  when  be  revived 

the  jealt>ui<y  of  her  husband,  and  Paulinus  was  them  under  the  rei^  of  Ptolemy  EocnrHcft. 

banislictl  to  Cajtpadocia,  where  ho  was  soon  His  bold  enterprise  m  seeking  the  moat  dirsel 

afterward  assawmated.    The  Eutychian  discus-  route  to  India,  to  which  ho  madu  two  Tovage^ 

aiou  was  now  voxinj;  the  church ;  Pulcheria  and  and  whence  ho  seems  to  have  been  tba  im  tm 

Euducia  ado[>tcd  different  views,  and  in  tho  al-  bring  diamonds,  and  in  attempting  to  ctrco^ 

ternate  a^'cndency  of  tho  two  partiea,  first  the  navigate  Africa  by  the  west,  caused  bim  maaj 

former  and  tiien  the  latter  was  exiled.    Eudoda  perBecution^  and  his  reputation  has  been  oo^ 

retreated  to  Jerusalem,  where,  however,  the  scored  by  the  £sbles  with  which  Nepus 

Jealousy  of  tho  einpcrur  or  tho  vindictive  spirit  Hela  soufrht  to  embellish  it. 

of  Puloiii'ria  pursued  her,  and  two  priests  who  ECFAULA.  a  p<wt  village  of  Barbnar 

shared  her  exile  were  slain.    Tho  exasperated  Ala.,  bvautifully  situated  on  the  right  bank  of 

emprcHS  inunediatdy  put  to  death  tlie  agent  of  tho  Chattahoochee  river ;  pop.  in  IMVS,  3.00flL 

the  em}»erur;  and  bving  now  stripped  of  all  the  It  stands  on  a  high  bludT,  2«)0  feet  aUive  tba 

hunori  of  hvr  rank,  ^ho  passed  the  remainder  water,  and  contains  several  churches  and  ncws- 

of  her  life  in  exercises  of  piety  and  charity,  paper  oflSces,  and  many  stores.    An  art  ire  and 

Tlie  influence  of  t>u  Simeon  8tylites  and  of  constantly  increasing  trade  is  carried  on  \j 

Euthymiu**,  another  eminent  ascetic,  induced  means  of  tho  river,  which  is  navigable  to  thW 

her  at  last  to  abandon  Eutychianism.     She  point  from  Noveinl»er  to  June.     It  is  the  pm* 

died  protesting  to  tho  last  tho  innocence  of  her  cipal  shipping  }K»int  for  the  pntducw  of  tbt 

life.  surroundmg  plantatiiinis  and  ixiK>rta  annnaBj 

EUDOXIA,  daughter  of  Thcodoslos  II;  and  about  20,0o0  bales  of  cotton. 
Eud(>ri:u  Uirii  in  Constantinople  in  422,  died  EUGENl-X  FuANrtniv  cAildl  Prince  Eornie 
al>out4'*<{.  Slio  was  married  t»i  her  cuu^in  Ya-  of  Savoy,  l»orn  in  Pari**,  C>rt.  1^,  l»i»»"l,  d.*.^  lA 
lentinian  III.,  emj>erur  of  tho  We^t,  after  whoso  Vienna,  April  21,  17o(*.  His  parents  «en^  £> 
death,  liy  the  hamls  of  cniisetaries  of  the  senator  gene  Manrice.  count  of  S<*i*>5<^n«,  a  granti!»«  uf 
Maxiiiius  .-ho  was  e<)n»truimHi  to  e««pou»o  tho  Charle^EmmanuilI.,  dtikoof  Snvi.r,  aiuMtlfa- 
lalter.  M:i\iiiiii»  hubsiquently  hod  tho  folly  to  pia  Maiuini,  one  of  the  niece- t^f  i'&rdin«l  Mar* 
reveal  ti>  hiT  the  ]>:irt  wliieli  he  hud  taken  in  tho  ariu.  lie  was  intended  f^r  tho  rhunh.  fcr 
niunlcr  cf  W.eiitiiiiun,  and  when  the  time  for  which  he  hu4l  no  ta^te,  but  dovottil  hmL««.-lf  to 
veiiu't-aniv  M-eiiie«l  to  her  to  have  come  him  in-  military  reading.  I^mi.-*  XIV.  refu-k-ni  Lima 
vited  to  l::Jv  (Mn<H*rii\  king  of  the  Vandals,  at  refrtment,  and  he  enrtiuntentl  the  rnmitr  ef 
whoM.*  upproarh  Maxinius  wasimunlered  iien-  I^ouvni;* — a  refusal  and  an  eiimity  tliat  vttv 
seri«*  (K-ii\irvd  li>*nw  to  pillafre.  and  bore  away  to  cost  France  dear.  Ho  entered  the  Au^trua 
with  him  to  Afrii  u  Kniloxia  and  her  two  daugh*  Ferviro,  and  nia«le  his  fir>t  runip.iii:n  ar»in«t  tbt 
ter^.  They  were  releasii'd  after  a  detention  of  Turkn  in  lt}Ki,  s«>  di-tinpii-hinir  hiiiiM-lf  tha!  hs 
7  year^.  durin;;  which  one  of  tho  daughters  was  was  promoted  to  tlie  command  i>f  a  draf*«4 
forrrd  t«»  iii.irry  iljo  ttm  of  lienserie.  regiment.     He  wa*  prcM-iit  at  the  hat  tie  *4  V^ 

EriK>.\rs    i-r   i'.NHii  K,    a   (irifk    natural  enna.     Furtlu-r  herviro  leil  ti>  farther  prtna* 

f>htIirMi|>h(T,   iH.rn   nliiiit  40'J,  die<l  alw^nt  356  tion,  and  he  held  the  rank  of  Inaj••^-i^•Etrai  tf 

i.  I'.     He  •'tfuliid  i:iidor  Arrhyia«i  anil  Plato,  the  Mege  «»f  Hel;n":Mle,  in  1*W»*.     l.i>u«<>:«  now 

tr.ivclleil  ill  i-l;:\pr,  and  returned  to  l*nido»  in  reipiiretl  all  Fren*  hnien  serving  in  fi'r^ttfa  ai^ 

35v*,  ftiUMhtl  u  ->  liif),  and  built  an  a-trononiioal  mies  to  return  hi»nie,  on  pain  cf  Ishi.-Stt^^sL 

ohMrfxalory.     T!i"ii^'h  he  beenis  to  have  treated  Eupene  refused  t«»  oU*y,  and  de<'lariii|:  !!.a:  be 

tlie  «  holv  eirrle  of  the  H'ienre-i,  he  {lartieularly  would  return  to  Franre  in  ^pito  »■{  the  n:.:j ;»;rr, 

cxrilU-il  in  ^'vMiiutry  and   a<^tri>nomy,  and   is  remained  in  the  i!iii»eri:d  s«'n ire.     Hewa**«at 

ralltil  hy  (  :i  ito  the  jirineo  of  aotronoHieri.     In  to  Suvoy  in  adi{'Ii>iiiati(*  r;ipa4-:ty.  Vu:  he  ^rivd 

l.l-  :k'>:ri>ijoii<iruI  M-ttni  the  earth  wat  the  in4»-  n*>  a  Si*ldier  under  the  duke  of  that  r*-t:n!ry  ka 

tji'iiii^"  c«iJlre  of  all  the  cele-^iial  rev<ilution«.  M.veral  rniiipaiirn-.  l*«"iii»!  hi-*  hiuttna::?  mh*:.  h« 

The  nto\  vfiii  lit-*  of  the  Min,  niinin,  and  6  planets  i:ivjMh'd  France  in  lt''.»2.    He  »  a*  ?-r*  vrtt*^  iM 

n*^uiie<1.  Ml  •iriiiiitf  to  him,  from  the  comhined  marshal,  and  nfttf  hi-  ntum  X**  Vir'tna  «« 

re^olutii'M-of  loijt-eutrie  ••[lhe^\'^of  whieli  there  j-jsn-eil  at  the   In  .id  of  the  an:.y  in    11  ;rj-a"7. 

WtTeoi.tih  I'of  the  Min  and  uiooU,  and  4  for  S<:i*iMe  of  the  ti'lly  he  ha^l  i   -ii::::.t:i-l.  !    ^as 

each  of  the  planets.    Every  pUiuvt  occupied  a  XIV.  now  made  him  great  i'tfen  en  <\  bd^i^^d 


ZUGENE  EUOSNIE                     821 

of  his  entering  the  French  service.    These  of-  He  w&s  wonnded  in  the  battle.    In  1718  he 
fen  he  wonld  not  listen  to,  bnt  took  command  hoped  to  dictate  peace  at  Oonstantinople,  bnt 
of  an  arm  J  that  was  employed  against  the  Turks,  the  treaty  of  Passarovitz  stopped  his  career  of 
He  completelj  ontgeneralled  the  enemy  and  ex-  conquest.    He  was  rewarded  oy  a  pension,  an 
lcniunatedtheirarmjatZentha,8ept.  11, 1697,  estate  worth  800,000  florins  per  annum,  and 
vmniDg  one  of  the  greatest  victories  of  that  age.  the  vicar-generalship  of  Italy,  naving  previous- 
The  action  was  fought  in  violation  of  orders,  ly  occupied  the  office  of  governor  of  the  Neth- 
which  his  enemies  at  court  turned  to  account,  erlands.    He  held  for  many  years  nearly  the 
He  was  placed  under  arrest,  and  it  was  intend-  same  position  in  Austria  that  Wellington  sub- 
cd  to  send  him  before  a  council  of  war ;  but  the  sequently  held  in  England.    Tet  he  had  bitter 
emperor  changed  his  mind  and  restored  him  to  enemies,  toward  whom  he  was  very  forbearing. 
hkeommand.    He  accomplished  nothing  more  "His  even  temper,"  says  Yehse,  "never  for- 
of  importance,  and  peace  was  made  in  1699.  sook  him  for  a  moment.    He  bore  idl  the  in- 
When  the  war  of  the  Spanish  succession  com-  trigues  of  his  enemies,  as  well  as  their  open  and 
neiioed  in  1 701,  Eugene  was  sent  to  Italy,  where  clumsy  attacks,  with  imperturbable  equanimity 
he  dMwed  himself  superior  to  Oatinat,  and  won  and  patience ;  and  showed  himself  so  forbearing 
pnat  anocesses.    Yilleroi,  Catinat^s  successor,  to  his  colleagues  in  the  field  and  in  the  cabinet 
ie  defieated  at  Chiari,  and  compelled  him  to  that  not  one  case  is  known  of  his  ever  having 
abandon  the  territory  of  Mantua.    In  Jan.  1702,  taken  revenge  on  his  enemies."    In  many  of 
hs  attacked  the  French  in  Cremona,  and  though  his  political  opinions  he  was  in  advance  of  his 
Rpnhed,  oqitnred  their  general    In  Yenddme  a^e.    He  saw  the  error  of  the  house  of  Austria 
hs  found  a  worthy  antagonist,  and  they  fought  in  encouragins  the  growth  of  Prussia,  and  in 
tiie  bloody  drawn  battle  of  Luzara,  Aug.  1, 1702.  conferring  on  her  chief  the  royd  title.    He  fa- 
Appointed  president  of  the  war  council,  and  af-  vored  an  alliance  with  France,  thus  anticipating 
tervard  sent  against  the  Hungarians,  Eugene  the  policy  of  Eaunitz.    He  fostered  literature, 
did  BoChing  more  equal  to  his  reputation  until  science,  and  art,  and  corresponded  with  Boer- 
1704,  when  he  first  served  in  company  with  haave,  Montesquieu,  and  Leibnitz,  the  last  named 
MirilNirongh.    They  fought  and  won  the  battle  being  his  personal  incnd ;  and  he  made  great 
sf  Blenheim,  Aug.  13,  Eugene^s  part  in  the  oc-  collections  of  MSS.,  books,  and  pictures.    The 
tioa  being  important.    He  was  then  sent  to  It-  last  mUitary  service  in  which  he  was  engaged  was 
dj,  and  was  defeated  at  Cassano  (Aug.  16, 1705)  that  which  grew  out  of  the  war  of  the  Polish  suc- 
bf  VendAme,  being  twice  wounded.    When  the  cession,  in  1734,  when  he  commanded  an  army 
Inodi  army  passed  into  the  hands  of  the  duke  against  the  French  on  the  Rhine.  There  was  not 
«f  Orieans  and  Marshal  Marsin,  and  were  en-  much  fighting  and  no  pitched  battle.    The  heir 
pged  in  besieging  Turin,  Eugene,  at  the  head  apparent  to  the  Prussian  crown,  Prince  Fred- 
of  qdIt  30,000  men^  attacked  their  80,000  men,  eric,  afterward  Frederic  U.,  then  served  under 
aMi  defeated  them,  Sept.  7,  1706.    He  was  him,  and  the  first  hostile  cannon  he  ever  heard, 
voanded  in  the  action.    He  was  rewarded  with  at  Philipsberg,  were  the  last  heard  by  Eugene. 
Ae  government  of  the  Milanese.    The  next  year  The  future  conqueror  of  Rossbach  pronounced 
be  made  an  attempt  npon  Toulon,  but  failed,  his  commander  to  be  only  "  the  shadow  of  the 
Hs  was  then  employed  at  the  German  court  in  great  Eugene."    He  was  found  dead  in  his  bed 
bMtening  preparations  for  the  next  campaign ;  in  the  morning,  after  having  played  piquet  the 
ad  ia  that  campaign  he  helped  Marlborough  previous  evening.    His  funeral  was  one  of  the 
to  win  the  battle  of  Oudenarde,  and  took  Lille,  most  magnificent  ever  known,  16  field  marshals 
&  was  at  the  battle  of  Malplaquet,  Sept.  11,  carrying  the  coffin,  and  the  emperor  attending 
ITOi.  and  aided  to  gain  the  field  for  the  allies,  as  a  private  mourner.    He  was  never  married, 
Oa  the  decline  of  luu-lborough^s  power  in  1711,  but  he  was  supposed  to  have  been  the  father  of 
la  visited  England,  hoping  to  gain  her  back  to  the  two  sons  of  the  countess  Batthyanyi.    Eu- 
htt  fcrmer  position  in  the  alliance,  but  inelfect-  gene  is  considered  one  of  the  6  greatest  gener- 
■4f.    His  own  exertions  against  the  French  als  of  modern  times,  the  other  4  being  Napo- 
m  frniUesa,  and  in  1714  the  peace  of  Rastodt  leon,   Wellington,  Marlborough,  and  Frederic 
an  end  to  the  war  between  the  empire  and  the  Great. 

De.    After  residing  at  Vienna  for  some  EUGfiNIE  MARIE  DE  GUZMAN,  countess 

where  he  was  much  consulted  by  the  em-  of  Teba,  empress  of  France,  bom  in  Granada, 

r,  he  was  appointed  to  the  command  of  the  Spain,  May  5,   1826.    She  is  the  2d  daugh- 

that  was  to  act  against  the  Turks,  Austria  ter  of  the  count  of  Montgo,  a  Spanish  grandee, 

the  Venetians  in  accordance  with  En-  whose  ancestors  emigrated  in  the  14th  century 

recommendation.    He  defeated  them  at  from  Genoa  to  Spain.    The  ancestors  of  her 

lein,  Aug.  5,  171 6y  with  immense  mother,  Marie  Manuela  Eirkpatrick  of  Close- 

The  next  year  he  advanced  against  burn,  who  was  bom  in  Andalusia,  were  Roman 

and  was  there  assailed  by  very  supe-  Catholics  of  Scotland,  and  fu^tives  from  that 

1^  some  accounts  say  6  to  1 ;  but  at  a  country  after  the  downfall  of  Uie  Stuarts.    The 

rhm  hia  destruction  was  regarded  as  in-  countess  of  Teba  was  educated  in  France  and 

he  assailed  the  enemy,  and  inflicted  England,  travelled  extensively,  and  while  in 

m  the  greatest  defeat  they  ever  expe-  Paris  (1851)  she  became  acquainted  with  the 

Aug.  iS,  and  took  the  city  on  the  22d.  present  emperor  of  France,  who  married  hei^ 

VOL.  vn. — 21 


8SS  EUGENIUS 

Jan.  80,  1853.    She  wim  delirered  of  a  son,  unable  to  ndM  either  moner  or  troof 

NapoUoQ  Eugvfie,  March  16,  1650,  the  heir  ap-  Colonnon  paid  dearlr  for  their  re#i»l 

|»areut  of  the  French  empire.    I:^he  is  remark-  the  demand  for  re^titntion.     More  tl 

able  for  her  beauty  and  accomplUhmenta.    On  of  their  partisans  were  put  to  death, 

the  emperor *8  departure  fur  the  seat  of  war  in  a^n^  monument »,  and  dwelling  of  Bl 

Italr,  he  appointed  her  regent,  Kaj  3,  1S59.  were  destroyed.    Hie  Colonnas  called  it 

EUGENIUS,  the  name  of  4  poi>o!«.    I.  Born  of  the  prince  of  Palestrina,  who  entere 

in  R(»me,  died  abont  (V58.    When  Martin  I.  was  at  the  head  of  an  vnnr:  but  Euffeniai 

bani>Iii'd  by  the  emperor  Consctans  II.  in  654,  secured  the  help  of  Fiorcnce  and  Veo 

EufTcnius  became  vicar-penoral  of  the  church,  him  in  a  hard  battle,  and  imposed   1 

and  in  the  same  or  the  next  year  was  chosen  terms  upon  the  conquered.     He  now 

pope.     He  was  distinpiislicd  fur  piety,  and  like  attention  to  the  Hussites  and  the  co 

kU  predecessor  had  trouble  with  the  emperor.  liasel.    The  Iluasitea  scattered  his  an 

He  wa»  canonizetl.   II.  Born  in  Rome,  sncceede<l  he  would  make  no  peace  with  thi-m.  ai 

Pascal  I.  in  l<24,  died  in  827.     lie  was  opposed  news  reached  Rome  that  a  truce  had  b 

by  an  auti-rK»po,  and  to  quell  the  Fchism  whicli  eluded  with  the  heretics  he  ordered 

followed,  the  emperor  Louis  the  Good  sent  his  broken.    With    the   council    he  bad 

son  liothaire  to  Ri>mc.    Euirenius  held  a  conn-  trouble  than  with  the  Hussites.     Dec.  1 

cil  in  which  it  was  decreed  that  every  bishop  ho  published  a  bull  dissolving  the  m 

and  clergyman  should  have  in  his  house  a  mas-  which  was  answered  by  a  decree  of  the 

ter  to  teat'h  the  |»eople  and  explain  the  Scrip-  asserting  their  own  supremacy  over  tl 

tares.  He  seems  to  have  been  a  nuin  of  humility,  and  summoning  him  to  appear  befur 

aimplicity,  and  leuniing,  l»ut  is  said  to  have  After  8  years*  delay,  he  was  indnce< 

oonntenanced  the  ordeal  of  cold  water,  in^ti-  emperor  to  be  present  at  tlie  roun* 

tnted    in   his  time,  and  condenmed    by  the  the  emperor^s  death  quarrels  broke  oc 

council  of  Worms  in  829.     III.  Bom  in  Pisa,  and  Eugenius,  having  a  secuod  time  < 

racceeded   Lucius  II.  in  1145,  died  in  Tivoli,  the  council  of  Basel,  called  anew  synix 

July  8,  115«).     He  was  a  Cistercian  monk,  a  rara.    Tli is  produced  a  schism.    Aft^w 

friend  and  disciple  of  St.  Bernard,  and  assumed  and  many  of  the  inferior  clergy  n  nti 

the  tiara  at  a  troubled  i»eri(»d.     His  predecess4>r  sit  at  Basel,  depo*e<I  the  pope.  ar<d  eli 

had  been  killed  in  a  riot,  the  senate  had  de-  anti-po|>e,  Amadeus  VIII.,  duke  of  Snv 

daretl  its  inde|>endence  of  thepoi>e,  a  patrician  took  the  nume  of  Felix  V.    The  srlik^i 

had  t»oen  chosen,  and  Arnold  «if  Brescia  was  at  until  aAer  the  death  of  Eugeniua.     Th< 

the  same  time  exciting  the  neople  by  his  preach-  of  Ferrara  gave  its  attention  to  a  pr  jt* 

ing.     The  Romans  di-manued  the  p<ii>e  s  sane-  union  of  the  (i reek  and  I Jit in  churrhe' 

ti«»n  to  tlie  ai'ts  ot'  tlie  M-iiato,  and  EugeniuH  the  pope  had   much   at  hcfirt.     Tl.«- 

rather  tltun  yield  retired  to  Viterlio  almo^^t  ini-  John  Palirologus.   the  patriureh  of  C\ 

me<liutely  uHer  hi<i  eKt-tii>n.     He  enliMed  the  nople,  and  21   bi^hop4   arrivi-d   at    Ft 

arnw  of  the  peojiK-  of  Tivnli,  gniru-d  a  partial  Marrh,  14.1ft.  but  a  pestilence  fi-rrid  \ 

sucvi--,  and  nrttTwurd  wviil  t«»  Fran«v,  wJiere  remove  their  st-ssinns  to  Flor\r«A'.  n  .'m 

he  hi-Itl  a  rounril  at  RlKiii)'*  ill  1I4S.  aiid:int>th-  much   diM'Ussitm    the   articles   or     m.!i 

er  at  Trrvt •«.    With  tlie   a-«*i'»laiue  of  Rnpr,  agreed  njHm,  July  Ti,  14^.!*.     T?ie  (irvx-k 

king  of  S'nily,  In*  ^(lU^ll•d  the  Rtiiii:ii]<(  the  fi»l-  however,  nevi-r  accepted  the  detrt^. 

lowing  v«-:ir and  returned  ti»  hi-*  ra|iitul.  I>iit  w.is  s<'parution  hetwetn  the  thunhi"*  crrf 

again  drivin  out  and  withdrew  to  (*ainii:inia.  etVert  oa  wide  as  ever.     Mi.iiw?nlv    E 

In  lir>2  he  nia*le  a  ronipart  wit!i  Frvderi*'  Bar-  exy)erionci'«l?**-rion«.ti  nij"Oraldit!i«-!:!:n*: 

bar*'"*.!,  hut  hefiire  thr  e!n|H«rnr  rnuld  fulfil  hi**  The  I^'mans  broke  out  ii.to  rili!!i«  r.  • 

promiM.-  to  reinstate  him  at  Ui-nie  the  poj.i-dird.  repuMio,  and  di  jo-m-^I  all  the  f  .i{  nJ  ot'^%'i 

St.  Ihrnard  aildri«"Hd  !•»  Eul'«!mu-4  hi**  trt ati-e  iM>|>e  t<«»»k  ref"j;e  in  the  chun h  of  >: 

Jhf  Cvutuhnitior.f,     IV.  (iAiii:iEic  UoMioi.iiK-  p*>nus,  and  s<>rne  nr«oi:nt*  <  vtn  >.\v  ?*..•.! 

BO.    Intrn   ill  Vinit-e.   *UfVvi  d»d    Martin    V.  in  thrown  into  pri«on.     He  e*i\ij^d  To  < 

14:1.  (linl  in  Rfnii-.  \\\k  2'.,  1447.     IK- wa*  a  di<?niM\  and   ihenre  t*ent  to  Fl^rirr 

nepin  w,  <.r  arronlin^  t«»  ^"fiii*  a  •^iin  of  (Ir»-;:i'ry  hi-*   n.inioter  Vit*-'.K»<'hi.    iklK'^-    rr  *'. 

XII..  ulio  wa-*  ri"juirnli«t  atdieaif  l-v  ihi-tM.nn-  saitlto  ha^e  ran-ied  the  n\olt.  .-,•:» ";.  ■:  ti 

cil  «if  C'o!i*taii<'e.     Hi-  «;»■»  a  Ctli-tiih-  n;«»rik,  rifiinp,  and  piini«lKd  tlie  Kftiior^  w  ;•*. 

l»eca!ne  M-liup  **i  Siinna.  anil   wa*  nftirward  k verity.     Bt-ide  the  lrnnt.lc*i»h    J.  i 

cardinal  and  li-;::!!.-  to  B«'I«'jna.     He  wa-  a  n::in  iiuntionid,  Knjeriu-  h^d  t«>  niirit*-  r\ 

of  iniiH-t»:ou-i  !•  rMjH  r.  w  li.i^- rrit'u  «a«*  i:n!"«»rtii-  titii^n-^  (•!    tl.e  Turk-.   nr:d   w.i*   «:    r.- 

nat«  I_v  i-.i-l  in  a! inn-  w  I.  •  Iitrifil  t?iat  t«  n;pi  r  to  Vk'Wc  tin.*  indiri«*t  r;v>o  «  I  the  c!  *i**»r 

tlif  utTMii-t.     <»iii'  «'f  lii-  lir*!  :•«  •-•  in  the  |» •[)?'. tl-  il.rv  i!.t!i«^*d  npiin   tl.o  Hurj.ir.ai.*  ar 

ratt    u;i*  :«»  r!:arj:f  thr   ('"l^nn:!-.   t!.**  ni  pin  wi  The   K'LMle  <arilin;il  Julian   had  r»i-:T.-« 

<if  I.;-  |.ridtri'**-»r.  w  it!i  ri.''?.in;r  lltt-  pa;  a!  trm^-  C'I»ri*tian'i  to  ].rvak  t).«  ir  tn:o«  t«.'».  tl 

nrj  ;  and  Ijav'.n;;  !•>  t{ii<>  r:i-li  iIu'-il'S  jr.  )  ■}'\y  inn.-,   l.::t   w!u'!iir   F-^i  ri:!-  wa«  -jp.^ 

ju*t  oi'f  t:*:iii«»n  irnli.i'd  tin- I  iiinitv  «.|"  nin  ft  il:i'  fur   tlio   nd^ii'i-  i-  to*    -jrnd.     l?ir    : 

mo*t  f"»»ir!''.:l  faiiiil:i  *  «■!"  Kiiiue.  In-  fi-nrn!  Kiiii-  i!  .mu  U  r  h.i"  \  nr'L*«d  the  a!Mi?.tr.  if* 

K'lf,  on  the  outhrviik  of  u  rv\«.'it  in  hi*  tiale*,  a;;-*,     lie  i?  prai^il  fi»r  ii:ode»ty.  zcaI.  \ 


XULENBTEI^  EULEB                       S28 

patroiuige  of  sxt,  and  many  personal  yirtoefli  most  astoniahing  x)ower8  of  mind.    In  l74&lMr 

and  is  accoaed  on  the  other  hand  of  inordinate  gained  the  prize  of  the  Paris  academy,  hr  aa 

ambitioQ  and  haughtiness  of  spirit.  investigation  of  the  nature  of  tides.    Meanwh3ft 

EULENSTEIN,  Kabl^  an  eminent  performer  his  publications  on  the  nature  and  profMyation. 

oo  the  Jews-httTO,  bom  in  Ileilbronn,  WOrtem-  of  sound,  on  curves,  on  the  int^al  cawalin^ 

berg;  in  1802.     While  a  child  he  showed  a  de-  the  movement  of  celestial  bodies,  &c.,  had 

dded  taste  for  music,  and  at  6  years  of  age  con-  already  gained  him  wide  repatation.    In  174lt 

Mmeted  a  violin,  on  which  he  soon  gained  a  at  the  invitation  of  Frederic  the  Great,  be  kft 

tolerable  degree  of  skiU.    At  12  he  was  appren-  8l  Petersburg  for  Berlin.    The  despotisai-  oC 

tioed  to  an  ironmonger,  who,  disliking  music,  the  Russian  government  had  never  perhi^  bean 

nfoed  to  allow  him  to  play  upon  any  instru-  agreeable  to  a  man  of  such  liberal  principlei; 

meat,  and  took  from  him  successively  his  violin,  and  it  is  said  to  have  added  to  his  habits  oi  o* 

Freooh  horn,  flageolet,  and  guitar.    In  despair  lent  thought  and  study.    Ub  reserve  attracted 

Ealamtein  resorted  to  the  Jews-harp,  an  instru-  the  observation  of  the  Prussian  queen  dowagjMV 

meoi  he  had  been  accustomed  to  sell  at  a  penny  who  inquired  into  its  cause.    *^  Madam,^^  Eiiler 

ficfa,  and  aoon  discovered  that  it  was  capable  is  said  to  have  replied,  *^  I  have  been  living  1| 

of  a  variety  of  tones  and  modulations  of  which  years  in  a  country  where  men  who  speak  are 

he  had  never  dreamed.    He  devoted  4  years  of  hanged."    He  remained  at  Berlin  25  years,  na* 

andaona  practice  to  the  instrument,  on  which  til  1766,  durinff  which  period  he  lost  his  mother, 

lieaoqaired  an  astonislitng  skill,  and  succeeded  who  had  lived  with  him.    His  wife,  whom  he 

m  taainff  a  aeries  of  harps,  whereby  he  could  had  married  in  St  Petersburg,  was  the  daughter 

eMBmand  a  large  scale,  and  modulate  with  truth  of  a  Swiss  arUst  named  GselL   Many  years  later, 

•id  aocoracy  in  every  variety  of  key.    For  in  1776,  her  aunt  became  his  second  wife.    His 

Mfml  years  he  passed  a  nomadic  life  of  great  children  numbered  13,  only  4  of  whom  survived 

fciTalkm  as  a  performer  on  tlie  Jews-harp  in  him ;  the  eldest  son  being  his  assistant  and  suo- 

mioas  parta  of  Germany,  and  finally  settled  in  ccssor  at  St  Petersburg,  and  the  second  physi- 

filBttgart,  where  he  played  before  the  queen  of  cian  to  the  empress  Catharine  II.    During  Eu- 

Wlrtemberg,  who  gave  him  letters  to  influen-  ler^s  residence  at  Berlin,  he  continued  to  hold 

lUpenonsL    In  1825  he  arrived  in  London,  and  his  Russian  appointments,  and  even  drew  a 

odied  moch  attention  by  his  performances,  portion  of  their  salary,  receiving  at  the  same 

fiooa  after  hb  teeth  became  so  much  decayed  by  time  from  all  parts  of  Europe  the  most  flattering 

tht  action  of  the  iron  tongue  of  the  harp  that  marks  of  respect    When  the  dominions  of 

be  was  obliged  to  give  up  playing  and  devote  Frederic  were  invaded  by  a  Russian  army  in 

)aue]f  to  teaching  the  guitar.    Subsequently  a  1760,  and  a  farm  belonging  to  Euler  was  laid 

eerering  was  made  for  hU  teeth  by  a  dentist,  waste,  the  empress  Elizabem  immediately  reim- 

hj  vhich  he  has  been  enabled  to  resume  hb  per-  bursed  hb  losses.    These  generous  acts,  among 

ftrmancea  on  the  Jews-harp.  other  motives,  induced  him  to  accept  an  invita- 

ECLER,  Lkoshard,  a  Swiss  mathematician,  tion  from  the  empress  Catharine  II.  to  return 

kn  in  Basel,  April  15, 1707,  died  in  St  Pe-  to  St  Petersburg  in  1766.    He  had  during  some 

tesbnrg,  Sept  7,  1783.    He  studied  first  under  years  previously  suffered  from  weakness  of  the 

Jw  father,  a  Protestant  clergyman,  and  after-  eyes;  and  soon  after  returning  to  Russia,  he 

vndaitheuniversityof  Basel,  where  he  formed  became  so  neariy  blind  as  to  be  able  only  to 

a  frioidahip  with  2  of  the  Bernouillis,  3  of  distinguish  very  large  chalk  marks  on  a  black- 

wUch  family  were  officers  of  the  university,  board.    The  affection  was  the  consequence  of 

Eakr^s  genius  was  soon  diverted  from   the  fever  brought  on  by  a  calculation,  for  which  hb 

dnreh,  for  which  he  was  intended,  to  philosoph-  fellow  academicians  demanded  4  months,  hut 

iod  parsnitSb    At  the  age  of  19  ho  was  gradu-  which  Euler  completed  in  3  days.    He  continued 

iled,  after  having  already  attracted  the  notice  almost  blind  during  the  remainder  of  his  life ; 

af  the  French  academy  of  sciences  by  a  memoir  but  by  constant  exercise  he  acquired  a  power  of 

^OA  some  points  of  naval  architecture.    In  the  recollection  of  mathematical  formula  and  fig- 

Idoving  year,  being  disappointed  in  hb  wish  ures  almost  incredible.    He  b  stated  to  have 

flvcmp^yment  at  the  university,  he  repaired  formed  in  his  head  and  retained  in  his  memory 

la  fit.  Petersburg,  where,  hb  friends  the  Ber-  a  table  of  the  first  6  powers  of  numbers  up  to 

having  professorships,  he  had  hopes  of  100  (about  3,000  figures).    Two  of  his  pupils, 

mage  of  the  empress  Catliarine  1.    She  it  is  added,  had  summed  17  terms  of  a  converg- 

before  hb  arrival,  and  Euler  became  so  ing  series,  and  differed  by  a  unit  in  the  50th 

in  circumstances  as  to  have  been  on  decimal  in  the  result    Euler  decided  the  point 

p(rint  of  enlbting  in  the  Russian  navy  as  a  correctly  by  a  mental  calculation.    Some  of  hb 

sailor.    Thb  step  was  fortunately  pre-  most  profound  and  valuable  works  were  com- 

throngh  the  friendship  of  Daniel  Ber-  posed  after  his  loss  of  sight ;  among  them,  hb 

who  at  length  obtained  for  him  the  pro-  ^'Elements  of  Algebra,^*  and  '^New  Theory  of 

fannhip  of  natural  philosophy.    In  1733,  on  the  Motions  of  the  Moon.^'    His  studies  were 

fti  mirement  of  thb  friend  from  the  academy  never  relaxed,  until  cut  off  by  hb  sudden  death 

if  St  Petersburg,  Euler  became  professor  of  while  conversing  with  a  pupil  on  HerscheFs 

■rtlNniatics.     He  labored  in  his  new  calling  planetary  discoveries.    In  more  than  50  years 

vith  iiid«iatigable  industry,  and  exhibited  the  of  incessant  labor,  Euler  had  composed  30  sep- 


mn^  worln.  and  more  than  700  mmtAjt  or  peror  JaUan.    At  the  aga  of  16  jaai 

livatlna.    Im  whole ooaM  not  ha  eoDtained  ia  to  Athena,  where,  after  4  yean^  itiid. 

ItM  thaa  40  larM4to.  Toloinea.    They  emhrace  admitted  to  know  the  aeerata  of  thi 

•vaty  ailrtinf  Dranofa  of  mathematiei,  and  al-  doctrine  of  lamhliehUi  and  was  inU 

■MMt  9ir%rr  eoMelTahle  appUcatioo  of  them*  the  Eleosinian  myiterk«.    He  reCnni 

Thar  are  all  the  orialnal  frnit  of  hb  own  hrain«  die  as  a  teacher  of  rfaetoricL  and  atoi 

To  Euler  heloon  the  credit  of  fanproTlng  the  cine.    There  remains  from  hiro  a  hoi 

asalytie  method,  aoeordinc  to  the  system  of  ^^Lires  of  the  Sophists  and  Philosophc 

LslMiti  and  the  Bemooilm,  and  of  uniformly  fires  the  history  not  only  of  the  phi 

applying  H  to  sdentMeinTeeUgatioos.    Nor  was  hat  of  the  physicians  and  rhetoricia 

ha  Mas  rsmariMhla  Ibr  hb  popular  expositions  nearlr  all  those  who  hecame  known 

of  Iha  ptindplca  of  his  IkTonte  science.    Ills  and  letters  fhnn  the  heginning  of 

**LittcrB  to  a  German  Princess.**  whioli  have  the  end  of  the  4th  centory.    The  hesl 

haaa  tramlated  Into  English,  and  aereral  times  that  of  Boisionade  (S  rob.  Sto.,  A 

Nprintad,  throw  a  dear  light  on  the  most  ha-  18SS). 

pcNtaat  tets  In  mechanics,  optics,  aooostica,  and  EUNOMIUS,  a  heresiareh  of  the  41 

phyrical  astronomy,  and,  thoMigh  to  some  degree  a  natlTe  of  Daoora  In  Cappadocia,  wl 

aapersadad  hy  the  progress  of  modem  discorery,  theology  nnder  the  Arian  teacher  i 

wfll  alwaTa  remain  a  model  of  perspicnons  state-  was  made  hiithop  of  Crxicos  ahoat 

BMnt  ana  felidtons  illostratioo.    Ilia  **  Intro-  His  opinions  were  a  liglcal  exsfw 

dodlon  to  Algehra,**  translated  hy  Frof.  Farrar  Arianism.     lie  was  soon  depos^ 

of  Banrard  eoUm  as  preliminary  to  the  Cam-  hishopric,  resided  at  Cuostantinople  i 

hrldga  oonrsa  of  mathematics,  has  ncTcr  heen  reigns  of  Julian  and  JoTlan,  and  at  < 

inrpasied  Ibr  Its  In^  and  attractiTe  mode  of  during  that  of  Valens ;  was  hanlsl 

prssenting  the  elementa  of  that  sdenoe.    Euler  last  named,  hot  soon  recalled ;  was  i 

was  a  num  of  simple,  resarred,  and  henoTolent  Ished  hy  Theodosius  the  Great  to  Hi 

nind:  with  a  strong  derotiooal  sense  and  rail-  Hcesla,  driven  thence  toCasarea,  am 

gloos  bahlt.    Ha  undertook  to  prore  the  Imma-  permitted  to  return  to  his  natiTc  Till 

lerlalHy  of  the  soul,  and  had  the  courage  to  de-  ne  spent  the  remainder  of  his  life,  ai 

ftnd  rsTdatlon  at  the  court  of  a  free  thinker  an  aoTanced  age.    His  works  were  o 

Itte  Frederic  If.  of  Prussia.  Imperial  edicts  to  he  destroyed,  but 

EUMENIDES,  called  alM>  Erinnyea,  and  hy  main  of  them  a  ''  Confession  of  Fsii 

tiia  Romans  Furi«   and  Dirm,  the  avenging  was  presented  to  the  emperor  The< 

goddesses  of  the  Greek  mytholoay,  daughters  Constantinople  in  883,  and  an  "  Apol 

of  night,  and  tormentors  of  the  wiclced  both  in  course,^  a  fainons  treati«e,  of  wliich 

the  upper  and  the  lower  world.    The  Greeks  wrote  a  refutation  in  6  book».     His 

dreadco  to  call  them  by  an  appropriate  name,  were  called  Eunomians  and  aliio  / 

and  therefore  addreesed  them  euphemistically  as  (Gr.  oDoyMNor,  dissimilar),  becauMs  i 

the  Eumenides,  or  soothed  and  gentle  goddesses.  Arians  or  Homoionnians  and  the  A 

They  seem  to  bare  been  originally  a  personifl-  or  Homoousians,  they  affirmed  thnt  tb 

eatioo  of  the  cnnes  pronounced  upon  a  criminal.  Holy  Spirit  were  neither  identical  n*^ 

and  are  represented  by  Homer  as  resting  in  the  essence  with  the  Father.    Tliej  erki 

depths  of  Tartarus  till  the  condemnation  of  lome  the  Father  as  supreme,  eternal,  end  dii 

person  for  violated  pious  or  hospitable  duties  6on  nA  gvnersted  fn^m  the  Fathrr 

wakes  them  Into  life  and  actirity.    They  then  Holy  Spirit  as  ffenerated  from  t!.e  8 

norsue  the  offender  with  the  relentiessoess  of  their  founder  they  were  accustomed 

Bta,  chasing  him  from  place  to  pUce,  allowing  speculations  upon  the  dirine  nature,  t 

him  no  peace  nor  rest,  mored  by  no  supplies-  prehentibility  of  which   they  denk 

tions,  and  supported  by  the  goddess  of  Justice,  rejected  myHteries,  and  opposed  tbeh 

whona  ministers  they  are.    As  described  by  dered  to  Tiisrtyrf  and  to  the  rvlirs  of 

iB•ehyltt^  snakes  Instead  of  hair  enreloped  their  EUN  UClIS  (Gr.  cvmvxoc,  from  n^ 

heads,  their  eyes  were  bloody,  their  faces  black  and  t^^  to  guard),  emasculated  men 

and  full  of  hmeftalncss,  and  they  bore  torches  and  in  the  East  from  time  Immemoriai 

dsggers  in  their  fleshless  hands.  In  the  later  noets  charge  of  women.    According  t4»  A 

wings  were  added,  and  their  number  was  reuuced  the  i»rsct  ice  of  ca5tratl«in  was  oripcai 

from  an  indefinite  number  to  8,  bearing  the  names  cruel  infrenuity  of  Queen  SemiramtiL   . 

of  Tisipbooe,  Alecto,  and  Megiera.    The  terrific  of  oriental  pulrganiy.  Jealousy,  and  « 

drama  ofiEschylus  entitled  **Entnenldcs**  is  said  eunuchs  were  early  common  in  E^ 

tohaee  frightened  seTeral  Athenian  matrons  into  Asia  Minor,  and    the  neigbburing 

prematura  labor,  and  In  subsequent  represen-  were  intrndured  thence  Into  Greecs  a 

tatiooa  upon  the  stage  and  in  art  their  appear-  among  the  later  Romans  were  adn 

•neewas  greatiy  softened  down.  the  fimnilies  of  senators  and  empenM 

EUNAPIUa,  a  Greek  sonhitt,  physician,  and  their  skill  in  fisttcry  and  Intrigue  cti 

bbgrurfier,  honi  In  Sardis,  In  Lyaia,  A.  I>.  847,  liklietl  their  power  at  eoart«  aspecia 

dlad  aooot  4fiOL    Ha  was  an  adTemuy  of  Chris-  the  HyxanUne  empire.    The  Romans  I 

tfanl^y  and  an  amhaiaatia  partisan  of  the  am-  ly  derlsad  a  method  of  making 


EUPATOBIA  EUPHRATES                  826 

or  lee  complete.    Gibbon  affirms  that  the  gener-  ed  a  landing  in  the  bay  of  Enpatoria,  with  aboat 

al  hiitory  of  Persia,  India,  and  China  proves  that  60,000  men.   The  town  was  provided  with  forti- 

the  power  of  the  ennochs  has  uniformly  marked  fications  by  order  of  Omar  Pasha,  who  was  at  the 

the  decline  and  fall  of  every  dynasty.    They  head  of  the  Turkish  army  there,  in  1855.    The 

are  still  employed  in  the  East  as  guardians  of  Russians  made  an  ineffectual  attack  on  the 

the  harem,  black  slaves  from  Ediiopia  being  town,  Feb.  17,  1855.      It  was  evacuated  by  the 

generally  preferred.    The  example  of  Origen  allies  after  the  ratification  of  the  peace  of  rariii^ 

and  the  sect  of  the  Valesians  mark  their  ap-  May  80,  1856. 

pcaranee  in  chnrch  history  and  discipline.  With  EUPHRATES  (Turk.  El  I^af),  called  also  by 

iome  exceptions,  they  have  exhibited  an  unge-  the  natives  of  the  country  through  which  it  flows 

nisi,  sowicious,  supple,  and  treacherous  char-  the  Murad,  the  largest  river  of  western  Asiai 

aeter.    In  Rome  they  were  not  permitted  by  has  its  source  in  the  mountains  of  Armenia,  N. 

law  to  appear  as  witnesses,  and  in  modern  times  E.  from  Erzroum,  where  it  is  formed  by  the 

the  eoiCratij  fSEunous  as  singers  for  the  peculiar  junction  of  2  rivers,  the  Kara-Soo  and  the 

mialitT  and  clearness  of  Uieir  voice,  are  ex-  Murad,  near  Kebban,  in  lat.  89^  N.  and  long. 

onded  by  the  Catholic  church  from  the  office  88°  30'  £.    It  flows  S.  W.  past  Samosta,  where 

cf  the  priesthood.    The  custom  of  castration  a  chain  of  high  mountains  prevents  its  further 

for  the  purpose  of  improving  the  voice  came  progress  toward  the  Mediterranean.    It  then 

ioto  use  in  the  middle  ages,  chiefly  in  Italy,  turns  its  course  to  the  S.  E.,  traverses  a  wild 

where,  in  the  18tli  century,  it  was  estimated  defile  of  Mount   Taurus,  separates  Anatolia 

thit  4,000  boys  annually  suffered  in  order  to  from  Turkish  Armenia,  keeps  its  way  without 

beeoma  singers  in  operas,  at  concerts,  and  in  deviation  till  near  its  junction  with  the  Tigris, 

the  odebration  of  the  mass.    The  operation  and  the  united  rivers  fall,  under  the  name  Snat- 

cheeki  the  growth  of  the  beard^  and  gives  a  el-Arab,  into  the  Persian  gull    Its  total  length 

ftudnine  character  to  the  physiognomy  and  is  nearly  1,800  m.,  its  average  breadth  about 

patnl  physical  development,  though  when  200  yards,  and  its  depth  from  12  to  80  feet 

pdbnned  in  early  youth  it  tends  to  increase  the  The  upper  part  of  its  course  lies  amid  lofty . 

Kitare  of  the   man«     The   eunuchs  of  the  mountains,  and  near  the  viUage  of  Pash-taah 

I^kiih  harems  are  mostly  made  so  in  upper  it  plunges  through  a  gorge  formed  by  preci- 

HCP^  near   Nubia,  at  a  village  where  the  pices  more  than  1,000  feet  in  height,  and  so  narr 

epenticm  of  castration  is  performed  by  Coptic  row  that  it  is  bridged  at  the  top.    It  then  enters 

Prieits.    It  is  stAted  that  about  1  in  7  of  the  the  plains  of   ancient  Babylonia,  where  the 

wn  die  in  consequence  of  the  operation.  swiftness  of  its  cnrrcnt  is  diminished,  and  where 

EUPATORIA  (formerly  Kaslov),  a  seaport  in  ancient  times  numerous  canals  extended  from 

ton  in  the  Russian  government  of  Taurida,  on  its  banks  to  irrigate  the  neighboring  country. 

tfai  W.  coast  of  the  Crimea,  and  the  capital  of  It  extricates  itself  from  the  marshes  of  Lemloon 

the  district  of  the  same  name,  situate  on  the  N.  just  before  reaching  Koma,  tlie  point  of  its 

Ameofthebay  of  Kalamita,inaboutlat45^  14'  union  with  the  Tigris.    It  is  navigable  both 

S.  long.  33**  25'  E.,  about  40  m.  from  Siinfcro-  below  and  above  the  cataracts  which  it  forms 

Ml,  and  44  m.  from  Sebastopol.     Under  the  in  the  passes  of  the  Taurus,  though  numerous 

urtars  it  was  one  of  the  most  prosperous  and  islands,  shallows,  and  rapids  make  its  naviga- 

Mpnlons  towns  in  the  Crimea.    Before  the  tion  in  many  places  difficult    Its  waters  are 

ABKian  occupation  of  the  Crimea,  when  the  subject  to  periodical  increase  from  the  melting 

Hmeof  Eupatoria  was  given  to  the  town  by  of  the  snow  on  the  mountains  along  the  upper 

Gkthuine  IL,  it  had  a  population  of  above  part  of  its  course,  and  its  inundations  were  an- 

¥^fi60.    According  to  the  census  of  1851,  it  ciently  of  great  advantage  to  the  agriculture  of 

hid  only  8,200.  but  it  is  now  (1859)  estimated  the  level  districts  through  which  it    passes. 

H  14,000,  chiefl}^  Tartars  and  Caraite  Jews.    It  Under  the  misrule  of  the  Turks,  however,  the 

hii  a  considerable  trade  in  grain,  and  some  canals  and  embankments  which  regulated  the 

Inde  in  hides,  butter,  wax,  &c.     The  export  inundations  have    been  neglected.     The  Eu- 

ef  nit,  which  is  drawn  from  adjoining  salt  phrates  is  linked  with  the    most    important 

kkea,  and  from  which  the  Tartars  formerly  de-  events  in  ancient  history.    It  is  mentioned  in 

lified  great  profit,  has  fallen  off  considerably  the  Bible  as  one  of  the  4  rivers  of  paradise,  and 

ilaee  the  increase  of  the  export  duties.    But-  is  often  named  the  great  river.    On  its  banks 

liV^t  stuffs,  and  the  black  lambskins  known  Kimrod  is  said  to  have  founded  the  city  of 

hEoghmd  as  Astrakhans,  are  prepared  in  the  Babylon,  which   was  for  ages  the  seat  of  a 

The  port  is  shallow,  but  safe,  and  never  great  empire;  and  at  Cunaxa  terminated  the 

np.     10  supply  the  town  with  water  an  ill-starred  expedition  of  Cyrus  the  Younger,  and 

I  well  has  been  dug  by  order  of  the  began  the  famous  retreat  of  the  10,000  Greeks 

government,  460  feet  deep,  and  furnish-  under  Xenophon.    It  was  for  a  long  time  the 

te  a  diuly  supply  of  120,000   gallons.     The  eastern  boundary  of  the  Roman  empire.    In 

fmcipalbaildingsareaRusso-Greekchurch,  an  recent  times  the  English  have  tried,  thus  far 

flriMiiitn  ^orcn,  2  synagogues,  and  about  18  unsuccessfully,  to  use  it  as  their  path  of  com- 

■BMiiML  the  chief  of  which,  built  by  Dcvlet-  munication  with  India.    For  this  purpose  an 

GUn  Khan  in  1552,  js  the  finest  in  the  Crimea,  expedition  was  sent  from  England  under  com- 

Qa  fiapc  14^  1854^  the  English  and  French  effect-  mand  of  CoL  Chesney,  which  in  1856  descended 


XUPHUISM  EURIPIDES 

the  riTer  fWmi  Bir  and  mrvcrwl  609  mtlw  of  its  Orne,  W.  hy  CAlTadon;  aret,  9,24^  «j.  m. ;  p^y*. 
coune.  (Si>e  CnisNXT.)  It  h  a  siiif^ilar  fact  in  isTjA,  4i>4,rir>5.  It  ha.H  a  lerel  rarfiM'«*.  tiAtu- 
ftmoeming  the  Euplirnte:!  that  Kvoral  thounAixl  rally  (1ivi(K-«l  into  fi  plateaus  hr  thv  rivvr*  Kptf. 
yean*  ago  the  wat«ni  do  not  sei'in  to  have  roach-  Andcllc,  Euro,  lt«)n,  Killo,  and  Chiu\*n(iKi:if. 
cd  iIh*  Ilea  at  all,  but  wore  lo^t  in  nianthcA  or  which  tlow  through  it  to  the  Seine:  and  it  frr- 
conwmed  br  irrigation,  which  wan  pmctisod  fienti«  well  cu1tivute<l  lieUN  and  enrhvsun^.  riiK- 
on  an  immenite  §cale  under  the  Hahylnninn  und  forest!*,  inarnhe^  and  a  few  hill*.  Agric-utturir' 
Amjrian  mivereignf*.  It  in  ci-rtain  that  at  a  in  carried  to  a  hi^h  depve  of  |»erf<r«-tMiD.  %i»] 
much  later  peritMl  the  Tigriit  an<l  Euphrates  the  vine,  apple.  aii<l  pear  are  olject^  tif  ^f^-^uJ 
flowe<l  into  tlie  t>ea  by  distinct  channels.  Their  cultivation.  It!«  m<K»t  celebratitl  ainl  floun^l.- 
junction  ift  M]p])OiN?d  to  have  taken  place  luore  ing  cloth  manufactories  are  at  L(»uvier«.  1;  Ls!« 
than  2,000  yeani  ago.  inii>ortant  copinrr  founderieii  at  K<iiiiil]y.  mmi 

Ernil'lSM  (Gr.  fu^viyc,  elepintX  an  affect-  manufactories  «if  naiK  ntn».  &c.     It  hai^  ci>n«id' 

cd  rtyle  of  8|»eech  which  ilistinguishefl  the  con-  erablc  commerce,  chifdy  in  it 4  own   nianuf-ir- 

verMition  and  writings  of  many  of  the  wits  at  ture<l  and  agricultural  products.     It  is  diTMkfl 

the  court  of  Queen  EIizal»eth.    The  name  and  into  5  arrondissements.  and  fonns  the  diocvM 

tlie  style  were  derived  fn>m  the  *'  Euphues,  the  of  EvriMix,  whicli  is  it<«  capital  city. 
Anatomy  of  Wit**  (ISSO),  and  the  '*Euphues        El' H E  £T- LOIR,  a  N.  department  of  Fran#v. 

and   his  England**  (I5H1),  of  John   Lilly,  of  fonned  in  171H)of  ]*artsof  theanci«*nt  proTtrkcrt 

which  Anchony  il  WikmI  said:  **Our  nAti«)n  is  of  Orleanais,  lle-4le- France,  and  Maim*.  U>ari«i- 

indebted  for  a  new  English  in  thi'in,  which  the  ed  by  the  departments  of  Eare.  Sfino-et-lK^r, 

flower  of  the  youth   thereof  leanie<!.'*    The  Loiret,  I.oir-et-Chi-r,Sartbe.andOrnr.  aiHlroia- 

atyle  of  these  once  famed  books,  which  became  prise<l  in  the  baMUs  of  thv  Si'in«'  an«l  thi*  lAnre: 

tlM  moilel  of  the  wits  and  gallants  of  the  time,  area,  S,117  nq.  m.;  pop.  in  iK'itf.  Si*  1.074.     Iti 

and  was  almost  regarded  as  a  te'«t  of  courtly  general  aspect  is  that  «if  a  plain,  with  Mijriit  nii- 

breeding,   was    characterized    by  smoothness  dulationsuf  hill  and  vallvy,  and  its  M*il  L'*  nnvir- 

and  verbal  elegance,  and  chiefly  by  fanta<«tio  pa-^xtitl  in  fertility  by  any  in  Franre.     lt«  r.:- 

similes  and  illustrations  fonne<l  by  attributing  mate  is  mild,  with  frequent  rains  in  hprinf  and 

fanciAil  and  fabulous  properties  tf»  animals,  autumn.    There  are  but  small  remain*  vt  tiie 

vegetables,  and  minerals.     Supported  by  fash-  immense  forests  which  formerly  ci^vrr^-d  its^ar- 

iunable  sanction,  Lilly  was  for  a  time  esteenHKl  face.  Cereals,  the  vine,  prune,  pear,  cherry,  aoii 

the  rival  of  I)em«>sthenes  and  Cici-ro  in  **all  apricot  arc  cultivated.    It  has  voiue  cloth  maa- 

the  partes  of  rlK^toricke,  in  titte  phrases,  in  ufactoriea.     It  forms  the  diocese  of  C'Lamvf, 

pithy  sentences,  in  gallant  tn»pes,  in  flowing  which  is  its  ca[iital  city. 

sfK-wh.*'     But  the  applau*^*  was  not  iinivvr>al.         ErRIPIOES,  the  huit  of  the  illn>:rio-:«  tri-^ 

En|»hui«m  i^  ridimliHl  in  Mar<«ton*s  mnudy  of  of  the  tragic  inkms  of  Athens  Kirn,  tu^^-r*:.:: 

'•  What  You  Will."  in  IWii  Joi»«n»ij'-*  *'C'vniiiia's  to  the  almost  unanimous  con*M  nt  \»f  the  ar* ..  • : 

HeveK**and  i<4tIion;;ht  ti>  hv  rilVrnd  t4»  in  the  authorities,  in  the  ixKind  of  S:i!:iniiN  in  tl  i-  :•( 

style  of  iKtn  .\rni:Mlo  in  Shakr^iM-art*-*  ••  I.ovi-'s  year  of  the  7r»lh  nl\rn]>iad.  4i**.»  M.  1\,  at  i.  &• 

!ji!Mir'"*    I.«i-it,"  and   Sir   WaltiT   Sott    in    his  was  goncrallv  bvlii'Vcil.  on  thi*  \»'rv  d.iv  ri"  i;^ 

*•  Miiiia*t«ry"  makts  Sir  Pivn-ir  Slmrton  '*  par-  luittlcuf  SaluniisiSvjtt. -:n.     Tin*  I*ar..iii  n:a"    * 

ley  fuphuioni.**  ahmo  cnrrii-s  hai'k  (ho  <!:ite  of  hi^  btrt!i  to  4<>. 

EriM)!.!.**,  one  of  tho  fi  (im-k  comic  prn-ts  or  the  'Ad  y^-ar  of  the  7;M  oUni|'i»!.     He  «i..d 

whom  thf  ;rratiiin.irian4  of  tin*  m  li(»<»)  nt'  Ah'X-  in  4o»i.      The  naiuo   Kiiniiiiiv^   i«  ^a:•i  ti*  ^  %«r 

andriu  jmL'i-d  wurlhy  iif  a  phi<  o  in  t!i«ir  r:ini>n,  IkvU    ln"«t«»w«Ml   iifniu  him    in  r«>nnm  m>irs!.o 

Isini  al»*»ut  44*i.  dii-d  Mlnint  41!  U.  i\     lb*  W-  of  the  batil*»  of  .Vrti'miMnm.  fiMi^rSs  ii*.t  K-r; 

hin;.'«Hl  tf>  tlie  old  ntnu-dy,  wa*«  a  di^riph*  of  U'fure,  near  tlu*  channi-I  of  i!t«>  Kunpus.     ii-* 

Cratinn^.  and  conifMiM-il   17  ]'if«'«'-.  7  ••!'  whi«!i  wai   the  ^m  of  an    .Xthi'ni.in    c!:./i:i    tar--^! 

wiTr  iTowiu'il.     l\f  wa«*   n-pntril  ^•lp«Tillr  to  Mnc'sarchn-*.  and  his  wilu  (  litu,  uf  titc  dtn «  if 

Ari«tiiph:ini  ■»  in  <  h-L'an<v,  aii«l  in  I'ittiT  an«l  per-  I*hl\a   iintl    tho   tril«o    (.'fompi*.  i.r  a'''"t»r.  :; 

^iUal  ji'^i-*  w:i«  t!i*»  rival  of  t'mtiiHH.     .Xini^nc  to  otiier?*  of  the  di  ino  of  I'l.jlv  af.il  tl.v  f.  •• 

th«»  nhjrrt*  of  hit  Mtir*' wi-n*  .\h  »^i:id»'S  jin«l  tKni'i*.      His  parent'*   hail  U-ii   .\!lii*n%  *•:!  !:^ 

SM*r:it«*'«.  t!tf  tMrtncr  of  nhoni,  nt-t'onlii.;;  to  ono  approju'h  of  XtTXfS   aiul   hi*  l'tr*.;.ti  .*«»•;.••  : 

re|»«irt.  *'XH'»|N'r.iti-il   \»\  hi'«   att.ttko.  thnw  )iim  takru  rcfnir**  in  tho  n«'ip!iUirif,;r   i*!ar.'l.     l.-e 

into  thi*  jx'.i,  whiTi"   hf   wa-  t]riii\iii«|.      lb*  i-*  ron^littoli  of    lliv   fuin:lv    w.i«    ri"-ji*-r'a;  ;••    i*  ^i 

al«»  •>.iitl,  « ith  m«»rf  pnih:i*»il;r\,  !«•  l»:i\>' Imi-h  {N'rhaf'S  allliu-nt.   thtriL'h   Ar:*!i»;';,aT..  s   :r.    '.  .* 

killi««l  in  hatlh-  il-irin,;  thi*  l*il»»p>«nn«'»i;in  war.  roniicattark'»npiiTit!iviHn?,ih!«  n*  »-<.  I,.  •  r:  :»•*:- r 

Tho  frajmfht'»  i»f  hi*  pla\-  \\:\\*'  l.i  i?i  nlilttl  ]'y  as  a  m*lUT  of  lu  rh-* :  l-iit  tho  »•  :,•   t  i.f  a-     » . : 

Hunki-I   I  Lfiji^ir.    I^•J''l,   and    ari*   r.intaini-il   in  to'»litnony  rontr-nl.r**  tli**^*  t— *r!.or:»   a; -I     :.- 

Mcilii-kt'o    r  r.i'/tnf  ft  f. I     /*i.f '.ir'/w*    t\finii\-rum  sinualion'*  <»f  tl.e  t:r*'at  « *i!n'.i' Jn- T.      Tk   !jt^  tr 

fr'rir^i'riMi*  (!{•  riiti.  1*».'.'»  'iTi  *  if  tho  futiir«»   trijo^lim   I^l.^l{!>    rv!::r:  **1   !» 

KCHK.  a  N.  dfpartiiii'nl  *>(  FraiMi-.  tiininil  in  .\lhon«»  at\Ttho  iVr^iaii*  Htro  drT^n  rrv-n;  ::* 

17*iltlhy  thr  iiiii<Bii  nf  I  .nn«  ii  nt  di^tr-ii-:- iif  N<ir-  country.      .\t   ulletintt,   tl.v   tti':cut.>>a   o?  *  .« 

niandjk.  lHi«in>I«il  N.  l»y  thr  nii>iitli  *'i  thi*  S mi-  sin  iH-riipift!  nturh  i<f  hi-*  attf'nt:>>n      lh.*r»  vm 

and  tho  di  partiiifht   of  .Siiii   liiTi-rhMr»'.  K.  !-v  a  !<•;:«■  nd  that,  indtirts)   hv  nn   ora*  Ir  « }.;« .'.  c*- 

i»iM?  ami  .N:ino-«t-Ui^,  S.  by  Kurv-el-lA*ir  and  clarvd  tiiat  the  Vuiich  was*  dotiued  to  Inr  ^ x-.o 


EUBIPIDES  827 

ikxiB  ia  the  "crown  oontesta,^*  he  eansed  bb  intrigae  between  Cboerilla  and  an  actor  named 

son  to  be  trained  in  athletic  exercises.    While  Mnesilochns.    He  lived  but  a  short  time  after 

yet  a  boy,  be  is  said  to  have  gained  the  victory  he  went  to  Macedonia.    AccordiDg  to  tradition, 

in  the  El^isinian  and  Thesean  contests ;  and  at  he  was  torn  in  pieces  by  the  hounds  of  the  kiug. 

the  age  of  17  he  offered  himself  at  the  Olympic  During  his  short  residence  in  Macedonia,  he  ac- 

nia,  hot  was  not  received.    For  a  time  he  quired  a  great  ascendency  over  the  king,  who 
ted  himaelf  to  the  art  of  painting,  and  some  loaded  him  with  gifts  and  honors.    When  the 
of  his  performances  are  said  to  have  been  seen  news  of  his  death  reached  Athens,  it  threw  the 
it  Megara.  His  genina,  however,  ranged  through  whole  city  into  mourning.    Sophocles,  then  90 
all  the  studies  that  were  then  cultivated  at  years  of  age,  was  so  deeply  moved  that  he 
AthensL    He  atodied  rhetorio  under  Prodicua,  changed  his  garments,  and  required  his  actors  to 
the  anihor  of  the  admirable  apologue  of  the  lay  aside  their  crowns  and  appear  in  mourmng 
''<%oioe  of  Hercules,"  who  visited  Athens  as  on  the  stage.    The  Athenians  requested  that  his 
■abanador  of  bis  native  city;   physics  under  remains  might  be  sent  home  for  burial;  but 
Aasngoraa,  whose  opinions  gave  a  coloring  to  the  request  was  not  granted.    The  Athenians, 
bs  poetry ;  and  perhiqis  philosophy  under  Pro*  however,  erected  a  cenotaph  to  the  poet,  on 
tagoraa.    He  be^me  an  intimate  uriend  of  So-  the  road  from  the  Pirseus  to  Athens,  and  his 
crates,  wbowas  12  years  hb  junior.    At  length,  statue  was  afterward  set  up,  with  those  of 
after  trying  his  hand  on  other  pursuits,  the  nat«  ^schylus  and  Sophocles,  in  the  Dionysiac  thea- 
aral  torn  of  his  genius  for  tragedy  manifested  tre,  by  Lycurgus  the  orator,  a  contemporary 
'ML    Wa  first  piece  was  written  at  the  age  of  of  Demosthenes.    The  beautifid  inscription  on 
18,  bnt  there  is  no  evidence  that  it  was  brought  the  cenotaph  is  supposed  to  have  been  written 
am  the  stage.    The  Feliadu^  the  first  of  his  by  Thucydides  the  historian. — Of  the  numerous 
HiTi  represented    in   his    own   name,    was  works  of  Euripides  only  19  entire  pieces  have 
boaght  out  in  455.    This  is  not  preserved,  come  down  to  our  times.     Many  fragments 
Fourteen  years  later,  441,  he  gained  for  the  of  other  plays  exists,  and  are  published  in  the 
frat  time  the  first  tragic  prize.     Ten  years  editions  of  his  works.  Of  the  extant  pieces,  the 
after  this,  in  481,  he  gained  the  first  prize  with  genuineness  of  one,  the  Rhesus^  has  been  call- 
the  tetralogy,  including  the  Medea,  FMloeteteSj  ed  in  question.    Seventeen  are  tragedies,  and 
JHUifi,  and    TherUUB.     In  428  he   brought  two,  the  Cyclops  and  the  Alcestis,  were  intend- 
eai  the  HippolytuM ;  in  412  the  Andromeda ;  ed  as  afterpieces,  like  the  satyric  dramas  (of 
and  in  408  the  Orettet,    lie  appears  to  have  which  the  Cyclops  is  indeed  the  only  remaining 
carried  off  the  prize  but  seldom,  if  we  con-  ^  specimen)  in  tetralogies.     The  earliest  of  all 
adar  the  number  of  his  plays — 15  times  ac-  is  the  Alcestis,  which  was  brought  out  in  438 ; 
eocding  to  Thomas  Magister,   or  5  times  as  the  date  of  the  Orestes  is  the  latest  ascertained, 
otbera  state — while  he  is  said  by  some  to  have  408 ;  but  several  of  liis  pieces  were  brought 
vritten  92,  and  by  others  75  pieces,  includ-  out  after  the  poet's  death  by  his  son  Euripides. 
lar  the  aatyrio  dramas  or  afterpieces,  with  The  best  editions  of  Euripides  are  those  of  Beck 
which  the  tragic  trilogy  was  usually  followed.  (Leipsic,  1778-'88),  of  MatthisD  (Leipsic,  1818- 
Soon  after  the  representation  of  the  Orestes,  '29),  and  the  Glasgow  edition  in  1821.    The 
Eoripides  appears  to  have  accepted  the  invita-  edition  of  Paley,  now  passing  through  the 
tioa  of  Arcbelans,  king  of  Macedonia,  to  take  press  in  London — ^two  yolumes  of  which  have 
^  hia  residence  at  that  court.    He  had  already  already  appeared — will  certainly  be  the  most 
Ud  posMsnon  of  the  Athenian  stage  for  more  beautiful,  and  probably  the  most  useful.    The 
than  90  years,  and  had  written  an  extraordinary  whole  works  of  Euripides  have  been  translated 
■amber  of  masterpieces  in  the  art  to  which  into  Englisli  verse  by  Potter  (2  vols.  4to., 
Ua  life  had  been  devoted,  when  he  left  the  city  London,  1781-'4;  2  vols.  8vo.,  Oxford,  1814),  and 
wUdi  bis  genius  had  adorned,  to  try  the  hazard-  into  prose  by  Buckley  in  Bohn's  ^^  Classicid  Li- 
en and  uncertain  experiment  of  residence  at  a  brary.*' — On  the  moral,  intellectual,  and  poetical 
Imgn  court;  but  there  were  some  powerful  merits  of  Euripides  there  was  in  ancient  times,  as 
leaaona  which  urged  him  to  tiiis  step.     The  there  is  in  modem,  a  great  diversity  of  opinion. 
lifahies  in  his  art,  and  still  more  tlie  attacks  Among  his  contemporaries,  Socrates  thought 
li  which  he  exposed  himself  by  the  freedom  of  so  highly  of  him  that  he  mode  it  a  point  to  at- 
bia  philoeophical  and  religious  opinions,  proba-  tend  the  theatre  whenever  a  play  of  his  was  to 
b^  embittered  his  life  at  Athens.    According  be  performed,  and  the  philosopher  delighted  in 
la  traction,  Eoripides  was  not  happy  in  his  his  conversation.    Aristophanes,  on  the  other 
'  iHMBtio  relations,  but  the  details  on  this  sub-  hand,  pursued  him  with  the  keenest  and  most 
jHtaeem  to  rest  on  no  credible  authority.    lie  unrelenting  ridicule,  denouncing  him  as  the 
to  Choerilla,  the  daughter  of  Mne-  corrupter  of  tragedy  and  the  teacher  of  immor- 
and  by  her  had  3  sons,  Mnesilochns,  al  doctrines,  and  contrasting  him  unfavorably 
I,  and  Euripides.    There  are  strong  in  these  respects  with  .^chylus  and  Sophocles. 
lor  disbelieving  the  statement  that  he  In  modern  times,  A.  W.  Schlegel  and  the  critics 
1  his  wife  for  infidelity ;  and  that  the  of  his  school  have  adopted  the  representationa 
proving  equally  bad,  he  withdrew  in  of  Aristophanes  as  the  basis  of  a  serious  but 
to  the  court  of  Macedonia;  or  that  he  most  disparaging  judgment.  The  objections  made 
'  in  oonseqnenoe  of  having  detected  an  to  him  have  some  foundation,  but  they  have  been 


828  EURIPIDES 

pressed  titoircthcr  too  far.  Aristotle,  with  his  life.  If  we  Jndfiie  by  the  bnsts  and  stataes  of 
calm,  imfmrtial,  and  Judicial  criticism,  while  Euripides  that  have  come  down  to  us  in  the 
censuring  his  faulty  management  in  some  ro-  collections  of  ancient  art,  he  was  a  man  of  ra- 
spectH,  yet  pronounces  him  the  most  tragic  of  paciuns  brain,  of  grave  if  nut  luelancbuly  coon- 
poets;  and  this^  too,  with  the  wurki*  of  Supho-  tenanco,  and  studious  habits;  and  tliciie  im- 
cles  and  a£schylus  before  him.  Milton *s  opin-  prcssions  correspond  to  those  made  by  a  carr- 
ion nearly  coincided  with  that  of  Arifttutle.  ful  study  of  bin  work^  In  the  freedcun  ami 
Euripides  is  censured  as  a  woman-hater,  and  it  flow  of  his  style,  beside  its  genera)  elr|taiic», 
is  supfKHsed  that  his  dii^trust  of  the  female  M'X  we  are  struck  on  every  page  with  apparvnt- 
ffrew  out  of  his  own  domestic  exi>erieuce.  lie,  ly  unstudied  felicities  of  expnnwion«  vbich 
like  Socrates,  is  charged  with  a  want  of  belief  only  Shakespeare,  of  modem  dramatisU^  baa 
in  the  gods  of  his  country.  That  might  be  an  equalled.  II is  feeling  for  nature  in  de«fi,  and 
objection  to  some  among  his  contemiMirarles,  the  language  in  which  that  feeling  U  always 
and  perhaps  it  mode  the  handling  of  m>tholo-  expressed  is  wonderfully  beautiful.  Few  pocta 
gical  ])ersonaged  cold  and  unnatural  on  some  have  ever  equalled  him  in  the  trotbfulncas  o(f 
occasions;  but  it  ousht  to  have  little  effect  on  bis  characters.  TTe  censure  bimf«>rhavioflakcfli 
modern  Judgment.  In  a  literary  point  of  view,  from  life  so  much  that  was  mean  and  an vortky 
the  princi|Nil  charges  against  him  are  that  he  of  being  adorned  by  his  genius.  In  tbe  character 
lowered  the  tone  of  tragedy  and  weakened  its  of  AdmetUiS  for  example.  It  mnst  be  aaid  that 
•tyle ;  that  he  degraded  heroic  characters,  by  bis  miserable  fear  of  death,  and  the  roatemMi- 
representing  them  in  beggary  and  rag^  and  by  ble  means  he  resorted  to  to  e#^cape  it,  bia  shabbj 
these  coarse  means  attempting  to  work  out  reproaches  against  hb  |Nior  old  fatlier  for  rete- 
pathetic  effects ;  that  ho  too  often  introduced  ing  to  die  for  him,  make  us  regret  bis  good 
nia  plays  with  long  and  tedious  narrative  or  fortune  in  possessing  such  a  wi&  aa  AWciCml 
geneaJogical  proU>gues ;  that  his  choruses  fre-  If  be  was  a  woman-hater  at  ti^le^  be  certainly 
qaently  have  little  to  do  with  the  sulject  of  the  knew  bow  to  do  full  Ju^ice  to  the  notiUiitas» 
piece ;  and  finally,  that  he  delighted  in  the  rep-  magnanimity,  and  disinterested  affection  of 
resentation  of  criminal  and  unnatural  passions,  which  woman  is  capable,  as  In  that  traapccfid* 
These  statements,  though  having  a  germ  of  fact,  ently  beantiful,  but  wholly  natnral  and  fnasiMa 
are  quite  too  absolutely  made.  His  predeces-  character.  Where  be  seems  to  sliow  an  opfo- 
sora,  i£(«chylus  and  Sophocles,  had  moulded  site  tendency,  by  putting  mto  tbe  mcMitba  of 
the  Attic  dialect  to  fonns  of  eloquence  and  his  characters  sentiments  disparaging  to  the 
grandeur,  suitable  to  express  the  lofty  senti*  purity  and  generosity  of  woman.tlieses«'ntimf  eta 
ments  of  the  great  hen>ic  characters  they  de-  were  doubtless  drawn  fnmi  what  lie  had  seen 
lighti*d  to  iHjrtruy.  The  genius  of  i^*>chylus  of  the  dark  side  of  MKial  life  in  Athena,  and 
was  naturally  grave  and  elevated  ;  his  t*<lura*  are  by  no  means  to  Ih:  ct^nsidereil  a«  the  rif^re*' 
tion  and  his  exiK*nonce  of  life  had  continited  sion  of  a  general  mysogynical  Ju«lgiiirDt  of  tbe 
the  c»rigin:d  tendencies  of  his  mind.  IK*  had  sex.  Of  the  dramatic  |MtWir  exhibiti-d  in  tb« 
shared  fully  in  the  great  oicitenuntt  niid  the  character  of  Mitlea  there  can  be  but  tme  opis- 
rabliinc  IktoImm  of  tlie  MaratlMiniim  tiiiu-s.  He  iun.  This  cliarneter  is  une  of  the  in4»t  over- 
bad fought  with  di!«tin;;ui>Iied  l»niViTy,  huth  at  whilming  ]K>werindrumatir  literritnrv',  aiMl  it  ts 
Marathon  and  at  Suhani;*.  He  wa*  u  V\  tliagcrcan,  carried  out  with  a  vi;;<>r  of  C(»nre|>tit>n.  »p:<  odor 
and  hod  U-i'U  initiatvd  into  the  Kleu>inian  my  a-  of  language,  and  unfailing  ctm^i^tenry  tl.a!  B^ark 
terieif.  Hit  stylv  (*f  tlmu^rht  and  exprv^Mon  only  the  very  highe^t  pnHhictittnnof  gvnius.  Tb* 
was  moulilfd  by  all  tlieM*  influcnrcs,  ami  iMtth  character  of  riiietlra  lioftlHri-u  ceii^nn-d  a!«  a  J4«- 
had  a  H>U*mn  n-ligious  rharmtcr.  Hii*  ideas  of  mentation  of  unnatural  |4Lv>i«in.  At  the  firstglxu^v 
the  divine  nature,  of  hm,  (»f  rttrihutmn,  ri>o  there  set*ms  to  be  some  tniih  in  thU  rvn«ar«: 
into  thv  highest  region  of  ethiral  and  religioU!i  but  we  are  ctmfident  tliat  the  critic  mho<ud«rs 
speculatitin  ;  and  \i'\'<  liiir^  whetlur  in  chorus  it  faithfully  will  come  to  a  ditfiTiT.t  ri>orltt«A««. 
or  iani!  ii\  hrtathe  a  spirit  in  entire  artMnlanro  She  ha^  fallen  a  vietini  to  an  irre^i^^tiUe (ntwrr ; 
with  tlir  loftiiK*Hi4  of  hi"*  ctinrii»t!on'<.  In  his  and  under  that  su|HTuatural  induviice — rxH  sg* 
st}Ie  Kuripiili-s  in  not  lofty  like  .Km-Iiv^is  nor  iKTuatural  acconling  to  iir^vk  cviir«ptMm»— is 
elalMiratily  ili'^ant  likt*  S>iih(N'K-<i.  In  hin  plots  K*d  to  crime,  ruin,  and  death.  Il  i*  a  dclicica- 
be  is  nttt  mj  hiuiplo  jl*«  ^'Kn-h^hH,  ntir  hi  care*  tion  of  terrible  heauty;  how  ti-rriUe.  and  bow 
fully  balam-eil  a^  Si|>Iior(«!i.  Hut  in  tlio  Muily  Wautiful,  no  mudern  cxui  mho!U  undrrvraad 
of  human  paK^ioll^  in  tlie  ana!}>i**  of  the  rhar-  who  has  not  witni*f<M«dthe  mondcrful  rvprv«<B- 
acters  of  nicu  and  woiiuii,  intratMng  artioUH  to  tation  of  it  by  Rachel.  She  prufi-«M:<l  to  pUy 
their  hidden  nll•tivt■^  throu^Mi  all  tin-  hihyrin-  the  Thrdre  oV  liacine ;  but  Mie  ru^*  tt^^n  tba 
thine  winding«>of  prvtemv  or  ^elf-iKTvptiun.  he  word?*  of  Kacine  to  the  cor.  or  pt  ion  of  Eanptdc^ 
is  undouhtiNlly  their  hUiHrt«ir.  In  lii<«  i>hiv<4  ]tnt  we  have  not  rpaee  tti  fi.41oir  bui  iLit 
tin-re  i^  more  of  phtl«HM»phy,  in  M'ite  of  the  theme  into  fnrtlu-r  dvtaiU.  W«  mil  only  aJJ, 
orcaMonal  H>phi«try  that  dcf"rni4  tiit-m;  tliere  that  l«e?>ide  tho»e  we  have  alreaily  BwatMtM^ 
are  mori>  pithy  maxima,  M'ntintioi:<«iXprv^->ions  ('ircn>  and  Quintilian  of  the  anrirnt*  vira 
of  mctaphvt»ii-al  and  ttliiral  truth,  aiid  di^'u**-  among  hi^  warmest  ad niirer«;  and  the  prncral 
aions  that  rv;k]ly  evolve  ini[Mirtant  ronrluMonn  estimation  in  t^hich  he  %i a*  hiM  in  »b«»wa  !y 
bearing  u|ion  the  conduct  of  private  or  public  the  number  of   bis  piecca  which   have  scr- 


EUBIPnS  EUROPE  829 

nred,  betnff  5  more  than  those  of  ^scbylns  peninsolas  stretching  into  Uie  Mediterranean  era- 
aid  Sopbodes  together.    The  attacks  of  Aris-  braced  nearly  all  Euro|>e.    In  Strabo^s  time  the 
tftpbanea,    and  the  graver  condemnation   of  German  ocean  and  the  Baltic  were  considered  as 
Sdilegel,  most  be  taken  with  large  abatements ;  the  northern  boundary  of  the  continent.    Tbe 
and  a  just  jadgment,  while  it  admits  that  he  had  existence  of  the  Scandinavian  peninsula  and  the 
•erioos  faiuts,  must  plaoe  Euripides  high  in  the  Arctic  ocean  appears  not  to  have  been  known  to 
fint  class  of  tragedians.  tbe  Romans  before  the  time  of  Pliny.    Indeed, 
EURIPUS,  the  ancient  name  of  the  narrow  it  was  not  till  tbe  political  supremacy  was  wrest- 
rtraiu  separating  Bosotia  from  the  island  of  ed  from  tbe  Latin  by  the  German  race  that  tbe 
Eabcea,  or  Negropont,  in  the  Grecian  archipel-  geographical  knowledge  of  Europe  was  perfect- 
aga    Both  ancients  and  moderns  speak  of  the  ed.    Though  much  smaller  in  size  than  either 
cztnordinary  irregularity  and  violence  of  ebb  Asia,  Africa,  or  America^  Europe  has  for  many 
and  flow  in  these  straits,  changing,  as  Livy  re-  centuries  exerted  a  greater  influence  upon  the 
markii  niddenly  like  the  wind,  and  not  merely  destiny  of  other  portions  of  the  globe  than  all 
7  timeB  every  day,  as  was  believed.    A  bridge  the  other  divisions.    McCuUoch  says :  ^'It  is  to 
wasbnilt  over  them  connecting  Ohalcis  of  Eubosa  the  world  at  large  what  Rome  was  to  Italy  or 
.      with  tbe  mainland.  The  modem  name  is  Egripo,  Athens   to    Greece — tbe    favored  land   unde 
erScrattodiN^roponte.  humaniUu^  doetrina^  religio^fniges^  jura,  leges 
Ed^OCLTDON,  the  Greek  name  of  a  very  orta  atque  in  omnes  terras  distributaputantur,'^^ 
tnapestnoos  wind  (Acts  xxvii.  14),  now  known  But  this  assertion,  as  it  stands,  is  obviously  too 
a  a  Levanter.    It  is  of  the  nature  of  a  whirl-  general    For  nearly  IjOOO  years  subsequent  to 
wiad;  and  its  danger  results  from  its  sudden-  the  downfall  of  the  Roman  empire,  Europe 
oflH^  violence,  and  the  uncertainty  of  its  course,  slowly  and  laboriously  struggled  through  bartMV- 
EUROPA,  in   mythology,  a   daughter   of  rism  at  a  time  when  tbe  Mongolian  race  in 
Afeoor,  king  of  Phosnicia,  and  sister  of  Cadmus  eastern  Asia  had  already  attained  a  more  per- 
isd  Phoenix ;  or,  according   to   Homer,  the  feet  state  of  society  and  culture.    It  is  onlj 
diMhtar  of  Phoenix.    Her  beauty  was  said  to  within  the   last  4    centuries  that  European 
be  doe  in  part  to  a  recipe  which  hod  been  stolen  civilization  has  matured  so  far  as  to  be  able  to 
from  Jano  and  given  to  her.    She  gained  the  wield  a  controlling  influence  over  distant  re- 
loffi  of  Japiter,  who  effected  her  abduotion  by  gions  and  to  stamp  its  seal  upon  their  political 
I     pUjing  with  her  in  a  meadow  in  the  form  of  a  state. — According  to  Rittcr,  Europe,  with  all 
-     gantls  white  bull,  and  when  she  had  mounted  islands  belonging  to  it,  has  a  superficies  of  8,- 
^OA  his  back,  he  started  with  her  across  the  700,000  sq.  m.  and  20,780  m.,  of  coast  line,  in- 
•M,  and  bore  her  attended  by  troops  of  uereids  eluding  790  on  the  Caspian  sea.    The  extreme 
•ad  tritons  to  the  shores  of  Crete.    There  she  points  of  the  European  continent  are  : 

Wonie  the  mother  of  Minos,  Rhadamanthus,       j^orth :  Cape  North,  lat  n*  lo*  N.,  long.  26^  oo  23  ■  E. 
ad  Sarpedon,  and  subsequently  mar ned  Aste-       South :  Cape  Tarifa,  **   sgmk)  n.,    **     5-85H7'R 

in.  kinip  of  Creta  'West :  Cape  Roca,     **    88'  40  N^    «      9'  30  87"  E. 

^iSSSrS  ^    ,      /.  East:     ScaofKanL    ♦*     $9*45  Ni!     •*     »' 20  28 '  E. 

EUROPE,  one  of  the  five  principal  divisions 

^  tbe  globe,  tbe  smallest  except  Australia,  but  The  length  of  Europe  from  Cape  St.  Vincent 

tlM  most  important  in  the  history  of  civilization,  in  the  S.  W.  to  the  sea  of  Kara  in  the  N.  E.  is 

Gccjgraohically  considered,  it  is  merely  a  K  W.  8,430  m. ;  the  width  from  Cape  North  to  Cape 

pitinwiiw  of  the  Asiatic  continent,  but  from  the  Matapon  (the  southernmost  point  of  the  Greek 

times  it  has  been   distinguished  as  a  peninsula),  2,420  m.    EuropD  is  bounded  N.  by 

division  of  the  globe.    Its  name  in  the  the  Arctic  ocean  and  the  White  sea,  E.  by  the 

of  Herodotus  was  applied  only  to  that  Ural  mountains  and    river  and  the  Caspian 

m  of  the  continent  stretching  from  Thrace  sea,  S.  by  the  ridge  of  the  Caucasus  moun- 

to  Cbe    Peloponnesus,  opposite    Asia  Minor,  tains,  the  Black  sea,  and  the  Mediterranean, 

UEsraot  o|)inion8  obtain  in  regard  to  tbe  ety-  and  W.  by  the  Atlantic  and  the  Gennan  ocean. 

■oloflj  of  the  name.    The  belief  that  it  origi-  The  boundary  line  between  Europe  and  Asia 

Mtodln  tbe  myth  of  Europa  was  discarded  by  is  somewhat    undetermined,   but  that  which 

Since  then  there  have  been  many  ascends  the  Ural  river  from  its  mouth  at  the 

theories,  none  of  which  bos  remained  un-  Caspian  sea  to  the  Ural  mountain  range,  and 

rted.    Ancient  writers  derive  the  name  follows  the  crest  of  that  range  to  the  sea  of 

Eoros  (south  wind),  or  from  c ypvr  and  Kara,  is  usually  adopted.    The  islands  of  Nova 

I  (a  Scythic  word,  quoted  by  the  Greeks),  Zembla  are  set  down  by  Ilumboldt  as  properly 

broad  land,  or  from  fvpvr  and  «^,   the  belonging  to  Asia,  since  by  their  vertical  con- 

Inad-looking  (land).    Modern  scholars  have  figuration  they  appear  as  a  continuation  of  the 

for  the  origin  of  the  name  in  the  Semitic  Ural  range.    Erman,  on  the  contrary,  shows 

Thus  Bocbart  derives  it  from  the  their  connection  with  the  Scandinavian  moun- 

\w  word  erd}  (west),  while  others  hold  tain  system,  and  this  b  also  the  view  taken  by 

%  m  %  cormpt  form  of  tbe  words  havra  most  English  geographers.    Tbe  continent  pro- 

(white-ftoed). — ^But  little  was  known  by  per  has  tlie  shape  of  a  rectangular  triangle,  tbe 

Blent  Greeka  of  that  portion  of  the  con-  nypothenuse  of  which  extends  from  the  bay  of 

lying  K.  of  the  great  Alpine  moun-  Biscay  to  the  sea  of  Kara,  while  the  right  angle 

In  fkct,  for  them  the  3  large  rests  on  tbe  Caspian  sea.   The  area  of  this  main 


zr. 


L. 


EUBOFK 


bodj  of  the  continent  is  abont  2,660.000  m].  m., 
thatof  tho  penioMiIar  projeotioni*  abont  $60,000, 
and  that  of  tlie  inlands  195.5<X).      AUotrother 
Europe  roiitain:!  aliout  ,\  part  of  tho  total  area 
of  tlio  dry  land  of  tho  glo1>o.    Tho  proportion 
of  the  ioXid  arv*a  of  the  iteiiinsular  projoi-tioiH 
to  tlu?  main  body  of  t!ic  continont  is  a^  1  to  3, 
a  lan^*r  ratio  than  m  found  in  any  otlior  diviMon 
of  the  (;lol>c.     A  cur\-cd  lino  drawn  from  a 
point  in  tho  Ural  mountains  lat.  CO**  or  CI**  N., 
to  tho  W.  coast  of  Norway,  lat.  69°,  juucMnff 
through  I^ke  Onetra  and  a  little  N.  of  the  gulf 
of  liothni.i,  marks  tho  extreme  limits  of  cultiva- 
tion. It  cuts  otr  an  area  of  about  550,(iOO  h].  m., 
or  4   V^^  ^^  ^'*^  entire  Mirface.    £un>^»o  is 
aarronndi'd  by  water  on  3  sido^.    On  the  N.  tho 
Arctic  oroan,  penetrating  450  m.  into  tho  conti- 
nent, forms  the  White  «ca,  which  haa  an  area  of 
85,000  iiq.  m.  Its  coast,  aituated  for  the  greateait 
liart  within  tho  temperate  zone,  has  becomo  a 
■eat  of  culture  notwithstanding  its  high  latitude. 
On  theW.  the  Athinticocean,  narrowing  between 
the  HritiAli  inlands,  tho  Scandinavian  i)enin8ula, 
and  tho  continent,  assumes   tho  form  of  an 
Inland  sea  (North  sea,  or  German  ocean,  area 
860,0(K)  s«|.  m.),  which  is  connected  by  tho 
Skager  Hack  and  Cattegat  with  the  Ualtic  sea. 
Tlio  lisiUic,  comparatively  a  shallow  sea,  and 
leas  salt  than  the  ocean,  is  almost  entirely  land- 
lockc<l.     By  it**  numerous  affluents,  however,  it 
has  obtained  a  commercial  and  even  a  political 
irofiortance  in  the  history  of  the  Germanic  race, 
almost  etjuul  to  that  of  the  Hlack  sea  in  early 
Greek  hi-tory.     Its  area,  exclusive  of  islands,  is 
ovi-r  loii.iXni  si].  m.    Tho  coiifipuration  of  tho 
fhtuThfrii  co.i.««t  of  Kiiroj>e  is  determine*!  by  tho 
Mt.'<liti-rr:ini':m  sea,  a  shivt  of  water  2.350  m.  in 
len^rth,  o>viTinj»  an  area  of  over  l.OOO.fKMJ  h].  m. 
liy  it<   piMtion  it  fonns  tho  coniuK-tin^  link 
bi'twit-n    Eurupe,    A-io,    and    Afrinu   and  f«)r 
about  20  rmturit^  the  lii>iory  of  the  Caura- 
aian  race  was  principally  di'Vi'lo|K.Mi  upon   its 
C0.1HM.     Tlio  Black   SCI,   c<Kincrtcd   with    tho 
]lc<lit«'rr:uiian  by  a  nam»w  strait,  in  700  m. 
Ion::.  4iH)  m.  bn^ad,  and   \iivt  a  bUiH-rfioics  of 
IWM^K)  Ml-  m.  induMve  of  the  kmi  of  Azof. 
The  *-<i:uit  line  ahuig  all  tlii*^*  sc:w  i:»  20,<MiM  m., 
or  one  iiiilrof  coa?>t  line  to  l**'l  sq.  m.  of  conti- 
nent;   "i.t'i.H'i   m.  of   coa«t   line    Ulong  to  tho 
An  til'  m*.  :in,  h,4hO  to  the  Atlantic,  and  T.l>'25 
in  tla*  Mi.-<)ilcrninean.     In  con«k<|ueniv  of  tho 
det'p  iritlentatioM^  of  tho  fvx  tlie  we*icrn  half 
of  Kiin»iN*  1*1  III  tains   ik»    great  irilniid  country 
s!iut  lip  frttm  direct  connnnnicition  with  the 
ocrnn.     Tlio  di^tanoo  from  tlio  l»:iv  of  Bi^i'nv  to 
tho  pilf  of  I.vi.ns   i>  only  2^7  m.;  Irum  the 
Brit 'oh  rhannt'l  t*i  tho  same  ^r'»lf,  4rt'J  m.  ;  fri»ni 
t!»o  l*o'iHTani:m  srilt*  to  tlie  trwlf  of  Trieste,  ri'*4 
m. :  friiin  t!iO  srulfof  I».inT.T:e  To  t?ie  Blaek  M.*a, 
7'»2  ni.     fni'ii  tho  gulf  <if  K::iland  to  ilie  M-a  o( 
A/«»f.  l.'»12  ni. :  fnim  tlio  White  m-i  tnthoK'a 
of  .\7«-f,  l.'l'hf  m.  ;  :jim1  from  the  m*:i  of  Kara 
t«i  tho  ('j*;'ian  f^*:i.  l.ii'»6  ni.    Twilvi-  Iar£;o]Kn- 
in«u]a«  are  ftiriiii-*!  hy  indent  at  ionn  of  the  si-a, 
6  of  tin  fu  **j\  tht)  n^rtli,  3  ou  the  wv^t,  and  4 
the  MMitli,  viz. : 


'•— 

KanlQ 

&&• 

Kv\x 

a^Mo 

\Cm 


4!« 


hcamlinA%Ua  iicnInAuU. 

Jullaml 

Nurth  IMluiil 

NurniAfiil  J 

Itrlttany 

IWriso  prnln«iiU 

lulian  p«DiD»ulA 

I>tri* 

Onvce 

Crimea 


flit 


Total 


l^fHft       isa 

•   Ullt 


fiaajMB  ttfljn 


Two  of  tho  5  northern  peninsulaa  stretch  to- 
wanl  the  Arctic  ocean,  and  are  coniseaoeBtly 
almost  uninhabitable,  viz..  Kola  and  Kanin'; 
the  largest  of  the  n<»rthern  peninsnUs  (the  Scan- 
dinavian) has  a  southern  direction.  Thus  only 
a  small  portion  of  the  coast  confignratioB  b 
lost  to  culture  and  commerce.  Tlie  islands  toa 
with  the  exception  of  Iceland,  duster  so  ckaetT 
around  the  continent  that,  in  consideriDf  the 
natural  facilities  m-hich  Europe  oiTera  to  raa- 
mercial  intercourse,  their  coast  line  might  be 
addtnl  to  that  of  the  continent.  Tho  principal 
of  these  islands  are : 


Orvat  RritalB  (roalo  ttlaad) 

MjMS 

Iniawi 

Iri'laml 

aa.M 

1>BnWh  l»laoib    .          

4-^^ 

Corvlr* 

((«rttinia 

Mr: 

hinlT     

nf« 

i'anJu 

Clut 

ToUl. 


ISaail       KiTl 


Beside  the«io.  the  follow  in s  may  l^o  iiunti^>no!- 
Nova  Zenihla  and  Vaipits  in  t)ic  Krvi/m  «iorar>. 
the  Iji»tr4NKn  on  the  coa>t  of  Norway  :  the 
Aland  arehi|H*lai:o.  Oland,  (lothland,  <.k-«rL  la 
tho  Baltic;  Jer>cy,  Guernsey.  Aldrmey.  Ac- 
in  the  English  chimncl ;  l%hant  and  Uirllc:«ie 
on  the  W.  coa'«t  <»f  France;  the  Azores  in  lbs 
Atlantic;  Miij<»rra,  Minorca,  Uba,  th«  Lif«h 
inlands,  Malta,  tlio  Dalmatian  arrhiiw-I.tpv  the 
Ionian  i^ihimK  tho  S|Njrade9  and  (  yrladr^  la 
tho  Me<literrane.nn  Koa. — Coa*ider\tl  as  a  »bni«. 
Enro|»e  has  an  average  elevatiim  «»f  «*ly  MO 
feyt  al»ove  tho  level  of  the  M'a.  Tlio  sArae  di- 
retti«»n  Irom  S.  W.  ti»  N.  E,  which  pnrvaib  ii 
the  coa^t  confipiration  i<  iH-rrcptil4e  in  tk^*  jo- 
Mtion  of  tho  iMountaini  aiKl  tlu-ir  ditfrrval 
strata.  AH  tho  pt-niuMiIas.  th(t«e  strrtrhiag  ta 
tilt*  iitirthw.inl  «  xet- pietl.  are  moantainoca^  m 
are  the  i->Iand*i,  while  theplain«  enverthe  Uncvsl 
portion  of  tl:o  ni.i:n  N»«]y  %»(  the  c%tiitinreL 
The  pro[Hjrti<«n  of  the  plain«tr>  the  rmicintaii>i'<ai 
retri*»ns  in  nil  Enn^fK*  is  as  ^  to  2 ;  Nit  in  thsl 
|Mirtiofi  of  Europe  whieh  ha^  U  t-n  pnVmiocntIv 
the  M-at  of  rivilirjition  and  the  tlM*Atrr  of  h»- 
torv.  the  nHHintains  prevail  over  the  pUins  ai 
:t  to  1.  A  diap»nal  line  of  nwwinLain  rancv^ 
extendim:  from  S.  E.  to  S.  W.  (CaumMiN  Car 
pnthiaii%  and  llercvnisn  monn tains V  for*n«  t^ 
dividing  line  betwei-n  the  mountainooa  and  iki 


EUBOFB  331 

lerel  portions  of  Earope.    The  latter,  extend-  series  of  parallel  ridges  into  France.     Thej 
ing  from  the  shores  of  the  Grerman  ocean  to  the  send  4  principal  chains  through  the  Iberian 
UraL,  appear  as  a  western  continuation  of  the  peninsula,  the  whole  system  covering  a  super- 
steppes  of  Siberia  and  Turan,  intersected  hj  ficial  area  of  210,000  so.  m.    Their  culminating 
the  insalar  Ural  range.    While  on  the  shores  point  is  the  Oerro  de  Mulhacen  in  the  Sierra 
of  the  German  ocean  its  width  is  only  93  m.,  Nevada  (11,660  feet).    The  Apennines,  stretch- 
this  being  the  point  where  the  mountain  sys-  ing  from  the  Alps  through  the  entire  length  of 
terns  approach  the  ocean,  in  the  extreme  east  it  Ittdy  to  the  strait  of  Messina  (840  m.),  cover  an 
is  1,400  m.  wide.    Its  entire  length  is  near  2,300  area  of  60,000  sq.  m.    Their  highest  summit  is 
m.,  its  area  8,100,000  sq.  m.    Proceeding  from  the  Monte  Como  (9,642  feet).    The  Carpathian 
the  heaths  <^  West  Brabant  in  an  easterly  di-  and  Sudetic  mountains,  with  the  Erzgcbirge 
reetioii,  even  beyond  the  Ural  passes  to  the  and  the  Bohmerwald,  form  one  chain  extending 
steppes  on  the  western  slope  of  the  Altai  moun-  1,200  m.  in  length,  from  the  Danube  in  Hun- 
tms.  80  degrees  of  longitude,  no  elevation  of  gary  to  the  same  river  in  Bavaria.    Their  high- 
orer  1,200  or  1,300  feet  above  the  level  of  the  est  elevations,  from  5,000  to  8,000  fect^  are  in 
tea  is  met  with.    The  western  or  European  Transylvania  and  Hungary,  where  they  surpass 
portkm  of  this  plain  appears  to  have  formed,  the    lower   limit  of  perpetual    snow.      The 
after  the  eommencement  of  the  tertiary  period  Balkan,  a  direct  continuation  of  the  Dinario 
of  geology,  the  bed  of  the  sea.    It  includes  the  Alps,  sweeps  in  an  irregular  curve  from  the 
mAt  basin  of  the  Baltic  and  White  seas.    A  Adriatic  to  the  Black  sea.    It  is  the  Mount 
pirt  of  it  IS  traversed  by  rivers  flowing  north-  Hromus  of  the  ancients.    Its  general  elevation  is 
wird  from  the  Alps,  the  Bohemian  and  Su-  about  4,000  feet,  though  the  culminating  point 
detic  mountains.    To  the  eastward  the  water-  (Tchardogh)  reaches  the  height  of  9,700  feet. 
died  between  the  Baltic  and  the  Black  and  Thence  one  range,  the  ancient  Pindus,  diverges 
Cispian  seas  is  only  a  few  hundred  feet  in  elo-  to  the  S.,  dividing  Albania  from  Roumclia,  and 
Trtkm;  commencing  at  a  spur  of  the  Carpa-  connecting  with  the  mountains  of  Greece,  the 
Chians  near  the  source  of  the  Dniester,  it  runs  loftiest  summits  of  which  attain  an  elevation 
through  the  Russian  governments  of  Volhynia,  of  8,000  feet.    Near  the  eastern  end  of  the 
Grodno,  Minsk,  Mohilev,    Smolensk,    Pskov,  principal  range  the  Little  Balkan  branches  off 
Trer,  Novgorod,  and  Vologda,  to    the  Ural  in  a  S.  E.  direction,  and,  running  parallel  to  the 
mge.     Though  interspers^  with   marshes,  shore  of  the  Black  sea,  terminates  near  the 
boss,  and  heaths,  this  immense  plain  is  suscep-  Bosporus.    Between  the  Alpine  system  proper, 
tiUe  of  high  culture,  but  nowhere  is  the  soil  so  the  Pyr6n^s,  and  the  Atlantic  (in  France), 
fertile  as  to  produce  crops  without  laborious  there  are  8  separate  mountain  ranges,  viz.,  tho 
dOigence.     Thus  it  became  naturally  tho  seat  Ce venues  ana   mountains  of   Auvergne,   tho 
of  a  civiliration  based  in  part  upon  the  ster-  Jura,  and  the  Vosges,    The  Cevennes  divide 
fing   characteristics  of    the    energetic    Teu-  the  low  country  on  the  Mediterranean  and  tho 
Umie  race.    Connected  with  this  large  plain  basin  of  the  Rhone  from  the  plains  extending 
are  two  lesser  ones,  in  France  (94,000  sq.  m.)  W.  to  the  Atlantic ;  their  general  elevation 
wdA  in  Hungary  (38,000  sq.  m.). — The  moun-  is  from  8,000  to  5,000  feet,  though  some  peaks 
tun  system  of  southern  and  western  Europe  is  rise  to  a  height  of  about  6,000  (Plombde  Cantal^ 
grosped  around  the  central  mass  of  the  Alps,  6,093 ;  Mount  Mezin,  6,918  feet).    Tho  Jura, 
^Htt  forms  the  summit  and  the  principal  of  nearly  the  same  elevation,  extends  along  the 
watershed  of  the  continent.    The  Alps,  cover-  frontier  of  Franco  and  Switzerland.    Further 
mx  an  area  of  95,000  sq.  m.,  slope  down  on  4  to  the  N.  the  Vosges  divide  the  basin  of  the 
MM  toward  France,  Germany,  Hungary,  and  Rhine  from  that  of  the  Moselle,  their  summits 
Italy.     Although   towering  up  in  numerous  ranging  from   1,400  to  4,000  feet,   and  the 
iteep  and  rocky  summits,  they  constitute  one  loftiest  only  4,693.    There  are  several  plains, 
dT  the  most  accessible  mountain  systems  of  the  independent  and  differing  in  their  principal 
globe,  and  form  by  their  extensire  valleys  and  features  from  the  great  northern  plain,  en- 
ptMiicable  passes  rather  a  connecting  link  than  closed  by  the  Alpine  system,  to  wit :  the  basin 
a  dividing  line  between  the  surrounding  coun-  of  tho  Po  (15,000  sq.  m.),  the  basins  of  the 
triaiu    The  highest  elevation  of  this  system  and  Rhone  and  of  the  upper  Rhine  (4,250  and  3,500 
^dlEorope  is  MontBIanc  (15,732  feet,  accord-  sq.  m.  respectively),  and  the  Moravian  plain 
kg  to  Bruguiere).    The  lowest  limit  of  per-  (1,000  sq.  m.).    Beside  tho  above  mentioned 
~  snow  in  the  Alps  is  8,760  feet  in  thelati-  ranges,  all  more  or  less  immediately  connected 
of  45*  N.     Connected  with  the  Alpino  with  the  central  system  of  the  Alps,  Europe 
are  the   mountain  systems  of  the  3  contains,  in  its  islands  and  peninsulas,  5  distinct 
peninsulas,  viz.,  the  Hesperic  or  Py-  mountain  systems.    They  are  the  Sanlo-Corsi- 
lystem,  the  Apennines,  and  the  Balkan,  can,  tho  Tauric,   the  British-Hibernian,    tho 
I  the  group  of  the  Carpathian  and  Sudetic  Scandinavian,  and  tho  Sarmatian.    Tho  Sardo- 
The  Pyr^n^s  stretch  from  £.  to  Corsican,  as  its  designation  implies,  is  the  range 
ftir  240  m.,  but,  including  the  Cantabrian  of  mountains  stretching  from  N.  to  S.  through 
Biifl»  their  length  is  500  m.      Their  S.  the  islands  of  Corsica  and  Sardinia ;  its  highest 

^  towaM  Spain,  is  rugged  and  precipitous,  summit,  Monte  Rotondo  in  Corsica,  has  an  ele- 

vUle  OIL  the  N.  they  descend  gradually  by  a  vation  of  9,054  feet.    The  Taurio  system  is  con- 


1 


liMdtotlieMNiUieniportkfioftliaOrlnMiiits   devdopmen^wMAfaOtniMByi 

maiett  deTmfcioii  bemg  6,05S  feet  The  BritUi-    the  ohancter  of  DoUtieal  illwnimlniiMt     Its 

fiibemkn  sjritem  in  Great  BriUin  and  Ire-    eastern  portkm,  the  baain  of  tbaDaiHibaialiova 


land  b  oomnaratlTel J  iniignifieanl,  riling  in  ita  aoroe  fealorea  of  Aaiatiefeogra|ilgrt  Meh  aa  tlie 

bigiieft  pealu  but  little  orer  4^000  feet  (Snow-  muitaa  or  prairiea  of  Uongary.    I.  Bamhuu 

don  inCaemanronahirei  8,070  feet ;  Cader  Idria  Earope  oonaiata  of  the  three  aovtlMni  panlnaa- 

In  Walea,  8,550;  Ben  Maodhn  in   SooCland,  laa  (Spain  and Portncal,  Italj,  Graeee).    Com- 

4.8M;   Ben  Neria,  4^870;   Oidrntool,  4,245;  biningmanjof  theadrantagcaof  tbatanpeffvta 

HeWdl jn  and  SeafeD  in  Cnmberland,  8i,055  and  and  tab-tnmieal  regiona,  it  beeona  tba  tarftat 

8i,166  reneetiTelj ;  Carran  Tnal  in  Ireland,  recipient  oi  Asiatic  and  African  cnltar%  to  tiM 

8i,410).    The  Scandinavian  Alpa  or  Dorrefield  influence  of  which  n  |inrtinn  nf  If  i  mialnad  mh 

•itend  1,000  m.  from  K.  to  8.  through  the  Ject  even  at  a  time  when  Christian  olTiHntian 

entire  length  of  the  ScandinaTian  peninrala,  at  had  been  Tigoronslj  derdoped  1^  tba  Tentoak 

a  general  elevation  of  from5,000  to  6,000  feet  race  in  central  Europe.    4.  Korthatm  JiBps 

Their  highest  summits  are  the  Sneehjstten,  (the  Scandinavian  peninanlai   DeBBwrfc;.  imd 

8.120  feet^  and  the  Skaf^laTind,  8,400.   Inthe  Great  Britain)  ia  leaa  fevored  in  c&Mto  md 

V.  portion  the  lower  luiit  of  perpetual  snow  b  natural  resonrcea,  and  bcaea  moat  miaptad  la 

at  8,000  feet  above  the  level  of  the  aea.  The  Bar-  the  devdopment  of  eaeigj,  aalf-rallaac%  aai 

matian  sjrstem  consists  on! j  of  a  few  scattered  daring  courage. — The  river  ajstiins  of  Xavspa 

bill  chains  in  RussiaiPdand,  and  the  K.E.  part  are  less  extensive  than  thoaa  of  eitbar  Asia  ar 

of  Prussia;  its  greatest  elevation,  in  the  plateau  America.    The  principal  watarsbed  of  tba  esa> 

of  Valdai,  is  o^  lAlB  feet    The  Ural  range,  tinent,  running  from  &  W.  to  K.  Z.,  from  tba 

which  forms  the  N.  £.  booudaiy  lineof  Europe,  atrait  of  Gibraltar  to  the  aea  of  Kan.  Aviisa 

aitends  from  K.  to  S.  through  20  degrees  of  the  continent  into  aS.E.and  aK,  W.ilapa,tba 

latitude,  with  a  breadth  of  40  m.  and  a  general  formw  containing  57.5,  the  latter  4tj6  par  enft. 

devation  of  lesa  than  2,000  feet  oolj  a  few  of  the  total  area  (2,000,000  and  1,500,000  a«.m. 

aammitarisiug  to  a  height  of  2,500  feet  Toward  respectivelj).    <)n  the  8.  E.  slope  tba  boataaf 

the  8.  it  diverges  into  smaller  ridges  that  ex-  the  Caq>ian  sea  comprises  about  500,000  a^au; 

tend  to  the  Caspian  sea.  the  sea  of  Aral^  and  thatof  the  Black  aea  and  the  aea  of  ^tefi 

the  steppes  of  the  Kirghix.    A  volcanic  belt  980,000  aq.  m. ;  and  thebaainof  ~ 


axteads  through  the  southernmost  portion  of  Aean  aea,  570,000,  aq.  m.    On  tba  9.  W.  daaa 

Earope  from   central  Asia  and   Asia  Minor  the  Atlantic  basin  and  tba  baain  of  tba  Baioa 

through  the  archipelago,  Greece,  Kaplea,  Sicilj,  comprise  450,000  sq.  m.  each,  the  baaia  of  tba 

Spain,  and  Portu^  to  the  Axores.    Along  thia  German  ocean  400,000,  and  that  of  the  Arclia 

line  destrocttve  earthquakes  are  of  frequent  oc-  ocean  180,000.    The  following  are  tba  priao- 

corrence.    Beside  roanj  extinct  cratersi  there  pal  rivers  flowing  into  the  diflerent  seas:  t 

are  two  active  volcanoe^  Etna  in  Sicilj  and  Ve-  Caspian  sea :  UrsI  and  Volga ;  2,  sea  of  Aanf : 

auvins  near  Naples.     In  the  north,  Iceland  con-  Don ;  8,  Black  sea:  Danube,  Dniester,  Daiewr, 

atitat4*sadiittinct  volcanic  region.    Its  principal  4,  Mediterranean :  Maritxa,  Kara  Soo,  Varoar, 

volcano  is  Mount  llecla,  some  eruptions  of  Solembria,  Aspropotamo^  Arta  (in  Turkej  and 

which  have  lasted  for  6  jcars.    The  a.  W.  por-  Greece),  Drin,   harenta,  Isonso,  Tagliamcata^ 

tion  of  the  island  contains  the  famous  gcjrsersi  Piave,  Brenta,  Bacchtglione,  Adige,  Po,  Rabk«^ 

or  intermittent  springs  of  steam  and  boiling  Metauro.  Ofento,  Sele,  VcJtnmo,  GarigCaask 

water.    There  are  two  other  volcanoes,  one  on  Tiber,  Ombrone,  Amo,   Var  (Dahnaiia  and 

the  island  of  Jan  Mayen,  between  Iceland  and  Italy),  Rhone,  lUranlt  Aude,  Tet  Tccb,  Tec, 

Spttibergen,  the  other  (mountain  of  Zarytcheff)  Llouregat  Ebro,  Guadalaviar,  Xucar,  Segara 

on  the  nortliem  island  of  Kova  Zembla.    Alto-  (France  and  Spain) ;  5,  Atlantic :  Minhot,  Dam^ 

frther  Europe  contains  87  summits  of  over  Vouga,  Mondego,  Tagus,  Caldao,  Gnadiaaai  Tla- 

1,000  feet  elevation  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  to,  Guadalquivir,  Guadalete ;  6,  bay  of  Biaei^  : 

48  of  more  than  10,000  and  less  than  11, 000  feet  Bidassos,  Adour,  Garonne,  Chareatc,  6ivi«- 

109  over  9,000  and  under  10,000,  92  between  Niortaise,  Loire;   7,  British  channel:   Orac, 

8,000  and  9,000,  and  160  between  7,000  and  Seine,  Somme;   8,  German  ocean:   ScMAl. 

8,000.    Of  thijie,  820  belong  to  the  Alpine  sys-  Rhine,  Veclit,  Ems,  Weser,  Elbe,  EUer ;  8, 

tem. — In  accordance  with  the  prominent  fea-  Cattegat :  Gotha  Qi^  Glommen ;  lO^Bahirsea: 


tares  of  the  vertical  elevation,  4  natural  divisions    Ulea,  Keva,  Narova,  Peman,  Dtkaa^  H 

Kiemen,  Pregel,  Passarge^  Vistula*  Leba»  La- 
pon,  Stolpe,   Vipper,  Persante.  Rega.  Oder, 


Buy  be  ^inted  out  in  Earope :  1 .  Lower  Europe, 
comprijiing  Ruwia,  Poland,  (talicia,  and  tlie  east- 


provinces  of  Prussia.    A  monotonous j)lain.    Rekenetz,  Vamow,  Trave,  Motala  EK  Dal  EK 
assuming  the  character  of  stvppvs  in  the  8.  and    Angermann  Elf,  Umea  El(  Pitea  £1(  Lalca  DC 


of  swamps  in  the  N.,  inhabiti-d  by  tlie  Slavic  and  Tornea  Qf;  11,  Arctic  ocean :  Taaa  EK 

rare  under  abtolute  monarcliical  rule,  it  forms  Onega,  Dwina,Mexcne,  Petehora.  Bseide  tbtsa, 

the  connecting  link  between  Europe  and  Asia,  there  are  tlie  rivers  of  the  British  iUaaiK  the 

t.  Upper  Europe  (Switieriami,  Austria,  Ger-  chief  of  which  are  the  Thames,  Sevara,  llt4" 

r,  Belgium,  llolland,  Francr)  comprises  the  way,  Trent,  Onsa,  Tynci  Tee«»  Wcar«  Mefwv, 

M  direntified  geographical  formation,  and  is  I>ve,  A  vim,  Eden,  and  Derweat,  ia  Ka(Hsfw ; 

a  the  aeat  of  a  varied  aoeial  and  poUtical  the  Tweedy  Qyde,  Forth,  TiUriI>^Diia.8p«v, 


XUBOPE  888 

Kifh,  and  Annan,  in  Scotland ;  the  Shannon,  lat.  SS**  56'  N.  on  the  R  coast  of  Asia  and  Amer^ 

Brandon,  Lee,  Blackwater,  Suir,  Barron,  Slaney,  ica.    Owing  to  the  causes  before  mentioned, 

Iifrej,Bo7ne,Bann,Foyle,  in  Ireland.  The  most  the  mean  temperature  of  Eorope  is  higher  and 

important  of  these  riyers  are :  the  Volga,  Don,  the  extremes  are  less  in  the  same  latitudes  in 

Vistula,  Danube,  Oder,  Elbe,  Weser,   Rhine,  the  western  than  in  the  eastern  part.    The 

Rhone,  Loire,  Timis,  Thwnes,  Severn,  Mersey,  isothermal  liue  of  50^  F.  (mean  annual  temper- 

Forth,  Clyde,  and  Shannon.    The  largest  river  ature)  runs  from  London  to  Cracow  and  Odessa, 

of  Europe  is  the  Volga,  with  a  course  of  over  that  is  to  say,  from  lat  61"*  SO'  to  46"*  22'  N.,  thus 

S,000  m.  and  a  basin  of  over  500,000  sq.  m. ;  declining  nearly  6  degrees  of  latitude  to  the  S. 

next  comes  the  Danube  (length  of  course  1,770  in  a  course  of  81^  6'  of  longitude.    The  isother- 

SL,  basin  808,000  sq.  m.).      Artificial  water  mal  line  of  59^  F.  runs  from  Bayonne,  touching 

oooraes  connect  the  Caspian  sea,  the  Baltic,  Ancona  and  Durazzo,  to  I^rissn,  or  from  lat. 

and  the  Arctic  ocean,  by  the  Volga,  Neva,  43°  29'  to  40""  16'  N.  in  24°  5'  of  longitude.    A 

and  Dwina  rivers ;  the  Black   sea  and  the  mean  annual  temperature  of  68°  is  only  met 

German  ocean  by  the  Danube  and  Rhine  ;  the  with  on  the  southern  coast  of  Portugal.    But 

Mediterranean  and  the  Atlantic  ocean,  British  while  the  mean  temperature  diminishes  advano- 

ehannel  and  German  ocean,  by  numerous  canals  ing  eastward,  the  extremes  of  the  heat  of  summer 

between  the  Rhone,  €raronne,  Loire,  Seine,  and  the  cold  of  winter  increase.    Thus  London 

Scheldt,  and  Rhine.   The  middle  course  of  most  has  the  same  mean  temperature  as  Vien na,  which 

of  the  large  rivers  is  well  adapted  to  naviga-  lies  more  than  8}  degrees  further  S.,  but  it  has 

lion  by  steam  and  other  vessels,  but  their  useful-  the  summer  of  St.  Petersburg  and  the  winter  of 

neaa  for  the  purposes  of  commerce  is  restricted  Milan.    The  transitions  from  winter  to  summer 

\ij  obstmctions  at  their  mouths.    Such  is  es-  and  from  summer  4o  winter  are  less  abrupt  in 

pedally  the  case  with  the  Volga,  Don,  Danube,  the  largest  portion  of  Europe  than  they  are  in 

and  Rhine. — ^The  lakes  of  Europe  are  small,  and  America.    Almost  everywhere  the  seasons  suo- 

iearoelT  any  of  them  important  to  commerce,  ceed  each  other  with  great  regularitv.    The 

Tbe  fUQowing  are  among  the  largest :  Ladoga  extreme  north  only,  where  the  winter  lasts  for 

(8,830  sq.  m.),  Onega  (8,280),  Saima  (1,600),  8  months,  and  the  extreme  south,  form  excep- 

aod  Enara  (685),  in  Russia;  Wener  (2,185),  tions.    The  fall  of  rain  is  more  equally  distrib- 

Wetter  (840),  and  Maelarn  (760),  in  Sweden ;  uted  to  the  N.  of  the  Alpine  system  than  to 

lake  of  Geneva  (240)  and  lake  of  Constance  the  S.  of  it    It  has  been  calculated  that  the 

^00),  in  Switzerland ;   Oarda  (180)  and  Lago  entire  quantity  of  rain  falling  in  the  K.  part  of 

JCa^ore  (150),  in  Italy;   and  Lake  Balaton  Europe  is  less  by  ^  than  in  the  S.,  but  the  snow 

(ISSl  in  Hungary.    Four-fifths  of  the  lakes  of  tlie  N.  covers  the  deficiency  of  rain.    The 

in  Europe  are  situated  in  the  region  around  western  winds,  being  laden  with  the  moisture 

the  Baltic  sea. — ^The  whole  of  Europe,  with  which  they  have  received  in  passing  the  Atlan- 

tha  exception  of  a  small  northernmost  por-  tic,  generally  bring  rain,  while  tlie  eastern  winds 

tion  of  the  Scandinavian  peninsula  and  Russia,  are  dry  and  chilly.    From  the  same  cause  the 

being  atuate  within  the  temperate  zone,  enjoys  average  quantity  of  rain  is  largest  in  Great 

an  equal  and  temperate  climate,  favorable  to  Britain,  and  decreases  in  advancing  to  the  E. 

a  healthy  mnscular  development.    The  disad-  and  S.  £.    Thunderstorms  occur  in  the  N.  part 

'wntages  arising  from  the  proximity  of  the  ofEurope  almost  exclusively  during  the  summer, 

Arctic  ocean  and  the  climatic  influences  of  north-  in  the  S.  part  at  all  seasons  of  tlie  year. — The 

am  Asia  are  more  than  overborne  by  many  vegetation  of  Europe,  dependent  upon  and  cor- 

advantages  which  no  other  division  of  the  globe  responding  to  its  climate,  has  not  the  extremes 

«q{oja  in  an  equal  degree.  The  prevailing  winds  of  luxuriance  or  sterility  belonging  to  other  great 

are  western,  and  hence  before  reaching  Europe  continents.    Culture  has  diversified  it,  and  has 

bafe  been  in  contact  with  an  expanse  of  water,  domesticated  many  plants,  natives  of  other  coun- 

tiia  ior&ce  of  which  has,  even  in  January  and  tries.    Thus  the  vine,  olive,  and  mulberry  have 

in  hL  45-50^  N.,  rarely  a  lower  temperature  been  introduced  from  Syria,  the  cotton  plant 

fliao  44%  48^,  or  50"*  F.    In  the  second  place,  fVom  India,  maize  from  America,  the  walnut  and 

Eorope  is  influenced  by  a  brood  tropical  zone  peach  from  Persia,  the  apricot  from  Armenia,  the 

iielading  Africa  and  Arabia,  whose  dry  soil  sugar  cane  and  orange  from  China ;  while  many 

mres  to  warm  the  air  carried  to  Europe  by  of  the  indigenous  plants,  especially  vegetables  (as 

■Mitbem  winds.    On  the  other  hand,  the  in-  lettnce,  cabbage,  turnips),  have  been  improved 

iofloee  of  the  Arctic  ocean  upon  the  climate  by  culture  to  such  a  degree  that  their  relation- 

if  the  continent  is  neutralized  by  the  Gulf  ship  with  their  wild  types  is  scarcely  evident. 

The  combination  of  all  these  advan-  Europe  may  be  divided  into  3  vegetable  zones, 

ezpluns  the  fact  that  the  mean  tempera-  viz. :  1.  The  sub-nrctic  zone,  characterized  by 

of  Europe  is  higher  than  that  of  any  other  the  prevalence  of  the  pine  and  birch  and  of 

fifWoo  of  the  fflobe  in  corresponding  latitudes,  cryptogamous  plants.   Of  grain  it  produces  only 

the  iaoChermal  fines  of  Asia  and  America  bend-  barley,  and  no  fruit  whatever.    This  zone  com- 

^  in  Eorope  to  the  northward  by  some  10  prises  Iceland,  the  FarOe  islands,  the  Scandina- 

digrace  of  latitude.  Thus  in  lat.  36°  N.  the  mean  vian  peninsula  N.  of  lat.  64*",  and  Russia  to  the  N. 

toaqMfatiire  of  the  year  b  66''  F.,  and  in  lat.  71  "^  of  lat  62**.    2.  The  central  zone,  subdivided  into 

I.  (Gape  Korth)  it  is  82^  F.,  not  lower  than  in  the  zone  of  the  beech  and  oak,  and  that  of  the 


8^4  EUBOPE 

cTiei^Diit  and  vine.  The  former  includes  Great  A1p6)  in  saflicient  qnantities  to  repaj  the  rz« 
BriUin  and  Ireland,  the  Scaudinavian  peninsula  TH.*nse  of  W(»rking  it.  Silvvr  b  mim-d  in  tLe 
S.  of  lut.  04'  N.,  and  the  (xerman  and  Sartnatian  Ilartz,  tlio  Cur|uitliian9,  Ural  mountain*,  Scan- 
|i]ain  between  laL  C2°  and  48**.  The  hitter  cum-  dinaviuu  AI|n<,  and  Sardinia.  Hjo  richvAt  iri-n 
prise?)  the  %'alleys  and  plains  between  the  moun-  mines  ore  in  Sweden,  which  product'*  the  br^ 
tain  rautfes  of  central  Lurupe  and  the  Saruiatiun  quality,  in  Great  Britain,  which  ham  tlie  largest 
plain.  In  the  former,  rye  and  wheat  are  the  quantity,  in  Styria,  Cariuthia,  Bavaria,  t!i« 
prinoipal  gniins ;  in  the  latter,  wheat  and  maize.  Py  K'u^'ea,  the  Carpathians,  and  the  Ilartz  moun* 
8.  The  Miuihern  zone,  or  the  region  of  |>ori>^tual  tuin!<.  Cop{>er  in  lew  abundant  than  in>n :  th« 
venlure,  and  of  the  olive,  comprising  the  3  richei>t  mine^  of  thii»  metal  arc  to  be  fuund  in 
si»utheru  peninsulaa  and  the  southern  coast  Hungary,  the  Saxon  and  Bohemian  moucta:r.A, 
country  of  France,  distinguiiihed  by  a  great  in  England,  the  Ural  mountain^  and  the  Scan- 
variety  and  luxuriance  of  sub-tmpioal  vegetu*  dinavian  A1{h.  Lead  is  wrought  in  mo^t  of  tic 
lion.  The  bugar  cune,  cotton  plant,  banana,  large  mountain  ranges,  tin  onlv  in  a  few  |'lar«» 
orange,  citron,  fig,  fMnnegranate,  and  date  grow  (Cornwall  and  the  Ilartz).  Mercury  is  hLe- 
in  the  southernmost  belt  of  this  region.  The  wise  confined  to  a  few  6|iota,  as  the  mines  of 
zones  in  whieh  these  fruits  and  plants  grow  Idria  in  Caniiola,  Deux  Ponts  in  the  Palati- 
follow  the  lines  of  equal  summer  heat,  and  hence  nute,  and  the  Spanish  province  of  La  Manrla. 
mn  from  S.  W.  to  N.  £.,  since  the  extremes  of  The  richest  co:d  fields  exist  in  the  K.  aiid  W. 
aummcr  heat  and  winter  cold  increase  ad  vane-  i»arts  of  England,  on  UitJi  Hides  of  tbe  m:di!!« 
ing  eastward,  though  the  mean  annual  temper-  regiim  of  Scotland,  in  Ireland,  IWlgiuni,  Fra&rt 
ature  decreases.  Thus  the  cotton  plant  is  (1  of  the  entire  area  of  which  country  is  r>iat*U 
cultivated  on  a  small  scale  ip  the  southernmost  to  consist  of  coal  bed<*),  Germany,  Caialuni.!  in 
portion  of  Spain,  fmm  lat.  SO"*  to  37**,  to  a  Spain,  and  Sardinia.  Salt  i^ either  ibtuinvd  by  the 
greater  extent  in  Sicily,  and  oXm}  in  the  S.  E.  evu{N»ratiou  of  brine  from  Milt  ftpringss  it  frvm 
angle  of  Italy,  in  Greece  as  high  as  lut.  41 4%  dei>ositories  of  mineral  suit,  of  which  tlie  u.kjA 
and  at  Astrakhan  in  lat.4r)''.  The  olive,  which  extensive  are  found  within  the  Austrian  eniptre 
does  not  succeed  on  the  W.  coa>t  of  France  in  at  Wieliczka  and  Soltzburg.  Salt  springs  arvna- 
IttL  43**,  grows  OS  far  OS  lat.  44—15''  in  the  S.  £.  merous  along  the  sides  of  all  monntain»  beloLg- 
provinces  of  Franco  and  in  Italy.  The  fig  and  ing  to  the  primitive  formatitm.  I.arge  i^uar.ti- 
{lomegranate,  which  accompany  the  44ive  in  the  ties  of  salt  are  als4»  collected  from  the  ^a]t  Uiei 
we?it,  are  found  in  the  Crimea  as  far  N.  as  lut.  of  the  Crimea.  Zinc  i<*  wrought  in  En^^Asd 
4G'.  The  climate  profier  for  the  culture  of  and  (leniiuny,  uiul  cubalt  in  Saxony.  lU^kSa 
muizo  terminates  on  the  W.  coast  of  Franco  at  the>o  metaK  untimotiy,  bi^nuth,  inar.ganc*«, 
lat.  4.'i  uU,  <in  the  Hhino  nt  40^on  the  KlU*  at  siilphiir,  alum,  &c.,  are  oliL;iintd  i;i  Ul:•^^  *t 
bi>-o\\  1  i  ice  ha^  lu-arly  the  same  geographical  Miialler  <}tiaiititiit  in  ihe  ^litlVrert  ti.'  ..:.'u.-\ 
rau^v.  Tiie  culture  of  the  vine  extends  h^  far  chuin.s. — ^'I'lio  uiiiniid  kin^ilom  of  Euri»jf  i*  :-r 
N.  U.1  lat.  47''  oO'  on  the  Atlantic  coa>t,  5'»  Un'  K>>s  vuricd  than  tljo  tl»»ra.  T!ie  divvr^;r.t*  if 
on  tlie  banks  of  the  Khine,  52*  on  tlie  Oiler  the  3 /«Hili>^'ical  r«.gioii*<  are  iiuMi^iilirul  \'.  i:  i 
rivi-r.  In  Kii^>ia  it  grow?»  ns  far  N.  a^  hit.  ^t'l\  tlic  only  real  ci»mr;i.-t  l-  bituiiii  il.c  a.-*:.-  v  : 
but  it  i-*  nut  cultivated  U-yuml  r>M\  Alti»;:elher  innU  of  the  cxirefne  i'.i>rth.  a- 1:  e  ri  inh  »  r.  t;  !..:, 
tho  rt;:i«»n  at]u|ite<l  t«»  the  ciiliivatiouof  the  vine  bear,  itc,  ami  the  U  a<^  of  \»tv\  vl  :I»v  t\Ti :  • 
conipriM-s  uhout  •  of  Hun  i|K\  that  adajitiMl  tit  s<>uth.  the  Iwix,  wiM  cat,  Aii*.  Tiv  i  r.^- :  ^ 
the  ciihure  of  wheat  i.     Tlie   N.  limit  of  the  fcatiiris   of   the    faiMia   t>i'   Kiirnjc    !i.i\.     '. 


.«\ .. 


lutliT  ii  hit.  67-»V'!i    N.,  though  it  i-  rai^-'d   in   a  grmlly  iiU'iIifud  bv  lultiir*.     >i\ira!  -j*.  :•  -    f 

few  faviin-d  spots  in   Finland  a**  far  N.  as  lat.  \^\h\  aiiitnaU  have  iL-appi  art.<!  iM.r^*}  .:i  :     -  ; 

<jo'  uimI  til'.     The  han!icr  kinds  of  gru'n,  r\t\  cnuntrieN  ii>  the  Wtilf  ai.i  b«  iri:,  <iria!  :'•:.*     . 

barliy,  and  oal-».  are  culii\ated  i»!i   tin*  W.  Mi!e  ni.tl  in  M»n.e  part-^t-f  tl.c  r*'ii:iin.;  :.  wL.lc  ».•'"    "• 

of  Ni«rw;iv  a-  far  a**  lat.  <»1»    '>'»'  N.,  but  on  ti.e  nre  ln'cmiiin:;  scarn-r  fr«'iM  \tar  U*  %t.ir.     1.   .- 

E.    K'le   of  the   Sran-iinaviaii   mountains   thcv  the  Jai  kal  i-*   now  *-ii'.v  I"n:.-l  in   1  »..!::■»!.. v.  •* 

s«Mri>  ly  ripen  at  ii7'i'i**  ,  and  >:ill  further  K.  in  urn- ami  thei  *.k  ifi  M'lne  I'l'ii-Ii  j  :i'\  ii..  i  - »  :  K  .•• 

Ku»-ia  ;hi'>  cai.no:  U- luitivateil  l*i'\nii(l  lat. Go  h!:i,  the  porcitpihe  in  tlie  t  \;ri  ir.c -n:!!..  *.:•  -     r- 

f»'2  .     1\;h1m-h  aii«l   aprii'-t*  suc<enl   i:i  lJti'«*ia  key  lu  :.r  <iilr.i!tar,  t!.e  cIiaTi..!'.  .t:.«l  ili  \  ;..:'* 

OS  far  N.  tm  l.il.  r»o  ,   mt  iMi>  at  l.it.  TrJ    ;  aii«l  .\ii>iiienii>uii:ain<«.    It'it  ifK'.ri  ji  i-|--  .- .:  »  -i 

pluni^  ainl  ch«-rrir».  gMtMiiij  Wild   a-i  f.ir  a-*  lat.  Um-;-,  it   \^  rich  in  ilon^ -t: ■■  a:.,::..,'-.      !'    •!:•■ 

ho",  are  carrieil  U%««m1  ih.il  lini/.  bv  cult  i  vat  in::.  ni«rtl.«  runn'-l  ritri'-ii.  a*  t.ir  >.  a*  :  r    •".'     N 

Tob.'u  eo  i«.i  xitijsi\t-ly  cu!li\atiil  «iVer  l!ie  ;:rtat-  Laplaml.  a:.<l   lat.   *•'■»     i:i    K'.J'"*..k,  1..-    r*.-  '     r 

er  pari  **(  KurMpi-,  frfin  Siiily  ii>  Sweden,  a- aio  a*-*':::  i-;  lUi'.ral  r.;rfjie  h.Ls  i:.  'n:  -*  :  -•    "  •  "• 

fl;ix  ami  hi  Jiip,  lliouj^h  llicv  thri\e  U-:  In  :wie:i  <•!  !n>r-»  -«.  I.<  riu«l  cul'.h,  -l.n  p.  .•'  .»'.-,  a:  \  )    .• 


<•  -^ 


lat.  4*»    urnl  rm  .      Kt;rMj.e  ci.:jt:i.:j«»  the  ^  :..-jo:;i  u:.<I    ^'■^l:hlr:l    r.iir«»pe    pn-'-ir^-',   I  ^  *';  ic 

liiii.*  r.iN.  thiiiigh    in    unnjUul    pr«i|Nir:itii.-.     I:  nr.lt-,  c»inji!«»   til.o   A^.l^..lll    sii  "i '.;*i  a:  v     :.  . 

ii*  a:iu[>iLu.t]y  *uj»|ilii-*l  wj:h  ir-'ij.  v'-pj-'r.  l«a«l.  r>.i  tr.an  ii.  >.  K^-^ia).  !\:.\  I-  ;!*.»!"*  •  it.:  >,  i  • 

Coal,  i.i.il  ^.t!:,  l<i;t  priM!iii «.«  c<>i:»]mr.»;i%i  1\  Mi:.i!l  .\  it- -ji  :  in.  r  lv.r««je  h.k"  !'» '":««.*■•*  I"  ••- ."  i--   i. 

€}U:in!itif  <<f   gtiM   unl    >!I\»r.     (n'lil.  thii»i.;!i  fi**  i-t"  \v !.;» li  are  |»\«wli.»:  !■•  :!  a*,  i  ■  n:.:  •. :  "..     • '. 

w  i«It  ly  d;!fi>n!.  i^  fi.ly  fi  !:nil  in  a  1«.  w  pl.u  r-*  Mn.iil  b.ri;-  Jj;ri»pe  ha*  I""  *j*-.  i^v  ?    *.  :• 

\1  'arpathia:.>,  I  rol  muuuLaiiiH,  and SeauJix.a\ iau  of  thtm  ore  vul}  birila  vf  paA»^^v..    Ai^^  i.^  ' ••    -^ 


EUROPE  886 

kinds  of  birds  pdealiar  to  certain  regions  are  try.    Between  the  IJgrian  and  Sarmatian  raoes 
the  flamingo,  spoonbill,  pelican,  and  vulture  in  of  the  E.  and  the  Celts  and  Cymri  of  the  W., 
the  S^  gnj  eagle  in  the  N.  eider  duck  (N.  the  Germnnic  races  are  found  at  the  earliest 
of  lat.  65"),  swan,  and  red  grouse  in  the  N.  and  period  of  traditionary  history  pressing  N.  to 
N.  £n  beeneater  in  the  S.  K,  white  owl  in  the  conquer  Scandinavia  and  S.  against  France  and 
extreme  K^  &c.    Various  species  of  turtles  ex-  Italy.    The  S.  E.  of  Europe  was  probably  set- 
cepCed,  Europe  has  no  large  amphibia.    Fish  tied  from  Asia  and  Africa ;   history  finds  in 
are  more  abundant  on  the  N.  than  on  the  8.  Greece  and  Italy  two  races  who  afterward  be- 
coast;  herring  and  codfish  are  found  only  in  the  came  known  as  the  Hellenic  and  Roman.    The 
N.,  surgeon  in  the  Russian  rivers  and  seas,  formerwas  the  first  to  develop  in  Europe  a  high 
anchovies  and  pilchards  on  the  S.  W.  coast,  state  of  culture,  which,  having  been  received  by 
tunny  fish  in  the  Mediterranean.     Of  insects,  the  conquering  Roman  race,  was  carried  over 
several  kinds  of  tarantula  and  scorpions  are  all  the  countries  around  the  Mediterranean. 
peculiar  to  Europe.  The  silkworm  is  raised  prln-  Having  exhausted  their  power,  the  Roman  con- 
cipally  in  the  S.  countries,  the  honey  bee  every-  qucrors  were  in  their  turn  overthrown  by  the 
where  on  the  continent    The  annelides  of  Eu-  hardy,  vigorous,  and  barbarous  northern  na- 
rope  include  the  medicinal  leech  (in  Sweden,  tions,  who,  after  having  embraced  Christianity, 
Germany,  Hungarj^  and  Poland).    Europe  is  in  the  course  of  many  centuries  developed  a  new 
ibuidantly  sunpliea  with  edible  mollusks,  but  and  different  civilization  upon  the  busis  of  the 
tbey  are  fonncf  in  greater  abundance  and  better  recognition  of  a  common  higher  destiny  of  roan- 
qudity  in  the  Mediterranean  sea  than  on  the  N.  kind.    The  Hcruli,  Ostrogoths,  Longobards,  and 
ooist.    Radiated  animals,  zoophytes,  &c.,  also  other  Teutonic  tribes,  penetrated  into  and  set- 
•boimd  on  the  S.  coasts,  where  some  of  them  (the  tied  in  Italy  ;  Suevians,  Visigoths,  and  Vandals 
aetioias)  are  used  as  food,  and  where  the  coral  in  Spain ;   Franks  and  Burgundians  in  Gaul 
fisheries  employ  many  persons.    Generally  the  (France) ;  Angles,  Saxons,  Jutes,  and  Frisians 
&  part  of  Europe  possesses  a  greater  variety  of  in  Britain.    In  Italy,  Spain,  and  France,  the  con- 
inimals  and  species  than  the  N.,  while  the  lat-  querors  were  mostly  assimilated  to  the  nations 
ter  has  them  in  greater  numbers. — The  inhab-  whom  they  had  found  there,  and  by  their  ad- 
itsnts  of  Europe  are  a  mixture  of  many  differ-  mixture  with  them  the  present  so-called  Latin 
eat  tribes,  most  of  them  belonging  to  the  great  or  Romanic  race  was  produced.    In  Brit:iin,  the 
Indo-Germanic  stock  of  the  Caucasian  race.  Of  invaders  drove  the  original  inhabitants  into 
the  aborigines  of  Europe  nothing  is  known  with  Wales,  Cornwall,  and  Cumberland,  but  were  in 
lay  degree  of  certainty,  although  scientific  re-  their  turn  invaded  by  Normans  and  French  in 
tetrches  have  led  to  discoveries  upon  which  tlie  11th  century,  when  the  admixture  of  all 
the  most  singular  theories  have  been  based,  these  different  elements,  Celtic,  Anglo-Saxon, 
Thos  it  has  been  attempted  to  prove  that  at  one  and  Norman,  gradually  produced  the  present 
tunc,  long  before  the  dawn  of  recorded  or  even  English  race.    In  Spain,  the  Goths  and  Van- 
tnditionury  history,  a  negro  race  inhabited  dais  were  overrun  by  Arabs  in  the  8th  cen- 
eentral  Europe ;  and  that  after  their  extinction  tury,  and  did  not  recover  possession  of  the 
there  was  a  period  during  which  two  races,  country  for  7  centuries.    In  the  S.  E.  the  Hel- 
distingnisbed  by  their  cranial  formation  as  long-  lenic  race  became  during  the  middle  ages  largo- 
heads  and  short-heads,  inhabited  the  W.  islands  ly  mixed  with  the   Slavic,  while  around  the 
and  the  central  part  of  the  continent    Dis-  lower  course  of  the  Danube  an  intermixture  of 
marding  these  theories,  we  find  that  in  the  the  ancient  Daciuns  with  a  Roman  colony  pro- 
"WTof  Europe  the  Iberians  appear  as  the  abori-  duced  the  present  Rouraain  or  Wallachian  race, 
ffinal  inhabitants,  of  wliom  the  Basi^ues  are  be-  Toward  the  end  of  the  9th  century  a  Ugrian 
ucred  to  be  the  only  extant  remains.  At  a  very  race  settled  in  the  ancient  Pannonia,  whero 
early  epoch  these  aborigines  were  intruded  upon  they  remain  to  the  present  day  under  the  names 
fay  people  of  the  Gaelic  or  Celtic  stock,  who  ac-  of  Mogjars  in  Hungary  and  Szeklers  in  Tran- 
qnired  possession  of  all  France,  Britain,  Ireland,  sylvania.    Of  the  Tartars  who  under  Genghis 
Spain,  and  the  N.  of  Italy  (Gallia  Cisalpiua).  Khan  entered  Europe  in  the  13th  century,  and 
Afterward  another  kindred  people,  speaking  a  kept  possession  of  a  largo  portion  of  Russia  till 
different  language  (the   Cimbric,    Cymric,   or  the  end  of  the  15th  century,  some  descendants 
Gimbrian  race),  conquered  the  N.  of  France,  the  still  remain  in  the  S.  of  that  empire.    The  Os- 
8.  and  E.  of  Britain,  and  the  N.  TV.  shores  of  manii,  anotlier  branch  of  the  Mongolian  race, 
Germany.    These  3  races,  Iberians  (Basques),  invaded  Europe  in  the  14th  century,  and  have 
CeltB^  and  Cymri,  are  found  in  possession  of  the  ever  since  kept  possession  of  the  S.  E.  corner 
V.  and  S.  W.of  Europe  at  the  dawn  of  history,  of  the  continent.    By  mingling  freely  with  W, 
la  the  E.  and  N.  W.  the  Ugrian  (Mongolian)  nations  they  have  lost  many  characteristic  fea- 
nees  (perhaps  the  Scythians  of  the  ancients),  tnres  of  the  Mongolian  stock. — The  population 
of  whom  tlie  Lapps,  Finns,  Samoyeds,  and  the  of  Europe  in  1850  was  calculated  at  266,000,000, 
Mafjun  are  the  present  remains,  seem  to  have  or  74  to  the  sq.  m.,  by  Reden ;  at  267,000,000 
bean  the  original  inhabitants.     At  an  early  pc-  by  Bescherelle ;  at  296,000,000,  or  83  to  the  s^. 
ilod  the  Sarmatians  (Slavi)  settled  in  the  coun-  m.,  by  Berghaus;   while  the  "Encyclopaedia 
fries  K-  of  the  Black  sea,  and  pressing  N.  E.,  Britannica"  in  1855  sots  it  down  at  258,678,856 
pidoally  diq>osse83ed  the  Ugrians  of  their  coun-  only.  Dieterici  (1859)  estimates  it  at  272,000,000. 


L 


EUBOFE 


Its  dintribation  between  the  E.  and  W.  portions 
Is  very  unequal,  the  Avernfto  populntion  on  a 
square  mile  beini;  ncarlj  KK)  in  the  W.  and  onl  j 
80  in  the  E.     With  the  exception  of  the  4  free 
cities  in  (lennany,  tlie  canton  of  Geneva,  and 
Ifalta,  the  prcatest  deuttity  of  population  pre- 
railfl  in  IU*I{ntiin  (4010:  next  come  the  kinguom 
of  Saxony  (83:) ),  England  (332),  the  grand  duchy 
of  Ilesw'  (2(»tt).  the  duchy  of  Saxo-Altenburg 
(263),    the  Netherbinds  (200),  Great  Britain 
(239),  northern  and  central  (icrmany  (about 
200),  Irelani]  (203),  Italy  (109),  the  German  prov- 
inced  of  Austria  (180)«  Franco  (176),  liavaria 
(154),  Uu*'iiia  (30).  Swcnlen  (20),  Norway  (IIX 
Iceland  (0.15).    The  average  natural  increase 
per  annum  of  the  |M>pnIati(»n  varies  from  0.5  to 
1.2  per  cent.    It  is  1.43  yer  cent,  in  Great  Brit- 
ain, I.IG  in  PniJvia,  0.6  in  all  Germany,  0.59  in 
France.     Ireland  is  the  only  country  in  which 
there  has  been,  of  late,  a  decreaiie  of  popnla- 
tion.    There  are  in  Europe  altogether  89  cities 
with  more  than  100,000  inhabitants  to  each.  Of 
the  population  of  Europe  more  than  4{  belong 
to  the  Caucasian  race,  of  which  all,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  3,000,000  Jews  and  Arabs  (Seuitio 
stock),  are  of  the  Indo-European  ntock.    The 
Indo-European  nations  all  pn>fess  Christianity, 
and  present  in  their  historical  progress  so  many 
features  distinct  from  the  Asiatic  and  African 
nations,  that  they  may  properly  be  termed  the 
people  of  Eurtifie.    they  arc' divided  into  3 
great  branche?*,  viz. :  1,  the  Komanio  or  Lat- 
in race  (31  per  cent,  of  the  total  jiopiilation), 
inhabiting  the  mountainous  S.  W.  countries  on 
the  Mciliterranean  and  Atlantic  ocean ;  they 
are  sen<>itive,  excitaMo,  p:LM<innatc,  and  vindic- 
tive, tvni|H*ntte  in  eating  and  drinking,  imagi- 
n:itivo  and  inventive:   nuwflv  B(»nian  Catho- 
lic<;  2,  llie  (iernhins  (2><.2  iKTCcnt.!,  thronging 
the  eleviittnl  plains  and  vidloys  of  central  £u- 
n>pv  and  tlio  Nlmros  of  the  Hal  tic  and  Ntirthern 
ocean;  thonirhtfid,  riear-mindcd,  hone**t,  indiis- 
trifMw,  jiersi'Vi-ring;  nio-tlv  Tna extant s;  3,  the 
Slavi  (27.H  |K-r  cent.),  tliinly  di-^tribtitod  on  the 
plains  of  tlie  ea^t ;  K^.s  dvveIn|K'<l  in  intellectual 
qua] i till*,  «if  a  teiniH'ramt'nt  alternating  ))etwvi>n 
oriental    langn»r  and  pa-^itinute  excitement ; 
Bonian  and<iri*ek  Cathiilic^repre^i'ntativeHof 
the  Afiiattr  prinripio  in  Kun>iio.    Amnnecting 
link  ItftWifn  the  Itmnnnir  and  Teutonic  T.wk-s  is 
ffmnd   In  the  Ik*lginn<i:  Iti'tween  the  I'omanio 
and   Slavic,  in  the   (irvek-t  and  WallachiauH; 
iK'twctMi  th«»  Slavic  and  Tcii tonic,  in  the  Ea?»l 
PnK*ians  ronirmnian*',  I.n«ati:ins  ami  An>triaQ 
Wends.     Of  the  Mongolian  riu'o  thi-re  are  twi> 
prinrifi.il  bnincliO'*,  eadi  of   tlietn  nunierou<»ly 
siilM]i\i«1t*d.  viz..  the  Finns  and  the  Turk*.   A**  a 
nation  they  Mnnd  on  a  »>till  Inwer  plane  of  intt-1- 
Kt'tiinl    und   induct rinl  dt*vcIopnient   than    the 
Slavir  rart-"*:  th»'v  arc  iMo«.tlv  Mohanimeilans  or 
pag.in*.  Tlie  MaL'vars  ortirinally  Udoninni*  to  the 
mmv  rice,  hive  tii*en  inrttu*nc«Ml  «<Mnurh  by  the 
Indo  Enni|H*  m  n. it  ions,  that  they  iMMrr«dv  pn*- 
l»er**e  any  of  t!'i?  fi*:itriro*  f>trnliar  tii  the  Nfonp>- 
lian  family.  Tiie  folliiwin;*  tuMe  exh !!•!?»  the  dif- 
ferent races  which  at  this  day  inhabit  Eurojie : 


I. 

1.  IndA-Karopeaii  nathiOiL 

a.  Komanic  ur  IjmId  nreii 

<rmk  1  IViMtrtMi)  brmarb tJWW.sss 

ItaltaiM VkSW.mS 

HiMinlanb  umI  PurtufncM If.onn.flno 

>  ivnch M>ia.m(i 

Rhiftian^  (!(wta«-rl3n<1) SOrt.Hfio 

WallachUiu a.«Qii.«iS 

In  ScAtlmad  aimI  IrvUsd S.ona.n8a 

In  Wa1«c  ami  Britunj a.oai,4He 

c»  OcnnADo. 

Gtf  nnwM  pmper 51,0011,000 

Bnuwtlikftriuu : 

i>aii«« i.om.noo 

NArwecUiu ].4MI.(iS0 

8wc«1m tijat3»fiOO 

Aogto-SaioBS n.ouQ.000 

A  FUtL 

Wroda 000.000 

ruk« 10.nuO.QOO 

Cecil* 4.*^M<M 

1a,so^ooo 

EMt«ni  BUrl : 

RumUiw  and  BnthcaUai. 00,000.000 

BiMithtrn  f«lAvl : 
Bcrrlanft,  hloTncka, 
CmatiMU.*c....  T.500,000 

BulnrUaft ^eOiMiSO 

IVBOMAO 

A  JjtttM  and  IJthnanlana 

/  Baaqoca  and  KoMsaklaMea  (a»> 
cieni  Ibrriaaa) 

t  Albanians  anil  fUjriaaa 
Armrnlana  On  TramfWanla  and 
MracxHng  •elUcawnla  «o  thm 

Voa)  

i.  Ojpairt 

1  Bemltic  nation*. 

II.  .Irwa i,OtO.«AO 

b,  Maltifw   i.^raha    minctM    vim 

LaUua  and  G^nuauaj !Cii.<^^ 


IL    Mo!iGouAa  Cant. 

Flnnt. 

a.  Ualtif  ((MrmanlrM>  Finn*  iTJ- 

^ununn.  K«(bi»nlanA.  In<i-rr^ 
buonlan*.  i  'an-lian-.  I.a|t{»  i        t,fV>0.^W9 

b.  Volirlan       Kiiih     (Trb«Hi«ar>bAk 

MimlTlniana,  Tcbaft-inlMMk 
Tr|ilian«) 40aOC» 

e.  rrrniian  KinrM,  f*n  tbf  Kama. 
Dwina.  ami  Prtrhnra  (\ul- 
jak^  Mnaiinr*.  rrnnlan»i.     .      ISO.'VO 

d.  Vfriun  VlnttB  (In  bvi-«lra  and 

Nunray) SO.<W> 


00.4M 


0^ 


TV! 


1U0 

ft«o 


a 


IM 


t1. 


1»  •*.«!» 


1  Ifaffrart  (In  IlancifT  and  Tr 

Tania)     SJt^^WO 

A  PirkU-n  ito  Tran«yltaniai  ]p«>i.«i> 

Vii|;uIianBiKi|M  |initliiri' nf  Trnni. .       •»'••> 

.    ..        M.iNO 


.^  hiiniiivnU  (in  N   il  ICui»la>    .     .    .. 
0.  Turk*. 

fi.  (HmanM 2.4^0000 

b.  Ntnnl.  lUMianK,  llaah- 
km.  MrwhtibrrtkK 
Tartara,  over  JfAMO 


*  UUU    •••■••■•«•••  »•■■«■••  •■ 


tjionon* 


rry 


— M«'?«t  of  the  lanirnafft**  «p«»kfn  by  th«*  Jif 
enl  nations  i>f  Kun»|n«  «»ln«w  ^.ttne  tr»rra  •'^ 
rnniinon  tlitmirh  vi-rr  rc»mitc  oriirin.  MtairrB] 
frniMic  M*ii*nce  ha*  provinl  thrir  rvlali««*)iip* 
the  San>rrit,  antl  it*  early  ci»rrrlaliTe  i»f  dim 
tivu  ton^uesi|  and  grt>u|»»  Uiciu  nodcr  th«  hn 


EUBOFE  887 

of  Izido-Enropefln,  or  Indo-Oermanio  languages.  &o.    The  total  annual  valne  of  European  com- 

Tlie  following  table  exhibits  all  the  European  merce  was  estimated  bj  Reden  in  1858  at  $2,- 

langnages  in  their  relations  to  each  other:  760,000,000  ($1,400,000,000  imports,  and  $1,- 

t  lwSo-a«nnuiie  Uiifiiaget.  850,000,000  exports).    Of  this  amount  the  com- 

1.  Pciusic  troop:  a, sncieat  and  modern  Greek;  ^Lat-  merce  of  Great  Britain  represents  over  80  per 

'iiSS  ira'cSi^'oSSSSSrSn'S  iu^l  uS:  cent.  Germany  and  Anstria  over  26  per  cent 

pufn,  the  foiiowtiuc  havo  descended :  Spanish,  (viz. :  the  Hauso  towns  12.46  per  Cent.,  the 

loctofneM,  French^  Italian,  Shctian  or  Orison,  and  ZoUverein  9.54,  Austria  4),  France  over  14  per 

Wailachian;  c.  Aihumft**.  .tthi  m  i-t)*  a 

1.  OcnnaaiegToap:a,OennanrbtffhandIowDateh^and  ceut.,  Hollanu  OVer  5  per  Ceot,  Kussia  OYCr  4 

Enflish  ;  b.  £kandlnarian  (Icelandio,  Swedish,  Nor-  p^r    cent.,  Belgium    OVer    8    per    Cent      AltO- 

t,  BiUS^^^^did  \nto  many  dialects,  as  Russian,  gether  Over  66  per  cent,  of  the  aggregate  value 

liijrian,  derrian,  Bninrian,  sioTack,  Bohomiaa,  of  European  commerce  falls  to  the  share  of 

4.  iiSdi^^a''prdiv^d^^       the  Lett  language  proper,  the  Germanic  nations,  while  they  number  only 

Lithuanian;  and  SamoeiUc.  28.2  per  Cent,  of  the  total  population.     The 

Bl  Celtic jroap,  forraerix  dominant  In  western  and  cen-  principal  articles  of  food  are  the  different  kinds 

Sfe^  """"""•'"^""""'^      "•  of  A  esijecially  wheat  and  rye,  though  in 

c  Aryan  ifroop,  represented  onij  bj  the  amgoage  of  tne  some  countries  potatoes  are  to  a  large  extent 

n.rtaJaHSi«t.i««nM".  ?f''"?t''°^)l^-    The  average  annual  qaan- 

L  Finnish:  a, Karelian;  &, Esthonlan,  c,IiTonUn;  d,  tity  of  breadstuff)  consumed  per  head  is:  m 

Lappic.  Saxe-Altenburg,  10.92  bushels ;  in  France  and 

I  T^SSk  Wartemberg,  9.36 ;  in  Baden,  8.97 ;  in  Bavaria, 

m.  Iteque,  not  reUted  to  anj  other  European  langnase,  is  8.58-8.97  ;  in  England,  8.58  ;   in  Nassau,  7.8 ; 

■poienonij  In  the  north  of  Spain.  ^  Prussia,  Saxony,  and  Hesse,  6.24;  in  Lux- 

— With  the  exception  of  China  proper,  the  phys-  emburg,  5.61.    The  annual  consumption  of  meat 

ical  enltore  of  no  other  part  of  the  world  is  so  exceeds  6,000,000,000  lbs. ;  the  average  per  head 

mieh  developed  as  that  of  Europe.     Of  the  is:  in  England,  80  11m.;  in  Baden,  54;  in  Nas- 

total  area  20  or  23  per  cent  is  non-productive,  sau,  52;  in  Bavaria  and  Wartemberg,  46 ;  in 

being  either  lakes,  rivers,  swamps,  rocks,  or  Eesse-Gassel,  41 ;  in  France,  Prussia,  and  Lux- 

oecopied  by  buildings,  or,  like  the    extreme  emburg,  40 ;  in  Saxe-Altenburg,  37 ;  in  Saxony, 

BOflbem  portion,  unfit  for  human  habitation ;  36 ;  in  the  grand  duchy  of  Hesse,  85.    The  an- 

M  jftir  cent  is  devoted  to  agriculture  or  cattle-  nual  consumption  of  butter  is  near  5,000,000,000 

ntung;  and  over  40  per  cent,  is  in  forests,  of  lbs. ;  of  cheese,  over  2,000,000,000  lbs. ;  of  milk, 

vhieh  Russia  alone  has  over  1,000,000  sq.  m.  22,500,000,000  gallons.    The  consumption  of 

The  best  cultivated  countries  are  Great  Britain,  wine  has  for  10  years  averaged  2,160,000,000 

Germany,  and  France.    The  introduction  of  gdlons;   the  annual  average  per  head  is:  in 

icienufic  methods  of  agriculture    into    these  France,  15  gallons;  in  the  Palatinate,  WUrtem- 

eoontries  has  tended  steadily  to  increase  the  berg,  Baden,  and  the  grand  duchy  of  Hesse,  6^- 

prodnctive  capacities  of  the  soil.    This  is  cspe-  7i;  in  Rhenish  Prussia,  8)-5;  in  Bavaria,  2|; 

dally  the  case  in  Great  Britain,   where  the  in  Nassau,  li-2^;  in  Prussia  and  Saxony,  |; 

average  crop  of  grain  to  the  acre  is  consider-  in  England,  1.06  quarts.    The  average  annual 

ably  urger  than  in  the  United  States.    The  consumptionof  beer  is:  in  Bavaria,  71.3  quarts; 

number  of  domestic  animals  in  Europe  is  stated  in  England,  48  49 ;  in  Wartemberg,  47.3 ;  in 

by  Reden  as  follows :  Horses  27,000,000,  valued  Saxony,  24.4 ;  in  Baden,  13.5 ;  in  Prussia,  18.11 ; 

It  $775,470,000 ;  homed  cattle  80,000,000,  value  in  France,  9.7.    The  average  consumption  of  al- 

$8^4,720,000 ;  sheep  191,000,000,  value  $687,-  coholic  liquors  is  given  by  Reden  at  13-14 

iOO,000;  asees  1,800,000,   value  $12,600,000;  quarts  in  Prussia,  11  in  Hesse-Cassel,  6  in  Sax- 

goaU  16,800,000,  value  $36,450,000;  hogs  87,-  ony,  3.6  in  Great  Britain,  2  in  Wartemberg,  and 

6001,000,  value  $108,240,000;  mules  800,000,  1.75  in  France.   The  total  consumption  of  coffee 

nfaw  $17,1 60,000 ;  aggregate  value  of  domestic  is,  according  to  the  same  authority,  2,400,000,000 

ttlmals  $2,502,210,000.    The  average  yearly  lbs.  (average  quantity  per  head  in  France  4.5 

BXDeral  production  is,  according  to  the  same  lbs.,  in  the  ZoUverein  2.5,  in  Great  Britain  1.1); 

Mthority,    of    gold,   $26,000,000;    of  silver,  of  tea  70,000,000  lbs.  (average  per  head  1.6  lb.  in 

$1,024,000;  of  iron,  35,700,000  cwt,  or  $128,-  Great  Britain;  in  the  ZoUverein  not  full  |^- 

171,000  ;ofcopper,  500,000  cwt.,  or  $11,520,000;  part  of  a  pound).    Of  sugar  the  average  con- 

of  lead,  1,330,000  cwt.,  or  $4,795,200 ;  of  tin,  sumption  is :  in  Great  Britain  17  lbs.,  in  France 

HOOD  cwt.,  or  $2,635,200 ;  of  quicksilver,  23,-  6.56,  in  the  ZoUverein  4.88  per  head.    Of  the 

4B0  cwt,  or  $1,677,600;  of  coal,  536,500,000  total  consumption  of  tobacco  (over  6,000,000 

art,  or  $96,500,000 ;  of  brown  coal,  10,000,000  cwt.),  nearly  30  per  cent  is  the  share  of  Germa- 

tn,  or  $500,000;  of  salt,  53,800,000  cwt.,  or  ny.— Christianity  is  almost  exclusively  the  re- 

|tt^40,000;    of  brimstone,    22.500  cwt,  or  ligion  professed  by  the  nations  of  Europe.   The 

$118,400 ;  total,  $323,896,400.    The  industrial  8  principal  denominations,  viz.,  Roman  Catholic, 

OQ  is  largest  in  Great  Britain,  Belgium,  Protestant,  and  Greek,  correspond  nearly  to  tlie 

and  Germany.    The  facilities  of  com-  8  principal  races,  Latin,  German,  and  Slavic, 

are  been  increaaed  extraordinarily  with-  The  aggregate  number  of  Roman  Catholics  is 

fa  ths  last  quarter  of  a  century  by  turnpikes,  about  134^000,000.    They  constitute  almost  the 

*    nulrcMda,  steamboats,  ocean  steamships,  entire  population  of  Italy,  Spain,  Portugal,  and 

YOU  TIL — ^22 


S88  EUBOFE 

RaniAQ  Poland,  06  per  cent  of  the  popnlatioii  lies.    Agricoltniti]  colleircs  tnd  polTtM 

of  Frmnce,  76  per  cent  of  Austria,  71  per  cent,  of  stitutes  liavo  been  intruduoed  at  a  nun  pa 

Bavaria,  62}  per  cent,  of  all  Germany,  82  per  recent  date  iu  Great  Britain,  liormaiiv 

cent  of  Ireland,  99^  per  cent,  of  Belpam.  erland,  France,  IWlgium,  and  Russia. — 1 

Protestantism  is  tbe  establislied  faith  in  Great  of  the  niorAl  status  of  European  societ; 

Britain  and  the  Scandinavian  kingdoms,  and  Ia  criminal  btatistics  is  impossible,  on  tc% 

professed  bj  96  per  cent,  uf  the  population  of  the  incompIetencM  of  our  information. 

Great  Britain,  46^  per  cent,  of  Germany,  67  thing  may  bo  leameil  in  this  respect  i 

per  cent,   of  Ilollaud,    altogetlier  by  nearly  proportion  of  illegitimate  to  legitimati 

60,000,000    people.      Greek    Catholicbm    has  Tli is  i!«luwei»t  in  M>me  portions  of  Ho <^ij 

60,000,000  profeAMrs  in  Kiiwia  (S3  per  cent  of  it  \i  3.19  per  cent,  of  the  total  number  o 

the  total  population),  10.000,000  in  Tnrkey  (C6  in  tlie  Two  Sicilies  it  is  6  i>er  cent.,  in 

per  cent),  and  about  6,000,000  in  tlio  Slavio  6.24,  in  Sardinia  6.66,  in  Pru^ia  7.<'4.  ii 

provinces  of  Austria.    Geogrophically  Roman  and  Belgium  7.34,  in  the  duchies  of  Mecl 

Catholicism  ia  the  dominant  religion  in  the  S.  8.93  and  9.61  respectively,  in  Ilanovvr 

and  S.  W.,  Greek  Catholicism  in  the  £.  and  8.  £.,  Austria  and  Portugal  10,  in  Wartembei 

Protestantism  in  the  N.  and  N.  W.    Tlie  num-  in  the  petty  Saxon  duchies  12.19,  in  th 

ber  of  Mohammedans  is  about  6,000,000  (3,600,-  duchy  of  llesse  13.43,  in  the  kingdom  of 

000  in  Turkey,  the  remainder  in  8.  Rusbia),  of  13.88,  in  the  grand  duchy  of  Iluden  1 
Jews  about  2,900,000,  of  Buddhists  about  10,000  Bavaria  23.25.  A  much  more  unfuvon 
(Mongolian  nomadio  tribes  in  S.  Russia),  and  portion  obtains  in  the  larger  cities  Thi 
of  pagans  about  1,000,000  (in  the  extreme  K.  of  entire  number  of  births  in  Genoa.  8/t7  ( 
Russia). — ^Popular  education,  measured  by  the  are  illegitimate,  in  lU^rlin  and  Frankfi-: 
proportion  ofschools  and  pupils  to  the  entire  pop-  in  Turin  18.87,  in  St.  Peten^burc  2*2  22 
Illation,  is  more  general  in  the  countries  inha-  nich  36.34,  in  Paris  62.63,  in  S'ionua 
bitedbytheGermanic  race  than  amongthe  Latin  Strasbourg  66.66,  in  Lyon^  71  42.  1 
nations,  and  it  holds  the  lowest  place  among  the  measure  of  public  morality  tht^ie  pri»f<or 
Slavic  nations.  In  Saxon v  and  the  Thnringian  insufficient,  since  tlie  factlitii^i  for  tnurr 
principalities  the  proportion  of  pupils  to  the  very  different  in  different  stnte-<.  In  »c'r 
population  is  as  1  to 4;  in  Prussia,  Sweden,  and  especially  in  Mecklenburg  and  oth«-r  \x 
Norway,  as  1  to  6;  in  Holland  and  Denmark,  as  man  states,  the  ob^tacUs  to  lo^nl  nr.r? 

1  to  7 ;  in  England,  as  1  to  8 ;  in  Austria  and  so  great  that  nuniU-D  of  |KopIi.*  prift 
Scotland,  as  1  to  10;  in  IMgium,  as  1  to  10.6;  together  in  a  state  of  what  wuuM  U*  ] 
in  Ireland,  as  1  to  12 ;  in  France,  as  1  to  17;  in  legal  we<llook  in  So«>tI.ind  i>r  Ariit  rir: 
Russia,  as  1  to  93.     Of  the  whole  number  of  only  cunrubinafro  by  t!io  l<»o.tl  hi^^-i 
children  under  15  years  of  a#:e  there  remain  states. — The  pri-n-'nt   ]io!;tu-..l  *\-:i'  :- 
without  Ci»nimon-M'lKNil  edurution  in  Prussia  roj»e  are  the  prtHliirt  of  noarlv  *.''•  rt : ! 
2.5  i»er  cent.,  in  Bav.iria  2o  |kt  cent.,  in  tlio  strife  snd  war  u[ii«>ng  tin*  dlfforiitt  r..  * 
Genniui  provinces  o(  Au->tri4  2')  |K.'r  cent.,  iu  iting  the  coiitiiunt.    TlH»ii):h  at  < «  rt^.  : 
lielgiuni  Ji:i  jK*r  ci-nt.,  iu  France 44  per  cent.,  iu  of  jieaiv  iM>Iiti<':tl  philu«M»j.liirs  :t:A  "! 
Spain  75  i>*'r  cent.,   in  Panna  (Italy)  S4  per  haveendeav«»reilti»(UMioT;*tr;itet!  •■  i  \  • 
cent.,  iu  Kii«>I.i  'Jm  jn-r  tent.      In  the  higher  a  certain  balanrc  of  |Hiwer.  w!;ii'li.  I  _v  W- 
branehe^  of  eiliicatioii  Spain  standi  in  the  front  cheek  tlie  aiiiliitinii  tif  riin-(iivrt>r«<.  ^!l   \. 
rank.     It  h:L<t  h  univer-itieH  with  S.4'X)  students  an  a  giiaranti^*  for  the  contimiainv  *  (i\ 
(1  to  l.ti.'i'*   of  the   wholo   ]Ki|»ulation);    next  t-tate  of  thing-*,  there  are  in  the  » *.<''.v 
corner    Kn^land     (projmrtion    of   htudents    to  of  EurM|>o  sr;irrtly  any  two  mh-.  .■••:;:  ^ 
nopulutiitn   us  I  to   l,T'''»i,   then  SwtHlcn   and  tions  during  wliirh  this  idi-a  Ii.l^  N «  r 
Norway  (1  to  1.**""'.    hi  ii mark  (1  to  l.P."i»»i,  Tliero  has  ahvay>  lN»n  r.ri  :i!::i  ;•:  * 
PortupU   (1  ti>  2.t;.:ii.     ll-'Iland   (1  to  ;i.2:ii>),  Miitling  of  Utuiidanr'*  irri->|Hrt:vo  i !  i 
Switzerland  (1  to  ."•.2»*o),  (iermanv  i\  to3.411».),  ties  and  thore  i-  n-  t  <nie  •■!'  t\.'  j:t.  a! 
France  (1  to  ;»,44<'».  <ireoee  (1  to  3,010),  Hun-  that  d»te-4  not  hoM  in  ^ul•Ji^^•^.  j-  r 
gary  (1  to  4.fWu),    H<i<*«ia  (1  to  i:(.*UNi^.     iStit  <itl;er  national itiei.     Thus  U::-.-:  k  I.    •! 
in   ht.1t in;;  tl.i-*   proportiiiu    it  is   neces'i.irj'  to  (fiTm.an  iir«>vinoi's   KiuIaMl,   a:  -l    ;  .r 
remark  tlmt  tlie  ittandard  of  pnife^ional  eiliieu'  former  Polish  kinploin.  n<'t  t  •  t.  ••.' 
tioii  is  Very  ditfereiit  in  the  eonntrieH  name*!.  tri«-i  thepe<»|'leof  wliiih  !■« '«':.'^*t.»  tli-  M 
What  i-*  trrniid  u  univerMtv  in   one   eountrv  race.  Pru— ia  ha-*  m-mk  P.  I:-!i  i  r»>\.:  ri  * 
scarcely  UtM**  the  rank  of  a  collej:e  or  an  ai-a«!e-  niKs  «>vi  r  Hungary  u:n!  ii.rt"  ^-fp-  ■!.•*■     .. 
iny  in  another.     Thu-,  (iirniany  has  only  22  Framv.  Holland,  and  hti.n.. irk  •  \.  r  j- 
univer>>itie<<  projnT,  wliile  it  ha-*  hundriiln  of  (ffrnian\  <.M-»jU"e.  I.«irra:i.e.  I.mx- ■.      .:. 
ciiileiri-!*t::ynin.i««;:i».  w  !ii«-!r.  juil^'id  hy  the  ^tan^l-  w  ig-Ht»Utoini.     San*  !y  atj%  ■.*  ?..  -•    %  •. 
ftril   of  the   iiliii:»ti"U   t?,iv   ninfiT,  WtniM   l»o  ro|<Mn  ci»nti::ent  i- tin*  f  Trii '"f  fc*"!- — . 
entitle*!   to  the   i!t '.l/natii-n   of  iiniviT-ltii -«  in  •■|i)titan«'ons  «nit^r-»\\!li  «•:' tJn*  |»r  .'..ir 
ftiifiiu    o^liiT  euimtrli-.      * 'f    educatctl    nn-n  in  ht-ino  lln-.-e  is  i.o  n.M  •'./ a;^:i'.ri-!  *   •!• 
Enni|>e  til*'  PniU-r.in:-  havo  r*!.ifi\ily  tl:*-  l.iru'-  i!;irihit':»l  j"i\\er  *  \k*  pt  ri  v,.!:;t  :«••:• 
e*t  projmrtion;  n*  xt  rome  the  .T.  ws  t!.i  u  tin*  of  tin -e  h.i-in  in.iny  -tar*  -  t«»'j:|.  ;'..  !  • 
Itowau  Catholics,  aud  U»tJy  thu  Greek  Catho-  to  sul^ect  their  [loivtr  to  iv-rUi.a  ci.>:.^: 


EDROFB 


889 


TMtTiationa,  bnt,  wlQi  the  exception  of  Great  islands,  San  Marino,  Andom,  and  the  fre« 

Britun,  Pthmoa,  aoma  of  tha  anuiller  Ocrmaa  cities  in  Gennanj).      Beside  these,  there  are 

■tmtMk  Belgiam,  and  Sardinia,  consULntionnliam  altogeUicr  46  monarchical  states,  the  ralers  of 

ia  at  Mat  notnWl.    The  relative  rank  of  the  which  have  diflforeot  titles,  such  as  emperor, 

dftrant  atatea  b  determined  bj  their  power  to  kinc,  grand  duko,  prince-elector,  duke,  prince, 

di>  miaebief  to  each  other,  and  the  existence  of  landgrave;  but  this  difference  in  official  titles 

■Boat  of  tbo  amalkr  states  is  siinplj  owing  to  does  not  imply  any  difference   in   sovereign 

tha  jcaliNiqr  of  the  greflter  onoa.     Ttiis  is  e»-  power.    These  states  are  classified  into  those 

peaUT  tha  case  with  the  B  republics  which  of  the  1st,  2d,  8d,  and  4th  rank.    The  following 

are  toUrated  in  Earope  (Switzerland,  Ionian  aretheir  names,area,  and  popolation,  in  1859: 


ii. 


<■  i<lb*  Bnt  Tuk  (tha  S  (ntt  powgn). 


Enipin 

Kingdom... 


MaScabvirScliwiiiii  . 


Papgdom 

Coolbdrnleil  m 

Klnrtora 

Gnnd  diich J . . , 

Klngdmn 

GnndduehT... 
Kingdom 


t,l».8»r 


co.iit.6a 

n.oiTjss 

]Tjai,eti 


S,lSt,U8 
t,S>MT9 
LSW.JTT 
I,TO8,BST 

llsM.tMS 


■Hn  iTtlM  ftoitkruk. 


OriDd  dnslij... 
Ontij , 


T^f>  Itfcmabim 


Prliiclpalll[«. . . 

Dupht 

Pilndp^tr..., 


IMBeipilUr  . .'.", 
RepubW 


SJO.*i>l 


o  t«  ^-  ^-  ^on  Rcden's  statistical  ta-  enue  is,  in  Great  Britain  {9.37  per  head,  in 

■■(ISH),  the  yearly  revenue  of  all  the  En-  Franco  $8.28,  in  Austria' $3.08,  in  Prussia  $4, 

l*piO  itatea  is  $1,324,832,394,  of  which  sum  in  Switzerland  $2.61  (the  lowest  proportion  in 

flMM^lBl  belongs  to  the  Germanic  states,  all  Europe).     The  public  debt  of  all  European 

lri,ltl,7Ba  to  the  Latin  or  Romaic  slates,  eUtes  amounted  before  1850  to  19,264,840,000, 

PU,81I),M7  to  Rnsslo,  $32,413,857  to  Turkey,  of  which  sura  over  $8,000,000,000  was  the  pnb- 

■d  tS,0Tl,B4G  to  Greece.    The  average  of  rev-  lie  debt  of  die  5  great  powers.    Bnt  since  then 


840  EUBOTAB  ECBTACm 

the  extraordinary  oTponditnre  ran^^d  hj  the  earca.    In  his  time  AriaDism  began  to 

Crimean  war  of  1854-*56,  and  tho  Franco-Sar-  midabic,  and,  regarding  the  controToniTaf 

dinian  war  against  Austria  in   1S51),  hait  in-  vital  importance  than  moat  of  hi^  mm 

crcaMd  the   indebtedness   to  near   $12,000,-  raries,  he  84iught  to  find  a  mean  belwe 

000,000.      Before  the  la!»t  oriental   war  tho  opinions  of  Arins  and  the  eitreme  orthi^d 

projiortion  of  the  public  indebtedness  to  the  Athana^ius.    His  aim  was  to  conciliato,  i 

population  was,  in  all  £uro])e,  $35.28  per  head,  works  are  more  stnmgly  charact«.'riz«.Hl 

m  Holland  $187.92,  in  Hamburg  $12i).^),  in  litical  complaisance  than  by  dogmatic  c 

Great  Britain  $128.62,  in  Spain  $120.0B,  in  enrj.    At  tho  council  of  Nice  he  sat  < 

LQbcck  $92,  in  Frankfort  $73.44,  in   Franco  right  hand  of  the  emperor  Constantine. 

(1858)  $46.    Only  a  few  states  of  the  fourth  favor  he  enjoyed  throughout  his  lifr,  anc 

rank  were  entirely  Aree  from  debt,  viz. :  Lich-  the  fint  draft   of   the   Niceno   creed  ; 

tenstein,  the  principalities  of  Lipno  and  Reuss,  however,  was  modified  to  suit  the  more 

Ifecklenburg-Strelitz,   Modena,  Waldeck,   and  dox  views  of  the  mi\jority,  and  he  sign 

San  Marino.     Tlie  paper  currency  of  Europe  cree*!  as  finally  adopted  with  some  re^T' 

amounted  about  1850  to  $846,000,000,  but  it  His '' Ecclesiastical  History,"  written  in 

has  since  been  increaseil,  so  that  its  aggregate  in  10  liooks,  and  in  the  comnosition  of 

amount  undoubtedly  ezceeils  $1,000,000,000.  he  had  the  use  of  numerous  libraries  and 

The  amount  of  coin  was  approzimatively  stated  archives  of  tho  empire,  rectmnts  the  e\i 

at  $1,700,000,000  in  1850.— The  military  estab-  tho  church  fn)in  its  beginning  to  the  yei 

lishments  of  Europe  include  in  time  of  peace  It  was  continued  by  Socrates,  Snznmv 

2,731,000  men,  kept  at  an  expense  of  $300,000,-  Theodoret,  and  was 'translated  by  Rufini 

0(M\    The  proportion  of  the  principal  |H>wers  is :  Latin  and  continued  to  395.     His  **  Eran 

j \ Preparation"  preserves  many  pas.M^;es  fr 

M— .       [         l^^^Wi^^t^.  ancicut  authors,  and  exposes  the  reajtoi 


BniwU 

OtrmMnj: 

Anatrtaa  •miitr*.. 

rnusU 

n  ■UUM 


TnftM  (ridoaira  of 

Allien) 

Tttrkrj  

OLBriUlnAIrvUnd 


TM,000 


MIMNM 

1:29,0110 

lei.ouo 

MU.OUO 


•M,TM|000  the  learned  as  well  as  the  vulgar  |iacani 

•41  MA  ono  Greece  and  Rome  should  be  altandonvtlfor 

i»!44-'ii<N4  tianity.    A  portion  only  of  his  **  Evan 

n.xit.000  I>emonst ration*^  remains,  in  which  be 

78,410,000  jjjj^j  jjj^  Mosaic  law  was  only  pi\*parat«iri 

su.nno   0O.noQ.OAo  ^*  Onomasticon'*  is  a  nomenclature  of  th< 

J*}-!!!!?   IMSS'IiS  wid   places  mentioned   in  S'ripiure,  ai 

— -         ■-'  "Chronicle    is  an  abrmgi'41  statrment  of 

Tlie  navies  of  Europe  consist  of  over  3,000  ves-  fn>m  the  l>eginning  of  t!te  world  ti»  th 

scls,  carr>-ing  over  30,000  guns  witli  250,000  yt*ar  of  tlio  rvijrii  i»f  Con-tantinc.     Fra* 

mon,  at  a  yearly  expenditure  of  over  $125,000,-  only  <if  tiiis  fhrunirK*  wi-ro  kii«>wn.  t:!l  i 

000.  an  Armenian  viTMtui  wa-tdi-^r^jxi  rul,  n  1  i 

ErROTAS,  in  ancient  geography,  a  river  of  i)uMislK'd  by  Mai  and  Zolirab  ut  Milan  ir 

Greece,  in  Laconia,  wliich  had  itn  snurre  ni-ar  and  which  gave  (H-ra*<iiin  tor  a  di-^.-^  rta: 

the  frontiers  of  Arcadia,  flowcil  by  the  city  of  Niobuhr  hhoM  iiig   the   n^-w  da!*  «*   ainl 

SpartA,  and  emptied  into  the  gulf  of  I^rimi.*!.  m-hirh  this  dlMMivory  nm<!e  kiioun.     Ki 

Tlie  Spartans  rendered  to  it  divine  honors,  uml  wrote  under  tho  nres-iiire  t>f  tl.i-  gri  n:  r^ 

its  banks,  shaded  by  olives,  laurels,  and  myrtle  ti<>iis  of  hi^  hh*,  but  witli  much  t'r««-^!"t: 

trees,  were  v<'ry  Wautiful.  iin'jmlii'c*,  wii!»  a  more  critirrd  ^p•^:!  tl.ar 

EURYDICE,  the  name  of  Kovcral  hist«>rioAl  i"»tli  «tf  hi;*  |tredeee>s*»r*  and  mh  w^^r 

and  mythological  persons,  the  best  known  of  witli  an  crrK>>i.i>tical  erudition  ui.«>uri>a> 

whom  was  t!»e  wife  of  Orplieiis     PerM.*ruted  his  age. — The  princi(>al  e\litions  of  the  * 

by  Ari!<tieus,  hhe  trod  in  her  tiit:htu{M)n  asnako,  siastical  History**  are  thit^e  4>f   S:cjh«R 

and  wa*i  bitten  to  death;  her  !iii'*baiid  folluwed  Taris,  1544),  Valitis  (fol,  Paris  l<»o'.n.  R 

her  to  the  regi«»n<  below,  and  liy  tlie  charm  of  (Cambridge,  ITS^O,  and  nventl}  thi^^r  if 

hin  lyre  <ibtained  from  Pluto  iH>rniisHi»n  for  her  chen  (2  v<il«.  8vo.,  lA-ipMi\  l^S'.M  ard  I 

to  return;  but  loit  her  again,  having  broken  tho  (Oxfonl,  iH.'iN).    Tran'^latifus  ha^e  N-x  i 

conditiiin  of  not  looking  bo^'k  after  her.  of  it  into  l.atin  by  Rutiiiu«,  wh«i  tt>i»k  gr« 

El'SElUrS,   surnanuil   Pami'iiiii,  to  com-  ertits  with  the  (inik   teit ;  iikt'i   Kr^r. 

memorate  his  friend^hip  witli  the  martyr  Pam-  I^mis  Cou>in ;  into  (iennan  by  Strii!:.  ■ 

philus,  the  father  i»f  eeele-^iastiral  hi'*fory,  and  and  into  Kngli*'h  by  Parker « 17* 'Si.  CV.er  i 

next  to  Oriiren  the  mo-t  le.irned  ««f  t!ie  rhristian  Dalrjmple  (177**»,  and  Ou-h-.     Thi-  !*«.: 

teachers  of  antiquity,  Ikorn  in  PaK-Mine  about  tranMation  i*«  reprinted  in  IU.ihn%  "Er« !««: 

A.  I>.  *jri4,  die^i  aUint  340.     He  early  devoted  I.il»rary''   M.oiulon,  \Mi).      There  t%  r^ 

hini^-lf  tothe-tiitly  Ntth  i»fChriMian  and  pagan  plete  (iri»ek  edition  i*(  the  wurk«  of  E.;« 

antiquities  vi^itod  the  monkiof  theThebals  in  the  be^t  complete  I..itin  e<rttii*n  is  that  «  f 

Egypt,  witni-SH*-*!  and  ^hare<l  the  pers4*cutions  15*^»».  ci»ntaining  all  hi- writing*  th«:i  kr. 
to  which  the  Chri^tians  of  that  region  wero         EUSTACllI,    or   Ei  sta<  iiio.  1Ja«t-  i- 

subjecte<l.  and  gathered  thos4Mneident  (4  and  ei  in-  (I^t.  EuMtaehius),  an    Italian  a:ia!«^rT:«t 

fe*^»ions  which  he  has  transmitted  t«i  us  in  his  probably  at  ^^an  Sevorinis  near  Su«'.t.( 

Lidtory.    About  914  ho  became  bishop  of  Ca>-  in  Komo  in  1574.    Ho  was  a  cvEtca; 


SUBTIB  EUTYOHES                    841 

of  Tesaliiu,  and  shares  with  him  the  merit  of  bell.  The  nnmber  of  the  enemy  was  about 
kyiog  the  foundation  of  the  science  of  human  2,800.  Four  miles  from  Eataw  areconnoitering 
loatomT.  He  extended  the  knowledge  of  the  detachment  of  British  cavalry  was  pat  to  flight 
internal  ear,  by  giving  a  correct  description  of  after  a  severe  skirmish.  One  mile  from  the 
the  tube  between  the  throat  and  the  ear,  which  British  camp  a  body  of  infantry  was  encounter- 
has  been  called  after  him  the  Eostachian  tube,  ed,  which  soon  fell  back.  The  action  became 
He  was  also  the  pioneer  in  the  accurate  study  general  soon  after  9  o^clock,  and  after  a  sharp 
of  the  anatomy  of  the  teeth.  His  Tabula  Ana-  contest  the  British  were  driven  from  their  camp. 
iMRiea,  the  text  to  which  seems  to  have  been  The  American  soldiers  had  scattered  among  the 
lost,  were  first  published  in  1714  by  Lancisi.  tents  of  the  enemy,  plundering  and  drinking, 
Eortaehi,  who  officiated  as  professor  of  anatomy  when  Stuart  suddenly  renewed  the  battle,  main- 
and  aa  physician  to  the  cardinals  Borromeo  and  taining  a  severe  fire  from  the  windows  of  a 
Bovero,  seems  to  have  been  so  poor  that  he  was  house  and  from  a  palisadoed  garden.  Greene 
unable  to  publish  his  works.  Lauth  remarks  withdrew  the  American  troops  out  of  range, 
that  if  he  had  been  able  to  publish  them,  anat-  deciding,  as  the  enemy  could  maintain  them- 
eniT  wonald  have  attained  the  perfection  of  the  selves  but  a  short  time,  to  wait  and  attack  them 
18u  eenturv  200  years  earlier  at  least.  A  new  on  their  retreat  He  left  a  strong  picket  on  the 
edition  of  the  Tabula  was  published  by  Albinus  field,  and  returned  for  the  night  to  the  position 
with  an  excellent  commentary  (Leydon,  1748).  7  mUes  off  which  he  had  left  in  the  morning, 
A  Dutch  eommentary  by  Bonn  appeared  in  Am-  not  finding  water  nearer.  During  the  night  the 
iterdam  in  1798;  and  one  in  German  by  Krauss  British  retreated  toward  Charleston ;  and  on  the 
la  the  same  city  in  1800.  next  day  Greene  advanced  and  took  possession 
EUSTISj  WiLUAif,  an  American  physician  of  the  battle  field,  and  sent  detachments  in  pur- 
nd  pdliticuui,  bom  in  Cambridge,  Mass.,  June  suit  of  them.  The  British  lost  183  killed  and 
10, 1758,  died  in  Boston,  Feb.  6, 1825.  He  was  wounded,  and  600  who  were  made  prisoners. 
I^adnated  at  Harvard  college  in  1772,  and  sub-  The  American  loss  was  585  in  killed,  wounded, 
in|aentlj  studied  medicine.  He  entered  the  and  missing.  One  of  the  most  lamented  of  the 
Anierican  army  during  the  revolutionary  con*  slain  was  Col.  Campbell,  who  fell  early  in  the 
test  as  a  re^mental  surgeon,  and  served  through-  battle  bravely  leading  the  Virginians  in  a  charge 
out  the  war  in  that  capacity,  or  as  hospital  sur-  with  the  bayonet 

gson,  being  for  some  years  staUoned  at  the  house  EUTERPE  (Gr.  cv,  well,  and  rrpiro>,  to  delight), 

opposite  West  Point  in  which  Arnold  had  his  the  inspirer  of  delight,  one  of  the  nine  muses, 

head-quarters.    Upon  the  conclusion  of  the  war  daughter  of  Zeus  and  Mnemosyne  (memory). 

he  practised  his  profession  in  Boston.    Between  She  presided  over  lyric  poetry,  and  played  on  the 

1600  and  1805  he  was  one  of  the  representatives  flute,  of  which  she  was  the  inventor ;  according 

from  Massachusetts  in  congress,  and  in  1809  he  to  some,  she  also  invented  tragedy.      She  is 

was  appointed  by  President  Madison  secretary  usually  represented  as  a  virgin,  crowned  with 

of  war,  a  poution  which  he  retained  until  the  flowers,  with  a  flute  in  her  hand,  or  various 

aorrender  of  the  American  forces  under  Gen.  musical  instruments  around  her,  and  sometimes 

Holl  to  the  British  in  1812,  when  he  resigned,  as  dancing. 

In  1814  he  was  app6inted  minister  to  Holland,  EUTYCEIES,  a  heresiarch  of  the  5th  century, 

and  after  his  return  served  again  in  congress  born  A.  D.  878,  died  about  454.    For  many 

between  1820  and  1828.    In  the  latter  year  he  years  he  lived  as  a  priest  and  archimandrite  in 

wndected  governor  of  Massachusetts,  and  died  the  cloisters  of  Constantinople,  where  he  had 

while  lx>lding  that  office.  more  than  800  monks  under  his  direction.    He 

EUTAW  SPRINGS,  a  small  affluent  of  the  was  the  head  of  the  party  opposed  to  Nesto- 

fimtse  river,  in  S.  Carolina,  about  60  m.  N.  W.  rius,  who,  in  order  not  to  confound  the  divine 

from  Charleston,  near  which  was  fought,  Sept.  8,  and  human  natures  in  Christ,  had  affirmed  that 

1781,  a  battle  between  the  Americans  under  there  were  in  him  two  distinct  persons.    £uty- 

G«o.  Greene  and  the  British  under  Col.  Stuart,  ches,  in  his  zeal  for  singleness  of  person  in  Christ, 

Greene  liad  been  several  weeks  awaiting  reSn-  was  led  to  maintain  also  that  he  possessed  but 

lltements  on  the  Santee  hills,  when  on  Aug.  one  nature.    This  opinion  became  popular  in 

llhebrokeup  his  encampment  to  march  against  the  Alexandrian  church,  where  the  doctrines 

Stuart,  who  had  succeeded  Rawdon  in  command  of  Nestorius  had  been  most  loudly  condemned. 

of  aQ  the  British  troops  in  the  field,  and  who  The  rising  heresy  was  examined  and  condemned 

vii  stationed  on  the  Congaree,  16  m.  distant^  by  asyncKl  at  Constantinople  in  448.    The  in« 

tatas  a  marshy  country.    The  latter  moved  fluenco  of  Eutyches  and   his  friends  obtained 

iomi  40  m.  to  the  vicinity  of  Eutaw  Springs,  from  Theodosius  the  reference  of  the  matter  to 

frOowed  by  Greeno  at  easy  marches,  who  bi-  a  general  council  to  meet  at  Ephesus  in  449 

iMaeked  on  the  night  of  Sept.  7  within  7  m.  under  the  presidency  of  Dioscurns,  a  violent 

tf  the  enemy.    The  whole  American  force,  not  Eutychian.    Here  the  triumph  of  Eutyches  was 

ttBBi&g  2,000  men,  advanced  in  two  columns,  secured  by  the  outcries  of  monks,  the  threats 

At  ftmt  of  which  was  commanded  on  the  ri^ht,  of  soldiers,  and  the  overbearing  violence  of  the 

Icftk  and  centre  respectively  by  Gen.  Marion,  president;    and  the  most   prominent  hostile 

Qa.Pickeo8,andCoi.  Malmedy,  andthesecona  oishops  were  deposed.     Pope  Leo  refhsedto 

^  Gen.  Somner,  OoL  WilUams,  and  CoL  Camp-  recogxuze  the  acts  of  thia  council,  which  was 


BUXINS  SEA  EVAKGEUOAL  ASSOOIAT] 

kDOwn  ts  the  Litrocininm,  or  robber  lyiiod,  and  man  descent    It  took  Mb  rise  In  the  j« 

•zcommantcated  Dioscoraa ;  and  at  the  general  in  the  eafftem  part  of  Penn^ylraniA,  ar 

conncil  of  Cbaloedon  in  451  both  the  doctrines  ed  from  an  organization  into  claM(04 

of  Neetorius  and  of  Eutjches  were  condemned,  gregations  of  the  disciples  of  the  R* 

In  the  0th  oentnry  a  great  reviral  of  the  doc-  Albright,  a  native  of  eastern  PennKTlvi 

trine  took  place  under  the  auspices  of  the  monk  being  impre!we<l  bj  the  general  declin 

Jacob  BandfeoS)  who  died  bishop  of  Edessa.  gious  life,  and  the  corruption  of  dorti 

From  him  the  sect  took  the  name  of  Jacob-  morals  that  prevailed  in  tlio  German 

itea,  who  still  constitute  a  numerous  church  in  that  portion  of  the  country,  undtrrtc 

in  Egypt,  Syria,  and  Ethiopia.    The  emperor  1790  to  work  a  reform  among  them. 

Heraclius  sought  to  mediate  Detween  the  Mono*  feet  of  his  first  preaching  enrouragei 

physites  and  Catholics,  and  promulgated  a  de-  travel  through  a  great  part  of  the  n 

cree  in  680,  requiring  the  doctrine  to  be  taucht  his  own  expense,  preaching  the  gotif 

that  there  were  two  natures  in  Christ,  but  had  opportunity,  in  chu^che^  in  nchou 

odIt  a  sini^e  will.    Hence  the  name  of  Mo-  vato  houscis  in  the  public  roads  Ssr.    . 

Bothelites,  the  last  offshoot  of  the  heresy  ofj  he  commenced  his  labors  without  ani 

Eutychea.  design  of  forming  a  distinct  eccIvMastir 

EDXINE  SEA.    See  Black  Sia.  ization,  yet  he  noon  found  it  nect^^Kar? 

EVAGORAS,  king  of  Salamis  In  Cyprus,  hbt  converts  scattered  over  several 

flourished  about  the  be^nning  of  the  4th  century  into  small  sociot  ies  for  mutual  supjuirt 

B.  C.    His  family,  which  claimed  descent  from  pathy.    At  a  meeting  called  for  the  pc 

Tencer,  the  reputed  founder  of  Salamls,  after  consulting  upon  the  best  n>easure«  to  U 

having  long  held  the  sovereignty  of  that  city,  had  for  the  furtherance  of  a  cause  in  whirl 

been  expelled  by  a  Phcenician  exile.    Evagbras  felt  a  deep  interest,  the  asvembly,  wi 

recovered  the  kingdom  in  410  B.  C,  and  en-  gard  to  the  teachings  of  high-churr 

deavored  to  restore  in  it  the  Hellenic  customs  spectinga  valid  Christian  ministry,  una 

and  civilization,  which  had  almost  disappeared  elected  and  solemnly  onlained  Mr.  Al 

imder  the  long  domination  of  barbarians.    He  their  pastor,  authorizing  him  to  exerci 

gave  a  fk'iendly  reception  to  the  Athenian  gen-  functions  of  the  ministerial  office  ov 

cral  Conon,  after  the  defeat  at  .^^gospotamos;  it  and  declared  the  Bible  to  lie  thfir  rul4 

was  by  his  intercession  that  the  king  of  Persia  and  practice.    This  organization,   tli 

Krmitted  the  Phoenician  fleet  to  aid  Gonon ;  and  complete  at  first,  was  soon  after  con 

himself  commanded  the  Cypriote  squadron  improved  by  the  adoption  of  a  rrev<l 

which  joined  Conon  and  Phamabazus  at  the  for  church  government.     Inthen^unM 

battle  of  Cnidus.     For  thcM  services  a  statue  as  Inbon'rn  inrreiuknl,  and  the  si«civt 

was  erectfil  to  him  at  Athens  in  the  Cerainicus  annual  cunfiTcnres  were  licM  ;  arid  in 

by  the  side  of  tliut  of  Conon.     His  increasing  vearH  aftor  the  first  organization  i>f  th* 

power  attracted  the  jealousy  of  the  Persian  king  a  gi-noral  confi-ronco  was  hold  for  the 

Artaxerzes  II.,  who  deolaretl  war  against  him.  in  Union  co.,  Pvnn.,  which  f*t>noi*'tt-il  ^ 

Evagoras  imme<liati*]y  extended  his  power  over  ciders  in  the  ministry.     Sinre  1M:1.  i 

almost  the  whole  of  Cyprus,  ravaged  the  coasts  c«>nferenoe,  coin|K»M-<l  of  delejrate*  cl 

of  Pluenicia,  excite<l  the  Cilicianstd  revf»lt,and  the  annual  contennces  from  .-iiiion;: 

even  capture*!  the  city  of  Tyre ;  but  a  Persian  ders,  has  held  quadn'miial  s*-*-iun-.     1 

army,  landing  in  Cyprus,  rei^apturwl  the  isLind  constitutes  at  onre  the  highe>t  U'pi«!: 

and  l»esiege«l  Evagoras  in  his  capital.     Ho  wha  jiulioial  authority  ret*f>gfii/e<l   in   the 

saved  only  by  the  dissensions  of  his  enemies,  Tlio  ministrv  is  diviilcd  into  two  nn! 

and  was  able  to  conclude  in  SM.^  a  |>eare  by  cons  and  elders;  and,  faithful  to  the  [ 

which  the  sovereignty  of  Salamis  was  herured  and  example  of  their  founder,  thiv  j  rai 

to  him.     He  survived  this  treaty  10  years,  and  ernnry.     Its  highe>t  pennant nt   frdi- 

dieil  by  assassination.  ehh-rship  ;    for,  althi»ugh  the  m«-u!> 

EVAXCiELICAI*,  a  term  applie<l  to  those  bishops  and  presiding  eldi-r*.  vii  tl.-- 

denominations  of  Christians  wliich  make  the  continued,  must  l»ere(Iorti*«l  eivrv  \  it 

atonement   of  Christ  alone,   and  ni»t  the  per-  if  not  n'electe*!,  they  hold  im  lii^'Iit  r 

ibrmanro  of  moral  duties,  the  groimd  of  salva-  privilege  than  that  of  an  ehUr.     F>r 

tion.     It  is  often  use<l  as   synonymous    with  2.*»  years  of  its  existence,  tlie  --w'it'.T  . 

orthodox.     In  PruA.»ia  it  is  applied   in   state  against  violent  opfK^ition.  but   f<  r  iV 

documents  to   the   Lutherans   and  Cidvinists,  years  it  has  made  rapid  pri>sre«i.  •^•th, 

whom  the  government  has  hhowii  a  strong  dis-  l^^Hi^^  it  compriM'*]  H  annuiU  rmifiri:: 

position  to  unite.  sitting  of  ovrr  MO)  itinerant  aiM  a  -t.! 

EVAMfELICAL  AS.S(>riATION,  an  eerie-  mimlHT  (►f  hiral  pna«hers,  wh.HK  :\M 

siastical  body,  iiiiinetim<'^.  though  ernmeonsly,  extend^  over  nearly  all  the  fn-<e  *'.:xu 

called  the  (lomian  MethiMli«t  ehurrh,  probably  New  Knglaxid.  U-ide  Maryland.  Virj 

because  its  c«infes«»ion  of  faith  and  its  iMility  are  the  territories,  ami  to  mhiic  exti  nt  al«« 

Tery  similar  to  that  of  the  Methu«liHt  kpi*4^>pal  ail.i.     The  nHMnlK'r*>hip  a|>i'roiiinatc«  4' 

church,  while  its  mrml»ers  are  ehiefly,  thoM;;h  adult*^  and  ^a••taill^,  l»r*nle  iL»  ni.n.^: 

by  no  means  exclusively,  GvnuaiLs,  ur  of  Ger-  C5  mis>iuus  in  the  Mirioun  »tatv4  an*!  u 


EYAKGELIBT  EVANS                     848 

of  the  Uidon,  chiefly  among  tho  Germans,  and  Kew  Orleans  he  was  the  only  landsman  who 
S  missionaries  in  Germany,  in  the  kingdom  of  volonteered  to  accompany  the  expedition  against 
WOrtemherg.    Two  flourishing  institutions  of  the  American  sloops  which    defended   Lake 
learning  are  also  sustained  hy  the  church,  one  Borgne.     In  Deo.  1814,  and   again  in  Jan. 
at  Kew  Berlin,  Union  co.,  Penn.,  and  the  other  1816,  he  was  wounded  before  New  Orleans,  and 
at  Greensbnrg,  Summit  co.,  Ohio.    Its  prosper-  was  sent  home.    Ho  recovered  Just  in  time  to 
ooa  publishing  house  at  Cleveland,  Ohio,  issues  join  Wellington  at  Qaatre  Bras,  where  again 
8  periodicals :    one,  its  German  organ,  Dtr  be  had  2  horses  kill^  under  him.    After  the 
CkriMmtkt  BoUthaJXffr^  which  is  the  oldest  peace  of  Paris  he  returned  to  England.    Until 
German  religions  paper  published  in  Amer-  the  time  of  the  reform  agitation,  on  the  ac- 
iea ;  another,  its  English  organ,  "  The  Evan-  cession  of  William  IV.,  he  remained  in  private 
celioal  Messenger  '^  and  the  third,  Let  Chriitr  life.    In  1830  he  came  forward  as  a  radical  re- 
lieke  Kinderfrtund^  a  non-denominational  Gter-  former,  was  for  a  few  months  a  member  of  par^ 
nan  Jnvenile  monthly.    The  society  forbids  its  liament  for  Rye,  but  lost  his  seat  at  the  general 
ministers  and  members  the  use  of  intoxicating  election  of  that  year.    He  was  reelected  in  1881, 
liqaori  as  a  beverage,  and  refUses  church  fellow-  and  unsuccessfully  contested  the  borough  of 
ship  to  manufacturers  and  vendors  of  them,  as  Rye  as  well  as  the  city  of  Westminster  in 
weu  as  to  slaveholders  and  slave  traders.    In  1882,  and  represented  the  latter  from  1883  to 
theology  it  is  Arminian,  but  holds  the  essential  1841.    In  1835  the  British  government  gave 
doctrines  of  the  gospel  as  they  are  held  in  com-  permission  to  the  Spanish  authorities  to  enlist 
noabj  the  various  evangelical  churches  of  our  a  ''British  auxiliary  legion^'  of  10,000  men, 
land,  with  all  of  whom  it  aims  to  cultivate  a  to  serve  against  the  cause  of  Don  Carlos. 
fraternal  spirit.  Evans  accepted  the  command  of  this  force; 
EVANGELIST  (Gr.  cv,  well,  happily,  and  ay-  but  no  sooner  was  the  legion  enrolled  than  the 
jMkm^  to  announce),  one  who  brings  good  tid-  policy  which  originated  it  fell  into  disfovor, 
tDfli    Hence  the  writers  of  the  four  Gospels  are  and  discouragements  were  thrown  in  its  way, 
eaUed  the  evangelists,  because  they,  in  a  predmi-  the  result  of  which  was  that  Evans  found  him- 
nent  aense,  dedare  the  glad  tidings  of  salvation  self  on  Spanish  soil  with  an  undrilled  multi- 
by  Christ.   Evangelists  were  early  designated  as  tude,  the  refuse  of  the  streets.    By  degrees  they 
a  particnlar  class  of  religious  teachers  in  the  were  brought  into  serviceable  condition,  and  at 
Oiristian  church,  next  in  order  to  the  apostles,  the  end  of  the  2  years  for  which  they  were  en- 
and  under  their  direction ;  not  attached  to  any  gaged,  Evans  was  able  to  state  in  his  place  in 
particnlar  church  or  place,  but  going  forth  to  parliament  that  no  prisoner  had  been  taken 
preach  the  gospel  wherever  they  were  called  or  from  the  legion  in  action,  nor  any  port  of  its 
lent,  and  to  travel  among  the  infant  churches,  artillery  or  equipage  captured,  while  it  had 
ordain  their  ordinary  officers,  and  finish  the  taken  from  tho  enemy  27  pieces  of  artillery  and 
work  the  apostles  had  begun.    The  primitive  1,100  prisoners.  In  1846  he  was  reelected  to  par- 
eider  of  evangelists,  distinct  from  other  public  liament  from  Westminster,  and  has  retained  this 
rdigious  teachers,  is  supposed  to  have  been  seat  ever  since.    When  the  Crimean  war  broke 
merely  temporary,  like  that  of  apostles  and  pro-  out  he  was  appointed,  with  the  rank  of  lieuten- 
pbeta.   Their  extraordinary  powers  and  miracu-  ant-gcneral,  to  command  the  2d  division  of  the 
JOQS  gifts  have  long  since  ceased ;  but  the  class  English  army.    At  the  battle  of  the  Alma  his 
of  dnties  and  services  which  they  performed  division  was  distinguished,  and  again  before 
nems  to  have  fallen  more  especially  on  the  mis-  Sebastopol,  where,  on  Oct.  26,  they  repulsed  a 
■ooariea  of  modem  days.  sortie  of  6,000  Russians,  of  whom  they  put  800 
EVANS,  Sib  Db  Lact,  a  British  general,  bom  hor»  de  combat^  and  took  80  prisoners.    At  the 
in  Moig,  Ireland,  in  1787.    lie  became  ensign  battle  of  Inkermann,  Nov.  5,  when  the  Russians 
la  the  S2d  regiment  of  foot,  and  his  first  service  attacked.  Gen.  Evans  was  sick  on  shipboard  at 
was  with  the  British  army  in  India,  where,  Balaklava,  Gen.  Pennefather  having  temporary 
ftem  1807  to  1810,  he  shared  in  the  war  against  command  of  his  division.     Evans  hurried  on 
Ameer  Kban.     He  also  assisted  at  the  capture  shore,  and  acted   as  Pennefather^s   assistant, 
of  the  Kauritiua.    In  1810  he  joined  his  regiment  rather  than  deprive  him  of  the  honor  of  the 
in  Spain.    He  was  present  at  nearly  dl  the  day.    He  received  for  his  services  the  thanks 
friadpal  battles  and  sieges,  and  was  noted  for  of  parliament  and  tlie  grand  cross  of  the  bath, 
vobnteering  for  storming  parties  and  other  and  Louis  Napoleon  made  him  grand  officer  of 
tenrous duties ;  receiving  the  war  medal,  with  the  legion  of  honor  (1856).    He  abstained  from 
I  diipa,  for  his  share  in  the  actions  of  Yit-  voting  on  the  Chinese  war  question  (1857),  is 
teiiy  the  Pyr^n^es,  and  Toulouse.    Early  in  opposed  to  the  present  system  of  selhng  com- 
1814^  havingbeoome  brevet  lieutenant-colond  missions  in  the  army,  and  voted  agiunst  the 
flattie  6th  west  Indian  regiment,  he  was  or-  Derby  reform  bill  (1859). 
^M  for  service  in  America.    At  the  battle  of  EVANS,  Lewis,  an  American  geographer  and 
BUeoabnrg,  Aug.  24,  1814,  he  hod  2  horses  surveyor,  born  about  1700,  died  in  June,  1756. 
Uhd  under  him.    It  was  he  who,  at  the  head  During  an  active  professional  life,  he  collected 
^  100  men,  acting  under  orders  f^om  Gen.  many  materials  for  a  map  of  the  British  North 
Boai,  forced  the  capitol  at  Washington.    He  American  colonies,  and  in  1749  published  one 
ib  took  part  in  the  attack  on  Baltimore.    At  of  the  middle  colonies,  chiefly  of  New  York, 


844                       EVANS  EVAPORATION 

New  Jerter,  ana  DeUwarc,  and  of  tho  Indian  to  have  afforc4(^d  tlio  first  instanee  in  Ame rira 
country  a4jaoent.  A  2d  edition  appeared  in  of  tho  application  of  steam  power  to  the  finv 
17M,  mach  enlarged,  and  containing  in  addition  pclling  of  land  carriages.  lie  indeed  predicted 
Virginia,  Marvland,  Pennnylvania,  and  a  part  the  timo  when  such  carriages  would  be  pro- 
of Now  England.  In  ITIiC  ho  publislied  in  pelled  on  railways  of  wciod  or  iron,  and  nrgtd 
London  a  pamphlet  in  rcpl  v  to  some  strictures  the  construction  of  a  railroad  between  Pbiladrl* 
on  a  statement  questioning  the  English  title  to  pliia  and  New  York,  but  was  always  prereotcd 
Fort  Fruntenac  which  hiul  been  appended  to  Dv  his  liniiti*d  means  from  prowcuting  bis  me- 
the  last  edition  of  his  map.  Hoth  publications  chanical  exi>eriments  to  the  extent  he  de«irrd. 
appeared  un«lcr  the  title  of  **  Geographical,  His-  He  was  the  author  of  the  **  Young  Millwrigbt's 
torical,  Political,  Philosophical,  and  Mechanical  Guide,"  and  tho  **  Young  Steam  Engineer's 
EMajs,  Nos.  1  and  2.'*  Guide,"  and  wrote  with  force  and  hdliij  oa 

£V AXS,  Oliver,  an  American  inventor,  bom  his  favorite  subjects. 

in  Newport,  DcU  in  1755,  died   in  Philadel-  EVA NSVILLE,  a  city  and  the  capital  of  Van- 

phia,  April  21,  1819.    Tho  inventive  faculty  derburgco.,  Irid.,  built  on  high  ground  on  the  N. 

was  developed  in  him  while  he  was  apprentice  bank  of  the  Ohio  river,  200  m.  from  its  mouTh, 

to  a  wheelwright,  and  K^foro  he  had  reached  and  200  m.  below  Louisville,  Ky. ;  pop.  In  1853, 

the  age  of  manhood  the  construction  of  a  land  8,000 ;  in  1859,  about  15,000.   'The  bend  of  tbe 

carriage  to  be  propelled  without  animal  power  river  at  this  point  describes  a  half  moon,  whence 

b^i;an  to  occupy  hb  attention.    At  the  age  of  Evansvillo  is  sometimes  call  the  ^'crescent  city.** 

22  he  invented  a  machine  for  making  card  teeth  The  Wabash  and  Erie  canal,  462  m.  in  length, 

which  superseded  the  old  method  of  manufao-  commencing  at  Tole<lo,  Oliio,  terminates  at  this 

taring  tliem  by  hand.    Two  years  later  lie  en-  point ;  and  the  Evansville  and  CrawfurdsriDe 

tered  into  business  with  his  brothers,  who  were  railroad,  in  operation  from  Evans ville  to  Terra 

millera,  and  in  a  short  time  invented  tlie  elo-  Ilaute,  opens  rulroad  communication  with  aS* 

vator.  tlie  conveyor,  the  drill,  the  hopper-boy,  most  every  part  of  the  country.   The  geofrraph- 

and  tlie  descender,  the  application  of  which  to  ical  and  geological  position  of  the  puce  ii 

milk  worked  by  water  power  effected  a  revolu-  favorable  to  the  building  up  of  a  large  manubc- 

tion  in  tlie  manufacture  of  flour.    For  some  turing  and  commercial  city.    Coal  and  iron  er» 

years  after  these  improvements  were  perfected,  abound  in  the  vicinity ;  several  large  ioaring 

the  inventor  found  much  difficulty  in  bringing  mills,  factories,  and  machine  shfips  are  dow  in 

them  into  use,  although  in  his  own  mill  the  operation;  and  8  daily  and  2  weekly  new  s|>ap«rs 

economy  of  time  and  labor  which  they  effected  are  publislie<l.    The  value  of  mercliandtsc  told 

was  very  manifest.    In  1788-7  he  obtained  from  in    1867    was   $4,076,000;   of  manufartore*, 

the  legislatures  of  Mar}'! and  and  Pennsylvania  $1,598,708;  of  exports,  |7.05.'f.21»V.    The  rl:y 

the  exc'luMve  right  to  use  \iU  improvements  in  contains  22  church  orpin izat it >ii!S  of  alnv^t  all 

flour  mills,  and  the  f(»nncr  state  also  gave  him  a  denominations,  3  public  libmrio^,  a  national  n:»- 

similar  privilege  with   respect  to   bteam   car-  rine  hospital  erected  by  the  general  p'vvmmen:, 

riages,  mure  frum  tho  dcMiro  to  fucourage  his  and  public  k'IhmiIs  attcnde<i   by  1,446  J-up'-s. 

inventive  powers  than  from  a  belief  that  ho  Evansvillc  wai  laid  out  in  I'^H  Vr  (ivu.  Hul^rt 

could  ever  derive  nny  bonetit  from  it.     It  was  M.  Evans,  James  W.  Jonoo,  and  Hugh  ili-^lrarr, 

not  until  1799  or  1^00  tliat  he  was  able  to  got  from  the  first  of  whom  it  was  naiiift).     In  Kf'":. 

about  the  Const  ruction  of  a  G>toain  carriage ;  but  some  lalH^rors  digging  a  well  rnnio  u|>«'n  tie  r^- 

finding  that  hid  bteam  engine  differed  in  form  mains  of  a  cabin  14  feet  In-low  the  i^urfarc  ^  f 

as  well  an  in  principle  fn>in  th(»se  in  use,  it  oc-  the  earth.     In  tho  interior  were  foun«l  an  o!i- 

curred  to  him  that  it  muM  be  patented  and  ap-  fa^hiuned  ^prtng  wheel,  a  wiMMUn  mall.  arJ  a 

plied  to  mills  more  profit  at  »ly  than  to  carriages;  ]»air  of  Euro|H>an  iNNit'*.     li   i*  »nrmi!it<^l  t!  i: 

and  in  this  he  was  completely  suoce^i^ful.    This  tho  cabin  niny  have  been  inh:ibitot]  l>r  tbr  early 

was  tho  first  steam  engine  constructed  on  tho  French  M-ttlers,  and  that  it  had  U-«*n  cre<tt*d  m 

high  pressure  principle;  and  t«)  KvauiS  whoh.*id  an  excavation,  an«l  covered  over  with  earth  to 

Conceive^I  tlio  i«lea  «if  it  iu  early  life,  and  in  1TS7  conceal  it,  a-*  was  fre»|Ueully  done  by  the  ear> 

and  again  in  17y4-*5  had  hent  to  En;;land  draw-  settlen*  of  iIjo  "WeM. 

ings  and  h|K'cifioat ions  the  merit  of  tho  inven-  EVAPoUATlON",  the  diwipation  v(  l<^itf« 

tion  belonu'N  iilllnmg*!  it  has  been  common  to  as-  by  the  volatile  particles  at  their  ^^^f3l•e  avi:m.:r^ 

sign  it  t«»  Vivian  and  Trevetliick,  whohiul  had  ac-  the  form  of  va]M)rs  and  disap|N^aring  in  the  fpSire 

cess  to  Evans's  plaTiv  In  l^<>->-'4,  by  onler  of  tho  around  them.     I.iipiids  nianiTest  tliis  pn.>prrty 

bourd  of  health  of  lMjil:uKlplii:i,  he  constructed  mii*»t  si-nMlily.     Mercury  exhibitsi  it  at  tcn.f«rr- 

the  fin«t  fiteam  dred;;iiig  niiu  hine  usimI  in  A  men-  aturesexcetMling  GO'  F.,  a<  i«  shown  by  the  icvit- 

ca,  consi^tillg  of  a  tlat  s<-t>w  \i  ith  a  small  engine  ible  fumes  ft»niiing  an  arnaltnim  Uff-n  t!ie  »i:rf»(re 

to  work  the   machinery  fT  rai->ing  the  mud.  (»fabit  ofpdd  le:if,  f(us|»endcdfors4*Rieday«c>rir 

The  niai'hino,  which  he  nunieil  tlie  **  <  ^nictor  (he  »urfar4^  of  the  meLil.    Many  M>Iid  Uidie*  ar« 

AniphiUilis,"  bavin;;  lM*en  pliic«-«l  ii{m in  wheels,  subject  to  it ;  camplior.  ice,  snow,  and  I'thtrs 

pro|K-IU'«l  itM'lf  til  the  S'huvlkiil,  a  di*>iance  of  wasting  away  by  tlu  ir  paruriiii  lK<inc  takec  la 

H  miles,  and  up«in  lieing  litteil  with  a  paddle  in  viM  Me  va|Kir  in  to  the  surrounding  at  ni<»«p>r->e. 

wheel  in  the  ►tern,  navigated  tho  river  to  iti  It  i^  a  ]»art  <»f  the  pn»res^  pniviilfd  ly  nsfr* 

Junction  with  the  Delaware.    This  is  believed  for  restoring  to  the  earth,  through  the  mciliux 


EVAPORATION  845 

of  the  dondfl,  tho  waters  which  have  drained  tage   over   water    in   generating   mechanical 

from  its  sorfaoe  into  the  sea,  and  those  also  held  power.    Daltou  discovered  that  the  presence 

in  the  soil,  or  upon  the  leaves  of  the  forest  of  air  or  any  gas  impeded  evaporation  by  the 

Once  having  performed  their  office,  they  are  resistance  its  particles  opposed  to  tho  circulation 

recalled  by  the  process  of  evaporation,  purified  of  tlie  vapor ;  bat  wlietner  any  gas  were  present 

by  it  of  their  earthy  contaminations,  and  are  or  not,  the  same  amount  of  vapor  would  always 

agun  poored  out  for  the  refreshment  of  vege-  be  formed  at  the  same  temperature.    The  effect 

table  and  animal  life.    (See  Atmosphkbe,  Cold,  of  the  air  was  seen  in  the  longer  time  required 

Dsw,  Hkat,  and  lox.)    As  evaporation  takes  to  fill  the  space  with  tho  amount  of  vapor  be- 

place  in  ordinary  temperatures  only  from  the  longing  to  the  temperature.    Vapors  have  a 

soHaoe  of  objects,  the  amount  of  moisture  re-  greater  capacity  for  heat  than  their  particles 

moved  is  dependent,  under  the  same  circum-  when  condensed  into  liquid  or  solid  form.    In 

stances  in  other  respects,  upon  the  extent  of  their  formation  consequently  they  abstract  heat 

miftce  exposed.    It  is  greater  in  a  warm  dry  from  surrounding  bodies,  producing  an  amount 

air  than  when  the  temperature  is  low,  or  the  of  cold  corresponding  to  the  rapidity  of  tho 

atmoapbere  is  already  nearly  filled  with  vapor,  process.    Under  the  exhausted  receiver  of  an 

The  more  moisture  is  taken  up  into  the  same  air  pump  water  is  very  rapidly  converted  into 

body  ofair,  the  more  the  process  is  retarded,  until  vapor,  but  the  process  is  soon  checked  by  tho 

it  length  it  18 entirely  checked.  It  is  renewed  by  vacuum  becoming  filled  with  the  vapor.    By 

new  aappliea  of  dry  air.    The  most  favorable  placing  in  the  receiver  a  substance  that  rapidly 

niftiml  conditions  for  its  rapid  action  are  pre-  absorbs  aqueous  vapor,  as  sulphuric  acid,  the 

Rated  npoa  the  Atlantic  ocean  under  the  trade  operation  goes  on  without  check,  and  the  cold 

viodii  which  strike  off  from  the  hot  deserts  of  produced  is  so  intense  that  the  water  may  be 

Africa,  and  blow  across  to  the  Cordilleras.  The  frozen,  as  was  first  demonstrated  by  Leslie,  by 

Aaaion  and  the  Orinoco  are  the  fruits  of  the  its  own  evaporation.    If  liquids  that  evaporate 

cT^ioration  thus  produced.    The  vapors  that  more  readily  than  water,  as  benzole  or  ether,  are 

are  continually  ascending  from  moist  surfaces  used,  mercury  itself  may  be  frozen  under  them. 

are  for  the  most  part  invisible,  like  those  exhaled  Upon  this  principle  the  intense  cold  is  obtained 

by  breathing.    Their  existence  is  proved  by  in-  that  is  required  ror  the  solidification  of  carbon- 

itrvmeota  called  hygroscopes  and  hygrometers ;  ic  acid  gas.    Heat  mav  bo  abstracted  so  much 

■ad  at  times  they  become  visible,  as  when  in  more  rapidly  than  it  is  imparted  by  surround* 

dear  frosty  weather  they  rise  copiously  from  the  ing  bodies  that  even  mercury  may  be  frozen,  as 

nrftoe  of  pools  fed  by  deep  springs,  and  are  seen  was  done  by  Faraday,  in  a  red-hot  crucible.  The 

eoQgealed  in  white  clouds,  like  the  vapors  of  principle  is  applied  in  the  water  and  wine  coolers 

the  breath  under  the  same  conditions.    But  used  in  hot  countries.    Tho  water  with  which 

vales  deprived  of  tlieir  heat  they  possess  the  they  are  filled,  and 'in  which  the  wine  bottles 

properties  of  gaseous  bodies ;  a  given  bulk  of  are  placed,  filters  through  tlie  porous  vessels  and 

ttr  or  of  other  gases  takes  up  of  them  the  same  evaporates  from  their  surface,  cooling  all  the 

^[Butity  aa  would  be  received  in  a  vacant  space  contents.    A  similar  effect  is  experienced  in  the 

of  the  same  extent  and  temperature.    This  was  animal  body  by  rapid  evaporation.    The  heat 

eoadasively  proved  from  the  experiments  of  generated  by  the  chemical  actions  going  on 

Dr.  Dalton.    It  results  that  no  more  vapor  can  witliin  is  taken  off  by  the  vapor  formed  at  the 

be  received  into  any  space  after  the  weight  of  surface.    Damp  clothes  furnish  the  means  for 

tint  already  there  amounts  to  the  elastic  force  the  production  of  much  vapor  and  consequent 

of  the  YnpoT  at  the  temperature  of  the  surface  reduction  of  temperature,  often  to  an  injurious 

vhieh  generates  it.    Increase  of  temperature  extent.    The  heat  abstracted  by  vapor  in  its 

itt  to  the  elasticity  of  the  vapor  and  promotes  formation  is  given  out  on  its  condensation.    In 

enporation ;  cold  r^uces  the  elasticity  and  pro-  low  pressure  steam  engines  it  is  economized  by 

Botes  precipitation.    Pressure  does  not  affect  being  transferred  in  the  condensers  to  the  water 

tbi  e^Munty  of  air  to  contain  vapor ;  but  evap-  that  is  returned  to  the  boilers. — Uygroscopcs 

ttitioo  proceeds  more  slowly  by  its  increase,  and  hydrometers,  already  referred  to,  are  instru- 

Hit  be  removed,  as  when  a  liquid  is  placed  in  an  ments  designed,  the  first  for  detecting  the  pres- 

ttKuwted  receiver  of  an  air  pump,  evaporation  ence  of  moisture  in  the  atmtrsphere,  and  the 

IOCS  on  with  great  rapidity.    Ether  may  thus  at  second  for  determining  either  the  temperature  at 

^f^tmrj  temperature  be  thrown  into  ebullition,  which  the  air  under  observation  begins  to  shed 

Adifliecence  is  observed  in  the  tendency  of  differ-  its  moisture,  called  the  dew-point,  or  else  tho 

^Bi|Dida  to  pass  into  vapor ;  the  lower  their  temperature  of  evaporation.    Either  of  these 

WBg  point  the  more  rapid  is  their  evaporation;  and  the  normal  temperature  of  the  air  being 

MlUii  also  observed  that  tho  vapor  thus  easily  known,  the  elastic  tension  of  the  atmospheric 

pibQed  is  correspondingly  less  rare,  occupying  vapor,  and  the  amount  of  moisture  in  a  given 

J^kiptee  than  that  requiring  a  greater  expendi-  quantity,  are  approximately  ascertained  by  ref- 

j**of  heat  for  its  evolution.    The  density  of  erence  to  tables  constructed  for  this  purpose. 

■nboBc  vapor  Is  2.5  times  greater  than  that  of  The  results  cannot  be  considered  exact,  as  the 

*te.  Fluids,  therefore,  that  may  be  vaporized  air  does  not  always  contmn  just  the  amount  of 

^  little  expense  of  fuel,  might  not,  after  all,  moisture  due  to  its  temperature.    The  hygro* 

9rm  if  obtained  at  little  cost,  have  any  advan-  scope  of  De  Saussure  was  a  hair  connected  with  a 


846  EVAPORAnON 

dial,  iti  Turiations  in  length  indicating  the  pret-  ing  cnrrenta  of  air  to  bknr  o?«r  tho  exttoded 

ence  of  more  or  loesmoistare.    (For  an  acconnt  sorfaoes  of  the  liquids,  thns  oootiantl/  bringiof 

of  these  instruments,  see  IIyokombtib.)   The  new  portions  of  drj  air  to  absorb  freah  qnanti- 

elastic  force  ffiven  in  the  tables  for  any  tern-  ties  of  moisture. — Some  remarkable  phewiiDe- 

perature  of  Uie  water  is  expressed  by  the  na  exhibited  by  liquids  when  dropped  npoo 

height  in  inches  of  a  colunm  of  mercury  which  heated   surfaces   may  pronerly  he  nere   oo- 

will  balance  it ;  but  this  is  to  be  diminished  by  ticed.      Every  one  must  nave  obseired  the 

the  force  of  tlie  vapor  that  may  already  be  tendency  of  water,  when  it  iklls  upon  red-hoi 

present  in  the  air,  bIm  obtained  from  the  same  iron,  to  separate  into  spherical  drop^  which 

table.     The  amount  of  water  that  may  be  danoe  around  upon  the  metal,  apparently  with- 

evaporatod  ut  any  given  temperature  from  a  out  touching  it,  and  thus  oontinoe  wiiboot  cti^ 

•quare  fuut  of  surface  in  a  minute  of  time  is  thns  orating  much  longer  than  the  flaid  woald  if  ex* 

readily  calculated,  on  the  supposition  that  the  posed  to  the  same  degree  of  heat  nnder  other 

air  is  previously  dry.    If  it  be  continually  re-  circumstanoes.    A  platinum  crucible  hra^t 

moved  from  over  the  surface  of  the  water  by  nearly  to  a  white  heat  may  be  almoil  half 

wind,  natural  or  artiticial,  the  operation  is  of  filled  with  water  introduced  drop  by  &np^ 

course  more  rapidly  accomplished. — Evaporatbn  which  will  continue  in  this  ttata  for  aocM  ain* 

Is  accompanied  with  ebullition  when  the  elastic  utea  without  perceptible  eraporatloa.  On  coot- 

ibrce  pressing  upon  the  surface  of  a  liquid  is  leas  iuff  the  crucible,  tne  lioaid  suddenly  bwins  to 

than  that  due  to  the  temperature  of  this  liquid.  boU,  and  discharges  a  Tolome  of  Tapor.     while 

In  the  case  of  water  at  the  ordinary  preasure  in  the  spheroidal  state  drops  are  seen  tobcsi^ 

0(  the  atmosphere,  and  under  ordinary  circum-  ported  upon  an  atroosphera  of  Twor,  which 

■tances,  the  piarticles  of  fluid  throughout  the  mass  prevents  their  contact  with  the  laniMe  of  the 

are  converted  into  vapor  as  rapidly  as  they  ac-  metaL    Most  liquids,  except  oils  wUek  art  de* 

quire  the  temperature  of  212°.    The  evolution  composed  by  the  heat,  display  the  mmf  phww 

of  tliis  vapor,  generated  in  all  parts  of  the  mens.    Their  temperature  while  in  tbla  cond^ 

Uauid,  throws  it  into  the  state  of  commotion  tion  is  not  only  much  leas  than  that  of  thn  mt- 

auled  ebullition.    By  taking  off  tlie  outside  lisce  upon  which  they  reat,  hot  is 

pressure  by  the  air  pump,  or  by  ascending  to  their  own  boiling  point;  and  if  they  are  i 

great  elevations  above  tne  surface,  the  same  boiling  when  dropped  npon  the  bealad 


phenomenon  Is  exhibited  at  reduced  tempera-  the  temperature  tklls  to  a  certain  point,  which 

tures.    (See  Boiuno  Poijtt.)    The  quantity  of  appears  to  be  a  fixed  one  for  each  lionid  In  tldi 

heat  required  to  convert  a  quantity  of  water  condition.    Water  remains  at  S06* ;  alcohol 

into  vapor  is  6}  times  as  much  as  will  raise  it  which  boils  at  173%  falls  at  least  S*;  ethv, 

from  tiic  fiveziug  to  the  boiling  point.    Steam  which  boils  at  100%  fiills  at  least  6*.    The 

consequently  contains  6^  times  as  much  heat  as  temperature  of  the  heated  surface  at  whkh 

the  water  producing  it  when  at  the  boiling  point;  liquids  are  caused  to  SMume  this  condition  hss 

yet  tlie  thenuomccor  indicate:*  no  liiglaT  degree  been  found,  fur  water,  to  be  S40'  or  more;  fer 

of  temiKTature  iu  tlio  steam  than  in  the  water,  alcohol,  273^;  and  for  ether,  140'.    The  chick 

The  heat,  lit>wover,  reappears  when  the  steam  upon  evaporation  is  very  remarkable.    Aqoia- 

is  coiMlvnseil  iu  to  water,  sufficient  Miig  then  tity  of  water  which  would  ordinarily  diiappesr 

develo|K.Ml  to  rai>e  6^  times  an  much  water  as  in  vapor  in  one  minnte  at  tlie  temperatart  rf 

produoisl  it  from  the  freezing  to  the  boiling  212%  has  been  kept  from  total  dispersion  MsHf 

point. — The  principles  developed  by  the  philo-  an  hour  in  a  metallic  Teasel  hented  ncarij  to 

aophical  researches  in  the  evaporation  of  liquids  redness.    Hnlphnrous  acid,  which  is  the  BOrt 

have  Uf  n  applied  in  a  variety  of  ways  to  facril-  volatile  of  fluid^  can  be  kept  from  evapnratias 

itato  ond  render  more  economical  several  practi-  only  under  a  pressure  of  two  atnospbcn^ 

cal  o(>eriition'«.   Siru|>s  are  cvaiNtrated,  as  in  the  e(]ual  to  80  lbs.  to  the  square  inch,  or  at  a  Um^ 

refining  of  ^ugar,  in  vacuum  |Mins,  or  vcmcIs  in  peraturo  below   14"   F^  which  Is  its  hoiliaf 

which  thi*  attiMisphcric  prcbMire  inuv  be  partially  point.    This  being  dropped  into  a  hot  craeiUiL 

taken  otr  hy  air  fii2inp4.    A  low  degree  of  heat  its  temperature  falls  to  12%  and  water  poanA 

onl  V  i*  thus  required,  producing  economy  in  in  at  the  same  time  is  immediately  ttoEtm.  Thit 

fuel,  and  nvoi«ling  tho  haU  of  ovvrhenting  and  the  surface  of  the  spheroids  is  nnt  in  contact 

burning  the  hirup.     Extracts  are  convcnivntly  with   the  hot  surfaces  is  proved  by  droppicg 

Ei\*psnMl  on  the  K.ime  principle.     Hut  when  it  nitric  acid  upon  a  hot  silver  plate,  whcrr  9^ 

I  de^irahle  to ctTiMt  the  Uiiling  at  hifrh  temper-  chemical  action  is ohsenred  to  take  plact ;  \^ 

aturi*N  n«  for  dico*iting  U>ne<«  and  subjects  ditli-  if  a  piece  of  cold  silver  be  hrvught  in  ranted 

cult  todi*>4<»]ve,  the  eva]K»rati(>n  is  prevented  by  with  the  acid  spheroid,  nitrous  acid  fumes  10' 

tlie  v:i[mr  Uintr  eontinitl,  s«»  as  to  exort  its  elastic  medintely  appear,  and  nitrate  of  silver  is  fcr 

fi»n*e  \\\fm  the  Mirf^icc  of  the  tlnid.    Thus  the  The  light  01  a  candle  also  may  he  sern  be|i 

CHvipe  of  more  Meuni  is  checked  until,  hy  great-  a  metallic  surface  and  an  opaqne  fpheroid 

er  he.it.  itK  eiaMtc  fiirce  is  made  greater  than  ning  upon  it.    The  protection   thus 

that  ufHtn  the  f^urfoce.  Hy  tht^  metho«l  the  tem-  against  the  heat  is  cxemp1ifie«l  also  by  the 

perittun»  of  the  water  has  Ikh-u  nii«i'd  to  more  ful  cz()ertment  of  thrust  ing  the  hand  intnmohtf^ 

tlian  4<Mi '  K.     ]*:iiiid  evu|Hirarton  hiin  hei'n  yrt*'  metnl.  as  cA«t  in»n  or  c«ip|«T,  which  has  ttxt 

nioted  in  salt  works  and  in  bleacheries  by  caus-  times  been  done  with  imponity ;  ibt 


KVARTS  EVERDDTGElir               847 

upon  tlie  hand  forming  the  protecting  Btratnm  frait,  was  with  him  driven  forth  from  paradise, 
of  Taper  between  it  and  the  hot  metal.    A  feat  and  was  doomed  to  many  sorrows  and  snffer- 
of  this  kind  is  described  by  Beckmann  in  the  ings,  especiallj  in  the  birth  of  her  offspring. 
chapter  on  "  Jagglers  "  in  his  "  History  of  In-  E  VEOTION  (Lat.  evectio^  a  carrying  out),  the 
▼entioiifl^'*  as  having  been  performed  in  his  pres-  principal  perturbation  of  the  moon  in  longi- 
6006  in  1765  at  the  copper  works  at  Awestad.  tudes,  causing  her  to  be  alternately  nearly  8 
1^  one  of  the  workmen,  who  took  the  melted  times  her  own  breadth  in  advance  o^  and  be- 
BMtal  in  bis  hand,  and  again  skimmed  with  it  a  hind,  her  mean  place.  The  fact  of  evectlon  was 
ladle  of  the  same,  and  moved  his  hand  back-  discovered  by  Ptolemy,  but  its  cause  was  nn- 
ward  and  forward  in  it    M.  Boutigny  also  (to  known  before  the  law  of  gravitation  was  dis- 
wfaose  researches  in  this  direction,  as  well  as  covered.    It  arises  from  th^  disturbing  influence 
those  of  Oharles  Tomlinson,  Esq.,  the  author  of  the  sun,  alternately  elongating  the  moon's 
of  the  ^Student's  Manual  of  Natural  Philoso-  orbit,  or  reducing  its  eccentricity,  according  as 
phy,"  and  more  recently  of  the  **  Cyclopsddia  the  end  or  side  of  the  orbit  is  toward  the  sun. 
of  the  Usefhl  Arts  «nd  Manufactures,"  we  are  EVELYN,  John,  an  English  author,  bom  in 
mneh  indebted  for  the  knowledge  we  possess  Wotton,  Surrey,  Oct  31, 1620,  died  Feb.  27, 1706. 
nai  this  aobject)  has  performed,  together  with  He  was  educated  at  Baliol  college,  Oxford,  and 
M.  Michel,  similar  experiments  with  cast  iron,  then  began  to  study  law  in  the  Middle  Temple. 
The  last  named  states :  '^  I  divided  or  cut  across  He  served  for  a  short  time  in  1641  as  a  volunteer 
with  my  hand  a  Jet  of  cast  iron,  issuing  from  a  in  the  Netherlands,  returned  to  England  as  the 
eqida  fbrnaoe,  and  I  also  plunged  my  other  civil  war  was  breaking  out,  and  joined  the  royal 
hod  into  a  ladle  of  cast  iron  in  the  molten  army,  but  after  the  king's  retreat  to  Glouces- 
itrt&  wliich  was  fearful  to  look  at    I  trembled  ter  left  England  to  travel  through  France  and 
iBTOiantarily  in   making  the  trial,  but  both  Italy.  He  returned  to  England  in  1651,  assisted 
handa  escaped  uninjured.''    The  subject  is  fully  in  the  restoration  of  1 660,  and  was  received  with 
tnatad  in  Bouchardat's  Phy»iqvs  elementaire  favor  at  the  court  of  Charles  II.    He  was  one 
(fmna^  1851).    The  sudden  formation  of  vapor  of  the  founders  of  the  royal  society  in  1662,  and  a 
pndoeed  by  the  spheroids  assuming  the  gaseous  member  of  the  first  council.   Upon  the  brewing 
itile  at  the  metallio  surface  is  cooled,  is  prob-  out  of  the  Dutch  war  two  years  later,  he  was 
•Mr  one  of  the  causes  of  the  explosion  of  steam  named  one  of  the  commissioners  to  tend  the  sick 
boueiiL    When  these  have  become  overheated  and  the  wounded,  and  attended  to  his  charge  dur- 
\ij  dsflciency  of  water,  that  which  is  next  intro-  ins  all  the  raging  of  the  plague.  In  1 664  the  Eng- 
daoed  is  likely  to  assume  the  spheroidal  form.  Ibn  naval  commissioners  dreaded  a  scarcity  of 
Ai  more  is  added  the  metal  is  cooled,  and  the  naval  timber  in  the  country,  and  at  the  request 
spheroids  suddenly  burst  into  vapor,  every  cubic  of  the  royal  society  Evelyn  wrote  his  ^^  Sylva,  or 
»ot  producing  1,700  cubic  feet  of  steam.  a  Discourse  on  Forest  Trees,  and  the  Propagation 
E  V  ARTS,  Jkrxmiaii,  secretary  of  the  Amer-  of  Timber  in  his  Majesty's  Dominions,^'  a  work 
icitt  board  of  commissioners  for  foreign  mis-  which  induced  many  landholders  to  plant  an  im- 
ibofli  bom  in  Sunderland,  Yt,  Feb.  8,  1781,  mense  number  of  young  oak  trees,  which  furnish- 
died  in  Charleston,  S.  0.,  May  10,  1631.    He  ed  the  ship  yards  of  the  next  century.    He  pub- 
vis  graduated  at  Yale  college  in  1802,  and  lished  several  other  popular  works  on  learned 
ifter  some  time  spent  in  teachiug,  commenced  subjects,  on  painting,  sculpture,  architecture,  and 
the  ttndy  of  law  in  New  Haven.    He  was  ad-  medals,  and  was  one  of  the  first  in  England  to 
iritted  to  the  bar  in  1806,  practised  his  profes-  treat  gardening  and  planting  scientifically.    The 
don  in  New  Haven  for  about  4  years,  and  then  most  valuable  of  his  works  is  a  diary,  in  which, 
Hdbrtook  the  editing  of  the  ^^  Panoplist,"  a  re-  daring  the  greater  part  of  his  life,  he  related  the 
QgioBs  monthly  magazine  published  at  Boston,  evente  in  which  he  was  interested.    This  was 
h  1812  he  was  chosen  treasurer  of  the  Amer-  published  in  1818,  and  contains  a  large  variety 
ion  board  of  commissioners  for  foreign  mis-  of  curious  and  minute  information  concerning 
rioM^  and  in  1820,  when  the  "  Panoplist "  was  the  manners  and  society  of  the  last  half  of  the 
inontinued,  and    the  '^  Missionary  Herald  '*  17th  century.    An  enlarged  edition  has  recent- 
Vis  isBoed  by  the  board  in  its  stead,  he  took  ly  been  issued  in  London  by  John  Forster  (4 
^^ngb  ci  the  latter  periodical.    He  was  chosen  vols.  1859). 

MTMponding  secretary  of  the  board  in  1821,  EVERDINGEN,  Aldert  tan,  a  Dutch  land- 

*Haining  that  office  until  his  death.    He  wrote  scape  painter,  born  in  Alkmaar  in  1621,  died 

K  ttmjM  on  the  rights  of  the  Indians,  under  there  in  1675.    He  excelled  in  painting  wild 

fti  dnatare  of  "'  William  Penn,*'  which  were  and  rugged  scenery.    Having  been  shipwreck- 

Pttmdinl829. — See  ^^  Memoirs  of  Jeremiah  ed  on  the  coast  of  Norway  during  a  voyage 

birta,'*  by  K  C.  Tracy  (8vo.,  Boston,  1846).  to  the  Baltic,  he  employed  the  time  while  the 

KVE,  the  name  given  by  Adam  to  his  wife,  vessel  was  repairing  in  making   sketches  of 

kli  derived  from  a  word  that  signifies  life,  and  rocks,  waterfalls,  and  other  prominent  features 

^^iplied  to  her  as  "the  mother  of  all  living."  of  a  mountainous  country.    His  sea  pieces,  par- 

Aiwaa  created  to  be  a  help  meet  for  Adam,  ticularly  those  in  which  storms  are  represented, 

iii  was  placed  by  God  with  him  in  Eden;  but  are  very  effective,  being  painted  with  a  broad, 

WjBng  to  the  temptation  of  the  serpent,  and  free  pencil,  and  carefully  colored.    He  also  ex- 

Mag  and  fading  Adam  to  taste  the  forbidden  celled  as  an  etcher,  and  executed  upward  of  100 


348  SVEBETT 

Erints  of  Norwegian  scenery,  beside  a  seriei  of  this  work  he  recommendfl  a  total  absti 

6  illiMiratiuns  to  the  fable  of  ^*  Reynard  the  the  seizure  of  private  property  at  sea 

Fox.^  just  and  consistent  plan  of  maririme 

EVERETT,  Alsxaxdib  IIill,  an  American  practical  resalt  to  which  the  world  i^ 

diplomatist  and  man  of  letters,  bom  in  Boston,  nearer  now  than  it  was  when  Mr.  E 

ICarch  19,  1792,  died  in  Canton,  China,  May  sested  it.    In  1822  he  pnMishod  at  1 

S9, 1847.    llts  father,  the  Rev.  Oliver  Everett,  Boston  a  work  entitled  *'  New  I(!ea 

was  settled  over  a  cburcli  in  Boston  from  the  lation,  with  Remarks  on  tlie  Tlieoriv^ 

time  of  his  entering  upon  the  ministry  till  1792,  and  Malthu.**,**  in  which  he  contro%-cf 

when  in  consequence  of  declininf?  health  he  gave  known  views  of  Malthus  on  populatir 

up  his  ch:trge,  and  retired  to  the  neighboring  tends  tliat  increase  of  popnlatif  »n  lead 

town  of  Dorchester,  where  tlie  remainder  of  his  tive  abundance,  and  not  a  relative  i 

life  was  |»a»«ed.    His  son  entered  Harvard  col-  the  means  of  subsistence.     When  thi 

lege  in  1802,  and  was  graduated  in  1806  with  ready,  Mr.  Everett  visited  London  fi 

the  highest  honors  of  his  clasM,   although  ho  pose  of  carrying  it  through  the  pn-sn, 

was  Uitiyoungi>st  of  its  members.    After  leaving  there  ho  saw  and  conversed  with  ^ 

college  he  paitsed  a  year  as  assistant  teacher  in  npon  the  subject  of  the  difference  bet' 

Phillifis  academy  in  Exeter,  X.  H.    Then  re-  Their  discnssions  were  courteous  in^: 

moving  to  Ik»ston,  he  be;;nn  the  study  of  the  party  with  respect  for  the  other,  but  h 

law  in  the  office  of  John  Qui ncy  Adams,  and  be-  only  more  fully  confirmed  in  his  o 

came  a  member  of  a  literary  club  by  which  a  During  his  residence  in  the  Netlu- 

periodical  calli*d  the  ^*  Monthly  Anthology'*  was  Everett  was   a   frequent  contribut 

conducted.    When  Mr.  Adams  wont  as  minister  "  North  American  Review/*  mostly 

plenipotentiary  to  Russia  in  1809,  Mr.  Everett  jects  drawn  from  French  literutunt*. 

accompanied  him,  and  resided  2  years  in  his  returned  to  the  United  States,  on  k 

family,  attached  to  the  lei^ition.     He  passed  the  sence,  and  passed  the  following  winti 

winter  of  1811-U2  in  England,  made  a  short  In  1825  he  was  flpi>ointed  by  Mr.  A 

Tisit  to  Paris  in  the  spring  of  1812,  and  came  recently  elected  president,  mtni>tvr  ] 

borne  in  the  summer  of  that  year.    V\Mn  his  tiary  to  Spain,  and  remained  in  thi 

retnm  he  commenced  the  practice  of  the  law  in  1829.    At  that  time  the  indi'i*endc 

Boston.    His  profession,  however,  occupied  an  revolte*!  Spanish  colonies  in  Armrir 

inferior  place  in  his  affections  to  both  literature  recognized  by  the  Unitetl  States.  I 

and  politii-s.     He  contributed  articles  to  some  Spain,  or  by  any  of  the  Eiiri>iH'.iii  y 

of  the  periiNlioaU  of  the  day,  and  wrote  for  one  Everett,  ns  the  ropresentativo  of  tlu*  o 

of  the  Bontou  journals  a  series  of  [loliticid  papers,  ment  that  h.id  acknowledgid  the  i!:« 

in  which,  in  opposition  to  tlio  dominant  public  of  the  South  American  repuMir^,  I 

sentiment  around  him,  ho  sustainc-il  t)>o  {Mtliry  niedinm  of  oonimuntcati<'ii  lii:t\\i-«n 

of  the  administration  in  the  war  with  (irtat  their  mothor  country,  and  in  •><  iiu^ 

Britain.     A  diM'oursi*  pronounced  l»y  him  before  virtn.<il  n.prosent:itive.     Thi-*  iTni"»^» 

the  I*hi  Beta  Kappa  s«K>iety  of  Harvard  college,  a  (rr«.at  amount   of  additional  !n.MT, 

in  whieh  ho  called  in  i{Ue«tion  the  juo^tico  of  threw  liim  into  p<»sitions  rii}u'.riii:: 

sonje  of  Hurke\  strictures  upon  the  French  rev-  and  discretion.     On  t»ne  wcn^ioi..  i» 

olution,  nttrueted  Foino  attention  niid  roinnient.  lombian  ])rivatcor,  ainoni;  the  rr*  i« 

At  the  ch>so  of  the  war,  when  Mr.  Kustis  of  werosi-veral  Ameriean  fiti/ens  lu'!  !• 

MassarliUM'tt:*   wu!«   ap[»ointed  minister  ti»  the  ed  up(»n  the  coa>t  of  SiMin.  and  t1:>'  i 

Netherlands  Mr.  Everett  arcompaniefl  him  as  by  the  p»vorninent,  Mr.  Kw-rit:.  t' 

■ecrelary  uf  ie;:ation;  but  uAer  a  ye.ir  or  two  of  ]HTsonal  influence  with  the  kir»u*.  jr 

service  he  returned  to  the  United  States.     On  relea-eof  the  Aiueriian-*.  and  la  :- •! 

the  retirement  of  Mr.  EuMis  he  was  ap;»ointiHl  Kut  home.     Thou;rh  tht-  dutit «.  of  !  :« 

his  mcce*'-»r,  with  the  rank  at  rhunjf  trujfiiirit.  arduous,  and  re'juiri'd  haltit-  i-f  r»  .'.:l 

He  continued  in  thi*  ik>sI  from  1^18  to  1824.  for  the  mi r re-'»f i il  di •»<']> arja*  of  t!ii:i 

HLs  ntlicial  duties  were  n^t  onerous   and  his  ctt  did  not,  while  in  Mailriil.  i:e.-l«.  t 

leisure  hour*  wi-re  pivt-n  t«>  the  prepanition  of  a  of  literature.     I  Wide  M.'Vvr;d  |  •;«]••  r- 1 

work  which  wa-*  puhli-hoil  in  1**21.  in  I^mdun  to  the  "  Ni)rth  American  K  m*»." 

and  III i-ton,  under  the  title  of  "  Plurt'iv,  <ir  a  work  ontiiK-d  **  America,  nr  a  (m  i.i- 

(fcneral  S«irv*y  of  tl>o  Tolitieal  Situatinn  «»f  tljo  of  the  Politiral  Situation  t-f  the  I*r  i.. 

rrinci|ial  iNiwrrs  with  C'unjerture!*«»n  their  Fu-  tif  the  Western  ('»mtinii;t,  \*  ith  l*«'!. 

tnre    rro?|>*'et.'*.'*    This  wurk  artra<:ted   inu«h  their   rutnn*  Pnt-'jtrt^"  iri.ii.kil.  if. 

attentii>n,  and  eannil  f«»r  it"»  au(h«ir  eoii-i«leraMo  London,  \>2<).     This  was  \uU :  U^i  a 

reputatii'U,  b<»t)i  at  Ixnne  and  abroad.     .Smieuf  ment  to  his  fnrmer  publicatiuu  cr.  1 

the  Knpish  critir*  wen-  unwillinp  To  l»clirve  tliat  t«>  trare  the  ft:rtlivr  prnwrtli  and  dfVv! 

An  CA*ay  writtm  in  ••ueh  exe^lh-nt  Enpli>h  eould  the  |Mi];iiral  idv.ii  which  hail  t.&ki':i  • 

have  prt»ci'*.tled  fnun  tlie  pen  of  a  fureiu'r^er.    It  tUe  f.iM  uf  Na|Ktlvon.     The  elevati'-n 

was  tran-latAHl  itit*>  <:erman  by  IVnf.  .^u*  ►hi.  (if  iiit.»  tlio  rank  <«f  a  llr-it-rate  jh.u«  r.  t' 

the  univi-r^iiy  of  UhiU\  and  fultsefiuently  iriti>  utive  di-eline  of  Au^tri.-u  Spain,  ar  d  1 

French  and  Spanish.    In  one  of  the  chapters  of  rvcent  apixraranco  of  two  commai|Ii 


EYERETT  848 

Bmria  and  the  United  States,  and  some  specn-  stitntion.    After  some  deliberation  he  accepted 
htioofl  upon  the  history  and  prospects  of  the  the  proposal,  and  entered  npon  the  duties  of 
Sooth  American  republics,  formed  the  leading  the  office  in  June,  1841.    His  declining  health 
topics  of  discossion  m  this  work,  which,  like  its  compelled  him,  after  a  short  ]>eriod,  to  resign 
predeeesBor,  was  translated  into  the  German,  his  trust,  and  return  to  the  north.  His  literary  ac- 
moch,  and  Spanish  languages.    He  was  always  tirity  always  continued  undiminished.    He  was 
Ttudj  to  employ  his  official  influence  in  aiding  an  occasional  contributor  to  the  '^  Domocratio 
the  uterarj  researches  of  others.    He  invited  KeYiew,*'tothe**  Boston  Quarterly  Review,"  and 
Ifr.  Irrin|^  to  Madrid,  made  him  an  attache  to  the  '^  Boston  Miscellany.^'  a  periodical  edited  by 
his  legation,   and  encouraged   him  in  those  one  of  his  nephews.    A  duodecimo  volume  of 
studies    in    Spanish   history    and    biography  selections  from  his  critical  and  miscellaneous 
wluch  sobseqnently  bore  such  rich  fruit.    He  essays  was  published  in  Boston  in  1845,  and  a 
•ho  aided  Mr.  Prescott  in  procuring  materials  2d  series  appeared  in  1847.    A  small  volume 
for  the  history  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella,  a  of  poems,  original  and  translated,  was  published 
mrloe   acknowledged  by   that   distinguished  by  him  in  New  York  in  1845.    In  the  same 
historian  in  his  prerace  to  that  work.    In  the  year  he  received  from  President  Polk  the  ap- 
aatamn  of  1829  he  returned  home,  and  as-  pointment  of  commissioner  to  China,  and  set 
somed  the  charge  of  the  *'  North   American  out  for  his  post  in  the  month  of  July ;  but  on 
Beview"  aa  editor  and  proprietor.    For  about  5  arriving  at  Rio  de  Janeiro  his  infirm  health 
yean  he  conducted  this  periodical  with  marked  compelled  him  to  return  home.    He  sailed  a 
ibiKtj.    The  subjects  which  he  discussed  ranged  second  4ime  in  1846,  and  arrived  safely  in  Can- 
orer  a  wide  field,  embracing  politics,  political  ton.    His  various  cultivation,  his  acquaintance 
•ooDomy,  metaphysics,  and  literature.    He  do-  with  oriental  literature,  his  knowledge  of  £u- 
fnded  in  several  elaborate  papers  the  policy  of  ropean  politics  and  society,  and  his  fine  habits 
die  friends  of  the  American  system,  so  called,  of  observation,  enabled  him  to  turn  to  the  best 
by  which  domestic  manufactures  were  to  be  account  the  advantages  of  his  position ;  and  had 
Mianilated   by  duties  upon   foreign   imports,  not  a  disease  of  long  standing  soon  put  an  end 
Some  articles,  in  which  he  reviewed  the  course  to  his  life,  he  would  undoubt^ly  have  enriched 
md  poticy  of  the  federal  and  democratic  parties  the  literature  of  his  country  with  contributions 
from  a  mstorical    point  of  observation,   are  equal  in  value,  and  superior  in  popular  interest, 
UDODg  the  ablest  of  the  productions  of  his  pen.  to  any  of  the  former  productions  of  his  pen. 
He  was  chosen  to  the  senate  of  Massachusetts  Beside  the  writings  which    we  have    above 
ialdSO,  and  continued  a  member  of  that  or  the  enumerated,  Mr.  Everett  contributed  a  life  of . 
other  branch  of  the  legislature  for  the  ensuing  5  Joseph  Warren  to  the  first  series  of  Sparks^s 
nan.    He  took  an  active  and  controlling  part  ^^  American  Biography,^*  and  of  Patrick  Henry 
in  thd  proceedings  of  each  legislature  of  which  to  the  second.    In  Oct.  1816,  he  married  Lucre- 
he  was  a  member.    In  1833  he  attended  the  tia,  daughter  of  Judge  Oliver  Peabody,  of  £xo- 
tviff  convention  held  at  New  York,   and  as  ter,  a  lady  who  survives  him.    Mr.  Everett 
dkurman  of  a  committee  of  that  body,  pre-  was  one  of  the  most  accomplished  men  that  the 
pired  the  memorial  which  was  presented  in  United  States  has  ever  given  birth  to.    His  mind 
their  name  to  congress  at  its  next  session.    This  was  not  marked  by  originality  and  creative  pow- 
!•  a  very  able  exposition  of  the  policy  of  the  er,  but  was  characterized  by  comprehensiveness 
Mttdt  of  a  protective  tariff.    He  had  thus  for  and  breadth,  an  uncommon  power  both  of  analysis 
Insb  a  member  of  the  whig  or  national  repub-  and  generalization,  luminous  method,  accurate 
Seen  party,  and  had  drafted  the  address  reported  discrimination,  and  clear  statement.   It  was  phi- 
Vf  the  convention  which  in  1831  nominated  losophical  in  its  structure  and  training,  and  ho 
&  Clay  for  the  presidency ;  but  during  the  never  appeared  to  greater  advantage  than  when 
Id  tenn  of  Gen.  Jackson^s  presidency,  and  after  applying  the  essential  principles  of  politics  and 
tte  proclamation  against  nullification,  he  be-  government  to  existing  systems,  and  pointing  out 
Mae  an  adherent  of  the  national  administra-  how  far  they  conformed  to,  and  how  far  they  fell 
ttpB;  potting  himself  again,  as  he  had  done  in  short  of,  an  ideal  standard.  His  occasional  essays 
ttriv  manhood,  in  opposition  to  the  controlling  on  psychological  subjects  showed  a  metaphysiciEd 
flhao  sentiment  around  him.    In  1836,  being  a  faculty  of  no  mean  order.  In  his  purely  literary 
nddenC  of  Roxbury,  he  was  nominated  by  the  essays  he  succeeded  better  in  solid  research  and 
dMoeratio  party  for  congress,  and  again  in  careful  statement  than  in  the  treatment  of  airy 
ltt8  and  1840 ;  but  in  each  of  tiie  contests  he  and  sportive  themes.    There  was  a  want  of 
VII  nnsncoessfal.    In  1840  he  was  despatched  lightness  and  ease  in  the  movements  of  his 
7  the  government  upon  a  confidential  mission  mind,  of  which  he  was  himself,  apparently,  not 
« the  island  of  Cuba,  and  passed  2  months  at  always  fdly  aware.    His  industry  was  great. 
Htfiaai  in  the  discharge  of  the  duty  intrusted  andhispowersof  acquisition  were  equally  so,  and 
teUai.    In  the  autumn  of  the  same  year  he  thus  his  attainments  were  very  large  and  various. 
V*Mt again  to  Havana  npon  private  business,  and  As  a  public  man,  he  was  a  vigorous  debater  and 
^Ul  there  he  receivea  a  letter  from  the  gov-^  a  judicious  counsellor ;  but  he  was  not  rcmark- 
tnor  of  Louisiana,  requesting  him,  in  the  name  able  for  that  nameless  and  indefinable  personal 
^  the  board  of  directors  of  Jefferson  college  in  infiuence  over  others  which  secures  to  some 
^itate^  to  aasome  the  presidency  of  that  in-  men  a  power  over  their  contemporaries  quite 


850  KVKBKIT 

inexplicable  to  those  wlio  come  after  tbem,  Uchii  ted  ITnogftrT  to  Vkaa^    Dorteir  Kit  n^ 

and  judge  of  Utem  It  t!»e  monuments  which  id«nco  in  Europe,  iui  ranfe  c#  atodj  cabnctd 

UiCT  liave  left  leLind    The  valoe  of  Lis  pen  the  ancient  cliwicB.  the  muAtm  kaifVMa.  the 

and  ff<-«c*h  va§  acknowledged  tj  his  politinl  hif^torj  and  prindplce  of  tha  cifil  and  pcbUe 

aaeoriaie*;  but  iofcnor  men  had  a  larger  fchare  lav  as  then  prof«iied  in  the  GenoftD  VBirini- 

in  tlie  dinrctioD  and  discipline  of  the  partr.   As  tie«,  and  a  comprebecsiTc  cuBiBttiaa  of  tha 

a  public  sfpeaker  he  was  alwars  heard  with  at-  €ziarting  political  srstcm  of  Eoropa.     Upon  his 

ten  lion  and  respect ;  his  matter  was  sure  to  be  return  home,  he  entered  upaa  tba  dotka  of  his 

weighty,  p>od,  and  carc-fullj  prepared;  his  face  profeasorship.    He  gave  a  new  impobt  to  ths 

was  dignifii-d,  intellectual,  and  exprewire,  and  studj  of  classical  literatare  hj  a  aeiica  of  brfl- 

lighted  up  with  fine  dark  ejes;  bet  his  voice  liant  lectures  upon  Greek  litcriinira  and  andcaC 

was  not  very  flexible,  and  his  temperament  was  art,  first  delivered  Co  the  stndenta  at  Camhridgt^  • 

not  suflicieotly  ardent  to  secure  for  him,  with-  and  afterward  repeated  before  larye 


out  visible  effort,  the  animation  which  the  \Km-  in  Boston.  At  the  same  time  he  took  the  c^ 
ular  taste  demands.  His  private  life  was  with-  itorship  of  the  ^  Korth  American  Review.* 
out  a  stain.  He  was  fond  of  society,  and  always  which  he  conducted  tiU  19S4.  Hia  object  ■ 
able  and  willing  to  draw  liberally  upon  the  assuming  the  charge  of  this  periodic^  wta  Is 
capacious  stores  of  his  memory  for  tbo  instmc-  imbue  it  with  a  thoroughly  national  spirit ;  mk 
tion  and  entertainment  of  the  social  circle.  in  pursuance  of  it,  be  eontributed  a  aeries  if 
F\'£K£TT,  Ed w  ABU.  an  American  statesman,  articles  in  which  this  country  was  defended  with 
orator,  and  man  of  letters,  a  younger  brother  great  spirit  against  the  shallow  and  flipnurt  tf- 
of  tbe  preceding,  bom  in  Dorchester.  Ifasa^  tacks  of  several  foreign  travellers,  be  sha 
April  11,  171^.  He  entered  Harvard  college  in  found  time  to  prepare  and  publish  a  trans! ifina 
1607,  at  the  early  age  of  13,  and  was  graduated  of  Buttman's  Greek  Granmiar.  In  18S4  ka 
in  course  in  1811,  with  the  highest  honors,  in  a  made  his  first  essay  in  that  denarteent  of  d^ 
claas  containing  more  than  an  average  amount  monstrative  oratory,  which  he  haa  since  c«hi- 
of  ability.  While  an  undergraduate,  he  was  the  vated  with  snch  signal  success  by  the  de&vii^ 
principal  conductor  of  a  magazine  published  by  of  a  discourse  before  tbe  Phi  Beta  Kappa  loa- 
the students,  called  the  **  Harvaitl  Lyceum.**  cty  on  tlie  *'  Circumstances  favorable  to  tba 
He  left  behind  him  at  the  college  a  very  brilliant  Trogrem  of  Dteratnro  in  America.**  An  m- 
reputation  as  a  scholar  and  writer,  whxdi  long  mense  audience  came  to  hear  him,  attracted 
lingered  there  in  tradition.  For  some  time  partly  by  his  own  fame,  and  partly  by  the  with 
after  leaving  college,  he  was  employed  there  as  to  behold  Lafayette,  who  was  prewnt  at  the«r> 
a  tutor,  at  t!ic  some  time  pursuing  Lis  studies  in  ator*s  side.  He  was  heard  with  the  frtaML 
divinity,  the  pnA-ssion  which  he  had  >e]cctcd.  enthusiafm  and  delight.  Our  own  recolTectioos 
In  I'^li!  be  (lolivered  a  frpiriicd  {Kx-m  before  the  confirm  tbe  strong  Matements  of  a  writer  in  tie 
Phi  Beta  Kappa  wiciity  on  American  [KKi*.  In  *•  Christian  Hxaminer"  for  Kov.  IsW*:  "The 
1^13  he  was  settled  as  pastor  over  the  liratile  Fvmpalhies  of  his  audience  wtnt  with  him  in  a 
strtvt  i-bun-h  in  lUiston,  filling  the  place  left  va-  ru>hing  stream,  as  hv  painted,  in  glowing  Loe^ 
cunt  by  the  di-uth  of  the  lamented  Kuckininstcr.  the  ]iolitiouL,  Kxrial,  and  literarv  future  if  nor 
I le ill! iikmI ia: i! V won irreat admiration bv the eU>-  countrv.     Tliev  drank   with  tLir^tr  ear»  Lis 

•                           "^                                                                          •  mm                                                                                          m 

queni  o  ai;ii  powernf  hit  pulpit  di-^'itursi'S.  In  1^14  rapid  generalizations  and  his  sparkKng  rhetrhc 

he  piiM.?hi.tlA  \%<»rk  entitled  **l>efenceof  Cbri>-  The  whfle  afM.'nibIy  put  on  one  o >un ti- nance tif 

tiaiiity,*'   apHin>t  tlie  work  i<f  lie^r^-o  Ik-thuno  mlmiration  and  assent.     As  with  ^kilfuI  and  ty 

Kngli>li,  lUtiiied  the  ''(iruiuMls  of  Christianity  iiig  hand  the  orator  ran  over  the  rb«ird«  uf  cs- 

£xamined,  by  ctunfiariiiir  the  New  T^-»taineut  tii»nal  pride  and  patrititic  fieling.  everj  lir-<c; 

witli  the  <  )ld/*     In  the  same  year  he  was  chosiLn  thrublted  in  unison  to  bi:<  touch ;  and  whcc  ti< 

by  the  rnrpi»rati(in  of  Harvard  college  U»  fill  the  fervid  declaznatitm  of  the  ctmcluding  parsgrs^h 

chair  of  (ireek  literature,  a  pn^fes^irship  then  Wjis  tenninated  bythchimple  pathus  < ^f  the  f«r- 

rei-ently  <  rented  l>y  tho  U»r.nty  of  tlie  late  Sam-  i^mal  addresi*  to  l^faycttc,  his  hearvrs  werv  jtit 

uel  Eliot.     'Witli  a  view  of  qtiiilifyint;  hiniK-If  in  a  estate  i>f  emotion  far  too  dei*p  for  tuuiolta' 

for  tlie  duties  lif  t!iis  pt>«T,  hu  entered  uixm  an  ctis  applauM?."     Tliis  wa**  the  iir>t  of  a  H.ri<«of 

extended  e. Ill r^*  of  Ejri.jH-an  trivrl  and  btudy,  dir^coiirHi-s  prnnounood  by  Mr.  Everett  on  pt^ 

leaving  hoine  in  t)>e  spriii;;  of  l*^!.*!,  and  return-  lie  (K^ca-i-  ns  U'twevn  that  time  and  the  pre^ctt. 

ing  in  the  autumn  of  l"^!*.!.     After  a  brief  .-jtay  embraeing  every    variety   of   topic   Ci<ni;«^«d 

in  England,  he  pnic^-odetl  to  the  university  of  with  <iur  national  hL««tory,  character,  and  pn»- 

Cfottingen,  where  he  remainM  for  2  years.     In  ]h-iI<s  and  which  combine  in  an  eminent  dcjn« 

the  winter  t»f  1^17- *1S  he  was  at  Tari?*.     In  the  the  }»eculijr  charm  of  |Hiiinlar  oratory,   with 

spring  of  I'^is  ho  Went  ovir  to  England,  where  tlii>>e  Mib«tanti:d  merits  of  thought  acd  stvJe 

ho  nao  kiudly  received  by  uiuny  <if  the  leailing  whith  l>earthe  cold  criticism  of  the  cluf^L    Mr. 

men  of  the  day,  ineludin;:  S.ott,  lUron,  JellVev,  Everi-tt's  laiblic  life  began  in  l'«:!4,  when  be  wm 

CamplK-Il,  Mai:kinti>s}i,  Uomiliy,  and  I>avy.    I'lo  nominated  and  ehvted  to  coRgre?^^  Vy  the  oo- 

S]Knt  aday  or  twounder  S^-ott's  hivopitable  ri.Hif  >*i:i;oney  of  the  dL-trict  in  which  he  rv*;d*>L 

at  Ablnitot'ord.     I.eti:rn!iig  ti>  the  continent,  ho  His  nomination  was  n:ade  witin-ut  !.:•  \.m..iz 

pa.'soed  the  Mi!iter  in  Italy,  niid  th«.neo  made  a  consulted,  and  wa.sa  ^pontant^*i:s  niovrroc:.:  <& 

juuruey  into  ijrcecc,  rvturuiug  through  Wal-  thv  part  uf  the  young  luvu  of  his  diitn4.t. 


EVERETT  861 

diitiiictioii  of  party.    He  was  himself,  speeches  were  careftillj  prepared,  fall  of  infor- 

naturally  be  expected,  a  supporter  of  mation,  weighty  in  substance,  polished  in  form, 

iniatratioa  of  Mr.  Adams,  then  just  and  perfectly  free  from  those  indecorums  ana 

irwidenL    Mr.  Everett  served,  by  sue-  personalities  which  sometuncs  deface  congres- 

eelectionai  10  years  in  congress ;  and  sional  debates.    In  his  attention  to  the  private 

le  whole  period  he  was  a  member  of  affairs  of  his  constituents  he  was  always  prompt 

nittee  of  foreign  affairs,  perhaps  the  and  patient.    Occupied  as  he  was  with  pubno 

xntant  one  at  that  time  in  the  nouse.  business  during  his  congressional  life,  his  regu- 

!)th  congress,  though  generally  acting  lar  and  inflexiUe  habits  of  industry  enabled  him 

mioority,  he  was  chairman  of  that  to  find  time  for  literary  labor.    Beside  the  elab- 

e,  Laving  been  selected  for  that  post  orate  public  addresses  which  ho  occasionally 

amocratio  speaker,  Mr.  Stevenson  of  delivered,  he  prepared  several  articles  of  high 

He  also  held  a  place  on  all  the  most  merit  for   the  ^^  North   American  Review.'' 

t  aelect  committees  raised  while  he  was  Among  them  may  be  mentioned  with  particu- 

MS,  and  in  every  instance  he  was  se-  lar  commendation  a  paper  in  the  number  for 

draw  either  the  majority  or  minority  Oct.  1830,  in  which  the  South  Carolina  doctrine 

[n  the  10th  congress,  though  then  Just  of  nullification  is  discussed  and  controverted 

>  the  house,  and  the  youngest  member  with  masterly  ability.    To  this  article  Mr.  Mad- 

nmittee  of  foreign  affairs,  he  drew  the  ison^s  letter  on  the  subject,  addressed  to  Mr. 

1  report  on  the  Panama  mission,  the  Everett,  was  with  the  author^s  permission  ap- 

neosure  of  that  session.    In  the  20th  pendcd.    In  the  autumn  of  1834  he  declined 

forming  with  Mr.  John  Sergeant  of  a   renomination  to  congress,  as  his  political 

hia  the  minority  of  the  well-known  friends  in  Massachusetts  were  desirous  of  pre- 

aent  committee,  he  drew  up  all  those  senting  his  name  as  candidate  for  the  office  of 

^  its  report  which  relate  to  the  depart-  governor,  to  which  he  was  chosen  by  a  largo 

state  and  of  war.    He  was  chairman  majority  in  the  ensuing  election.    He  was  af- 

ilect  committee,  during  Mr.  Adams's  terward  8  times    re^^lected,  holding  the  ex- 

y,  on  the  Georgia  controversy,  and  ecutive  office  4  years.    His  administration  was 

J9  zealous  and  promiDcnt  in  his  efforts  dignified,   useful,  and  popular.     Among   the 

good  treatment  to  the  Indians.    Ho  measures  which  marked  the  period  of  his  offi- 

report  for  the  committee  in  favor  of  cial  service  were  the  subscription  of  the  state 

of  Fulton.    With  Gov.  Ellsworth  of  to  tlie  stock  of  the  "Western  railroad,  the  organ- 

:nt  he  formed  the  minority  of  tho  ization  of  the  board  of  education  and  the  es- 

istigating  committee  which  was  sent  to  tablishment  of  normal  schools,  the  scicntifio 

ihia  in  1834,  and  drew  up  Uie  minority  and  agricultural  surveys  of  tho  state,  and  the 

Be  wrote  the  minority  report  of  tho  establishment  of  a  commission  for  the  revision 

e  of  foreign  relations  upon  tho  contro-  of  the  criminal  law.    In  tho  discharge  of  what 

h  France  in  the  spring  of  1835,  and  may  be  called  tho  ceremonial  duties  of  his  sta- 

iding  part  in  tho  debate  upon  the  sub-  tion,  Gov.  Everett  was  eminently  happy.    His 

made  two  or  three  reports  on  tho  sub-  manner  in  presiding  was  dignified,  graceful,  and 

le  claims  of  American  citizens  on  for-  courteous.    To  tho  natural  desire  of  his  con- 

"ers,  for  spoliations  committed  on  our  stituents  to  hear  him  speak  he  responded  with 

»  during  the  French  continental  system,  the  most  good-natured  readiness,  and  the  many 

inned  the  discussion  further  in  tho  occasional  speeches  ho  delivered  were  uniformly 

American  Review."    lie  always  served  spirited  and  happy.    In  the  autumn  of  1839, 

►rary  committee,  and  generally  on  that  after  an  animated  struggle,  ho  was  defeated  by 

b  buildings.     In  1827  he  addressed  Marcus  Morton  by  a  majority  of  one  vote.    Re- 

f  letters  to  Mr.  Canning  on  the  colo-  liovedfrom  public  duty,  ho  was  led  by  the  state 

I,  which  were  extensively  read.    In  tho  of  his  own  health  and  that  of  his  family  to  visit 

if  1829,  in  the  congressional  vacation,  Europe  a  second  time.     Ho  sailed  with  his 

an  extensive  tour  through  tho  south-  family  in  June,  1840.    They  passed  the  sum- 

and  western  states,  and  was  every-  mer  in  France,  and  the  following  winter  in 

oeived  with  marked  distinction.    At  Italy,  most  of  it  in  Florence  and  its  neighbor- 

,  at  Lexington,  and  at  the  Yellow  hood.    Ho  intended  to  pass  another  winter  in 

I  Ohioi,  he  was  complimented  with  pub-  Italy,  but  the  course  of  political  events  at  homo 

r%  and  charmed  his  hosts  by  beauti-  interfered  with  his  purpose,  and  sent  him  upon 

nena  of  that  species  of  eloquence  in  a  new  path  of  public  duty.    Gen.  Harrison  was 

it  generally  admitted  to  hold  the  first  chosen  president  in  1840,  and  Mr.  Webster,  tho 

ong  his  contemporaries.    Tho  points  secretary  of  state,  Mr.  Everett's  warm  personal 

^erett^s  congressional  career  wliich  we  and  political  friend,  perceived  his  eminent  fit- 

eated  form  but  a  small  part  of  his  la-  ness  to  represent  the  country  at  the  court  of 

■erricea  in  tlio  house  of  representa-  St.  James,  and  to  this  post  ho  was  accordingly 

a  was  a  faithful  and  assiduous  attend-  appointed.    Our  relations  with  England  at  that 

D  teaeions,  and  a  diligent  observer  of  time  were  grave.    Tho  controversy  touching 

sedinga  of  that  body.     Ho  was  a  fro-  the  nortli-eastem  boundary,  which  for  half 

It  not   an   obtrusive  debater.     His  a  century  had  been  a  subject  of  difference^ 


862  BYSBXIT 

■eemed  to  have  reached  a  point  bejond  which  Bpeecheti,  which  appeared  in  9  to1».  8ra  in 
an  amicable  adjustment  was  hopeless.    There-  1850.     He  aliM)  snperintended  the  pablication 
cent  burning  of  the  Caroline,  and  the  arrest  of  of  the  new  edition  of  the  works  of  Mr.  Wvb- 
IfcLeod,  had  inflamed  the  public  mind  in  both  ster,  at  his  special  reqaett,  and  prepartd  an 
countries.    Tlie  case  of  the  Creole,  and  ques-  elaborate  memoir,  which  was  prettied  to  the 
lions  connected  with  Oregon  and  Texas,  were  first  volume.     Upon  the  lamented  death  of  that^ 
also  elements  of  irritation.    American  vessels  great  statesman,  m  Nov.  1852,  Mr.  Evvrttt  wa^ 
had  been  seized  and  detained  bj  British  cruisers  called  unon  hj  President  Fillmore  to  fill  th^^ 
on  the  coast  of  Africa.    Tlie  confidence  reposed  vacant  place  of  secretary  of  state.    He  held  th^^ 
in  him  by  the  ailminist ration  at  home  was  shown  office  during  the  last  4  months  of  President  FiH  ^ 
by  the  fact  that  he  was  sent  to  London  to  dis-  morels  admmistration,  and  the  condition  of  tK^^ 
cuss  oil  those  questions  without  any  specific  in-  public  business  made  them  months  of  most  i^^ 
■tructions  from  the  government  of  the  United  %'ere  labor;  and  nothing  but  his  indvfiitigahl^ 
States,  but  every  thing  was  left  to  his  own  un-  industry  and  great  patience  could  have  carri^tf 
fettered  judgment.    Entering  at  once  upon  the  him  through  what  he  was  called  npon  to  da 
discharge  of  his  arduous  and  delicate  duties,  ho  Beside  paying  the  most  conscientiona  attenti«« 
iustified  by  his  ability,  discretion,  and  tact,  the  to  the  regular  business  of  the  department  ilw^ 
largo  confidence  which  had  been  rci>osed  in  heavy,  and  in  this  case  greatly  arcnmnlatcd,  hi 
him.    Though  the  settlement  of  the  north-east-  adjusted  the  perplexing  affurs  of  the  CmNBt 
em  boundary,  and  of  the  Oregon  question,  was  City  steamer  and  the  Ix>bos  islanda,  protecotid 
transferre<l  to  Washington  by  the  app<»intment  with  energy  the  difficult  negotiations  pertiii- 
of  Lord  Ash  burton  as  si>ecial  ambassador,  yet  ing  to  the  fisherie^  conclude  an  intematioail 
many  important  questions  were  left  in  Mr.  £v-  copyright  convention  with  Great  Britain  ud  i 
erett*s  ctiurge.     Anumg  the  most  important  consular  convention  with  France,  and  rtviewtd 
was  that  involving  the  construction  of  the  first  tlie  whole  subject  of  Central  American  afiitfi 
article  of  the  convention  between  the   two  in  their  relations  to  the  government  of  tbs 
countries  on  the  subject  of  the  fisheries.    Mr.  United  States  and  Great  Britain,  and  recMD- 
Everett  secured  for  our  fishermen  the  long  dis-  mended  and  induced  congress  to  establish  a  vii- 
nuted  right  to  take  fish  in  the  bay  of  Fundy.  sion  of  the  first  class  to  Central  America.    BbK 
He  procured  at  various  times,  and  in  the  face  the  question  which  attracted  most  of  the  pib- 
of  great  obstacles,  the  release  from  the  penal  He  interest  during  Mr.  Everett's  administnM 
colony  of  Van  l>ienien*M  Ijuiti  of  60  or  70  Amer-  of  tbo  department  of  state  was  the  Joint  piep^ 
ican  citizens  convicted  of  participation  in  the  sition  of  Great  Britain  and  France  toenitrvith 
Canadian  rel>eIlion.    Mr.  Everett  s  ]>osition  at  the  United  Sutes  into  a  tripartita  conrcatioa. 
the  court  of  St.  James  must  have  l»eeii  rendered  gnaranteeing  to  Spain  in  perpetuity  the  exrlwivt 
more  ditfuult  by  tlio  friiiueiit  <-1ian^'os  in  tlio  possos^ion  of  (^uba.     This  proposition  was  il«- 
departiiiiiit  of  state.     Mr.  Webster  retired   in  dined  by  the  United  States,  in  adiriIumaticiKt« 
the  spring  <»f  l*^4:i.  un<l  was  surree<led  witliin  a  of  great  ability  drawn  up  by  Mr.  LvenrtL    liii 
brief  i>eri(Hl  by  Mr.  Uji^biir,  Mr.  I^*jraro,  und  exposition  of  the  i>olicy  of  this  country  wis  re- 
Mr.  Callioui).     Hut  by  all  tliesc  goutU-nien  Mr.  ceived  with  very  general  approbation  tr  li# 
Everett's  services  were  duly  ajipreciateil,  and  people  and  tlio  pre**,  witb«>ut  di^^tinctitin  <4 
he  enjoyed  the  coiitiilonce  of  all.     Mr.  Everett's  party.     Notwitlistanding  his    arduous   nfiriil 
WKMal  misition  iu  En^'land  was  e«]ually  honor.v  duties,  he  found  time  to  prepare  an  claborau 
ble  and  airrei-aMe  to  him,  and  a  source  of  ju^^t  address  for  the  annual  meeting  of  the  AmrriraB 
pride  to  Ills  countrymen.     Ilis  cultivation  and  Colonization  Mtciety  in  Wasbingti^n.  in  l*^t,  :& 
acroiitpli^hiiu-nts  wi-ro  everywhere  recojniized,  exposition  and  defence  of  the  obji^ts  i^  tLal 
and  hi?<  pultlic  siK-'eflie**  were  received  with  en-  association.     Before  leaving  the  dof^rtmett  of 
thu^iu•iIll.     In  the  spring  of  lS4'i  he  wan  ap-  state  Mr.  Everett  was  elected  by  the  !rgi«Ia:t3f 
]Miinted  to  till  the  newly  constituted  niiv<<ion  to  of  Massachusetts  to  the  senate  of  th«  Tatted 
Chin:i,  with  a  view  to  e«taMi»h  rommen'ial  re-  States,   took    his    scat    in    that    UmJt  at  tbt 
latii>ii:4  with  that  country,  which  h(»noraMe  tru<»t  commencement  of  the  sjteciol  exoriitive  ifikwi 
he  wat  compelled  to  dorline.   IinnuMliatdy  upon  in  March,  1S53,  and  made  an  able  and  clabonu 
his  r»turn  ti»  the  United  States  in  the  autumn  of  spt»ech  on  the  Central  American  quc«tii*n.     U 
lS4.\  Mr.  Kv« Titt  wa*«  cho<K-n  ]>n'«'!diht  of  H.ir-  the  snmmcr  and  autumn  of  IKVt,  b«^^«  an  ai- 
vard  univer-ity.     lie  enti-red  upon  tlie  dutic*  dress  Wfi>ro  the  New  York  hUtorical  K«ric;y  ca 
of  thi^ncw  tni'^t  witli  chara«'teriMicenerK\v  and  colonization  and  emigration,  and  a  rtply  to  ti« 
enthu>i!i<in),  and  it  was  a  stil.Jirt  of  great  rt'^ret  pmtest  of  I^inl  John  Hossell  agatr:»t  th«  6**'- 
to  the  friend**  (•fthe«-olh'gi- that  tlie  burdfn«i4»nje  trines  asserted  by  our  government  in  tSe  a  ••• 
dttaiNoml  nionotonoim  contineinent  4»f  his  otVi-  declining  the  tripartite  convention.  Mr.  EvtnKt 
cial  life  wure  so  heavily  njHin  his  health  as  to  spoke  more  than  once  in  op|iO«itii'n  to  the  pro- 
Ci>ni|Kl  him  to  n<«iim  his  po^t  at  the  end  ff  3  posed  new  constitution  in  MasKOchu^ctt*.     I  ;•  a 
year*.  h«fitrf  hf  had  been  aM»*  ti»  i-arry  iikto  ef-  the  assembling  of  tl»e  33d  congrt-*^  in  IVe. 
fect  hi<»ini|Mirtant  ]»hins  for  eil unit ional  ini{>ri>vo  1H£3,  Mr.  Everett,  as  might  ha\e  tv^-n  esp«<c:i^ 
Uient.    Mr.  V.\  i-rvtt  ^'ave  a  pt'rtion  of  hin  h  i-^ure,  found  himself  in  a  state  of  impaired  health  fn<a 
after  ri -i^iiiii;:  the  pri  "-idinry.  to  the  prepara  the  sevt-re  and  uninterrupted  laNirs  •  f  the  jre- 
tiun  of  a  culkcted  edition  of  Lis  orations  and  vious  IS  months,  but  he  applied  himself  w.:i. 


EYEBSTT  868 

hi  QSOil  indnstrj  to  the  discharge  of  the  duties  1858  Mr.  Everett  entered  into  an  engagement 

tbt  laj  before  him.    Had  the  session  proved  with  Mr.  Robert  Bonner,  editor  and  proprietor 

006  of  no  more  than  average  labor  and  excite-  of  the  **  New  York  Ledger,*'  to  furnish  an  artide 

loeDt)  perhaps  his  strength  would  have  enabled  weekly  for  that  paper  for  one  year  in  considera- 

liin  to  meet  the  duties  of  his  post;  but  such  tion  of  $10,000  to  be  paid  in  advance  to  the 

▼as  not  the  character  of  the  session.    The  in-  Mount  Yemon  fhnd.    lliis  sum  has  been  paid  to 

trodoctioa  of  the  bill  for  the  repeal  of  the  Mis-  the  treasurer  of  the  fund.    In  the  first  of  these 

toori  compromise,  commonly  called  the  Nebras-  articles,  Mr.  Everett  invited  the  readers  of  the 

kfr-Eansaabill,  produced  great  agitation  through-  *'  Ledger"  to  transmit  each  the  sum  of  50  cents 

out  the  country,  and  brought  the  opposing  parties  or  more  toward  the  increase  of  the  Mount  Yer- 

ia  the  senate  into  violent  and  protracted  antag-  non  fund.    Many  persons  have  responded  to  this 

oidsm.    For  many  weeks  the  sessions  were  long  call,  and  the  net  amount  received  from  this 

eoDtiooed,  and  the  discussions  of  the  most  ve-  source  is  $2,929  94,  which  is  included  in  the 

hsment  and  impassioned  character.    Mr.  Eve-  sum  of  $58,898  81  mentioned  above  as  having 

ittt  delivered  a  speech  against   the  bill,  on  been  paid  over  to  the  general  treasurer.    Nor 

Feb.  8,  1864,  characterized  by  his  usual  mod-  have  Mr.  Everett's  labors  and  Joumeyings  been 

crate  and  conservative  views,  as  well  as  by  limited  to  the  augmentation  of  the  Mount  Yer- 

good  taste  and  good  temper.    His  health,  under  non  fund.    On  Dec.  22, 1857,  he  delivered  at 

the  preasnre  of  official  toil  and  excitement,  grew  Boston  an  address  on  charity  and  charitable  as- 

eoostantlj  worse,   and  in  the  following  May,  sodations  for  the  benefit  of  the  Boston  provident 

nader  the  imperative  advice  of  his  physician,  he  association,  which  has  since  been  repeated  in 

n^gned  his  seat.    A  few  months  of  rest  and  different  parts  of  the  country  15  times,  with  an 

rndet  restored  him ;  and  now  there  began  a  new  aggregate  net  receipt,  for  the  benefit  of  various 

ybme  in  his  life,  and  the  opening  of  a  new  and  charitable  associations,  of  about  $18,500.    On 

peeoliar  sphere  of  action.    In  the  year  1858  the  Jan.  17, 1859,  he  delivered  an  address  at  Boston 

pc<qjeet  of  purchasing  Mount  Yemon  by  private  on  the  *^  Early  Days  of  Franklin,"  at  the  invita- 

mbicription  was  first  started  by  Miss  Ann  Pa-  tion  of  the  association  of  the  Fruiklin  medal- 

Dda  Canningham,  in  an  address  to  the  women  ists  of  that  city,  which  has  since  been  repeated 

of  the  United  States,  under  the  signature  of  "A  5  times,  yielding  about  $4,000,  for  the  benefit 

fiontlieni  Matron."   The  proposal  was  favorably  of  various  charitable  and  public  associations. 

noeived,  and  associations  of  ladies  began  to  be  On  Dec.  7, 1858,  he  pronounced  a  eulogy  on 

famed  in  several  of  the  states,  for  the  purpose  Mr.  Thomas  Dowse,  before  the  Dowse  institute, 

€f  eoilecting  funds.    Mr.  Everett,  having  been  at  Cambridge,  Mass.,  which  was  afterward  re- 

ndied  to  by  the  mercantile  library  association  peated  before  the  Massachusetts  historical  so- 

ofBoston  to  deliver  a  lecture  during  their  course  dety,  yielding  to  the  two  institutions  about 

«f  1855-'56,    proposed   that   the   association  $1,500.    The  aggregate  sum  total  realized  in 

dxNild  celebrate  the  next  anniversary  of  the  the  various  ways  above  mentioned,  and  paid 

birthday  of  Washington,  and  offered  to  prepare  over  to  the  Mount  Yemon  fund  and  sundry  pub- 

ftrthat  occasion  a  discourse  upon  his  character,  lie  or  charitable  associations,  including  the  pro- 

tiM  pix>ceeds  to  be  applied  to  some  commemora-  ceeds  of  the  7  repetitions  of  the  Washington 

tive  purpose.    The  offer  was  accepted ;  and  on  discourse  which  were  not  for  the  benefit  of  the 

Feb.  22, 1856,  Mr.  Everett  pronounced  his  ora-  fund,  will  not  fall  short  of  $90,000.    We  have 

tin  on  Washington,  for  the  first  time,  before  an  gone  somewhat  into  detail  in  our  sketch  of  this 

^"«i!—'«^  audience  at  the  music  hall  in  Boston,  part  of  Mr.  Everett's  life,  not  merely  on  account 

&  was  immediately  repeated  at  New  York,  of  its  peculiar  and  Interesting  character,  but  be- 

Vfv  Haven,  and  Baltimore ;  and  the  proceeds  cause  we  think  the  facts  we  have  mentioned  are 

we  applied  to  various  objects.    It  was  de-  entitled  to  record  as  illustrating  the  genius  of 

fimd  for  the  first  time  for  the  benefit  of  the  our  people,  and  the  relations  which  our  political 

XMmt  Yemon   fund  at  Richmond,  Ya.,  on  institutions  have  established  between  the  general 

Inch  19,  1856 ;  and  down  to  the  present  time  community  and  those  men  who   from  their 

(fnntf  1859)  it  has  been  delivered  in  various  parts  abilities,  attainments,  and  accomplishments,  are 

tf  the  conntry  129  times,  always,  except  in  7  the  natural  leaders  of  public  sentiment.     It 

•H^  Hot  the  benefit  of  the  Mount  Yemon  fund,  would  not  fall  within  the  plan  of  this  work  to 

Ibdedoction  has  ever  been  made  by  Mr.  Everett  give  any  elaborate  analysis  of  the  mental  quali- 

ioni  the  amounts  received  on  account  of  his  ties  or  personal  traits  of  a  man  who  is  still  living 

tipfMcs,  which  have  been  uniformly  paid  by  and  in  the  prime  of  his  powers ;  and  the  wide 

Iwdf ;  they  have  been  much  reduced  by  the  reputation  he  enjoys,  and  the  opportunity  which 

ksitality  with  which  he  has  been  received,  so  many  of  his  contemporaries  have  had  of  IIs- 

M  the  liberality  of  railroad  corporations  and  tening  to  his  eloquence,  render  this  a  superfluous 

fti  proprietors  of  steamboats.    The  proceeds  task.    It  may  not,  however,  be  unbecoming  to 

Mred  were  deposited  by  him  in  the  hands  hold  him  up  for  commendation  and  imitation,  to 

jf  a  board  of  trustees  appointed  by  himself,  the  young  men  of  the  country  especially,  for 

An  have  paid  over  to  the  general  treasurer  of  his  indefatigable  industry  and  his  methodical 

^imd  at  different  times  the  sum  of  $53,893  habits  of  lalK>r,  and  as  an  example  in  disproof  of 

^  ad  have  now  on  hand  the  further  sum  of  the  common  notion  that  such  habits  are  not  com- 

I^Tn  76.    In  the  course  of  the  autumn  of  patible  with  the  most  brilliant  natural  powers. 

VOL.  vn. — 23 


L 


JCVUDEHOK.  JiiAoltl«Tid«iioe,wliklilttli6  midcntood,  howerer,  Uiai  tiiis 

mM§tiLcithiii9i^€ii%ditkntromih»fitwA^  been  wider  cUim  of  right    Bnt'ttitpi 

imohlnmitnJiidgiiieQfcbordiiittiljdeUrniiiiea  that  no  ooe  ehall  be  entitled  to  reeorcr 

la  iifliHiQdieiti  metterii  diie^j  in  eertnin  mlee  the  ooonpent  nnlcie  lie  or  thoee  from  wl 

ortrtJitned  to  the  aeke  ci  fiwilitj  in  diipoilng  ckime  have  had  poaMerion  within  SO 

of  eomiilieated  oneetiona  of  iaeti  or  of  poblio  e.  That  deeds  more  than  80  jean  old  nu^l 

polkqr  when  bj  lapse  of  time  or  other  oaniea  ae  oTidenoe  withoatproof  of  their  dccnt 

iliere  woold  be  addlolenar  of  eridenee.    Tliete  other  worde,  that  thegr  proTe  themfelvei 

mlea  maj  be  eonTniaotly  redooed  nnder  the  preeomption  in  tnoh  eaeee  iathaitheanbe 

frUowing  heada:  1,  eaeea  in  wliieh  a  role  la  witneetee  by  whom  proof  of  eieentioo  i 

pieooribed  to  the  pnrpoee  of  getting  at  a  oer-  narily  made  are  deaa«  hot  the  rale  la  tin 

taiaeoodoidon,  thoosh  arbitrary.  wh«i  the  sob*  eren  if  each  witnetMS  are  aotnaSy  livir 

Jeefc  la  intrlniieaUly  nabb  to  donbt  from  the  re-  offering  enoh  a  deed  in  erldeooe,  it  la  onlf 

aoleneaL  dieerepan^,  or  aotoal  defect  of  proofii;  lary  to  giro  tome  aooonat  of  the  eoatod 

%  eaaea  in  whkah  evidenoe  it  ezdoded  on  the  to  as  to  robot  anr  sonldon  in  respect 

groond  <tf  braig  nntrnstworthy  and  tending  to  geooinencsB.    d.  An  innnt  voder  the  a| 

wueeessary  pralzity,  or  from  its  toit  nature  years  Is  oondosiTely  presomed  to  be  i 

Hkflly  to  be  mitnie;  8,  eases  in  which  a  legal  discretion*    Beyond  toat  ogo  It  will  be 

prssQmDtknlasnbstitntedtoa^Qalpiool^orin  Jeotof  proof  wbeth«rhelsitoMgpaB,bi 

plaee  of  what  eoold  be  proyed,  being  snpposed  to  that  time  no  inqniiy  Is  permitted. 

to  be  more  oooslrteotwith  the  rsalr&itaof  the  infimt  nnder  the  age  of  14  Is  presumed  i 

pvties  than  any  result  which  could  be  expect-  ble  of  committing  a  rape»  though  in  fan 

ed  from  posltlTe  testimony;  4^  the  craduation  are  instances  of  sexual  enadty  before  tl 

of  the  weight  ^tferidence^  which  wiu  be  found  So  when  husband  and  wffe  are  llTlng  tc 

la  acme  Instances  to  be  arUtrary  in  Its  origin,  and  impotency  Is  not  proTed,  the  Isne 

Sflsd  perfaapa  not  altogether  in  accordance  with  presumed  legitimate^  although  it  shoi 

the  ordinarr  procesi  <tf  Judgment—Under  the  proved  that  the  wife  has  dnriqg  that  tin 

lilclass  wiu  DO  IndoM  Tarfous  rules  which  mitted  adultery.  «.  By  the  common  law^  I 

have  been  adopted,  not  from  anr  exact  unifor-  do  any  act  in  the  presence  of  her  h 

m^y  f4r  te^  but  to  the  sake  or  haTing  some  amounting  to  felony,  other  than  treason  < 

ride  of  general  npUcatlon,  among  which  may  der,  she  Is  presumea  to  haTo  been  node 

be  spedMd  the  following :  a.Tliatafter  Tyean*  clou,  and  therefore  not  criminally  liable. 

abaence  without  haTing  oeen  heard  from,  a  man  rale,  howcTer,  hi^Ting  as  is  supposed  gro 

sfadl  be  presumed  to  be  dead.    It  is  obrious  in  of  the  arbitral^  privUe^  known  as  bea 

this  case  that  the  period  fixed  upon  Is  no  more  der^,  is  not  admitted  in  the  United  Sta 

certain  than  any  other,  but  it  was  necessary  for  proof  roust  be  made  of  actual  coercion ; 

the  protection  of  the  rights  of  parties  who  were  proof  is  in  geneml  howerer  sufficient. — 

compdled  to  act  upon  some  presumption,  that  a  clan  of  eases  includes  two  rules  whic 

legal  rule  should  be  established.  If  a  man  there-  formerly  of  rery  frequent  applicatioo.    a 

fore  has  been  absent  7  years  without  any  thing  is  called  hearsay  is  inadniitiible.     By 

being  heard  of  him,  his  wife  may  marry  again  meant  that  a  witncn  should  not  be  permi 

without  incurring  a  ^nalty  for  bigamy,  though  testify  what  he  has  heard  another  perse 

it  has  not  been  provided  that  the  2d  marriage  but  only  what  he  knows  himself.    Yo  tl 

ahall  be  absolutely  valid  In  case  the  husband  there  are  some  qualifications  rather  than 

should  afterward  return ;  and  hb  heir,  or  the  per-  tions.  Thus  it  is  sometimes  proper  to  prov 

SOD  entitled  to  his  estate  by  succession,  becomes  was  said  by  a  person  at  the  time  of  perf 

vested  with  the  legal  owncnhin,  t)ie  same  as  if  a  certain  act,  as  having  some  tendency  to  < 

hb  decease  was  actually  proven,    h.  That  after  the  intent,  and  therefore  adminible  as  a ; 

the  exclusive  possenion  of  land  or  of  an  incor-  the  nt  gesta^  according  to  legal  phra* 

poreal  hereditament  to  a  certain  period  of  time.  In  such  a  case,  however,  what  was  mu 

a  grant  shall  be  presumed,  and  the  title  of  the  not  strictly  come  under  the  designation  o 

occupant  will  be  sustained  against  all  dalmants.  say,  but  b  itself  a  principal  tot.    8o 

In  Engbnd  thb  period  was  fiinnerly  expressed  b  adminible  to  prove  what  has  been  sa 

with  some  vagueness,  as   being  beyond  the  party  to  an  action.   Thb  apun  b  a  priocti 

memory  of  man,  and  the  rule  applied  there  only  or  at  all  eventH  comes  unaer  tlie  dc«i|niji 

to  Incorporeal  estates;  but  by  a  recent  statute  declarations  or  adniiMioni,  and  as  siu'h 

(8  and  8  William  IV.)  the  period  has  been  lim-  missible.    So  it  is  pennitted  in  casc^  uf 

Ited  to  20  years  in  cans  of  aquatic  righta,  ways,  cide  to  prove  dying  declarations,  that  ii 

and  other  easements,  and  to  SO  years  in  respect  wsa  raid  by  the  murdered  person  slairtly 

to  right  of  common  and  other  uses  arising  out  and  in  expectation  of  death.    Tlib  bV 

of  lands,  except  tithes  and  rents.    In  the  United  U9nal  in  trials  fi>r  murder,  and  Is  cumfirtc 

States  the  presumption  b  generally  the  same  dence,  both  to  sliow  tlic  manner  of  the 

both  in  respect  to  corpored  and  Incorpored  and  who  was  tlie  murderer.    The  te»tun 

estates.    In  the  state  of  New  York  20  yean*  ex-  a  witnem  un  a  funner  trial  may  aL«o  le  | 

c*usi\e,  undisturbed  possesiion  b  sufficient  to  on  a  second  trial,  in  case  of  hb  deceasi 

establish  title  to  lands  or  easements;  itbdng  tliereto.  Again,  witnesses  are  allowed  to 


EVIDENCE  355 

to  matters  of  tradition  in  res^pcctto  oldbonnda-  credibilitj;  bnt  instead  of  receiving  the  testi- 
riesof  Ci^tates.   The  mle  in  England  is  limited  to  monj  subject  to  a  proper  discrimination  as  to 
esses  in  which  some  pnblic  right  is  involved,  as  its  effect,  courts  relieved  themselves  of  all  em- 
rliea  a  right  of  common  is  in  question ;  but  in  barrassment  in  determining  its  relative  weight, 
the  United  States  it  has  been  allowed  in  manj  bj  wholly  excluding  the  testimony  of  an  inter- 
eves  where  the  lines  of  large  tracts  of  land  be-  ested  witness.    Under  tliis  rule  not  only  the 
ttme  material  in  determining  the  limits  of  parties  to  the  action,  but  all  persons  having  an 
smaller  estates.    The  traditional  evidence,  as  it  interest  in  the  result,  were,  as  a  general  rule, 
is  called  in  such  cases,  consists  of  proof  of  what  adjudged  incompetent  to  testify.    In  determin- 
ha  been  «ud  long  since  by  persons  who  may  ing,  however,  the  nature  of  the  interest  which 
be  supposed  to  have  had.  some  personal  knowl-  should  constitute  a  disqualification,  it  was  found 
edge,  or  to  have  heard  from  others  who  had  such  exceedingly  difficult  to  ^x  precise  rules  of  gen- 
knowledge.    Pedigree,  including  the  facts  re-  eral  application,  and  much  confliction  was  in- 
bting  to  birth,  marriage,  and  deatli,  may  also  volved  in  the  decisions.    Finally  it  was  settled 
be  shown  by  proof  of  what  has  been  said  by  that  the  interest  must  be  a  direct  gain  or  loss 
members  of  the  family  or  relatives  of  the  per-  by  the  operation  of  the  judgment  in  the  action, 
son  whose  parentage  or  relationship  is  in  c^ncs-  or  that  the  record  would  be  evidence  for  or 
tioD.     Many  other  illustrations  could  be  cited,  against  the  witness  in  some  other  action.    This, 
bnt  these  will  sufSce.     It  should  be  remark-  however,  left  a  variety  of  difficult  questions  as 
ed  that  upon  the  same  principle  by  which  the  to  what  would  be  the  actual  effect  of  the  judg- 
kind   of  evidence   last   referred  to  is  admis-  ment  as  respects  the  witness.    Some  exceptiona 
rible,  other  modes  of  proof^  which  are  ordina-  also  to  the  rule  itself  were  by  necessity  admit- 
rOy  classed  under  hearsay,  though  they  in  fact  ted.    Thus  carriers,  brokers,  and  other  agents 
bdong  to  that  species  of  evidence  in  no  other  were  held  competent  to  prove  the  receipt  or 
•ease  than  as  above  explained  in  respect  to  oral  delivery  of  goods  and  other  acts  done  in  the 
testimony,  are  admitted,  such  as  a  family  regis-  course  of  their  employment,  although  they  have 
ter,  inscriptions  on  monuments,  and  the  like,  a  direct  interest  in  showing  the  performance  of 
Bat  with  the  exceptions,  if  they  may  be  so  their  duty ;  and  ^-et,  as  if  to  prove  the  absence 
called,  which  we  have  specified,  hearsay  evi-  of  all  general  prmciples  in  reasoning  upon  the 
deoce  is  wholly  and  absolutely  excluded  by  the  subject  of  the  admissibility  of  evidence,  an  agent 
English  law.    The  reason  usually  gi^cn  for  this  or  servant  was  excluded  from  testifying  in  a 
exdosion  is  hardly  satisfactory.    That  hearsay  suit  against  the  principal  founded  upon  the 
is  an  imperfect  kind  of  evidence  is  certainly  alleged  misconduct  of  the  agent.    The  inconsis- 
trae,  and  also  that  in  many  cases,  but  not  in  tency  is  that  the  judgment  in  the  action  against 
aD,  better  evidence  can  be  procured ;  as  if  the  the  prin«pal  would  not  bo  evidence  of  any  such 
person  b  living  whose  declarations  it  is  proposed  misconduct  in  a  subsequent  action  against  the 
to  prove,  and  could  himself  be  called  as  a  wit-  agent,  and  the  interest  of  the  witness  in  the  case 
nesa,  in  which  case  another  principle  would  supposed  is  no  greater  than  in  the  ordinary  cases 
apply,  viz.:  that  a  party  should  produce  the  where  agents  are  admitted  to  testify  as  to  their 
lest  evidence  which  he  has  the  power  to  ob-  own  acts.    Again,  a  bailor,  though  a  plaintiff  in 
tain.    But  in  some  cases  it  is  the  best  which  the  suit,  has  always  been  permitted  to  show  the 
tbe  party  can  procure,  and  yet  it  is  excluded,  contents  of  a  trunk,  box,  or  package,  which  has 
Aod  again,  although  not  of  a  high  order,  it  is  not  been  lost  or  embezzled  by  the  bailee — the  deliv- 
in  any  case  entirely  without  weight,  and  should  ery  of  the  trunk,  &c.,  being  proved  by  other  tes- 
dkerefore  be  admissible  subject  to  proper  allow-  timony.  But  it  is  unnecessary  to  pursue  the  sub- 
tnce  as  to  the  degree  of  credit  to  bo  given  to  it,  ject  of  the  competency  of  witnesses  further.  The 
mleai  it  should  be  excluded  on  the  ground  of  conviction  at  length  became  general  that  the  ex- 
peater  disadvantage  by  the  prolixity  which  it  clusionof  witnesses  on  account  of  interest  work- 
book! involve,  than  there  woxild  be  of  benefit  to  ed  injuriously,  and  accordingly,  both  in  Eng- 
otber  party  by  its  admission.    This  last  con-  land  and  the  United  States,  the  system  has  been 
iidention  might  be  sufficient  often  to  shut  out  virtually  abrogated.    By  statute  3  and  4  William 
evidence  as  not  being  of  importance  enough  to  IV.,  c.  42,  it  was  provided  tliat  no  person  offered 
Hmnt  the  consumption  of  time  that  it  would  as  a  witness  should  be  excluded  on  the  ground 
nqolre;  bnt  it  can  scarcely  be  miuntained  that  that  the  verdict  or  judgment  in  the  action  could 
iH  eridence  of  this  class  is  wholly  immaterial,  be  used  for  or  against  him.    The  act  6  aud  7 
•d  therefore  per  m   unworthy  of  attention.  Victoria,  c  85  (1843),  provided  that  no  one  ex- 
l  Another  rule  relates  to  the  competency  of  cept  a  party,  or  the  husband  or  wife  of  a  party, 
witnesses,  and  it  has  been  more  prolific  of  should  bo  excluded  from  testify  ing  on  the  ground 
idide  distinctions  and  perplexing  questions  than  of  interest  in  the  subject  of  the  action  or  event 
ttj  other  rule  in  the  law  of  evidence.    A  chief  of  the  trial.     The  act  14  and  15  Victoria,  c.  99 
9^0Qiid  of  exclusion  was  formerly  interest  in  the  (1851 ),  enacted  that  parties  and  persons  on  whose 
■Iject  of  the  action.    The  theory  was  that  behalfa  suit  is  brought  or  defended  shall  be  com- 
toa  Is  an  inevitable  tendency  to  suppress  or  petent  and  compellable  to  testify  as  witnesses 
P^rrert  the  facta,  under  the  influence  of  a  sup-  for  either  party,  except  that  in  criminal  pro- 
pped interest  in  the  result.     This  of  course  ceedings  for  an  indictable  offence  neither  the 
coBstitoted  a  proper  exception  so  far  as  respects  party  charged  nor  the  husband  or  wife  of  such 


IM  BTIDmrOB 

« 

pirty  oodd  bo  a  witiie«;  and  except  also  that  not  to  moch  the  imparabla  loM  of  tortlmniiy, 

IhopiOTUoiiilioald  not  ^ply  to  actioDi  founded  l^  death  or  otberwieei  as  to  pat  an  end  to  oon- 

npon  adalter7y  or  for  a  oreach  of  promise  of  troTenj  within  a  reasonable  period.    The  cor-> 

BMiTiage.    By  a  sabseqnent  act,  16  and  17  Vio-  rent  business  of  life  has  enoij^  to  enplor  oar 

tela,  c.  88  (1868).  the  husband  or  wife  of  a  attention  without  our  being  burdened  with  the 

party  in  a  civil  a<»on  was  made  competent  as  a  memory  of  all  former  tranaaetioaa.    h  Ertop- 

wttness  except  in  cases  of  adultery,  but  with  the  pels.    A  man  is  said  to  be  estopped  when  it 

aoalification  that  such  witness  should  not  be  would  be  inconsistent  with  good  ndth  or  with 

*  MMDd  to  disdose  any  confidential  communica-  the  policy  of  the  law  to  auow  Um  to  deny  a 

Hon  made  bv  either  to  the  other  during  mar-  oertiun  iiet  or  legal  coodosion.    Thna  if  he 

ilage.    In  the  state  of  New  York  similar  pro-  claims  under  a  deed  or  wilL  he  k  bovma  Inr  aD 

Twons  hare  been  adopted  by  the  code  of  1849,  that  is  contained  in  it,  and  Is  estopped  etthar 

which  abolished  the  objection  to  witnesses  on  fromdoiTing  any  redtal  therein, or mwnamti^g 

tl»  ground  of  interest;  and  by  an  amendment  op  any  claim  of  title  adTerse  to  or  Inonnslsfiat 

la  1857  which  authoriaed  parties  to  testify  in  with  such  deed  or  wiD.    In  order  to  ouualltala 

Aair  own  behalf  in  ctTil  anus  the  same  aaoiher  an  eatoppel  the  recital  must  be  diatioct  and  deai; 

witneasesi  except  when  the  adyene  party  ia  an  but  it  la  not  sublect  to  the  same  stiiihiaaa  thai 

aarignfin  or  lend  representatiTe  of  a  deceased  would  be  applied  to  extraneooa  proof  of  tlin  aaiaa 

paraon.    Onedisabiiity.howeTer,  was  left,  via.,  htoL    Thus,  if  atesUtorsayainldawillthathe 

aa  rsipecta  huaband  and  wife,  neither  of  whom  haa  oonTcyed  his  lands  in  A  to  Ida  aoaD^and 

oan  teatify  for  or  agidnst  the  other  except  in  a  he  dcTises  all  his  remdning  lands  to  anothar. 

proaecution  for  in|oriea  committed  by  one  against  the  cony^ance  referred  to  must  be  ondenKood 

mother.    So  for  as  this  disabill^  rests  upon  to  be  in  fee,  and  no  other  proof  of  it  la  raqofaod 

9uy  auppoaed  biaa  deriyed  from  personal  inter-  aa  against  any  of  the  parties  claiming  aader  tha 

ost^  it  Is  inccmaistent  with  the  statutory  change  wOL    On  the  other  hand,  good  fomi  damsiids 

la  the  law  <tf  evidence  aboTe  referred  to.    A!n-  thattheestoppelshonldtakeelfoctoolr  aoooH- 

otber  reason  given  for  the  common  law  rule  of  ing  to  the  real  intent  of  the  grantor  with  a  if^ 

girinsion  seems  equally  untenable^  via.,  that  the  nnderstanding  of  the  foct%  and  tberafofa  proof 

wifo  ia  presumed  in  law  to  be  under  a  sort  of  <tf  mistake  is  sometimes  adfmltted.    An  «« 

doreai^  by  reaaon  of  which  ahe  waa  formerly  {mpait^  aa  it  is  caDed  in  the  old  caaeaii  ia 

Boi  crinunaUy  chargeable  for  folony  (except  a  man  is  predoded  bv  hb  own  act  or  adn 

traaaon  and  murder)  conmiitted  in  presence  of  the  from  proving  any  thing  oontraiy  theralo.    An 

bnaband,  inasmuch  as  she  is  in  the  United  States  instance  of  this  b  when  a  man  has  by  aocoeatala* 

allowed  to  hold  property,  and  to  execute  con-  ment  or  admission  induced  another  with  whoai 

Tsyances  in  respect  tbcreta   So  also  the  reason  he  was  dealing  to  enter  into  a  contract;  he  wUI 

aometimes  given,  that  it  is  tlie  policy  oftbe  law  not  afterward  be  permitted  to  deny  the  truth  of 

to  in^eerve  domestic  harmoDy  (which  has  been  such  statement  or  admisdon  If  the  effect  wodd 

oairied  so  for  that  courts  have  refused  to  allow  be  to  worlL  an  injury  to  such  third  party.    Soa 

the  wife  to  testify  even  with  consent  of  Uie  tadt  admission,  as  when  a  person  having  a  claim 

husband^    if  entitled  to  weight,  dioold  also  to  land  allows  another  to  purchase  it  of  a  party 

disqualify  parents  and  children,  brothers  and  who  has  a  defective  title,  or  to  make  valoabit 

deters,  so  long  at  least  as  they  belong  to  the  improvements,  without  giving  soch  third  partj 

sdau 


household.    In  England  a  bill  hss  been  re-  notice  of  his  daim,  will  operate  as  an  esu^ppd 

oantly  introduced  into  jiarliament,  which  is  not  to  his  setting  up  his  claim  against  soch  in&o> 

yet  acted  upon,  by  which  the  defendant  in  trials  cent  purchaser-  but,  according  to  some  of  the 

for  treason,  feloov,  or  misdemeanor  may  testify  cases,  it  can  <»ily  be  enforced  aa  an  eqoitaMs 

ia  his  own  behalf,  snd  so  also  the  husband  or  relief,  and  is  not  a  bar  to  an  action  at  law.   Upca 

wifo  of  the  party  charged.—!^  8d  of  the  the  same  prindple,  if  a  person  allowB  a  nroaii*> 

elasses  into  wLich  we  have  divided  the  rules  of  sory  note  or  other  oblijjation,  which  m  hss 

•vidence  consists  of  iircsumptions  of  kw  in  Ueu  siven  to  another,  to  be  assigned  by  the  holder  to  a 

of  actud  proof,  or  of  what  could  be  proved,  oana^de  purchaser,  and  ne^ects  to  appriae  maA 

ooder  which  may  be  i4>edfiod  the  fuilowing:  purchaser  of  a  defence  which  he  has  to  it,  he 

4k  The  statutes  uf  limitation,  by  which  a  period  will  not  be  permitted  to  set  up  such  dcfcnee  as 

of  time  is  fixed  when  a  debt  shall  be  presumed  against  him.    To  this  head  also  bdoogs  what  b 

to  hove  been  paid,  or  satiiifoction  to  have  been  called  rm judicata^  that  b  to  fav«  the  rale  that 

VDodved.    This  sort  of  presumption  b  made,  when  a  fact  necessarily  invdved  in  an  oetloa  b 

not  for  want  of  actud  proof;  as  the  period  b  once  determined  it  didl  not  afterward  becalbd 

oaoallf  short,  and  thereioro  not  like  the  case  of  in  question  as  between  the  same  partiea  or  per- 

nrescnption  for  incorpored  rights,  or  title  to  land  sons  daiming  under  them.    A  Jodgmcot  or  dr> 

by  adverse  possewion,  in  rc8i»cct  to  which  the  cree  of  a  competent  court  b  final  not  only  as  to 

tune  by  the  Englbh  law  ezti'nds  back  for  be-  what  was  actudly  detennined,  bot  aa  to  evcrr 

yood  the  memory  of  living  witnesses,  and  even  matter  which  waa  involved  in  the  iasoe.  and 

tlie  leas  remote  time  prescribed  iu  the  United  which  could  have  been  decided.    The  record  cf 

States  being  still  subject  to  tL«  lues  of  important  the  Judgment  b  the  only  proper  evldcocs  cf 

evidence.    But  the  limitation  of  time  as  to  pvr-  what  was  in  iaroe,  and  it  cannot  be  provfd  sU- 

aood  actions  for  debt  or  injuries  has  in  vbw  uhtU  that  some  matter  waa  in  foci  lavolred 


EVIDENCE  867 

ind  taken  into  consideration  which  does  not  ap-  eluded,  even  if  none  better  can  be  procnred. 
pear  by  the  record  to  have  been  involved  in  the  Upon  the  some  principle,  when  a  writing  is  pnt 
UBne.  This  is  the  rule  as  to  decisions  of  tribn-  in  evidence,  it  must  have  effect  according  to  its 
nals  in  oar  own  country.  In  respect  to  foreign  terms,  and  parol  evidence  is  not  admissible  to 
judgments  and  decrees^  the  effect  is  the  same  give  it  a  different  construction,  or  to  defeat  its 
when  the  conrt  had  jurisdiction  of  the  case,  and  operation  according  to  the  import  thereof;  or 
DO  frand  has  been  practised.  The  record  itself^  even  if  the  writing  is  ambiguous,  it  cannot  be 
which  must  be  produced,  is  not  conclusive  as  to  explained  by  other  evidence,  if  the  ambiguity 
fikcCs  necessary  to  give  jurisdiction,  and  a  de-  be  intrinsic,  that  is,  if  the  phraseology  is  per  te 
fendant  will  b«  permitted  to  prove  that  he  was  doubtful.  But  if  the  ambiguity  arises  from 
sot  personally  served  with  process:  so  any  fraud  something  referred  to,  but  not  ftilly  expressed 
on  toe  part  of  the  court  or  its  officers  may  be  in  the  wnting,  explanation  by  other  evidence  is 
shown.  But  the  regularity  of  the  judgment  admissible.  The  latter  is  designated  in  law  as 
having  been  established,  it  is  conclusive  upon  all  a  latent  ambiguity,  by  which  is  meant  that  it 
matters  embraced  in  the  issue. — ^The  4th  class  in  does  not  appear  upon  the  face  of  the  instrument, 
the  arrangement  we  have  made  of  our  subject,  but  arises  from  something  extrinsic.  So  also, 
Tia.,  the  comparative  weight  of  evidence,  is  of  a  when  parties  to  a  contract  have  undertaken  to 
twctfold  character.  Judicial  discrimination  may  express  it  in  writing,  it  will  be  assumed  that 
lead  to  the  rejection  of  testimony  as  being  entitled  they  have  expressed  the  whole,  and  nothing  can 
to  no  weight  at  all,  or  it  may  determine  the  rela-  be  added  by  parol  evidence,  so  far  as  relates  to 
tire  infloenoe  which  it  should  have  if  admissible  what  the  parties  had  in  view  at  the  time  the 
in  the  desoision  of  a  question  of  fact.  The  contract  was  made.  This  is  in  effect  saying 
fenner  we  have  already  considered,  so  far  as  re-  that  the  written  contract  must  speak  for  itself^ 
fleets  the  incompetency  of  witnesses  and  the  and  will  be  presumed  to  contain  all  that  was  in- 
eadnaion  of  hearsay  testimony.  But  evidence  tended  at  the  time,  though  this  contract  may 
is  sometimes  excluded  for  reasons  of  more  limited  be  varied  by  a  subsequent  parol  agreement  for 
ffiplication.  Thus,  inferior  testimony  is  not  good  consideration.  To  tne  general  rule  as 
admitted  when  a  party  has  it  in  his  power  to  above  stated  there  are,  however,  some  qualift- 
prodnoe  what  is  of  a  higher  order ;  as  if  the  cations.  1.  It  is  admissible  to  e:q)lain  the  sub- 
oneation  be  as  to  the  title  to  real  estate  derived  ject  of  the  contract  and  all  the  circumstances 
nom  a  deed,  the  best  proof  will,  of  course,  be  which  may  properly  be  supposed  to  have  been 
the  producUon  of  the  deed  itself,  and  no  other  had  in  view  by  both  parties,  for  the  purpose  of 
proof  will  be  admitted  as  a  substitute,  unless  a  understanding  the  phraseology  which  they  may 
aaturfactory  reason  is  given  for  its  non-produc-  have  used.  2.  Terms  peculiar  to  a  science,  pro- 
tioo.  as  where  it  has  b^n  lost  or  destroyed.  But  fession,  art,  or  trade  may  be  explained  by  wit- 
ia  this  case,  the  substituted  evidence  must  be  nesses  conversant  therewith.  8.  Parol  evidence 
ezdnnvely  as  to  the  contents  of  the  deed.  In  is  admissible  to  impeach  a  written  instrument, 
the  United  States  that  particular  question  is  of  by  showing  fraud,  illegality  of  the  subject  mat- 
rare  occurrence,  as  conveyances  of  real  estate  ter,  or  whatever  would  operate  in  law  to  avoid 
are  oauaDy  recorded,  and  the  record  or  a  certi-  it. — ^The  admissibility  of  evidence  is  in  judicial 
fied  copy  may  be  read  in  evidence  with  the  same  proceedings  a  matter  of  law,  and  in  jury  trials 
effect  as  the  original.  So  when  a  contract  is  is  determined  by  the  court  But  it  is  not  alone 
fai  writing,  it  is  necessary  to  produce  the  writ-  for  this  purpose  that  discrimination  is  requured. 
log  itself,  and  no  other  evidence  can  be  given  A  question  of  fact  usually  involves  testimony  on 
ofthe  terms  of  such  contract,  without  showing  both  sides,  which  must  be  collated,  and  the 
first  the  loss  of  the  writing,  or  that  for  some  relative  weight  of  which  must  be  determined  in 
other  satis&ctory  reason  it  is  impracticable  to  order  to  reach  a  correct  conclusion.  Usually 
piodaoe  it ;  upon  making  which  proof,  parol  the  court  arranges  and  sifts  the  evidence  in  the 
eridence  may  be  given  as  to  the  contents.  And  instructions  given  to  the  jury,  and  it  is  obvious 
whenever,  in  the  course  of  a  trial,  a  fact  comes  that  without  this  aid  the  jury  would  be  incom- 
fai  qoestion,  the  evidence  of  which  is  in  writing,  petent  to  analyze  the  evidence  in  a  complicated 
the  same  rule  is  applied,  viz.,  that  no  other  evi-  case.  Since  the  disqualification  to  testify  by 
denee  can  be  admitted  than  the  writing  itself  if  reason  of  interest  has  been  abolished,  the  rea- 
in  existence,  and  if  not,  then  only  the  substi-  sons  which  formerly  were  insisted  upon  as 
toted  proof  of  its  contents.  It  may  however  grounds  of  such  disqualification  are  still  proper 
humen  that  nothing  more  than  the  purport  can  to  be  considered  with  reference  to  the  credit  of 
be  aliown,  and  not  the  exact  phraseology ;  and  the  witness.  It  would  be  out  of  place  to  discuss 
aome  latlUide  will  be  allowed  in  such  case,  as  by  these  reasons  at  large  in  a  brief  summary  of 
•AwS^Jng  proof  of  the  acts  of  parties,  and  other  principles  to  which  this  article  is  necessarily 
dfwimatanees,  but  still  having  in  view  to  get  at  limited.  A  single  case  may  however  be  ap- 
whai  was  expressed  by  the  writing.  It  does  propriately  referred  to,  viz.,  the  impeachment 
aot  ibllow,  however,  that  when  the  best  or  of  a  witness  by  direct  testimony  of  other  wit- 
whai  is  called  primaiy  evidence  cannot  be  pro-  nesses.  showing  that  he  is  unworthy  of  credit. 
daoed,  inferior  or  what  is  called  secondary  evi*  This  kind  of  testimony  is  peculiar.  The  inquiry 
dsnee  will  in  all  cases  be  admitted.  Thus,  as  is  limited  to  the  general  reputation  of  the  wit- 
ve  have  before  shown,  hearsay  evidence  is  ex-  ness  whose  veracity  is  in  question,  and  the  im- 


JH6  cvmniGB 

pwehing  witatw  fa  not  allowtd  to  tottify  to  lints  can  lMtliowii1igrol]Mr«fUiM»;  ad  fUi 

mnkmUr  ftcta.    Tho  uoal  ooane  of  ezftmina-  It  trae  whether  the  writing  filatM  to  ttepri»> 

fion  b  to  inquire  whtt  it  the  general  repotetkm  eipel  fiMt  or  toMeoi  oC  tho  netiaa,  or  it  Mve^ 

of  tho  witneat  at  to Toraei^,  nod  Jbrmerlj  it  Inei^eotaL    Again,  when Ihoqaaalkttia anion 

permitted  then  to  ntk  the  impeaching  wit-  ftot  ntpecting  whm  there  ia  ovidanoa  In 


wlielher  he  wonld  helieve  the  other  nnder  Ing^hut  nn  offer  It  mndo  to  prove  the  tel  ^ 

oatiHhotthoanthoritieaareintlutooQnferjnot  orideoeeoltiauliwithootmminf  the  willing 

aitogether  nnitorm  aa  to  the  biter  nraeUce,    It  or  proring  Ita  eootenti^  the  mio  ia  ihni  If  Iho 

mnynoihe  improper  here  to  taj  thai  the  mk  writing  waathecoooorranlael  of  hothMftfa^aa 

aa  lo  impenehment  of  n  witneaa  it  eeldom  of  ifitwaaaignedl^themorwnapraMiMwilhlhn 

nae,  exoepi  where  he  ia  notorioodv  deadtnte  pririty  of  hoth  aa  an  Mpraaaloa  of  their  ■nlwi 

of  principle.    Bat  in  many  eatea  it  mav  he  nodeikanding,  it  It  thereby  oanatflBtod  the  pe>- 

amanrtil  to  a  proper  Jodgmem  of  the  credit  to  maiyerldenceofthelacltowMohUraialat^ind 

he  given  to  n  wiUMm^  to  know  any  particolar  mntt  he  prodoced,    TUa  InclniM  not  aaawjy 

eomeptiont  to  hie  character,  althoo^  not  extend-  n  written  oootraolwhldi  ia  the  an^Ml  of  the 

log  to  notorielT;  and  therelbre  the  opiidona  of  notion,  hot  ny  other  writing  wfaleh  Iho  partiaa 

vttneatea  on  the  iMtta  of  which  th^  m^  he  have  agreed  npon  aa  the  aipreerion  of  n^y  Jhal 

oognlmnt  may  aometimre  he  important,  eren  if  incidentaUy  inTolTcd  in  the.  netleo.    Tbafo  b 

aol  generally  known.    The  ooiiy  eerioQi  ol||eo-  Ihbdiflbrence,  however,  betwean  Iho  two  ( 


Hon  to  thb  mode  of  inqniiy  b  the  UabQI^  to  that  in  the  former  no  other  poof  cnn  ho 

biTolTo  protracted  e<^teral  iatnee.    The  fan-  oeiredhot  thelnatmmeiititw,or  If ' 

peached  witneat  tboold  of  coarm  hnve  the  ofitacontentt;  whereat  in  Iho 

light  to  robot,  and  thb  might  aometimea  lead  bo  other  OTidoice  bearing  npoA  Iho 

to  a  coofliol  ci  OTidence  npon  mattera  atide  which  b  admitalUe,  together  with  the 

from  the  prinoipnl  itioe.    Still,  if  there  be  any  and  in  tone  inatnncetwithoni  It,  where  bbi 

^alne  in  teetimony  called  In  Ibr  the  impeach-  Intontiooally  withheld*    Thot  n  wiittOB 

gMot  of  the  credit  of  a  witnen^  the  opiniuot  of  lenoodenoe  between  Iho  pnrtlet  ai^  hoa 

Ihote  who  have  had  dealinga  with  mm,  or  the  rial  to  ahow  their  nndaniandlng  In  raiyoalla 


Imnaactioot  themtdTee  which  ecmatitote  the    acme  tranaadlon,  bnl  thb  wonld  not  nradadi 


ground  of  exception,  are  fin*  mora  to  be  depend-  proof  of  convertatiooa  or  other  ncta» 

oA  npon  than  general  repntatioo,  which  b  In  erer,  the  correapondeoce  contninn  n 

ftel  hot  common  mmor,  and  naoally  haa  an  the  role  would  be  otherwiae ;  lor  IIm% 

intermixtore  of  the  iabe  with  the  tme.    The  Ing  to  another  mk^  no  other  oridanoo  can  hi 

oommon  Jndgment  of  men  b  that  fidtdiood  received  except  what  b  neoeamry  BmlJm  fnfm 

In  one  inttaoce  af^rda  a  ttrong  presnmption  explanation  of  the  meaning  of  the  partiea  b  the 

In  every  other  caae  when  the  ttatement  of  laognage  oted  by  them.  It  boot  material  whith 

the  tame  person  b  called  in  question.    Tbe  party  hat  pcMseasion  of  tiie  writing ;  Iho  mb  b 

oxitting  legal  mb  b  however  restricted  within  tbe  same  in  either  case.   If  wanted  by  one  party, 

the  narrow  limit  first  mentioned,  viz.,  general  and  the  other  baa  possession  of  It,  npon  notba 

repntntion. — We  have  tbot  briefly  analyzed  the  by  hiro  to  tbe  other  to  prodnce  It,  and  iia  nan- 

general  princtplea  of  the  bw  of  evidence.    Our  prodoction,  he  may  give'  narol  evidence  of  ill 

•nb|ect  would  however  be  imperiecUv  treat-  contenta. — It  b  to  be  unoentood  thai  the  mb 

od  if  we  tbould  not  refer  to  tome  of  the  mbs  above  mentioned  appliea  only  lo  a  writing  m 

which  have  more  particular  relation  to  the  which  both  partiea  nave  ooncnrred.    When  it  b 

practice  of  the  coortt.    One  b  that  the  best  evi-  a  memorandum  by  one  without  the  privily  of 

Sbnce  most  always  be  produced ;  or  in  other  the  other,  it  cannot  be  evidence  at  aU,  exosft 

words,  that  inferior  evidence  will  not  be  re-  under  the  recent  modification  of  Iho  low  of 

oeived  when  a  partv  has  it  in  bb  power  to  pro-  evidence  allowing  parties  to  be  wttnoasei^and  b 

dnce  better.    But  it  does  not  follow,  aa  bdure  anl^ect  to  the  tame  rub  that  appliea  to 

remarked,  that  when  a  party  has  not  the  power  other  witneet.    The  mb  as  to  a  mamarani 

loproducethe  best,  any  other  without  restriction  madebyawitnetaatthetimeof  the 

b  admi«sibb.    The  secondary  proof  most  still  referred  to  in  it  it,  that  he  may  rttbr  lob  ibr  the 

he  aoch  at  b  held  competent  under  other  miet,  nurpose  of  refreshing  bb  memory ;  hat  hnring 

orllwillben;iected.    The  meaning  of  tbe  rule  done  so,  he  b  to  tettifr  wliat  with  thb  aid  he  b 

b  that  iniWior  evidence^  although  otherwise  abb  to  recollect.    U^  however,  ho  haa  no  lecol- 

oompeient,  shall  not  be  admitted  when  better  lection  independent  of  the  atemoi 

oan  be  had.    We  have  before  adverted  to  the  Uter  doctrine  b  that  on  proving  Ihaa 

distinction  between  writings  or  documentary  made  at  the  time  of  the  transact' 

prooC  and  oral,  or  m  it  b  nsoally  called,  parol  to,  and  that  be  then  had  knowladft  of  Iho 

ovideoce.    The  diatinctioo  b  foonded  upon  the  Ject,  the  memorandum  itaelf  amy  bo  M  in  «ri- 

nncertninty  of  memory.    Whatever  bat  been  dence.    Tlie  mode  <tf  Pf^^iBg  A  writing  which 

pot  in  writing  can  never  be  proved  by  mere  b  attested  by  a  snbscribtng  witnem  b  pacafiar. 

raooUectiiin  with  perfbet  exactness ;  the  writ-  In  such  a  caae  the  subscribing  wllneaa  moil 

hg  itself  b  of  oonne  the  most  trustworthy,  and  be  called  if  liiing  and  within  the  JnrbJbcbn 

neoording  to  the  rub  above  mentioocd  it  mutt  of  the  court ;  but  if  deed  or  ahaant  ftwm  the 

ho  prodaeed  or  Ha  lorn  proved  beibre  lis  ouo-  ooontry,  proof  of  hb  handwriting  or  of  Ihni  of 


EVIDENCE  EVREUX                    359 

the  party  will  be  saffioicDt  to  make  the  instra-  and  therefore  no  heir.    But  a  grant  to  John, 

meot  evidence.  The  ezclosion  of  proof  of  execa-  son  and  heir  of  G.  8.,  if  in  fact  the  name  of.  the 

tion,  bj  any  other  person  than  the  subscribing  heir  was  Thomas,  was  held  not  good.  It  islikdy 

witness  has  been  often  the  occasion  of  incon-  that  the  courts  would  however  now  hold  it  to 

▼enience ;  and  the  reason  usually  assigned  for  it,  be  good  if  there  was  no  son  of  the  name  of  John. 

tIz^  that  the  sabscribing  witness  is  supposed  But  when  it  is  sought  to  contradict  an  instni- 

to  have  some  knowledge  of  the  subject  which  ment  which  has  an  intelligible  meaning,  there 

another  would  not  have,  is  certainly  very  sin-  is  sound  reason  for  enforcing  the  rule  of  ezda- 

golar,  as  if  he  had  such  knowledge  he  would  sion.    If  there  has  been  a  mistake  of  expression, 

not  be  allowed  to  testify  to  it,  if  it  would  at  all  the  proper  remedy  is  by  an  appeal  to  a  court  ai 

vary  the  effect  of  the  instrument.    In  England,  equity  for  correction.    Under  the  code  of  the 

by  a  recent  act,  17  and  18  Victoria,  c.  125  state  of  New  York  the  amendment  can  be  made 

(1854),  a  aubscribing  witness  to  an  instrument  and  the  instrument  as  amended  enforced  by 

which  is  not  required  by  law  to  be  attested  judgment  in  the  same  action. — ^In  the  examina- 

need  not  be  called,  but  the  instrument  may  be  tion  of  witnesses,  a  very  different  mode  is  pre- 

proved  in  the  same  manner  as  if  there  was  no  scribed  to  the  party  calling  a  witness  from  what 

aoch  witness.    The  rule  that  parol  evidence  is  is  allowed  to  the  opposite  party.    The  counsel 

not  admissible  to  contradict,  vary,  or  explain  a  of  the  former  must  not  put  leading  questions, 

written  instrument  has-been  before  referred  to,  and  if  the  witness  should  miUce  adverse  or  nn- 

and  certain  exceptions  or  qualifications  were  satisfactory  answers,  still  he  was  deemed  the 

mentioned  viz. :  that  evidence  may  be  given  of  witness  of  the  party  and  could  be  examined  only 

iBch  contemporaneous  circumstances  as  would  in  accordance  with  that  theory ;  that  is  to  say, 

be  essential  fur  the  proper  understanding  of  the  he  could  not  be  cross-examined  bv  such  party, 

expressions  used  by  tlie  parties ;  or  in  explana-  This  at  least  was  formerly  the  rule,  but  it  has 

tkn  of  technical  language  where  the  transaction  recently  been  relaxed  so  far  as  to  allow  him  to 

relates  to  some  trade  or  art,  and  the  like ;  or  be  treated  to  some  extent  as  an  adverse  witnesSi 

lasUy,  when  some  ambiguity  arises  not  involved  when  it  is  apparent  that  he  is  so.    On  the  other 

in  the  language  and  in  the  instrument    An  hand,  cross-examination  by  the  other  party  is 

instance  of  the  last  exception  is  a  case  where  a  allowed  to  an  almost  unlimited  extent,  and  the 

deviaehasbeenmade  to  John  Jones,  and  it  turns  privilege  is  often  used  to  pervert  rather  than 

out  that  there  are  two  persons  of  that  name ;  in  elicit  the  truth.    It  would  be  difficult  to  fix  a 

which  case  it  is  admissible  to  show  by  other  ovi-  precise  limit  of  restriction,  as  it  necessarily  rests 

deuce  which  of  the  two  was  meant.  But  if  from  very  much  in  the  discretion  of  the  court;  but 

the  language  of  the  instrument  it  should  be  the  prevailing  practice,  especially  in  the  English 

impossible  to  detennine  the  meaning  even  with  courts,  seems  to  be  suited  rather  to  a  remote 

the  aid  of  such  explanations  as  would  be  ad-  period,  when  from  the  disorders  of  society  and 

missible  under  the  exceptions  above  mentioned,  consequent  laxity  of  moral  principle  there  was 

the  defect  could  not  be  supplied,  and  the  in-  little  reliance  to  be  placed  on  the  oath  of  wit- 

itniDient  would  be  void.    Probably  the  greater  nesscs,  than  to  the  present  advanced  state  of 

strictness  in  the  latter  case  is  founded  upon  social  order,  when  the  exigencies  of  vastly  ao- 

the  fact  that  the  admission  of  such  explana-  cumulated  private  transactions,  and  a  superior 

tions  would  be  substituting  other  language  than  intelligence  extending  to  the  lowest  class,  have 

what  the  party  himself  has  used,  whereas  in  induced  a  greater  integrity,  and  when  it  may  be 

the  case  of  latent  ambiguity  the  court  gives  assumed  as  a  general  rule  that  a  witness  is  dis- 

effect  to  the  language  of  the  party,  but  is  ob-  posed  to  speak  the  truth. 

liged  to  obviate  a  doubt  to  which  his  attention  EVORA  (anc.  Ebora^  and  Liheralitas  Julia\ 

was  not  directed.  The  distinction  is  not  however  capital  of  the  province  of  Alemtcjo,  Portugid, 

Tery  satisCactory ;  and  a  forced  construction  has  and  of  a  district  of  the  same  name,  situated  on 

been  often  resorted  to  in  order  to  give  effect  to  high  ground,  85  m.  E.  S.  E.  of  Lisbon ;  pop. 

an  instrument,  which  for  the  want  of  explana-  15,000.     It  is  surrounded  by  a  wall,  and  con- 

tion  that  might  perhaps  have  been  given,  but  tains  the  remains  of  2  ancient  forts.    A  splen- 

was  not  allowed  by  law,  would  otherwise  have  did  Gothic  cathedral,  a  number  of  convents, 

been  void.    Thus  a  grant  of  10  acres  of  wood-  hospitals,  a  house  of  charity,  a  diocesan  school. 

land  described  only  as  belonging  to  the  grantor,  barracks,   and  a  museum    are    the    principal 

when  he  had  in  fact  100  acres,  was  held  in  the  buildiugs  of   modern  date,  while  among   its 

old  books  to  give  an  election  to  the  grantee  monuments  of  antiquity  are  a  ruined  temple 

to  take  which  10  he  pleased ;  it  would  probably  of  Diana,  and  an  aqueduct  by  which  the  city  is 

aow  be  held  to  g^ve  an  undivided  tenth  part,  still  supplied.    Evora  has  some  manufactories 

•od  a  partition  would  be  necessary.    So  if  a  of  hardware  and  leather. 

deed  recited  that  the  grantor  had  two  tene-  EVREUX  (anc.  Civitat  £buravicum\  a  dty 

mentay  and  granted  one  without  specifying  which,  of  France,  capital  of  the  department  of  Eure, 

the  grantee  was  allowed  an  election  to  take  52  j  m.  by  railway  from  Paris,  in  a  pleasant  val- 

either.    But  this  liberality  of  construction  was  ley,  on  the  Iton,  which  by  means  of  a  canal  and 

eqpridously  exercised.    Thus  an  obligation  to  a  natural  arm  is  made  to  water  every  part  of 

J.  8.  describing  him  as  son  and  heir  of  G.  S.  the  city;    pop.   in  1856,   10,615.     It  is  sur- 

been  held  good,  although  he  was  a  bastard  roanded   by  gardens,  vineyards,  and   highly 


IWALD  IWBAIK 

adtfTalad  ficldf.    At  a  litUe  dkUnoe  from  tlie  was  tlie  fint  attempt  to  ^mat^Om  tko 

town  was  the  fine  old  cbAtean  of  NaTarre,  hiitonr  of  Denmark,  and  bean  evktoee  of  the 

msded  in  the  14th  oentuj,  which  was  for  %  careral  stndjr  of  both  Ossian  and  Bhalrespsaia. 

yeaia  the  resldenoe  of  the  empress  Josephine  About  this  Ume  he  beoame  Isaaai  and  ptkmtj^ 

aftsr  her  diToroe,  and  was  destroyed  in  1886.  neglect,  and  intemperanoe  added  to  bkniUbr- 

Xfienz  has  cotton  and  woollen  milk.  tnnes.    He  was  oTentnaDy  dwsrted  even  bv 

XWALD,  Gkhm  HnmcH  Acousr  toh,  a  hb  mother,  and  the  last  two  jeara  of  bis  8» 

Gannan  orientalist  and  theologian,  bom   in  were  spent  in  the  boose  of  a  bsnsfolw^ 

GOttingen,  Kot.  Id,  1808.    He  was  one  of  the  Bat  his  literary  aetivity  remained  m  '' 

7  proMssors  who  were  dismissed  in  1887  on  and  in  1771  and  177S,  whQe  in  the 

aoooont  of  their  remonstrance  aainst  the  nncon-  tress  of  mind  and  body,  he  wrote  ofen 

aUtntional  proceedings  of  King  Ernest  Angostos  plays,  which  were  TerysocoessfliL  Hismoatesl- 

of  Hanover.     He  r^taired  to  Enc^snd.  where  ebratedwork,  J9bltfiif'si!MrBaldBr^I>ealk"X 

be  remained   nntil  1888,  from  whidh   time  a  drama  of  mat  power  ana  poedo  beanlj,  da» 

vntfl  1848  he  offlciaftad  as  professor  ci  theo-  Toted  to  the  heroic  remiidsoenees  of  fieaMM* 

logy  at  Tobiogen.    He  was  then  reinstated  in  Tian  mythology,  apoeared  in  177t«    Hia  Ij&m 

Us  chair  at  Gottingen,  where  he  continnea  and  sacred  poe^,  nowerer,  are  now  moat  «§• 

(1869)  to  hdd  a  prominent  position  in  the  de-  mired.    His  finest  lyrical  poem,  **  Ilia  fkba^ 

partment  of  oriental  languages  and  ezegeds.  men,''  ^ipeared  in  1778.    He  ako  wima  a 

He  b  one  of  the  best  liTing  oriental  scholars  iamona  national  sooff  of  Denmark,  and  asma 

and  biblical  critica.    Among  hia  moat  impor-  worka  in  proae.    He  began  to  prepare  bis  pool* 

tant  works  are  Orammatiea  OriUea  Lmgum  icsl  wcffks  for  pnblicatioo,  bat  the  edition  waa 

JfMcm  (9  T<^ 8V0., Leipsio,  1881-'88);  U^ber  eompleted  only  after  his  death  (4  Tok,  C^ 

im  daumiichs  Buck  Htf^oek  (1854) ;  AuMkrli^  penhsgen.  1781-^1 ;  Sd  ed^  1814>16). 

al«ZdMiid^(2«r  JUMiidUaiSbradbdaiaZtm  EWBANK,  Thomas,  an  American  wrilar  en 

BmmiM  (6th  and  enlaned  edition,  18S5  ;  also  mractical  meehanicsw  bom  at  Barnard  QMdi^ 

an  abridaed  edition  of  the  same,  Eebrdmks  Darham,  Eng^d,  Karch  11,  1791.    At  the 

8pra€kMr€  J^r  A^flnger^  %^  ^^  IWli).    Hia  age  of  18  he  was  apprenticed  to  a  tin  and  esp* 

pnncipsl  theologicsi  work  is  his  OtfckiekU  dm  per  smith,  sabeeqoeotly  was  employed  te  ssr* 

vMm  Itrasl  lu  CkT%$tmM  (8  rols.  in  6,  8to.,  oral  years  in  London,  and  abont  1819  eninasd 

Id ed., GMtingen,  1861-*68).    Hewaathe  pro-  to  New  York.    In  1880  he  cownniiead  the 

iector  of  the  Z$it$ehrift  jfttr  dis  Funds  dm  mano&ctare  of  metallic  tobing  In  that  eilr, 

Mor^mlands^  and  since  1849  he  hss  edited  the  from  which  bosincss  he  retired  in  IStS-'T  la 

/oArMeA^r    der  hihliieken    Wiminsehq/t^   in  order  to  dcTote  himself  to  literary  and  seisattts 

which  he  propoaods  his  theological  viewa  bis  porsnits.    In  1843  appeared  his  ^Deseripcife 

leaning  toward  Banr  and  other  adherents  of  the  and  Historical  Accoaot  of  H jdranlie  and  ocbsr 

Tobingen  school  with  whom  he  beoime  scqnaint-  llachiDea,  Ancient  and  Modem :  InclwBn^  the 

ad  daring  his  residence  in  that  city,  involTing  Progresgive  Development  of  the  Steam  Engme," 

him  in  many  oontroTersies.    In  1841  he  was  a  h^^y  saggestiTe  work,  of  which  the  14th 

ennobled  by  the  king  of  Wortemberg.  edition  was  published  in  1858.    In  I84&-^  be 

EWALD,  JoDANinES,  a  Danish  poet,  bora  in  made  a  visit  to  Brazil,  recordina  hia  ubsuia* 

Copenhagen,  Nov.  18,  1748,  died  there,  March  tions  in  a  work  which  was  published  in  1884 

17,  1781.    He  early  displayed  hb  love  of  ro-  nnder  the  title  of  *'Life  in  Brazil,**  with  an 


mance  by  an  attempt  to  go  to  sea,  the  reading  pendix  descriptive  of  a  collection  of  An 

of  **  Robinson  Crosoe**  having  excited  his  imagi-  antiqaities.    In  1840  he  was  appointed  by 

nation,  bat  he  was  overtaken  by  his  friends  be-  dent  Taylor  U.  8.  commisrioner  of  natcntSi  in 

Ibre  he  had  reached  the  seashore.    He  afterward  which  capacity  he  prepared  8  annaai  repattik  a 

Joined  the  army  in  Prossia  and  Aastria,  bat  portion  of  the  first  of  which  waa  pobfishad  in 

was  eventoally  indnced  by  his  friends  to  retom  pamplilct  form  in  New  York  with  an  tntiodn^ 

to  Copenhagen,  where  he  studied  theology,  and  tionby  Mr.  Horace  Greeley.     He  retired  from 

passed  his  examination  in  1763.    Disappointed  oflke  in  1858.    He  has  alio  pabUahed  a  wofk  on 

in  his  love  for  a  young  bdy  whom  ho  celebrated  the  physical  relation  of  man  to  the  earth,  eA> 

In  verM  under  the  name  of  Arenso,  he  fell  into  titled  ''  The  World  a  Woriuhvp*"  (S^w  Tosk, 

aetata  of  melancholv,  which  cast  a  gloom  over  1856X  **  Thoughts  on  Matter  and  Foree'*  (Xew 

the  rest  of  his  life,  but  tended  to  stimalate  his  York,  1858),anda  variety  of  mi  si  n  llsniwwisaMayi 

poatie  geninsL    He  devoted  himself  to  liters-  on  the  philosophy  and  \iKorj  of  InveaCMi^ 

tore,  wss  deeply  impressed  with  the  beanties  of  which  have  appeared  chiefl  v  in  the  **  Transs 

modem  German  ^poetry,  cfpccially  of  Klop-  of  the  Franklin  Institute.*^   His  ^ExMri 

stock's  **  Messiah,*^  and  became  the  anthor  of  on  Marine  Propulsion,  or  the  Virtae  of  F< 

exqoisite  lyrical  poems  and  songi,  which  secure  Propelling  Blades,''  was  reprinted  in  Earopew 

for  him  a  prominent  place  among  the  classiod  As  a  member  of  the  eoromiuioo  to  exaadneaad 

writers  of  Denmark.     Hb  first  composition,  report  upon  the  strength  of  the  marbles  oAsed 

^TheTempleof  Fortane,a Vision,** wssfollowcd  fur  the  extension  of  the  national  capital,  be 

la  1766  by  a  poem  on  the  death  of  Frederic  V.  made  some  suggertions  which  led  to  the  daeof* 

In  1768  appeared  hb  lyrical  drama  of  ''Adam  ery  of  a  means  of  greatly  increasing  the  power 

aodSve."    lib  tn^edy  of  J2^  irnva  (1770)  of  rssistanoe  to  pressors  in  boiUiafi 


EWING  861 

EWING,  JoH!!r,  D.D.,  an  American  divine,  session  Mr.  Ewing  presented  a  second  majority 

boni  in  Nottingham,  Md.,  Jane  22,  1782,  died  report,  with  a  bill  for  the  reorganization  of  the 

in  Philadelphia,  Sept  8, 1802.    Ho  was  edacat-  department.    The  bill  passed  the  senate  with- 

ed  in  the  college  of  New  Jersey,  was  tutor  in  ont  opposition,  Feb.  9, 1835,  but  was  lost  in  the 

I2uit  oolkge  and  instructor  of  the  philosophi-  house  of  representatives ;  the  postmaster-gen- 

mI  daises  in  the  college  of  Philadelphia,  and  eral,  however,  resigned,  and  the  reorganization 

in  1759  became  pastor  of  the  1st  Presbyterian  was  effected  during  the  following  session.    Mr. 

ehnrch  in  Philadelphia.    In  1773  he  visited  Ewing  took  a  warm  part  in  the  debates  on  the 

Enc^d,  and  had  interviews  with  Dr.  Robert-  removal  of  the  deposits  from  the  U.  S.  bank. 

■on,  Lord  North,  and  Dr.  Johnson;  the  last  of  which  he  looked  upon  as  an  unconstitutional 

whom,  affirming  that  the  Americans  were  as  measure,  and  on  Dec.  21, 1835,  he  introduced  a 

ignorant  as  rebeSious,  said  to  Dr.  Ewins :  *^  Ton  bill  for  the  settlement  of  the  much  vexed  Ohio 

never  read.  Ton  have  no  books  there."  '^Par-  boundary  question,  which  was  passed  March  11 

don  me,"  was  the  reply,  "  wo  have  read  the  and  June  15,  1836.    During  the  same  session 

^Rambler.*  ^    When  the  college  of  Philadelphia  he  brought  forward  a  bill,  which  became  a  law, 

was  chm^ged  in  1779  to  the  university  of  Penn-  for  the  reorganization  of  the  general  land  office ; 

sjWania,  Dr.  Ewing  was  placed  at  its  head  as  and  on  several  occasions  he  opposed  the  policy 

proToat,  and  remained  in  this  station  together  of  granting  preemption  rights  to  settlers  on  the 

vith  hifl  pastorate  till  his  death.    He  was  vice-  public  lands.    Ho  spoke  against  the  admission 

president  of  the  American  philosophical  society,  of  Michigan,  on  the  difficulties  with  France,  the 

and  made  several  contributions  to  its  *^  Transac-  deposit  bUl,  the  limitation  of  executive  patron- 

tkna.''    His  collegiate  lectures  on  natural  phi-  age,  and  the  fortification  bill,  and  presented  a 

losophy  (2  vols.,  1809^  and  a  volume  of  sermons  memorial  for  the  abolition  of  slavery  and  the 

have  been  published  smce  his  death.  slave  trade  in  the  district  of  Columbia,  which 

EWING,  Thomas,  IX.D.,  an  American  states-  he  insisted  ought  to  be  referred,  though  he  was 

iBta  and  jurist,  bom  in  Ohio  co.,  Ya.,  Dec.  28,  opposed  to  granting  the  prayer  of  the  memo- 

1789.    His  &ther,  who   had   served   in  the  nalists.     In  July,  1836,  the  secretary  of  the 

American  army  during  the  revolution,  and  had  treasury  issued  what  was  known  as  the  *^  specie 

become  reduced  in  circumstances,  removed  his  circular, ''  directing  receivers  in  land  offices  to 

Ikmily  in  1792  to  the  Muskingum  river,  and  accept  payments  only  in  gold,  silver,  or  treasury 

tbenoe  to  a  place  17  m.  N.  W.  of  the  frontier  certmcates,  except  from  certain  classes  of  per- 

settkments,  m  what  is  now  Athens  co.,  Ohio,  sons  for  a  limited  time.    In  December  Mr. 

Thomas  was  taught  to  read  by  an  elder  sister,  Ewing  brought  in  a  bill  to  annul  this  circular, 

and   devoured   with   avidity  the    few   books  and  another  declaring  it  unlawful  for  tlio  sccre- 

within  his  reach,  studying  mostly  at  night  by  tary  to  make  such  discrimination.    The  bills 

the  fight  of  hickory  bark.    In  his  20th  year  he  excited  violent  debates,  and  were  not  carried. 

left  home  and  worked  in  the  Kanawha  salt  es-  In  March,  1837,  Mr.  Ewing's  term  expired,  and 

taUishments,  until  in  2  or  3  years  he  had  laid  up  he  resumed  the  practice  of  his  profession.    In 

money  enough  to  pay  for  his  father^s  farm  and  1840  he  advocated  the  election  of  Gen.  Harrison 

enable  himself  to  enter  the  Ohio  university  at  to  the  presidency,  and  when  that  gentleman  camo 

Adiens.    Having  exhausted  his  purse,  he  re-  into  office  he  became  secretary  of  the  treasury, 

tnmed  to  the  salt  works,  laid  by  his  earnings,  which  office  he  retained  under  President  Tyler. 

tiian  resumed  his  studies,  and  in  1815  received  His  first  official  report,  presented  at  the  extra 

the  first  degree  of  A.B.  ever  granted  by  the  Ohio  session  in  May,  1841 ,  proposed  the  imposition  of 

nnirersity.    He  studied  law  in  Lancaster,  Ohio,  20  per  cent,  ad  valorem  duties  on  certain  arti- 

was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1816,  and  practised  cles  for  the  relief  of  the  national  debt,  disap- 

with  great  success  in  the  state  courts  and  the  su-  proved  the  independent  treasury  act  passed  the 

preme  court  of  the  United  States.    In  March,  preceding  year,  and  urged  the  establishment  of 

18S1,  be  took  his  seat  in  the  U.  S.  senate  as  a  a  national  bank.    lie  was  requested  to  prepare 

memberof  the  whig  party,  and  became  associat-  a  bill  for*  the  last  purpose,  which  was  passed 

edwith  Clay  and  Webster  in  resisting  what  wero  with  some  alteration,  but  vetoed  by  the  presi- 

desmed  the  encroachments  of  the  executive.  He  dent.     Mr.  Tyler  thereupon  indicated  to  his 

jpoke  against  confirming  the  nomination  of  Mr.  friends  a  plan  for  a  bank  of  moderate  capital 

Tan  Bnren  as  minister  to  the  court  of  St.  Jameses,  for  the  regulation  of  exchanges,  and  at  his  re- 

■ippcffted  the  protective  tariff  system  of  Mr.  quest  Mr.  Ewing  helped  to  frame  a  charter, 

Cmfj  and  during  the  same  session  advocated  a  which  was  immediately  passed  and  in  turn 

rmetion  of  the  rates  of  postage,  a  recharter  of  vetoed.    Mr.  Ewing,  with  all  tlie  other  mem- 

tbe  n.  8.  bank,  and  the  revenue  collection  bill  bers  of  the  cabinet  except  Mr.  Webster,  there- 

kaownas  the  *^  force  bill.''    On  Jan.  9, 1834,  as  upon  resigned  (Sept.  1841),  and  published  his 

a  member  of  the  committee  on  post  offices  and  letter  of  resignation  explaining  his  course.    On 

post  roads,  he  presented  a  majority  report  on  the  accession  of  Gren.  Taylor  to  the  presidency  in 

abases  in  the  post  office  department,  accom-  1849,  he  took  office  as  secretary  of  the  recently 

paakiil  by  14  resolutions  of  censure.  These  were  created  department  of  the  interior,  which  was 

afterward  reduced  to  4,  and  were  passed  by  a  still  unorganized.  Among  the  measures  recom- 

■naU  majority.    The  committee  were  directed  mended  in  his  first  report,  Dec.  3,  1849,  were 

to  eoQtinne  their  investigations,  and  at  the  next  the  extension  of  the  public  land  laws  to  Califor- 


ai%  KewlCexJco^  MidOiigoiiytliawUMItlimwit  tilioilaintboritf.    Thaj  ■inirrfiMrf  ilrtwiTfai 

ofamintiieartheCaliforni«goldniiiMi,MidtlM  gOTeraon  for  MTeral  ptfttoC  hdf.    Tkta- 

eomtniction  of  a  road  to  Um  Paclfia    On  tha  arahatowatdcatn^ed  ^srtbaLoBMidiL  VWi 

daveiyoiMwtioiiliaaeparatadfhNnhboldaMO-  P^pia  of  Frtmca  oogqawrad  BatawMi  H  wm 

aiat«%  Mr.  Clajr  aod  othara,  who  arged  tha  ne-  oadad  to  tlia  popa.    TSatldaof  amdiiwrM^ 

aewityi^eomprahaDaivalttsiilatioii  totaltlatha  oivil  and  militarj  oOoaia  lanaiMd  la  tha  Waal 

whola  matter  at  onca  ana  for  aver,  while  Mr.  till  the  ISth  century. 

Ewing  agreed  withthapresideotin  thinking  the  EXCELLENCY,  a  tHla  hana  cd^jiatBj  If 

action  ofoongreM  oncaUed  for.  On  the  death  of  the  Itombard  kingkaod  tfaao  bj  ^ 


Qeo.  Taylor  and  the  aoceeiion  of  Mr.  Fillmore,  of  the  West  iiroia  ChariamagiM  to  UmtjTtL 

July  9, 1850,  thiadiTiflon  in  the  whiff  party  was  It  waa  adopted  in  tba  ISlh  aantny  tf  tha  M- 

made  the  hasb  of  a  change  of  the  cabinet    Mr.  ian  princee,  who  eichaiyd  it  fcr  that  af  h^h" 

Oorwin  became  secretary  oftbetreaanry,  and  Mr.  neta  (aUnm)  after  the  Fkaneli  and  atfcir  m^ 

Swing  was  appointed  by  the  goremor  of  Ohio  to  banadora  had  bean  panaittsd  to  a— oa  it,   la 

aenre  daring  Corwin*a  anezpired  term  in  the  IVance  H  became  aboot  tba  aikidla  of  tka  tHk 

aanate.    Intbiabodr  be  was  an  aetiTe  defender  eentniy  aooounoDtiUaibrthakiglhHicMaal 

of  Gen.  Taylor*a  administration.    He  did  not  militaiy  officers;  and  in  flsnaaay  h  wia^Na 

▼Ota  for  the  ftig^Te  slave  law,  helped  to  defeat  also  f n  ilnntnrs  and  pr nfrasnn  In  aniiafrfllia  m 


Mr.  Clay's  compromise  bill,  reported  firom  the  ia  the  titlaof  cTaiy  nobiamaii  in  Italy; 

aommittee  on  finance  a  bill  for  the  establishment  a  dulM  la  addrsssed  aa  swsWsaoi^  and  a 

af  a  branch  mint  in  California,  adTocated  a  re-  Qltmti,    It  is  the  aanal  addrssi  aC  ' 

daction  of  postage,  rirer  and  harbor  appropria-  isters  ( ind  of  the  goTamofa  of  BiitiA 

tions,  and  the  aMition  of  slavery  in  the  dirtrict  New    apaw  aomatimas  ^aak  af  tfca 

of  Oolnmbia,  and  paid  great  attention  to  the  of  tu«  United  Btatea  aa  Us 

bosiness  detaib  of  the  senate,  particnlariy  as  wasidaoti  but  tliara  is  no  lagal 
affecting  the  new  territories.  In  1851  lie  retired         k  tlie  foondars  of  tba  fovam 

Ihmi  public  life,  and  baa  since  resided  in  Lan-  %       ed  after  discossioa  to  DSitow  ao  lida 

caster,  Ohio,  engaged  in  the  practice  ci  law.  i     urssldent    A  committaa  of  tba 

Among  the  most  elaborate  of  uis  written  pro-  u      d  in  iliTor  of  tba  style  **Vk' 
fessioiud  argnroenta  are  those  in  the  cases  d  nonsa  oppoaed  any  other  titia 

OliTer  cf.  PiaU  et  mi^  involving  the  title  to  a  azpressed  in  the  oonstitalioB. 

lar^partof  Toledo,  Ohio;  theMethodistchnrch  ■  the  only  state  wbieb  by  a 

division ;  the  Mclntire  poor  school  as.  Zanea-  pro     loa  grants  the  title  of  aaoaDaa^  ta  ti 

▼ille;  and  the  McMicken  will,  involving  large  govamor. 

bequests  for  education.    His  celebrity  as  a  law-       EXCHANGE,  a  nthering  plaaa  lor  tba  _ 

yer  and  public  speaker  equals  his  reputation  as  action  of  business.  Themerehaatsof  AtlMM 

a  stateAinan.  at  the  Pira>ns,  where  commercial  opacal 

EX AKCII  (Gr.  t fdpxof*  prince),  in  the  eastern  rived  a  picturesque  character  from  tba 

Roman  empire,  uo  ecclesiastical  or  civil  dignitary  ed  scene  presented  by  the  shipping  in  tlie  Iftrbsi; 

invested  with  eztraordioary  authority.    At  first  The  first  regular  commeroiai  meetlnf  in  Rsmt 

ezarchs  were  officers  delegated  bv  the  patriarch  was  held  403  B.  C,  and  was  called  tlia  marebaalf 

or  synod  to  visit  a  dioc«we  for  the  purpose  of  coUmc.  In  Venice,  Genoa,  and  otliarlti&aaail* 

restoring  discipline.    The  exarch  was  also  the  ies,  ttmilar  gathering  places  ezlsled  at  M  aH^ 

snperior  of  several  monasteries,  in  distinction  day.  Thf)  mndrm  Jntrfrnfinn  of  sirhai^as  htm 

from  the  archimandrite,  who  was  the  superior  more  particularly  from  the  16th  aaotofy.  laas^ 

of  one,  and  was  of  a  rank  inferior  to  that  of  tinental  Eurofie  the  name  BkasiaGarwMtl'iVi' 

Ktriarch  and  superior  to  tliat  of  metropolitan,  in  French,  and  biraa  in  i^w«s*»»^  origiMtail  fraa 

Uie  iiHNlem  Greek  church  the  exarch  is  a  the  belief  that  the  first  gatherinf  af  tha  kiii 

legate  a  UUm  of  the  patriarch.    lie  visits  tlie  took  pLaoe  in  the  eariy  part  of  tha  Iflka 

pnivince*  to  inve^igate  ecclesiasticd  casea,  the  at  Umgea,  in  Flanders,  in  tba  booaa  af  a 

differences  between  nrelates  and  people,  the  of  the  name  of  Van  der  Banna, 

monastio  discipline,  tiie  administration  of  the  another  tradition  the  first  offibanga  wm 

aacraiiieutA,  and  the  obtiervAnce  of  the  canons ;  Amsterdam  in  a  boose  which  liad  9  pHaa 

and  UAually  succeeds  to  the  patriarchate. — As  in  stone  over  tlie  gatea,  thna  •^^'^"■^'i^  ftw  iba 

a  civil  offirer,  the  exarch  was  a  viceroy  intrusted  use  of  the  wonl  honrm.    IVeviona  Iq 

with  the  ad  winiittration  of  one  or  more  provinces,  part  of  the  1 6th  century  the  Lffiilon  i 

This  title  was  given  to  the  prefects  who  during  used  to  meet  without  shelter  In  Lotbawl 

the  6th,  7th,  and  8th  centuries  governed  that  Sir  Richard  Greiiiam,  having  h«o  tha 

|>art  of  Italy  which  was  sul^ect  to  the  Brzan-  walks  used  for  axchantes  abroad,  aoataai 

tine  euipire.    They  were  instituted  after  the  re-  erecting  a  similar  bnUdlng  iaLoodoo. '  Tba 

eonquest  uf  Italy  from  the  Ostroeikths  by  Narses  scheme  was  carried  into  met  by  bia  aaa  9g 

to  oppiMO  the  prugresa  of  tlie  Lombards  then  Thomas  Gresham,  who  offered  to  arset  a  b«ifr 

threatening   to   occunv  that   countrv.    They  ing  if  the  dtinoa  woold  nrovida  a  plat  af 

were  17  in  number,  held  their  court  at  Kaveima,  ground.    The  site  north  of  C^sratbiU,  la  tba  eto 

aontinoed  their  government  till  753,  and  com-  of  London,  was  aooofdingly  ponelMHad  in  1 W 

bioad  dvil,  military,  Jadidal,  and  often  aoclesi-  for  aboot  %l^Wk    0&  Jan.  St^  \St%  ' 


IZ0HAK6S  BILL  OF  EXOHAKQE 

idiMiiaedit  to  be  proclaimed  the  "  Royal  log  been  lued  in  its  oonstrootion  except  fx  the 

ige.''  Tills  fltraotore  was  destroyed  in  the  doors  and  window  fiames.    Hie  fh>nt  has  a 

ra  of  1666.    The  new  exchange  was  com*  massiye  jportioo  with  18  colamns,  each  of  which 

I  at  the  end  of  1667,  and  pablidy  opened  is  a  sdid  Uodk  of  granite,  88  feet  high,  4ifeet  in 

taaii8ept.28,1669.  This  boilding,  which  diameter,  and  weighing  abont  40  tons.    The 

0  ftei  by  176.  cost  nearly  $800,000,  bat  entire  boilding  is  SOO  &et  long  by  171  to  144 
lindettroyedby  fire,  Jan.  10, 1888.  The  wide,  and  124  to  the  tqp  of  the  dome.  Its 
stone  <^  Uko  present  royal  exchange  was  central  rotunda  is  oonstracted  of  white  marble, 
184a,  and  tbo  boilding  was  opened  Oct.  and  lighted  by  a  lofty  dome,  which  is  in  part 
4^  \^  Qoeen  Victoria.  It  is  an  imposing  supported  by  8  Onrinthian  columns  of  Itaiiaa 
— iMlished  with  many  statues.  The  marble,  41  feet  high.  Its  oost,  ground  induded, 
ipnipriated  to  the  meetings  of  the  mer-  was  over  $1.800,(K)0. 

is  170  feet  1^112,  of  which  1 11  feet  by       EXCHANGE,  Bill  of,  hi  commerdal  trans* 

iiMOwed*    Here  the  English,  German,  actional  a  written  instrument  designed  to  secure 

JCediterranean,  and  other  foreign  mer-  the  parent  of  a  distant  debt  witiiout  the  trans* 

all  have  their  approoriate  places  and  missionof  money,  being  in  efibct  a  setting  off  or 

^  and  meet  daily  for  the  transaction  of  exchange  of  one  debt  against  another.    ^Hiis  im- 

a.    On  Thnrsday  and  Friday  an  extra  portent  instrument  is  of  modem  origin.     It 

1  Ibr  transactions  in  foreign  biHs  of  ex*  was  not  because  its  use  was  not  perceived  that 
triceaplaoe  previous  to  the  regular  meet-  it  was  unemployed  in  ancient  commerce,  bnt 
ileh  la  attended  by  the  principal  bankers  because  its  bans  is  mercantile  integrity,  which 
■ebants  of  London,  and  which  derives  never  existed  till  a  recent  period  in  trading 
iBDortance  fh>m  the  immense  buaness  communities  to  a  sufficient  extent  to  warrant 
lea  within  about  half  an  hour.  The  whole  putting  money  or  other  valuable  oommoditiea 

eommeroe  which  centres  in  London  is  at  risk  upon  so  frail  a  security.     Thus  we 

neeotrated  in  a  handful  of  bilb  of  ex-  have  evidence  in  the  case  of  the  Athenian 

.    There  is  much  less  excitement  than  at  banker,  which  is  the  suUect  of  one  of  the  di^ 

Mfal  exchange.    A  few  brokers  pass  be-  courses  of  Isoorates,  that  the  e<nivenience  of  such 

the  bankers  and  merchants,  and  the  bills  an  exchange  as  is  now  usual  among  meichanta 

^^it  and  sold  almost  in  a  whisper. — ^The  was  well  enough  understood  then,  bnt  it  was 

Mebrated  continental  exchange  is  the  deemed  necessaiy  to  take  security  for  the  pay- 

ofFaris,  which  was  inaugurated  in  1824.  ment  of  the  bill.     Transactions  of  the  same 

Elding  has  the  shape  of  an  aucient  perip-  kind  have  doubtless  occurred  at  all  periods 

nmle ;  the  exterior  measures  284  feet  bv  where  parties  have  had  sufficient  confidence  in 

emterior  108  feet  by  59,  exclusive  of  gal-  each  otner ;  but  that  they  were  unfrequent  is 

IT  6,872  square  feet,  and  is  calculated  to  manifest  from  the  silence  of  the  Boman  law  in 

lote  than  2,000  persons.    The  Paris  ex-  respect  thereto.    It  is  said  that  the  Jews  of  the 

ia  a  combination  of  a  stock  and  bill  ex-  middle  ages  first  introduced  bills  of  exchan^ 

,  and  eoofinesitselfchiefly  to  these  branch-  into  ordinary  use,  and  this  is  entitled  to  credit^ 

■liiesB.  The  St  Petersburg  exchange  ap-  inasmuch  as  the  frequent  migrations  and  spolia- 

m  the  Paris  bourse  in  splendor.    It  was  tions  to  which  they  were  subjected  in  those 

ilveea  1804  and  1810 ;  Its  exterior  is  880  times  of  persecutiou,  made  an  easy  transmission 

t46,  its  interior  IdO  feet  by  90,  or  1 7,100  of  wealUi  and  its  safe-keeping  in  foreign  countries 

ht^    The  Hambni^  exchange  resembles  almost  a  necessity.   Of  course  the  biliB  drawn  by 

it  eCParis  in  the  shape  and  uie  grandeur  them  were  upon  persons  of  their  own  race, 

brfiding.    The  exchange  of  Amsterdam  The  negotiation  of  bills  of  exchange  by  law 

kjbmi  in  1618,  and  is  an  edifice  of  great  can  be  traced  back  about  4^  centuries,  the 

The  A^ufM  of  Antwerp,  one  of  Uie  earliest  being  an  ordinance  of  the  city  of  Barce- 

most  remarkable  of  Europe,  which  lona  in  1894  respecting  the  acceptance  of  biUa 

by  Sir  Thomas  Gresham  as  a  model  of  exchange.    An  edict  of  Louis  XI.  in  1462  is 

Wftl  exchange  in  London,  was  totaUy  the  first  notice  of  the  subject  in  the  laws  of 

M  by  fire^  Aug.  2, 1858.    A  large  por-  Prance.    (See  Kent's  '*  CkNoamentaries,''  vol.  iii. 

dbe  eommeroe  of  the  world  was  trans-  p.  72,  note.)— In  form,  a  bill  of  exchange  is  an 

a  H^  fur  a  oonsiderable  time.    At  Madrid,  order  or  request  addresised  by  one  person  to  an- 

^  LvdbonL  Marseilles,  Trieste,  Vienna,  other  directing  the  payment  of  money  to  a 

l^OifaBSS,  Berlin,  Prankfort,  &c.,  the  ex-  third  person.    The  first  is  called  the  drawer; 

a  en  nnmeroudy  attended,  bnt  the  ex-  the  second  is  the  drawee  until  the  bill  hss  been 

ef  I^ottdop  stands  unrivalled  in  Europe  presented  and  accepted,  and  then  he  is  called 

^•SHSBitQde  of  its  transactions.     Next  the  acceptor;  the  third  \b  the  payee.     But 

^■mmmatfdal  importance  rank  the  ex-  sometimes  the  bill  passes  through  several  hand% 

l^eC  Amrterdam  and  Hamburg.— The  which  may  be  either  by  successive  endorse- 

jplif  ead^uge  in  Wall  street^  New  York,  ments  specifying  to  whom  payment  is  to  be 

IIJleB  the  site  occupied  by  the  exclumge  made,  or  by  what  is  called  an  endorsement  in 

Si^rtvc^jed  by  the  great  fire  of  Dec  16,  blank^  by  which  is  meant  that  the  payee,  or  the 

i  pesi^les  an  entire  block,  is  built  of  subsequent  holder  to  whom  the  bill  has  been 

*'    and  is  fire-proo^  no  wood  hav-  endorsed,  merely  writes  his  own  name  on  the 


IM  BILL  OF  XXOHAVCEB 

bOl,  wb&eli  k  eqidTaleDt  tomikiiiff  it  pijaUeto  eame  to  be  in  the  e 
beirer.  The  moet  imporunt  inodeat  of  e  bill  mality  of  ndiig  the 
of  erchtnge  it  ite  negotiftbility,  thtt  ie  to  mj^    enit  broo^t  upon  nefa 


flidlitj' of  tnntfv  fixm  one  pmon  to  toother,    all  that  ie  retained  of  the  old  ftrieCaML    btfcn 
For  this  imrpoee  it  ia  teeentiil  that  the 


engage-  atateof  NewTorkereothbhai 

ment  of  the  aeveralpartiea,  whether  drawer  ae-  ed,  and  by  the  eode  of  praeHee  thenal  pahf 

oeptor,  or  endorMr,  ahoold  be  diaentani^  nom  in  intereeti  b j  whidh  la  OMaat  ■butvei  h« 

all  mattert  not  appearing  npoQ  the  hcttit  the  the  actual  ownerddpyallbo^^  the  aii  of  aeoHl 

bOL    This,  therefore,  ia  the  general  role,  tab-  of  eqaitjmajforaecijhavebeaBneoaaHfyiv 

Jeot  to  aome  exceptions  which  will  be  presentlr  enfordngit,  most  be  the  futj  to  the  m  ' 

mentioned.    EqoaDy  necessary  is  it  that  the  bill  and  this  has  been  ibOowediaBa^folfaari 


itself  should  by' its  terms  inrolTo  no  nnoertain  Again,  soeh  tranafer  ooofen  no  'graaftar  lUi 

contingency,  aa  to  depend  npon  an  erent  that  than  the  original  payee  or  ohOfae  had,  anl  k 

may  not  happeiL  or  npon  some  condition  which  snl^Ject  to  any  defenccL  legal  or  eqiritaM%  wUA 

may  be  the  sotgect  of  oontrorersy.     Hence  it  the  other  purtiea  had  agalnsi  ane' 

has  been  nnifbrmly  held  that  it  most  be  pi^able  obligee  prior  to  actual  nottoe  of  the 

aft  a  fixed  time,  that  is  to  say.  at  some  period  or  what  in  law  would  be  tanfamna  „.  ■ 

which  ia  certain;  bnt  it  may  be  ao  fu*  contin*  The  biO,  or  rather  cootnct,  aa  k  abodji  It 

gent  as  to  depend  upon  an  event  which  most  in-  termed  in  the  caae  supposed, ' 

evitably  happen,  thou^  the  precise  time  can-  to  one  important  rule  ^stingoom 

not  l>e  specified.    Thus  a  bill  may  be  payable  a  proper  bill  of  exchange^  tIx^  that 


certain  time  after  the  death  of  a  ptfUcuIirpav    Import  a  conrideratioa  nnlsas  lywanad.    H 


eon ;  but  it  would  not  be  a  good  biU  if  made  therefore,  no  coosideratloii  k    , 

payable  after  the  arriyal  of  a  certain  TcsseL  oTideoce  thereof  will  be  mjoussarfi  aa  the  iril 

The  one  event  is  certain  to  happen  at  some  pe-  of  the  common  law  k  that  n  uuuiiilaiBrtni  hm 

riod,  though  it  may  be  remote :  the  other  may  essential  requisite  of  n  contract :  bvlpanitit 

not  happen  at  all.    Aoain,  a  bill  <tf  exchange  dence  will  be  inadmiariMe  in  all  ttoaa  eaasall 

must  be  expressed  to  be  for  the  pmnent  of  which  by  statute  it  kreqidred  thai  theoaaimM 

money  only,  and  would  not  be  gooa  if  payable  should  m  in  writing;  aa  when  theeonftfietkMi 

in  cattle  or  other  species  of  nropertr,  nor  even  to  be  performed  within  one  year,  or  whan  kk|i 

If  it  is  made  payable  in  banlc  bills.    In  the  state  answer  for  the  debt  of  another  pan  ^ 

of  Kew  York  it  has  indeed  been  held  that  a  bin  will  now  be  understood  what  k  the 

k  good  which  caUs  for  payment  in  bank  bilk  tj  above  referred  toaa  being  the  , 

current  within  tliat  state,  though  it  would  not  be  dent  of  a  bill  of  exchange.    The  biB,  in 

so  if  specified  that  it  k  to  be  paid  in  bank  biUa  first  place,  importa  jper  m  to  have  beengiwi 

of  another  state  or  country.   But  in  England  the  value  even  if  it  does  not  contain  the  wm 

rule  is  strictly  adhered  to  that  there  must  be  no  clause  *'for  value  received,*^  whkh,  thoegl 

restriction  in  the  bill  predoding  the  right  of  the  generally  inserted,  k  meresnrplnsafB:  andcfiV 

payee  to  be  paid  in  speicie  if  hecboosea  to  demand  successive  holder  who  has  received  it  beiare  I 

It,  and  thk  is  the  generally  received  doctrine  in  was  due,  in  the  regular  course  of  borines^  iv  a  ' 

the  United  Sutes.    When  it  U  said  that  a  biU  k  valuable  consideration,  k  entitled  to  cnforoa  1 

not  good  if  subject  to  any  contingency  or  pay-  according  to  the  terms  of  the  oMigarton  s» 

able  otherwise  than  in  monev,  it  k  intended  pressed  uerein.  without  regard  to  any  transs** 

merely  that  it  k  not  negotiable  with  the  legal  tions  between  tne  original  partiea.    To  thk  rrii 

effect  which  appertains  to  a  bill  drawn  in  the  there  are  some  exceptions,  as  when  the  bO  «0 

prescribed  fonn.    It  may  nevertheless  consti-  given  for  a  gaming  debt  or  wlien  osny  k  l» 

tute  a  valid  contract  between  the  original  par-  volved,  in  which  cases  the  Un  k  dedaiedieli 

ties,  and  may  even  be  transferred  so  as  to  vest  absolutely  void  by  statutea  in  Kngland,  whiA 

in  the  assignee  the  same  right  which  the  payee  have  been  generally  re«nacted  in  the  CailBi 

would  liave  bad  against  the  drawer  or  acceptor.  States.     When  Uiere  has  been  fraod  in  the 

The  transfer  in  such  case  will,  however,  be  sub-  transaction  to  which  the  bill  reialcsc  wUA 

Ject  to  the  same  rules  that  apply  to  other  per-  would  have  been  a  defence  aa  betwecs  the  eiW 

aoual  contracts  usually  denominated  cKc$e$  in  cinal  parties,  the  rule  k  that  a  h^mmJUf  ^-^^^ 

action.    In  other  woHa,  the  transfer  k  itself  a  for  vsluo  is  not  affected  thereby ;  with  ~ 

contract:  and  although  it  k  not  necessary  that  thk  limitation,  that  the  bill  hsa  been 

it  abould  bo  in  writing,  yet  it  derives  no  aid  not  only  without  knowledge  of  the 

fWwi  mercantile  usage  respecting  the  endorse-  without  such  notice  of  the  circnm 

ment  of  bilk.    Thedeliverv  of  a  note  not  nego-  should  have  induced  sna|Mon  and  iM|«iry.    V 

tiabk  may  give  an  ownership  if  so  designed,  and  the  bill  at  the  time  of  transfer  haa  beMnt  di^ 

thk  k  BO  in  respect  to  a  bond  or  other  contract  this  k  in  kw  deemed  sufllcient  to  call  for  i»» 

But  by  the  common  kw  there  was  thk  limitation,  quiry,  and  the  endorser  in  such  caae  takes  the 


In  equity,  however,  the  right  of  the  assignee    a  bill  is  void  for  fhmd  even  in  the  haftds  of  a 
was  recogniaed,  and  ao  to  n  certain  extent  it    b^naJUU  holder,  via.,  when  It  wm  drawn  for  a 


EXCISE  SXEOUnON 

pvnposei  and  has  been  fraadulenUy  ap-  charge,  the  number  of  commodities  havinff  been 
ted  Dj  the  person  intrnsted  with  it  to  however  Lurgely  increased.  The  artides  of 
pvirpoee ;  as  if  tlie  bill  was  made  for  foreign  growth  or  mannfactore  are  now  trans- 
pose of  being  discounted,  and  should  be  ferred  to  the  department  of  customs.  Some  of 
bj  the  agent  in  payment  of  a  debt  due  the  domestic  manufieustures  formerly  subject  to 
teoL  W&n  a  bill  has  been  stolen  or  excise  have  by  various  statutes  been  exempted, 
1  baa  been  put  into  circulation  again,  a  as  salt,  wire,  beer,  cider  and  perry,  hides,  pnnted 
de  purchaser  is  entitled  to  enforce  it  goods,  cancUee,  tiles, starch,  glass,  stone  bottles; 
■n  previous  parties,  provided  there  were  and  the  articles  remaining  subject  to  excise  duty 
imatanoes  that  should  have  led  him  in  are  hops,  malt,  ]paper,  ^ints,  and  stage  and  hack* 
iidse  of  ordinary  prudence  to  inquire  neycoacmes.  Among  the  sulgects  of  excise  duty 
I  title  of  the  party  from  whom  he  re-  have  been  classed  with  some  incongruity  licenses 
t.  It  win  in  such  a  case  be  a  question  and  auctions.  The  duty  on  the  former  still  con- 
whether  due  diligence  has  been  used  by  tinues ;  the  latter  has  been  repealed.  The  rev- 
kr,  and  the  burden  of  proof  is  imposed  enue  derived  from  the  exdse  m  1857  was  £17,- 
im,  imon  its  being  shown  that  the  bill  472,000,  of  which  the  proportion  derived  from 
n  stolen  or  lost  The  question  in  such  malt  and  ^irits  was  £16,842,887. — It  has  been 
mid  be  between  the  person  who  had  lost  mudi  debated  what  is  the  relative  advantage  of 
or  from  whom  it  had  been  stolen,  and  excise  duties  as  compared  with  customs.  The 
nil  who  had  received  it  after  the  tiieft  latter  mode  of  collecting  duties  is  evaded  to  a 
The  liability  of  the  original  parties  is  large  extent  by  smuggling;  but  so  likewise,  it 
wted. — ^BiDs  of  exchange  are  of  two  appears,  is  the  excise  duty  evaded,  particularly 
bieign  and  inland ;  the  former  being  in  respect  to  malt  and  spirits.  It  la  objected  to 
bj  a  merchant  in  this  country  upon  an-  the  mode  of  collecting  tne  exdse,  that  it  exposes 
iridlnj^  abroad,  or  by  a  foreign  merchant  a  manu&cturer's  private  operations,  and  thus  de- 
10  residing  here ;  the  latter  when  both  ters  him  from  making  improvements.  It  was 
and  drawee  reside  in  the  same  country,  upon  this  ground  that  the  duties  upon  glass  were 
iidpal  rules  relating  to  bills  of  exchange  removed.  The  soap  manu&cturer  was  sutjeoted 
at  en  mercantile  usage  respecting  foreign  to  the  same  disadvantage  that  was  complained 
at  bj  statute  in  England  and  the  United  of  by  the  glass  manufacturers,  and  the  duty  has 
loth  are  now  put  upon  the  same  footing,  since  been  repealed.  Anotiier  objection  has 
a  exception  only  that  damages  are  allow-  tended  to  make  the  excise  duty  more  obnoxious 
I  fiNwign  bills  which  come  back  protest-  than  any  other,  viz.,  the  arbitrary  manner  of 
Mm-aooeptance  or  non-payment.  In  the  enforcing  it,  which  is  felt  to  be  an  interference 
^  Hew  York  these  damages  are  fixed  by  with  private  liberty  and  independence,  which 
at  10  per  cent,  upon  the  principal  of  the  conmion  law  has  sedulously  protected. — In 
, payable  in  Europe  or  in  the  West  Indies,  tiie  United  States  there  is  properly  no  excise 
lua  continent  north  of  the  equator.  The  duty.  The  revenue  of  the  federal  government  is 
lies  upon  bins  drawn  in  the  state  of  New  derived  fit>m  customs  or  duties  upon  imported 
iyaUe  in  another  state,  being  in  some  goods^  tonnage  duties  on  shipping,  and  land  sales. 

iia  others  8  per  cent.  .  By  statute  in  Li  the  severe  states  there  is  a  property  tax,  but 

and  the  United   States,  promissory  differing  in  most  of  tiiem  from  the  similar  tax 

ra  nude  negotiable  in  like  manner  as  in-  in  England  in  one  important  particular,  viz., 

IDt  of  exchange.    The  same  principles  that  the  valuation  of  property  is  made  annually. 

ra,  in  respect  to  negotiability  and  the  EXCOMMUNIOATION  (eccl.  Lat  excam^ 

laidcnta  thereof^  Bpply  to  both.  fnunieatioy  from  ex,  out  o^  and  cammunio^  com- 

IBQR^  a  term  ori^nally  used  in  Eneland  munion),  the  highest  ecdeuastical  punishment, 

a  from  customs,  which  were  duties  conusting  of  exclusion  from  fellowship  with 

merchandise  imported  or  exported ;  the  churdi.    It  is  distinguished  by  the  Boman 

I  being  such  as  were  imposed  upon  Catholic  writers  as  greater  (anatJiemd)  or  lesser 

la  ooBunodities,  chiefly  those  which  were  (exeommunieatio) ;  the  former  entirely  cutting 

flfeored.  as  glass,  soap,  distilled  spirits,  dec.  oS  the  offender  horn  the  body  of  the  church 

Ui  or  duties  are  designated  by  the  term  and  the  society  of  the  fiedthfnl,  and  being  prcH 

,    A  tax  upon  land  or  personal  property  claimed  only  when  a  sin  has  been  mortal,  mani- 

Mnentage  of  tiie  value,  as  is  now  the  fest,  and  scandalous ;   the  latter  prohibiting 

loda^  la  not  classed  with  excise  duties,  from  participation  in  the  sacraments  and  in  pub- 

aMoiftr  i^ly  only  to  what  is  annually  lie  worship,  and,  according  to  the  Fantifieald 

Hd.   Tb^  were  first  imposed  by  the  long  Bamanum^  being  imposed  especially  upon  those 

■■t  in  1M8,  but  a  number  of  articles  of  who  cherish  intercourse  with  anathematized 

fvodnetion  were  included  in  the  act,  as  persons.    Only  the  lesser  excommunication  la 

I  wiML  aogar.  ^bc.,  which  were  charged  in  practice  among  most  Protestants,  though  the 

i  Jiijni  the  nands  of  the  retailer  in  ad-  Anglican  church  recognizes  them  both. 

la  i&it  bad  been  paid  upon  importa-  EXECUTION,  in  law,  the  final  process  to  en- 

Ihat  time  they  have  been  regu-  force  the  judgment  of  a  court,  according  to  the 

witb,  only  some  modifications  old  maxim,  executio  utfruciAu  etfinu  Ugu,  In 

suttject  to  duty  and  the  rate  of  this  larger  application  it  includes  the  process  of 


BOOl 

i^itf  I,  I  ■ 


866  EXECUTION 

twiaestrttioii,  formerly  used  hy  the  oonrt  of  as  in  detinnc,  which  wai  Vroofflit  to  r 

ebancery  to  currv  into  efTtfCt  its  decrees,  attach*  possession  of  chattels,  and  the  Judgement « 

ments  for  contempt  of  court,  and  process  in  forced  by  an  execntion  called  a  dUtrinyiu^ 

•nmmary  proceedings,  a^  npon  manaamns  and  commanded  the  sheriff  to  make  dt^trcM  < 

the  like ;  bat  in  its  ordinary  acceptation  it  is  a  pood^  of  the  defendant  until  he  comp1ic« 

writ  issued  to  enforce  a  Judgement  in  a  suit  or  the  Judgment;  but  if  he  still  refbsed,  then 

action  in  a  court  of  common  law.    It  is  nnneces-  only  be  an  assessment  of  the  ralne  of  the 

aary  to  speak  of  the  execntion  in  the  varions  recovered,  and  a  sale  of  defendant's  prop< 

real  actions  which  have  become  obaolete.     In  pay  the  same.    In  the  action  of  replevin, 

England  the  actions  for  recoverr  of  real  estate,  was  originally  limited  to  the  recovery  of 

whether  cori)oreal  or  incorporeal  are,  by  statute  erty  which  had  been  wrongftilly  distra«i! 

8  and  4  William  IV.,  c  27,  now  limited  to  ^ect-  rent,  the  writ  by  which  tiM  action  wm 

raent.  quar^  impedit^  and  actions  for  dower,  menced  directed  the  sheriff  to  replew.  t 

The  nrst  is  the  ordinary  mode  of  trying  a  title  take  Uie  property  in  anestion,  ana  di-Iiv< 

to  lands,  and  the  execntion  upon  a  Judgment  of  the  plaintitT  nptm  pleoges  to  prosecute, 

recovery  is  a  writ  of  possession,  which  in  form  defendant  succeed  in  the  action,  the  Jnd 

ia  directed  to  the  sheritf,  commanding  him  to  is  that  he  have  return  of  the  property,  oi 

deliver  to  the  plaintiff  the  poftsearion  of  Uie  lands  elects,  he  may  have  an  assessment  of  the 

so  recovered.     Quare  impedit  is  an  action  by  and  recover  that  amount  as  damages 

which  the  right  to  a  benefice  is  determined,  and  former  case  the  execution  is  for  redeliv 

takes  its  name  from  a  clause  in  tlie  old  Latin  the  property,  in  the  latter  merely  for  the 

form  of  the  writ  by  which  the  defendant  was  ages. — Before  proceeding  to  the  consklera: 

commanded  to  appear  in  court  and  show  the  otheractions,it  will  be  proper  to  state  tlie 

reason  why  he  hindered  the  pliuntiff  from  pre-  fications  which  have  been  made  in  the  1 

senting  a  proper  person  to  a  vacant  office  m  a  States  in  respect  to  those  already  mif  iced, 

church,    t'ljon  Judgment  in  favor  of  the  claim,  ing  ourselves,  however,  to  the  state  <A 

the  execution  is  a  writ  directed  to  the  bishop  York.    All  the  common  law  real  actio 

commanding  him  to  admit  the  person  nominated  abolished  except  ejectment,  which.  In  a  i 

by  the  prevailing  party.    The  action  also  lies  for  fied  form,  is  used  for  the  trial  of  title  to  1 

an  office  in  eleemosynary  institutions,  as  hos-  all  cases.     Quart  impedit  Is  not  retained, 

pitals  and  colleges,  which  are  endowed  for  the  there  any  action  for  the  recovery  of  an 

support  of  their  inmates,  and  the  execntion  in  except  tlie  proceedings  by  fuo  ^itarranto  oi 

such  cases  is  the  same,  except  that  it  will  be  damui.    Tne  action  of  detmne  has  been  al 

directed  to  the  corporate  officers  or  persons  who  ed,  and  the  action  of  replevin  has  been  er 

have  the  control  of  the  institution.    In  respect  to  all  caAtos  of  the  wrongful  taking  or  «r 

to  lay  offices  as  they  are  called  in  distinction  detention  of  i»or«onal  pnyorty.     In  the 

from  cocleMaMtical  and  eleemosynary,  the  minlo  action  the  plamtitT,  instcid  of  an  art^M]  r 

of  proceeding  is  by  qn^  warrant^^  or  mandamus,  of  the  g«>o<K  in&y  arrest  the  defendant  an> 

Tlie  former  was  strictly  a  pri>coeding  in  behalf  pel  liiin  to  give  bail,  and  the  final  judrTr 

of  the  crown  against  any  one  who  had  intruded  such  case  will  Ik*  for  d.am.igo«;  and  •«*  t 

into  an  office,  but  is  now  allowed  by  statute  in  fondiint,  if  he  SNccced^  in  ac.a<e  where  t\np 

Englind  (9  Anne,  c.  20)  to  determine  dii^putos  have  been  replevied,  may  takoJn(i;n!?e:i!! 

between  private  parties  claiming  an  office  ad-  value,  the  eXi.TUtion  being  in  eltijor  of 

verscly  to  each  <»t!ior.    The  pn»ceeding  in  that  ca!»e«  merely  for  d.imago*. — We  now  nime 

case,  although  in  form  in  iMialf  of  the  cri)wn,  ordinary  action**  in  which  there  i«  judjm^ 

yet  is  stated  to  bo  on    the  relation  of  t!io  a  money  demand.     At  romruon  law  then 

person  pro!»ecutihg,  and  upon  judgment  in  his  forms  of  txeculi'm  npon  ^nrh  a  j-n'.prnen 
favor  execution  issues  to  rom«>ve  tJic  intruder.     fifrifana9,  w>  calliNl  from  the  tenii^i'f  tJ 

M'indam*iM  is  a  rome<ly  where  there  is  a  refusal  by  which  the  sheriff  is  commande«l  iVid, 

to  admit  the  claimant  to  an  office,  or  where  ho  gtxxls  and  chatteN  of  defendant  lie  ^vjm 

has  been  wrongfully  remove<l.     If  the  claim  l>e  ma<le  the  amount  of  the  debt  or  damapr*  re 

establinlied,  a  fH^remptory  mandamns  issues,  di-  ed;  2,  eU(;i(^  which  is  a  writ  given  by  ar.  a 

recte<l  to  iho  defentlant^  commanding  him   to  statute  (13  Edwanl  I.,  c.  l**'i,  nJivroH. 

admit  or  re4t4ire  the  claimant,  who  is  in  this  plaintitTcIected,  {K^ssos^ionof  (heg'^*il*-k' < 

case,  an  well  as  the  iimciH-iiiiiir  by  quo  trarm/iM,  teN  of  defendant  wns  delivered  to  !>!:iiT!!tfl 

called  the  relator.  Thi<  1%  however,  not  Mriclly  an  appraiM-inent  of  t!ie  valne  tlurt*  C  wl 

an  eiecution,  as  if  not  ol»eycd   it  must  be  en-  that  cxt<  nt  was  to  l»e  a  sati<f»r!i«»n  of  th^ 

forct'il  by  another  proce^  calle<l  an  attachment,  nunt ;  but  if  not  Mifficit-nt,  tlien  ji**^^*-!*.* 

In  otlier  actions,  where  the  subje<*t  is  an  injury  h.ilf  of  the  frciliold  land^  of  defendvt  w 

to  red  estate,  nsuallv  the  remodv  is  a  rec<ivi-rr  to  be  deliverc<l  until  fri»m  the  n-nt*  ar>«! 

of  diuna;^'s;  but  in  M»me  inHtancesspecificrL-Iii  f  tht  roof  the  jid^nnent  ••ht^iild  l-e  paid ;  *<.  a 

Ls  given,  OS  in  an  a^'tion  for  a  nui-ance  there  niav  ad »>i*i*fii^u  nd*im^  wliirh  \^  a  wht  dirr^tr*: 

be  a  jiidirnient  that  it  W  ahate<l.  and  the  exer-i-  Fheriff  mmininiling  him  t.^  take  thr  \Ax 

tion  in  sui*!i  ca-se  follows  the  judirment.     Si  in  defendant,  a[id  kivp  the  *:inie  nnti!  «V:» 

wmo  |>er?Minal  oetions  f  inniTiy  there  miglit  Ikj  of  the  dei'l.     The  ci»t:r«e  of  pn-^xo !':-.»• 

Judgment  for  the  delivery  of  the  ^^ccific  thing,  thii  writ  was  to  imprlxm  the  defend: 


ZZBOUTIOK  XXEOUTOB                   MT 

■*  no],  of  wUoh  the  sheriff  had  in  law  the  EXEOUTOR,  the  person  appointed  to  cany 

I.    It  wfll  not  be  necessary  to  follow  the  into  effect  the  directions  contained  in  a  last 

m  wldoih  hftTo  been  made  bj  statute  in  will  and  testament.    Br  the  common  law  of 

kL    The  present  state  of  the  law  has  been  England,  or  rather  by  the  law  as  administered 

otlj  atated  in  the  article  Dkbtob  and  in  the  ecclesiastical  courts,  which  have  the  ez- 

NNL     Having  traced  the  origin  of  the  dosiTe  jurisdiction  of  the  probate  of  wills  and 

ipplied  to  execmtions^  we  shall  limit  our-  the  granting  of  letters  testamentary,  an  in£uit 

to  *  Mef  explanation  of  the  legal  inoi-  of  the  age  of  17  was  qualified  to  act  as  ezeoii* 

M  now  preaoribed  by  statute  in  the  state  tor.   Prior  to  that  age,  letters  of  administradon 

r  Toric,  to  whicJi  there  is  a  general  con-  were  granted  to  some  other  person  durante 

f  in  the  laws  of  most  of  the  other  states,  minore  atate  ;  but  by  statute  88  George  III.,  o. 

are  but  two  forms  of  execution,  viz.,  the  87,  such  administration  must  now  continue  nntil 

bcisf  and  the  eamM  ad  9(Uirfaci0ndum^  the  person  named  as  executor  has  reached  the 

liare  been  already  explained,  and  which  age  of  21.    A  married  woman  cannot  act  as  an 

%Mt4Hl  by  the  i^breviated  t»TmAjLfa,  executrix  without  the  assent  of  her  husband, 

•  Mi.    The  JLfa.  is  a  writ  directed  to  the  inasmuch  as  he  Is  responmble  for  her  acta.   Let* 

'  bj  which  he  is  commanded  to  make  the  ters  of  administration  may  issue  to  the  wife  in 

iftaf the  judgment  by  sale  of  the  defend-  case  of  the  absence  of  the  husband  from  the 

Boda  and  duittela^  or  if  these  should  not  country,  or  of  his  legal  incompetency,  upon  her 

Mait|  then  of  tiie  lands  of  which  he  was  procunnff  some  one  to  execute  an  administra- 

OB  the  day  when  the  judgment  was  tion  bond  in  place  of  the  husband.    As  no  bond 

:ad»    An  exemption  is  made  of  certain  is  required  upon  issuing  letters  testamentary,  it 

"Qr from kyyuimer execution,  viz.:  kitch-  would  seem  tiiat  the  wife  should  be  entitled 

BaBsi  Deoeasary  provisions  for  family  use,  without  ^ving  security  when  the  husband  is 

iij  fridl  lor  tne  use  of  the  family  for  60  absent  or  incompetent;  yet  if  he  is  to  be  held 

■aeenaiy  wearing  apparel,  bedding,  &c^  liable  for  her  acta,  his  consent  must  be  neoea* 

rto^a  tools  and  implements  to  an  amount  sary,  or  security  given  in  place  thereof    When 

Bpaedlng  f25,  a  £Etiiiily  Bible,  family  pic-  executors  are  not  named  in  a  will,  or  are  incom- 

aobcMl  books  and  other  books  not  ex-  potent,  or  refhseto  act,  letters  of  administration 

§  $60  in  value,  a  pew  in  a  church,  land  with  the  will  annexed  may  be  issued,  under 

■t  iiir  a  burial  place  not  exceeding  ^  of  an  which  the  same  powers  may  be  exercised  that 

ad  in  addition,  a  lot  and  building  occu-«  cotdd  have  been  by  competent  executors  duly 

I  a  reaidence  by  the  debtor,  being  a  house-  appointed.    By  statute  m  the  state  of  New 

\  and  having  a  family,  to  the  value  of  York,  no  person  is  competent  to  serve  as  an  ex- 

I;  bot  if  the  premises  so  occupied  shall  eontor  who  is  incapable  in  law  of  making  aoon- 

1  that  amount  in  value,  the  debtor  must  tract  (except  a  married  woman),  or  is  under 

Mr  the  surplus,  or  the  premises  may  be  the  age  of  21  years,  or  an  alien,  or  has  been 

il^fecst  to  the  payment  of  $1,000  of  the  convicted  of  an  infamous  crime,  or  shall  be  ad- 

ida  to  the  debtor.    (See  Fisri  Facias.)  jud^  incompetent  by  the  surrogate,  by  reason 

k  aa.  is  the  old  form  of  execution  against  of  drunkenness,  improvidence,  or  want  of  un- 

ifBoa  of  the  defendant    By  the  act  to  derstanding.    It  is  further  provided  that  a  mar- 

%  fniNrisonment  for  debt,  pa4ed  in  1881,  ried  woman  shall  not  be  entitied  to  letters  tes- 

m  pcovisions  of  the  code  of  1840  and  sab-  tamentary  unless  her  husband  consent  thereto 

It  BMdifications,  there  is  no  longer  a  lia-  by  a  writing  filed  with  the  surrogate.    In  such 

lo  afreet  for  debt,  either  upon  mesne  or  case  the  letters  issue  to  her,  and  she  adminis- 

foaeaa  except  in  certain  specified  cases,  ters  in  her  own  name;  but  letters  of  adminis- 

ijhHi  iJie  action  b  for  an  injury  to  person  tration  (which  isBue  when  there  is  no  will) 

nolMr,  wrongfully  taking  or  detaining  must  be  taken  out  by  the  husband  in  behalf  of 

S—ibeglement  or  fraudulent  misappli-  Uie  wife.    When  a  woman  who  is  acting  as  ex- 

pioperty  by  a  public  officer,  or  by  an  ecutrix  or  administratrix  marries,  her  letters 

^  «r  'eounsellor  or  o^cer  of  a  corpora-  are  not  thereby  superseded,  but  may  be  revoked 

jp^  ^  a  broker  or  other  person  acting  in  a  upon  the  application  of  any  person  interested. 

CTaapad^.  or  where  the  defendant  has  The  husbana  would  probably  be  liable  for  her 

ppigr  of  a  naud  in  contracting  the  debt,  acts  as  administratrix  if  he  took  no  proceedinga 

ppug  to  avoid  the  pavment  of  it  by  re-  to  take  out  letters  of  administration  in  his  own 

r#r  olfaer  dl^KMition  of  his  property.    An  name,  and  for  her  acts  as  executrix  if  he  makes 

MdDst  property  is  made  returnable  no  application  for  the  revocation  of  her  power, 

from  Uie  time  when  it  is  issued.    The  An  executor  de  tan  tort,  as  he  was  formerly 

BulQe  a  return  earlier,  bat  is  not  called,  t.  e^  one  who  intermeddled  with  the 

to  do  ao.    An  execution  against  the  estate  without  having  lawM  authority,  waa 

be  issned  until  the  return  of  an  liable  to  the  extent  of  any  assets  which  he  might 

[ffoperty.    As  to  the  mode  faiave  appropriated  to  be  sued  as  an  executor 

from  an  execution  against   the  of  his  own  wrong,  but  was  not  entitied  to  insti- 

airoady  been  considered  in  the  ar-  tute  a  suit  as  executor.    In  the  state  of  New 

ijn>  CsBDiTOB.    (See  also  Baitk-  York,  any  oneintermeddlinff  with  the  estate  of 

a  deceased  person  without  having  an  appcunt* 


•♦  1  -I* 


BMBt  as  ezMator  or  tdmiiiiftrator,  wmj  be  <  7.1  .1      Hfv  Iv^kBi  §■»- 

made  limbla  to  the  rigfatful  rapretenUtira  aa  s  qt  n  ttad  ia  1848^  vilka 

wiODg  doer,  but  cannot  be  traatad  aa  an  azeGQ-  %m^     i«of|100,000.    TbaraaraalaoianwBai^ 

tor  c?  hia  own  wrong.    An  alian  cannot  be  4  ^     :  miUa,  and  1  ateam  plaoiBf  nCIL    la  Ike 

aiUiar  an  exacotor  or  adminiitrator,  nnlaai  be  ia  w<       npartof  thalowMmpianYillafe 
aninbabitantofthaatata.   Lattarataatamantary  r,  carriagaai  morocco^  and  otter  artk 

or  of  adminiatration  iaaoed  abroad  are  not  rae-  «M«iaiTal j  manoliMtved.    The  telal  valea  af 

ogniied  in  New  York;  bat  if  iaaoed  in  another  mai     lotoraa  yaariy  ia  aaHmated  at  t^^Wl 

atate,  by  competent  aotbority,  the  perMo  ap-  The  piindpel  Tillage  ia  pleMBBtty  -^        * 


will  be  entitled,  on  prbdoetioo  <tf  anch  plain.   The  atreata  are  wide  and  aheded  by  ahi 

to  raoeiTe  lettera  <tf  adminifltratknL    It  traaa.   TheooorthoiiaeandtowiihaDia*lMrf> 

ia  held,  however,  that  a  foreign  exeooior  or  ad-  aoine  brick  ediiKoe,  eraoted  in  18S5  aft  *  eaat  af 

miniitrator  may  be  called  to  aoooont  for  aaMta  $82,000.    There  are  9  chnrah  adilfciaa    8  Bi^ 

received  abroad  and  brought  here.  tiat,  1  Ohriatian,  8  Oongragatkmal,  1  Mathnai^ 

EXEUCANS,  BxMT  JoaiPB  InDom,  eoonti  1  Roman  Oatholio,  1  SeeoodAdTeiiL  and  lUi^ 

e  French   general,  bom  in  fiar^nr-Oniain,  tarian.    There  are  18  pnbfie  aebooli^  1  ^ 


Heoae,  Nov.  18, 1775,  killed  by  a  foil  from  hia  aeminary,  and  FhiUipa  aeadeiny  for  bef%8 
horae,  July  10, 1853.  He  aerved  fint  in  Italy,  banka  with  a  capital  cST  |SOO/N)0,  *  avrfaMiW 
beeameanaide-de-campof  Morat,  whombefd-    atitotion,  and  a  poblie  iJbraij  fmntalnlm  1 118 


lowed  to  Germany,  and  attracted  the  attentioa  Tolnmea.    PhiDlpa  aeadaoiT 

of  Napoleon,  who  made  him  a  cdond  after  the  1781  by  John  PhilUp%  LLl).,  who 

battle  of  AoaterUtx.   Inl808andl807befoaght  to  it  property  valned  at  the  tine  k 

in  the  campdgoa  <tf  Praaaie  and  Poland.    In  £10,000.    The  aettlemeat  of  Exeler  waa 

1808  he  aooomjNmied  Marat  to  Spain,  where  he  menced  Jo^  4^  1888L  by  a  party  of  enii 

waa  talLen  pnaoner  and  carried  to  Kndjand,  from  Vimanhnaetta  buy,  under  the  lead  aif 

whence  he  eicaped  in  1811,  and  r^cinedMorafti  Bev.  John  Wheelwrii^t,  who liad been' 

then  king  of  Naplea.    He  retomed  to  Franoe^  from  that  colony  on  accoont  of  lila 

however,  aaaoonaaMorat^spoUcybeMn  to  daah  to  Antinomian  opiniona.   Thiqr 

with  that  of  Napoleon,  and  aerved  in  UieRoaaiaa  of  the  Indiana  near  the  folia  on  1 

campaign  with  the  rank  of  general  of  diviiioo,  and  named  the  town  after  Exeter  ia 

when  be  waa  aeverely  woanded.    In  1818  the  They  formed  a  chordi.  and  made 

emperor  intmated  him  with  the  command  of  the  bodv  politio  by  chooaing  rakriL 

army  in  SaxoDjr,  and  afterward  of  the  operationa  -9        made  in  popolar  aaiambly,  i 

in  Holland.    Daring  Napoleon*a  exile  at  Elba  be        uj  mented  to  by  the  people.    It  waa  a 

was  at  fint  treated  with  great  distinction  bv  the  apiiruiich  to  a  pare  democracy.    The  town  a^ 

Boarbons,  vrho  conferred  upon  him  the  title  of  fared  aeverely  daring  the  Indian  ware  fitaa  IM 

coant ;  bat  afterward  be  incorred  their  displeaa-  to  aboat  1710.    A  portion  of  it  waa 

are  by  a  congratolatory  letter  which  he  wrote  to  Booth  New  Market  in  1858. 
Marat,  and  which  was  intercepted.    He  waa  ao-        EXETER,  a  dtv,  port,  and 

qaitted,  however,  bv  the  coart  martial  before  boroogh  of  En^^ano,  capital  of  Devonshin^ 
which  he  was  tried.  He  hailed  Napoleon's  retam^  a  coantv  in  itselfon  the  Exe,  10  ndlaa  t 

from  Elba  with  onthosiasm,  andjafter  having  been  its  moatn,  159  m.  W.  8.  W.  from  Loadoa ;  M^ 

rused  to  the  French  peerage  m  Jane,  1815,  he  in  1851,  83,810.    The  Exe  is  here  orosaidaya 

resamed  bis  datiea  in  the  army  of  the  emperor,  handsome  stone  bridge  leading  to  the  aabwbsf 

and  foofcht  with  his  wonted  brevery  in  the  bat-  8t  Thomas.    The  city,  standing  on  a  aUsp  a^ 

tie  of  Waterloo.    After  passing  several  years  in  clirity,  has  9  wide  principal  straeta,  whidi  ttm 

exile,  he  received  in  1819  permission  to  retam  each  other  at  right  anglea  near  ita  centra.    Il  ii 

to  France,  and  was  to  some  extent  reinrtated  in  generally  well  bailt,  baa  many  fine  aqnana  ail 

his  military  position.    Loais  Philippe  restored  terraces  and  ancient  honsea,  and  ia  its  anbaila 

him  to  the  chamber  of  peers,  where  he  de-  and  environa  are  numcrooa  elecant  viOam    II 

noanced  the  execution  of  iHev  as  an  **  abomioa>  was  formerly  strongly  fortified,  bat  ita  ensfiv 

ble  assassination.'*    Under  Loaia  Napoleon  he  wall  ia  now  in  a  rainoaa  atate,  and  a  part  of  Aa 

waa  apfMiinted  in  1850  grand  chancellor  of  the  rampart  has  been  converted  into  a  pfooMaaia 

legion  of  honor,  and  in  1851  marshal  of  France.  On  an  eminence  N.  E.  of  the  town  is  Boefi* 

EXETER  (Ind.  name  Squam»eot()^  a  town-  moot  castle,  formerlx  the  residence  of  the  Wait 

ship  and  one  of  the  ca{)itaLi  of  Rockingham  co.,  Saxon  kings,  repainNl  by  WiUiam  the  CoaoMeBi 

N.  U.,  situated  on  Exeter  river,  a  branch  of  the  Exeter  is  the  seat  of  a  bishopric  Ibondad  ia 

Piscataqns,  14  m.  S,  W.  from  Portsmouth;  pop.  1049.    lu  cathedral,  a  magnificent  boSkfiag  af 

in  lB5u,  8,329.    The  Boston  and  Maine  railroed  cruciform  shape,  was  beaan  in  the  11th  cs^ 

passes  throutfh  Exeter  village,  which  is  built  tury.     Ita  entire  length  is  408  fiset ;  it  has  t 

around  the  ia\U  upon  both  banka    The  tide  Norman  towers  130  feot  in  height^  10  ehafsb 

flows  to  the  falls,  to  which  pUoe  the  river  ia  or  oratories,  and  a  chapter  boive.    Oae  ef  the 

navigahlo  ft>r  small  schooners.    Manufacturing  towers  contains  an  immense  b«ll  wcjgldag  IV 

is  lan;eljr  carried  on.    The  Exeter  company  waa  500  lbs.,  and  the  other  baa  a  peal  of  11  bsBa 

incor|>oratvd  iu  1829  with  a  capital  of  1 170,000,  Among  the  namcruus  schools  is  a  free  giaamv 

for  the  uianufacture  of  cotton  goods.   Ihe  miUa  achool  foanded  by  the  citiaana  la  the  niifa  af 


i 


EXHAUSnON  EXMOUTH  869 

Charles  I.,  in  which  tho  eons  of  freemen  are  in-  the  royal  navy  in  1770,  and  in  1775  was  a  mid- 
strocted  gratnitonslj,  and  which  has  IC  exhi-  shipman  of  the  frigate  Blonde,  which  carried 
l^tioiis  to  either  of  the  universities.     Exeter  Gen.  Burgoyne  to  America,  and  first  saw  active 
his  a  theatre  and  varions  literary  and  chari-  service  in  the  American  revolutionary  war.  Ap- 
table  inatitations.    The  commerce  of  Exeter  is  pointed  to  the  armed  schooner  Carleton,  on  Lake 
imicfa  less  now  than  formerly,  bnt  as  the  metro-  Champlain,  he  took  a  brilliant  part  in  the  na- 
poUs  <tf  Devon  and  Cornwall  it  has  considerable  val  action  of  Oct.  11,  1776,  and  distingnished . 
mtemal  trade.    The  river  Exe  is  navigable  for  himself  in  the  same  waters  on  several  snbse- 
TfjBcla  of  large  bnrden  to  Topsham,  3  m.  below  qnent  occasions.    Attadied  to  the  army  with  a 
Sarater;  and  by  means  of  a  canal  bnilt  in  1568,  party  of  seamen  nnder  his  orders,  he  rendered 
ffibseqnently  mnch  enlarged,  and  one  of  the  invaluable  assistance  during  tiie  difficult  ad- 
eldest  in  England,  vessels  of  400  tons  burden  vance  of  Burgoyne  to  Saratoga,  and,  though  a 
can  oome  np  to  the  quay  near  the  walls  of  tho  midshipman  only  20  years  of  age,  was  call^  to 
town.    The  registered  shipping  of  the  port,  the  council  of  war  at  which  that  general's  capit- 
Dea.  81, 1866,  was  172  vessels  of  21,546  tons;  nlation  was  determined.    Young  Pellew  plead- 
iotnnoes  during  the  year,  688  vessels  of  64,175  ed  earnestly  that  his  naval  brigade  might  not 
tons;    clearances,  216  vessels  of  12,951  tons,  be  included,  urging  that  they  had  been  the  pio- 
Serges  and  other  woollen  goods  were  formerly  neers  of  the  army,  and  could  make  their  way 
wannfiictnred  in  this  city  and  the  neighboring  back  to  the  St.  Lawrence.    But  he  was  over- 
towns  to  a  large  extent,  and  shipped  hence  to  ruled,  and  sent  home  as  bearer  of  despatches, 
fSud  continent  and  the  East  Indies;  but  the  in-  receiving  immediate  promotion.   In  June,  1780, 
tiodootion  of  machinery  and  the  lower  price  of  being  first  lieutenant  of  the  frigate  Apollo,  he 
fad  in  the  north  of  England  have  very  much  succeeded  to  the  command,  the  captain  being 
dfarinished  this  trade. — ^This  city  is  of  unknown  killed  at  an  early  period  of  a  severe  action 
aDtiq[nity,  and  is  the  Caer-Iso  of  tho  Britons,  fought  with  a  French  frigate  off  Ostend.    It 
wad  the  Isca  Damnoniorum  of  the  Romans.    It  ended  in  Lieut.  Pellew  driving  the  enemy  on 
was  the  capital  of  the  West  Saxons,  and  in  tho  shore  under  the  neutral  battenes ;  and  for  his 
vrign  of  ALfred  in  876  it  was  surprised  by  the  good  conduct  he  was  made  a  commander.    In 
Dims.    It  was  besieged  and  taken  by  William  1782  the  rank  of  post  captain  was  awarded  him 
ttie  Conqueror.    In  the  reign  of  Henry  VII.  it  for  a  successful  conflict  with  8  French  priva- 
WIS  soccessfully  defended  against  Perkin  AYar-  teers,  inside  the  isle  of  Bass.     From  1786 
bade,  who  landed  with  an  army  in  ComwalL  to  1791,  ho  commanded  successively  the  frig- 
It  sostained  a  siege  in  the  reign  of  Edward  YI.,  ates  Winchester  and  Salisbury  on  the  New- 
yrhea  the  religious  changes  and  the  enclosure  foundland  station,  but   on  the   breiUdng  out 
of  lands  which  had  been  common  while  the  of  the  war   with   France  in   1793,  he  was 
Bonasterics  existed  caused  a  general  insurrec-  appointed   to  the  Nymphe,  86,  for  employ- 
tioQ  of  the  people  of  Cornwall  and  Devonshire,  ment  nearer  home.    Ho  soon  signalized  him- 
Id  the  civil  war  it  espoused  the  royal  cause,  self  by  fighting  and  capturing  the  French  frig- 
vas  taken  by  the  parliamentarians,  was  retaken  ate  Oleopatre.    This  was  the  first  prize  taken 
hf  Prince  Maurice,  became  the  head-quarters  in  the  war,  and  it  gained  Oapt.  Pellew  the  hon- 
of  the  royalists  in  the  west  and  the  residence  of  or  of  knighthood.    His  next  ship  was  the  Are- 
Clisrtes's  queen,  and  in  1646  surrendered  after  thusa,  a  name  immortalized  in  Dibdin's  naval 
a  Uoekado  to  Gen.  Fairfax.     Exeter  has  re-  songs;  and  his  merit  procured  him,  in  1794,  the 
tamed  2  members  to  parliament  ever  since  tho  command  of  the  famous  fiying   squadron  of 
nfam  of  Edward  L  crack  frigates,  organized  for  service  in  the  Brit- 
EXHAUSTION  (Lat.  exJiaurio^  to  draw  out),  ish  channel.    In  1795  he  was  moved  into  the 
a  method  of  the  ancient  geometry,  applied  vrith  frigate  Indefatigable,  and  was  actively  engaged 
foeidiar  success  by  Archimedes,  by  which  the  in  blockading  and  watching  the  French  coast. 
nlM  of   an  incommensurable    quantity  was  In  January  of  the  following  year,  while  he  was 
oom^t  by  obtaining  approximations  alternately  refitting  at  Plymouth,  the  Button,  a  large  trans- 
pester  and  less  than  the  truth,  until  two  ap-  port  ship,  with  troops  on  board,  was  driven  on 
Mximations  differed  so  little  from  each  other  the  rocks  in  a  terrino  gale.    Sir  Edward,  who 
ihst  either  might  be  taken  as  the  exact  state-  chanced  to  be  on  shore,  by  extraordinary  per- 
BOBt    Thus  the  length  of  a  circumference  was  sonal  exertions,  got  on  board,  assumed  direc- 
9BmjtA  by  calculating  the  length  of  inscribed  tion,  and  succeeded  in  saving  the  lives  of  all  on 
OBOarcnmscribed  polygons,  and  increasing  tho  board.    He  himself,  the  first  to  render  asdst- 
wmnbet  of  ndes  until  Sie  lengths  of  the  outer  ance,  was  the  last  to  swing  himself  ashore^  and 
Sid  inner  polygon  were  sensibly  the  same,  when  tho  wreck  shortly  afterward  went  to  pieces. 
tibt  of  the  circumference  could  not  differ  sensi-  The  whole  deed  was  so  brilliant  and  masterly 
M^ftom  either.    Exhaustion  is  now  interesting  that  it  created  an  immense  sensation,  having 
dUifiy  because  it  led,  in  the  17th  century,  to  been  witnessed  also  by  thousands  of  spectators. 
IhsinTsntion  of  the  differential  calculus.  Plymouth  voted  the  modest  hero  of  it  the  free- 
nHILARATING  GAS.    See  Nitbogex.  dom  of  the  town,  in  a  gold  box ;  Liverpool,  a 
CQfOUTH,  Edward  Pellew,  viscount,  an  service  of  plate ;  George  III,  created  him  a 
Zariish  admiral,  bom  in  Dover,  April  19, 1757,  baronet,  as  Sir  Edward  Pellew  of  Treverry ; 
Cod  in  Teignmouth,  Jan.  23, 1833.    He  enter(KL  and  a  stranded  ship  was  quartered  in  his  armo- 

VOL.  vn, — 24 


870  EXMOUTH 

rial  bearings    Tlio  blockade  of  tho  har1>or  of  bey  to  understand  that  ho  was  required  to  abol* 

Bre!(t  and  various  minor  ktu  fight:}  ensiu-d.    In  isU  CIiriAtiun  slavery  altop;ther.    lie  Ci»nfeQt««l, 

1799  he  commanded  the  Impi'tuuux,  78;  and  in  a^  did  his  coUeagno  of  TrinolL    Lord  Eimrnith 

that  riiip,  as  in  the  Indefatigable,  ho  breai^ted  hereui)on  returned  to  Algiers,  and  pn-M^tl  th« 

and  broke,  so  far  oa  his  own  crews  were  con-  same  demand,  but  nut  with  tho  same  re^'slt. 

oemed,  the  mntiiiou*!  spirit  which  was  rank  in  The  dey  refused  this  further  coooeflsion,  and  il>« 

•the  Britisli  navy  al>out  this  {>erio(L  and  assumed  violent  conduct  of  his  my nnidoos  nearly  brvaght 

from  time  to  time  a  perilous  significance.    In  on  him  summary  chastisement.     Bnt  the  ad- 

1600  he  took  part  in  tho  abortive  expedition  mi ral  had  alrcafly  exceeded  his  inatniction^  and 

against  Fvrrol,  but  under  superior  officers.    Dur-  not  feeling  Justified  in  pruceedins  to  hoetihtH^ 

ing  the  short  po.ico  that  followed  the  treaty  agreed  that  negotiations  should  be  traiiiefemd 

of  Amieu!*,  Sir  Etlwanl  was  elected  meml>er  of  to  London  and  Constantinople,  warning  the  dey 

pariiamcnt  for  Barnstable.     In  1803,  on  the  re-  that  he  might  be  compelled  eventoally  tti  recam, 

DewidofluKtilitie^  ho  was  appointed  to  the  Ton-  in  which  case  he  further  undertook  to  bailer 

nant,  80,  and  proceede<l  to  blockade  a  French  down  tho  defences  of  Algiers  with  6  liniMif- 

squadron  at  Fcrrol ;  but  ho  was  recalled  in  tho  battle  sliips  only,  a  prophecy  most  accurately 

following  year,  to  supi>ort  tho  admiralty  under  fulfilled.    Tho  boast  miglit  hare  been  tenned 

Eari  St.  Vincent  in  tho  houso  of  commons,  presumptuous  bnt  Lord  Ex  mouth  never  tnut<d 

against  a  motion  of  censuro  brought  forward  to  chance.    lie  had  at  that  moment  in  liis  |ios- 

by  Mr.   Pitt,  and  contributed  greatly  by  his  session  accurate  plans  and  soundings  made  cx- 

straightforward  testimtmy  to  tho  vote  which  ex-  pressly  for  him,  which  corrected  many  gnre 

onerated  tlio  head  of  tlio  naval  department.    In  orrors  in  tho  admiralty  charts.    These  latter  had 

tho  same  year  Sir  Edward  becamo  roar  admiral,  doubtless  been  tho  ground  of  Lord   Nebon's 

receiving  Himultaneonsly  tho  appointment  of  exprewed  opinion  thai  25  line-of-battle  ships 

naval  commander-in-chief  in  India.    Ho  hoisted  would  bo  necessary  to  bring  tlio  dey  to  tcrmi. 

his  flag  in  the  Cullodcn,  and  until  1809  was  oc-  On  tho  return  of  the  squadron  to  England,  pr»* 

cupied  in  ]>rotecting  commerce  against  French  ceded  and  followed  by  tidingn  of  fresh  outrsfe^ 

pnvateers  in  tho  eastern  seas,  destroying  also  it  was  determined,  ai\er  a  stirring  debate  intbs 

several  French  shii^s  of  war  at  lUitaviaantl  other  houso  of  commons,  that  the  Algerincs  should 

Dutch  East  Indian  i>orts.    In  the  spring  of  ItiXO  bo  forced  into  submission.     Lord  Exinooth  wn 

tho  North  sea  stiuadron  was  pimred  under  his  empowered  to  execute  tho  task,  and  allowed  aa 

orders,  and  a  year  later  ho  succee<led  Sir  Chnrles  unrestricted  selection  of  material,     litvaily  to 

Cotton  in  tiie  Mediterranean.     Blockading  Tou-  Uio  suq»ri.He  of  tho  admiralty,  and  in  tlie  teeth 

Ion,  (ffi'noa,  and  the  various  harbors  that  nro  of  pnnosts  from  many  nav.*!!  officers  of  aMlitf 

scattered  along  the  northern  ciiast**  of  tlmt  soa,  an(li-xiK.'rivnre.  ho  |KT**r!»tv<l  in  limiting  iii4Qu:3 

wai  his  <  NTH  pat  ion  during  tho  next  3  yours,  fonv   to  G   Inu-of-Lmttlo   Mi**^  inclu<Iir;r  th^ 

which,  if  iiut  niarkod  by  any  naliont  i»oints,  were  Qneen  C'harl«itto,  wliirh  was  to  carry  hi*  fii,\ 

unclici'korod  by  disaKtors.     At  tho  dose  of  llio  and  c»no  other  tIiroe-«lfrkiT.     Thvre  wir»*  a:* -5 

w.ir.  wlioii  lionors  wore  froely  bo-itowod  iHK>n  fri;ratos,  4  iHunli  vt's.M'U.  und  5  pm  bri^.     li* 

tlio  Briti'^Ii  nnny  for  its  triuiiiphiint  ctunpaipi  in  8i]U:idron  was  to  be  niaiinod  by  vuIuxi!o<  r«;  ft£ii 

tho  IV!iin*in!a,  it  wa^thonirht  rifrhtthjitono|ivor-  as  the  exiK.>ditiitn  was  a  i»orilons  ono,  L  ir'i  Ki* 

a?o  should  l»o  awardinl  t«>  tho  navy.  F<'r  this  dis-  month  |H'romi»torily  rofii«kil  his  broihor.  ).:> !« j 

tinction  Sirl-Mward  iVlIow  was  M-Ioctin!,  arhUio  whis  ami  his  two  Mins-in-!:iw.  nil  oth^or^  *li** 

was  Croat  0*1  Banm  Ex  mouth  of  Canon  iri^'n.    A  had  N?rvod  under  him  with  mori'  or  K-«^"*  i^.*:;::!*- 

I»en<ion  was  also  grantiil  liim,  as  usual  i^hon  a  tion,  {KTini-sion  to  a<*oo*u]iany  him.     T:u*  "!-*«> 

pi'omiro  i"4  awarded  lor  pul»lio  s*Tvioes.     A  r«)m-  sailod  from  I*ortstui>nth  <in  July  2.\  !in«i  :..  i-ti.-r 

mamlor'ihip  and  then  a  ^'rand  rnissot*  tho  kith  raw  hands,  of  whtmi  tho  ci\*ws  woro  r.>><.5 

s«Hm  f«»llowi'il :  ]»ut  tlio  adniirars  services  Were  comiK)MHl,  hail  hut  a  month's  training  s*.  t.*)* 

nnt   yet    ciirnploti*.     When    Vapoleoii    o-hmikhI  puns.     On   tonoliing  at   (iibraltar,  tin-    l^:'.ch 

from  Kn<a,  ho  acain  hoi-tod  hi<t1a:;in  tlio  Moill-  vico-a<ImiraK  nan»n    Van   dor  (*ajio!!ar:,  Ular 

torranean.  ppwrtding  lirst  to  Naples,  whoro  he  there  with  6  fri^ati-s  and  a  c^irvetto,  i-arrn'»'.-5 

landed  a  h«Hly  (•!"  inarino^,  and  |»roM'rvi'd  onlor.  l»egjred  leave  to  take  i»art,  whioh  wa«  ft*%'-r»^^ 

Early  in  Jnly.  l**!.*!,  ho  ornharki'd  nn  Aii<*trian  On  Auir,  27  tho  tloot  nrriiod  o!r.\!;:ior*.  £:>d  % 

force  at  (iriuM,  uiidor  Sir  IIudMin  l.owo,  und  tlair  of  triioo  wit!i  tho  admiral'*  domar. :«  «»» 

saileil  for  M:ir*i'il!i'*,  whii-h  they  jtrMtoi-tod  frnm  m-nt  in,  the  vessels  lvin;:-to  aUtut  a  n.i'o  frrs 

tho  attark  of  Mar-hal  Bnii.o,  who  Uiroatonoil  to  the  town.     At  2  IV  4f.,  no  an^ivt-r  ha\:n*  N«i 

man'h  thith-'r  I'rom  T«inl«>n.     The    inliahitants  retvivoil,  tho  Quoi-n  C'lmrlntte  U-*!  in  t.»  it.-  i:- 

{•r\*«ontod  liim  a  !»plenilid  tfstitnonial  in  ]t\:\U\  tark.  every  iletail  (if  whii'li  haii  Ih.v;  ;r«'-  -- 

»oarit!:r  tlto  in-rripti-in  :  -1  TifJ/i/rii/ f;ii  A^r*/ AV-  cortiil   witli  tho  mi>»t  ri»ii*ii!n!m:o  j  * :«-. 

rn'tu f h^  i.i  r il't' ifr  M>tr»tii/t*  rt''"/itni Us,iTi fr.     V\  Al;:i»rs  was  vrry  str»»rji;ly  i!cferijh*»I.     A  "^      • 

Man^h  folio  \«  II  ij.  ho  was  onlereil  to  demand  fri'rn  of  torts  and  batteries  f:it'«Ml  the  m'a.  Tn\^.i>  > 

tho  Harhary  rliu-ts  tlio  rvloa-o  «»f  all  the  Ionian  built  and  hoavily  niounti-d,  tlie  pur.«  ti-i:  o  :-■ 

priMinrrs  in»lavffl,   the  Ionian  i-lanili  l.avin:;  mamletl  tho  st-a  appriiai-he*  Kini"  e*tir.:A:oI  **- 

jn<>l  ci'ine  un«h-r  Kriti«h  g:iartlian*»hip.     Tin*  d»  y  marly  .**'♦«).     Tho«K' had  al!  Uxu  put  n  r.  j*-.-. 

ttf  AL'ier»«,  tjr>t  visited,  roniplinl.     At  Tunis  now  wnrks  iK-in,^'  al-.»  adde*!.     In  ih*  hir>  -. 

h'lWcver.  I^onl  Exmouth*s  inteqTvter  gave  the  which  is  artilicial,  and  has  an  entrancv  utslj  -^^^i 


EXMOUTH  EXOGEKS                   871 

r$xda  wide,  lay  4  frigates,  5  large  corvettes,  and  lance,  coolness,  readiness  of  resource,  prompt- 
89  gon  boats.    Tlie  garrison  had  been  increased  ness  and  accuracy  of  judgment,  and  the  sa- 
to  40,000  men.    The  dey  was  bent  upon  obsti*  gacious  adaptation  of  means  to  an  end,  Viscomit 
nate  resistance.    So  confident  also  was  he  in  Exmonth  had  no  superior  in  the  service  of 
his  preparations  and  resources,  expecting  more-  Great  Britain.     He  was  never  foiled ;  never 
over  to  be  able  to  can^  the  ships  by  boarding  foiled.    As  a  schoolboy,  under  10  years  of  age, 
from  his  gan  boats,  which  were  crowded  with  he  gave  proof  of  his  resolute  spirit^  by  enter- 
meo,  that  the  Algerines  allowed  the  British  ing  a  house  on  fire  to  bring  out  a  keg  of  gon- 
flag  ship  and  another  one  to  take  their  stations  powder,  when  no  other  bystander  aurst  ap* 
before  firing  a  shot  themselves.     The  Queen  proach.    As  a  captain  in  the  Winchelsea,  when 
Charlotte   aceordinffly  was  anchored  by  the  his  crew  were  close-reefing  the  main  topsail,  in 
Item,  a  balf-cable*s  length  from  the  mole  head,  a  hard  gale  on  a  dark  night,  his  voice  was  snd- 
being  there  lashed  to  the  mainmast  of  an  AJge-  denly  heard  fix>m  the  yard-arm,  the  most  peril- 
line  brig,  abandoned  at  the  harbor^s  mouth,  'nie  ous  position.    Jumping  overboard  to  save  life 
plan  of  attack,  most  ably  conoeived,  was  carried  was  of  frequent  occurrence  with  him.    When 
out  with  ffallantry  and  skill  by  all  the  ships  en-  his  fiag  ship,  the  OuUoden,  took  fire  off  the 
ag|ed,  including  the  Dutch  auxiliaries,  who  bore  Ooromandel  coast,  and  many  of  the  crew  Jumped 
their  fhll  share  of  the  brunt.    Lord  Exmouth  overboard,  and  there  was  general  confusion,  he 
had  rightly  estimated  the  power  of  his  own  beat  to  quarters,  ordered  the  marines  to  fire 
diip^a  unerring  and  tremendous  broadside.    It  upon  any  one  attempting  to  leave  the  ship,  cut 
soon  rilenced  the  battery  on  the  mole ;  but  the  the  tackles  of  the  boats  to  prevent  their  being 
A^erinee  fought  their  numerous  guns  with  pre-  hoisted  out,  restored  confidence,  and  had  the 
daon  and  intrepidity,  and  at  an  early  period  fire  extinguished.    Among  a  mutinous  crew,  on 
of  the  engagement  their  gun  boats  daringly  a  lee  shore,  or  in  the  heat  of  battle,  he  was 
•wept  up  to  board  the  admiral  and  the  frigate  always  the  same — ^always  ready,  always  reso- 
next  him.     Concealed   at  first  by  the  dense  lute.    In  addition  to  all  this,  he  was  religious, 
smoke,  they  were  discovered  ere  they  ranged  loyal,  truthftil,  humane,  and  charitable, 
alongside,  and  nearly  all  sunk  by  a  few  well-  EXODUS  (Gr.  c^dor,  departure),  the  going 
directed  shots.    At  great  risk  the  Algerine  fieet  out  or  departure  of  the  Israelites  fi-om  Egypt 
was  sabeequently  fired  and  burnt,  the  Queen  under  Moses.    This  event  has  been  largely  dis- 
Chariotte,  m>m  her  close  proximity,  narrowly  cussed  by  critics  and  commentators,  and  there 
escaping  a  similar  fate  as  one  of  the  burning  is  very  considerable  discrepancy  in  regard  to  the 
▼esaeb  drifted  past  her.    Toward  night,  as  the  date  of  the  exodus,  the  place  where  the  Hebrews 
guns  on  shore  became  silenced,  and  the  ammuni-  crossed  the  Rod  sea,  the  nature  and  extent  of 
tion  fell  short,  the  fleet  gradually  slackened  fire ;  the  miracle  connected  with  this  passage,  &o.  Dr. 
and  at  11  P.  M.  the  admiral  hauled  off,  after  an  Robinson  advocates  the  view  that  the  Red  sea 
engagement  of  nearly  9  hours'  duration.    The  was  crossed  at  or  near  Suez;  other  critics  and 
material  result  of  this  fierce  and  protracted  travellers  express  themselves  convinced  that  the 
bombardment  was  that  nearly  all  the  Algerine  passage  was  effected  at  Ras  Attaka,  where  the 
batteries  toward  the  sea  were  crumbled  into  Valley  of  Wandering  terminates.    The  date  of 
ruins,  together  with  a  large  portion  of  the  town,  the  exodus  is  fixed  by  Usher  at  1491  B.  C,  by 
and  that  the  arsenal  and  armed  shipping  were  the  Scptuagint  1614  B.  C,  by  Dr.  Hales  1646 
burned.    The  damage  was  enormous.    The  dey  B.  C,  and  by  Bunsen,  Lepsius,  and  Wilkinson 
reported  his  loss  in  men  as  exceeding  7,000.  Of  at  or  about  1820  B.  0.  in  the  reign  of  a  Pharaoh 
the  British   force  813  men  were  killed  and  whose  name  was  Pthahmen  or  Menephthah. 
wounded,  and  65  of  the  Dutch.    No  officers  of  — ^The  book  of  Exodus  is  the  second  of  the  Pen- 
&tinction  fell,  though  the  admiral  himself  had  tateuch,  or  five  books  of  Moses.  It  gives  a  nar- 
aevml  narrow  escapes.    He  was  struck  in  8  rativeof  the  fortunes  of  the  Israelites  after  their 
places,  and  a  cannon  shot  tore  away  the  skirts  migration  into  Egypt,  the  birth  and  education 
ef  his  coat.    The  moral  effect  of  the  achieve-  of  Moses,  the  plagues  inflicted  on  the  Egyptians, 
nent  was  in  keeping  with  the  material.   On  the  the  departure  of  the  Hebrews,  the  passage  of  the 
morning  after  this  severe  lesson,  the  dey  sub-  Red  sea,  the  giving  of  the  law  on  Mount  Sinai, 
Bitted  to  all  the  demands  tliat  had  been  made  and  the  erection  of  the  tabernacle,  and  includes 

rhhn  by  Great  Britain,  including  the  aboli-  the  period  from  the  death  of  Joseph  to  the  end 

of  Christian  slavery  for  over,  and  the  im-  of  the  first  year  after  the  going  out  of  Egypt. 

mediate  release  of  1,200  slaves  of  all  nations.  EXOGENS  (Gr.  cf «,  outward,  and  ycw««,  to 

On  Lord  Exmonth^s  former  visit  to  the  Barbary  generate),  a  class  of  plants  so  called  because 

eoest  1,800  had  been  set  at  liberty.    Returning  their  woody  matter  is  increased  by  additions  to 

to  England,  the  victor  in  this  memorable  conflict  the  outside  of  that  which  first  surrounds  the  cen- 

vas  welcomed  with  unbounded  enthusiasm.  He  tral  pith.    As  there  are  no  specific  limits  to  the 

was  advanced  to  the  dignity  of  a  viscount,  re-  age  ofexogenous  trees,  their  diameter  indefinitely 

eeived  the  thanks  of  parliament,  and  was  knight-  increases  oy  this  annual  process,  a  distinct  ex- 

ed  by  several  of  the  continental  potentates.    In  temal  layer  being  added  by  each  year's  growth. 

1817  the  naval  command  at  Pl3rmouth  was  given  The  stem  of  on  exogen  consists  of  a  central  col- 

Um,  which  he  retained  for  3  years,  and  then  umn  of  pith  or  medulla,  woody  zones,  and  bark. 

ntirad  into  private  life.    In  seamanship,  vigi-  Processes  from  the  central  medulk  called  me- 


872  EXORCISM 

dnllary  njs  cross  the  cones  transversely.  The  tnnes  of  which  thej  did  not  readlljr  pereeira 
bark  of  an  exogen  parts  readily  from  the  under-  the  causae,  to  the  agency  of  nialignant  i^irit^ 
lying  wood  at  a  jiarticolar  season  of  the  year,  whose  power  they  sought  to  break  \>r  incaa- 
when  a  viscid  secretion  called  cambium  is'i>ro-  tations,  music,  the  nse  of  certain  words  bom- 
dnoed  between  the  wood  and  the  inner  surface  ing  drugs  or  chemical  compoonds,  amnletA,  Ao. 
of  the  bark.  It  is  at  this  period  that  the  loaves  Eiiicurus  and  i^Esohines  were  the  sons  of  women 
expand  and  the  trunk  lengthens.  The  woody  who  lived  by  such  art^s  and  were  accoted  of 
fibres  in  the  leaves  are  prolonged  into  the  stem  having  sometimes  assisted  their  mothers  in  tb« 
or  trunk,  passing  down  among  the  cambium,  and  impoeture.  Even  human  sacrifices  were  rcsfort- 
adhering  partly  to  the  wood  ami  jMully  to  the  ed  to  in  order  to  destroy  the  spells  of  demons, 
bark  of  the  previous  year.  By  this  means  new  Josephus  tells  us  that  Solomon  acquired  gre*t 
living  matter  is  continually  deposited  upon  the  skill  in  exorcising,  and  left  several  formaliw  to 
outer  portion  of  the  woody  stem  and  the  inner  be  used  in  the  ceremony.  He  gives  a  curious 
portions  of  the  bark.  It  is  in  this  part  of  example  of  the  efficacy  of  the  king's  »y»tem 
the  stem  that  the  intensest  vitality  exists,  the  which  he  says  f^  under  his  own  observation, 
ooter  and  older  layers  of  the  bark  and  the  inner  The  exorcist ''  put  a  ring  that  had  a  root  of  out 
and  older  concentric  rings  of  the  wood  becoming  of  those  sorts  mentioned  by  Solomon  to  the 
inert  and  falling  off  or  decaying  without  injury  nostrils  of  the  demoniac,  after  which  he  dr\;w 
to  the  vegetative  parts.  The  office  of  the  me-  out  the  demon  through  his  nostrils;  and  when 
doUary  processes  is  very  important  as  means  of  the  man  fell  down  immediately  he  aiUnrcd  him  ta 
oommimication  between  the  centre  of  the  stem  return  unto  him  no  more,  making  still  uentioa 
and  the  outside  layers  or  rings ;  and  they  are  of  Solomon  and  reciting  the  incantation  which 
conduits,  so  to  speak,  by  which  the  fluid  matter  he  composed.^'  In  the  book  of  Tobit  we  read 
IMUsing  down  the  bark  can  reach  the  wood  next  of  an  exorcism  practised  by  Tobit  at  the  Mddiog 
the  medulla  or  pith.  These  processes,  which  of  an  angel.  Neither  the  belief  in  diabolical  pQS> 
resemble  thin  plates,  are  of  a  spongy  nature  session  nor  the  use  of  exorcisms  was  condeniMd 
similar  to  that  of  the  pith  from  which  they  on-  by  our  Saviour,  and  the  cure  of  persona  tonnsnt- 
ginated.  They  sometimes  assume  sinuosities  ed  by  devils  was  among  the  commonest  prooCi 
and  undergo  jmrtial  obliteration ;  and  sometimes  of  a  divine  mi^aion  given  by  1dm  and  his  disci  pl«k 
the  wood  itself  assumes  an  excessive  irregular-  The  devil-worship  of  the  pagans  led  to  a  fKncral 
ity.  As  these  circumstances  are  to  be  found  practice  in  the  early  church  of  exorcising  con- 
mostly  in  tropical  exogenous  trees,  vines,  and  verts  before  baptism;  in  the  case  of  the  **«&- 
dimbers,  difficulty  is  sometimes  ex])erienced  in  ergumcns,^^  or  really  pOMes!«d«  it  was  intenJcd 
perceiving  from  transverse  sections  their  claims  to  oast  out  the  evil  spirit :  in  others  it  was 
to  be  considered  as  exop^ns.  This  natural  char-  mori'lyto  break  the  iH)WtT  of  S:itan  over  U..* 
acter  of  an  outward  growth  in  Uie  exogens  is  convert  by  driving  out  wiokednv^-s  and  w^  s 
associated  with  other  ]H.H'uHaritics  of  develop-  syinl>ol  of  l»elief  in  original  sin  and  uf  tl'ie  L  *r- 
ment  uf  other  organ;!.  Ttiuis  the  leaves  have  ror  with  which  Christians  ou;rlit  to  shun  i .« 
veins  ramifyin;:;  from  the  midrib  outwardly  to  devil  and  Iua  works.  With  thU  view  tLo  lly 
the  circnnifcrence ;  or  if  there  are  Si*veral  ril>s,  ninn  Cat!iolics  have  alwayn  retained  it,  evvo  ia 
the  veins  are  still  of  the  same  quality,  so  as  to  tlic  lia]»ti:«ni  of  infants.  Thvv  exon  i.^o  VAitT 
form  an  irreguhu*  network.  These  veins  never  K*fore  (»le^Mng  it,  in  token  of  diiilwllcf  in  tlr! 
run  parallel  to  each  otlier  without  ramiticatiuns,  pa^n  doctrine  that  all  useful  things  are  civco 
and  even  some  which  api>ear  to  do  tHi  will  bo  and  iiresided  over  by  s|*irits,  and  nut  anfr^ 
found  to  po$<i*HS  secondary  veins.  The  leaves  (jnently  they  sevk  by  eXi)rclsms  to  allay  ^lorrc* 
also  fall  away  from  the  brunohen,  being  di;«artic-  and  check  the  ravages  of  noxious  aniaials  an-i 
nlated  from  their  pi :iOi^  of  insertion,  leavtn;^  a  ia'^octiu  All  such  are  callctl  ordinary  exon-Urji; 
dear  scar  Ikehind.  CVrtain  foliolar  origans,  culled  extraordinary  are  those  pronouno«Ai  uver  eacf* 
8ti]mle*s  are  also  frei}uently  utLirhetl  to  ttie  guinens  The  fonn  u^d  for  turh  p.ir|ikPMi 
lea\'e4,  which  is  very  uiiuaual  in  endo^^ns.  The  greatly  varies ;  in  !<»me  cases  it  is  wry  •4:*j;h«. 
fiowers  are  (luiiiory,  that  is,  they  have  5  sepals,  but  when  the  subject  is  an  ener^irnon  it  l«  a:- 
6  petals,  and  5  stamens  or  some  j^ower  of  tliat  tended  with  many  ceremonies.  The  cxi.'*r.''J» 
number.  The  Ui!l  and  feathery  outline  of  the  marks  the  subject  mith  tlie  sign  of  the  cr>i^ 
palms  is  never  seen  in  the  cxuirens  as  none  of  sprinkles  him  with  holy  water,  tvaiU  otrr  L:a 
them  dei>end  on  a  sin^'le  terminul  bud  for  tlieir  various  litanies,  {tsalms,  and  prayers  a^jurv«  t.V} 
developing  growth.  From  the  very  genninat ion  demon  by  the  niv^iteries  ot  tho  Curi^ian  r^ 
of  the  Hovil  the  ditleronce  is  apparent  in  the  fonn  ligion  to  affiict  the  i>erson  no  rnon*.  and  O'Ri' 
of  the  embryo  and  in  the  dicotyledonous  char-  inands  hitn  in  the  name  of  Jo^ns  i':ir.*t  to  d^ 
acteri<*tics  of  the  young  phuit.  part.  The  exorci-it  in  such  o.t^e^i*a  j'r.i<  ml^ 
KXUltCISM  ((Jr.  ffti^ifw,  to  coTijare)»  a  rite  must  roi-eive  s;tecial  authority  fn^irii  il;c  I  .•'  ?, 
having  for  its  object  the  otiiig  o'Jt  of  evil  but  in  fonner  times  the  duty  wa.*  istr-a<>:ed  ^• 

Spirits.   As  the  natural  attenil-tnt-  of  a  Inlief  in  an  inferior  clerk.    The  order  of  eX'»rvL<  i^  Cvi 

emoniacal   iK>vk*!i-i(>n,   oxDn-l-rus    h:ive   been  3d  of  ttie  minor  onlors,  and  i<  <i.\  ixtAi'ynL 

prartiM.'d  in  every  aje  and  ivimtry.  The  pagans  thtiuu'h  it«»  fini'tions  are  i»erfonni»d  l»y  jt:i<j» — 

of  old,  like  tho^  of  ti>-<Liy,  attrlbiiteil  diM-'UM-'S  The  art  ot*  casting  out  deviU  is  the  >u^;l^;£  <'( 

ich  baffled  their  akiU,  and  aliuo»t  all  mistor-  several  very  cinious  old  work»,  woe  of  iLm 


EXOSTOSIS  EXPANSION                    878 

ranaibble  of  which  is  the   7%esauru*  Exor*  membrane  will  canse  an  exfoliation  of  the  sabfa- 
eumarum  et  Conjurationum  ttrribilium^  potenr  cent  bone ;  bat  if  between  the  lamincB  of  this 
tmimarum^  efficacinimorumque^  cum  Practica  envelope,  a  similar  operation  will  effect  the  fiill 
probatmirmiyquibtuJS^rUusmaUffnijDcemones^  of  the  tumor  without  injury  to  the  snrfaoe  of 
maUfieaaue  omnia  de  Carporibus  Rumanit  tan-  tlie  bone ;  the  cartilage  soon  becomes  ossified, 
quam  FtageUu  ISittibusque/uffantur,  expellunr  and  the  exostosis  forms  one  body  with  the  bonei 
tur,    Doctrinii  rrfertisnmu*  atque  uberrimiu:  resembling  the  first  variety  in  having  no  basfu 
ad  nuuthmtm  Exareutarum  CommaditaUm  in  line  of  separation.    In  course  of  time  the  ex- 
lueem  edUui  et  reeunu  (Cologne,  1608).    In  cessive  deposit  ()f  phosphate  of  lime  in  these 
this  we  have  not  only  the  verbal  formulas  to  growths  may  convert  them  into  a  substance 
be  used,  with  the  most  efficacious  drugs  for  having  the  appearance,  consistence,  weight,  and 
fimiigations  {profumigatio  horribilU%  but  direc-  polish  of  ivory.  Among  the  constitution^  causes 
tions  for  dieting  the  possessed  on  bread,  mutton,  of  exostosis  are  syphilitic  poisoning,  the  scrofti- 
and  wine  or  holy  water,  and  for  administering  lous  diathesis,  and  the  gouty  and  rheumatic  con- 
emetics  and  other  wholesome  medicines.  A  pic-  ditions ;  but  local  causes  are  the  most  common, 
tore  of  the  demon,  ejffigie  horribUi  ac  turpi^  These  tumors  are  frequent  in  domestic  animals. 
with  his  name  written  under  it,  thrown  into  All  require  for  their  production  an  irritation  or 
the  flames,  is  said  to  be  an  excellent  remedy,  inflammation  either  of  the  periosteum  or  the 
and  a  judicious  use  of  vituperative  epithets  may  internal  structure  of  bone ;  the  syphilitic  taint 
eompel  the  spirit  to  tell  his  name,  which  is  al-  generally  develops  its  exostoses  from  the  perioa- 
waja  an  important  consideration.  (See  Demon.)  teum,  and  on  bones  sparingly  covered  with  soft 
EXOSTOSIS  (Gr.  «(,  out  o^  and  o(rrfov,  part8,astheforeliead,  lower  jaw,  tibia,  sternum, 
booeX  ^^  osseous  tumor  developed  on  the  sur-  clavicles,  and  ribs ;  while  the  scrofdous  consti- 
(■oe  of  a  bone,  originally  or  eventually  continu-  tution  favors  their  origin  in  the  deep-seated  por- 
OQS  with  its  substance,  circumscribed,  without  tions  of  the  long  bones ;  the  superficial  exostosis 
interior  cavity,  having  the  same  structure  and  can  hardly  be  developed  under  a  thick  mass  of 
life  as  the  bone  oa  which  it  is  found.    There  are  frequently  contracting  muscles.  (Jontusions,  lo- 
two  varieties  of  this  growth ;  in  one  the  bone,  cal  irritations,  and  wounds  of  bone,  fireqnentiT 
fike  all  other  tissues  of  the  system,  takes  on  a  give  rise  to  periosteal  exostosis ;  in  some  consti- 
norbid  development,  an  eccentric  hypertrophy  tutions  there  is  such  a  disposition  to  the  deposit 
of  its  snbstance,  forming  a  well-defined  tumor  of  ossific  matter,  that  the  slightest  contusion  is 
OQ  its  sarfoce  by  the  mere  excess  of  interstitial  sufficient  to  cause  the  development  of  these  bonj 
Oflseoos  deposit ;  in  the  other  the  new  ossific  growths,  not  only  on  bones  but  in  the  substance 
matter  is  deposited  originally  on  the  surface,  of  tendons  and  ligaments.    An  exostosis  may 
mder  or  between  the  lamina)  of  the  periosteum,  grow  toward  the  interior  of  a  bone,  and  make 
separated  from  the  bone  at  first  by  cartilage,  no  appearance  externally ;  when  muscles  and 
bat  afterward  becoming  consolidated  to  it  in  the  tendons  are  displaced  or  distended,  the  move- 
ainal  manner  of  bony  processes.    The  first  va-  ments  of  the  joints  may  be  impeded,  even  to  the 
riety  may  affect  the  greater  part  of  a  bone,  and  formation  of  anchylosis ;  pressure  upon  arteries, 
deKrves  rather  the  name  of  hyperostosis  ;  and  veins,  and  nerves  may  cause  oedema,  aneurismal 
the  second,  by  the  progress  of  ossification,  may  tumors,  pain,  cramp,  and  partial  paralysis.    In 
be  converted  into  the  first ;  this  distinction  is  of  the  upper  jaw  exostoses  often  project  toward  the 
eoDsiderable  importance  in  the  prognosis  and  orbital  and  the  buccal  cavities ;  very  common 
treatment  of  the  affection.    The  muscles  and  on  the  lower  jaw,  they  grow  sometimes  to  a 
soft  parts  over  an  exostosis  are  generally  not  large  size ;  on  the  clavicle  they  are  compara- 
dunged,  unless  the  tumor  be  of  considerable  tively  rare,  but  exceedingly  common  in  the  pel- 
uo  and  in  the  neighborhood  of  large  nerves  and  vie  cavity,  especially  in  females.    There  is  noth- 
Twds;  bat  the  periosteum  is  almost  always  ing  in  the  nature  of  the  growth  incompatible 
tiiiekeDed,  and  less  adherent  to  the  bone  than  with  life,  the  only  trouble  and  dancer  being  from 
ansL    In  the  first  variety  the  form  is  regular,  their  mechanical  action  upon  neighboring  parts. 
Md  the  bony  fibres  diverge  from  the  natural  di-  The  treatment  consists  in  remedies  addressed  to 
liotioa  to  enter  the  tumor,  as  in  other  forms  of  the  constitutional  eiuse,  if  there  be  any ;  in  ex- 
eeeeotrio  hypertrophy;  in  the  second  variety  citing  the  absorbents  by  mercurials,  mineral 
die  form  23  irregular,  often  fantastic  and  rough,  acids,  and  stimulating  applications;  in  produo- 
ttd  there  is  an  evident  base  by  which  it  is  as  it  ing  artificial  necrosis  by  denuding  them  of  the 
We  immovably  articolatcd  to  the  supporting  periosteum;  and  in  removing  the  tumors  by  the 
koe^  except  in  very  old  growths ;  this  base  in  saw,  chisel,  trephine,  or  other  instruments. 
iceent  eases  is  cartilaginous  and  readily  sepa-  EXPANSION,  the  propertjr  dispbiyed    by 
ated,  and  shows  that  this  kind  of  exostosis  ori-  bodies  of  enlarging  in  bulk  by  increase  of  heat, 
(hates  fhnn  and  is  nourished  by  the  investing  or  in  a  few  instances  by  increase  of  cold,  and  also 
Itriosteun ;  it  indicates  also  a  method  of  treat-  of  moisture.    It  is  seen  in  solids  in  the  common 
IMBt  which  has  been  found  successful,  by  de-  operation  of  setting  the  tire  of  a  wheel ;   the 
Mdiiig  tiiem  of  their  periosteum  and  causing  iron  ring,  being  heated  in  the  circle  of  burning 
ttdr  necrosis  and  separation  from  want  of  nu-  chips  and  coals  arranged  upon  the  gronnd,  en- 
tritkm.    If  the  cartilaginous  base  rests  upon  the  larges  in  bulk,  so  as  easily  to  slip  over  the  fel- 
onder  the  periosteum,  the  removal  of  this  loes,  which  it  pinches  dosely  together,  as  it 


874  EXPANSION  EXPLOSION 

grows  cool  on  the  application  of  cold  water.  It  8pGcifio  f^Tity  increase^  aa  is  shown  hf  •oliJ 

is  aeen  in  liquids  in  tno  riso  of  incrcurj  in  the  pieces  of  a  metal  always  floating  apon   tfi« 

thermometer ;  and  in  aeriform  bodies  in  the  as-  surface  of  a  melted  mass  of  the  aaoM  roeLol, 

oending  currents  of  heated  air,  or  more  plainlj  and  on  cooling  the  metal  expands.    Thus  it  is 

in  the  bursting  of  a  tight  bladder,  as  the  air  that  in  most  castings,  the  monld  is  entirvir 

it  encloses  swells  by  exposure  to  heat.    The  filled  in  its  minntest  parts. — A  great  diflference 

•mount  of  expansion  exhibited  by  different  bod-  is  shown  in  the  amount  of  expansion  of  dixTcr- 

ies  by  anv  given  increase  of  heat  is  very  ra-  cut  liquids  ;  thus  water  gains  |  in  bnik  wImq 

rioos.    Those  only  which  exist  in  the  aeriform  its  temi)erature  is  raised  from  83^  to  Sld^:  cnl 

•tate,  or  as  vapors,  can  be  classed  together  in  of  turpentine  A ;  and  mercury  in  a  gUas  tuba 

this  respect.    They  all  expand  alike  by  the  same  ^V    A  rcuiarkable  exception  to  the  general  lav 

increase  of  temperature.    Like  air  they  increase  of  exiunsion  of  liquids  in  proportioQ  as  they 

in  bulk  from  the  freezing  to  the  boiling  point,  are   heated  is  shown  in  the  case  of  wat^r. 

ao  that  100  measures  at  the  lower  degree  fill  AVhen  this  is  cooled  from  the  temperature  ot 

187i  at  the  higher.    For  each  degree  of  tern-  60**,  it  continues  to  contract  nntU  it  reaches  the 

Graturetho  expansion  is  f\f.    Each  solid  body  temperature  of  80.2^    From  tliis  point  ii  ex- 

s  its  own  rate  of  expansion,  which  however  pands  until  it  freezes  at  32^  its  rate  of  expan- 

is  not  uniform  for  equal  increments  of  tem[)cr-  sion  being  about  the  same  from  89°  whether  it 

atnre,  but  increases  at  high  degrees  in  a  faster  is  heated  or  cooled.    An  important  bcnelicijj 

ratia    This,  nnlests  special  allowance  is  made  effect  resulting  from  this  pecnliarity  in  the  ex- 

for  it  in  the  graduation,  introduces  error  in  pannion  of  water  is  seen  in  the  proCi-rtiuo  it  af« 

tliermometers,  those  marked  off  in  equal  divi-  fords  to  the  natural  bodies  of  this  flnid,  a<%  lakes 

•ions  for  the  high  degrees  evidently  not  being  and  ponds,  against  being  frozen  throoghoct. 

correct.    Another  source  of  error  also  is  in  the  For,  as  the  surface  of  the  water  is  cooled  bek>v 

nneqoal  expaa^ion  of  the  different  materials.  Z9^  by  the  cold  air  above,  this  portion  by  its 

The  mercory  from  the  freezing  to  the  boiling  expansion  becomes  speciticallv  lighter  than  the 

point  of  water  expands  1  in  55.08 ;  between  the  water  below,  and  consequently  remains  at  the 

latter  and  892%  1  in  54.61 ;  and  between  this  top.    At  82""  a  covering  of  ice  Ibrms  over  the 

and  572%  1  in  54.01.    Glass  expAnds  in  the  water,  which  being  a  poor  conductor  of  heat 

same  range  of  temperature,  in  the  first  division,  preserves  the  great  body  of  water  Urlow  from 

w^^;  in  the  2d,  tiWv!  ^^^  ^"  ^^^^  ^9  miv  lalling  to  a  lower  temporatnra  than  3*j'.  the 

In  a  mercurial  thermometer  it  is  the  difference  point  of  its  greatest  density. — So  great  a  p>)w«r 

of  expansion  between  the  mercury  and  tlie  glass  is  exerted  by  the  contraction  of  mtrt^  on 

that  is  indicated,  and  the  tomiK>ratnro  indicated  cooling  after  being  expandeil  by  heatinsr.  that  this 

by  5SC^  would  corresiK)nd  to  tiOT''  determined  has  been  applied  as  a  nK*chanic-al  f  >nv,  ^  :n 

by  the  expansion  of  gla<!<  alone,  or  to  572 '^  by  the  brindng  t(»gether  of  heavy  wolU  of  bu^«i- 

the  air  thermometer.  Varti>u!«iii4tniuients  called  in;M  whioh  hml  HOparatod  by  nno<|u.il  «<^t:'.iv^. 

pyrometers  have  been  devi^il  to  dotormino  Stroni?  inxi  bars  ore  i>aNS^i1  horizontally  thn*u.-h 

nigh  degrees  of  teniiHTaturo  by  the  amount  of  the  oi>iMisite  walls,  and  bein^  hoat<^i  thriujh- 

expaiiiiion  of  bars  of  ditteriMit  nictaln.     Thoynro  out  their   length,   aro   rh»H«.*ly   kvvetl    up  and 

all  approximate  only  in  their  n-ffults,  for  the  then  allowed  to  cool ;   and  ttie  pn^v^'^  i*  ri>- 

reasons  given.     DaniflTs  n^gi^ter  pynHiu-tor  is  TH'ated    until  the  dv<<irfd   ctfcct    is  (»Ic.vdi«!. 

the  most  accurate.     (S'cPvKoMLTEKand  Tiici:-  This  su^^'su  the  danger  of  inserting  bun  vi 

atoMETCR.)    The  exiiaiiMons  of  variuus  IxmIics  metal  cht^ely  in  walU  of  mason n-.  at  ly  t:.« 

from  32^  to  212' are  pr».*M.*ntod  in  tliu  following  furro  oxertetl   hy   their  os|ianMcin   thoy   tc.vl 

table:  to  thrust  pi^rtions  of  the  wall  out   of  fKx-^. 

The  expansion  of  water  in  freezing  has  l«^  a 

XaMft       ■  *;.''^;i'*    ^VT'l""  Auitf  i.r..  prnrtically  ap|iliitl  to  the  n^nding  of  rfK-k\  li.-.* 

fluid  U'lng  |MNiretI  into  the  fiMuri'^  andallovvd 


£inr,  rA»i  ...  I  in  :«-m  to  froeziL*.     Tliii  ii  onc  of  the   nuM   vtScieat 

uld '**■■'"''::  I  -  iSi   I  '••  11:  f"'***^"-  agents  omplort-l  by  niture  f«»r  ihe  di*int.-CTa- 

Tin  .......!.  I  "  .Mrt:i  •■  iT-J  I  tiim  of  rooky  rlitT'*.     The  ex{tan«iiin   l-y  ac-vM 

^^^J I  ;;  M*.!  r  !:':  ;,l-^«;''''"'  **'    ^^    of  moisture 'is  exhihiUMl  in  the  ^well.n•  of  :.^ 


I'.t|«!i«.>-n 

Ki;«iiaMrti 

Auit..  r  i.r%. 

Ut      »l:<"l. 

.11  t<.ik. 

1  in    :«-M 

1    -     .'V** 

1  \ti  lyi 

iruivAton. 

1    "     /C.l 

I  "  11: 

1    -     Mrt: 

1    -    IT-.' 

1     "      SwU 

,  I  -  i::. 

;  I^viii«i>>r    Aju]     Jj^ 

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f       I'l.lCV. 

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1  •-  I'ji 

1 

I  -   fr-.' 

1  -  •-^•7 

I 

I    -     TIJ, 

I  -  ■.'  0 

r»rih-.ifi.n. 

1    -     -l--. 

1   ••  ■'«  • 

!»■.:"•».:  an!  PtISL 

I    "     9i^'- 

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-iij.  a!..;. 

I    "     »?•» 

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I.iii>i«i>r  anil  Lfttilvvt 

1    -  l.>>** 

1  "  »it 

^''.U\t<i;i. 

I  -  i.iai 

1  "  ar: 

-I»ijl..n;;  »n<l  Prlil. 

1 

I  "  l.m 

1  -  ft*i 

\ 

1  **  l.u^ 

I    -    41'i 

lAVi4*ltr  afi-I  Ijittlw^. 

^W      .    ..    I  -    fr-.'   I  -  •.^•7   I  tiiiK'sempiovedata  p(»werful  in^vhoni.^al  f  oi". 

"r";    ::;   }  -    UM  :.  :"  r;';:t"„,nv,s.  ?-  I'V  inM.-rtinsr  wclpM  of  wo.d  intocr.U  ,r 

ADllirfiny    ..     I    **     9/:?    I    >   :tii:    «ii).  at..-,  lUtO  hoIeH  driik^l  foT  tho  pnrTMftiO  in    rv*'jk-.  r.*  i 

TTnii.  rM  .t,^  I    j  ];  ^J   j  "  ••'»   l-i» .;••..  r  an.l  Lftflaro.  then  covering  the  woo«i  with  water.     A*  t*.  • 

riAiintini         I  -  i.im   1  »  1177    i  H  atHortK.'d,  the  wcmmI  ^Kiwir  expands  <-icrf ..~.; 

^'.••\*"""'***  '  •l»ui"n;;»nii  Prlil.  a  ste.idv  prcftturoof  suHirisini;  fiifi^^  toctwn '.:.? 

ritatsuJ::    1  ^\\tA.  I  -  4iS   iiiv.4,i.ran.i  Ui.i*^.  fi-';"r«?.7-The  prisc-Hco  of  moi»ture  in  ihc  aTr. - 

■  sphere  is  a«oertained   by  in**tnini«'nts  bsvvl  1*1 

The  exiMnVifin   in   Imlk   ii  thui  foiunl   to  l»o  this  prinriplo.    fSoe  lirontivrm.)     K^r  il« 

about   3   time-t  the   linear  exp-nn^ijin,      Wlu'n  ctfi'ot  nf  ex[ian«ionof  yte^im.  it^v  .^'^tv 
metals  beciimo  liquid  by  fii«i.>n.  u  ih;mgo  tiiken        KXl*L*»SIoy.  the  hudd.ii  and  \\'",%i.i  .  i- 

place  in  tlio  law  of  their  cxpausiou ;  their  pansion  of  a  body  by  its  cumpv«cnt  pans  af< 


EXPLOSION  876 

aninngfl  great  increase  of  bulk.    In^npowder  occurred  at  a  large  blast  famace  in  Wales 
tnis  is  the  result  of  its  elements  suddenly  enter-  some  years  ago,  which  was  caused  by  one  of 
log  into  new  combinations  and  assuming  the  the  workmen  throwing  a  shovelful  of  hot  coals 
gaseous  state  by  the  application  of  heat.    As  into  the  top,  when  the  charges  had  run  very 
mentioned  in  the  article  Blasting,  the  bulk  is  low,  preparatory  to  blowing  out.    The  whole 
thus  instantly  increased  more  than  450  times,  stack  was  instantly  demolished  with  a  tremen- 
fQpposing  the  temperature  of  the  gases  to  be  dous  explosion,  and  9  men  were  killed. — ^The 
at  the  freezing  pomt ;  but  such  a  degree  of  wonderful  power  developed  by  the  explosion  of 
heat  is  developed  in  the  chemical  changes  which  gunpowder  is  shown  by  the  experiments  of 
take  place,  that  the  volume  of  the  gases  is  sup-  Count  Rumford.    He  loaded  a  mortar  with  ^ 
posed  to  be  firom  4,000  to  6,000  times  that  of  of  an  ounce  of  powder,  and  closing  up  every 
the  powder.    A  remarkable  feature  in  these  aperture  he  placed  a  cannon  so  as  to  rest  upon 
explosions  is  the  immense  velocity  with  which  the  charge  with  a  pressure  of  8,081  lbs.    On 
the  gases  expand ;  and  another  is  the  intense  firing,  the  mortar  burst  with  a  loud  explodon, 
degree  of  heat  produced.  Explosions  are  caused  raising  the   cannon  upon  it.     Twenty-eiffht 
by  the  sadden  formation  of  steam  in  consider-  grains  of  powder  closely  confined  in  a  cylindri- 
able  qoantities,  or  by  the  sudden  failure  of  the  cal  space  which  it  just  filled  on  exploding  burst 
vessel  in  which  it  is  confined  to  longer  retain  a  bar  of  iron  capable  of  resisting  a  strain  of 
it    By  its  property  of  elasticity  it  instantly  200  tons.    One  of  the  most  remarkable  gmi- 
tBsnmes  a  greater  volume,  breaking  from  its  powder  explosions  on  record  occurred  at  nil- 
eonfinement  with  the  violent  movement  of  an  mington,  Del.,  May  81, 1854.     Tliree  wagons 
explosion.    Electrical  explosions  are  produced  from  Dupont's  mills,  loaded  with  150  barrek  of 
bv  the  instantaneous  restoration  of  equilib-  powder  which  contained  12,000  lbs.,  were  pass- 
nam  between  two  bodies  differently  excited,  ing  through  the  town  near  toeeUier.    By  some 
It  is  witnessed  in  its  most  terrific  forms  in  means  fire  was  communicated  to  the  powder, 
the  stroke  of  lightning,  and  in  the  discharge  and  the  whole  blew  up.    The  effects  were  felt 
of  the  fire  balls  which  are  seen  at  times  to  in  the  buildings  for  more  than  a  mile  around, 
burst  with  tremendous  reports  in  the  atmo-  Some  were  destroyed ;  windows  in  those  near 
iphere.    Liquids  thrown  in  very  small  quantity  by  were  burst  in ;  in  others  the  nearest  win- 
■pon  the  surface  of  molten  copper  cause  most  dows  to  the  explosion  were  burst  in,  and  the 
violent  explosions,  which  can  hardly  be  ex-  others  out ;  while  in  those  further  off  the  force 
idained  by  the  mere  evolution  of  the  gaseous  was  exerted  outward.    A  wagon  tire  was  torn 
bodies  which  the  liquid  employed  is  capable  of  off  the  wheel,  and  a  piece  left  on  a  hill  a  quarter 
prodacing.     If  melted  metal  is  allowed  to  fiow  of  a  mile  off.    Shoes  were  stripped  off  the  feet 
u  moist  sand  or  moulds  containing  water,  ex-  of  the  horses,  and  in  the  houses  the  casters  from 
plosions  are  produced  which  are  often  attended  the  furniture  and  the  hinges  from  the  doors, 
with  serious  consequences.    They  are  not  of  Under  the  wagons  depressions  were  made  in 
rare  occurrence  in  iron  foundcries.    In  these,  the  hard  macadamized  road  by  a  condensation 
bat  more  particularly  in  large  blast  furnaces,  of  the  earth.    The  one  under  the  middle  wag- 
ex[^osions  sometimes  occur  n'om  bodies  of  in-  on  measured  10  feet  by  6,  and  was  3  feet 
flammable  gases  collecting  in  the  furnace  itself  deep.    Cast  iron  water  pipes  4  or  5  feet  below 
or  in  the  hot  sdr  chambers  or  flues,  or  under  the  the  surface  were  broken  off.    The  most  terri- 
boQera,  where  they  are  conveyed  to  be  consum-  ble  explosion  which  ever  occurred  was  that  at 
ed  for  the  heat  they  produce,  and  where  they  Brescia  in  Aug.  1767.    In  the  vaults  of  the 
beoome  mixed  with  atmospheric  air.    At  one  church  of  St.  Nazairo  a  large  quantity  of  am- 
of  Uie  large  blast  furnaces  of  the  Thomas  iron  munition  was  stored  belonging  to  the  repub« 
eampuij^  on  the  Lehigh  river  in  Pennsylvania,  lie  of  Venice.    This  was  fired  by  a  stroke  of 
a  terrific  explosion  occurred  a  few  years  since  lightning,  207,600  lbs.  exploding  at  once,  rednc^ 
from  the  gas  from  the  lower  part  of  the  stock  ing  nearly  |  of  the  city  to  ruins,  and  destroying 
finding  its  way  back  into  the  air  receiver  and  about  8,000  of  the  inhabitants. — In  the  explo- 
blowing  cylinders;  and  a  still  more  disastrous  sion  of  gaseous  mixtures,  most  powerful  effects 
cx|dkMion  of  the  same  nature  took  place  at  the  are  caused  when  these  produce  water  by  the 
Hadson  iron  works  on  the  Hudson  river,  by  combination  of  their  elements,  as  in  the  mixture 
wiueh  an  enormous  globe  of  boiler  plate  iron,  of  two  volumes  of  hydrogen  with  one  of  oxy- 
40  feet  in  diameter,  used  for  giving  regularity  gen.     The  vapor  generated  is  rendered  ex- 
to  the  blast,  was  blown  apart^  the  upper  half  tremely  rare  by  the  intense  heat.    By  condens- 
ef  the  shell  being  torn  and  thrown  off  with  a  ing  this,  and  thus  producing  a  vacuum,  it  has 
liport  that  startled  the  city  as  if  it  had  been  an  been  thought  practicable  to  apply  explosions  to 
Mrtiiqiiake.    Explosions  in  the  stacks  occur  in  generate  mechanical  power  for  useful  purposes; 
Mw  fomaces  not  well  dried  before  they  are  put  and  machines  have  been  contrived  with  this 
ia  blast,  and  sometimes  are  repeated  at  intervals  object.    In  the  Dietionnaire  des  arts  et  manu- 
fag  weeksL    A  new  furnace  at  Rossie,  St.  Law-  factures  an  account  is  given  of  an  invention  of 
mee  oo.,  N.  Y.,  some  years  since  exploded  from  M.  Selligue,  by  which  it  was  proposed  to  pro- 
tius  eanse,  throwing  out  a  considerable  portion  pel  vessels  through  tho  water  by  exploding  re- 
ef ita  contents  and  setting  fire  to  all  that  was  peated  charges  of  corburetted  hydrogen  mixed 
CMaboatible  about  it   A  most  serious  explosion  with  atmospheric  air  through  two  strong  tubes 


876  EXPONENT  EXPRESS 

which  were  dtrcctcd  through  tho  stem  and  Shoemaker  of  Baltimore  in  an  cxpreis  irom 

opened  nndcr  tlie  water.  Philadelphia  to  Washington,  D.  C.    Aboot  th« 

EXPONENT  ^Lat.  cxponere,  to  manifest),  in  saine  timo  llarnden  and  co.'a  Boston,  Sprini?- 

arithmetic  and  atgcbra,  a  smtill  figure  or  letter,  field,  and  Albany  express  was  parcliawd  bj 

written  to  the  right  uf  and  above  a  quantity  or  Thom|>son  and  co.,  who  gare  it  their  nanw, 

fjgebraic  tenn,  to  show  liow  often  the  quantity  which  it  still  beanii.    Abont  tho  samo  period 

or  term  must  be  multiplied  by  it»elf.    Thus,  Gay  and  co.,  afterward  Ciay  and  Kinney,  cckm- 

8^  signifies  that  4  threes  must  bo  multiplied  to-  menced  what  is  now  known  as  Kinney  a&d 

getlier,  and  3*  is  equal  to  81 ;  in  like  manner  co/s  express,  running  between  New  York  a&l 


^a^^'hY  signifies  that  tho  sum  ofthe  numbers  rep-  Boston,  via  Newport  and  Full  Ri\'er.  The  ex- 
resented  by  a  and  b  must  bo  written  down  as  press  lines  from  Albany  to  Buffalo,  and  tlieof« 
many  times  as  there  are  units  in  e,  and  then  to  the  remoter  west,  were  established  by  Henry 
multiplied  consecutively  into  itself.  ^Seo  Al-  AVoIls.  Tho  first  express  west  of  Bnt'rslo  was 
OBBBA.) — £xiK)nential  equations  and  runctiuns  commenced  in  April,  1845,  by  Me««r«.  WcZli^ 
arc  tlioso  in  which  the  exiwnents  contain  un-  Fargo  and  Dunning,  under  the  Ftylc  of  W«IU  and 
known  or  variable  quantitios;  such  asy=a*,  in  co.  It  was  disposed  ot  2  yeam  afterward,  to 
which  a  is  tho  only  known  quantity.    Expo-  William  G.  Fargo  and  William  A.  ' 


on  any  special  errand,  particularly  a  courier  des-  and  Butterfield,  Wasson,  and  co.     The  «xpre« 

patched  with  imiHirtant  communications.    In  line  last  named  had  been  created  about  a  year 

the  United  States  the  word  is  applied  to  a  system  previous   by  John  Butterfield.    Thc^ie  3  c«io- 

organized  for  the  transportation  of  merchandise  cems,  when  united,  were  called  the  **  Ainericia 

or  parcels  of  any  kind.  This  system  was  originat-  Express  Comi>auy."    William  F.  llarnden.  the 

cdlLarch  4, 1839,  when,  agreeably  to  announce-  founder  of  tho  express  business  dioil  in  19M» 

ment  published  for  several  days  in  tho  news-  leaving  little  or  no  property.   In  the  mean  timt 

pa{)ers,  Mr.  William  F.  llarnden  of  Boston  mado  numerous  bhort  express  route?*  and   litoal  ei- 

a  trip  from  that  city  to  New  York  as  a  public  presses    had    come    into   succo^ul  o{teratiot 

messenger.    His  route  was  by  tho  ]^>ston  and  throughout  Massachusetts  and  thv  re«t  U  Stw 

Providence  railroad  and  the  Long  Island  sound  England.    Mesirs.  Pullen,   VinriL   and  Scom^ 

steamboat,  which  connected  with  that  line,    lie  who  by  their  efiicient  services  had  C(»rjtribatcd 


had  in  charge  a  few  booksellers'  bundles  and  largely  to  the  success  of  llarnden's  l*u**ine«  ia 

orders,  and  some  brokers*  parcels  of  New  York  its  infancy,   n(»w  started  an  expre«<t  U^twii^n 

and  southern  and  western  bank  notes  to  deliver  New  York  and  Montreal,  aixl  laid  thf  fiv:*.!s. 

or  exchange — a  service  for  which  he  charged  tionof tho'^NatiiinalKxpres-iCornpaP.}."  Wcl\ 

an  ade<}ii:ito  c(>m|»ensation.     Mr.  Harndon  pro-  Fargi>,  and  co/s  Califi>ruia  expri>^  wa*  rrraici 

posed  alH>  to  take  the  charge  of  freight,  and  in  the  city  of  New  Y«irk  in  1>VJ.     A'li'.i*  am! 

attend  to  its  early  delivery.     Fur  this  puriM»se  co.'s  C\Hli!orni.i  expre-i-*,  i-staMi^!ieil  in  I***:*.  w»i 

he  had  made  a  cuntrai't  with  the  above  naine<l  succeeded  in  \^'>o  by  tliat  uf  Frceriiin  uu^  c>\ 

railroad  and  steamboat  cunipanies.     He  was  to  In  1^54  Adams  and  c>».,  the  Harnilen  «x;'rr4 

make  4  trips  |>er  week.     The  pn>ject  ret*om-  (tlien  owned  by  ThMnip<k)n  .ind    I.ivir.c-;*  ri, 

mended  Um:\{  to  bnsine-^s  men,  e>j»eri;illy  th«>so  Kiii'slev  and  co.,  and  H'^ev  ar.il  r-*..  w^  :c  o»a- 

whose  ri>inniunieatioi:s  l>etweun  the  two  cities  soli  dated  inn  joint  sttK'k  in-tit'itii<n.  i)i>w  fskzn  -n 

were  frequent.     It  was  partieularly  areeptalile  as  the  **  AdatU'*  Exprei^s  C\»inpany."     !••  »t  •k 

to  the  pre**-*,  to  which  Mr.  llarnden  male  him»clf  is  in  r2.CMio  hliares  of  ni>  ntati-d  pir  va!  :«•.  Ij: 

very  usefulin  the  voluntary  trau'imis.-ion  of  the  usually   m^arded  n<  worth   at  ha*t    $]'*>>  ;<*r 

latest  intellipoMce,  in  advance  of  the  mail.     A  share.     The  **  Tnited  Stages  Kx  pro*  i'«?np4.*s*'' 

year    later   (l*^*)  a    eomiK'ting  cxjirvvv*  was  was  comnienre<l  in    l^'.Jl.     It  run*  a  i?.r*':.'h 

sta.'ied  by  I*.  U.  liurke  and  AIv;in  Adam*,  tho  expre'*s  t^ioe  a  day  to  Hiifful\  ov«  r  tl.i*  Nc 

ownership  and  sole  oivralion  of  wliieh  stH»u  de-  York  and  Erie  railMad,  and  thfT.iv  t^>  i/i;:icr\'i« 

Tolved  utHjn  tho  laUer.     In  \^\l    Mr.  Adams  wo-ilern  cities  towns,  and  i^t^itii •:.■*.     lK'*.wt<a 

associated  wish  him  William  It.  Dtn-iniorv*  of  New  York  a[id  I>unkirk.  and  nt  u!«  (;ic  »ta:i  ::« 

Boston  as  his  partner,  and  ;:.ive  him  the  charge  uinm  itn  route,  the  New  York  an^l  KrM»r».>.«3d 

of  their  New  York  tillice.     Adams  and  f.>.*s  ex-  company  U  di»inj  anexpre^-bu-ine*-  »Mx*!.  wm 

press  was  corried  by  the  Norwi*  h  and  Wnrii»^ter  fir?»t  i*sta!ili-iie<l  by  the  roju'iir  txpri  --«  co-jj  ir.j 

route.     In  IMU  Mr.  I>.  Hn;:ham,  jr.,  llarnde;i*s  l:i>t  mentione«1.  The"  Ib»pe  Exp.'\*'.(*ri.j.3-ji.* 

New  York  ."urent,  Invame  hi'*  partni-r,  and  tnHH\  tho  **  New  .Jersey  Expre^*  l''«nipa.'.y."  ar.i  il« 

after  went  to  En;:Iaiid,  wlure  he  laid  the  founda-  "  Howard    Expre*^   Ci-mpany."  v*!Al'*.-Vd  i* 

tionof  Haniilen  and  cii.'h  f.ir«-i^'n  l>M^ine'«<«.     Ho  Joint  >to»'k  conrern:*  nnro  l*»'»l.  **vr\'  f  ■.:,  I^-i 

ret  u  met!  in  1  Ml.  and  in  tliat  Vfar  their  line  was  uiniu  snrresMul  indi\idual  in;«r:'ri<»  «  i*f  ».--*.« 

extentlctl  south  im  far  a<  I'hihtilelplii.i,  and  We^t  Veara'  Mandin;:  pri«ir  to  that  d.tU.     They  t^ri .» 

to  Allianv.     .V  vear«)r  twu  later  .\d.iin-aiid  co.  everv  iiart  of  New  .Tv^^-v  ai;  1    Pi\:  *'^>i...i 

established  E.  S.  S.-mford  a**  tluir  :;tr«rit  in  PI.il-  The  "  La-tern  Expr.  -4C'''niii:i:\ "  a^-.  .•  a  i:r.    a 

tuelphia,  and  lie  lucarne  a  p:irtn*r  in  tin  ir  bn-*]-  of  SK'Ver.il  indivi'li::il    t  n!t  rpr,-*  n  o.i:.*....iiU«i 

there.  He  alMi  became  asoociatcd  with  b.M.  Jan.  1,  1^7.    I ta  principal  otlica  is  in  Ik^uo, 


EXPRESS  EXTRACTS                   877 

wbenoe  its  lines  diverge  by  varionsraOro&d  and  fireight  npon  it  to  the  nearest  station  to  which 
steamboat  routes  into  Maine  and  New  Hamp-  the  express  can  convey  it  is  entered  in  the  pre- 
ahire.  ilske  and  co.,  and  Oheney,  Fiske,  and  paid  column,  and  the  balance  of  the  prepayment 
CO.,  are  proprietors  of  expresses  which  have  been  is  entered  in  what  is  called  the  **  paid  throngh** 
Tery  nsefnl,  for  some  years  past,  in  Massachn-  column,  to  defray  the  cost  of  completing  its 
tette,  New  Hampshire,  and  Vermont  Massa-  transit  to  destination.  The  footings  of  the  pre- 
chnaetts  is  remarkable  for  the  number  of  its  paid  and  paid  through  columns  are  charged  to 
ezpresaefl,  the  most  of  which  have  short  routes,  the  agency  where  the  package  was  billed ;  the 
and  are  operated  by  individual  enterprise.  The  footings  of  the  expense  and  freight  columns  to 
"  American-European  Express  and  Exchange  the  agent  to  whom  the  way  bill  is  sent.  Every 
Company,^'  created  in  New  York,  July  1, 1855,  package  is  compared  with  the  entry  in  the  way 
was  locmaed  upon  the  business  of  Livingston  bill  by  the  agent  receiving  it,  and  if  correct,  it 
aod  Wells,  and  Edwards,  Sanford,  and  co.  It  is  checked  off;  if  wrong,  information  of  the 
■ends  and  receives  an  express  by  every  regular  error  is  sent  to  the  proper  source.  If  it  consists 
fiM  of  foreign  steamships,  and  transacts  business  of  an  erroneous  charge,  the  receiving  agent 
in  London,  Faris,  and  all  the  European  cities,  charges  it  back  in.  his  way  bill  to  the  office 
Ibe  American  express  company  does  an  im-  where  it  was  made.  Thus  the  mistake  is 
meose  carrying  and  collecting  business  through-  speedily  rectified.  As  every  agent  issuing  a 
out  the  western  states  and  territories.  It  has  way  bill  keeps  a  copy  of  it,  the  correction  of 
offices  and  agencies  in  upward  of  400  cities  and  errors  is  greatly  facilitated.  The  agents  file 
tmrnSL  Its  joint  stock  capital,  $760,000,  is  in  all  the  way  bills  received  by  them,  and  priodi* 
ftues  of  $100  each,  selling,  when  they  find  cally  return  them  to  the  main  office  of  the  divi* 
their  way  into  the  market,  which  is  seldom,  at  sion.  The  express  messengers  are  great  travel- 
in  advance. — ^The  aggregate  capital  invested  at  lers ;  there  is  one  in  the  city  of  New  York  who 
present  in  the  express  business  is  variously  has  made  the  transit  of  1,500,000  miles  during 
«itimat4Nl  at  from  $10,000,000  to  $15,000,000.  the  kst  10  years.  The  express  service,  in  afi 
It  is  said  to  jrield  from  12  to  14  per  cent  per  its  departments,  gives  employment  to  upward 
mninn  to  the  stockholders.    The  amount  of  ^of  5,000  men. 

bank  notes  and  other  money  transported  by  *    EXTRACTS,  in  pharmacy,  matters  obtained 

the  express  companies  is  not  less  than  $10.-  by  digesting  vegetable  substances  with  water,  al- 

000,000  per  day.     They  have  contracts  witn  cohol,  ether,  or  acetic  acid,  and  evaporating  the 

the  banks  for  this  service,  charging  from  18  to  80  products  until  they  are  reduced  to  a  pasty  or 

cents  per  $1,000,  according  to  the  distance,  sometimes  hard  and  dry  consistence.    In  some 

aad  these  prices,  in  ordinary  times,  regulate  the  instances,  as  in  succulent  and  green  vegetable 

lates  of  exchange  between  the  cities  of  the  matter,  the  active  principle  which  it  is  desired  to 

United  States.    The  expresses  travel  at  the  most  obtain  is  separated  by  expressi  ng  the  juices  of  the 

rapid  rate  possible,  and  moke  the  transit  of  plant.   These  are  then  evaporated  to  the  proper 

18,000  miles  of  railroad  twice  daily.    Every  car  consistence.    Before  pressing,  the  substances  are 

or  train  of  express  freight  is  accompanied  by  a  also  sometimes  mixed  with  the  fluid  selected 

aeoenger,  who   has   also  in  charge   sundry  for  the  solution  and  allowed  to  stand  for  some 

very  Itfge  trunks,  full  of  small  but  valuable  hours.    In  selecting  a  suitable  menstruum  in 

pareels,  and  one  or  more  iron  boxes  or  safes,  which  to  procure  the  principles  of  the  plant, 

about  18  inches  square,  containing  money  for  reference  is  had  to  the  nature  of  these ;  if  they 

delivery  to  banks,  brokers,   and  others.     To  are  gums  or  starch  which  may  be  taken  up  by 

the  express  agent  at  each  station  he  delivers  water,  the  cheap  fluid  is  employed,  and  the  resins 

what  tne  way  bill  to  that  place  may  call  for,  which  are  soluble  only  in  alcohol  or  ether  are 

and  receives  freight,  &c.,  to  be  forwarded  from  left  behind.    But  if  it  be  the  resins  or  the  vola- 

tfaat  point  to  towns  further  on.    All  this  is  dono  tile  oils  which  it  is  desirable  to  obtain,  alcohol 

at  the  station  during  the  ordinary  pause  made  or  ether  is  employed  to  separate  these,  and  the 

Irfthe  express  train.    Every  thing  in  charge  of  gums,  starch,  &c.,  which  are  soluble  only  in 

the  express  for  transportation  is  entered  with  water,  do  not  pass  with  the  matters  soluble  in 

die  date  npon  a  way  bill  at  the  office  or  station  alcohol  through  the  filter.    Various  methods 

fnuk  which  it  is  forwarded.    The  address  of  are  adopted  to  effect  solutions  of  vegetable 

•adi  package  is  entered  in  full,  and  the  fare  principles,  so  as  to  obtain  their  full  strength 

vUch  the  express  is  to  receive  upon  it.    If  tho  without  endangering  their  decomposition  by 

Vgeot  has  received  it  from  some  other  express,  exposure  to  too  great  heat.    It  was  the  opinion 

or  odier  sonrce,  to  which  he  has  paid  a  prior  of  Orfila,  from  numerous  experiments  upon  ex- 

dmrgt  npon  it,  he  enters  the  amount  so  paid  by  tracts,  that  their  virtues  diminish  in  proportion 

Urn  in  the  column   of  **  cash   expenses,^'  or  to  the  degree  of  heat  to  which  they  ore  exposed. 

ijurimi,  and  it  is  put  to  his  credit,  and  collected,  The  method  by  hot  infusion  is  consequently 

tofouier  with  the  freight,  upon  tho  delivery  of  adopted,  and  that  also  of  maceration.    By  the 


Ihe  Mdcage  at  its  destination.    If,  on  the  other    latter,  plants  are  left  with  alcohol  a  week  or 

bnd,  the  freight  has  been  prepaid,  the  amount    more  at  a  time,  and  i' 

is  entered  in  the  ^  prepaid''  column.    If  it  has    hastened  by  digestion  at  a  moderate  heat.    An 


the  process  b  sometimes 
I  at  a  moderate  heat.    An 
prepaid  to  some  point  beyond  the  terminus    excellent  method  of  obtaining  concentrated  ex- 
of  tbe  expruss  line,  or  aside  from  the  route,  the    tracts  with  cold  liquids  has  been  introduced  by 


878  EXTBAOTS  EXUVIA 

the  French,  and  b  called  bj  them  the  method  carefnllj  protected  from  the  air;  and  when  a^ 

of  diiiplacement,  for  which  the  name  percola-  plied  to  lue,  it  may  be  in  the  form  of  piU«»  dry 

ting  proccM  might  well  be  aabstitnted.    It  is  powder,  or  tinctures,  prepared  bj  disK»lTiii^ia 

the  principle  of  lixiviation  exhibited  in  the  alcohol  or  some  other  proper  aolrent. — u- 

eommon  miNlo  of  extracting  the  lye  from  wood  tb  active,  or  ExTRAcnvB  Matrk,  is  the  name 

ashes  for  making  soap.    A  quantity  of  water  given  to  a  brownish  substance,  which  forms  in 

poured  int4>  the  cask  upon  the  ashes  becomes  evaporating  vegetable  solntions  bj  a  portioo  of 

aatarated  with  the  potash;  and  if  more  water  the  vegetable  matter  absorbing  oxygvo  from 

is  afterward  added,  the  first  portion  is  not  weak-  tlio  air  and  becoming  inralable  in  water.    It 

ened  by  its  mixing  with  it,  but  the  strong  p^es  a  brownish  color  to  the  water  with  which 

liquor  is  di<«placod  on  the  passage  for  its  exit  it  is  mixed,  and  appears  to  be  similar  in  iu  pn^ 

being  opened  under  tlie  filtering  material  in  the  perties  to  the  humine  or  ulmine  of  diflenrat 

bottom  of  tlie  cask.    The  second  body  of  water,  chemistii,    lierzelins  proposed  for  it  the  namt 

allowed  to  Ftand  in  the  same  way,  acquires  apotheme,  meaning  oeposiL    It  is  used  as  a 

much  less  strenf^h ;  and  the  third  still  less,  basis  for  brown  dyes,  and  combines  with  tha 

Cylindrical  ves»eU  of  tin  and  of  queenswara  or  mordant  alumina. 

glass  are  now  n^ied  for  obtaining  vegetable  ex-        EXTRACTION  OF  ROOTS,  in  nrithipHkL 

tracts  on  this  plan.    They  terminate  below  in  the  process  of  finding  a  number  which  mnltiplisd 

the  fonn  of  a  funnel,  and  where  the  cylinder  by  itself  a  given  number  of  timea  will  prodaet 

begins  to  contract  into  this  shape,  a  colander  is  the  given  nnmbor.    The  first  root  is  the  dbid- 

accurately  fitted.    On  tliis  is  placed  some  cot-  her  itself,  the  2d  root  requires  to  be  multiplisd 

ton  or  tow,  and  then  the  vessel  is  nearly  filled  once  by  itself,  the  8d  root  twice,  Jkc.    That 

with  the  vegetable  substance,  which  has  been  the  2d  root  of  4,006  is  64,  the  8d  rout  is  16,  the 

first  ground  to  powdor  in  a  mill   Water,  ether,  4th  root  is  8,  the  6th  is  4,  the  12th  is  S.    The 

or  some  other  liquid  is  then  gradually  added  2d  root  is  called  the  square  root«  becaaie  it  tx- 

nntil  the  powder  is  saturated  with  it,  the  escape  presses  tlie  linear  side  of  a  square  whoae  sopv* 

thron<:h  the  funnel  being  Btopi)ed  by  a  plug  or  ficies  is  expressed  by  the  original  nnmber ;  and 

atopcock  in  the  lower  end  as  long  as  may  be^  the  8d  root  is  call^  the  cube  root,  beoaoss  it 

desired.    The  powder  may  be  covered  with  a  expresses  the  linear  side  of  a  cube  whose  solid* 

second  colander  or  diajihragm   pierced  with  ity  is  expressed  by  the  original  nmnber.    Tha 

hole^  and  upon  this  successive  portions  of  4,096  cubic  inches  would  iMOontainc^l  inn  cabs 

water  may  !«  i>oured,  filling  the  cylinder.    It  is  ojf  16  inches ;  and  4,096  square  inchn  in  a  sqoati 

important  that  tiiift  should  be  kept  constantly  of  64  inches.    Roots  are  most  easily  extracted 

full.     Hy  making;  the  top  of  tlie  cylinder  air-  by  means  of  logarithms.    (Sco  LooABmnu.) 
tijrht  and  intriMiuoin?  a  tube,  any  amount  of        EXTREME  UNCTION,  a  sacrament  of  the 

prospiiro  may   he  obtained,  anconling  to  the  Roman  Catholic  church,  administered  to  f«f» 

nei|j!it  to  uhirli  tliit  in  oxtondcd.     In  eva[)orat-  sons  in  danger  of  death,  and  held  by  that  chcrrh 

ing  the  }i4)luti<>n  after  this  is  lilituined,  tlie  same  to  have  the  ftfect  of  abeohing  fruni  sin,  iafot* 

care  is  rc'inirod  to  avoid  t«>o  lii;:)i  a  dofrrce  of  ing  grace,  strongt honing  ai;ain«t  ttrmptation.  and 

heat;  aiul  in  some  in<t:mrv"t,  t«M>,  access  of  air  s<m)ctimes  rc>toring  bodily  health.     It  i»  »i- 

has  an  injurious  ctKct,  atid  is  consequently  to  ministen-d  by  a  pric>«t.  who,  whilo  r\-p«aiinf  tht 

be  piank-d  n^^iinst,     Tliou^h  c<incentration  by  prescribed  fonn  of  vord«,  anoints  iho  vv^-^  rtfv 

l>oilii!i;  is  the  ruinmon  metlitMl  adopted,  and  the  nostrils,  liiis,  hand\  fci-t,  and  in  f«.>me  \Ltoct 

liquid  is  fur  irreatorKifoty  hoated  by  steam  pipes,  the  breast  of  the  sick  jK^rson  wiih  od  blc^^cd 

it  is  readily  soon  that  evaporation  conducted  for  the  puriKkso  by  tlie  bi>hop  every  year  uc  lbs 

under  the  n-oiiviT  of  an  air  pump,  as  in  the  Thnrii<1ay  iK'fore  EiL^^tor. 
vacuum  pans  u>i'd  in  su^ur  rctineries  is  a  for        EXL'VLK,  a  Latin  word  a«ed  innotoral  kis» 

bettiT  nu>thi>d,  the  procens  going  on  at  a  very  tory  to  designate  the  cast-otT  c>i»verin^»  vi  mm- 

low  ti'niporutiire,  and  with(»ut  ex{>osure  to  cur-  mals,  as  the  outer  skins  perio«1ically  shed  ty 

rents  .if  uir.     It  is  even  found  oxyKHlient  in  some  many  reptiU^  the  shelly  cuvcrinri  of  crc<srv- 

cases  to  make  ii<e  <if  a  surface  of  (iiil|ihuric  acid  ous  animals,  as  the  lobster  and  tin*  crab,  and  th^ 

in  the  ox!ian>>t('d  receiver  f  »r  abiiorbing  the  integuments  frequently  cast  oif  by  iniccL*.     la 

TaiK»rs  as  they  uro  formed,  that  their  elastic  the  case  of  the  toad,  the  exuviae  aru  rant! y  *<«& 

forco   m:iy  not  art  like  atnuKplioric  pressure  fhtm  the  fact  that  the  animal  as  ikion  «!«  L«  Lm 

to  check  xUvir  evnliitinn.     (Si>e  KvAi*oiiATio!r.)  guccee<led  in  freeing  himself  from  the  uld  li.^ 

The  intKt  jK'rftvt  pnxvssos  are  thus  conduct-  ndls  this  into  a  little  ball,  and  instant ly  sw alio vs 

ed  in  the  Tnitfil  State*  uim-iu  a  very  extended  it.    The  pn^cew  of  casting  otT  the  citvcrin^t!<at 

scale,  and  the  r^'MiIt  is  a  trreat  improvement  hassen'cditjjipurpoMMs  withm^Wof  thcaaicAis 

in  the  quality  of  the  extra«'ts,  and  particular-  an  o[H*rationn*«|uirincmachelTif<l^  andattrndni 

ly   in  thi'jr   nnifonnity.      Tho  eviqMiration   is  with  no  little  disi^omfort.     Theraake,  wbrr.  the 

continued   until  the  extrart   is  procun*<i   in    a  old  cnticle  becomes  dead,  and  begins  to  luaw« 

thick  pa>ty  t^tnte  tmtable  for  beinj;  mode  into  at  the  head,  is  partially  blind«<d   by  its  ^-ipa- 

pills;  «ir  ill  i-ilur  cum^a  it  is  currinl  on  till  the  city.     lie  Un^omcs  hluinn«h  in  hi«  ntoTemreti^ 

prmlurt  is  tliur> Mistily  (Iri^nl.     The  vajtors  aro  and  of\en  rubs  the  »idi.*s  of  bis  mnath  againsC 

aomctinu's  rondi-ns4>d  and   tho   li<{uid   awdiM  hanllNMlifs;  and  i»  hen  at  la^t  the  skin  t«  kA- 

1  to  the  same  uses.    Extracts  should  bo  ciently  detached  to  be  stripped  ol(  and  t^ 


ETALET  EYOE  879 

pirt  tftmnd  the  moath  is  started  back,  he  coils  Good,  dake  of  Bnrgnndy,  sent  to  Lisbon,  when 

the  posterior  portion  of  the  body  about  the  he  sued  for  the  hand  of  the  daughter  of  King 

bead  in  front  of  the  old  skin,  and  tightening  the  John  I.  of  Portugal.    In  the  museum  of  Berlin 

eoil  presses  the  skin  backward,  turninff  it  in-  are  preserved  the  wings  of  the  famous  picture 

ode  oot,  until,  as  the  coil  unwinds  b^runmng  out  whicn  the  above-named  celebrated  painters — 

toward  the  tail,  the  whole  body  is  freed  from  the  actual  founders  of  the  great  Flemish  school 

its  covering.    The  lobster  and  crab  in  casting  —executed  for  the  cathedral  at  Ghent    On 

their  ahdUs,  which  they  do  for  the  most  part  an-  these  wings,  which  represent  holy  hermits  and 

BiiaDy,  are  exposed  to  great  danger  until  the  pilgrims,  Jan  van  £yck  has  embellished  the 

Mv  one  is  formed*  They  skulk  in  retired  places,  landscape  with  orange  and  date  trees  and  oy- 

m^  ventming  out  when  the  pangs  of  hunger  presses,  which,  from  their  extreme  truth  to  na- 

compel  them  to  seek  for  food.    The  operation  ture,  impart  a  solemn  and  imposing  character  to 

■Hit  of  necessi^  be  a  very  di£Scult  one,  the  the  other  dark  masses  in  the  picture.  One  feels, 

Mctkm  oCthe  boay  contained  in  the  claws  being  on  looking  at  this  painting,  that  the  artist  roust 

mvn  oat  so  as  to  leave  the  shells  of  these  com-  himself  have  received  the  impression  of  a  vege- 

flete  and  attached  to  the  shell  of  the  body.  It  is  tation  fanned  by  gentle  breezes.    In  consider- 

■id  that  the  lobster  pines  before  casting  till  the  ing  the  master-works  of  the  brothers    Van 

§aik  of  the  daws  wastes  away,  and  is  no  larger  £yck  we  have  not  advanced  beyond  the  first 

tim  a  goose  quill.    The  cast-off  feathers  of  birds  half  of  the  15th  century,  when  the  more  highly 

nd  the  hair  shed  by  other  animals,  as  also  the  perfected  style  of  oil  painting,  which  was  only 

mrf  dun  of  man,  are  exuviaa.    In  geology,  the  just  banning  to  replace  painting  in  distemper, 

%ma  is  applied  to  all  fossil  remains  of  animals,  had  already  attuned  to  a  nigh  decree  of  tecnni- 

ii  dMlIi,  bones,  &c  oal  perfection.    The  taste  for  a  vivid  represen- 

ETALET,  a  word  of  Arabic  origin,  applied  tation  of  natural  forms  was  awakened,  and  if 

ly  the  Tarks  to  the  great  administrative  divi-  we  would  trace  the  gradual  extension  and  ele- 

JanB  of  the  empire,  governed  by  pashas  who  vation  of  this  feeling  for  nature,  we  must  bear 

OS  termed  tali  or  viceroys.    Each  eyalet  is  sub-  in  mind  that  Antonio  di  Messina,  a  pupil  of  the 

divided  into  Ztros  or  $andjaii^  under  the  rule  of  brothers  Van  Eyck,  transplated  the  predilection 

^■imaVaw   (lieatenant-govemors),  and   these  for  landscape  painting  to  Venice,  and  that  the 

9pBak  into  eaxoi  or  districts.    Beside  the  tribu-  pictures  of  the  Van  Eyck  school  exercised  a 

tvy  provinces  of  Wallachia,  Moldavia,  and  similar  action  in  Florence  on  Domenico  Ghir- 

Bvria,  which  form  8  eyolets,  European  Turkey  lanclaio  and  other  masters.*^    Apart  from  the. 

ii  fivided  into  15  eydets,  Asiatic  Turkey  into  great  share  of  Jan  van  Eyck  in  the  introduction 

18,  and  the  provinces  in  Africa  into  8.  of  oil  painting,  he  rendered  invaluable  services 

EYCK,  HuBXBT  AND  Jan  van.  the  founders  to  the  art  by  his  improvements  in  linear  and 

of  the  Flemish  school  of  painting,  bom  at  Maas-  aerial  perspective,  and  in  painting  upon  glass. 

^k,  in  the  bishopric  of  Li^ge,  Hubert  in  1866,  In  his  early  efforts  we  find  him  adhering  to  the 

■id  Jan  about  1370.    The  taste  for  painting  customary  flat  gold  ground  for  the  background 

VIS  hereditary  in  the  family,  their  father  hav-  of  the  picture ;  but  as  he  advanced  in  his  art, 

ing  practised  the  art    The  two  young  men  re-  he  adopted  the  more  natural  grouping,  and  a 

Bored  to  Bruges  (whence  Jan  is  frequently  call-  natural  background.    In  the  art  of  painting  on 

ed  Jan  van  Brugge),  with  a  view  of  improving  glass,  he  is  looked  upon  as  the  author  of  the 

tUr  skill,  that  town  being  at  the  time  the  mode  of  painting  on  whole  panes  with  colors 

mi  foens  of  the  wealth  and  activity  of  the  Low  delicately  blended,  and  yet  so  strongly  fixed 

Obantries.    After  transferring  their  residence  that  obliteration  was  almost  impossible — on  ob- 

fam  Bmges  to  Ghent,  the  two  brothers  were  Ject  before  accomplished  only  by  joining  toge- 

Mployed  in  the  execution  of  an  altarpieoe  with  ther  in  mosaic  several  panes  of  small  size,  and 

Umag  doors,  in  the  church  of  St.  Bavon  at  of  different  colors.    The  faults  of  his  style  arose 

Ont    Hubert  died  in  1426,  before  the  com-  from  the  delicacy  which  prevented  the  study  of 

flitfoii  of  this  work,  and  Margaret  tiieir  sister,  the  naked  form ;  hence  we  find  the  extremities 

1^  abo  excelled  as  a  painter,  followed  him  soon  of  the  human  body,  and  other  parts  where  ona- 

t»  tha  grave.    Jan,  after  having  finished  the  tomical  knowlege  is  requisite,  frequently  do- 

l^itfDg  in  1482,  returned  with  his  wife  to  fective.     Jan  van  Eyck's  masterpiece  is  the 

MMLua.    He  died  about  1445,  but  the  accounts  principal  picture  in  the  altarpieoe  originally  in- 

if  Urn  personal  history  of  the  £unily  are  con-  tended  for  the  church  of  Ghent,  representing 

'^  ~    ^  As  fkr,  however,  as  the  artistic  achieve-  the  ^^  Adoration  of  the  Lamb,"  as  described  by 

of  Jan  van  Eyck  are  concerned,  records  6t  John  in  the  Revelation.    This  great  com- 

andofart  are  unanimous  in  his  praise,  position,  which  contains  over  800  fignrea^  was 

r  von  Humboldt  says  in  his  "  Coonos :"  removed  to  the  Louvre,  but  is  now  divided,  the 

historical  paintings  of  the  brothers  Van  6  most  important  wings  being  in  the  royal 

Sprwent  ns  with  the  first  instances  of  care-  museum  of  Berlin,  another  part  in  Paris,  and 

eseeiited  landscapes.  Neither  of  them  ever  part  in  the  cathedral  of  St.  Bavon  at  Ghent 

d  Itidy,  but  the  younger  brother  Jan  en-  Philip  II.  of  Spain,  disappointed  in  his  desire 

Ktlie  opportunity  of  seeing  the  vegetation  to  purchase  the  work,  employed  Michael  Cox- 

■tham  Europe,  where  in  the  year  1428  he  cie  to  copy  it.    Port  of  one  of  his  copies  is  now 

*   the  embassy  which   Philip  the  inBerlin,andapartinthePinakothekatMuniob| 


880  £YK 

and  there  is  a  copy  of  the  whole  in  London.  A  sue ;  it  extends  from  the  entnooe  of  the  eptifl 

picture  painted  vy  Jan  van  Eyck  in  1430  after  ncn-e  forward  to  the  ciliary  circle :  loch  ita 

the  death  of  his  brother,  representing  the  Vir-  surfaces  are  covered  with  a  dark  pipment,  which 

pin  and  Infant,  is  preserved  in  the  sacristy  of  gives  the  deep  color  seen  in  the  inierior  of  the 

the  cathcKlral  at  Isruges.     The  other  worV»  of  eye.    Tlie  ciliary  circle  or  ligament  is  a  gnyiih 

this  artist,  and  of  his  school,  are  most  abundant  ring,  a  lino  or  two  wide,  united  by  its  lar|Ner 

in  the  various   collections  of  that  town,  in  circumfori-nco  to  the  choroid,  and  by  its  Icimt 

Ghent,  Antwerp,  Berlin,  Munich,  Paris,  Bms-  to  the  iris;  the  ciliary  processes  are  membra- 

seK  I>resden,  and  Vienna.    Michelet  says  in  nous  fold.4,  GO  to  80  In  number,  extending  from 

his  ^  History  of  France  "  that  Philip  the  Good  the  choroid  to  the  neighborhood  of  the  opening 

showed  Van  Eyck  to  foreign  nations,  as  Philip  of  the  pupil ;  they  form  by  their  nnioa  a  riag 

IV.  u<ed  to  display  Rubens,  by  sending  him  on  behind  the  iris  and  in  front  of  the  vitreoos  ha- 

embassics.     Waagen  published  at  Brcslau,  in  mor,  surrounding  the  crystalline  kns  like  a 

1822,  Tc'^r  Hubert  utul  Jan  ran  Eyck,    The  crown.    At  a  short  distance  behind  the  eonMt 

best  source  of  information  on  tlie  subject  in  is  the  circular,  vertical,  membranona  curtain,  tba 

English  U  the  **  Early  Flemish  Painters,"  by  iris,  pierced  in  tlie  middle  by  the  impil ;  tUi 

Crowe  and  Cavolcasclle  (London,  1856).  curtain  hangs  in  the  aqneoos  &nmor,  separatiM 

EYE«  the  organ  of  the  s[)ecial  sense  of  vision,  it  into  the  anterior  and  posterior  chamboi  dt 

lod^d  in  man  in  a  cavity  on  each  side  of  the  the  eye ;  it  presents  anteriorly  a  great  ncmbff 

npper  portion  of  the  face,  called  the  orbit.    The  of  radiations  conversing  toward  the  pnpiL  ifal 

orbits  nave  tlic  form  of  a  (quadrangular  pyramid  muscular  fibres  for  the  dilatation  of  this  opct- 

whose  base  is  in  front  and  its  summit  nehind ;  ing«  and  is  variously  colored  in  different  laA* 

their  direction  is  horizontal,  and  their  axes,  viduals;  the  posterior  surface  has  a  n amber  fli 

directed  backward  and  inward,  would  cross  at  circular  fil>res  for  contracting  tlie  papll,  and  k 

or  near  the  ^ella  turcica  of  the  sphenoid  bone  covered  with  a  thick  dark  |iigment  layer  csDsl 

in  ttie  cranial  cavity.    They  liave  4  triangular  urea  ;  both  surfaces  are  lined  with  the  drlieiil 

surfaces,  tho  npi>er  fonned  by  the  orbital  plate  membrane  of  the  aqueous  humor :  the  greattf 

of  the  frontal  and  the  lesser  wing  of  the  sphe«  circumference  is  connected  with  the  cilivy  fi^ 

noid  bone;  the  lower  by  the  palate  behind,  the  ament  and  processes;  its  movements  are  do«li6> 

npper  maxillary  in  the  middle,  and  the  malar  in  less  partly  owing  to  its  erectile  and  T&«nltf 

front ;  the  external  by  tlie  sphenoid  behind ^nd  tissue.    Beneatli  the  choroid  is  the  rvtina.  a  tloi 

the  molar  in  front ;  the  internal  by  the  sphenoid  soil  expansion  of  the  optic  nerve,  sarruaadiBg 

behind,  the  ethmoid  in  the  middle,  and  the  lach-  the  vitreous  humor  and  extending  fitrward  m 

rym;U  lione  in  front.    This  cavity  has  at  its  up-  far  as  the  ciliary  prooesw4  and  crystalline  Wni: 

pvr  oxtornal  ])ortiim  a  depres.sion  for  the  gland  alM»ut  2  lines  to  tho  outride  of  the  tuUr^M  c^ 

w!iich  socrotes  the  teon*,  at  its  inner  {mrtion  the  the  ncrvo  it  ]iresent4  a  circular  d:irk  «|-  e  ar.O  % 

cummenconicnt  of  the  bony  passage  to  the  nose;  small    jx-rforatiun   dl^covert'd  by  S'>i:in;rna; ; 

at  tlie  Miininit  is  the  round  o{HMiing  for  the  en-  this  is  the  immediate  ur^ran  ot  virion,  ni^ic':!  re 

trance  of  the  optic  nerve,  tlic  union  of  the  sfthe-  ceives  the  rays  (if  light  antl  tmn>nu:s  the  iin«I 

ni»id:il,  Kplieno-maxillary,  and  pterygo-maxillary  iinpreshiuns  by  the  optic  ncrvo  to  the  h.  i:v>r.aiB. 

tLtsnres  and  tlie  cotnniencement  of  the  bubor-  Of  the  humors  ctf  tlie  eve,  the  crv«;al!inc  k:a 

bital  canul.     Ite-ide  the<o  bony  enclosing  cavi-  has  bi.*en  dexTibed  und«.r  tliat  hcia.  tl  f  oth«n 

tic4,  tljceye<  are  ]»rotected  from  dust  and  foreign  are  tho  Aipieous  and   vitro<*UH  hum>'r*w    Tbt 

IhHiifH  by  the  hairs  uf  the  eyel»r\>ws  alK>ve,  and  aqueous  humor  is  a  linip'ul  tranv>pareM  £:»!• 

in  front  l»v  the  movable  liiLs fringi'd  with  silken  varying  in  quantit}*  from  4  ti>  6  prai::*.  i<cTi\y 

hishci.     liie  glol»o  (»f  the  eye  is  of  a  generally  in;:  the  s[>ace  in  front  of  tho  K-rs  w!.i<  h  ^  «ii- 

i:plit'ri(\il  j«h:i;K',  tlte  anterior  Ath  being  the  sog-  vidinl  into  anterior  and  piH»tcri.'r  cha:i:Ur»  by 

mont  K\i  a  oinlo  >mallcr  than  tliat  of  the  rest  of  the  iris ;  it  contains  in  H>lutii>n  a  hctle  oIU 

tlie  or;;:ui;  the  aiitero-i>osterii»r  diameter,  great-  and  the  s:dts  u<iu.i!ly  found  in  *>uch  ftccrvtu 

er  tl»an  the  iran^vcrM^".  is  10  or  11  lines;  ditFer-  for  it  is  a  seoretiim  of  tho  enchwin^  min.br 

in;;  from  the  axes  of  tho  orbit.4,  the  axes  of  tho  when  lo*«t  i»y  urriiUnt  i>r  in  tho  tj^nr^  &  it 

eyoN  ar..- p:ir;ilh'l.     In  front,  the  globe  of  the  eye  cataract  by  extraction,  it    ih   rivi-^Uy    f.-rstfil 

\•^  in  rehiti>*n  wiih  t!ie  ritlectiun  i>f  tho  mucous  agiiin.     The  \itrt'<i'i9  humor «oii;  :e^  the  j^'^e- 

membrane  of  the  liil-i;  U-hind  and  all  around,  rior  )  of  tho  gloU*  of  tho  eye,  bavin;;  tL#  Uai 

with  ttie  mu*-r!e'<,  vo^^'ls  nervex,  and  a  cushion  cne.'Ltvd  in  its  anterior  i«ortiiin;  it  ri>r.«i»!»  d  a 

of  Mift  fat.     Thi-  eye  U  (*ompo*H.*il  of  membranes  tran^jiareiit,  L-i-litinous  tluid  e:.r!«»?io^l  l:;  s  ^at 

and  humors,     <  M*  the  niviiibnine^  of  the  eye  the  number  of  I'elN  fonned  l-y  the  p.ir:i!i>  n«  v-f  the 

Ciirnea  h OH  already  lK*cndr.serilK>d  under  its  own  hy:i!oid  niembrano^  communioAting  ii:th  t^e^ 

title;  the  *»ther*  ore  th*-  srlerolii\  choroiil, cilia-  i»thcr  ;  in  the  ojvration  for  oatorart  by  d<-pcr»- 

ry  pr«»iv**is  iris  and  relinx     Tho  silerutic  is  fri<>n  the  lens  is  pu>lK-<l  Uiekword  axid  i!.»wr.w^"^ 

the  external  membrane,  formin;;  the  iKHteriur  into  this  humi»r.     Tho  i»ptic  nerve*  an^  d*  SJ 

t.  the  anterior  Ath  U-in;r  fi»rmcd  by  the  cornea;  pair  of  eon-bral  nerve*.     The  ^\\>W  of  xht  *}t  ai 

It  i**  while,  linn,  and  ro*i*ting,  i»paijui',  thiek,  movt-d  by  li  musrlo'*,  ariMn^  from  the  ct^'Cti^tf 

and  romiNifMxl  uf  interlai^etl  tibres.     Ucncath  the  of  tlio  t»pt:e  ftiroinon  nJt>1   ili  ^irinity.  axU  aC- 

S'^Ierotic  is  the  choroid,  c«jm|>oM.'tl  of  mooII  ar-  taclu'^l  ti»  the  s^'lcri*!:**  c-*a?;  of  th\*««f  r:-<^j*-I<«  4 

tcriej  and  veins  unittnl  by  delicate  arvohu'  tis-  are  straight,  coUed  the  external,  inlcrtial,  sa^ 


EYE  881 

xior,  and  inferior  reettu  mnscles,  moving  the    which  radiates  from  the  ciliary  ligament;  the 
iye  respectiTelj  ontward^  inward,  upward  and    reasons  for  this  belief  have  been  given  in  the 
downward  ;  the  first  2  are  often  permanently    article  Crystalline  Lens.    The  physiology  and 
contracted,  producing  divergent  or  convergent    defects  of  vision  will  be  more  properly  treated 
itrabiaoiiis,  a  deformity  curable  by  the  division    in  the  article  Vision  ;  for  recent  observations 
€fthe  contracted  muscles,  a  simple  and  compar-    byKOlliker  on  the  structure  of  the  different 
atirel^  painless  and  bloodless  operation ;  the    layers  of  the  retina,  the  reader  is  referred  to 
•Dpenor  oblique  muscle  passes  through  a  pulley    the  works  of  Dr.  Carpenter  on  the  principles  of 
in  the  inner  portion  of  the  orbital  process  of  the    human  and  comparative  physiology,   llie  pupil 
frontal  bone,  from  which  it  extends  to  the  pos-    is  diminished  by  the  action  of  muscles  deriving 
tmat  and  external  part  of  the  globe,  rotating    their  nervous  influence  from  the  dd  pair,  but 
tiie  organ  inward  and  forward  ;  the  inferior    is  dilated  through  the  influence  of  the  cervical 
oWque  passes  from  the  internal  and  anterior    portion  of  the  sympathetic  nerve.    The  move- 
pvt  of  tne  floor  of  the  orbit  to  the  external  and    ments  of  the  eyeballs,  whenever  voluntary,  are 
yoiterior  surface  of  the  globe,  rotating  the  eye    always  harmonious,  but  not  necessarily  sym- 
outward  and  upward.     The  conjunctiva,  the    metrical ;  though  .one  eye  cannot  be  elevated 
■meooa  membrane  of  the  eye,  is  reflected  from    and  the  other  depressed  at  the  same  time,  one 
tto  lida  and  covers  the  anterior  portion  of  the    may  be  turned  outward  and  the  other  inward 
^i4w;  it  is  in  this  membrane  that  the  redness    when  the  axes  of  the  eyes  are  turned  toward 
nd  swelling  of  ordinary  ophthalmia  have  their    an  object  on  either  side  of  the  head.    The 
Mat.    The  eye  is  frequently  destroyed  by  acci-    muscles  of  the  eyeball  are  moved  principally 
dnt  or  &ease ;  in  cases  of  removal  of  the  or-    through  the  dd  pair  of  nerves,  the  motares  ocu^ 
pa  artificial  eyes  are  used  to  remedy  the  de-    hrum^  but  the  superior  oblique  have  special 
imn^ ;  these  are  made  of  ^lass  and  enamel,    nerves,  the  4th  pair,  and  the  external  recti 
nd  when  having  the  natural  size,  shape,  color-    the  6th  pair ;  the  sensibility  of  the  eye  is  de- 
Stfonof  iris,  form  of  pupil,  projection  of  cornea,    rived  from  the  ophthalmic  branch  of  the  6Ui 
Ifaiofaelerotic,  and  vascularity,  it  is  often  very    pair;  by  the  ophthalmic  or  ciliary  ganglion 
dUknlt  to  detect  the  real  from  the  artificial  or-    the  sensory  branches  of  the  5th  pair,  the  motor 
yn,  emciaHy  when  the  accurate  fitting  of  the    branches  of  tlie  8d  pair,  and  the  sympathetic 
■Iter  allows  it  to  be  moved  by  the  muscles  acting    filaments  are  united  together.  .  The  vascular 
li  sympathy  with  the  sound  eye. — Without  here    supply  of  the  globe  of  the  eye  is  derived  from 
Inating  of  the  laws  of  refraction,  of  the  aber-    the  ophthalmic  branch  of  the  internal  carotid 
ntkm  of  sphericity,  and  of  other  optical  prin-    artery. — ^The  complicated  eye  of  the  mammal 
Chiles  involved  in  vision,  it  will  be  sufficient  to    and  bird  becomes  more  simple  in  reptiles  and 
■J  that  the  rays  from  an  object  are  first  modi-    fishes,  losing  the  eyelids,  and  in  the  articulates 
led  by  the  convex  cornea,  pass  across  the  aque-    generally  losing  all  that  is  anterior  to  the  verte- 
Mi  humor  through  the  pupil-opening  of  the  iris,    brate  crystidlino  lens,  as  well  as  mobility,  the 
flMoee  through  the  dense  crystalline  lens  and    latter  loss  being  supplied  by  the  multiplication 
tta  vitreous  humor,  and  are  by  these  media  of    of  the  organs  or  facets.    The  mammalian  eye 
dttsrent  densities  and  shapes  converged  at  the    is  constructed  to  suit  the  circumstances  of  the 
woper  focal  distance  on  Uie  retina.    All  rays    life  of  the  animal;  of  large  size  in  ruminants 
li|0nd  those  necessary  for  perfect  vision  are    and  rodents,  it  is  small  in  moles,  bats,  and  ceta- 
iteorbed  by  the  pigment  layer  of  the  cho-    ceans,  and  in  the  latter  fiattened  anteriorly  as 
void,  which  answers  the  purpose  of  the  black    in  fish ;  they  are  generally  placed  laterally,  but 
kterior  of  optical  instruments;  the  iris,  like    in  the  nocturnal  species  they  are  directed  for- 
fteteleacopio  diaphragm,  shuts  off  the  rays    ward  as  in  man;  the  lachrymal  caruncle  at  the 
ftom  the  circumference  of  the  lens,  thus  correct-    inner  angle  has  in  man  only  a  rudiment  of 
hf  the  aberration  of  sphericity,  contracting  or    a  nictitating  membrane,  which  is   more  de- 
"■****C  the  pupil  according  to  the  brilliancy  or    veloped  in  some  mammals,  but  remarkably  in 
ilinneai  of  tne  illumination  of  the  object,  or  its    birds ;  the  sclerotic  is  thicker  in  animals  whose 
Brtmee  from  the  eye ;  it  is  well  known  that    eyes  vary  mudi  from  a  sphere,  especially  poste- 
dba  popil  of  a  cat  in  a  bright  light  becomes    riorly,  this  membrane  in  a  whale  with  an  eye 
ftninwhed  to  a  vertical  slit.    As  the  rays  are    of  the  size  of  an  orange  being  an  inch  thick 
mamtd,  in  the  lens,  an  inverted  image  is  formed    behind;  the  choroid,  dark  in  man,  in  the  car- 
m  fha  retina,  though  the  mental  perception  is    nivora,  rumlDants,  and  other  orders,  reflects 
tf  an  erect  image.     Not  only  spherical  but    vivid  metallic  colors,  remarkably  brilliant  at 
inmado  aberration  is  corrected  sufficiently    night,  from  the  depths  of  the  organ.    In  ani- 
kr  ill  practical  purposes  in  healthy  eyes  by  tiie    roals  and  man  destitute  of  the  usual  coloring 
Mhnnt  refractive  powers  of  the  media  and    matter  of  the  surface,  or  in  albinos,  the  iris  is 
Ivihe  difiTerent  curves  of  their  surfaces,  so  that    pink,  from  the  color  of  the  blood  circulating  in 
■aimaffeon  the  retina  is  well  defined  and  free    its  vessels;  during  foetal  life,  until  just  before 
km  ftve  colors.    The  power  by  which  the    birtii,  the  pupil  is  closed  by  a  membrane.    The 

Cnftqyta  itself  instantiy  to  great  variations  in  foramen  of  Summering  is  said  not  to  exist  in 
tttancea  of  objects  is  supposed  to  depend  any  mammals  below  the  quadrumana ;  the  tear 
m  B  diange  of  place  in  the  crystalline  lens,  by  gland  is  found  in  all  except  cctacea.  In  birds 
ha  aelioo  (^  the  ciliary  processes  and  muiBcle    tiie  sclerotic  becomes  more  or  less  strengthened 


EYE  EYE  8T0NS 

by  cartila^,  and  in  the  nei^bborhood  of  the  lunar  folds  containing  mnacQlarfibni  eovcr  tbt 

cornea  is  provided  with  a  series  of  bony  plate^  cje  like  lids;  in  front  of  the  ^be  to  a  ipMa 

arranged  in  a  circle,  and  oTerlapping  each  andogoas  to  an  anterior  duuaber,  oootainiof  a 

other ;  bat  the  cliicf  peculiarity  consists  in  the  serous  fluid,  and  in  the  octopodsooninniikaiiaf 

peeUn^  folded  like  a  comb  or  fan,  and  pro-  externally ;  internally  this  ehambcr  to  duaed  by 

lected  forward  towuxl  the  lens ;  it  is  vascu*  a  kind  of  pupil ;  its  serona  membrane  has  a 

lar  like  the  choroid,  though  not  connected  silvery  lustre ;  in  some  spectoa  the  lens  to  to 

with  it)  and  is  dark  with  pigment;  its  use  direct  contact  with  the  water  in  wUck  Ihev 

to  not  satisfactorily  ascertained,  but  it  to  re-  swim ;  there  is  an  iris,  sclerotic,  Titreoos  Bq«4 

garded  by  Owen  as  destined  to  push  forward  a  spherical  brownish  lensfoniiedof  eooceatrie 

the  lens  'by  its  erectile  Ussue;  others  suppoM  layers,  a  ciliary  body,  and  pigment  toycr;  to 

that  its  purpose  U  to  absorb  superfluous  rays  of  the  nautilus  the  eyes  are  placed  oo  a  pngee^ 

liglit    Many  species  of  reptiles  have  owcous  ing  stall:,  but  in  others  are  geneiaQy  dsiiyh 

pieces  in  the  sclerotic ;  snakes  have  no  movable  sunk  in  the  head«    In  the  cephaJopbofa  (iad» 

lids;  the  chameleon  has  a siuffle  circular  lid.    In  ing  pteropoda,  heteropoda,  and  gastoo 

flshes  tlie  eyes  are  generally  large,  the  sclerotio  mollusks)  eyes  are  generally  preeeot, 

thick,  and  in  some  (as  the  tunny)  osseous  ante-  more  than  2  in  number  and  comparatiTely  i 

riorly ;  they  have  neither  lids,  except  the  most  they  are  almost  always  ooniieetad  with  Iks 

rudimentary,  nor  lachrymal  glands ;  the  cornea  tentacles,  either  at  their  base,  ridea,  or  eilitai 

to  very  flat,  and  the  lens  dense ;  around  the  en-  itles.    In  acephalous  moUuska,  eyes  are  wj 

trance  of  the  optic  nerve  there  to  a  very  vascular,  common  and  numerons,  occupying  the  bordst 

horM-shoe  shaped  organ,  between  the  layers  of  of  the  mantle  or  confined  to  the  orifloea  of  the 

the  choroid,  called  the  choroid  gland  or  muscle ;  tubes,  and  are  either  peduncntoted  or 

this  probablv  pushes  the  retina  toward  the  lens  In  the  annelids  the  eyes  are  generally 

by  its  vascular  erectility,  and  perhaps  by  mus*  wanting  entirely,  or  are  merely  abto  to 

cular  action,  in  the  adaptation  of  the  organ  for  guish  light  from  darknees;  but  the  lecebes 

vUion  at  different  distances.    The  organs  of  nrom  2  to  10  undoubted  eyes.    In  the  bdmiatla 

rUion  in  insectsconsistof  simple  or  of  compound  there  appear  to  be  no  eyes,  only  pigncai  mm 

eyes,  the  first  occurring  chiefly  in  lame,  the  tot-  contaimng  no  light-remctittg   body.     BcOT 

ter  in  perfect  insects ;  they  are  wholly  absent  in  these  are  found  in  the  radtota  rariooa  eye  specks 

some  Isrvo,  and  both  fonns  coextot  in  the  perfect  and  pigment  dots  which  donbtleaa  in  some  cbhi 

state  of  many.    The  simple  eyes  (oeelli  or  ttfrn"  are  true  eyes,  but  authors  are  not  yet  agreed  m 

mata)  consist  of  a  convex  cornea,  behind  which  to  to  the  light-refracting  powers  of  most  of  thcH 

a  lens,  lodged  in  an  expansion  of  the  optic  ncrve^  organs.    The  cyo  of  the  blind  fish  of  the  Xam- 

aiiil  surrounded  by  a  variously  colored  pigment  muth  cave,  Kentucky,  though  unable  to  fori  a 

layer;  they  vary  in  number  from  2  to  more  distinct  image,  can  doubtless  dtotingui4i  I^rbt 

than  100,  and  are  situated  on  the  head.    The  from  darkness  through  the  areolar  ti^ue  sad 

c<*mpound  eyes  are  mode  up  of  simple  eyes  so  skin  wliich  cover  it;  Pruf.  J.  Wyman  hasfocDd 

closi'ly  ploceii  tliat  their  facets  or  corneio  aro  in  it  a  Ien%  Fclerotic,  rhon>id,  retina,  and  cftk 

contij^iouH ;  behind  eai.*h  cornea  is  a  transparent  nerve,  and  it  is  therefore  constructed  oa  the 

pyramid  whoso  interior  apex  U  receive<i  into  a  vertebrate  jilan,  rather  than  the  invertebrate  le 

kind  of  vitreoufl  btnly,  surrounded  by  the  nervo  whicli  it  has  generally  been  conipare«l :  the  porti 

and  the  choroid;   there  aro  sometimes  many  in  connecti<»n  with  the  nervous  system  arsde 

thousand  facets  in  these  eyes  which  may  cover  veloped,  while  those  which  aro  formed  l>y  *.a- 

nearly  the  whole  head,  and  hairs  may  project  version  of  the  integuments  are  moi4ly  aWtl; 

at  their  anple*.    In  the  arachnids  the  eyes  are  some  authors  aro  of  opinion  that  tho  »:im3!ai 

simple,  and  the  orders  have  been  character! 7xm1  of  light  for  several  generations  would  rvtraae- 

by  Uieir  number,  situation,  and  direction ;  they  form  this  eye  into  an  ordinonr  organ  of  visno. 
are  most  numerous  in  the  scorpions.  The  sense        EYE  STONE,  tho  operculum  or  calcarvoas 

nf  fiiglit  is  present  in  almost  all  cni»itacea ;  their  mouth-piece  of  certain  siHx*iea  of  small  cuv  slve 

simple  evvs  consist  of  a  cornea  with  a  lens  and  shells.    The  stony-like  substance,  of  i  vaeh  or 

pifnnentlaver;  ausual  form  is  that  of  many  sim-  Icm  in  its  lar^rest  dimeUMons  presents  a  foea 

pie  eyes,  pforetl  close  to(^}t her,  and  covered  by  a  like  tliat  of  a  turtle,  a  convex  surtaos  cp<>a  a 

common  cornea ;  sometimes  t  lie  re  is  a  facetted  plane  base ;  and  being  plactnl  on  a  smooth  pUie 

cornea  under  the  simple  one ;  tho  highest  forms  in  a  weak  acid,  as  lemon  juice,  the  erolctioc  c# 

have  comiHtund  fotvited  eyes,  in  many  situated  carl»onir  acid  gas  fr«>m  the  carU^nale  I'f  l*rae.  cf 

at  or  near  the  end  of  2  {Hxluncles  muvably  artic-  which  it  is  composed,  lifts  it  up  and  ca^«^  th« 

ulatod  to  the  cephalt>- thorax  ami  conceakM  in  stone  to  move  about  as  if  alive.     A  »lxu.  at  c:*- 

s|K*«-:alf«>«^.T;thesefacet:iiareverv  numerous,  and  feet  resulting  fn»m  chemiral  decompi»<*.u4i  » 

Uhi ml  each  it  tho  usual  lens an<l pigment.    The  S(»inelimes    ob<4Tve<l    in    animal    Kidiet    itce 

eyes  of  repholopods  are  ver}' larpe  and  hiphly  I>XATiir,  and  heaves  of  brea«l,  HamU.>I»h  n^ 

deveI<»{HMl,  reN.Mi  I  hi  ing  in  MMne  respects  the  ver-  marks,  have  Inn-n  obMTvt'il   to  m^-ve  m  !.Lff 

tehrate  orcan ;  there  is  generally  nn  ocular  bulb,  manner  in  tho  oven,  whoni^  th«  ovesi«  hA«e 

andnr.tpMilecon**tituteiIl)y  a  cart ilnsrinoiL*  orbit  iH'cn  called  enohanti'd.     lie  f»0Dd   t.Se  l.iiie 

and  a  tibntus  eontinnatinn  of  the  rntnneoas  en-  ofn'rcula,  calle<l  pUJr.is  *lf  /of  etna,  or  ere  i^tacctk 

velojK*,  which  takes  the  place  of  a  cornea;  semi*  regarded  as  great  m}-sterie«  by  the  iahabAta&:i 


uto  1 


£T£S  EZEEIEL                    888 

of  the  ooMt  of  Venezoela  near  Cumana.    Ther  soonest,  those  from  the  middle  part  next,  and 

eoUected  them  in  great  quantities  on  the  beach  those  from  the  batt  or  end  next  the  root  will 

8t  Gape  Araya,  and  made  use  of  them  to  ex-  come  to  maturity  last.    Here  the  same  phenom- 

tnet  dost  or  any  foreign  substance  from  the  enon  organically  exists  in  the  fact  Uiat  the 

•ye,  a  purpose  for  which  they  are  still  collected  potato  tuber  is  really  an  enlarged  subterranean 

and  exported,  and  are  kept  by  druggists.    Being  stem,  and  one  part  of  it  matures  its  buds  sooner 

intpodooed  onderthe  lid  of  the  eye,  the  stone  than  the  others;  so  that  the  more  mature  and 

moree  about  by  the  motion  of  the  organ,  and  more  dormant  the  eye  may  be  at  the  time  of 

my  Uttle  particles  it  comes  in  contact  with  ad-  selecting  it   for  propagation,  the   surer   and 

bere  to  it  and  are  finally  removed  with  it.  speedier  the  development  under  favorable  cir- 
£T£8,  A  term  used  in  gardening  to  signify '  cumstances.    Certain  abortive  branches,  called 

tlie  azilkiy  buds  in  plants.    At  the  origin  of  knaurs,  often  appear  on  the  olive,  beech,  poplar, 

ihfb  leaf  with  the  stem  or  branch,  the  oellular  cedar,  and  many  other  trees,  which,  possesdng 

tiwna  becomes  filled  with  an  intenser  vitality,  the  nature  of  eyes,  can  be  employed  for  propa- 

«id  a  new  set  of  foliar  organs  is  formed  for  a  gation ;  and  simUar  excrescences  have  occurred 

fttare  increase,  generally  for  the  succeeding  upon  the  horse-shoe   geranium  (pelargonium 

■eMon.     These  aggregations  of  young  leaves  ganale\  from  which  plants  have  easily  been 

around  a  new  and  common  axis,  and  enveloped  reared. 

in  nx>^ed  leaflets  called  scalea,  constitute  the  EYLAU,  or  Eilaxt,  a  town  of  Prussia,  26  m. 

^cs  of  the  plant ;  and  they  are  selected,  when  S.  8.  £.  from  Kdnigsberg,  on  the  Pasmar ;  pop. 

ripened  sufficiently,  to  serve  the  same  purpose  2.900.    It  is  surrounded  by  lakes,  contains  an 

aa  seeds  in  rearing  new  individuals,  or  in  the  old  castle,  and  has  manufactories  of  cloth,  hats, 

eperation  of  engrafting  by  the  process  of  inocu-  and  leather.    Here  on  Feb.  7  and  8,  1807,  was 

n  upon  some  kindred  plant.    In  the  exo-  fought  a  battle  between  the  French  under  Na- 

ererT.newleafsends  down  its  woody  fibres  poleon,  85,000  strong  with  850  guns,  and  the 

Uie  alburnum ;  and  a  similar  process  is  per-  Russians  and  Prussians,  75,000  strong  with  460 

ad  in  the  fiusilit^r  with  which  certain  leaves,  pieces  of  artillery.    About  50,000  men  perished, 

aa  thoae  of  the  gloxinia^  hoyny  &o,,  emit  roots,  and  both  sides  claimed  the  victory.    In  this 

wtai  th^  are  separated  from  the  plants  and  battle  Napoleon  was  nearly  made  prisoner  by  a 

fcwerfed  in  the  soil.    By  such  an  arrangement  Russian  division,  but  was  saved  by  his  own 

in  nature,  a  new  axis  or  stem  is  created  between  presence  of  mind  and  the  heroism  of  his  little 

liie  end  of  the  petiole  or  leaf  stalk  and  the  tops  t>ody  guard  of  100  men. 

of  the  newly  formed  roots,  and  presently  a  leaf  EZEKIEL  (Hcb.,  whom  God  strengthens), 

bad  ia  formed  at  the  place  of  junction.    In  the  a  son  of  Buzi,  the  8d  of  the  great  Hebrew  pro- 

ame  manner  the  ripened  leaf  bud. or  eye,  de-  phct«,  and  contemporary  with   Jeremiah  and 

ladled  from  the  branch,  can  be  used  for  propa-  Daniel,  lived  in  the  7th  and  6th  centuries  B.  0. 

ndon,  by  cutting  out  the  eye  with  a  very  sharp  He  was  still  young  when  he  went  into  captivity 

nife,  reserving  a  piece  of  wood  and  bark  as  with  the  nobility  of  the  land,  who  followed  King 

a  watt  of  shield,  ana  then  planting  it  in  properly  Jehoiachin  to  Babylon.    There,  on  the  banks  of 

mpared  soil.    To  facilitate  the  operation,  it  is  the  Chebar,  supposed  to  be  the  Ghaboras  in 

Ibond  better  to  have  some  gentle  heat  applied  Mesopotamia,  in  tjio  6th  year  ofhis  exile,  he  began 

beneath ;  and  the  eyes  of  many  kinds  of  plants  his  prophetic  career  by  a  vision  which  singular- 

tfaoa  set  in  a  moderate  hot-bed  take  root  readily  ly  contrasts  with  the  mnjestic  simplicity  of  that 

in  A  tew  days  or  weeks.    In  this  way  the  rarest  of  Isaiah.    Ho  declared  to  his  fellow  exiles  the 

kinda  of  the  grape  can  be  reproduced,  the  new  misfortunes  which  wore  besetting  and  threaten- 

phnta  retaining  all  the  peculiar  virtues  of  the  ing  Jerusalem  and  the  country  of  Judah.    At 

parent  atock ;  whereas  if^  their  seeds  had  been  times  he  found  words  of  consolation,  and  yield- 

■nm,  n  most  varied  progeny  would  have  ap-  ed  himself  to  hopes  of  a  better  future.    In  the 

pared.    Some  gardeners  prefer  this  mode  of  25th  year  of  his  exile  ho  prophetically  described 

propagation  'by  eyes  to  that  of  layering  or  of  the  new  temple  which  was  to  rise  in  Jerusalem 

i,  averring  that  the  stem  of  the  newly  after  the  redemption  of  his  people.    This  is  one 

plant  is  handsomer,  straighter,  and  every  of  the  last  prophecies  remaining  from  him,  and 

better.    It  has  been  found  that  exotic  thereisnoaccountof  him  beyond  the  27th  year 

in  root  more  easily  from  eyes  than  do  our  of  the  captivity  of  Jehoiachin.    According  to  a 

ve  apecies  and  varieties,  probably  because  doubtfhl  tradition  ho  was  assassinated  by  one  of 

tfM  wood  of  the  latter  is  harder  and  firmer,  or  the  exiled  princes,  and  during  the  middle  ages  his 

more  pith  in  proportion  to  the  size  of  the  tomb  was  pointed  out  between  the  Euphrates 

There  seems  to  be  no  natural  impedi-  and  the  Chebar,  and  was  the  goal  of  many  pil- 

to  rearing  any  kind  of  plant  from  eyes  if  grimages  by  Persian  Jews.    More  than  any 

Aa  requisite   conditions  can   be  discovered,  other  Old  Testament  writer  Ezekiel  deals  in 

Iwwi  the  potato  crop  in  some  parts  of  Great  visions  and  symbols.    He  never  wearies  of  add- 

BHldn  ia  entirely  raised  from  eyes,  and  advan-  ing  poetical  and  minute  details,  and  of  draw- 

t^D  k  taken  of  the  position  of  the  eyes  upon  ing  out  images  into  allegories.    The  same  genius 

ma  not  to  secure  early  and  successive  crops,  predominates  through  the  entire  book  which 

Umb  it  baa  been  ascertained  that  eyes  cut  from  bears  his  name,  which  is  occupied  with  prophe- 

tfMatremity  of  the  potato  will  mature  the  cies  concerning  both  Jews  and  Gentiles.    Many 


emosa, 
Jbnnedp 


|»ea 
miive 


884                       EZRA  F 

of  the  Tlflions,  especially  those  of  the  firat  chap-  of  the  rahbis  to  have  introduced  the  present 

ter,  ficcmcU  to  the  early  rabbis  so  obscure,  thiit  sqnaro  Hebrew  charocterSi  and,  in  conjonctiua 

they  forbade  the  Jewish  youth  to  read  them  till  with  some  of  the  elders,  to  have  made  the  lla- 

they  had  attained  the  ago  of  80  years.  sora,  the  pnnctuation  and  arcentnation  of  the 

EZRA,  a  celebrated  Jewish  scribe  and  priest,  Bible.    Beside  the  book  of  Exrm,  this  emini^Dt 

lineally  descended  from  Aaron,  and,  according  priest  and  scribe  Was  sunposed  to  have  been 

to  Josephus,  high  priest  of  the  Jews  who  were  the  author  of  the  two  boots  of  Chronicles,  and 

left  in  l^ylon.    Under  his  guidance,  tlie  second  some  writers  attribute  to  him  aL<o  tho  books  c< 

expedition  of  tho  Jews  proceeded  from  Babylon  Nehemiah  and  Esther,  though  they  didfvr  in 

to  Palustiiie,  under  tho  reign  of  Artaxerxes  I.,  stylo  from  his  acknowledged  writings.     The 

aboot  458  H.  C.    Tho  important  services  ren-  book  of  Ezra  contains  an  account  of  the  favun 

dered  by  Ezra  to  his  countrymen  on  that  occa-  bestowed  upon  tlio  Jews  by  the  Persian  kiDs% 

•ion,  and  also  in  arranging  and  settling  the  canon  the  rebuilding  of  tho  temple,  tho  misuoa  of 

of  Scripture,  ore  specially  acknowledged  by  tho  Em  to  Jen»ilem,  and  the  various  regnlatiocs 

Jews,  so  that  ho  is  counted  among  the  most  cmi-  and  reforms  introduced  by  him.    In  androt 

nent  of  the  servants  of  God,  and  even  regarded  as  manuscripts  there  are  4  books  of  Ezra,  viz.,  the 

the  second  founder  of  tho  nation.   Josephus  states  ono  Just  sooken  of^  the  book  of  Kohemiah,  and 

tliat  Ezra  died  at  Jerusalem,  and  was  buried  the  2  booKs  which  in  the  English  verakm  are 

there  with  great  magnificence ;  according  to  called  1st  and  2d  Esdras,  and  placed  among  the 

otlivrs,  lie  returnod  to  Babj-lon  and  died  there,  apocrvplial  books, 

at  the  age  of  120  years,    Ezra  ia  said  by  some  EZHsiA^sO.    See  Guibkluxis, 

F 

Fthc  6th  letter  of  the  Englbh  and  Latin,  tho  cially  into  labiahi,  as  in  the  followini?  example* : 

^     20th  of  the  Arabic,  and  tho  23d  of  tho  Lat.  frater^frango^  f(^0^  Esx^.  hrotktr,  hrr^k, 

Persian  alphabet,  indicates  a  labio-deutiU  sound,  beech;  Lai,  pes,  pvgnare^  miyu/im,  Eng./io*. 

produced  by  the  pase>uge  of  the  expired  air  be-  Jlght^  Ger.  Ari:^/ (little  pip);  lAt./ermmCjiu- 

tweeu  the  lower  lip  and  the  upfier  incisive  teeth,  ti«,  folium,  fugcre,  formoaiti^  fahularu  f*^if»% 

while  the  glottis  and  larynx  are  almost  at  rest,  furari^  S|iaii.  (since  tho  14th  century)  Awmi, 

Quintiliiui  calls  this  sound  *' scarcely  human,**  hijOy  hoja,  huify  hermo^n,  hablar,  httmhre^  A-^r- 

since  it  is  a  mere  utHatus,  and  is  wrongly  placc<l  tar  ;  lit.^occuj,  fon»,  Ital.  bior<^>lo,  }m>nf^ ;  Ij:. 

amon;:  the  !k*iiii-vi>rals.     Its  sonorous  parallel  is  fabulari^/amt  ajHei^janum,j\ftltiM^  \ka\\Mr\.\±i 

the  MitU-r  sound  <»f  V  (iw  in  Engli>h),  in  prinluc-  hebUire, hemUire,  hnn,  hoi ;  I^it. /I'riJL  f\vj^*f'. 

ing  which  the  plottis  and  larynx  are  ongii;;ed.  Fr.  Aorf,  A^7r«(ob!mlete  AaiVrt*.  bi*ii-h  tn.x  i.    I''.- 

F  is  represented  in  ancient  Greek  lH>th  by  tho  Greek  ^  the  Italians.  Spain unK  and  P«>rtujT:«^.* 

^  {yh)   and   the  dii:anini:i,    in   eorresiKiudini^  nnifunnly  replace  by/'.     Compare  Mju «-«K«i:.j.': 

wonN;    but  the  Found  of  tho  former  was  lesvi  Bryqe%^   Jkrenire,  f<»r  ^^vyft,  IW^virn.  tit-n=. 

har>h  and  ratin-r  a-^pirated  than  blowing  {fjffia^  Freye  and  *SY.  ]Vn*;ii>ii;  tnU$^  f*r\^yh*tfK  a:  ! 

iuti\  And  the  hater  Muinded  almost  like  our  V.  ^ri(s|K*ak);  I^t.  ru/^(tf,(ier.  \\*Ik\  F.!.j/e.'i; 

Tlie  tL'U re  of  the  Latin  F  arose  from  the  doub-  Joppa,  Arab.  •Ai/fJi,  i^e.     A  few  in-t-in*-^^  <.f 

lin;r  of  tiie  (ireek  l\     The  emiKTor  C'laudius  is  greater  alteniatiuns.  viz.,  with  puttura!*  .i •»::.; 

rei»orted  to  have  U'^'d  it  inverted  {J^)  to  rejire-  to  the  atlinitv  of  the  diptmnm  with  thi-  *j  :r::.-, 

cent  V.     As  a  numeral  >i;:u  for  tl,  tho  stigma  and  to  yet  Jeeper  rea'MMi>),  may  vjrt:  v .  ««•. 

wa-i  emiil<»ytd  by  the  Alexandrine^,  us  one  of  Shacht^  Eni;.  «Airr7;  IloUanil. (icA/i^r.  Kr.j.  ii^\r; 

the  o  frrifryj^o,  instead  (if  this  diiramma,  whieh  Germ.  liehUn^   Uirhf,    Kn^r.    l*j\    I^t.    Urn: 

is  naim-il  ^iif  or  T'l'/.     The  .•«ha]>e  of  the  sti^nuA  (ierm.   kruc/ttn,    Eu^.   cntp   an<t   fr^\^\.    Ia 

(r)  i"*  an   inverteil  ()s<*;e  and   Umbric  F  (j;.  French,   linal  y*  i-*   mute  in  *«»n!e   Ui-rxN.     Ia 

We  IJnd  t!»o  j'P»totypo   t»f  our   cursive  /  on  English  and  Frvneh  it  alt eni.iti'%  ^rh  r  latn'ars- 

ancient    Helirew   i-uin-;    but   in   tlio    presi-nt  niatical   f«»nns,   a-*   rri/V,  virtt :    n.tit/,  *.;*.v. 

so   tailed    llel«rew.    as  in  the  Syriac,  Sal»:eic,  The  Greek  d  hi »me times  iN-mm** /'in  Ku**.!.", 

Palmy  re  n  io,  ai»d  hi»me  oilu-r  kindred  writings,  as  TT^fihlon^  Fi'l*r:   liMtliie  thli'i\*i'^  ^^^"t.r» 

the  fiiu  lake-  the  jhue  nf  F,  and  indirates  tho  AUhen  ;  (ir.  ^i,mi.  ^«,kr.  1. at..  r<>  nr  •,/"• .-.:;  >».•!■ 

Siiunds  of  r  aiid  :/.     F  orrup*  in  the^ame  place  \A\  tl'ft,  En;r.  </';^f,  »\re.     Vitv  jm  vvl:.\r  a.-i  ::  ■ 

al-o  (»n  t!je  Ma'i.in  ta!«let  i»f  i'\prus  in  Ly«*ian,  tran>formations   t.f  the  l.;it;:i    H  (:u-'  ;•»*»  ;•  ■  i 

al^o  in  Tuiirik  <ilerber»,  and  in  •'ome  other  writ-  Spani.-^h  U  and  IVrtM^Mie-^*  ch  .'a-  rf.ii.i-.  j.  ."  ••• 

in,:*.     Iti   t!ie  tSrIIlu-  tlie  y.A^rf  and  phie  ifft)  ma,    rhatna^  A:c,     The    l>i'V;iii.Tjar\,    ar.J  r     •' 

c  irro-jMiiiil  ti»  it  a.'*tlie  -Ti)i  l«:tir,  in  (ila^'i>litio  graphic  M-ti-nis  «if  ea'.ti  rn  A-.:i  t!tr:^id  ::    "'. 

(1!  ikwit-.i)  as  tliO  2.;d,  anil  in   I«u^>ian  a-,  tho  it,  have  iin  F.     The  ?-»•.::.. I i\j-:*  ir;  iJn-i  .'..  ■'^* 

27th.     F  is  tho  iJr-t  Kune,  and  it  i.-^repre-^nted  and  Japain-*e  lanL'uajt -i.     M*-t  A:..rri.  ^r.  1.  - 

Lieri>.-lyp]»ii  mHv  by  a  hitrned  >nakf.  fri»!:i  w  ITh  li  guauv-*are  ;:uttural.  j.:«d  lui  L  the  -^.tii..!*  i  ?'  r  \ 

the  C'-'pla'/f*  isderivcd.     It  is  ofii  n  xi-'arifU-i-  </,  >«/me  even  r  uinl*. — A*  a  ri'ii.u  r..!.  li.i.--  :    -> 

ly  couvtrlcd  iuto  other  letters  or  bounds^  i?pc-  btatc4  that  F  is  ci^uiv;dvLl  to  -A*.*,  alvI  i  :>.• «   ■ 


FABEB  FABIUS  885 

000,    It  signifies  80  in  Arabic,  and  10,000  in       FABER,  George  Stanlbt,  an  English  theo- 

Armenian.    Its  substitute  oA  stands  for  500  in  logical   writer^  bom  Oct.  26,    1778,   died  at 

Russian  and  Georgian ;  while  the  Phoenician,  Sherbnm  hospital,  near  Durham,  Jan.  27, 1854. 

Chaldaio,  and  Syriac  tau  designated  6.    As  an  Ho  studied  at  the  universitj  of  Oxford,  where 

abbreviation,  F  stands  for^/it<<,  /fcit,  Flavins,  he  became  a  fellow  and  tutor  of  Lincoln  collegeu 

Fahrenheit,  &c. ;  for  forte  in  music,  and  ff  for  was  appointed  Bampton  lecturer  in  1801,  ana 

Jhrturimo,    F  is  marked  on  the  French  coins  in  the  same  year  published  his  discourses  under 

of  Angers,  on  the  Prussian  of  Magdeburg,  and  the  title  of  Mora  Moiaica  (2d.  ed.,  enlarged, 

on  the  Austrian  of  Hall  in  the  Tyrol.    In  music,  1818).    He  took  the  degree  of  B.D.  in  1808, 

it  denotes  the  4th  diatonic  interval^  or  the  6th  married,  gave  up  his  fellowship,  and  for  2  years 

■tring  on  the  piano  in  the  chromatic  scale,  and  assisted  his  father,  the  rector  of  Calverley  in 

is  eaSedySs  in  the  solfe^o.  York,  as  curate.    He   subsequently  occupied 

FABER,  Frederic   WiLUAic,  D.D.,  a  Ho-  various  vicarages^  in  1881  was  made  prebendary 

man  Gathdic  priest  of  the  congregation  of  tlie  of  8aUsbury,  and  in  1832  appointed  to  the 

OntOf7  of  St  Philip  Neri,  and  a  voluminous  mastership  of  Sherbnm  hospital.    He  wrote  a 

RHritoal  writer,  bom  in  England,  June  28, 1816.  large  number  of  works,  most  of  which,  partica- 

After  atodylng  at  Harrow,  he  was  graduat-  larly  those  on  prophecy,  in  which  he  holds  that  ^ 

•d  at  Oxford,  in  1886,  and  was  elected  to  a  the  inspired  predictions  apply  not  to  individuals  ' 

fdlowahip  in  University  college.    After  his  or-  but  to  governments  and  nations,  have  had  a 

dination  as  a  minister  of  the  establishment,  wide  popularity.    Among  the  most  important 

ha  was  appointed  to  the  rectorship  of  Elton  in  are :  **  Dissertation  on  the  Mysteries  of  the 

Korthamptonshire,  a  position  which  he  filled  CabirLor  the  Great  Gods  of  Phoenicia"  (2  vola 

with  marsed  ability  until  his  conversion  to  the  8vo.,  Oxford,  1808) ;  ^*  Diseertation  on  the  Pro* 

Catholic  faith,  which  was  formally  oonsummat-  phecies  (2  vols.  8vo.,  London,  1805 ;  supplement, 

•d,  Nov.  17,  1845.    His  published  writings  up  1  vol^  Stockton,  1806) ;  "^Difficulties of  Boman- 

to  that  time  were  as  follows :  '"  Tracts  on  the  ism^*  (8vo.,  1826) ;  "'  Papal  Infallibility"  (8vo., 

Chnrch  and  the  Prayer  Book"  (1889) ;  "  A  Seiv  1851) ;  "  The  Bevival  of  the  French  Emperor- 

mon  on  Education  (1840) ;  ""The  Cherwell  Wa-  ship  anticipated  from  the  Necessity  of  Prophe* 

tar  lily,  and   other  Poems"  (1840);   "The  cy'^  (12mo.,  1858 ;  new  ed..  New  York,  1859). 
S^rrian Lake, andother  Poems" (1842);  "Sights        FABIUS,  the  name  of  one  of  the  most  eel- 

and  Thoughts  in  Foreign  Churches"  (1842);  ebrated   patrician   gentes   of   ancient   Borne, 

"Sir  Lancelot, «  Poem"  (1844);  "The  Bosary  which  boasted  of  a  lineal  descent  from  Her- 

and  other  Poems"  (1845) ;  and  several  papers  cules  and  the  daughter  of  the  Arcadian  Evan- 

io  the  "  lives  of  the  English  Saints,"  published  der.    In   the   earliest   times   of  the   Boman 

mder  the  editorship  of  the  Bev.  Dr.  Newman,  republic  we  find  the  Fabia  gens  among  the 

Immediately  after  his  submission  to  the  Boman  wealthiest  and  most  influential  of  the  noble 

church.  Dr.  Faber  began  to  study  and  prepare  families  of  the  commonwealth.    ThusforTcon- 

te  the  reception  of  holy  orders,  and  was  or-  secutive  years  (485-479  B.  0.)  members  of  that 

dshied  priest  in  1847.  He  had  ivith  him  several  family  were  elected  to  the  consulship.    They 

joong  men  who  had  followed  him  into  the  seem  to  have  been  haughty  and  violently  op- 

dmrdi,  and  were  anxious  to  devote  themselves  posed  to  a  democratic  form  of  government. 

to  the  conversion  of  their  countrymen,  and  fora  Disgusted  by  the  rising  influence  of  the  ple- 

flDDe  he  thought  of  founding  a  new  order  under  beians,  they  withdrew  with  their  vassals  and 

the  patronage  of  St.  Wilfred.  But  he  afterward  followers  to  the  Veientian  frontier.     There, 

eooehided  to  join  his  forces  with  those  of  Dr.  in  a  battle  fought  with  the  Veientes  in  477  near 

ITewman,  who  had  just  transplanted  the  Ora-  the  Cremera,  800  of  them  wiUi  several  thousand 

toiy  of  SL  Philip  Neri  to  England,  and  in  1848  of  their  followers  were  slain.    One  boy  only  is 

he  leeeived  the  habit  of  that  congregation,  said  to  have  remained  of  the  family,  and  to  have 

flfaiee  that  time  he  has  won  a  high  reputation  as  become  the  ancestor  of  all  the  illustrious  Fabii 

an  earnest  and  eloquent  preacher  and  writer,  who  subsequently  appear  in  Boman  historv. 

and  a  poet.    His  spiritual  books  find  many  Among  these,  Quintus  Fabitts  Bullianits  od- 

ftotertant  as  well  as  Catholic  readers,  and  have  tained  by  his  heroic  achievements  in  war  the 

been  translated  into  several  languages.     His  surname  of  Maximus  (the  greatest).    From  825, 

pohliahed  writings  since  his  conversion  are  as  in  which  year  he  defeated  the  Samnites  in 

ibDova:  "  Catholic  Hymns,"  and  on  "  Essay  disobedience  to  the  command  of  a  superior 

mt  Beatification  and  Canonization"  (1848):  officer,  and  hardly  escaped  the  penalty  of  death 

"The  Spirit  and  Genius  of  St.  Philip  Neri"  on  that  account,  until  292,  his  military  career 

(1850);   **  Catholic  Home   Missions"  (1851);  was  a  series  of  brilliant  victories  over  Samnites, 

•AH  for  Jesus"  (1854) ;  "  Growth  in  Holiness"  Umbrians,  Etruscans,  and  Gauls.  Five  times  he 

A8BS); '^l^®  Biassed  Sacrament"  (1856);  "Tho  was  elected  consul.    He  was  the  first  Boman 

UHMtor  and  the  Creature"  (1857) ;  "  The  Foot  general  who  carried  the  arms  of  Bome  beyond 

«f  the  Cross,  or  the  Sorrows  of  Mary,"  "  Sir  the  Apennino  range  into  the  country  of  the 

LaoBeelot"  (being  his  former  poem  rewritten),  Gauls,  whom  he  defeated  at  Sentinum,  in  296. 

•nd  •*  Ethers  Story  Book"  (1858);  and"Spir-  Many  of  his  exploits,   however,   have  prob- 

Itaal  Conferences"  (1859).  He  is  at  present  supe-  ablv  been  embellished   by  popular   tradition, 

of  the  Oratory  at  Brompton;  London.  and  perhaps  by  historians  who  belonged  to 
Tou  vn. — 25 


FABIUB  FABBIAirO 

Um  FeUa  g«iii.— LItj  someU  and  Poljbiiif  war.    He  was  the  author  of  a  Uilory  of  Room 

aMtrta  that  it  was  not  QT  Fabias  Rullianiis  from  its  foandation  to  hb  own  tin*.    Of  this 

upon  wlKxn  the  cognomen  of  ICazimos  was  worlc,  which  probablT  was  written  in  Gieck 

originallj  conferred,    hot  his    great-grandson  and  was  highlj  valnedbj  later  writen^  no  frag- 

QnaruB  Fabiitb  ILumiva  ViXBUooeua,  who,  bj  meats  remain. 

lids  prudent  generalship  in  the  second  Pnnio       FABRE,  Fbaxcou  Xatixb  Paicai,  a  TrmA 

war,  saTed  tM  Roman  commonwealth  from  im-  painter,  born  in  Montpellier,  April  1, 176C,  died 

minent  mhL    He  had  been  twice  consol  (298  March  12, 1887.    Ue  was  ap^  of  DaTid,  and 

and  828),  and  had  giTen  proof  of  his  military  produced  in  1787  a  painting  Ttprfaenting  the 

talenU  in  a  brief  war  with  the  Lignrians.    But  ""  Execution  of  the  GhildrsQ  of  Zedsldah  bj 

it  was  onl/  when  Hannibal  had  iuTaded  Ital j,  order  of  Nebnchadnenar,'*  to  which  he  reosired 

and  the  armies  of  Rome  were  melting  before  the  great  prize  of  the  academ/,  and  waaaant  as 

him,  that  Fabius  obtained  an  opportunity  to  de»  ap«nsionarTtoRome.  He  was  beUorcd  to  hate 

Tekf^  his  talents  to  the  fbllest  extent    In  217,  been  secretly  married  to  the  comtess  of  Albif, 

afterthe  defeat  at  LakeThrasymenus^  he  was  ap-  whoon  herdeath  in  1824  made  htmheraole 

pointed  pro-dictator  br  the  people.    Peroeiring  heir,  and  bequeathed  to  him  TBlnableM88.which 

that  to  oppose  to  a  Tictorioos  enemy  a  newly  had  been  left  to  her  hj  AUIerL    Fabia  gafa 

enlisled  and  disheartened  army  would  be  certain  them  to  the  dty  of  Fkvenoe. 
ndn,  he  wisely  resolved  upon  aToiding  all  open       FABRE  D'SGLANTIKE;  Ptaum  I^uv- 

battlea,andtoweafen  the  enemy  by  tiring  nim  ywaNAiAUB,  a  French  reromtionlst  and  athor, 

in  nseless  marches  and  countennarohea.   Keep-  bom  in  Carcassonne,  Ande,  Dee.  SSi,  1758,  Mr> 

ing  together  his  little  band  in  a  compact  body,  ished  on  the  guillotine  at  Paris,  i^rtt  8,  ITN. 

he  moved  hbcamp  trcm  highland  to  highland.  In  aratitnde  to  a  wild  rose  of  gold  (MbbIim) 

where  the  Nnmidian  horses  and  the  Spanish  in-  which  was  awarded  to  him  in  eariv  nfi  at  the 

faatry  of  Hannibal  could  not  follow  him,  watch-  floral  games  at  Toulouse,  he  adopted  that  asBs. 

edtheenemywithunreloxing  vigilance,  cut  off  He  wrote  a  variety  of  wrs  to  the  tbealias  «f 

hb  strsgglers  and  foragers^  and  compelled  him  Paris,  a  few  of  which,  asZsPlilmIs  4$M0Uk% 

to  weary  his  allies  by  heavy  exactions.    This  LHmtrigus  ipisUlahi^  4e.,  were  Ikvorablj  i^ 

cautious  manoBuvring,  on  account  of  which  he  oeived.    On  the  outbreak  of  the  lavolnliaa  hs 

was  called  CSinetatar  (the  cautious,  the  dday-  associated  himself  with  Danton,  whooeaeeralvy 

ing),  was  misinterpreted  by  his  own  lieutenant  he  became  in  1792.    He  was  one  of  the  bms* 

Minuoitts,  and,  throu^  his  rejn^sentations,  by  bera  of  the  convention,  where,  howafar,  he 

the  Roman  senate  and  people,  as  cowardice  or  played  but  a  secondary  part    He  was  aoeasii 

imbecility.  The  command  therdbre  was  divided  of  venality,  and  eventually  doomed  to  shaia  the 

between  Fabius  and  If  inucios ;  bat  the  latter,  late  of  Danton.    While  ascending  the  goiDotiat 

advancing  rashly  against  the  enemy,  was  speedi-  his  literary  fame  was  foremost  in  his  mind,  nJ 

ly  entrapped,  and  would  have  been  destroyed  had  he  distributed  some  of  his  writings  among  the 

not  Fabius  hastened  to  his  rescue.    Then  only  p<^alace.  One  of  his  comedies,  lJ%  prie^mUmn, 

the  masterly  inactivity  of  Fabius  began  to  be  was  produced  for  the  first  time  5  years  after  ha 

appreciated.    Ttioagh  ho  laid  down  the  dicta-  death,  and  received  with  great  applaue.    Tvo 

torship  after  the  expiration  of  6  montlis,  he  volumes  of  his  writings  were  nublMhed  in  1801 

continued  his  strategy  as  consul,  and  it  was  under  the  title  of  (Avrrvi  jMsrAwaMa  #<  ei/^ 
imitated  by  some  generals  succeeding  him  for       FABRETTI,  Raft jlkluk  an  Italian  antiqosrv, 

several  years;  and  when,  in  210,  the  consul  Te«  bom  in  Urbino  in  1618,  died  in  Rome  in  ITOil 

rentius  Varro  once  more,  heedless  of  the  wise  At  the  age  of  18  he  received  the  degree  «f 

counsels  of  Fabius,  ventured  on  an  <^n  field  doctor,  and  repaired  to  Rome,  whers  be  madi 

battle  at  CannsD,  he  was  overwlielmingly  de-  himself  profoundly  acquainted  with  the  litcra- 

feated.    In  209  Fabius  was  elected  coi»ul  for  ture  and  art  of  the  ancients.    After  fillbf  a 

the  6th  time,  and  in  that  year  recaptured  Ta-  diplomatic  mission  in  Spain,  he  became  tiaasanr 

rentum  from  the  enemy.    During  the  latter  of  Pope  Alexander  VII.,  and  under  the  Ssa^ 

years  of  the  war  the  more  energetic  plan  of  ceeding  popes  he  held  various  oAoes  at  Roat, 

action  proposed  by  Scipio  prevailed  over  the  Madrii^  and  Urbino.    His  first  arcluMlofMsl 

advice  of  Fabius.    Just  about  the  time  when  works,  entitled  De  AqumduetihrnM  VeUru 


Hannibal  was  leaving  Italy  Fabius  died  at  an    and  IM  Columna  Trujani^  excited  a  geocral  ia- 


advanced  age,  203  B.  C. — CiLirs  Fauus  Picioa  tcrost.    His  interpretation  of  certain 

was  the  earliest  Roman  painter.    In  802  B.  0.  of  livy  invdved  him  in  a  violent  di 

he  painted  a  battle  piece  m  the  temple  of  Salos.  with  Gronovios.    In  a  learned  work  opoa  sa- 

The  painting  was  preserved  till  the  time  of  the  dent  inscriptions  he  made  known  the  tiesanrw 

emperor  Claodius,  when  the  temple  was  de-  discovered  by  him  in  the  catacombs  of  Room. 

stroyed  by  fire. — His  son  NrMxairs  Fabivs  Pio-  His  rich  collection  of  antiquiti«a  is  still  seta  b 

TOB  is  mentioned  by  Cicero  as  an  author  of  the  ducal  palace  of  Trbino. 
Greek  annahk  but  is  probably  roitttaken  for  his       FABRI ANO,  Fbaxcxsco  di  Gbtou  aa,  m 

nephew  (a  grandson  of  the  paintor),  Qnxrrs  Italian  painter  of  the  Itomaa  scbooL  Kara  ia 

Fabii's  PicTOB,  tbo  first  prose  writer  of  Rome  Fabriano,  in  the  Pafud  States,  aboot  ISTiV  dad 

(aeriptcrum  antiqumimvs)^  who  served  in  the  in  Rome  in  1450.     Micliel  Angelo  said  ihst 

Gslltc  war,  225  B.C.,  as  also  in  the  second  Punio  his  name  Gentile,  the  noble  or  dslieata,  vss 


FABRICIUS  887 

in  barmony  idtli  the  character  of  his  works,  the  slightest  flavor  of  paganism,  and  censored 
la  1417  he  painted  in  the  cathedral  of  Orvieto  those  who  had  recourse  to  the  pagan  divinities 
A  ICadonna,  which  still  exists,  and  which  was  to  ornament  their  verses.  Baamgarten-Oroi^ns 
80  mnch  admired  that  the  artist  received  the  wrote  a  sketch  of  his  life  and  writings. 
title  of  magUter  tnagutrorum.  He  then  went  FABRIOIUS,  or  FABBiao,  Girolamo,  sor- 
to  Yenice,  where  he  ohtained  great  saccess,  named  from  his  hirthplace  Ab  Aquapendbntb, 
and  was  invited  to  Rome,  where  his  paintings  an  Italian  anatomist  and  sorgeon,  horn  at  Ao- 
in  the  church  of  St  John  of  Lateran,  whidi  qaapendente,  in  the  Papal  States,  in  1637,  died 
his  infirmitiea  did  not  permit  him  to  finish,  in  Padua,  May  21, 1619.  A  most  distinguished 
made  him  esteemed  the  first  painter  of  Italy,  pupil  of  Fallopius,  he  succeeded  him  as  profes- 
His  manner  resemhles  that  of  Fra  Angelica  sor  of  anatomy  and  surgery  at  the  university 
He  was  the  master  of  Jacopo  BellinL  of  Padua,  which  position  he  held  for  60  years. 
FABRICIUS,  Caiub^  a  Roman  statesman,  His  most  remarkaole  discovery  was  that  of  Uie 
flourished  in  the  1st  quarter  of  the  8d  cen-  memhranoua  folds  (which  he  called  valves)  in 
tniy  B.  0.  He  is  celehrated  in  the  histoi^  of  the  interior  of  veins.  Several  of  them  had  heen 
the  repuhlic  for  his  virtue  and  integrity.  While  ohserved  by  Yesalius  and  other  anatomists,  hot 
eoosiil  in  282  B.  0.  he  defeated  the  Lucanians,  Fabricins  was  tiio  first  to  demonstrate  in  1674 
Bmttiana,  and  Samnites^  and  enridied  the  pub-  the  presence  of  these  valvular  folds  in  all  the 
lie  treasury  with  more  than  400  talents  rrom  veins  of  the  extremities.  William  Harvey,  who 
the  spoUB  of  the  enemy,  remaining  poor  himself  was  his  pupil,  acknowledged  himself  indebted 
In  280  he  served  as  legate  in  the  campaign  to  his  teachings  for  the  discovery  of  the  circu- 
against  Pyrrhua,  king  of  Epims,  to  whom  he  lation  of  the  Uood.  His  writings  comprise  dis- 
was  sent  at  its  dose  with  an  embassy,  to  ask  sertations  on  the  formation  of  the  fcetns,the 
the  rmnsom  or  exchange  of  some  Roman  prison-  structure  of  the  c&sophagus,  stomach,  and  body, 
en  of  war.  The  meeting  of  the  two  distinguish-  and  the  peculiarities  of  Uie  eye,  ear,  and  larynx ; 
ed  men  at  Tarentum  has  perhaps  been  embel-  treatises  on  the  egg  and  on  veins,  &o.  Great 
liahed  by  the  historians  cf  Roman  antiquity,  honors  were  bestowed  on  him  by  the  Venetian 
who  seem  to  dwell  with  particular  fondness  on  government,  and  a  new  and  large  anatomical 
the  last  examples  of  olden  virtue,  in  tiiat  period  theatre  was  constructed  for  his  accommodation, 
of  commencing  decay.  Fabridus  is  represented  He  left  to  his  niece  a  fortune  of  over  $160,000, 
to  have  withstood  not  only  the  most  splendid  and  his  beautiful  villa  on  the  Brenta  is  still 
offers  of  the  victorious  king,  who  knowing  his  known  under  the  name  of  Mantagnuola  eTAc- 
poveiiy  tried  to  bribe  him  into  his  service,  but  quapendenU.  The  first  e<lition  of  his  surgical 
abo  the  threatening  aspect  of  an  elephant  woncs  appeared  at  Padua  in  1617.  A  complete 
iwmingly  let  loose  upon  him.  In  reward  of  edition  of  his  anatomical  and  physiological 
bii  int^rity  the  king  allowed  the  captives  to  works  was  published  by  Bohn  in  Leipsic  in 
repair  to  Rome  for  the  celebration  of  the  Satur-  1687,  followed  in  1737  by  that  of  Albinus  of 
Buia,  on  promise  of  returning  after  the  festivsJ.  Leyden,  containing  a  biographical  sketch  of 
In  279  Fabricins  fought  in  the  battle  of  Ascu-  Fabricins,  and  the  prefaces  of  the  different 
hun,  which,  though  nominallv  a  victory,  was  treatises,  which  Bohn  had  suppressed. 
regarded  by  Pyrrhus  himself  almost  as  a  defeat.  FABRICIUS,  Johann  Albert,  a  Oerman  bib- 
In  the  next  year  he  commanded  again  as  consul,  liographer,  bom  in  Leipsic,  Nov.  11,  1668,  died 
sad  exposed  to  his  enemy  the  treachery  of  his  in  Hamburg,  April  80,  1736.  He  studied  phi- 
physlctan,  who  offered  to>  poison  him,  upon  losophy,  medicine,  and  theology,  and  in  1713  be- 
wudi  Pyrrhus  is  said  to  have  exclaimed :  **  It  came  librarian  to  J.  F.  Mayer  at  Hamburg.  In 
ii  eerier  to  turn  the  sun  from  its  career,  than  1699  he  was  appointed  to  the  professorship  of 
FaMdna  from  his  honesty,*'  and  to  have  f^ed  rhetoric  and  moral  philosophy  in  the  gymnasium 
an  his  captives  witliout  ransom.  When  Pyr-  of  that  city,  which  he  retained  until  his  death. 
thns  evacuated  Italy,  Fabricins  was  engaged  in  The  extent  of  his  learning  in  almost  every  de- 
eobdning  his  allies.  As  censor  in  276  he  de-  partment  of  knowledge,  especially  in  philology, 
piived  r.  Ck>melius  Rufinus  of  his  seat  in  the  was  remarkable.  His  most  celebrated  works 
for  having  in  his  household  10  pounds  are  ^i^^i(?<Aeea  Zaf/na  (Hamburg,  1697;  6th  ed. 


wdg^t  of  silver  plate.    Like  Curius  Dentatus,  1721 ;  new  edition  by  Emesti,  Leipsic,  1 773-^4) ; 

he  ^mned  the  presents- of  the  Samnite  ambas-  BibUoiheca  Orofca  ^Hamburg,  1706-8;  continu** 

a  and  died  so  poor  that  the  senate  had  to  ation  and  new  edition  by  Harless,  1790-1809, 

marriage  portions  for  his  daughters,  provided  with  an  index  in  1838) ;  BihUographia 

buried  within  the  walls  of  Rome,  the  Antiquaria  (Hamburg,  1713 :  new  edition  by 

prahibitory  law  of  the  12  tables  having  been  Schafshausen,  1760) ;  Bibliotheea  EccUHaUiea 

saepended  in  his  honor.  (Hamburg,  1718) ;  and  Bibliotheea  Media  et  In^- 

FABRICIUS,  GsoBO,  a  German  scholar,  bom  fima  jEtatis  (6  vols.,  Hamburg,  1784;  8upple<» 

in  Chemnitz,  Saxony,  April  24,  1616,  died  in  mentary  vol.  by  SchOttgen,  1746;  new  edition 

If  ait  n,  July  18, 1671.    His  edition  of  Horace  by  Mansi,  Padua,  1764). 
(S  Tok,  Basel,  1666)  is  still  esteemed  at  the       FABRICIUS,  Johann  Christian,  a  Danish 

pTCsent  day.    He  wrote  Latin  poetry  with  groat  entomologist,  born  in  Tondem,  Schleswig,  Jan. 

parity,  and  was  so  pious  that  in  his  sacred  7,  1743,  died  in  1807.     His  academio  studies 

he  woold  employ  no  words  which  had  were  pursued  at  Copenhagen,  Leyden,  £din« 


S8»  FABRONI  FACIAL  AHGLB 

barih  and  flnallj  at  XTpsal,  where  be  enjoyed  wrote  altobiographietoirComodelleAeland 

tbe  imtmetioos  of  liniwas.    A  slmilaritj  of  Pope  Leo  X^  beiide  leTeral  mtweHaiwiQi  and 

laelet  «id  temperament  brought  master  and  theoloeioal  worita. 

papa  into  the  dcMeetintimaoj.  and  to  Fabrieios       FAJ3TAN,  or  Fabiar;  RoHnr,  ao  aaeieiil 

we  are  perhwa  indebted  fbr  toe  most  intereet-  Endish  chrooider,  bom  m  LoodoQ  about  148fl^ 

log  biomphioel   notices  of  the  great  Swede,  died  in  161S.    At  first  a  merdiaiit,  ha  beeaow 

Ko  popil  of  LhuuBos  baa  more  thoroogblj  ap-  an  alderman  and  aberiff  (^  Loodoii,  and  wtola 

]^ied  ma  method,  and  eren  his  forms  ofexpres-  a  general  chronicle  of  En^idi  blrtoiy,  wbidi 

aloo,  to  the  dev^opment  of  a  special  brandi  of  he  called  the  **  OoooordaDca  of  Sloriaai**  horn 

adeoce,  and  iiono  has  e^ojed  a  more  brilliant  the  fkboloaa  ezi^oita  of  Bmtoa  fa  Giaai  Bril> 

iMmtatioo.   It  wasdoring  a  scientific  ezcnrsioii  ain  to  the  rei«i  of  Henry  YIL    It  k  a  tafi* 

wwi  limueos  that  the  idea  of  classiQrmg  insects  oos  narratlTe  of  the  eitenial  Ibatmaa  of  ttma^ 

aeoording  to  the  formation  of  the  parts  which  actiooa»  withont  discrimination  in  tha  aaleelkn 

ccnstitnte  the  month  first  occnrred  to  him ;  and  or  taste  in  the  treatment  of  iol|)eela.    Itwaa 

the  ttiproval  and  enconragement  of  his  master,  first  pablisbed  after  the  antbor^  daafb  (Ibfio^ 

10  whom  be  expl^ned  hia  yiews,  gave  the  first  1516),  and  baa  since  leappeaied  in  iinujaioM 

impoto  to  hia  entomological  studies,  and  to  the  editions,  the  last  of  which  Is  thai  bgr  Or  llsni/ 

derelopmentof the  iiTst^of claasification with  £IliS|  accompanied  bjnotesand  akamedlatRN 

which  the  name  of  Fsbricins  is  now  identified,  doction  ('^Cbroniclea  of  Eo^and  and  nnaca,** 

LiuiSKia  himself  declined  to  applj  the  sjrstem  to  rojal  4to.,  London,  1811).    On  aeoonnt  of  Ua 

btenew  edition  of  the  49|fi(0maiV&h(rei,onljbe»  flree  animadTerrions  on  dieCatbolie  ^ergr,  Osr* 

oansebeconceired  himself  too  old  to  change  hia  dinal  Wols^issaldyOnTeiydoobtfblaatM^y; 

method.    In  1768  Fabridoa  took  the  degree  of  to  bare  caned  the  destmeHon  of  a  portion  cf 

doctor  of  medidne,  and  soon  after  was  appoint-  the  first  editioo,  oopiea  of  which  are  now  r«e 

ed  professor  of  natoral  history  in  the  noirersitj  omiosities,  only  Spemctapecinienabainf  known. 
^  of  Kiel,  where  be  published  in  1775  h\»S^Uma       FACOIOLATO,  or  FAOCKXULn,  Jacom,  ai 

3Ucmohffim  (4  toIs.  8vos  GopenhagenX  in  Italian  philologist,  bom  in  Tone^ia,  near  Faia^ 

idilch  he  for  the  first  time  made  public  hia  Jan.  4^  1684^  died  Aug.  i7, 1768.    OvAnalBai^ 

method.    The  publicaticm  of  the  work  opened  bariao,  notidng  his  taienti^  aent  him  to  tha  aeale> 

a  rich  field  of  industry  and  research  to  onto-  aiasucalseminaryctfFadua,  where  ho  took  ovfaa 

molo^ists,  and  no  one  explored  it  with  more  en*  and  speedily  rose  to  be  profcssor  ofphUqsefil^, 

tfaoslasm  than  the  author,  who  during  the  re-  and  finally  bead  of  the  institution.  Haaftarwari 

mainder  of  his  life  was  constantly  employed  in  filled  the  chair  of  logic  in  the  oniTenity  of  the 

derdoping  and  perfecting  his  system,  tor  which  same  city,  and  waa  charged  with  the  task  af 

purpose  he  inxule  tours  orer  all  parts  of  Eu-  continuing  the  history  of  that  ostablishiDent 

rope.    11\b  Genera  In»eetarum(Svo^  Kie\177Q\  which  Papadopoli  bad  begun.    The  king  of 

jHiilo$ophia    Entomologka   (8vo.,    Uambarg,  Portugal  inWted  him  to  direct  the  college  of 

1778),  Species  In$eetorum  (2  vols.  8vo.,  1781),  young  nobles  at  Lbboo,  but  he  reftised  oo  a&- 

Mantima  Imectorum  (2  volk  8vo.,  Copenhagen,  count  of  his  advanced  age.    Beside  seTcral  good 

1787),  Entomologia  Syitematica  (4  vols.  8vo.,  editions  of  the  dasMcs  and  Tarioos  works  ca 

Copenhagen,  1792-*94),  and  other  works,  show  grammar,   ethics,    theology,   and    ctco   some 

bow  coropluto  and  extended  were  hi«  investiga-  poetry,  he  published  revisions  of  the  Laifitm 

tions  in  this  branch  of  science.  lib  later  works,  of  Sc'hrevelius,  the  TkemuruM  Citfrwtimmus  of 

however,  are  inferior  to  his  first,  in  consequence  Kizolius,  and  the  vocabuUury  of  7  laaguafss 

of  the  arbitrary  and  uncertain  characters  ho  was  known  as  the  Calepim^  (S  voh.  Ibl.,  1731X  ia 

obliged  to  apply  to  the  genera,  as  the  number  of  which  he  received  mudi  assistance  from  his 

flpeaes  increased  under  his  hands.  He  tl*o  pub-  pupil  Foroellini  and  others.    It  was  at  the  ooo* 

liflhed  CMays  on  botany  and  natura]  history,  in  elusion  of  tlie  Itft  named  work  that  FacdelsMi 

both  of  which  ho  was  well  informed,  accounts  and  Forcellini  conceived  the  idea  of  the  grsst 

of  travels  in  Norway,  Russia,  and  England,  and  Latin  dictionary  which  was  published  40  yesn 

a  variety  of  treatise^  historical,  political,  and  liOer,  after  the  death  of  both,  under  their  Joist 

economical,  relating  to  Dvnmark,  the  latter  being  names,  but  which  was  almost  entirely  the  work 

prepared  by  him  in  his  capacity  of  councillor  of  of  the  latter.    (See  Fobcillgci.) 
state  and  profe9!K>r  of  rural  and  political  econ-        FACIAL  ANGLE.    In  the  latter  paH  of  the 

omy  at  Kiel.    He  dio<i  of  gnof,  it  is  supposed,  last  century.  Professor  Camper  of  Berlin  pe^ 

oo^oned  by  the  bomlmnltncnt  of  Copenhagen,  poM^d  a  new  method  of  viewing  the  skoD,  by 

and  the  political  misfortunes  of  Denmark.  which  it  was  supposed  important  resohs  wmU 

FABRONI,  Anoelo,  an  It.ili.iii  bii>fminhcr,  bo  arrived  at,  which  immediatelv  attained  a 

bom  in  Marratli,  Tuscany,  in  1 732,  dio<l  iu  Vi^  wide  popularity.    ^  The  basis  on  which  the  dii* 

Sept.  22,  1803.      His  chief  work  U  his  VU^w  tinct ion  of  nations  is  founded,^ 


Jtalorum   I)oftrina  EiftUmtium   qui  Streuh  quoted  by  Pricbard,  **roay  be  displayed  by  t«e 

XVIL  et  XVIII.   fiorurntnU  which,  in  the  straipht]inoft;oneofvhich\stobearawBthfOQfk 

compass  of  20  volumes,  2  of  which  wore  added  the  ineatui  anditorius  to  the  base  of  the  nos^ 

after  his  death,  contains  167  well  written  biog-  and  the  other  touching  the  prominent  oentrv  of 

raphics  of  the  ino^t  eminent  Italian  scholars  the  forehead  and  falling  thence  on  tba  most  ad- 

and  author*  of  the  17th  and  ISth  centuries.  Ua  vandngpart  of  the  U[^)er  Jaw  bons^  tbebaal 


FACTOR  889 

bdng  Tiewed  in  profile.  In  the  Angle  produced  nallj  hod  almost  the  same  meaning  as  agent 
br  these  two  lines  may  be  said  to  consist  not  (Lat  agere^  to  act).  But  while  agent  was  used 
onlj  the  distinctions  between  the  sknlls  of  the  to  represent  every  one  who  acted  in  any  way 
seTeral  species  of  animals,  but  also  those  which  in  the  stead  of  another,  factor  became  limited 
are  foond  to  exist  between  different  nations ;  to  those  who  so  act  in  mercantile  transactions. 
and  it  might  be  concluded^  that  natnre  has  Factor  is  then  a  mercantile  agent,  herein  being 
ATukd  herself  at  the  same  time  of  this  angle  to  like  a  broker ;  bat  the  difference  between  them 
mark  out  the  diversities  of  the  animal  kingdom,  is  principally  this :  a  broker  acts  for  his  prin- 
and  to  establish  a  sort  of  scale  from  the  inferior  cipal  in  reference  to  mercantile  property  which 
tribes  up  to  the  most  beantifhl  forms  which  are  the  principal  retains  in  his  hands ;  while  the 
foond  in  the  human  species.  Thus  it  will  be  factor  has  possession  of  the  goods  sent  to  him 
foond  that  the  heads  of  birds  display  the  smallest  for  sale,  or  takes  possession  of  tliose  which  he 
angle^  and  that  it  always  becomes  of  greater  ex-  buys  for  his  principid.  F|^m  this  difference 
lent  In  proportion  as  the  animal  approaches  more  others  have  grown ;  and  the  most  important  of 
nenfy  to  tbe  human  figure.  Thus  there  is  one  these  is,  that  the  broker  buys  and  sells  as  agent, 
ipecifis  of  the  ape  tribe  in  which  the  head  has  while  the  factor  may  buy  and  sell  in  his  own 
an  an^e  of  42* ;  in  another  animal  of  the  same  name,  the  party  dealing  with  him  not  always 
iaauly,  which  is  one  ofthosesimifls  most  approx-  knowing  whether  the  factor  or  some  one  else 
imaling in  figure  to  mankind,  the  fikcial  ancle  con-  owns  the  goods.  In  the  United  States  the 
tains  exactly  50*;  next  to  this  is  the  heaa  of  the  word  factor  is  seldom  used  by  merchants, 
Afiiean  negro,  which  as  well  as  that  of  the  Eal-  because,  in  our  practice,  the  phrase  commis- 
mnck  forms  an  angle  of  70*;  while  the  angle  dis-  sion  merchant  has  taken  its  place,  and  means 
coTcred  in  the  heads  of  Europeans  contains  80*.  much  the  same  thing.  But  the  word  factor  is 
On  tUs  difference  of  10*  in  tne  facial  angle  the  retidned  as  a  law  term,  and  the  law  of  &ctors 
gqierior  beauty  of  the  European  depends ;  while  derives  its  importance  fVom  its  being  the  law  of 
tlttt  lugh  eharacter  of  sublime  beauty  which  commission  merchants.  Beside  regular  commis* 
Is  so  Btnking  in  some  works  of  ancient  statuary,  sion  merchants,  anyone  intrusted  with  the  pos- 
ts in  the  h^id  of  Apollo  and  in  the  Medusa  of  session  of  property  belonging  to  another,  and 
Siaoclea,  is  given  by  an  angle  which  amounts  to  authorized  by  the  owner  to  dispose  of  it,  may  be 
100",^  It  win  be  readily  seen  that  the  facial  an-  a  factor,  as  a  supercargo.  8o  a  common  carrier 
1^  is  a  measure  only  of  the  relative  projection  may  be  a  factor ;  and  while  he  acts  as  such,  he 
of  the  forehead  and  the  upper  Jaw,  and  that  it  is  responsible  only  as  a  factor,  that  is,  only  for 
is  no  measure  of  the  capacity  of  the  cranium  it-  injuries  or  losses  caused  by  want  of  due  care ; 
•eUl  A  protruding  upper  Jaw  will  diminish  the  but  when  he  has  sold  goods  as  factor,  and  has 
aai^e ;  a  prominence  of  tne  lower  part  of  the  received  the  money  which  it  is  his  duty  to  bring 
forehead,  though  the  latter  may  have  neither  home  as  carrier,  his  obligations  as  carrier  re- 
height  nor  width,  will  increase  it;  it  may  differ  vive,  and  he  is  now  liable  for  any  loss  not 
greatly  in  skulls  which  have  the  same  capacity,  caused  by  the  act  of  God  or  the  public  enemy. 
and  m^^be  inferior  in  a  skull  of  superior  capa-  A  factor  is  a  general  agent,  and  as  such  binds  his 
dty.  vTith  these  obvious  objections  to  the  fa-  principaL — ^Tlie  most  general  duty  of  a  factor, 
dai  anflle  as  a  measure  of  intellectual  ability  in  as  of  every  agent,  is  to  obey  the  instructions  he 
pardcuar  cases,  a  general  relation  may  stiU  be  receives.  But  he  is  considered  by  the  law  mer- 
tiaeed  between  the  relative  development  of  the  cliant  as  an  agent  having  much  discretion,  and 
iDterior  part  of  the  cranium,  as  compared  with  an  equal  responsibility ;  while  therefore  he  is 
that  of  the  upper  jaw,  and  the  amount  of  intel-  bound  to  obey  definite  and  positive  instructions, 
Vtdtf  and  thus  the  fadal  angle  has  a  certiun  de-  he  is  not  bound  to  pay  such  regard  to  mere 
me  of  significance.  The  facial  angle  of  the  intimations  or  wishes,  because  he  may  well 
Oncasiian  race  averages  about  80*,  that  of  the  believe  that,  whatever  his  principal  mi^ht 
KongoHan  and  of  the  American  Indian  about  desire  or  consider  expedient,  if  he  did  not  give 
T5*,  while  that  of  the  negro  is  but  70*.  Fi-om  positive  directions  it  was  because  he  preferred 
inetnreraentsof  the  skulls  of  the  superior  order  leaving  the  decision  to  the  discretion  of  his 
of  ^ws,  their  fecial  angle  has  been  put  down  as  factor.  And  even  if  he  have  positive  and  pre- 
fimt  60)*  to  64*,  and  Uius  it  has  been  argued  cise  instructions,  his  departure  from  them 
fbaSL  the  negro  was  not  only  a  link  in  the  chain  will  be  justified  if  it  was  caused  by  an  unfore- 
cf  creatioa  between  the  ape  and  the  white  man,  seen  emergency,  and  if  he  acted  in  good  faith, 
lot  diat  he  absolutely  approximated  more  close-  and  certainly  for  the  actual  advantage  of  his 
hrtotlie  former  than  to  the  latter.  FYofessor  principaL  \^  however,  a  factor  buys  goods 
Owen  has  proved  that  these  measurements  are  for  his  principal  and  sends  them  to  him  in 
^ffm^ed  on  error,  that  they  have  been  taken  distinct  violation  of  an  order,  his  principal 
flnm  jDong  aidmals  in  whom  the  jaw  had  not  may  reject  the  same,  and  may  return  them  to 
J«t  leoeired  its  full  development,  and  that  in  his  factor ;  or,  if  the  nature  of  the  goods  and 
the  adolt^impansee  the  facial  angle  is  no  more  the  circumstances  of  the  case  render  it  cor- 
flun  S5*,  white  in  the  adult  orang  it  is  but  30*,  tainly  expedient,  he  may  sell  the  goods  for  his 
Ifani  eitablishing  a  wide  difference  between  the  factor,  and  remit  to  him  or  credit  him  with 
ncpo  and  the  most  highly  organized  of  the  apes,  the  proceeds;  but  he  must  not  cause  any  in- 
FACrOB  (Lat  ''acere^  to  do  or  make)  origi-  jury  to  his  factor  by  his  delay  or  negligence. 


too  FAOTOB 

A  fretor  generaDj  acquires  no  right  to  his  him  who  gare  it.  In  Hunt  ft.  Biwninfar,  S 
comn^asions  until  the  service  bj  which  he  is  Whcston,  201,  Chief  Jnsticellanfaall  bcld  thtt 
to  mm  them  is  wholly  rendered.  Bat  if  he  an  interest  which  can  |iroieet  a  power  from 
parfonns  an  important  part,  and  is  prevented  revocation  most  be  an  intereat  m  the  thing 
without  his  fimlt  ftom  compleUng  his  service,  itself  about  which  the  aothority  b  to  bo  exer- 
and  stiU  more  if  the  principal  be  in  fimlt,  it  cised,  and  not  merely  an  intereat  in  that  which 
would  seem  from  a^udged  cases,  as  well  as  is  produced  by  the  ezerdse  of  that  Mwer. 
from  principle,  that  fie  may  have  a  reasonable  And  in  subsequent  cases,  it  aeama  to  m  tha 
oompensation.  Nor  has  he  any  claim  for  com-  prevailimr  doctrine  in  the  United  Stalsa,  that 
peuMtioD  unless  he  conducts  his  business  with  a  (actor  by  advances  upon  goods  aequirca  an 
proper  care  and  skill,  and  he  is  liable  in  dam-  interest  in  the  goods  themsdvea,  and  that  hia 
ages  Ibr  any  loss  his  Principal  sustains  by  his  authority  over  them  la  therefore  irrerooahle. 
want  of  care  and  tjpu ;  nor  can  he  claim  any  In  England,  however,  in  a  caae  tried  before  the 
compeiMation  for  anv  illegal  or  immoral  service,  court  of  common  pleaa,  in  which  tha  leading 
A  focior  cannot  delegate  his  power  and  right,  American  authority  waa  died,  it  was  ezpna^y 
azcept  so  for  as  he  isanthorixed  to  do  so,  either  overruled,  and  the  authority  Mid  lo  be  revo- 
axprossly,  or  by  the  established  usage,  or  by  cable.  Hence,  in  Kngjand,  a  foctor  who  baa 
the  peculiar  dreumstances  of  the  case.  In  the  made  advances  upon  goods  baa  nercrtbelesa 
abaeDoe  of  positive  instructions,  it  is  the  duty  of  no  power  to  seU  them  or  any  part  of  them  If 
tha  foctor  to  obey  and  conform  to  the  common  positive^  prohibited  by  his  priadpal;  wbOa 
mage  of  that  boaineas,  or  such  common  usages  in  the  Ui^ted  States  he  mav  adl  ao  modi  aa 
of  merchants  as  are  properly  applicable  to  that  will  cover  his  advances  and  cbargea,  tha  priad> 
boajneaa ;  and  he  can,  in  generaC  bind  his  prin-  pal  having  no  power  of  disposal  ovar  mora  of 
dpal  only  within  that  usage.  Ho  has,  as  haa  the  goods  than  the  surplus  or  reaidiia  after  tha 
bean  said,  a  considerable  discretion,  but  is  frkctor*s  advances  are  renaid.  Tha  foctor,  bow- 
bound  to  osehis  dlMn«tion  with  reasonable  care,  aver,  is  not  obliged  to  sell,  butafter  deoiand  and 
and  with  perfect  good  foith.  Thus,  if  he  hast-  reasonable  delay,  may  have  bjaactfonagainal  bis 
ana  a  aale  improperly,  and  without  reasonable  prindpal  for  hia  advanoea.— Another 


oanse  or  excuse,  the  sale  ii  void ;  as,  for  exam-  nas  been  much  agitated ;  that  ia,  what  power  a 

pie,  if  ha  hurriea  a  sale,  dearly  against  the  inter-  foctor  has  to  pledge  the  goods  consigned  t«lte. 

est  of  the  principal,  for  the  purpose  of  realizing  They  are  plaosd  in  his  hands  nrimarilv  for  safe; 

at  once  hb  own  advances,  such  a  sale  would  be  and  in  regard  to  the  sale,  whUe  bound  to  sanrh 

considered  a  fraudulent  sacrifice  of  hb  principalis  care  and  entire  good  foith,  be  baa  a  very  wide 

property.    Whether  the  foctor  b  bound  to  in-  authority ;  but  it  should  seem  that  be  can  have 

sure  the  property  of  hb  principal,  muift  depend  no  power  to  pledge  the  goods  (in  the  abteoct 

upon  the  dreunistoncoii  of  each  case.    There  is  of  expreM  instructiooH),  excejvting  so  for  as  thsl 

no  general  rule  requiring  him,  a.^  factor  or  com-  power  grows  out  of  the  placmg  of  the  pxids  in 

mi&sion  merchant,  to  injure ;  but  he  would  be  nb  hands,  and  hb  relation  to  hb  principal  as  a 

under  an  obliji^ation  to  do  thb  if  he  wore  so  general  agent.    By  placing  the  goods  in  his 

instructed,  or  if  a  general,  well  establbhed,  ojid  poMeiwion,  the  principal  may  be  said  to  give  to 

well  Icnown  usage  re<}uired  it  of  him,  and  par-  Lb  foctor  tlie  power  of  acting  as  an  owner,  to 

ticolarly  if  there  hod  been  anti^edent  ai*ts  or  the  injury  of  others.    It  b  on  thb  ground  thst 

nsa^  between  him  and  hU  principal,  from  in  England,  and  in  many  of  the  United  Stsxcs 

which  hb  principal  might  rea2k)uably  have  ex-  (e^tpeciolly  Maine,  Massachusetts,  Rhode  I4U&1L 

pected  that  he  would  effect  insurance,  and  there-  New  York;,  and  Pennsylvania),  such  a  fortic, 

fore  omit  doing  thb  himself. — It  is  a  verv  im-  whether  ddledcommisnionmerchant^coiuignte, 

portant  question,  and  one  not  absolutely  deter-  agent,  or  otherwise,  b  deemed  to  be  the  trut 

mined,  how  for  and  under  what  circuni>tances  owner,  as  to  sale,  pledge,  or  other  dij^iofitittt 

the  prindpal  has  the  right  of  revoking  the  au-  of  the  property,  whde  the  party  with  wbcas  be 

thonty  he  has  given  to  hb  factor.    In  general,  deals  acts  in  irood  foith.    A  factor,  wbcthrr  U 

be  may  certainly  do  thb  U^foro  the  foctor  has  be  a  commiiwion  merchant  or  not,  may  make  a 

made  any  advances  upon  the  goods;  and  may  special  contrai*t  withhbprindpal«tognaract<e 

then  demand  tla^tn,  imving  of  course  whatever  all  sales  made  for  him.    In  continental  Eanioe, 

legal  claims  the  factor  nuiy  have,  not  for  his  sometimes  in  England,  more  rarely  beiv,  forh  a 

commissions,  but  for  exi>eni»es  pro|H*rly  incurred  foctor  b  said  to  act  under  a  dii  frtdrrt  ci4o- 

about  the  goods,  and  for  any  especial  services  mii«ion.    With  us  he  b  cocunonly,  and  per 

he  has  been  called  u|)on  to  render.    The  more  haps  universally,  sdd  to  act  under  a  guaraBt<« 

difficult  question  b  whether,  if  a  commission  commission.    Tlie  meaning  of  thb  bi  that  in 

merchant  has  made  advances  upon  goiMls,  he  addition  to  the  usual  commission  (or  that  agfNd 

has  not  now  acquired  an  interest  in  them  and  upon)  for  the  sale  of  tlie  goods,  be  rNdvr*  a 

an  authority  over  them,  which  his  prinripsl  further  commission,  in  consideration  of  wbkb 

cannot  defeat  by  revocation.     And  this  mu«t  he  guarantiees  the  payment  by  the  pnrduMr 

depend  upon  the  foroiliar  principle  of  the  bw  of  the  price  of  the  goods.     He  tbereforv  ^erets 

of  agency,  that  an  authonty  cdunliHl  with  an  witli  hts  principal  to  pay  the  deU  vi  the  |tar> 

interest  cannot  be  revolciHl,  while  any  nukeil  chaser,  if  the   purrhaser  does  not;  acd  this 

authority  bdways  revocable  at  the  pleasure  of  would  seem  to  udLe  him  mHj  a  snrKy.    Tba 


FAOTOB  891 

qoestion  is  important ;  for  if  bj  his  contract  he  general,  it  may  be  said  that  if  a  purchaser  pajs 
becomes  a  pnncipal  debtor  to  the  owner  who  in  good  faith  to  either,  without  notice  of  the 
is  his  own  principal,  then  the  owner  can  de-  other's  claim,  he  will  be  protected  against  the 
maud  payment  of  him  and  let  him  look  to  the  other.  But  if  the  owner  demands  his  price,  the 
purchaser.  But  if  he  is  only  a  surety  for  the  purchaser  cannot  set  off  against  this,  or  claim 
purchaser,  then  the  owner  must  look  to  the  to  deduct,  a  general  debt  to  the  purchaser  from 
porchaaer  in  the  first  olace,  and  only  in  his  the  factor,  umess  the  factor  sold  the  goods  as 
defiah  can  he  come  to  tne  factor  as  guarantor ;  his  own,  under  circumstances  which  gave  him  a 
and  this  latter  rule  seems  now  to  prevail  very  de-  right  so  to  sell  them,  and  the  buyer  believed  they 
cidedly  both  in  England  and  the  United  States,  were  his  own ;  in  which  case  the  buyer  may 
But  while  a  guarantee  commission  merchant  charge  against  the  price,  or  indeed  pay  the  whole 
is  bdd  to  be  a  surety,  it  seems  to  be  also  held  price,  by  the  indebtedness  of  the  ractor  to  him. 
that  he  does  not  come  within  the  statute  of  And  if  before  the  goods  are  delivered,  or  any 
frauds,  as  one  who  promises  to  pay  the  debt  payment  made,  the  buyer  is  notified  that  the 
of  another.  A  guarantee  conomission  merchant  goods  belong  to  some  third  person,  that  is, 
has  the  same  daim  on  his  principal  for  his  ad-  some  one  neither  the  principal  nor  the  factor, 
Tinces  as  if  he  made  no  guarantee.  If  he  the  buver  may  refuse  to  take  them ;  but  if  he 
takes  a  note  firom  the  purchaser  of  the  goods,  takes  them,  he  cannot  set  off  against  the  price 
this  note  is  the  property  of  his  principal,  and  he  a  debt  due  from  the  factor.  On  the  other  hand, 
narantecs  the  note ;  and  if  he  takes  payment  if  the  factor  has  a  lien  on  the  goods,  and  has  not 
m  depreciated  paper,  he  must  make  it  good,  lost  this  lien  by  parting  with  the  possession  of 
If  money  be  x>aid,  and  he  remits  it  in  some  cus-  the  goods,  the  buyer  cannot  set  off  against  this 
tomary  and  proper  wav,  or  in  such  way  as  may  lien  any  debt  due  to  him  from  the  principal,  al- 
bs ipedaUy  directed  by  the  owner,  he  is  not  though  the  principal  be  named  at  the  sale  as  the 
leiponsible  for  its  safe  arrival  He  may,  how-  owner  of  the  goods. — An  important  distinction 
ercTy  make  a  bargiun  to  guarantee  the  remit-  is  made  between  a  foreign  factor  and  a  do- 
tanee;  and  if  he  makes  such  a  bargain,  he  may  mestic  factor.  A  foreign  factor  is  one  who 
duffge  A  eommission  for  this  ^arantee;  but  transacts  business  for  his  principal  in  a  coun- 
tf  he  has  a  right  to  charge  this  commission,  try  in  which  the  latter  does  not  reside ;  while 
he  is  equally  liable  whether  he  in  fact  charges  a  domestio  factor  acts  in  the  same  country  in 
ihk  commission,  or  does  not  Even  if  he  have  which  the  principal  resides.  Although  every 
noM  erfdere  or  guarantee  commission,  he  may  factor  may  act  in  his  own  name,  yet  in  the  case 
still  be  liable  to  his  principal,  not  only  for  his  of  a  foreign  factor,  the  law  goes  much  further. 
Deflect  or  default,  but  by  certain  acts  which  and  considers  the  factor  as  in  almost  all  respects 
Mem  to  assume  this  Hability ;  as  if  he  sells  a  principal.  The  reason  of  this  is  obvious.  A 
i  the  goods  of  several  principds  to  one  pur-  person  dealing  at  home  with  a  factor  whose 
L  eiisKr,  on  credit,  and  takes  a  note  payable  or  principal  resides  abroad,  has  no  means  of  know- 
endorsed  to  himself,  and  gets  it  discounted,  mg  who  the  principal  is,  or  what  goods  are  his, 
It  has  slready  been  remarked,  tbat  a  factor  or  by  what  title  they  are  his,  or  for  what  pur^ 
nsy  boy,  sell,  sue  and  be  sued,  demand,  collect,  pose  they  are  in  the  factor's  hands,  ezccpUng  as 
recelTe,  and  receipt  for  money,  all  in  his  own  the  factor  may  choose  to  tell  him.  He  can  have 
name,  and  as  a  principal,  while  a  broker  can  no  access,  or  certdnly  no  easy  access,  to  the 
do  aQ  this  only  in  hb  own  name  and  as  an  foreign  principal,  for  the  purpose  of  remedy  or 
agent.  This  difference  between  them  springs  enforcement;  and,  on  the  other  hand,  cannot  be 
from  the  possession  of  the  goods  by  the  factor —  presumed  to  have  bought  or  sold  on  the  credit 
fer  posMSsion  is  one  of  the  principal  indicia  of  of  a  person  thus  unknown  and  inaccessible.  It 
owttnrship — and  the  non-possession  of  them  by  is  but  fair,  therefore,  that  the  factor  should  be, 
the  broker.  There  is,  however,  a  still  more  im-  as  to  the  purchaser,  the  principal ;  and  it  is 
portant  difference  between  them,  founded  on  equally  fair  that  the  factor  should  be,  in  such 
the  same  circumstance ;  this  is,  that  the  factor  case,  the  only  principal.  These,  however,  are 
has  a  lien  on  the  goods  for  his  advances,  charges,  but  presumptions  of  law.  The  parties  may 
and  commissions,  whether  they  were  agreed  make  what  agreement  they  please^  and  their 
mwo  or  are  only  customary,  and  a  broker  has  not.  agreement  will  be  enforced  if  shown  by  any  ad- 
Bot  if  a  factor  voluntarily  transfers  the  goods  missible  evidence ;  that  is,  their  intention  may 
to  the  owner,  or  to  the  owner^s  order,  he  can-  be  expressed,  or  it  may  be  inferred  from  any 
sot  reclaim  them  as  his  security,  but  retains  circumstances  which  distinctly  indicate  it,  and 

ah»  personal  right  to  demand  his  advances  would  then  be  carried  into  effect.    In  the  ab- 

charges  from  the  owner.    If  the  owner  be  sence  of  such  evidence,  that  is,  in  the  case  of  an 

iwnliiinl,  the  factor  takes  then  only  his  divi-  ordinary  transaction  with  a  foreign  factor,  the 

dnd;  whereas  ifhe  still  holds  the  possession,  the  buyer  may  sue  the  factor,  and  cannot  sue  the 

oftsr  creditors  can  have  the  goods  only  by  dis-  principal,  although  the  principal  may  recover 

**'*1'"g  ^  factor^s  claims  in  full.    Therefore  from  a  buyer  a  price  not  yet  paid  to  &e  fiactor. 

fta  netor  and  his  principal  may  Lave  claims  The  rule  that  the  party  dealing  with  the  factor 

agidDSt  a  purchaser  which  may  seem  to  conflict ;  looks  to  him  only,  seems  to  be  well  settled,  if 

§K  the  princip«d  may  demand  his  price,  while  he  knew  that  he  was  dealing  with  the  factor  of 

ftd  ftctor  claims  his  advances  and  charges.    In  a  foreign  principal,  and  reserved  no  right  or 


FACULTY  Fi 


:i:4  ^vi:i 


filaliiiigdiiittliati»riiidpaL    Whether  he  oould  his  gtined  for  it  the  imM  of  the  flomee  of 

■oe  the  prindpel,  if  he  did  not  know  him  at  the  Bonuigna.     Its  formeriy  cetobnted  mennfav 

time  of  ike  trAnmctioii,  bat  diicovored  him  a^  tares  of  a  pecaliar  earthenvare,  ealM  from 

terward.  ii  not  so  certain;  for  there  are  aathor-  this  pIaoe/aieiM€^  haye  recently  dedlned  in  ia- 

Itiea  which  limit  the  rule  to  the  former  ceeei^  portance,  and  its  chief  indostry  at  present  coo* 

and  in  the  latter  give  the  part/  a  conoarrent  sists  in  manofactnrea  of  paper  aoa  silk  twisi^ 

remedy  affainst  the  factor  ana  the  prindpaL    In  and  in  an  active  commerce  m  the  prodacu  of 

general,  tbeprincipal,  althoagh  foreign,  may  sae  the  territory,  which  are  taken  by  eanal  from 

a  party  dealing  with  him  throogfa  a  fiiictor.    It  FMnsa  to  the  Pa    In  Roman  times  this  city 

asems  now  settled  that,  for  the  parpose  of  this  was  the  scene  of  the  defeat  of  Garbo  and  Kor* 

distinotioo,  the  states  of  the  Union  are  foreign  banns  by  Metellns.  the  goieralof  6yUa,8t  RCL 


Identify  his  goods,  either  in  the  factor^  hands»  and  was  finally  united  to  the  Pq>al  ficalea  fay 

or  Into  the  hands  of  any  person  who  holds  by  Pope  Jnlins  II.  in  1609. 

representation  of  or  derivatbn  fh>m  the  factor,  rAGEL,  a  famUy  of  Dntch  rtatesmia.    L 

bat  only  in  the  factor's  right,  and  not  in  his  own  *Kasfab,  bom  in  Haarlem  in  ICM,  died  Dec 

independent  right,  as  purchaser,  pledgee,  or  15,1688,sacoeeded  John  de  Witt  as  grand  pta* 

olhwwise  a  transferee  in  good  faith  and  for  doner,  uid  took  a  prominent  part  as  a  bittsr 

valne.    And  when  a  prindpal  finda  his  prop-  opponent  of  the  encroachments  of  Lonia  XIV. 

eifty  enoambered  by  an  act  of  the  factor,  as  a  ana  a  xealoos  champion  of  the  caasa  of  ths 

pMge,  or  the  like,  he  may  always  reoorer  prince  of  Orange,  for  whose  aceesaioo  to  the 

nis  prmrty  by  pacing  the  amoont  or  charge  British  throne  &  prepared  the  pQl4le  mind  ef 

fbrwhtehitisthnsgireninseearity.    The  most  Protestant  Earope.     II.  Trasm  NiooaAai^  a 

Important  and  most  fireqnent  application  of  this  nephew  of  the  preceding,  died  in  1716^  disti»> 

mia  is  in  cases  where  the  factor  has  become  in«  anished  himself  at  the  battle  of  Flennia,  at  the 

solrent,  and  has  made  firaodalent  transfers  of  the  defbiceofthef<MtressofMoos,ofwkickhewas 

property,  or  has  pat  it  in  the  hands  of  consigneea  the  commandant,  and  in  Tarioos  other  aseoMta* 

aa  a  part  of  his  own  fUnds.    In  some  of  the  ble  engagementiL    IIL  HnmuK,  bom  at  the 

UniteaSutesafirandalentdispositionby  afiictor  Hagne  in  ITCMi,  died  in  17M,  was  secrccary  ef 

of  the  property  of  his  principal  is  an  indictable  the  states  generaL   He  exerted  a  great  jntnenra 

ofleoce,  and  is  ponishea  with  ssTerity.  In  the  elevation  of  William  V.  to  power,  and  was 

FACULTY.  In  nniTendties,  a  body  of  pntt^  a  most  deroted  champion  of  the  house  of  OrapiK. 

sors  appointed  to  give  instmction  in  the  sciences  The  translation  of  Lady  Muntagu*^  letters  into 

and  arts,  and  to  confer  degrees  in  them.    The  Dntch  is  attributed  to  him.    IV.  llaxDatx, 

ordinary  fscnlties  are  those  of  tlieology,  law,  grandson  of  the  preceding,  died  at  the  Hagos, 

medicine,  and  the  arts,  the  last  inclnding  litera-  March  24,1S34,  acted  first  as  secretarr  of  state, 

tare  and  philosophy.  and  in  1798  was  sent  to  Copenhagen  for  the  pnr» 

FAED,  TuoMAS^  a  Scottish  artist,  bom  at  pose  of  prevailing  npon  the  king  of  m^nmark  to 

Barley  MilL  in  the  stewartry  of  Kirkcudbright^  Join  in  the  war  against  France.    In  17H  he 

in  1826.    His  fatlier^s  mill  was  hb  first  studio^  signed  tlie  treaty  of  alliance  between  the  Nrti^ 

and  his  earliest  subjects  were  the  rustic  groups  enands,  Prussia,  and  Great  Britain.  Ihiringthe 

from  the  neighboring  hamlets.    In  1848  lie  went  rule  of  the  French  in  Hulland«  he  fitllovcd  the 

to  Edinburgh,  where  his  elder  brother,  John,  roval  familv  into  exile,  and  returned  in  1811. 

was  painting  with  success,  and  for  some  yeara  FAHRENHEIT,  Gabeiel  Da5iil,  a  Germsn 

was  a  pupil  in  the  school  of  design  of  that  city,  physicist  and  mechanibt,  bom  in  Ilantzic  aU>st 

After  executing  the  well-known  group  of  **  Sccit  16iK),  died  in  Amsterdam  in  1 740.     He  wm  ori- 

aod   his    Friends  at  Abbot&fonl "  and  other  ginally  engaged  in  mercantile  biuiiiie«a»  bot  his 

works,  he  repaired  in  1853  to  London,  where  predilection  for  the  natural  science*  led  him  at 

he  has  since  resided.    In  1855  hb  ^Mitherless  leuffth  to  abandon  it,  and  to  travtrl  in  porpoil 

Bairn**  was  exhibited  at  the  royal  academr,  of  knowledge.    Afler  visiting  various  |i«ru  cif 

where  its  pathos  and  beauty  elicited  the  hiah*  Germany,  France,  and  England,  he  eftihlUhed 

est  praise  from  all  classes  of  visitors.     liis  himself  at  Amsterdam  as  a  maker  of  |dukM»> 

^  Home  and  the  Homeless,'*  exhibited  iu  1856,  phical  instruments.     Here  some  of  the 

and  the  ^  First  Break  in  the  Family,**  in  1857,  eminent  natural  philosopliers  of  the  day  bi 

have  earned  for  him  the  reputation  of  one  of  his  friemls  and  instructors.     Falirvnbeit 

the  best  living  delineators  oi  homely  grief  and  proved  the  areometer,  and  made  some 

natural  emotion.  with  the  design  of  a  hydraulic  machine  IhC  tha 

FAENZA  (anc.  Farentia\  a  city  of  Italy,  draining  of  marshes,  which  he  left  aDfinithc4 

in  tlie  Papal  Sutes,  19  m.  t^.  W.  of  lUvcnmL  at  his  death,  but  is  chiefly  distinguished  tor  tho 

on  the  I^nione,  at  its  junction  with  the  canal  changes  wliich  he  msde  in  the  thennoaMter. 

of  21anelli;  pop.  about  SO.OCK).     It  is  the  seat  These  changes  were  fir»t  carried  out  in  l^KO, 

of  a  bisht>pric,  and  lias  a  fine  cathoilral,  theatre,  and  have  added  much  to  the  accuracy  and  ralao 

and  citv  liall,  and  several  splendid  private  pal-  of  that  instrument    Tliey  ccmsistcd  in  the  sab-> 

aoea.    The  beauty  of  the  dty  and  its  suburba  stitotion  of  mercury  for  spiriu  of  wine ;  in  the 


FAIB  898 

sdoption  of  a  cylindrical  instead  of  a  mere  althongb  declining,  continued  to  have  a  consid- 

filDbiilar  bnlby  and  of  a  new  graduated  scale  erable  attendance;  but  by  the  close  of  Eliza- 

divided  into  212°,  ranging  from  the  extreme  beth's  reign  it  had  become  little  more  than  a 

point  of  cold  observed  by  him  in  Iceland  in  resort  for  pleasure  seekers.     In  the   follow- 

1709,  which  corresponded  with  that  produced  ing  reign  it  was  a  mere  riotous  gathering,  fro* 

by  a  mixture  of  pounded  ice  and  sal  anmioniao,  quented  by  the  refuse  of  London  and  its  sub- 

and  which  he  erroneously  supposed  to  be  the  urbs.    Toward  the  dose  of  the  17th  century  a 

lowest  natural  temperature,  to  the  boiling  point  merry-andrew  showed  his  contempt  of  the  sol- 

of  water.     (See  Thxbmometbb.)     This  ther-  vency  of  the  government  by  pretending  to  singe 

mometer  since  its  first  introduction  has  been  a  pig  with  exchequer  notes  and  roast  it  with 

in  general  use  in  Holland,  Great  Britain,  and  the  tallies.    Sir  Robert  Walpole  is  said  to  have 

the  United  States.    Its  constructor  was  elected  visited  the  fair  to  study  the  drift  of  popular 

a  member  of  the  royal  society  of  London  in  feeling;  and  nothing  could  throw  more  light  on 

1724  in  whose  ^Philosophical  Transactions^'  the  state  of  public  opinion  than  a  collection  of 

fbr  tnat  year  are  papers  by  him  on  several  in-  ballads  sung  there,  and  a  list  of  the  puppet 

teresting  subjects.                                             *  shows.    During  the  18th  century  the  fair  was 

FAIR,  A  meeting  held  at  stated  times  and  one  of  the  lions  of  London,  and  was  a  scene  for 

places  for  purposes  of  trade.    Such  meetings  the  display  of  popular  political  feeling,  as  it  had 

en  a  nnall  scale  or  in  small  country  towns  already  been  in  the  times  of  Elizabeth,  when  the 

come  more  appropriately  under  the  category  trained  monkey  would  leap  over  his  chain  at  the 

of  markets,  while  the  term  fiEdr  generally  im-  mention  of  the  queen's  name,  but  gibber  and  sit 

pfies  a  commercial  gathering  of  greater  mag-  still  at  that  of  Philip  of  Spain.    Charles  James 

■itode,  although  it  is  sometimes  applied  to  as-  Fox  in  his  blue  coat  and  buff  waistcoat  became 

lemUies  for  other  purposes.    Thus  we  hear  of  a  great  favorite  with  the  crowds  at  the  fair.   It 

agricoltural  fairs,  where  the  cattle  and  the  ag»  di^layed  its  sympathy  with  the  French  revolu- 

fleiiltiiral  produce  of  the  district  are  exhibited  tion  in  1792,  but  with  the  manifestation  on  oc- 

ly  farmers  and  dealers ;  or  of  charitv  and  fancy  caaon  of  the  trial  of  Queen  Caroline  (1820)  tiie 

fun  held  for  benevolent  or  social  purposes,  popularityof  thefaircamoto  anend.   Itwasre- 

imn  for  commercial  purposes  have  been  held  vived  to  some  extent  on  the  accession  of  Queen 

inder  different  names  in  all  times  and  in  all  Victoria,  but  in  1888  all  its  shows  were  prohibit- 

eoontries,  and  are  probably  coeval  with  com-  c^  and  accordingly  the  giants,  dwarfe,  real  live 

meree  itself,  since,  especially  before  the  era  of  serpents,  whirligigs,  swings,  rope-dancers,  fire- 

nilways  and  steamboats,  some  rallying  point  eaters,  conjurers,  and  wild  beasts  have  long  since 

of  the  kind  was  required  for  the  generid  inter-  disappeared,  and  nothing  now  remains  of  the 

cfamge  of  commodities.   Such  commercial  gath-  once  famous  &ir  but  a  few  stalls  for  the  sale  of 

criogB  were  known  in  most  of  the  states  of  gingerbread.    (See  *^  Memoirs  of  Bartholomew 

aatiaoity,  e^tecially  in  the  provinces  of  Rome,  Fair,"  by  Henry  Morley,  London,  1859.)    Fairs, 

lbs  French  chroniclers  attribute  the  legal  insti-  however,  are  still  flourishing  in  England  to  some 

tstionpf  their  fairs  or  ybtre«  (Lai, /arum)  to  the  extent,  but  they  are  chiefly  agricultural.  A  fair 

times  of  King  Dagobert,  although  they  doubt-  is  hdd  at  Weyhill,  in  Hampshire,  Oct.  10  of  every 

kii  existed  long  before.    Fairs  were  then  as  year,  where  there  is  a  greater  show  of  sheep 

now  not  solely  devoted  to  trade,  but  were  also  than  at  any  oHicr  fair  in  Groat  Britain.   At  the 

cdpolatc^l  to  promote  social  enjoyment.    Fairs  August  fair  at  Ipswich  more  than  100,000  lambs 

me  established  in  Flanders  toward  the  close  of  are  annuaUy  sold.    At  the  same  place  a  great 

tbelOthcentory. — ^Thenriory  and  hospital  of  St.  butter  and  cheese  fair  is  held  in  September. 

Birthdomew's  in  Smithfield,  London,  founded  The  greatest  horse  fair  in  England  is  that  an- 

it  the  beginning  of  the  12th  century,  had  the  pri-  nually  held  in  August  at  Horncastlo,  in  Lincoln- 

Tibgeof  holding  a  fair  of  3  days,  which  became  ^ire.    Severd  thousand  horses  are  exhibited 

if  pest  importance.    It  was  no  mere  gathering  here,  and  dealers  and  amateurs  resort  hither 

if  tomblers  and  mountebanks,  although  such  from  all  parts  of  Britain  and  the  continent,  and 

■i^  be  found  with  the  idlers  crowding  around  of  late  from  the  United  States.    Yorkshire  has 

Aoniy  but  a  great  assemblage  of  the  business  also  an  important  horse  fair,  particularly  for 

ooomimiity  of  the  kingdom.    The  long  rows  of  Yorkshire  hunters.    Suffolk  horses  are  exhibit- 

Woths  stretched  out  on  the  level  greensward  ed  at  the  celebrated  Woodbridge  Lady-day  fair. 

ikf^ed  the  beautiful  silk  fabrics  and  embroid-  Bristol,  Exeter,  and  many  other  English  cities, 

•iss  of  the  middle  ages,  and  the  delicate  fill-  towns,  and  hamlets,  have  their  fairs.    A  great 

IMS  work  of  the  London  goldsmiths,  with  mer-  cheese  fair  is  hold  in  April  at  Gloucester.    The 

*'*SBiirif>  of  a  more  common  description.  With  October  gathering  at  St.  Faith's  near  Norwich 

tlMnpid  growth  of  London,  the  fair  increased  is  the  principal  English  fair  for  Scotch  cattle. 

iseswbrity  during  the  latter  part  of  the  12th  Fairs  were  held  at  Greenwich  at  Easter  and 

ocatary  vad  the  whole  of  the  13th,  when  many  Whitsuntide,  which  attracted  large  crowds  of 

iaiqguers  (probably  Flemings)  swelled  the  num-  visitors  from  London  to  partake  in  the  many 

hetol  Tisitors.    The  principal  articles  of  trade  amusements  that  were  to  be  found  there,  also  to 

wool  and  woollen  goods,  but  tlie  transac-  enjoy  the  fresh  air  and  the  fine  scenery  from 

in  other  articles  were  also  of  considerable  the  park  and  its  neighborhood  ;  but  Green- 

-* During  the  15th  century  the  fair,  wich  fair  was  suppressed  in  1857  by  the  police, 


SM  FAIB 

It  hATliig  become  UMrMort  of  Tile  and  diiiolate  thet  of  Sinimli^  in  tlie  Final  SMeiV  vbldk 

peraooi,  and  the  inhabitaota  haTing  complauied  k  annoallj  held  in  Jnljr  ana  Avnat,  tmA  al» 

of  it  aaa  DQiaaooe.  Walworth,  Camberwell,  and  teiuled  bjr  traders  from  aQ  parta  of  eeotral  aad 

Peekham  lairs  have  also  been  soppreased  within  northern  Eorope,  north  AfrwL  and  the  Levant 

aibwTears.    The  most  important  mart  in  Scot-  Among  the  rarioos  prodoeta  or  ItaBao  iodnstry 

land  for  cattle  and  sheep  ia  Falkiric  fair  or  which  change  hands  bersi  silk  is  most  inportaBL 

tmt    The  largest  £iir  in  Ireland  for  the  ssle  Fairs  of  less  conseqoence  are  held  in  oUisrpsrts 

of  cattle  and  sheep  is  held  from  Oct  6  to  9  of  ItalT,aa  wellasin  SpainaadBoft^pL    The 

annually  at  Ballinasloe,  in  the  oonnties  of  Gal-  most  famous  fair  of  Madrid  is  auraalhr  held  on 

waj  and  RoscomuKNi.    About  12,000  head  of  Maj  10,  at  the  bermitao  of  8aa  tfidro  M 

cattle  and  90,000  sheep,  the  largest  proportion  Campo,  when  the  grand  pflgrlmage  and  ftslival 

of  whkh  are  raised  in  Connaught,  are  annuallr  of  San  Isidro  draws  thither  croww  of  the  aepa 

brongbttothlsfair.— InFrance,thefairofCaenM  lation.  The  great  Hungarian  lidiaaiw liakl  Alsif 

still  celebrated  for  its  trade  in  linen  and  carriage  atPesth.   Four  times  during  the  7ear«  in  Ifsna^ 

honesb    At  Alen^oo  there  is  an  annual  fair  for  May,  August,  and  Norember,  tliaindustiiaipi» 

the  exhibition  and  sale  of  saddle  horses.  Thefiur  ducts  of  Hungary  are  brought  bare  far  saliL 

of  Gaibray  is  held  annually  in  August  in  a  sub-  Scarcely  less  unportant  for  the  tiouiBisrue  ef 

orb  of  that  name  in  the  town  of  Falaise,  and  was  eastern  Europe,  and  more  interesting  for  the  tnr- 

founded  in  the  11th  century  by  Robert,  duke  of  eller  and  obserrer  of  natjonal  mstoti^  are  the 

Normandy.    The  arerage  transactions  amount  fiUrs  of  Debreciin.<^The  foirs  of  tba  gnaisit 

to  flmn  $8,000,000  to  14,000,000.  About  $800,-  European  importanoe,howeTery  are  tkoaa  of  Gw» 

000  of  this  amount  bin  goods  manufactured  at  many.    They  originated  thera^aa  in  many  olhv 

Bouen,  and  in  hides  and  leather,  and  the  rest  in  countries,  throu|^   religioua   foatiTalSk  wUeh 

other  French  commodities.  A  large  horse  firdr  is  called  a  large  concourw  of  people  toga^sr. 

also  held  atGuibrar,  where  the  viJne  of  the  an-  Hence  fairs  were  called  EinXwumm^  tkmnk 

imak  disposed  of  frequently  exceeds  $800,000.  fobrsi  the  German  word  JfbM(fhir)  bejngiisilnd 

But  Beancaire  in  the  south  is  the  most  impor-  ftcm  mass.    There  are  4  towna  in  OetmaaT 

taut  fair  in  France.  It  begins  on  July  1  and  ends  whose  Ukn  enloT  a  great  repotatioa,  attha^p 

on  July  28,  the  balk  of  the  business  beinf  done  many  fliirs  are  held  elsewhere.    The  moat  prsm 

during  the  last  week.    Although  decreasmg  in  Inentfainare  thoaeof  Leipsic,Fhmkfortoalha 

importance,  it  is  still  visited  by  100,000  mer-  Main,  Firankfbrt  on  the  Oder*  and  BrvnavieL 

chants  from  all  parts  of  Europe,  Barbarr,  and  The  Leipnc  faus  date  from  the  15th  esatm7« 

the  LeTant,  and  every  kind  of  merchandue  is  and  are  the  most  celebrated.    They  are  bsU  8 

to  be  found  here,  from  the  most  brilliant  Indian  times  annually,  at  New  Yearns,  Easter,  and  the 

caslimere  to  the  cotninonest  piece  of  doth.  Most  feast  of  St  Michael    The  New  Year's  fair  it 

coDitpicoous  aiiioug  the  ranoos  representatives  comparatively  unimportant    The  Easter  fair  ii 

of  rrench  industry  are  the  cloth  manufacturers  celebrated  for  the  book  trade  which  centres  ia 

of  Elbeuf,  aod  the  silk  ribbon,  and  lace  menu-  Leipsic,  and  the  value  of  the  books  which  chaaie 

flicturers  of  Lyons,  St  Etienne,  Avignon,  Kimes,  hands  here  frequently  exceeds  $6,000,000.    lbs 

and  Pari!}.  Guadeloupe,  Martiuiqueu  and  Algiers  total  value  of  the  goods  exchanged  is  escirasted 

are  aldo  represented,  and  Uie  French  trade  in  sn-  at  $50,000,000 ;  the  number  of  visitors  at  80,000. 

gar,  cotfe«,  indigo,  spices,  &c.,  finds  here  an  im-  People  from  aU  parts  of  the  world  congrqpas 

portant  outlet.    The  fair  held  during  the  middle  here,  and  many  Orientals  may  be  seen  in  their  as* 

of  September  in  the  park  of  St  Cloud  is  as  tive  costume. — In  central  Busms,  285  m.  E.  X.  L 

numerously  attended  by  tbe  inhabitants  of  Paris  of  Moscow,  the  workl-famed  fair  of  N^Qi-Xovf»> 

as  wss  tliat  of  Greenwich  by  the  Londooen.  rod  is  annually  held  for  8  weeks,  beginning  J^ 

The  fair  abounds  with  crockery-ra£9ing  booths,  1.  The  Uxt  was  formerly  held  at  Ma^riev,  bat  ia 

gingerbread  stalU,  weighing  machines  with  tbe  1816,  when  that  town  was  destroyed  by  a  fba 

Utocription :  A  rant  it  apr^s  diner  toyofu  comhUn  it  was  removed  to  N'Oni-Novsorud.    It  is  vistel 

neia  ptsoiu^  and  with  other  sliows.  Conspicuous  by  from  800,000  to  400,000  dealers.    There  sn 

among  the  sliows  of  the  fair  of  1858  was  ''  the  more  than  8,000  distinct  stalls  for  the  sale  ef 

taking  of  tbe  Malakot^*'  and  among  the  visitors  goods.    These  stalls  are  laid  out  in  regular  quar- 

were  many  Zouaves  with  their  shaved  hcada  ters,  a  particular  quarter  being  alloCt«d  to  erccy 

baggy  breeches,  and  ycUow  gaiters. — Tbe  annual  special  class  of  merchandise.    In  ooa  silb  sre 

fairs  in  Amsterdam,  Rotterdsui,  and  other  cities  on  sale,  in  another  tea,  in  another  farm.    Oat  of 

of  Holland,  are  scenes  of  great  i»opuUr  rejoic-  the  most  imposing  quarters  b  that  whcce  the 

ingi.    For  several  days  and  nigiiu  the  streets  Siberian  iron  is  heaped  up  in  ponderoos  pt2««. 

are  paraded  by  joyous  crowds,  and  the  usual  so-  The  vessels  engsgod  m  taking  in  and  out  earp^es 

brivty  of  the  Dutch  yields  on  this  occasion  to  are  so  numerous,  that  tlie  waUses  of  the  Oka  sai 

the  most  boisterous  and  uproarious  demonstra-  the  Volga  rivers,  at  the  conduence  ei  which  the 

tions  of  Joviality.    Theatres  and  shows  of  all  town  is  situated,  are  literally  ooversd  by  the 

kinds  form  tbe  staple  amusements,  and  among  mass  of  shipping.    The  total  vmloe  of  the  goo^ 

the  many  refresliments  sold  there  mosit  |)eculiar  brought  to  the  fair  amounts  oo  an  averse  t» 

to  Iltdland  are  mafer-cakes,  a  sort  of  tliin  cake  $50,000,000.  At  the  fair  there  oi  1858^  i*,  mors 

baked  in  an  iron  mould,  of  which  the  con<«ump-  goods  were  bn^ught  than  in  1857,  and  not  more 

tion  is  enormons.~Tha  principal  fair  of  Italy  b  than  ^  remained   unsold.    Tba   total   ralaa 


FAIB  895 

ited  to  96,000,000  rabies,  of  whioh  69,-  out  in  the  manj  colors  of  their  national  coe- 

0  wore  in  Rosrian  produce,  10,000,000  in  tames,  and  presenting  the  most  motle j  contrasts 
ean  and  colonial,  and  the  remainder  in  of  characteristics.  Bo  we  find  Chinese  and 
)e  from  China,  Persia,  and  other  parts  of  Bnsnan  Ufe  represented  with  dagaerreotjpic 

In  IMberia,  an  annaal  fair  is  held  in  KU  accaracv  at  the  faur  of  Eiakhta,  in  Siberia. 

near  the  Chinese  frontier,  which  is  the  while  Nyni-Novgorod  eclipses    probably    aU 

xnporinm  oi  the  trade  between  Rasna  and  other  fliirs  in  the  piotnresqae  variety  of  Russian 

Here  Rosdan  fors,  cattle,  lamb-skins,  and   oriental  eostnmes  and   habits  which  it 

slotlUi  coarse  linen,  bnllion,  and  woollen  exhibits. — ^According  to   Prescott's  '^  IQstorj 

and  ircm  wares  are  bartered  for  Chinese  of  the  Conquest  of  Mexico,"  fiurs  were  held 

1  ailka,  and  other  prodnce  of  the  celestial  in  the  principal  cities  of  ancient  Mexico  ev- 
I.  Lai^  caravans  of  Rassian  and  Chinese  erv  5th  day  (there  having  been  no  shops), 
I  meet  every  year  in  December  at  this  which  were  uuronged  by  a  nameroas  con- 
hich  has  existed  nnce  1727,  and  has  pow-  coarse  of  persons.    ^  A  particnlar  qoarter  was 

oontribnted  to  promote  the  commercial  allotted  to  each  kind  of  article.  Tne  transao- 
mne  between  the  two  nations.  There  tions  were  condncted  ander  the  inq)ection  of 
»  many  small  fairs  held  on  the  borders  mapstrates  appointed  for  the  pnrpose.  The 
na  and  Siberia,  where  the  Chinese  barter  traffic  was  carried  on  partly  by  barter,  and 
kii  and  a  few  other  articles  for  some  of  partly  by  means  of  a  regnlated  currency  of  dif- 
hable  fhrs  of  the  Cossacks.  Mr.  Atkin-  ferent  values.  This  consisted  of  transparent 
le  Siberian  traveller,  was  present  at  one  qaiUs  of  gold  dast;  of  bits  of  tin,  cat  m  the 
w  fidrs.  and  speaks  of  the  intense  gravity  form  of  a  T;  and  of  bags  of  cacao,  containing 
rbieh  the  little  bands  of  traders  assembled  a  specific  number  of  grains."  Fairs  were  regu- 
iB  wild  and  desolate  regions  enter  upon  larly  held  at  Azcapo^co,  not  fiir  from  the  cap- 
oereantQe  transactions.  There  are  many  ital,  for  the  sale  of  slaves.  The  gatherings  m 
fidrt  in  Rossia.  The  total  value  of  goods  the  market  of  Tlascala  were  a  sort  of  fairs,  where 
It  to  all  Rusrian  fidrs  in  1854  was  esti-  pottery  which  was  conMdered  as  equal  to  the 
at  $160,000,000,  and  the  value  of  goods  best  in  Europe  formed  one  of  the  principal  ar- 
ris $100,000,000. — ^The  chief  fiurs  of  tides  of  trade,  and  every  description  of  domestic 
fare  those  of  Tenidge,  Yardar,  and  produce  and  roanufiicture  was  brought  there  for 
,  the  former  commencing  on  Dec  8  and  sale.  But  the  greatest  fair  was  held  in  the  city 
oing  for  about  3  weeks,  and  the  latter  of  Mexico.  The  visitors  there  were  estimated 
ireh  21,  for  8  or  4  weeks ;  of  Okri  (May  at  from  40,000  to  50,000.  The  city  then  swarm- 
ama  (May  28),  Philippopoli  (Aug.  27),  ed  with  a  motley  crowd  of  strangers,  the  cause- 
idd  Agra  (Nov.  10),  each  of  which  lasts  ways  were  thronged,  and  the  lake  was  dark- 
dfffat ;  and  those  of  Tatar  Bazari  (Sept.  ened  by  canoes  filled  with  traders  fiocking  to  the 
ad  Tshaltadeh  (Nov.  6),  which  last  10  great  ^ian^tM^.    The  most  perfect  order  reigned 

Oonsmcuous  among  the  various  traders  tiiroughout  the  vast  assemoly.    A  court  of  12 

bled  uiere  are  the  Greeks  and  Arme-  judges  sat  in  one  part  of  the  tianguez,  clothed 

But  the  greatest  fair  in  the  East  is  held  with  absolute  power,  which  they  exercised  with 

oea  during  the  time  of  the  annual  pil-  great  vigor.    In  Presoott^s  "  History  of  the  Con- 

fsa.    Although  it  has  declined  from  its  questof  Peru  "it  is  stated  that  the  ancient  incas 

I  magnitude,  the  average  concourse  of  instituted  fairs  for  the  fiicilitation  of  agricultural 

m  tai  visitors  still  amounts  to  100,000. —  exchanges.    They  took  place  8  times  a  month 

vgeat  In^an  fair  is  held  at  the  vernal  in  some  of  the  most  populous  places,  where,  as 

K  at  Hurdwar,  in  Saharunpoor,  a  famous  money  was  unknown,  a  rude  kind  of  commerce 

of  i^lgrims  of  North  Hindostan.    No  was  kept  up  by  the  barter  of  products.    These 

ftma  200,000  to  800,000  persons  congre-  fairs  afforded  so  many  holidays  for  the  relaxa- 

bm  every  year,  and  every  12th  year  the  tion  of  the  industrious  laborer. — ^In  the  United 

It  of  i^lgnms  and  visitors  frequently  ex-  States,  the  most  important  fairs  are  those  of  the 

1,900,000.    This  fair  is  the  great  focus  for  U.  S.  national  agricultural  society,  of  the  state 

tidiM9e  of  Nepaul,  the  Punjaub,  Afghan-  agricultural  societies,  of  the  Franklin  institute 

■ad  Bokhara,  diiefly  consisting  of  horses,  at  Philadelphia,  mechanics'  institute  at  Boston, 

Mmeb,  Persian  dried  fi*uits,  spices,  dru^  American  institute  at  New  York,  and  of  various 

1^  Jpou— -Apart  firom  their  great  commercial  other  public  institutions.    These  are,  however. 

Sail  these  fairs  present  curious  social  and  merely  competitive  exhibitions  of  animals  and 

eliaracteristics.    Eastern  life  unfolds  it-  industrial  products,  and  have  no  commercial 

wbere  with  greater  picturesqueness  than  character.     An  anti-slavery  fair  is  annually 

idnlidd  dunng  the  pilgrimages  at  Mecca  held  at  Boston,  which  is  attended  by  many  of 

Ml  and  at  Hurawar  in  Hindostan.    No-  the  opponents  of  the  system  of  slavery ;  and 

li  rellrion  blended  so  intimately  with  fairs  for  various  charitable  and  religious  pur- 

aa  &iing  these  annual  congregations  poses  are  frequently  held  in  all  parts  of  the 


■mIi  wiien  Brahmins  and  merchants,  der-  country,  at  which  the  greatest  possible  variety 

■d  Imwkers,  symbols  of  faith  and  quack-  of  articles  are  brought  together  by  donation  or 

f  tada  intermingle  in  fantastic  and  lively  by  purchase,  and  the  pro^eds  of  their  sale  u^ 

i  af  aMB|  women,  and  children,  all  decked  plied  to  some  specified  object. 


SMr. 


896  FAIR  UAVEX  FAIRFAX 

FAIR  IT AVEN",  a  Tillage  of  New  Haven  co.,  strength  of  hot  and  cold  blast  ipob,  from  whUh 

Conn.,  on  both  sides  of  Quinepiock  river,  which  the  lK'>t  form  of  section  for  iron  bc«m4  and  xhm 

BC|)arates  Kow  Ilavcn  from  £ast  Haven,  2  m.  strength  of  various  materisls  under  specific  ncio- 

from  the  state  hou>e ;  i>op.  about  4,000.    Tlio  ditious  have  been  determine<L     Hi*  czperieoea 

chief  busiiioss  is  transacted  on  tbo  ijuinepiack  in  the  iron  manufacture  caused  bim  to  be  coo> 

river,  wliicli  expands  into  a  bay  extending  up  suited  with  regard  to  the  coostmctioo  of  tba 

from  Ni'W  Haven  harbor.  There  are  4  ship  yards,  tubular  bridge  over  the  Menai  strait;  and  ia 

Thirty  vessels  are  owned  in  Fair  Haven,  with  a  connection  with  Mr.  HodgkinsoD  b«  engaged  ia 

tonnage  of  4,500.    Some  arts  in  the  Mediterra-  a  number  of  experiments,  the  result  cif  whrh 

nean  and  in  the  West  India  trade ;  and  during  has  been  to  introduce  into  general  use  wrcmgU 

the  winter  .<ca$on  most  of  the  others  are  engaged  iron  plate  ^rdera  in  ordinary  buikline  operatiaoa 

in  the  oyster  tnulo  to  the  Chesapeake  and  I)ela-  as  well  as  m  railway  engineering.    lie  has  pob* 

ware  bays,  Arc,  imd  in  the  summer  in  the  coast-  lished  a  series  of  lectures^  unoer  th«  title  of 

ing  trade.     Beside  the  oysters  brought  from  *^  Useful  Information  for  EngiDeerB."^     lit  d»» 

the  south,  vast  beds  are  planted  in  the  shallow  livered  lectures  in  1858  on  the  **  ResisUnce  d 

waters  at  tlie  mouth  of  tno  Quinepiack  and  in  Tubes  to  Collapse,'*  on  the  **  Floating  Com  IGS 

New  11.1  ven  harl>or  in  the  spring,  and  taken  up  for  the  Navy,  *  on  the  **IVograss  of  Vwhsa" 

tlie  succeed in;^  season.    Fair  Haven  is  supposed  ical  Science/*  &c. 

to  bo  more  extensively  engaged  in  the  oyster        FAIRFAX,  a  N.  £.  oo  of  Va^  neparatcd  tnm 

trade  tlian  any  other  place  in  the  United  States.  Md.  and  the  district  of  Columbia  by  the  PMonao 

One  concern  disposes  of  more  than  200 cargoes  river;  area,  430  n].  m. ;  pop.  io'lSM.  1Q.MI% 

during  a  beasou,  averaging  from  2,500  to  3,000  of  whom  8,250  were  slaves.    The  Occoona 

bu>heli  eaeli.    About  half  as  many  more  aro  river  touches  it  on  the  S.  W.    On  the  bank  «f 

sold  by  other  parties  or  taken  up  (torn  thebeda,  the  Potomac,  in  this  conntv,  and  15  m.  belov 

so  that  in  all  about  750,000  bushels  of  oysters  Washington  city,  stands  jfount  VerDon.  tbt 

are  used  in  tlie  trade.    Kegs  are  manufactured  residence  of  George  Wasihington.    Tlie  sorfaea 

in  the  place  in   vast  quantities   to  meet  the  of  Fairfax  co.  is  generallv  billy.    The  soil  ii 

demand  Cif  the  oyster  trmle.    Fair  Haven,  as  some  places  is  sandy,  and  in  others  is  nemtr 

Well  as  New  Haven,  is  extensively  engaged  in  worn  out;  but  there  are  many  fertile  and  wtA 

the  manufacture  of  carriages.     It  contains  5  cultivated  districts,  producing  good  crofis  of 

churclies  3  Congregational,  1  Episcopal,  and  1  grain  and  hay.    Cattle  are  raised  extensircly. 

Methodist.    The  growth  of  the  place  lias  been  In  1850  the  county  yieldiKl  207,531  bcish«li  of 

rapid  within  the  last  few  years;  and  from  being  Indian  com,  50,156  of  wheat,  122,758  poendi 

merely  a  jilace  vT  trade  and  resort,  it  has  be-  of  butter,  and  4.420  tons  of  hay.    There  wtn 

come  an  eieL'uiit  uiid  ta.>teful  villjige,  with  many  16  churclies  1  now^p.lpe^  offlci*,  and  C^7^^  p:r»li 

private   re^itienees,   surrounded    by  extensive  attending  sehtHjIs  an<l  acadeinici*.     Formed  :a 

yar-ls  and  gardens.  1742,  and  nanK-<l  in  honor  of  I^inl  F:urfiAX.  wS> 

FAIIM5AIUN.  Wii.MAM,  an  En;rlNh  civil  en-  owned  a  large  part  of  N.  K.  Virjinia.     Vilit 

gin-.er  and  iiiac-liinUt,  t>orn   in   KelM)  on   tlie  of  real  estate  in   1^56,  $4,'fGo.2'J7.     C3}*.:a!, 

Twee<l  ill  1 T*?'.'.    I  le  received  the  rudiments  of  his  Fairfax  Court  House. 

edu'-ati'Mi  at  Newca-itle,  where  he  wiw  employed        FAIKFAX,  £i»w4Rn.  an  F.ngli^h  put  of  !ht 

ia  u  to.-il  I  lit,  and  xva-ibruuglit  up  UH  an  engineer  Eli/oiWthan   period,  the   traii<*lati*r  uf  T»«««^'i 

at  tlie  IV: ry  main  eoUiery,  wliero  be  reniainoil  ''.lerusidem  I)elivered,"  bom  in  iKnu^n.  Yi»ri- 

7  ye.ir<.     I:i  1^17  he  eoinincnced  business  as  a  shirt*,  died  in  ltV3:{,  in  the  parish  4«f  Fay«%io«. 

nnu  hiri.'  ni;ikiT  in  Manchester.    For  upward  of  His  father.  Sir  Thomas  Fairfax,  w.-k-*  one  l^'  ih* 

2<i  year<i  1.:^  l:r.'n  was  the  m«><it  im[>ortantof  the  military  adventurers  of  the   Uin%.\  fa^^M  hii 

kind  in  M:i!ir!u*^ter.  and  anMn;;the  improvements  youth  in  Knrcipean  wars,  and  was  at  x)w  mtL  of 

he  intr«Klii<-fiI  may  U'  mentioned  simpler  con-  Homo  in  1527  ;  but  the  M*n  was  Mndii**!**  in  Lit 

triv;i!u\">  lor  d:ivii:;j  the  machinery  of  factories,  youth,  lived  in  the  country,  and  luvt-1  th^  k>t- 

nuKli::<Mtio:i<i  in  tiie  \:ilves  of  steam  engines,  ety  of  ImmiUs.  Tlie  tmn elation  of  Ta.«*o**tptc«  hy 

the  du'iMe-tlietl   ImiK-r,  the  u^^e  of  ventilated  which  alone  hi!)  name  is  remem!ior\'«L  wu  ?n  ids 

buekoN  ill  water  w!ie>.-ls  the  invention  of  the  in  his  3'onth,  and  dedicated  to<JQi*en  E;iiaV:!i, 

riveting  in:u'hin<\  i\:c.    In  Inruv*.')!,  his  attention  and  was  long  enthusiast irid!y  »lm:red.     .V^.ff 

having  Uvn  drawn  to  tlie  a^lvanLigi*  of  iron  as  long  neglect  its  jN>pularity  hits  n-v;\od  ia  tbt 

a  nnteri:d  for  luildin::  shi;>s  he  c«»n-tnieted  a  prC'Jent    eentury,  and   M'vend   rt-ii  r.:   r<)i:ioea 

small  iron  ve^-H.-l,  u-!ii '!i  u:iH  Miooesstully  launeh-  liavo   apiK-ared   in   Ensrlauid    Mvl    lh<»    Tnitcil 

td.  :uid  is  Ulieve«l  to  1kiv..«  Uen  one  of  the  !lr>t  Stat*^    The  last  Amerit'an  e«h:ion  was  ir.  1<»5. 

of  is  r!a""i  in  K:iL'land.     SnSsoipiently  he  mn-  He  also  wroio  a  pr^no  wi-rk   on   d«-:TK»n«»l«^, 

str'ji'ted  at  Millwiill  m:iny  vt^^M-ls  i»f  the  lann*-t  Mill  in  manu'*4Tipt,  a  **  Hi^'ory  of  Kulvarl  the 

hize  ttf  the  same  inat«Tial.     He  was  aNo  une  uf  Black  IViiuv,**  the  msnn-'r:j-t  of   wLu*h  »ss 

the  t'r-l  t-i   a:ti  nipt    huildinjs  of  ir»»n.     As  a  deMn»yed  by  tire  at  Whitehall,  ani!  a  Tw  cs:- 

nu  i::l'er  vl   tlie   Iir:tish   n<«<uH-iati«>n  tor  the  ml-  h'guis. 

vanrcmen:  of  .--iencf  he  has  rontri*»ntfd  to  its         FA I^F.^X,T^oMA^ baron.  prand-rxpS^w  .^ 

*•  Tran.'-af  :i«»!i*,"  a-*  will  as  to  tlio-e  t»f  otl-er  tin*  pnt'edin^.  a  parl;:iineiitafy  g««nir\l   :r  tSe 

lea.*-::!  1   M-i^riT'.fir  In^ilics,  the  rev.ilt-*  uf  uuiuy  v\\\\  w.xr^of  rharh-^  I  .  Uim  ii  iKnt-tn.  Y vk- 

ili:e.'-e^:l7l^  exjiriment«  ou    tlio   ivm^taraiivo  shire,  Jan.  1011,  died  Nov.  IS,  I C71.  IK  <jd««^ 


FAIRFAX  tVT 

Jolm^  eoUege^  Cambridge,  and,  after  the  was  immediately  forced  to  aarrender,  and  Sir 

tr  of  bit  anoertora  far  many  generations,  Thomas  quiddy  reduced  the  remaining  royalist 

i  military  adventure  in  foreign  campaigns,  fortresses  north  of  the  Trent  Hie  passage  of  the 

Ted  aa  a  voinnteer  in  Holland,  under  the  aelf-denying  ordinance  in  1645  obliged  the  con- 

md  of  Lord  Yere,  whose  daughter  he  tending  paniamenta]7  generals  to  lay  down  their 

aid  manriedf  retanied  to  England  in  1684  commisuons ;  and  Sir  Thomas  Fairfax,  who  not 

5^  and  lived  in  retirement  till  the  breaking  only  for  his  services,  but  as  a  representaUve 

th0  war  in  1642*    With  a  wife  inclined  of  the  nobility  and  of  the  Pre^yterian  in- 

id^yterianism.  and  a  flathei'  actively  and  terest,  was  entitled  to  the  generalship,  received 

ri|y  dlMflBBCted  to  the  ^nf^  Fairfax  did  not  from  j>arliament the  i^pointmentof  commander* 

m  to  become  a  champion  of  the  parlia*  in-chief  of  the  forces.   He  immediately  repaired 

biit|  an  admirer  of  monarchy  in  the  ab-  to  London,  was  presented  to  the  house  of  com* 

he  took  up  anna  only  in  defence  of  par-  mons  by  4  members^  was  complimented  by  the 

tay  rights  against  a  single  oppressive  speaker,  and  reoeived  from  him  his  commission. 

du    When  the  king  retired  northward,  The  privilege  was  given  lum  of  selecting  his 

t  about  raising  a  guard  for  his  person  at  own  auborcunate  officers,  suljeot  only  to  the 

Aiz&z  presented  himself  to  bun  at  the  approbation  of  parliament ;  and  on  April  8  he 

i  a  multitude  of  100,000,  praying  that  he  departed  fbr  Windsor,  where  he  had  appointed 

denat  tnm  raising  an  army  against  his  the  general  rendezvous,  and  where  with  the 

^and  would  return  and  hearken  to  his  assistance  of  Cromwell,  who  was  his  lieutenant- 

ntoL    The  first  hostilities  took  place  in  general,  he  set  about  new-moddling  the  army. . 

birOi  where  Fair&x  and  his  flEither,  who  On  June  14  the  hostile  forces  met  at  Naseby. 

BOW  respectively  Sir  Thomas  and  Ferdi-  The  royaUsts  were  commanded  by  tiie  king 

Loid  FairfjBx,  were  the  most  powerful  in  person,  supported  on  the  right  and  left  by 

adherents  of  the  parliament ;  and  accord-  Prince  Bnpert  and  Sir  Karmaduke  Langdale. 

ha  latter  received  a  commission  as  general  In  the  parliamentary  army,  Cromwell  was 

fiwees  in  the  north,  while  his  son  was  opposed  to  Langdale   on  the   riffht,  Fair£Eix 

itad  general  of  horse  under  him.    They  &oed  the  king  in  the  centre,  and  Ireton  en- 

laaonneed  as  traitors  by  the  earl  of  New-  countered  Bnpert  on  the  left.   The  charge  of 

Ilia  royal  commander  in  those  parts,  who  Prince  Rupert  as  usual  could  not  be  resisted  by 

I  turn  proclaimed  a  traitor  by  the  parlia-  those  who  were  opposed  to  him,  and  he  quickly 

The  first  attempts  of  the  Fairfaxes  were  changed  his  dde  of  the  engagement  into  a  chascL 

leoessfDl ;  they  were  defeated  in  several  detadied  himself  firom  the  main  body,  and  dia 

iteia,  ana  completely  routed  in  an  attack  not  reappear  on  the  field  of  battle  till  Fairfax 

iha  realist  forces  under  the  earl  of  New-  and  Cromwell  had  pierced  the  royalist  ranks  in 

at  Atherton  Moor.    The  first  parliament-  all  directions,  and  the  day  was  lost.    The  per- 

loeesB  of  1644  was  the  relief  of  Nant-  sonal  valor  of  Fairfax  was  especially  signalized 

fai  Cheshire,  besieged  by  Lord  Byron  witli  in  this  battle.  He  was  constantly  in  the  thickest 

Bj  of  Irish.    This  was  efiected  by  Sir  of  the  fig^t,  and  rode  about  bareheaded  after  his 

la  Fairfkx,  who  marched  from  Lincoln*  helmet  was  beaten  to  pieces.    He  now  quickly 

la  the  depth  of  winter,  and  engaged  and  recovered  Leicester,  Langport,  Bridgewater,  and 

ad  Byron  with  great  loss.    In  this  bat-  Bath.   Bristol  soon  surrendered,  and  the  speedy 

Mk^  the  fbtare  restorer  of  the  monarchy,  reduction  of  the  kingdom  followe^  Fairfia  and 

■feao  prisoner  by  the  parliamentarians.  Cromwell  having  to  this  end  divided  their  forces. 

siaturaed  into  Yorkshire,  and  in  conjunc-  In  the  politics  of  the  dominant  party  Fairfax 

ifth  his  Mher  defeated  at  Selby  CoL  had  now  to  play  the  difficult  part  of  a  sincere 

iiL  Iha  royalist  governor  of  York,  and  then  advocate  of  monarchical  power.    He  seems  to 

tta  8ec^eh  army,  which  to  the  numbw  have  been  led  on  by  Cromwell,  and  to  have  been 

MM^  under  the  command  of  Lord  Leveo,  the  instrument  of  prqjecte  whose  depth  he  could 

■ed  the  Tyne.   The  forces  of  Leven  and  not  fiithom.    In  1648  he  marched  against  the 

anited  with  the  earl  of  Manchester's  li»t  remains  of  the  royalist  party^  and  annihi- 

whieh  Cromwell  was  m^jor-general,  lated  it  at  Colchester.    His  own  mfluence  de- 

Mded  to  besiege  York,  where  the  roy-  dined  as  that  of  Cromwell  and  the  Independents 

betaken  themselves;  but  hearing  of  increased;  and  though  his  loyal  instmcts  re- 

_  ■  gained  by  the  enemy,  they  broke  off  coiled  fhim  the  judicial  trial  of  royalty,  he  was 

raM  took  up  their  position  at  Marston  unable  to  prevent  it    His  own  name  was  even 

IL  from  the  city.    Here  on  July  8  ^ey  placed  first  on  the  list  of  regicide  judges ;  but 

kad  by  the  cavaliers,  under  their  he  xefbsed  to  take  part  in  the  tragedy,  and  was 

11^  amonff  whom  was  Prince  Rupert,  at  a  distance  whue  the  judgment  was  pro- 

Bt  mierid  dashed  in  upon  the  Scots  nounced  and  the  fatal  blow  struck.  He  however 

Ml^  ad  Quickly  drove  them  off  the  field,  accepted  the  ppmmand  of  all  the  forces  of  £ng- 

HMiFidrmxonthe  opposite  wing  gained  limd  and  Ireland  under  the  new  government, 

pMBiy  aoooess ;  but  the  victory  was  de*  put  down  the  Levellers  in  Oxfordshire,  and 

i^lf  1^  the  steady  valor  of  the  republicans  composed  the  troubles  in  Hampshire.    THien  in 

""  "     Tbis  defbat  was  a  blow  from  1650  the  Scots  declared  for  Charles  H.,  he  re- 

oaose  never  recovered.    York  fbsed  to  march  against  them,  and  laid  down  his 


^ 


FAIRFAX  FAEUnXLD 

oommlflrioD.    He  retired  to  bit  oountry  teat  at  blm  to  foirey  his  !  ng  wailoflteBtai 

Nnn-Appleton,  Yorkshire,  where  he  passed  his  Ridge.    This  was  t     o       unceawt  of  ••  !■• 

time  in  stadr  aod  in  roral  occapatioDs,  and  timacj  between  Fairfiuc  and  WaaUttfloB,  wbkk 

prayed  for  the  reHtabUshment  of  the  roral  sorrived  all  differenoea  of  opiakm  oa  poikiflsi 

fiunilj.  At  the  first  signal  giren  br  Monk,  which  aoldects,  and  terminated  oniij  with  iSbm  oaalh  «f 

offered  a  hope  of  its  restoraUon,  he  issued  from  the  former.    80  fiiTorabla  waa  the  raport  if 

bis  retreat,  followed  by  a  body  of  gentry  and  Washington,  that  his  einployer  aooa  after  took 

an  Iri^  brigade  which   his   reputation   had  np  his  residence  at  Greenwaj  Govti  ataaatad  is 

attracted  from  the  ranks  of  the  Independent  the  midst  of  a  manor  of  10,000  aeree^  nboaa  It 

army,    llonk  barinff  entered  England,  Fairfax  mika  firom  Winchester,  where  daring  €bm  v^ 

took  possession  of  York,  Jan.  1,  1660.    Being  mainder  of  his  life  be  lived  in  aetato  of  baranU 

elected  to  parliament,  be  oaye  hb  consent  to  the  bo^tality.    He  waa  an  nntirlnf  lorar  of  cka 

restoration  of  the  mcoardiy  which  be  had  done  chase,  living  for  half  the  year  anopf  Ida  dap 

BO  mnch  in  destroying,  and  was  at  the  head  of  and  horses,  and  waa  in  the  bal^t  cfenlaftaiaiag 

the  committee  wpointed  to  wait  opoa  the  king  bis  fox-hnnting  compankxia  with  great  liker> 

at  the  Hague.    He  presented  to  King  Charlea  ality.   Washington,  who  aoqoirsd  mm 

the  horse  on  which  he  rode  to  his  coronation,  taste  for  bunti^s,  waa  fl«q[nant|T  Us  gi 

after  which  be  went  back  to  peacefbl  oocupa-  the  oommenoent  of  the  rerolonoaary 

tions  in  retirement    Jx>rd  Faimz  waa  a  friend  regarded  bis  opinions  with  dafcrenoew   Datiag 

of  learning,  and  in  his  youth  devoted  much  at-  the  panic  on  the  Virginiaa  fhmtiir  after  tba 

tention  to  antiquarian  studies.  During  the  siege  defeat  of  Braddod^  Fairibx  organiied  a  tnm 

of  York,  when  a  tower  containbig  manv  anoient  of  horse,  and,  as  lord  llwrtenant  of  FMena 

documents  was  blown  up,  be  rewarded  the  sol-  county,  called  ont  the  loeal  nUitia;  and  when 

dicrs  for  bringing  him  as  many  as  could  be  found,  advised  that  bis  reeidenoe  waa  enoaad  taaip 

and  employed  ^>ger  Dodsworth  to  copr  them,  taeka  from  hostile  Indiana,  aHhongn  hi  Us  Mb 

aettling  upon  him  an  annuity  of  £40  for  life;  year,  be  podtively  raftised  to  laavn.    ^^^H 

they  now  make  a  part  of  the  Maiuuiican  Ja-  the  revolutionary  war  he  adhered  to  the  i^(b 

^Ueanum,  When  he  took  posaeasion  of  Oxford,  cause,  but  so  popular  waa  he  with  Ida 

-      thinff  be  did 


June  24, 1646.  the  first  thing  be  did  was  to  set  bors  that  be  continued  to  liva 

a  guard  over  tne  Bodleian  library,  which  other>  Oreenway  Conrt    The  anireoder  at 

wise  mi^ht  have  been  destroyed.    He  wrote  deeply  wounded  bis  national  prida,  and,  i 

a  narrative  of  his  career  fbom  the  commence-  ing  to  tradition,  was  the  immadiala  oaaai  ef  Hi 

ment  of  the  war,  not  intended  for  the  pubUo  «f e,  dMth,  which  happened  soon  after.    The  fmth 

but  which  was  published  in  1699  under  the  title  osity  of  Lord  Fairfax  is  exeraplUled  fas  the  SB^ 

of  ^  Short  Memorials  of  Thomas,  Lord  Fairfax.**  render  of  his  Urge  estates  in  Ei^aad  to  ha 

FAIRFAX,  Thomas,  6th  Baron  Fairfax  of  brother,  andin  hisfW^qnentgiftaorhuMliteMi 

Cameron,  a  British  nobleman,  bom  about  1690,  poor  neifirbbors  in  Virginia, 
died  at  Grccnway  Court,  near  Winchester,  Va^        FAIRFIELD,  the  name  of  counties  ia  I  tf 

in  1783.    He  was  educated  at  Oxford,  snbse-  the  United  States.    I.  A  a  W.  co.  of  CeaBN» 

qaently  held  a  commission  in  the  horse  guards,  bounded  N.  £.  by  the  Houaatooic  river,  SL  &  ly 

and  cDJOTcd  a  reoatation  as  a  wit  and  man  of  Long  Island  sound,  and  W.  by  the  state  of  Xcv 

letters,  having  in  the  latter  capacity  contributed  Torx ;  area,  647  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1850L  5i,T»l 

some  papers  to  the  ^'  Spectator.**  A  disappoint-  It  has  excellent  harbors  all  along  the  eoa 

ment  in  love  induced  him  to  abandon  the  gay  contains  several  important  commercial 

world,  and  almost  to  forswear  female  society ;  The  Iloosatonic  is  navigable  by  aleamboa 

and,  probably  under  its  influence,  he  visited  supplies  valuable  water  power.    The  •orfiHsef 

Virginia  in  1739  to  look  after  the  large  estates  the  county  is  considerably  dirersifUd:  ia  lie 

he  had  inherited  from  his  mother,  tlie  daughter  N.  aod  W.  it  is  hilly ;  in  the  8.  and  E.  asai^ 

of  Lord  Culpepper,  governor  of  the  province  level    The  soil  is  good,  and  pmloeea  gnii^ 

between  1680  and  1683,  and  which  the  Utter  poUtoee,  aod  hay.    In  1850  it  yicUad  SSa^M 

had  acquired  partly  by  a  grant  from  Charles  II.,  bushels  of  Indian  com,  276,916  of  oata»  S6UUI 

and  partly  by  purchase.    Tliev  comprised  up-  of  potatoes,  88,218  of  buckwheat^  72,010^ 

ward  of  6 ,700,000  acres  lying  between  the  Po-  of  bay,  and  1,086,786  lbs.  of  bnttar. 

tomac  and  Itappaliannock  rivers,  on  both  sides  were  128  churches,  and  9,051  pnptts 


of  the  Blue  Ridge,  including  a  great  portion  of  public  schools.  The  councv  is  traTcnad  b^ 

the  Shenandoah  valley.    Lord  Fairfax  was  so  roads  from  New  York  to  New  llaviea.aad  I 

pleased  with  the  pbyttical  and  social  aspects  of  Bridgeport  to  Albany.    Capltala»  FaiiMd 

Virginia,  that  he  resolved  to  pass  the  remainder  Danburr.     II.  A  central   district   of  S.  C^ 

of  bis  life  there.    He  erected  a  beautiful  seat  bounded  &  W.  by  Broad  river,  and  S.  E.  by  the 

called  lielvoir,  near  Mount  Vernon,  on  the  Po-  Wateree ;  area,  680  aq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1690, 2U6ML 

tomac,  where  he  lived  in  the  stylo  of  an  English  of  whom  14,246  were  slavea.    h  b  Uaiusel 

country  gentleman,  engaging  in  fox-hunting  and  by  2  railroads,  connecting  it  with  Charlaseoa  aai 

other  field  morts,  and  di^MUJiing  an  elegant  other  pNOints,  has  an  uneven  sarfaea,  and  a  ftftfle 

boi^pitality.    In  1748  he  made  the  acquaintance  soil,  suitable  for  cotton,  gnun,  and  patateec  la 

of  (reorgo  Washington,  then  a  youth  of  16,  and,  1850  it  produced  18,122  iMles  of  oocum,  529.461 

ifflproased  with  his  energy  and  talentaiompk^ed  bushels  of  Indian  com,  80,211  oC  wheal,  47,271 


FAIRFIELD  FAIRIES                        899 

of  OAts,  and  $5,569  of  sweet  potatoes.    There  there  were  engaged  in  it  46  vessels  belonging 

wen  87  churches,  2  newspaper  offices,  and  992  to  Fairhaven,   with  an  agregate    burden  of 

popQs  attending  schools  and  academies.    Capi-  15,632  tons,  and  a  complement  of  1,324  hands; 

td,  Winnaboroagh.    III.  A  central  co.  of  Ohio,  capital  employed,  $1,620,394;  sperm  oil    im- 

with  a  sorfaoe  diversified  by  hills,  plains,  and  ported,  95,628  galls.,  valued  at  $150,829 ;  whale 

roDiiig  lands,  and  a  soil  of  great  fertility ;  area,  oil  imported,  662,622  galls.,  valued  at  $392,618 ; 

490  iq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1850,  30,264.    It  is  inter-  whale  bone  imported,  243,448  lbs.,  valued  at 

•eeied  by  the  Ohio  and  Hocking  canals,  and  the  $94,917.    The  town  also  contained  2  cotton 

Zanefville  and  Cincinnati  railroad,  and  is  drained  mills,  1  brass  fonndery,  1  paper  mill,  and  2  soap, 

bj  the  head  stream  of  Hockhocking  river,  and  candle,  and  oil  factories ;  capital  employed  m 

by  leveral  small  creeks.    Limestone  and  free-  manufocturing,    $103,700 ;    annud    product, 

stone  are  abundant    In  1858  there  were  pro-  $233,168;  hands  employed.  111.    In  1858  it 

doced  1,858,862  bushels  of  Indian  com,  and  had  11  churches  (2  Baptist,  1  Christian,  1  Con- 

582,187  of  wheat.    In  1850  there  were  98  gregational,  1  Friends,  8  Methodist^  2  Second 

ehorefaea,  6  newspaper  offices,  and  6,140  pupils  Advent,  and  1  Unitarian),  a  high  school,  a  bank, 

attendingpnbllc  schools.    Capital,  Lancaster.  and  a  savings  bank.    A  branch  of  the  Cape  Cod 

FAIIuIELD,  formerly  the  shire  town  of  railroad  terminates  here,  by  which,  as  well  as 

Furfield  co.,  €k>nn.,  situated  on  Long  Island  by  the  New  Bedford  branch  of  the  !Boston  and 

iMind,  and  on  the  New  York  and  New  Haven  I^vidcnce  rdlroad,  Fairhaven  conmiunicates 

imOnMid,  22  m.  from  New  Haven  and  54  from  with  Boston. 

Hew  York ;  pop.  about  4,000.    Since  Bridge-  FAIRIES.     Whether  the  fairy  mythology 

port  has  become  a  city  at  the  termination  of  arose  spontaneously  in  Europe  in  the  age  of  the 

the  Kaoffatnck  and  Housatonic  railroads,  it  has  troubadours,  or  was  a  relic  of  ancient  Celtic  and 

abaorbed  much  of  the  business  which  formerly  druidical  superstition,  or  belonged  to  tiie  old 

centred  in  Fairfield;  and  to  accommodate  the  paganism  ofScandinavia  and  northern  Germany, 

pabUc,  the  county  buildings  and  offices  have  passing  thence  southward,  especially  through 

abo  been  transferred  to  Bridgeport.    The  vil-  the  Normans,  or  was  derived  from  the  Orient 

life  is  half  a  mile  from  the  sound,  principally  through  the  Spanish  Moors  and  the  crusaders, 

on  one  broad  street,  and  in  the  vicinity  are  are  questions  which  antiquaries  and  critics  have 

tpadons  hotels  for  the  accommodation  of  visit-  not  been  able  fully  to  determine.    The  fays  or 

era  daring  the  summer.    The  village  of  Green-  fairies  (Fr.y««,Ger.  Fee^  lU/ata\  under  manifold 

field,  in  which  Dr.  Timothy  Dwight  resided,  is  names  and  with  various  local  or  national  diver- 

in  this  township.    About  H  n^*  £•  of  Fairfield  sities,  may  be  traced  in  the  popular  traditions 

village  is  Black  Rock,  one  of  the  finest  harbors  and  romantic  literature  of  Europe  from  the  12th 

in  (Mnnecticut,  accessible  for  large  vessels  at  century,  appearing  first  in  the  Nibelungenlied 

an  times  of  the  tide.    Ship-building  is  carried  and  the  romances  of  chivalry.    It  is  probable 

on  at  this  place.    About  2  m.  W.  of  Fairfield,  that  they  were  originally  an  invention  of  Celtic 

at  the  mouth  of  Mile  river,  is  the  borough  and  fancy ;  but  if  so,  the  conception  of  their  nature 

harbor  of  Southport,  in  which   are  a  bank,  and  functions  was  modified  and  enriched  in  the 

MTcral  churches,  and  educational  institutions,  early  middle  ages  by  admixture  from  foreign 

Much  of  the  business  and  enterprise  of  Fairfield  sources,  chiefly  from  the  Scandinavian  myUis 

are  centred  in  this  borough.     Fairfield  was  of  dtergar  or  dwarfs,  and  the  Persian  and 

settled  in  1639  by  8  or  10  families  from  Wind-  Arabian  fictions  of  peris,  djinns,  and  other  genii, 

aor,  and  was  incorporated  in  1646,  when  it  took  The  Hindoo-Persian  taJe  of  the  '*  Garden  of 

Its  pesent  name,  having  previously  borne  the  Knowledge,''  written  in  India  by  Yn/lyel-iillah 

Indian  name  Uncowa.    In  1779  it  was  burned  about  1650,  contains  peris,  who  nearly  resemble 

\^  the  British  under  Gov.  Tryon.  the  fairies  of  western  romance.     Even  the 

FAIRFIELD,  a  post  village  and  capital  of  classic  dii  campe$tres^  the  sylvans,  satyrs,  and 

non  CO.,  Iowa,  situated  on  Big  Cedar  creek,  fauns,  may  have  been  blended  with  them.    In 

connected  by  a  plank  road  with  Burlington,  the  most  limited  sense  of  the  term,  the  fairies 

m.  distant ;  pop.  in  1853  estimated  at  1,600.  are  hardly  distinguished  from  the  elves,  except 

]b  is  a  proqieroas  trading  place,  and  one  of  the  that  they  belong^  more  peculiarly  to  the  Bnt- 

BOit  important  interior  towns  of  the  state.    It  ish  isles  and  to  france,  ana  the  latter  to  the  Teu- 

li  tibe  seat  of  a  branch  of  the  state  university,  tonic  nations.    They  were  frcakful  little  crea- 

sad  contains  a  female  seminary,  2  newspaper  tures  of  preternatural  power,  familiar  to  rustics 

sffeoLand  a  land  ofiice.  long  before  they  were  celebrated  in  romance.  In 

FAXRHAVEN,  a  township  of  Bristol   co.,  the  most  general  sense,  they  embrace  nearly  all 

^^  m^oa  Bozzard^s  bay,  65  m.  S.  E.  from  Bos-  the  characters  of  the  romantic  mediaeval  myth- 

;  pop.  in  1855,  4,693.   The  principal  village,  ology,  as  the  elves,  dwarfs,  trolls,  norns,  nisses, 

I  wnich  the  township  is  named,  is  built  on  ko^lds,  brownies,  necks,  stromkarls,  undines, 

left  bank  of  the  mouth  of  Acnsbnet  river,  nixes,  salamanders,  goblins,  hobgoblins,  ponkes, 

'  a  New  Bedford,  with  which  it  is  con-  banshees,  kelpies,  pixies,  moss  people,  good  peo- 

by  a  bridge  and  a  ferry.    The  river  ex-  pie,  good  neighbors,  men  of  peace,  wild  women, 

Cdi  between  the  two  places  into  a  fine  bar-  and  white  ladiee.    Fairies  appear  in  the  ro- 

;  about  1  m.  wide.    The  whale  fishery  is  the  mances  of  ArUiur  and  the  round  table,  especial- 

pffindpal  bosineas  of  the  town,  and  in  1855  ly  in  I$aie  le  TrUU^  the  latest  of  them,  and  in 


400  faibus 

grMfter  brOUaiicy  and  power  in  tliote  of  Charle-  boif.    Tl  dnii       I  to  te  KoOov;  ni 

magne  and  hit  {Mdadioa.    The  earliest  of  the  to  oon  ai»  dii         ^  niOiiartariai>  fv> 

lomaneesof  chiyalrr  probably  it  that  of  Lanoe-  denS|andainringiofgoldaiidtilT«.    BeMotba 

lot  dn  Lac,  one  of  tne  Imlgbta  of  the  round  wild  women  tliwe  live  in  It  little  bmb,  who  goad 

table;  and  the  wonderfolbeautj  and  skill  of  the  the  treasnrea,  and  golbrthat  inlilnjila  to  the 

hirj  ViTiana,  the  lady  oT  the  kke,  who  had  eathedral  of  Saltabarg;  where  they  peribnnthrir 

learned  the  art  of  enehantment  iroin  MerUn,  derotioni :  gianti.  who  wed  to  fpei|ne«t  the 

are  fiunoos  in  the  annals  of  female  treachery,  ehnrch  of  wOdidiaBd  e^diort  thojssapls  tea 

Lancelot^  edaoated  by  her,  conoeiTed  an  ardent  frfooslife;  and  the  emperor  FVederiemftaroMai 

passion  for  GeneTra,  the  wife  of  King  Arthnr,  with  golden  crown  and  seeptre,  and  a  knlghHy 

and  drew  upon  himself  an  kinds  of  mufortones  retinne,  whose  gray  beard  hie  twieeeMoaBMi* 

5  disdaining  the  iiiiry  Morgana.    The  fidriee  ed  the  table  at  wUdi  he  sltii^  and  whan  ft  haaa 

eariy  romance  seem  to  have  been  only  mor-  third  time  grown  round  it  toe  end  of  tiM  wecU 

tals  endowed  with  supernatural  powersi  and  will  take  j^aoe.    The  Mr  maiden  who  4gH« 

they  did  not  aasome  tkeir  manifold  grotesqne  in  the  legend  of  the  Oldeobarg  hom  wae  nwU 

eharacteristics  as  distinct  spedes  till  some  of  woman.    K«>bolds  are  iUriea  that  baooae  d»» 

the  rd^ted  elements  of  Tarioosmytholodes  had  mesdo  set  vanta.    When  about  to  attack  hhn> 

been  confounded  in  the  popular  mincL— The  aelf  to  a  finnily.  the  kobold  throws  eUpa  Isae 

dwarfr  and  elves  figure  as  diminutlTe  croatnres  th«  K4  use  and  dirt  into  the  milk  ireasslk    Vne 
In  the  Eddas  and  the  whole  body  of  8candhia>  be  taken  of  tUs,  he  eomes  and  i^la 

Tian  sagas^  the  former  being  often  violent  and         w  use.    Famous  among  kobolda  tm 
malignant,  the  latter  sportive,  ftmd  of  dancing^  whose  hiitwy  was  written  Inr  Ft 

visible  only  to  children  bom  on  8undig%olten  Axwwuan,  or  Little  Hat|  so  aaned  1m 

useful,  and  sometimes  mischievous.     The  8  always  wore  a  litde  fitt  hat  down 

great  noms  named  Udr,  Veithandi,  and  8kulld  hot;  King  Goldemar,  the  intimate  ftlnd  sf 

(past,  presenti  and  fbture)were  the  Scandinap  Keve  ngvonHardenbeig ;  uid  the  naked  mi^ 

vianParce  or  destinies,  nuiiff  the  events  of  lifo,  »»*Mn»,  who  till  the  prsaent  eenteiy  ^ 
The  nisses  were  domestic  ndries  of  Korwi^,  to  perform  domestle  eandolts  at 

resembling  the  kobolds  of  Germanv  and  brown-  j         zesfaihaUt  lakes  and  rifvera;  the 

les  of  Scotland,  fcmd  of  froUddng  by  moooli^t  U&a  >  man,  exeept  that  he  haajpasa 

ttid  driving  in  sledaes  in  the  winter,  and  skiuBd  i         « wears  a  green  hat;  aad^tka 


In  muno  and  dandng.    Kver^r  church  had  its    f       unifomdy  as  a  beantifol  attidaa.   Iky 


nis,  called  the  kirkegrim,  that  looked  aft«r  pro-  j     o  a  maaniiicent  subaqoeoos  aboda, 

priety  of  manners,  and  punished  misconduct*  tuey  a  mietunes  convey  mcrtals;  onsn^yd^i 

The  rivers  and  lakes  of  northern  Europe  were  they  comb  their  golden  locks  hi  the  braadNi 

inhabited  by  necks,  stromkarls,  and  other  beings  of  trees ;  and  they  may  be  seen  dancing  ea  tki 

similar  to  mormen  and  memuuda,  or  to  the  kel-  sur&ce  of  the  water  previooa  to  the  death  ef  1 

pies  of  Sootland,  who  were  commonly  renowned  perK>n  by  drowning.    Thev  figme  in  mukitate 

as  mosiciana,  playing  on  harps  the  melody  of  of  German  stories. — The  fats^  or  Italian  fririe^ 

which  operated  on  all  nature,  and  who  would  first  appear  prominendy  in  literature  la  the  0^ 

teach  their  art  to  any  person  that  presented  lando  Mnamoraic  of  Boiardo.    There  the  Fan 

them  with  a  black  lamb. — Among  the  nomer-  Morgana  (the  Momna  &iry)  is  mentionsd.  iki 

ous  objects  of  German  popular  superstition  are  powerfol  sister  of  King  Aithur  and  papQ  ef 

dwarfs  and  vlvcs,  wild  women,  kobolda,  and  Merlin,  forooua  for  her  enchantmentSi  for  dhs 

nixes  or  water  spirits.    The  dwarf:i  are  called  tricks  that  she  played  her  sister-in-kw  Gcaen% 

also  the  still  i>eopie  and  the  little  people,  and  have  and  for  being  oeueved  to  be  the  eaase  ef  As 

their  abodes  underground  and  in  the  defts  of  mirage  of  the  strait  of  llcsalna,  to  which  hw 

mountains,  visiting  the  surface  of  the  earth  name  is  given.    There  also  figures  the  beaatiAd 

only  by  night;  they  can  make  themselves  in-  Bilvsndla,  who  raised  a  tomb  over  Nareissv^ari 

visible  and  pass  through  rocks  and  walls,  and  tiien  dissolved  away  into  a  fonntda ;  the  wbln 

are  generally  silent  and  beneficent  to  men.  and  bhu;k  fairies^  the  protectreesea  of  Gaideas 

The  **  little  wights^  are  a  species  of  dwarfs  of  and  Aqulknte;  sind  Aldna,  tlie  sistff  ef  Hiah 

southern  Germany,  about  |  of  an  ell  hiffh,  ap-  gana,  who  carried  off  Astolfo.    Some  ef  the« 

peering  as  old  men  with  long  beards,  dressed  reappear  in  the  Orlandp/mri^m  of  Arioste^  bil 

like  miners  in  leather  aprons  and  bearing  Ian-  the  Amadigi  of  Bernardo  Tasso  pi  aunts  the 

terns  and  a  smith's  touM.    They  announce  the  fairies  in  greater  number  and  splendor  thai 

death  of  a  miner  by  knocking  3  times.    The  elsewhere  in  Italian  poetry.    They  are  lifkik 

forests  of  Germany  are  haunted  by  numerous  indiflerentiy  maga^  iMeamtrite^  or/mim^  und  pr^ 

kinds  of  dwarfs,  littie  larger  than  elves,  gray  minent  among  them  are  MoiigmneCta»  Klvca^ 

and  old-louking,  hairy  and  clad  in  mots.    Their  and  Carvilia,  the  8  danghtem  of  Morgaaa.    Al 

great  vnemy  is  the  wild  buntxman,  who  cliases  the  fairies  and  witchcA,  accofding  to  Ariartfl^  are 

them  by  night  with  a  pack  of  ghostly  hounds,  subject  to  the  redoubtable  Demcmvon.  wks 

The  German  wild  women,  like  the  elf  maids  of  has  a  splendid  palatial  temple  in  the  Himi  ~ 

Scandinavia,  are  beautiful  and  devout,  with  fine  mountains,  wliere  every  5th  year  he  s 

flowing  hair,  and  their  chief  haunt  is  the  famed  them  to  appear  beft>re  him  and  giva  an 

mountain  Wunderbergi  on  the  naoor  near  Salti-  of  their  actiona»— The  paWaatad 


FAIRIES  401 

Mry  is  tBe  duende  or  trtugo,  a  domestio  sprite,  reign  of  Elizabeth.    Chaucer,  in  his  ^'  Wife  of 

oftoi  mentioned  in  Spanish  literature.    Galde-  Bathes  Tale/*  charged  the  monks  and  fHan 

roo's  comedj  La  dama  duende  is  founded  on  the  with  having  expelled  the  fairies  from  the  land 

plajfiil  tricks  of  a  lady  who  personates  the  du-  by  their  vigilance : 

tnde  to  the  mystification  of  her  lover  and  of  her  in  oide  dajcs  of  the  king  Artoor, 

own  fiunily. — ^The  fairy  lore  of  France  resembles  9f,^*'**^^t*.**^^  ^I^P?,  »P«^«?  Rr^t  honoiu; 

*!«•«-  ««r  Vn»lAn^    A*«i1  A/<.-M.*^«^a  :«  M»*««.  .»  All  was  this  land  ftilfllled  of  feorio; 

tbat  or  England,  and  corresponds  m  many  re-  The  eif-anone  with  hir  joiy  comp^nie 

q>ect8  with  that  of  Germany.    Theyeei  or  fairies,  Danced  fbl  oft  in  manv  a  grene  mede. 

and  the  luHne,  gobelins,  or  goblins,  answer  to  7ilLk«"nf^nv  h^JSZi  v.l!?^ 

.- _  ^   »v-    i-^v  ij         J     •  wniP  r  *  speko  Of  many  bonured  yeres  aga 

ine  utHUlC  KODOldS  ana  nisses.      1  ne  lormer  are  Bat  now  can  no  man  see  non  elves  moi, 

handsonne  in  person,  dance  in  circles  or  fairy  For  now  the  groto  charltee  and  prayerea 

ringi*yn«ht,h«ii.t«)litary8priDgsandgrottos,  SilTi'^'S^^^.uSd^S^-^m^ 

noont  nnd  gallop  strange  horses,  sitting  upon  As  thikke  as  motes  in  the  sonne-beme, 

tiMMMck  wd  tying  together  locks  of  the  mane  to  ^^ZY^S^^^L^^^o^^ 

tona  BtimpS,  always  bring  luck  by  their  pres-  Thropes  and  beruea,  shepenes  and  dairies, 

enee,  and,  Kke  the  fairies  of  most  countries,  This  maketh  that  there  b«n  no  ihuriea. 

were  believed  to  preside  at  births,  to  love  young  Somewhat  later,  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VL, 

children,  to  give  them  presents,  and  to  ste^  fairies  form  much  of  the  machinery  of  the 

them  away,  leaving  instead  their  own  fairy  off-  metrical  romance  of  "  Sir  Launfal,"  one  of  the 

V^f  which  were  called  changelings,  and  were  knights  of  the  round  table,  written  by  Thomas 

lanalfy  most  beautiful  in  countenance  and  most  Ohestre.    The  fiiiries  of  the  "  Fa^ry  Queen"  of 

evil  in  propensities.    In  the  12th  and  Idth  cen-  Spenser  and  those  of  the  '*  Midsummer  Night's 

toriea  the  forest  of  Brczoliande,  near  Quentin,  Dream"  are  not  the  same.  The  former  are  stately 

in  Brittany,  was  thought  to  contain  the  tomb  beings,  typical  of  the  moral  virtues,  with  traits 

ef  Merlin,  and  to  be  a  chief  seat  of  the  fairies,  borrowed  from  the  Italian  fairy  mythology. 

The  white  ladies  were  Norman  fairies,  and  dwelling  in  enchanted  castles,  surrounded  by 

often  malignant.    They  were  supposed  to  be  courts  of  knights  and  ladies,  and  ruling  over 

rttadied  to  certain  great  families,  in  whose  extensive  kin^oms.    Shakespeare  adopted  the 

■lEiIri  they  interfere,  sometimes  for  good,  elves  and  pixies  of  popular  superstition,  with 

•nmetimes  for  evil.  The  white  lady  of  Avenel  in  their  diminutive  stature,  fondness  for  dancing, 

Sr  Walter  Scott^s  romance  of  *^  The  Monastery"  love  of  cleanliness,  and  child-stealing  propensi- 

ii  an  instance  of  this  kind.    The   lutins  or  tics,  formed  them  into  a  community  ruled  over 

goUins   were   playful    and    malicious   elves,  by  Oboron  and  Titania  or  Queen  Mab,  and  gave 

pinching  children  and  maidens,  twisting  their  immortality  to  *^  that  merry  wanderer  of  the 

hair  into  inexplicable  knots  when  they  were  night,"  Puck,  alias  Robin  Goodfcllow,  alias 

adeep,  and  delighting  to  perplex  peasants  and  Hobgoblin.    The  *^  Mad  Pranks  and  Merry  Jesta 

to  bring  them  into  difficulty.    Melusina,  the  of  Robin  Goodfellow"  (printed  by  the  Percy 

molt  renowned  of  French  fairies,  was  married  society,  1841)  was  originally  published  in  the 

lo  Raymond,  count  of  Luslgnan.     She  was,  age  of  Shakespeare,  and  furnishes  the  first  reo- 

howareTf  truly  described  as  ange  par  la  fi-  ords  of  this  mischievous  son  of  a  fairy,  who 

CTt^  et  Berpent  par  le  reste,  and  exacted  from  "  from  hag-bred  Merlin's  time"  had  been  famous 

r  hoaband  an  oath  that  he  would  never  see  f<>r  his  pranks.    Corresponding  to  him  are  the 

her  CQ  Satnrday.    After  having  borne  to  him  Rubczahl  or  Number  Nip  of  German  fairy  lore, 

•ereral  children,  she  was  at  len^  surprised  by  the  Cluricaune  of  Ireland,  the  Eulenspiegel  of 

him  in  a  bath  on  Saturday,  transfigured  into  a  Germany,  and  the  Howleglass  or  Owlespeigle 

mermaid,  her  true  shape,  when  she  flew  from  the  of  Scotland.    Ben  Jonson  refers  to  Mab  as 

CMtle  with  wailing  and  lamentation,  in  obedience  .  .  .  the  mistress  &I17, 

to  a  decree  of  destiny  that  she  should  flit  about  That  doth  nlghUr  rob  the  dairy  ;* 

tta  nignt,  nntll  tne  day  of  doom.  It  was  believed  8he  that  pinches  country  wenches 

Oit  uie  appeared  near  the  castle  of  Lusiirnan  if  they  rub  not  clean  their  benches. 

b*'^'^  ^  «.,^  „4.*xv-:- '^.^'^     1-.  And,  with  sharper  nail,  remembers 

monming  dress,  and  uttcnng  piercing  lamen-  when  they  rake  not  np  their  emben ; 

'*"*' whenever  a  lord  of  Lusignan  or  a  king  But  if  so  they  chance  to  feast  her, 

lee  was  about  to  die.    The  traditions  In  a  shoe  she  drops  a  tester. 

ling  her  were  collected  by  Jean  d^ Arras  Drayton  and  Uerrick  excel  among  the  minor 

the  dose  of  the  14th  century.    One  of  English  poets  in  their  happy  use  of  the  fiiiry 

chief  articles  of  accusation  against  the  mythology. — The  medisQval  fairy  lands  are  of  8 

of  Orieans  was  that  she  resorted  to  a  kinds :  those  that  are  placed  in  the  ocean,  like 

In  of  the  fairies  to  see  her  visions ;  and  the  castle  and  isle  of  Avalon,  the  abode  of 

it  Brittany  there  are  still  fountains  regarded  by  Arthur,  Oberon,  and  the  fairy  Morgana,  most 

AiMliTes  as  sacred  to  the  fairies,  and  believed  ftilly  described  in  the  old  French  romance  of 

Id  loinetimiMi  change  into  gold  or  diamond  the  Ogier  le  Danois;  those  that  lie  within  the  earth, 

'  that  is  inserted  into  them. — The  fairies  of  like  the  palace  of  Pari  Banou,  one  of  which 

nd  were  first  caUed  elves,  and,  though  is  finely  described  in  the  old  English  romance 

mentioned  before  in  romances,  assumed  of  ^Orfeo  and  Hcurodis;"  and  those  which  are 

prominent  place  in  poetry  in  the  situate  "in  wUdemesa  among  the  holtia  hairy,*' 

TOL.  TIL — 26 


■ktObwon^  rMlm  of  Vbamifir:  one  of  wbSbli  cnltiM  that  utisfiMtory  ^p.......,^  «w  — »• 

Mfiifi  ia  tbd  romAiiM  of  **  Sir  ThopM.'*—  ThrM  Teataoio  lecend^  FMwnlillm  ■»  firiiy 

iMpoDoltr  foptntitioa  of  tlid  middle  aget  at-  iU»i«s,  have  aeqmrad  an  alnoit  MtftoMl  ibar- 

lEiMtaaiiianjiiatiiralpheQoiiieaatotheaMiioj  aotar  in  Eni^and— "Jack  llio  Giaai-KSIar,* 

of  tU  iiiirioa.    In  Ireknd  and  SooOand  they  <«Ja€k  and  tba  Baaa Stalk,**  and  •'ToaTlmaik* 

wwa  baUoTod  to  ahoot  at  cattlo  with  arrowa  TheplaokjJaok^wboainiilojabraiBaaa  waflaa 

baadod  with  flint  atooaai  and  thoa  to  bewitch  fiita,  ia  an  old  Eolith  aohool4Mj  Ideal  of  Talor 

tham;  and  the  amall  arrow  heada  of  the  abo-  and  eoterpriat.    The  tale  of  the  SmSmAf 

t^finu  Iriih  are  known  toooontrj  people  and  ToraJThomb,  who  waa  not  mlike  tlie  pigiy  of 


aatiqiiarieaaB  elf  arrowa.    The  ^tfj^lmcf  waa  the  Greek  poeta  of  the  weight  of  oaeoUii^ni 

tanned  the  elf  firoi  other  Imninooa  appearanoea  wearing  lead  in  hit  ahoea  fhim  iMr  of  Wng 

Mrj  ^Mrfca.  molea  or  other  delecta  on  the  per-  blown  awaj  b j  the  wind,  fUnatnlea  tbm  adtn- 

aon  mrr  nnpa  or  elriah  marka,  and  a  matted  tagea  of  anil  and  aetiTi^  orer  mare  aiae  and 

kok  of  hair  in  the  neok  an  elf  look.— The  earli-  atrength,  and  the  mkhapa  natoral  to  Ua  want 

eat  ooQection  of  Eoropean  fUiy  atoriea  in  proae  of  harmony  with  the  general  oidar  of  ONiliaa. 

WM  the  Italian  JfoMi  JPto0iM2<  of  Straparola  — ThebeetworkaontSeaobleetaroKaigMhj^ 

£enioe»  1600).    The  beet  Italian  ec^e^on  ia  ""FairyMjthologT"  (enlarged  ed.l8M>s  Seatt^ 

I  JPimtaum^tu  of  Giambattfita  Baaile  fflylea,  ^Eamjon  theEiir3rSQpentitioa**ta  tMi*]|ii> 

li87;tmoaUted  fWHntheKeapoUtanbrW.S.  atrabyoftheSoottiah  Border;"  Oroker^*Ilrfrr 

Tkurkir,  London,  1866).    It  ia  ftill  of  learned  al-  LegeodaandThiditiooaoftheSoathoflnlMi^ 

liAma  and  keen  aatbe,  and  deaigned  for  the  (18S5) ;   DaljeU*a  ""  Dwker  SnpifiHliaan  ef 

aaraiement  only  of  grown  peraooa.    Near  the  Sootland**  (1888);   ""Roarian  Pteokr  'Mm^ 

end  of  the  17th  eentnrr  the  OmUm  dm/im  of  trandated  fkom  the  German  of  IHalrieh,  wlft 

Pirranlt  and  Madame  d'Aolnoj,  and  their  aoo-  an  introdoetion  bj  Grimm  (London,  1811); 

oaaaon^  gare  Togne  to  lairy  atoriee  throoghont  Daaent'a^PopolarTalea  from  the  Horar^QM); 

■■rope,  written  ehiellylbrthe  inatmction  and  Lmfkm  d»  aMyan^fiLVrMaaryCPafHlStf); 

annaementofehildren.    The  •'Arabian  Ki^Ua*  and  the  RvudMt' mmilEwm^fAm  (1811  ;tih 

Xntartaimnent^*'  introdnoed  faito  Sorope  bj  ed.  1861X  and  other  pnblkatlona  of  tboteoltai 

Gallandaboat  the  beginning  of  the  18th  oentmy,  Grimm. 

ootttriboted  mnch  to  thdr  popobrity,  and  were  FAIBT  CIRCLE,  a  flreq[nant  pibanoMMnli 

onieklly  fbOowed  by  Tarioaa  indtationa  of  the  flelda  and  meadowa  in  Great  Britain,  enea  a^ 

Arabian,  Persian,  Turkiah,  and  lloi«ol  take.  The  triboted  by  the  peaaantry  to  ^e  iMi  of  Ufa 

**Taleaofthe Genii** by JameaBid^y, the  AM«  in  dancing  their rondela..  A  fidry ringer ebda 

«feMil0f/jMi»0iw  of  Ltfigiea,  and  the  later  (7efU«i  ia^ther  abaredrealarpathabootaiootbnal, 

ChvMmoi Remosat are ezamplea.  ^Hie  '* Koor-  enclosing  agraaa plot aboat  7 yarda  in di 

Jahad**  of  Mrs.  Sheridan  waa  an  imitation  of  or  a  spot  of  different  dimeoaioDa^  with  a 

them,  and  the  eastern  tales  of  Count  Hamilton  ference  of  grass,  which  Is  higher,  aoor^, 

were  written  partly  to  ridicule  them.  >  The  abb6  greener  than  the  sarroonding 

de  ViUiers  also  satirixed  them,  and  Wielaad  speare  mentions  the  eWes  that 

made  his  Don  Sylrio  too  Rosalvo  the  Don  Br  momihtM  do  tU  pM^-Mv 

Qoixote  of  (airy  literatore,  which  he  aooght  wii«w»r  th#  ow.  ■«*  biu* 

to  banish  as  Cervantes  had  ezpeUed  the  ro-  Yarioos  theories  hare  been  invented  to 

mances  of  chivahrr.    The  best  Uter  imitations  for  these  circles.    Waldroo  not  only 

araaomeofthe  tsIesofTieck,  llos&as,  and  No-  them  to  the  fairies,  hot  said  he  had 

Talis,  and  e^>ecially  La  llotte  Foaon^,  and  the  droles  in  the  snow,  in  which  the 

romance  of  the  caliph  ''Yathek,''  by  Beck-  of  Uny  feet  were  visible.     Anbr^  MfMsl 

ford.    The  German  uiriea  are  rarely  terrible  them  to  be  caosed  by  the  efflnx  of  a  wtils 

for  a  long  time,  and  in  stories  where  the  in-  aabterranean  vapor.    Priestley  and  othafaesn- 

dignation  of  the  reader  is  strongly  excited,  sidered  them  the  effect  of  lightidng;  aadWaHw, 

the  effect  is  soon  neatraliaed  by  some  toach  of  after  a  thanderrtorm,  observed  one  of  thss 

pleasantry  or  kindly  stroke  of  fate.    The  dwarfs,  which  from  Uie  color  and  brittleoeaa  of  the  bsr- 

who  are  the  incarnation  of  malignity,  are  made  dering  grass  seemed  to  be  newly  bnmed  bara 

ridionloQs  rather  than  formidab^s.    Even  death  Others  have  thought  them  to  be  caMad  I7 

takea  the  kindly  form  of  a  generous  godfather,  moles   or   similar   animals   borrowing  nadsr 

In  contrast  with  the  weird  mournful  banshee  ground.     Dr.  WoUmUm  aooonntad  for  Ihsm 

of  the  Irish  legends.    Around  the  inveterate  by  the  growth  of  a  species  of  agvie,  whidi 

aimpleton  or  sluggard  there  gather  in  the  Qer-  ao  absorbs  all  nutriment  fhim  tho  eofl  m  for  a 

man  imagination  a  host  of  ridiculous  blunders  time  to  destroy  the  herbage.  Dr.  CaiysnSsr  al» 

and  adventures,  the  special  work  of  delighted  thought  them  tnrMJtmtd  by  nuMaa  of  foMoas 

foiriea.    The  Irish  foiry  tales  have  the  wild,  vegetation. 

imaginative  character  common  to  most  of  the  FAKIR  (Arab.  /oJUUir,  poorX  tho  Msa  ef  a 

Oaltm  legends.    Nor  is  the  intercourse  with  the  mendicant  order  In  the  East  Indisi^  like  ths 

foiry  powers  so  easy  and  comforuble  as  in  the  derviiies  of  Persia  and  Turkey.    The  origin  ef 

Qonnan  tales;  there  is  not  the  same  genial  in-  fakirism  in  India  is  traced  Wk  to  mythkii 

tlmaey  and  happy  understandiniL  nor  can  it  times,  when  a  powerfol  rajah  haviag  tranlilri 

alwaya  bo  presomed  amid  overwhehning  diffi-  hia  aon,  the  hrttar  k  fohM  to  hnvo  Maolvol  la 


FALAISE  FALOON                     408 

lead  a  Tagaboxid  life  in  the  world,  to  beg  his  secretary  of  the  Datch  embassy  at  ICadrid.  In 
bread,  aira  to  make  proselytes  to  his  own  man-  1808  he  was  appointed  by  King  Lonis  secretary* 
ners  and  cnatoms.  The  first  condition  of  an  general  of  Indian  affairs.  In  1818  he  was  in- 
Indian  mendicant  monk  is  poverty.  He  wears  strnmental  in  bringinff  aboat  the  revolntion 
a  rent  robe,  snch  as  the  Mussolmans  pretend  which  led  to  the  establuhment  of  a  provisional 
the  ancient  prophets  wore.  In  9  things,  accord-  governmenti  of  which  he  was  appointed  aecre- 
ing  to  Haasan  al  Bassri,  he  is  like  a  dog :  he  is  tary.  In  the  following  year,  when  the  prince 
always  hungry ;  he  has  no  sure  abiding  place;  of  Orange  was  proclaimed  king  of  the  Kether- 
he  watches  by  night ;  he  never  abandons  his  lands,  Falck  became  the  leading  spirit  of  the 
master,  even  when  maltreated ;  he  is  satisfied  new  government.  From  1814  to  1818  he  acted 
with  the  lowest  place;  he  yields  his  place  to  as  chief  secretary  of  state,  and  in  the  latter 
whoever  wishes  it ;  he  loves  whoever  beats  year  he  was  intrusted  with  the  departments  of 
him ;  keeps  quiet  while  others  eat ;  and  accom-  public  instruction,  commerce,  aod  colonial  af- 
panles  his  master  without  ever  thinking  of  re-  fairs.  In  1816  he  reestablished  the  academy 
turning  to  the  place  which  he  has  left.  The  of  Brussels,  and  the  reforms  in  the  primary 
nmnber  of  Mussulman  and  Hindoo  fakirs  in  In-  schools  and  the  university  were  dne  to  his  zeal 
dials  estimated  at  more  than  1,000,000 ;  beside  in  the  cause  of  education.  The  contest,  how- 
whom  there  are  many  other  religious  ascetics,  ever,  which  soon  broke  out  between  Belgium 
Some  fakirs  live  isolated,  go  entirely  naked,  and  Holland  resulted  eventually  in  Falck's  with- 
and  sleep  upon  the  ground  with  no  covering,  drawal  from  the  administration.  He  re^nteored 
Thef  never  use  wood  for  making  fire,  but  em-  the  diplomatic  service,  was  employed  on  several 

ey  instead  the  dried  dnng  of  cows ;  regard-  missions  to  the  court  of  Vienna,  took  a  part 
:  this  as  an  act  of  devotion,  since  the  cow  is  in  the  negotiation  of  a  commercial  treaty  be- 
in  India  a  sacred  animaL  They  carry  a  cud-  tween  England  and  Holland,  and  in  1824  be- 
gel  on  which  are  hung  rags  of  various  colors,  came  ambassador  at  London.  During  the  nego- 
and  they  traverse  the  country  hedging  and  in-  tiations  which  terminated  in  the  separation  of 
stmcting  credulous  people  in  religion.  It  is  Belgium  from  Holland,  his  services  were  again 
dangerous  both  to  his  life  and  money  for  an  un-  called  into  requisition,  and  in  1840  he  became 
protected  person  to  meet  them.  The  second  Dutch  ambassador  at  Brussels.  He  wrote  an 
dass  of  fakirs  is  composed  of  those  who  unite  essay  on  the  influence  of  Dutch  civilization 
kito  companies.  These  are  clothed,  wearing  a  upon  northern  Europe,  especially  upon  Den- 
fsntastic  and  many -colored  robe.  They  choose  mark,  which  was  published  in  1817  in  vol.  i.  of 
a  chief^  who  is  distinguished  by  having  a  poor-  the  **  Transactions  of  the  Third  Class  of  the 
er  dr^  than  the  others,  and  who  has  a  long  Royal  Institute  of  Holland." 
diain  attached  to  one  of  his  legs.  When  he  FALCON,  a  bird  of  prey,  belonging  to  the 
prays  he  shakes  his  chain,  and  the  multitude  order  a^cipitrei^tami] j/<ilconid4B,  Bub'{am\ij/<U' 
press  around  him,  and  embrace  his  feet,  and  re-  eanina^  and  to  the  typical  genus  fdlco  (Linn.). 
ceive  his  counsels  and  precepts.  He  has  formu-  This  sub-family  contains  the  following  genera, 
las  for  the  cure  of  the  paralytic,  and  especially  in  addition  to  faleo^  of  which  about  a  dozen 
of  sterile  women.  Some  of  the  fakirs  have  al-  species  are  described:  hypotriorchis  (Boie), 
most  a  military  organization.  They  bear  the  with  as  many  species ;  ieracidea  (Gk>uld),  with 
lanee  and  other  arms,  display  a  banner  while  2  species,  found  in  Australia ;  tinnuneuUu 
on  the  march,  sound  a  horn  and  beat  a  drum  on  (Vieil].)i  with  a  dozen  species ;  ierax  (Vigors), 
their  srrivd  at  a  station  and  also  on  their  de-  with  6  species,  in  India  and  its  islands ;  and 
Mrtnre.  There  is  one  class  of  fakirs  which  is  harpagus  (Vigors),  in  South  America,' with  a 
ia^y  honored.  They  are  the  children  of  poor  single  species,  characterized  by  having  the 
parents,  who  live  in  retirement  in  mosques,  de-  lateral  margin  of  the  bill  armed  with  2  distinct 
ToCed  to  the  reading  of  the  Koran  and  the  study  teeth  on  each  side.  The  birds  of  these  genera 
oflawa  till  they  become  qualified  for  the  duties  may  all  be  called  falcons,  from  the  common 
oC  w»ouah»  or  doctors  of  theology.  characters  of  a  short  bill,  much  carved  fh>m 
FALAISE  (anc.  FdUria\  a  town  of  France,  the  base  to  the  tip,  with  its  sides  more  or  less 
department  of  Calvados,  22  m.  S.  S.  £.  of  Caen,  fornished  with  serrations  called  teeth ;  the  cere 
on  the  river  Ante,  bnilt  upon  cliffs,  command-  covering  the  nostrils,  which  are  rounded  or 
id  bj  an  old  Norman  castle  and  snrrounded  by  linear ;  the  wings  lengthened  and  pointed,  the 
a  picturesque  country;  pop.  in  1856,  8,138.  It  2d  and  8d  quills  generally  the  longest:  the  tail 
1ms  a  college,  library,  and  equestrian  statue  of  lengthened  and  rounded ;  toes  long  and  slender, 
WDfiam  the  Conqueror,  who  was  born  here,  and  claws  curved  and  acute.  -The  birds  of  the 
11i6  celebrated  fair  of  Gnibray,  instituted  in  genus  falco^  which  only  will  be  treated  in  this 
tiba  11th  century,  is  annually  held  here  in  An-  article,  are  called  noble  birds  of  prey,  because  in 
in  a  suburb  of  that  name.  proportion  to  their  size  they  are  the  most  conra- 
FALCK,  AHTOznrsREiKnABD,  a  Dutch  states-  geous  and  powerful ;  they  are  also  more  docile, 
HI,  bom  in  Utrecht  in  1776,  died  in  Brussels,  and  were  formerly  much  used  in  the  sport  of 
Mardi  10, 1848.  He  studied  at  the  university  of  falconry  to  pursue  and  kill  game,  returning  to 
QOtting^  and  on  his  return  home  applied  him-  their  masters  when  called.  The  pigeon  hawk 
isif  to  the  law.  Subsequently  he  held  certain  (JS,  eolumhariu^  Linn.),  and  the  sparrow  hawk 
*MM>t^p*i  offices,  and  from  1802  to  1806  he  was  {T,  tparveriui,  Linn.),  though  both  falcons,  will 


404  FALCON 

\m  deteribad  under  these  names.    The  falcons  ed  teal  within  a  few  yards  of  ihe  iponflaian. 
are  found  througfaoat  the  world,  regardless  of  Pigeons,  blackbirds,  water  fowl,  and  beach  binLi» 
climate;  thej  are  powerful  and  rapid  fliers,  and  even  dead  fish,  are  eaten  br  this  falcun. 
horering  over  their  prejr  and  darting  perpen-  Taming  the  bird  it  has  cangbt  htilj  upward,  it 
dicnlarly  npon  it;  thej  pursue  birds  chiefly,  clears  off  the  feathers  from  the  breast  and  lean 
bat  attack  also  the  smaller  quadrapeds.    The  the  flesh  to  pieces  with  great  aTiditj.  Thbmciea 
oommon  or  peregrine  falcon  (F,  peregrinuSy  issoUtary,  except  during  the  pairing  of  the  br^vil- 
Idnn.)  has  a  largo  and  round  head,  a  short  ing  season,  which  b  in  verjr  eariy  q>riag;  it  is 
thick  neck,  a  robost  body  broad  in  front,  stout  found  in  all  parts  of  the  Lnited  States  and  in 
short  tarn,  covered  with    imbricated   scales  Cuba,  coming  to  the  south  in  the  winter  months. 
laigest  in  front,  the  tibial  feathers  covering  the  The  nest  is  made  of  coarse  sticks,  generally  on 
knee,  long  and  strong  toes  and  shaq>  chws.  the  shelf  of  some  prccipitoas  rock ;  Aodabon  is 
The  plumage  is  compact  and  imbricated,  the  of  opinion  that  they  breed  in  the  United  States ; 
feathers  rounded  on  the  back,  broad  on  the  they  are  common  on  the  shores  of  lIadson*s  bay 
breast,  long  and  pointed  on  the  sides ;  between  and  arctic  America  in  the  summer,  acoordinr  to 
the  eye  and  bill  and  on  the  forehead  they  are  Richardson ;  the  eggs  are  rounded,  of  a  reddish 
brtotly.    The  bill  is  blackish  blue  at  the  tip  and  brown  color,  with  irregular  markings  d  a  dark- 
' )  green  at  tlie  base,  the  iris  hazel,  the  feet  er  tint    The  peregrine  falcon  is  diatribatcd 
^ht  yellow,  and  the  claws  black.    The  head  over  temperate  Europe,  where  the  coantry  is 
.  hind  neck  in  Uie  adult  nude  are  grayish  mountainous  and  the  sea   coast    prccipitooa. 
blaok  tinged  with  blue,  the  rest  of  the  upper  Tliis  bird,  when  in  full  plamago  and  good  coo- 
parts  daric  bluish  gray  with  indistinct  dark  ditiou,  for  its  compact  muscular  fiinn,  great 
Drown  bars ;  the  quills  dark  brown,  with  trans-  strength,  boldness,  and  ferocity,  may  be  taken 
verse  reddish  white  snots  on  the  inner  webs;  '  as  the  very  type  of  a  bird  of  prey ;  It  banoo; 
the  grayish  brown  tail  has  about  12  blackish  birds  what  the  lion  and  tiger  are  among  mam> 
bars,  diminbhing  in  breadth  and  intensity  from '  mab ;  fearless  in  attack,  swift  in  pomiit,  stmn^ 
the  tip;  the  throat  and  front  of  neck  white;  a^  and  cruel,  it  Justly  claims  the  first  rank  aaoa^ 
broad  triangular  mark  of  blackish  blue  extends  the  noble  birds  of  prey.    Before  the  inventida 
downward  on  the  white  of  the  cheeks  from  the  of  gunpowder,  these  birds  were  very  fr^ncnilv 
corner  of  the  mouth;  the  udes,  breast,  and  thighs  trained  to  pursue  herons  and  various  kind^  of 
are  reddbh  white,  with  transverse  dark  brown  game,  and  falconry  was  a  favorite  qwrt  of  kinp 
spots;  the  under  wing  feathers  are  whitisli,  and  nobles;  even  now  falcons  ar%i  occasioiuJlT 
with  transverse  darker  bars.    The  length  b  used  for  this  purpose  in  Great  Britain.    Birds 
about  16^  inches,  the  extent  of  wings  80,  bill  of  prey  have  been  trained  to  the  chaw  fn  = 
li,  tarsus  1^.  and  middle  toe  2}  inches.    In  old  remote  antiquity  ;  the  custom  is  mvntioc«d  ^  y 
males  the  tints  of  the  bock  become  lighter,  early  writers,  but  it  wa:*  not  till  the  time  of  II  > 
sometimes  ash-gray ;  the  young  nmlesaro  dark-  ber,  in  17S4,  that  the  distinction  bt'twc^^n  tir^l* 
er,  with  rufous  tii>s  and  edges  t4»  the  featliens  of  high  anil  low  flight,which  had  long  It^n  zz- 
and  the  tail  is  blacker,  with  reddis^h  white  tips  derstood  in  practice,  was  bhown  to  exist  in  il.i 
and  bars;  there  b  conftideraMe  variety  at  the  anatomical  structure  of  the  wiug^  and  tol-'Ov 
different  a^res  in  the  birds  of  the  United  States  The  falcons  belong  to  the  f<.>nnvr  dirl*;. :: , 
and  of  Europe.    The  adult  female,  as  in  bird^of  from  their  long  and  slender  and  e:itir^  v'.njf. 

Erey  generally,  b  nearly  ^  larger  than  the  male,  when  they  wi^h  to  ri^  in  the  air  vertical.; 

eing  about  20  inches  in  length,  3G  in  extent  of  the^*  are  obliged  to  fly  again>t  tlie  wind.  tU'UjL 

wings,  with  the  beak,  tarsus,  and  toes  longer;  the  obliquely  thev  ca:iily  uiuunt  to  ^v\t  rliti- 

color  of  the  upi>er  parts  b  deei>er  brown,  with  tion»,  wjiere  they  siH>rt  rapidly  in  all  direct>.i.i» . 

the  tips  of  the  secondaries  and  tail  whitish;  they   carry  the   head    straight;    thilr    tliv* 

tlie  traiisvcrso  markings  run  higher  np  on  the  are  long,  tfupple,  t>harp,   and  their    gri^p  :« 

broatt,  and  arc  broader  and  of  deeper  hue  on  firm;  they  «eize  their  prev  at  outx*  if  miuiI;  i:  \ 

tlie  other  Darts ;  the  color  iMrluw  is  more  yel-  plow,   but  ^trike  repeatetlly  with  their  Ll«<» 

lowish.  and  tlie  vvnt  feathers  are  reddish.     This  to  weaken  and  arre*<t  the  tliglit  of  hvavier  ar-l 

falcon,  which  b  also  called  the  great- ft K>ted  and  switU*r  binU  and  with  great  preci?iion  a:*.xl 

the  dock  hawk,  aci^rtling  to  Audubon,  was  the  vital  i>art  at  tlie  hollow  of  the  t»ai-k  of  t.S^ 

formerly  rare  in  the  Tuitetl  Statics,  which  it  head  or  bet  Wi*en  the  shoulder*  and  nl<k     TLi^s 

now  can  hardly  be  said  to  be.     It  flies  with  binls  have  been  caIKmI  rowers  frtim  tltcLr  ck^:o 

astonistiing  ra{>idity,  tuniing  in  its  course  in  the  of  flight.    The  ignoble  birds  of  pn-y.  a.«  the  j-'- 

most  surprbing  manner.     A  favorite  prey  is  the  hawk  and  t>ther  hawks«  are  callvtl  sailer* :  th-  r 

duck,  which  it  Meizes  on  the  wing,  on  thi*  surfai^e  win^  are  shorter  and  thicker,  with  tbrir  »-jrfi.-if 

of  tlie  water,  or  on  land ;  when  witliin  a  few  intvrrupted  by  tlioune«iual  lengtJi!^  of  the  i;^'.^ 

feet  of  it-i  victim,  it  stretcla-s  out  the  lejrs  and  ami  thi-y  fly  tu  best  advautagr  i^ith  the  v;::L 

clawf  and  dn»i)a  U|»oii  the  trembling  binl  almo?it  Killing  with  the  wings  extended  and  nM<k<Jk:^ 

pernendiculariy ;  if  lights  it  flieHoff  with  it  im-  allowiti;;  theni'^elve^  to  be  carricid  aluc^  bv  *.\< 

mediately  to  some  quiet  i»lm*e;  if  too  heavy,  it  wind;  tU'ir  taIon*»  Wing  nborter, le«*  |ii^i«<rfa^ 

kilb  aiMl  devours  it  in  tlie  neareiit  convenient  and  »traighter  th.<ui  in  the  falcun,  ihvy  <rXt 

place.     It  has  bei'n  known  to  attiu^k  a  malUird  witli  less  force  and  precbion,  and  whis  tltey 

aa  the  wing,  and  even  to  puunoe  upon  a  wound-  have  seixed  a  bird  or  a  quadruped  oooprcM  ix 


FALOON  405 

to  death  or  strangle  it  with  their  claws;  their  and  abdomen  are  often  spotted  and  lined  with 
beaks  are  not  toothed,  and  they  can  seldom  pen-  brown ;  the  npper  parts  have  the  centre  of  tiie 
etrate  the  skolls  of  the  larger  birds ;  tliey  pre-  feathers  hair-brown,  with  a  white  margin ;  the 
fer  to  hunt  in  thick  woods,  while  the  falcons  greater  coverts,  secondaries,  and  qniUs  are  bar- 
pursue  their  prey  high  in  the  air.  Falcons  and  red  with  brown  and  edged  with  white,  and  the 
hawks  are  best  trained  from  the  nest ;  they  have  2  central  feathers  of  the  otherwise  white  tail  are 
bells  attached  to  their  feet,  iesses  of  soft  leather  barred  with  brown ;  the  bill  is  pale  bluish  gray, 
to  the  tarsi,  and  hoods  on  the  head  which  pre-  with  the  npper  tooth  and  the  lower  notch 
Tent  them  from  seeing  while  they  allow  them  strongly  developed ;  the  legs  and  feet  are  color- 
to  eat ;  birds  taken  after  they  have  left  the  nest,  ed  like  the  bill.  Some  specimens  are  almost 
or  which  have  been  caaght  in  snares,  are  the  entirely  white.  The  length  is  from  20  to  24 
most  difficult  to  train,  and  confinement,  hunger,  inches,  the  extent  of  wings  a  little  over  4  feet, 
fktigQe,  and  purgatives  are  employed  to  sub-  the  bill  li  and  the  tarsus  2  indies;  accord- 
doe  them  to  a  point  necessary  for  lessons ;  they  ing  to  Audubon,  in  the  immature  state,  as  ob- 
are  taoght  to  leap  upon  the  hand  of  their  mas-  served  by  him  in  Labrador,  the  female,  though 
ter  to  receive  food,  which  is  placed  on  a  rude  the  longer  and  heavier  bird,  has  the  extent  of 
representation  of  the  bird  or  animal  which  they  wings  less  by  an  inch  than  the  male ;  the  weight 
are  to  be  tausht  to  pursue ;  from  an  effigy  they  of  the  male  is  a  few  ounces  less,  and  that  of  the 
are  advanced  to  living  animals,  with  more  or  female  a  few  ounces  more  than  8  lbs.  The 
fees  length  of  tether,  until  left  at  perfect  liberty,  form  is  that  of  a  very  powerful  bird,  the  tail 
The  larger  and  older  the  bird,  the  more  difficult  being  larger  in  proportion  than  that  of  the  pere- 
tbe  training,  and  the  most  ignoble  are  generally  grine,  and  the  tarsi  feathered  If  inches  down- 
the  most  rebellious;  in  the  order  of  docility  ward.  It  ranges  over  the  northern  regions  of 
these  birds  are  the  merlin,  the  hobby,  the  com-  Europe  and  America;  Iceland  is  one  of  its  &- 
mon  fidcon,  and  the  jerfalcon  (all  noble  birds),  vorite  resorts,  so  much  so  that  the  bird  has  re- 
and  the  ignoble  hawks  are  tiie  least  docile,  ceived  one  of  its  most  common  names  frt>m  this 
thon^  the  goshawk  is  said  to  be  very  easily  island ;  it  is  found  along  the  precipitous  shores 
trained.  They  are  fed  with  beef  and  mutton,  of  Norway  and  Sweden,  and  in  Greenland,  the 
deprived  of  all  fat  and  tendon,  and  scrupulously  arctic  regions,  and  the  Hudson's  bay  district,  ez- 
cmned  of  all  dirt ;  they  are  taught  to  pursue  tending  as  far  south  as  Labrador,  where  Audu- ' 
other  birds  of  prey,  the  heron,  ^e  crow,  the  bon  found  it  breeding ;  it  is  rare  in  Great  Brit- 
pie,  the  hare,  larks,  quails,  partridges,  and  other  ain,  and  is  a  northern  and  maritime  species, 
game.  Descriptions  of  the  lordly  sport  of  fol-  especially  frequent  near  the  breeding  places  of 
oonry  can  be  found  in  the  romances  of  Walter  sea  fowl.  In  manner,  flight,  and  cry,  it  resem- 
Scott  and  other  delineators  of  the  days  of  chiv-  bles  the  peregrine,  being  if  posdble  more  dar- 
aliT.  (See  FALcoysT.)  The  falcon  is  a  very  ing.  In  falconry  this  species  was  highly  prized, 
loz^lived  bird ;  there  is  a  tale  that  one  belong-  and  extraordinary  prices  were  formerly  paid  for 
ing  to  James  I.  in  1610,  with  a  gold  collar  bear-  them ;  they  were  brought  chiefly  from  Icelimd 
ing  that  date,  was  found  at  thecapeof  Grood  Hope  and  Norway.  There  is  still  mnch  uncertainty 
in  1798,  and  though  more  than  180  years  old,  was  about  the  varieties  of  this  bird;  naturalists 
said  to  be  possessed  ofconsidorable  vigor;  the  na-  generally  make  but  one  species,  but  the  ial- 
toral  term  of  life  of  this  species,  however,  must  coners  are  of  opinion  that  the  Iceland  and  the 
be  mnch  less  than  this.  As  an  example  of  their  Norway  birds  are  distinct  species;  if  the  latter 
speed,  may  be  mentioned  the  falcon  of  Henry  lY.  be  true,  the  American  bird  may  also  prove  dif- 
of  Finance,  which  flew  from  Fontainebleau  to  ferent  from  any  of  the  European  species.  Au- 
Malta,  1,000  miles,  in  a  day ;  and  manv  similar  dubon  describes  and  figures  a  pair  of  immature 
instances  are  on  record. — The  lanner  {F.  lanarivSj  birds  which  he  obtained  in  Labrador  in  August. 
Linn.)  seems  to  be  an  undoubted  species  of  north-  The  general  color  of  the  plumage  in  this  oondi- 
em  Europe  and  Asia,  and  intermediate  between  tion  is  brownish  gray  above,  tiie  feathers  hav- 
tbe  jerfalcon  and  the  peregrine ;  it  is  about  1^  feet  ing  a  narrow  paler  margin ;  the  upper  tail  cov- 
loDg,  with  wings  f  as  long  as  the  tful ;  its  colors  erts,  quills,  and  tail  are  tipped,  spotted,  and 
lesemble  those  of  the  young  peregrine,  and  the  barred  with  brownish  white;  the  throat  is 
name  even  has  been  applied  to  immature  birds  brownish  white,  with  6  streaks  of  brown,  and 
dtHuB  species;  but  Mr.  Gould  in  his  ** Birds  of  the  lower  parts  generally  are  of  the  former 
Europe^'  figures  and  describes  it  as  distinct.  It  color,  longitudinally  patched  with  dark  brown ; 
has  not  the  black  spot  on  the  cheeks,  and  the  the  under  tail  coverts  are  striped  alternately 
mridngs  of  the  breast  are  longitudinal  instead  brown  and  white.  The  female  has  the  same 
of  transverse ;  it  would  doubtless  be  a  superior  colors,  except  in  having  the  2  middle  tail  feath- 
1M  for  training. — ^The  Iceland  or  jerfalcon  (R  ers  spotted  with  white  like  the  others,  these  in 
fyi^Ubo,  Linn.)  is  the  largest  of  the  genus,  and  the  male  being  without  the  spots.  The  nest  found 
Tariea  much  in  its  appearance  at  different  ages,  by  Audubon  was  about  2  feet  in  diameter,  flat, 
In  the  adult  the  head  is  nearly  white,  the  fea-  made  of  sticks,  sea-weed,  and  mosses.  The  eggs, 
tiben  of  the  crown  having  hair-brown  shafts,  according  to  Mr.  Yarrell,  are  dull  white,  mot- 
tfaosa  of  the  nape  having  the  brown  more  ex-  tied  all  over  with  pale  reddish  brown.  They 
tculve ;  the  under  parts  are  white,  the  breast,  feed  in  Labrador  on  puffins,  grouse,  partridge^ 
tfii^b%  and  tail  coverts  pure  white,  but  the  sides  ducks,  hares,  and  other  anim^  of  this  nze,  and 


4M  FALOONSB  FALCONRY 

•ko  on  fish.    Mr.  Hancock  (^^  Annals  and  Mas-  at  tho  time  of  the  reTolatioo.    Nona  U  than, 

adne€MfNatnralHistoi7',"voi.ziiL,1854^p.llO;,  howcTer,  were  equal  in  merit  to  tlie  immense 

who  described  the  Greenland  Cslcon  {F.  Groin-  bronze  equestrian  statue  of  Peter  tha  Great, 

Imidieut^  Hanc)  as  a  cUstinct  species,  says  it  is  which  he  executed  at  St  Peteiaborg^  bj  order 

neTer  dark-oulored  like  the  young  of  the  Ice-  of  Catharine  11^  in  1776. 
land  faloon,  its  plumage  from  the  nest  being       FALCONRY,  tlie  art  of  trunlBg  falooos  or 

whiter  than  the  mature  livery  of  tho  latter,  and  other  birds  of  prey  for  the  chase,  the  iport  it* 

not  nnfVequently  as  white  as  that  of  the  adults  self  being  callea  in  English  hawking^  in  Trench 

of  its  own  species.    The  mature  Greenland  bird  le  vol    A  falconry  is  also  the  place  where  soch 

is  distinguished  from  the  young  by  the  cordate  birdsarekept  The  practice  of  hawking  is  of  very 

and  arrow-head  markings  of  the  back  and  scapu-  ancient  date  in  Eurooe,  and  of  yet  more  remote 

lars ;  the  young  have  above  large  oblons  spots,  antiquity  in  Asia.    Both  Asia  Minor  and  China 

with  long  narrow  dasliee  on  the  head  aod  lower  present  many  legends  concerning  iL    Pliny  has 

parts,  the  marking  from  dark  gray  becoming  been  thought  to  allude  to  a  custom  of  the  Thra- 

with  age  almost  Uack ;  the  cere,  feet,  and  toes  cians,  by  which  hawlu  were  employed  to  calch 

also  change  from  lif^ht  livid  blue  to  pale  yellow,  other  birds;  but  the  meaning  of  bis  words  is 

like  other  fslcons,  it  gets  the  mature  plumage  doubtful.    We  have  no  mention  of  it  among  ths 

at  the  first  moult  In  fact,  the  Greenland  fjidoon  Romans  till  after  the  time  of  Vespaaian.    It  wss 

nay  be  said  to  have  a  white  plumage  with  dork  certainly  in  existence  in  the  4th  and  6th  oentn- 

markings,  and  the  Iceland  bird  dark  plumage  ries.  In  Britain  it  appears  to  have  been  a  fiivoriia 

with  white  markings ;  whether  they  are  distinct  recreation  in  the  reign  of  Ethelbert,  kingof  Kent 

species  or  not  will  be  determined  by  the  defini-  A.  D.  7G0.    King  Alfred  had  hb  falecmen^  and 

tion  of  what  constitutes  specific  characters,  a  book  on  falconry  is  still  extant,  attributed  te 

Both  species  occur  in  America ;  the  Greenland  Edward  the  Confessor.  Harold  IL  u  represented 

bird  probably  does  not  breed  in  Iceland,  and  is  in  the  Rayoux  tapestry  as  visiting  the  ooort  of 

only  occasionally  seen  there,  driven  from  its  Duke  WUltam  of  Normandy  with  a  hawk  oa 

more  northern  haunts  by  severe  weather;  the  his  fist    The  Domesday  book  makes  freqosot 

Iceland  bird  sometimes  breeds  in  Greenland,  mention  of  falconries  and  eyries  for  breeding. 

The  weight  of  evidence  seems  to  be  in  favor  of  In  tho  time  of  Henry  IL,  William  Knot,  the 

these  biras  being  distinct  species. — Other  falcons,  king's  tenant,  paid  his  rent  at  the  exclieqncr  in 

which  have  been  trained  to  pursue  game,  are  Uie  8  hawks  and  8  Jerfalcons.    King  John  was  de> 

jff,  mMuUo  (Linn.),  JJ.  (B$alon  (Gmcl.),  and  7*.  voted  to  the  sport    GeoflVey  Fitzpeine  gave 

alaudarius  (Briss.),  which  will  be  described  re*  him  3  good  Norway  hawks  to  obtain  pcmu»- 

spectively  under  the  popular  names  of  IIobdt,  sion  for  a  friend  to  export  cheese.    Nicojai^  a 

Haauy,  and  Kkstrxl.  Dane,  was  to  give  the  lling  a  hawk  every  time 

FALCONER,  William,  a  Britbh  poet,  bom  he  came  trading  to  England.    A  Ivttor  of'ller.ry 

in  Edinburgh  in  1730,  died   by  shipwreck  in  III.  (1240)  to  the  king  of  Norway,  asking  biui 

Dec.  1709.     lie  was  the  son  of  a  barber,  and  for  hawks,  yet  remain*.     Frois«krt  ia>«  xhiX 

when  very  young,  having  received  but  the  first  when  Edwanl  III.  invaded  France,  he  wu  sr- 

rudiments  of  an  education,  was  sent  to  poo.    At  compauiod  by  30  mounted  falconers.     At  t!'.:s 

the  age  of  18  he  bocamo  second  mate  in  tho  time  it  was  felony  to  steal  a  liawk,  aod  tiklo^ 

Britannia,   which   was  shipwrecked   olf  Ca|K)  ibt  egj^  even  on  one^s  om*n  ground,  wns  pun- 

Colonna,  on  tlie  coast  of  Greece.     Falconer  was  islied  by  iinpri!t4>ninent  for  a  year  and  a  d^r. 

one  of  the  8  who  survived  the  wreck,  which  with  fine  al  the  kin^f^s  pleasure.     Elizal«:h  rt- 

afterward  became  Uie  subject  of  his  princip^d  dured  tho  term  of  imprisonment  to  3  months, 

poem,  the  ^  Shipwreck.^*     Thi.^  was  publi^lJcd  but  the  otfonder  was  compelled  to  find  s«:cah:y 

in  1TG2,  after  he  had  been  fur  a  time  a  diligent  for  7  years,  or  be  inipriauned  till  ho  died.    T^ 

student,  and  had  suffered  also  anotlier  disaster  fi|>ort  dictl  out  in  En);1.and  in  Uie  titns  of  ths 

at  sea.    Soon  alter  ward  Uie  duke  of  York  pro-  8tuart.H.     In  France,  falconry  wai  mcMt  pni> 

cunid  him  Uie  appointment  of  luidshipnisn  in  ti>od  in  tlie  time  of  Francis  l^  15I5-*47.     Ht 

Admiral  Ilawkesship,  theUoyal(ieorf;e,  which  was  tho  lir^t  wlio  oppointi'd  a  **  grand  fal<'oocf 

was  laid  up  in  1743.    Ho  now  marrie<l,  compiled  of  France;'*    tho    pre«leceM<irs  of  Uiat  fuoc- 

a**  Universal  Marino  Dictionary**  (rcpubli>hed  tionary  were  Bim|>1y  called  *' the  king's  falcxkc- 

in  1816,  enlarged  and  modernized  by  W.  Uur-  ors.**    Tho  grand  folonner  of  Francis  I.  h»i  aa 

ney,  LL.D.X  and  wrote  se%-eral   poems,  includ-  annual  revenue  of  4,0(J0florin^  and  had  on\r 

ing  a    political  satiru  directed  against    IajtH  him  50  gentlemen  and  50  fa!cunerv  the  « \^  .4 

Chatham,  Wilkes,  and  Churchill.    In  17G9  lio  establishment  costing  annually  40.000  lior:;.^ 

again  went  to  sea,  in  tho  frifrato  Aurora,  bound  Under  I^uis  XIV.  Uie  in>titution  wm  ret  c:-r« 

for  India,  which,  after  touching  at  Uio  cai>e  of  expensive.      I^uis   XVI.  tried  to  redoes  u« 

Good  lit »pe,  was  no vor  hoard  from  again.  ex])enso    of  tho   royal   falivnry,  bat    viUm;.; 

FALCt)KET,  Stikmnk  Mai-kics,  s  French  success;    bnt   finally  the  revolution  swept   .t 

sculptor,  bom  in  Paris  in  171(»,  died  in  171^1.  away.     In  (leruiany  Uio  M>ort  was  boooct^  la 

He  was  a  pupil  of  Lemoine,  and  early  gained  the  reign  of  tho  emperor  Frederic   lU  aod  i: 

distinction  byastatooof  Miloof  Cn.itona,  which  tho  14th  i*cntury  fiefs  calle<l  //.l^*cAC•^A#a,  cc 

opened  for  him  tho  doors  of  tho  academy  of  tho  hawk  tenures,  were  grant<*d  on  coiiditk>.i  nf 

fine  art&    3Uny  of  his  works  were  destroyed  payment  in  trained  hawks.    TIm  spurt  rvtaiatd 


FALCONBT  FALERNUS  AGEB      407 

its  odftenoe  in  Germany  till  toward  the  close  his  hack,'  and  with  his  beak  was  tearing  out  the 
d  the  18th  century.  In  Italy  falconry  was  a  animal*8  hair.  The  Kirghiz  sprang  from  his 
CiTorite  pastime,  and  every  student  of  Italian  horse,  slipped  the  hood  over  the  eagle's  head 
literatnre  most  remember  Boccaccio^s  tale  of  the  and  the  shackles  upon  his  leg&  and  removed 
"^  Falcon.*'  In  the  East,  the  Persians  areskil-  him  from  his  prey  without  difficulty.  The  keep- 
fol  in  training  falcons  to  hunt  all  manner  of  er  mounted  his  horse,  the  eagle  was  placed  on 
birds,  and  even  gazelles. — While  it  flourished  his  perch,  and  he  was  ready  for  another  flight 
in  Enrooe.  hawking  was  the  principal  amuse-  No  dogs  are  taken  out  when  hunting  with  the 
ment  of  lords  and  ladies.  Knights  courted  eagle,  as  they  would  be  destroyed ;  and  the  Kir- 
ladies  by  attention  in  the  hawking  field,  flying  ghiz  assert  that  he  will  attack  and  kill  the  woUl 
their  birds,  and  restoring  them  to  their  mis-  Foxes  are  also  hunted  in  this  way.  The  wild 
trenes'  wrists.  Herons  were  the  most  honora-  j^t  and  the  smaller  kinds  of  deer  are  also  taken 
bio  qoarry,  and  were  therefore  held  in  estima-  m  considerable  numbers. — Among  the  most 
tioQ  second  only  to  birds  of  prey.  A  knowl-  noted  treatises  on  falconry  is  one  written  by 
edge  of  the  management  of  hawks  was  an  Frederic  II.  of  Germany  (1209-'60),  annotated 
MSgntisl  piece  of  noble  education.  Quite  as  by  his  son  Manfred,  and  republished  with  several 
mnch  as  **to  winde  the  horn,"  it  was  neces-  other  treatises  by  J.  G.  Schneider  in  1788  (2 
saiy  to  know  a  hawk  fit>m  a  hemshaw.  The  vols.,  Leipsic).  Others  are:  the  famous  *^BoKe 
Toesbnlary  of  hawking  was  as  extensive  as  its  of  St  Albans,"  by  the  lady  Juliana  Bemers  (foL, 
ordiumoes,  and  several  of  its  terms  have  been  1481),  containing  the  **  Treatyses  perteynyng 
adopted  into  the  language.  Hawks'  legs  were  to  Hawkynge,  Iluntynge,  and  Fysshynge  with 
tbelrarms;  their  talons,  pounces;  wings,  sails;  an  Angle;"  Eieraco9ophwn^  tel  de  Se  AeH' 
the  long  leathers  of  the  wings,  beams ;  tail,  the  pitraria,  a  poem  in  8  books,  by  De  Thou  (1684^ ; 
train;  breastfeathers,  the  mails;  crop,  the  gorge.  La  fauconerie,  by  Charles  d'Esperon  (Pans, 
A  cover  for  the  bird's  head  was  the  hood.  1605) ;  Latham  on  *' Falconry"  (1615-'l 8).  The 
When  the  hawk  fluttered  to  escape,  it  bated ;  to  most  recent  works  on  the  subject  are  ^  Falconrr 
sleep  was  to  jouk ;  to  stretch  one  wing  back  in  the  British  Isles,"  by  Salvin  and  Brodridc 
was  to  mantle;  to  shake  itself  was  to  rouse;  to  (London,  1855),  and  ^'Falconir,  its  Claims^ 
recross  its  wings  a^n  was  to  warble ;  to  tear  History,  and  Practice,"  by  G.  E.  Freeman  (Lon- 
the  leathers  from  its  prey  was  to  plume;  to  don,  1859). 

raise  its  nrey  aloft  before  descending  was  to  FALERII.  an  ancient  city  of  Italy,  one  of  the 
trass;  to  descend  on  its  prey  was  to  stoop ;  to  12  Etruscan  cities,  situated  a  few  miles  W.  of 
fly  olf  after  crows  was  to  check.  A  living  prey  the  Tiber,  and  N.  of  Mount  Saracte.  It  was  the 
was  quarry ;  when  dead,  pelt.  Taming  a  bird  capital,  and  perhaps  the  only  city  of  the  Faliscl, 
was  oaJled  reclaiming,  by  the  French  affditage;  a  people  of  Pelasgic  origin,  whose  territory  ex- 
and  an  old,  stanch,  pattern  hawk  was  called  a  tended  from  the  Tiber  to  Lake  Vigo,  and  who  in 
make-hawk.  No  rank  was  excluded  from  the  the  early  ages  of  Rome  were  reckoned  among 
cqjojment  of  hawking,  but  each  condition  of  the  most  dangerous  enemies  of  the  republic.  It 
men  must  confine  themselves  to  their  peculiar  is  first  mentioned  in  Roman  history  i^  437  B.  Q^ 
grade  of  hawk  and  quarry.  As  the  hawk  tribe  when  the  Falisci  lent  their  support  to  the  Fide- 
do  not  breed  freely  in  captivity,  the  birds  of  nates,  who  had  revolted  against  Rome.  It  was 
d^asewere  either  taken  young  from  the  eyry,  or  besieged  by  the  Romans  in  894  B.  0.  The  in- 
were  caught  in  springes.  (See  Falcon.)  Vari-  habitants  were  said  to  have  been  at  length  in- 
OQS  attempts  have  been  made  in  England,  in  re-  duced  to  surrender  less  by  force  of  arms  ^an  by 
eent  times,  to  revive  the  sport  of  falconry,  but  the  example  of  tlie  Roman  general  Camillus, 
the  enclosure  of  farms,  equally  with  a  change  in  who  refused  to  profit  by  the  treason  of  a  school- 
pnblic  taste,  is  against  it.  The  sinecure  office  of,  master  that  proposed  to  deliver  up  to  him  the 
grand  Cilconer  of  England  is  hereditary  in  the  children  of  the  principal  men.  The  Falisci  rose 
nmilyof  theduke  of  St.  Albans. — Mr.  Atkinson,  in  rebellion  against  Rome  in  293,  and  again  in 
in  bis  work  on  "Oriental  and  Western  Siberia"  241,  when  they  were  punished  by  the  destrnc- 
(Loodon,  1858),  describes  a  species  of  falconry  in  tion  of  their  town.  The  inhabitants  were  re- 
nse  among  the  Kirghiz.  The  party  whom  he  ac-  moved  to  a  less  defensible  site,  where  a  colony 
eompani^  set  out  \\ith  an  eagle  and  a  falcon,  was  established  named  JunoniaFaliscorum,  from 
and  bad  not  gone  very  far  before  the  v  discovered  a  famous  temple  of  Juno.  The  latter  site  is  now 
ssreral  large  deer.  In  an  instant  the  eagle  was  occupied  only  by  a  farm  house  and  a  mined 
vnbooded,  and  his  shackles  removed,  when  he  church,  but  a  large  portion  of  the  ancient  walla, 
sprangfrom  his  perch,  and  soared  up  into  the  with  their  gates  and  towers,  still  exists. 
air.  Having  risen  to  a  considerable  height,  he  FALERNUS  AGER,  a  district  in  the  northern 
seemed  to  poise  himself  for  about  a  minute,  and  part  of  Gampania,  extending  from  the  Massican 
pring  S  or  8  flaps  with  his  wings,  swooped  off  hills  to  the  bank  of  the  Yultumus,  and  from 
m  a  straight  line  toward  his  prey.  He  went  which  the  ancient  Romans  obtained  one  of  tlieir 
vitb  great  rapidity ;  his  keepers  followed  him  choicest  wines.  The  Falemian  wine  was  red, 
at  foil  gaUop,  and  were  about  200  yards  off  very  spirituous,  and  most  powerful  when  fix>m 
when  tM  eagle  struck  his  proy.  The  deer  gave  15  to  20  years  old.  Its  excellence  is  celebrated 
a  boond  forward,  and  fell.  The  eagle  had  by  the  Roman  poets,  particularly  by  Horace, 
one  talon  in  his  neck,  and  the  other  into  It  was  declining  in  quality  in  the  time  of  Pliny, 


40g  FAUERI  PALELAND 

from  Hint  of  caro  in  the  cnltiraUon,  and  the  OTereame  all  the  diffiooltiea  with  wUdi  the 

Tinerards  disappeared  in  the  6th  century.  poverty  and  inioranoe  of  his  paraita  mrrooDded 

FALIEKI,  Mabiko,  66th  doge  of  Venice,  and  nim  in  early  life,  and  ho  entered  tlie  onlTenity 
the  most  celebrated  of  the  several  doges  of  the  of  Halle,  where  he  prodoced  sereral  satirical 
same  family,  bom  in  1274;,  beheaded  in  Venice,  poems,  which  attracted  the  notice  of  Wieland, 
April  17, 1*365.    In  1346  ho  rendered  eminent  who  introduced  him  into  the  literarr  circles  of 
senrioes  to  the  republio  as  commander-in-chief  Weimar.    After  Goethe*s  death  Falk  pobliihed 
at  the  siege  of  Zara,  in  Dalmatio,  where  he  an  account  of  his  personal  intercoone  with  him 
aehiered  a  victory  over  the  king  of  Hungary.  (Gdtheau$  ndhertm pen&nliekem  Umgamg^  dmr^ 
Bobaequentlv  he  was  Venetian  ambassador  at  ge$UUt^  2d  ed.,  Lcipsio,  1836).    A  aeleetioii  of 
Genoa  and  Komc.    In  1864  he  was  summoned  Falk^s  writings  appeared  in  1818i,  and  anew  col- 
hcnne  from  Rome,  and  called  upon,  although  lectionof  his  satirical  works  in  1836.    liewrode 
80  yean  old,  to  preside  as  doge  over  the  govern-  for  the  Tcutehenbuekf  or  *'  Album,**  of  which  he 
mant  of  Venice.     His   administration  began  was  the  editor,  an  article  on  the  ineflleieot  ca»- 
onder  sinister  auspices,  the  entire  Venetian  fleet  dition  of  the  hospitals  in  Berlin,  which  iodoosd 
of  61  vessels  being  within  a  month  captured  by  the  government  to  reform  them.    In  1813  fat 
the  Genoese,  with  a  loss  to  Uie  former  of  4,000  founded  at  Weimar  a  charitable  iostitotioB  fcr 
men  killed,  and  nearly  6,000  prisoners.    Hardly  the  education  of  poor  children,  which  bean  to 
had  the  new  doge  succeeded,  Jan.  6, 1356,  in  con-  this  day  Uie  name  of  Falki»eht9  JiutUmL 
eluding  a  4  months*  truce  with  Genoa,  when        FALKIRK,  a  municipal  and  parliamentary 
a  contest  broke  out  in  his  own  palace,  which  borough  of  Scotland,  in  the  ooonty  of  ikiritagi 
proved  fatal  to  himself.    A  youns  nobleman  on  a  commanding  eminence,  24  m.  W.  of  Edia- 
of  Venice,  Michele  Steno,  enamored  of  one  of  burgh ;  pop.  in  1851, 8,753.  It  haa  a  Una  pariib 
the  dogessa's  maids  of  lionor,  on  occasion  of  church,  several  churches  of  diasentiiiK  coofie. 
one  of  the  balls  given  during  carnival  at  the  gations,  and  23  schools,  attended  by  1.1«}0  pa- 
palace,  took  liberties  with  the  young  lady  which,  pils.     There  are  in  Falkirk,  and  in  the  cop- 
althongh  excusable  under  tlie  excitement  of  tlie  nected  vilhiges  of  Grahamstoo,  Balnirfanl,  and 
ieaaoB,  gave  umbrage  to  the  doge,  who  was  a  Carron,  printing  establishments,  tanaerias,  brew- 
man  of  great  irascibility  of  disposition,  and  who  erios,  a  manu&ctory  of  pyroligoeona  acid,  the 
ordered  Steno  to  leave  the  palace.    The  young  immense  iron  worlu  of  Carron,  a  fotuidery  cm- 
man,  exasperated  by  this  treatment,  avenged  it  ploying  500  men,  and  branches  of  the  banks  of 
hj  writing  upon  the  chair  of  the  doge  the  fol-  Scotland  and  of  England.    Its  chief  celebrity, 
lowing  words:  Marino  FalUridallahella  moglie^  however,  is  due  to  its  cattle  fairs,  the  most  im- 
altri  la  gode  ed  egli  U  mantiene  ('*  Marino  Fa-  portant  in  Scotland,  which  tsko  place  annual! v 
lieri's  beautiful  wife  is  supported  by  him,  but  m  A ngn»t,  September,  and  October,  each  lA<:n* 
enjoyed  by  others*').    The  tiogeV  wrnth  know  no  from  2  days  to  a  week.    Tlio  lost  if  tlie  Luvv< 
bounds,  and  as  the  senate  anil  the  councils  of  the  3.    Thesto  tryU^  as  the  Si-otA  call  tL« 
refused  to  treat  the  atl'air  as  a  quvstion  of  fairs,  have  flourished    niuro  tlian  2iX)   tmtv 
state,  and  the  criminal  ccnirt  Fontencod  Steno  Falkirk  was  a  place  of  note  in  tlie  llthcentorr. 
to  only  a  brief  tonn  of  imprisonment  and  a  The  ancient  parish  church,  built  by  MaloNrs 
year*s    exile,  ho    determined    to    wreak   von-  Canmore  in  lo57,  was  domolislied  in  l*«lo  tj 
geance  by  exterminatint;  tho  whole  body  of  the  give  place  to  the  present  one.     Here  Edwanl  I. 
nobility,  who  were  hute«l  by  the  populace  as  in  12l)8  conquered  William    Wallac^e,  and  ia 
tyrants.    The  day  flxcnl  for  the  consummation  1746  tlie  young  pretender,  I'harles  Edwani,<!c- 
of  this  design  was  April  15,  1355,  but  the  con-  feated  the  EiucliDh  army  under  (icn.  lUwIer. 
spiracy  was  discovered  on  the  evening  previous ;  Fonnorly  the  Scutch  baf^ii»e  pUyeri  liad  an  an- 
the  doge  was  arrested,  and  after  a  full  cunfe«sion  nual  assembly  at  Falkirk. 
of  his  fTuilt,  he  was  sentenced  to  death  and  bo-        FALKLAND,  a  royal  bomugh  of  Scotland, 
headed  upon  the  great  stairs  of  the  ducal  pal-  in  the  county  of  Fife,  at  tlie  fout  k.*(  EaM  Lcm* 
ace.     As  soon  as  his  head  had  fallen,  tho  pres-  ond  hill,  22  m.  N.  of  Edinburgh  ;  |»op.  in  IV 1. 
ident  of  the  ctmncil  of  ten  stepped  uj^m  tho  1,330.     It  is  an  4)ld  town,  conststinic  m^wtW  x4% 
balcony,  brandishing  a  bltxKl-stainiHl  sword  in  sin;;le  stri^ct,  ill  bnilt,  and  so  ctMnmanded  by  the 
his  hand,  and  exclaiming  that  justice  liad  been  Ix>mond  hill  tliat  the  sun  never  shines  n\*^  i; 
eiecuted  upon  a  great  culpriL     In  the  council  in  tho  winter.     Its  myal  castle  waa  an  aoi  ient 
ball  of  the  {lalaoe,  where  the  purt raits  of  the  fortress  of  the  MacduflT^  but  was  forfeiivd  to 
dogesof  Venice  are  relipously  preserved,  a  Mock  the  cn>wn  in  1424,  and  became  a  fk^onte  rrn- 
drapery  covers  tho  s})ot  intended  for  that  of  dezvous  of  the  kings  of  Scotland  on  hent.nc 
Falieri,  bearing  the  ominous  inscription :  «s/xtfio  excursions.      James  V.  and  VI.  enlarp^ni  &5^: 
di  JiarhiO  FtilUriy  d<^/ipito.     Tho  fate  of  tlie  emliellishe«l  it.     Cromwell  ruined  the  peri  z*^* 
doge  has  been  a  favorite  themo  with  i>oot'«.  get  timber  for  a  fort  at  Perth.     The  pelece  «u 
Byron  made  it  the  subje<*t  of  a  tropxly,  in  the  held  by  tho  famous  Itob  ltt>y  in  1715l     1>.:* 
notes  to  which  a  full  account  is  ;;iveu  of  llie  town  ^\ve*  the  title  of  viscount  to  the  En^..i^ 
historv  of  FalierL  familv  of  Carv. 

FALK,  JouAX!f  I>A!ciKL,  a  (terman  philan-        FALKL.\NI>,    Amkija    FrrzciAKx^cx    v-.«- 

thropist  and  author,  U>m  at  Ihuitxic  in  1708,  counte>8,  an  English  authoress,  bum  Not.  ^ 

died  Feb.  li,  lb26.    Uis  passion  fur  knowledge  1808,  died  in  London,  July  8,  185d.    She  was 


FALKLAND  409 

the  jtmngest  of  the  5  daughters  of  William  IV.  fihort  parliament,  io  April,  1640,  for  Newport, 
bj  Mrs.  Jordan,  and  was  married,  Dec.  7,  1880,  Isle  of  Wight  He  was  elected  to  the  long  par- 
to  Visconnt  Falkland.  She  was  a  lady  of  consider-  liament  from  Newport,  and  shared  deeply  in  the 
able  literary  attainment.  Her  last  work,  ^  Oho  w-  determination  to  establish  the  government  on 
chow/'  appeared  shortly  before  her  death.  a  constitutional  basis.  When  the  impeachment 
FALKLAND,  Lucius  Cast,  viscount,  an  of  the  earl  of  Strafford  was  proposed,  however, 
Kngjiah  politician  and  man  of  letters,  bom  in  he  wished  the  house  to  proceed  with  delibera- 
Bnribrd,  Oxfordshire,  in  1610,  killed  Sept  20,  tion ;  but  the  country  party  knew  that  to  give 
164S.  His  father,  Sir  Henry  Gary,  who  was  the  earl  time  was  to  give  him  victory,  and  hence 
made  Viscoant  Falkland  in  the  peerage  of  Scot-  Falkland's  proposition  was  not  entertained. 
land  in  1620,  held  various  offices  under  James  Falkland  was  a  strenuous  advocate  of  the  bill 
If  among  which  was  that  of  lord  deputy  of  of  attainder,  even  when  it  was  opposed  by 
Ireland,  which  caused  Lucius  to  commence  his  Pym  and  Hampden,  who  preferred  proceeding 
edocation  at  Trinity  college,  Dublin,  where  he  by  impeachment.  He  moved  the  impeachment 
acquired  a  thorough  knowledge  of  Latin  and  of  the  lord  keeper  Fmch.  He  distinguished 
Fbeneh.  Returning  to  England  at  18^he  studied  himself  in  the  attacks  that  were  made  on  ship 
at  St.  John's  college,  Cambridge.  When  only  money,  and  en  the  judges  who  had  pronounced 
19  he  was  imprisoned  by  order  of  the  privy  the  levying  of  it  legal ;  and  in  those  which  were 
eooneil,  becanse  he  had  warmly  resented  his  re-  directed  against  the  church.  Indeed,  from  his 
movml  from  command  of  a  company ;  but  his  first  actions  and  words,  he  seemed  to  be  as 
imprisomnent  lasted  only  a  few  days.  At  the  thorough  a  reformer  as  tne  most  eminent  mem- 
nme  age  he  came  into  possession  of  the  estate  hers  of  the  country  party ;  and  his  change  of 
of  luB  maternal  grandmother,  wife  of  Chief  position  will  ever  furnish  matter  for  historical 
Baron  Tanfield,  worth  above  £2,000  i>er  annum,  students  to  discuss.  Mocaulay  attributes  his 
He  married  Letitia  Morrison,  a  marriage  that  change  to  fastidiousness,  which  caused  him  to 
^ve  bia  fSUher  much  offence,  as  the  lady's  for-  find  reasons  against  any  cause  that  he  espoused. 
tone  was  amall.  Ho  visited  Holland,  with  the  Forster  thinks  it  was  owing  to  his  quickness, 
view  of  entering  upon  a  military  life ;  but  ho  impetuosity,  and  impatience,  and  says  his  spirit 
did  not  socoeed,  ana  returned  to  England,  where  was  in  all  things  too  much  on  the  surface.  His 
he  sobstitated  letters  for  arms.  Taking  up  his  fnend  Hyde  mentions  his  ^^  notable  vivacity ;" 
residenee  at  Great  Tew,  a  few  miles  from  Ox-  and  he  never  did  things  by  halves.  Be  the 
ford,  he  began  a  severe  course  of  study,  resolv-  cause  what  it  may,  ho  lefl  the  reform  party,  and 
ing  not  to  visit  London  until  he  had  acquired  he  who  had  said  the  bishops  were  stark  mad, 
Greek.  The  death  of  his  father  in  1683,  by  and  therefore  should  be  sent  to  Bedlam,  was 
wluch  he  became  Lord  Falkland,  forced  him  to  soon  heard  to  complain  that  they  who  hated  the 
break  his  resolution,  as  he  had  to  visit  the  ca\y-  bishops  hated  them  worse  than  the  devil,  and 
ical  on  business.  His  fortune  was  not  increased,  they  who  loved  them  did  not  love  them  so  well 
the  family  estate  being  mortgaged  to  its  fall  as  their  dinners.  Mr.  Forster  expresses  tlie 
value.  Resuming  his  country  life,  which  he  opinion  that  Falkland  was  far  more  an  apostato 
oootinned  for  6  years  longer,  he  had  for  his  as-  thon  Strafford,  inasmuch  as  his  heart  was  really 
lociates  learned  men  from  Oxford,  and  others  with  the  parliament  from  the  first,  which  Straf- 
from  London.  His  house  was  as  free  to  them  ford's  never  was ;  and  that  he  desired  peace  so 
as  to  him.^lf,  and  it  is  stated  that  they  requir-  ardently  only  because  he  was  by  no  means  de- 
ed no  invitation  to  take  possession  of  the  apart-  voted  to  the  cause  for  which  he  fought.  In  the 
Dents  regarded  as  tlieir  own.  To  those  who  memorable  debate  on  the  Grand  Remonstrance, 
needed  aasistanoe  Falkland  readily  afforded  it,  "Falkland  was  the  second  speaker,  following 
and  in  the  most  delicate  manner,  and  it  was  just-  Hyde,  and  against  the  remonstrance.  His  course 
lymad  that  he  seemed  to  hold  his  estate  in  trust  on  this  occasion,  with  his  earlier  opposition  to 
^  for  worthy  persons  who  needed  assistance,  as  the  abolition  of  the  church,  had  tue  effect  of 
Ben  Jonson  and  others."  Among  his  friends  leading  the  king  to  make  him  the  offer  of  the 
wtn  Cbillingworth,  Waller,  Edward  Hyde,  post  of  secretary  of  state,  which  he  accepted, 
Cov]^  Sandys,  Morley,  Sheldon,  Hammond,  Sir  J.  Colepepper  being  made  chancellor  of  the 
John  Halea,  and  Sir  F.  Wenman.  It  was  at  exchequer.  To  them  and  to  Hyde  he  committed 
Great  Tew  that  Cbillingworth  wrote  his  book  his  affairs,  and  they  wished  to  govern  constitu- 
igainst  the  Jesuit  Nott,  and  in  the  society  there  tionally,  and  would  have  done  so  but  for  the 
ito  points  were  debated,  he  sometimes  giving  kinghimself,  who  broke  his  pledge  to  tliem  when 
waj  to  the  judgment  of  his  friends.  Falkland  he  sought  to  arrest  the  5  members.  Of  the  ex- 
vroCe  himself,  both  in  prose  and  verse.  He  act  part  which  Falkland  had  in  the  government 
ita£ed  theology  deeply,  and  occurrences  in  his  scarcely  any  thing  is  known,  but  he  and  his  two 
owm  fiunily  led  him  to  publish  a  ^^  Discourse  of  associates  began  to  receive  marks  of  hostility  in 
tlie  InfoUibOity  of  the  Church  of  Rome."  He  the  commons,  and  there  was  a  plan  formed  to 
wia  tlie  author  of  other  works,  now  little  seize  them,  which  they  prevented  by  never  bo- 
knowD.  In  1689  he  Joined  the  anny  with  ing  all  present  there  at  the  same  time.  Falkland 
wluch  Oharles  I.  meant  to  fasten  Episcopacy  wrote  the  royal  answer  to  the  parliament's  19 
upon  Scotland,  but  had  no  opportunity  to  distin-  propositions,  and  then  joined  the  king  at  York. 
gnidi  bimseUL    He  was  chosen  a  member  of  the  He  signed  the  king's  declaration  that  he  did  not 


410  FALKLAND  ISLANDS  FALL  BIVXB 

mean  to  mako  war  on  the  parliament,  which  sharp  fragments,  and  disposed  in  lerel  sbai 

was  as  sincere  on  liis  part  as  it  was  false  on  that  streams  like  rivers  of  stooe.    Sandstone 

of  the  monarch.  The  8  ministers  advised  Charles  clay  slate  also  occur.    The  soil  of  nch  poi 

to  return  to  London,  and  to  appear  in  parlia-  as  have  been  explored  is  mo«dj  peat  or  i 

ment  before  he  could  be  expected;  but  he  would  clay  covered  thinly  with  Tegetable  mould, 

go  DO  furUier  than  to  allow  a  second  message  to  %'aueys  of  the  streams  are  exceedingly 

be  sent  to  London,  one  of  the  bearers  of  which  The  climate  is  like  that  of  En^and,  Uit 

was   FoJkland.      Shortly  afterward    Falkland  equable.    The  temperature  of  summer  r 

was  removed  from  tho  commons,  and  placed  on  from  45^  to  70^  F.,  and  that  of  winter  froc 

the  list  of  those  whom  tho  parliamentary  com-  to  50**  F.    Tlie  mean  temperature  of  the  y 

mander  was  ordered  to  exclude  from  mercy.  47**.    Severe  and  destructive  aoow  stom 

He  behaved  with  gallantry  at  the  battle  of  occasionally  experienced.    There  are  no 

£<lgehill,  and  hod  his  advice  been  taken  tlie  king  on  the  islands.    The  must  important  prodo 

would  have  won  a  complete  victory.    In  some  b  grass,  which  grows  to  a  great  length  ant! 

negutiations  that  followed,  ho  labored  earnestly  sesscs  remarkably  nutritious  pronerties.    ^ 

for  peace.  The  campaign  of  1643  was  for  a  long  riety  called  tussock,  much  pnzca  by  graxk 

time  favorable  to  the  king,  and  Falkland  ac-  now  becoming  scarce.    Three  or  four  kin* 

companicd  him  to  Bristol,  and  thence  to  the  bushes  are  found ;  the  common  garden  v< 

siege  of  Gloucester.      Ho   recklensly  exposed  bles  of  England  thrive ;  barler  and  oati  an 

himself  to  the  enemy ^s  fire,  and  perhaps  courted  tivated,  but  wheat  is  raised  with  difB< 

death.    The  advance  of  the  parliamentary  army  The  fauna  comprises  the  warrah  or  wuU 

compelled  the  king  to  raise  tho  siege.    In  the  which  is  peculiar  to  this  archipelago,  a 

first  battle  of  Newbury,  Falkland  placed  him-  the  only  quadruped  indigenoos  to  the  is] 

self  at  tho  head  of  Sir  John  Byron's  n»imont.  Other  animals  have  been  left  liere  by  Enrofi 

Receiving  an  order  to  charge  a  bo<Iy  of  foot,  ho  and  the  number  of  wild  cattle  sprung  from 

advanced  between  hedges  lined  with  musketeers,  thus  introduced  in  £a.«t  Falkland  alone  it 

and  received  a  ball  in  tho  stomach,  from  which  mated  at  85,000  or  40,000.    Horses,  sheep, 

he  died  iuAtantly.  The  body  was  found  the  next  hogs,  rabbits,  seals  and  wild  fowl  are  f 

day,  and  buried  in  Great  Tow  church.    He  left  and  many  French  and  American  rasaeUar 

a  wife  and  8  sons.     Among  the  best  works  ployed  in  whaling  off  tho  W.  coast  of  W. 

which  treat  of  him  is  Forster*s  ^  Historical  and  land.     There  is  little  commerce,  the  ei 

Biographictd  Essays"  (lA)ndon,  1858).  consisting  of  hides,  tallow,  salted  beeC  seal  i 

FALKLAND  ISLANDS  (Fr.  Jf<i/0i<in/«;  Sp.  and  fisli  oil,  and  the  imports  of  timber, 

J/a/rimu),  a  group  in  the  S.  Atlantic,  belong-  bricks,  flour,  sugar,  cotfoe,  and  Hriti»hmaii 

ing  to  (iront  Britain,  and  consisting  of  about  200  tured  gootU.     The  value  of  irniHiri^  in  !<% 

i&land^  oOO  ni.  E.  from  the  outramo  to  tlio  iil^lO*),  amlof  oxi>ortsXlf*,tUHi.     Tho  fi^l 

strait  of  Ma^iellnn,  between  lal.  51"  oml  53*"  S.,  and  tho  giiano  dciKi^iiH  on  W.  Kalklnr-l  ar« 

lonjr.  57^  and  02"'  \V.;  ari^a,  ulK>iit  r»,OUO  sq.  ni. ;  Rderablc  soiiroi**  of  wealth.     A  l*r:ii*li  r- 

pop.  iu  l*<'t'K  42m.     All  but  two  arc  very  small,  called  t^innlcy  has  Imcn  v«'taMi*iittl  a:  '.'..o 

East  Falkland  irial>out  90  m.  long,  40m.  broad,  of  Port  William  inlet  on  the  N.  K  *- ".v-: 

and  8JM.I0  s«j.  m.  in  area:  West  Falkland,  st|>a-  Falkland.     It  h:w  an  excellent  harl-.r.  s 

rated  from  tlie  fiirin.T  !»y  a  channel  from  2^  to  tho  only  settlement  in  tho  inhoJe  gr*  ijp 

IS  III.  wide,  e.illed  F.ilklandstniiul,  is  80  ni.  lonp,  main  objcet  of  the  Kritish  iroVtfrnt;i«r.i  m 

25  m.   bn.ad,  and  nho'it  2,000  m].  m.  in  nro:u  in;*  up  the  est^iliiishment  hero  i-*  to  a:r>rx! 

Tho  otlur   prineip.ll   inlands  are  <ireat  Swan,  a  place  of  c.ill  for  water  and  fr\r-ii  jr.  i» 

Saunders,  IVhhle.  Kepju'l,  Einrle,  We<hlell,   and  In  Is-'iri.  53  vessels  lOof  whirh  won?  A~f 

Lively.     The  cociNts  arc  very  irregular,  in  some  uud  40  Hrilish,  tt»uihed  at  tho  in.rt-     1 1.«- 1» 

Iilaeos  r»M»ky  and    proeipilou:!,   in  others   low.  were  discovered  by  Jolm  I  »av is  A u:r   14. 

(av't  and  iuK-tM  arc  numerous  and  East  and  West  and  were  vi>itcd  by  Sin»n^  in  1  •*•.•«».  «  :.o  f 

Falkland  aro  ni^arly  divided  by  several  deej»  in-  tho  wiund  monlionc*!  nlK»vo  F.dkUnfi  &a^ 

dentatioUH.     There  are  few  rivers*,  tho  S.in  Car-  inlands  afterward  t(H»k  the  i»aino  r:arr 

lu^  oO  III.  lonir,  diNrharpinp  itM'lf  ulf  the  X.  W.  French   pLinted  a  rnlony  on    It  rki  !ot  •l 

coast  of  Eant  FjUkland,  Wing  the  l;fr;:e'-t.     There  East  Falkland,  in  ITtU,  atul  the  En^'.l*:.  » 

are  m.iny  ln-».h  water  piinds  and  l'n»oks.  ,  Tho  Jished  themM'lvei  at  Port  Epuou:^  Wr<  1 

surfaeo  of  tlio  i«>lan<!s  i**  broken  l»y  ri<!j:esof  Meak  land,  2  years  later.     1  he  Freneh  ia  IT'T  r 

hilli,  tho  highest  of  which  nro  iu  E:tst  Falkland,  their  settlement  to  the  S|ianiarda,  «i.'.>  J 

tlioujch  tho  average  elevation  of  W'k-^I  Falkland  away  tho  En^li<«h  in  1770.     They  aftvr«s.-t 

is  irreater  than  that  of  tho  former.     M«>unt  l'-*-  Hored  I\»rt   E;;mont  to  the  liriii->h.  a%!  • 

borne,  oneof  tho  Wi«-kham  hiiU,  in  tito  E.  ii^l.nnd,  time  later  the  i^Undn  wore  abacdono!  \}  1 

i*  2.3«H)  feel    nl»<»\o  tho  si*a;    tho  i>tlier  sum-  parties.     HuentH  Ayrcs  took  fio^tfcftsioa  ls'! 

mit«i  are  from  wk>  to  2.inJi)  fvit  hidi.  Tho  conn-  Falkland  iu  1>20  and  founded  a  colon*  tStf 

try  »outh  of  tho  Wirkham  hilU  i-*  a  level  plain.  \i<'2<),  but  suboi-quontly  (;avo  it  up  to li:«  !»n: 
The  whole  tv-\*vcl  of  tlio  priniji  i*  dreary  and         FALL  OF  liOliIES.     See  liaAvmr 
uninvitin;:.     Tho  romm<»ne«'t  ^:enl»i;;ir:il  forma-         FAl.l.  IJlVKlt,  a  eity  and  pi-rt  i  f  rr^"? 

ti«»n  U   ^iMariz,  whieh  iu   w»Tno  plan-s  is   >ern  iJri^tol  eo.,  M:ix<..  *ituaied  on  Mount  lb  j*! 

Covering  the  bottoms  uf  the  volleys,  broken  into  au  arm  of  Narra{;an?<'l  bay,  at  the  ni*jaib 


lALLBIVEB 


FALLOPPIO 


411 


on  riTer,  S3  m.  S.  S.  W.  from  Boston ; 
1  1855^  18,680.  Fall  river,  from  which 
imed,  18  a  small  stream  rising  in  a  chain 
ids  connected  by  a  narrow  channel,  and 
Dg  AD  area  of  5,000  acres.  They  lie  about 
rom  the  bay,  and  receive  the  outlets  of 
I  other  sheets  of  water  which  embrace 
%  of  2,000  acres  more.  The  river  which 
I  off  the  overflow  of  these  ponds  has  a 
t  of  180  feet  in  less  than  half  a  mile,  and 
he  Tannton  near  its  mouth.  Its  remark- 
iTintages  as  a  mill  stream  have  been  in- 
1  by  building  a  dam  at  the  outlet  of  the 
which  gives  the  water  an  additional 
aboat  2  feeL  and  its  lower  banks  are  en- 
tmUt  up  with  manufactories.  The  water 
never  fails,  and  damage  is  rarely  if  ever 
yj  freshets.  The  city  stands  on  high 
If  with  well  shaded  streets,  handsome 
i«i,  and  many  granite  buildings,  the  stone 
obtained  from  Targe  quarries  in  the  neigh- 
id.  The  granite  is  of  excellent  quality, 
IS  used  in  constructing  the  fortifications 
rport.  The  city  is  lighted  with  gas,  and 
91,  beside  a  hanosome  sranite  town  house 
tfket,  contained  18  churches  ^2  Baptist, 
istian,  2  Congregational,  1  Episcopalian, 
iwill  Baptist,  1  Friends',  8  Methodist,  1 
rterian,  1  Roman  Catholic,  1  Swedenbor- 
.  Unitarian,  and  1  Universalist),  a  high 
,  an  athensdum,  2  weekly  newspaper  of- 
t  banks  with  an  aggregate  capital  of  $1,- 
0,  and  2  savings  banks.  It  is  eminently 
niacturing  place,  its  industrial  activity 
devoted  chiefly  to  the  production  of  cot- 
iienaj>rinted  calicoes,  iron  ware,  and  ma- 
y.  The  following  table  shows  the  state 
lofiictures  in  1855 : 


1^ 

e  a. 

1,711 

850 

&50 

424 

150 

7 

80 

10 

M 

10 

8,503 


jidfotUmjArn, 
dated 


It,  Iron,  and  calls 
■7 


^■^»  •  •  •  • 


u 

VdMof 

il 

■wumCM- 

Capful. 

8 

tona. 

$1,229,250 

$1^65,000 

1,880,000 

280,000 

240,000 

865.000 

781.600 

855,000 

200.000 

106,000 

14,000 

6,000 

24  000 

18,000 

60,000 

7,500 

670  000 

150,000 

15,000 

40,000 

85 
62 

28J,$<J0 

79,650 

$4,786,740 

$2,716,050 

abliahment  for  the  manufacture  of  cnam- 
doth  was  commencc<l  in  1857,  with  a 
.  of  f26,000.  Ship-building  is  carried  on 
nan  extent,  and  during  the  year  ending 
A,  1868,  4  vessels  were  launched,  having 
nglte  bnrden  of  638  tons.  The  harbor, 
I  at  the  month  of  Taunton  river,  is  safe, 
idiona.  easy  of  access,  and  deep  enough 
i^  of  the  largest  class.  It  was  at  one 
1  eontempla^ion  to  make  it  the  site  of  a 
■Mnt  diy  dock  and  naval  depot.  The 
•«dL  enrolled,  and  licensed  tonnage  of 
1%  ^ue  80, 1858,  was  14,598,  of  which 


6,991  tons  were  employed  in  steam  navigation, 
13,721  tons  w^ere  engaged  in  the  coasting  trade, 
and  46  in  the  cod  fishery.  The  foreign  com- 
merce during  the  same  year  was  as  follows : 
vessels  entered,  87,  tonnage  6,841;  vessels 
cleared,  19,  tonnage  8,896 ;  value  of  imports, 
$30,213;  value  of  exports,  $5,788.  A  daily 
line  of  steamers  connects  Fall  River  with  New- 
port, Providence,  and  New  York,  and  the  Old 
Colony  and  Fall  River  railroad  gives  it  com- 
munication with  Boston.  Fidl  River  was  for- 
merly a  part  of  Freetown,  and  was  incorporated 
as  a  separate  township  about  1802.  Its  name 
was  soon  after  changed  to  Troy,  but  in  1884 
its  old  appellation  was  restored.  It  received  a 
city  charter  in  April,  1854. 

FALLING  STARS.    See  Mxtsobs. 

FALLMERAYER,  Phiupp  Jakob,  a  Ger- 
man  historian  and  traveller,  born  in  TsohOtsch, 
near  Brizen,  in  the  Tyrol,  Dea  10, 1791,  serv- 
ed as  a  sub-lieutenant  in  the  Napoleonic  wars 
of  1818-*15,  after  which  ho  became  a  profes- 
sor at  the  college  of  Augsburg  and  the  ly- 
ceum  at  Landshut  From  1881  to  1886  he 
travelled  in  the  Orient,  resided  in  the  southern 
part  of  France  for  4  years,  made  a  second  tour 
through  Asia  Minor  in  1840,' published  the  re- 
sults of  his  ethnological  and  liistorical  research- 
es in  FragmenU  au9  dem  Oriente  (2  vols.,  Stutt- 
gart, 1846),  visited  Palestine  and  Syria  in  1847, 
was  a  member  of  the  German  parliament  in 
1848,  obtained  a  professorship  at  the  university 
of  Munich,  but  was  dismissed  in  1849  on  ac- 
count of  his  liberal  views,  and  has  since  then 
led  a  retired  life  at  Munich.  The  most  impor- 
tant of  his  historical  writings  are :  Oeschichte 
dea  KaiitrthurM  Trapezunt^  "  History  of  tlie 
Empire  of  Trebizond"  (Munich,  1831),  and 
GeschiehU  der  Ealbinul  morea  im  MitUlalteVy 
"  History  of  the  Peninsula  of  Morea  during  the 
Middle  Ages"  (2  vols.,  Stuttgart,  1830-'36).  In 
this  work  he  maintains  that  the  present  inhabi- 
tants of  Greece  have  little  or  no  affinity  of  race 
with  the  ancient  Hellenes,  but  are  chiefly  a 
branch  of  the  Slavic  family.  Many  of  his  essays 
published  in  the  Augsburg  Allgemeine  Zeitung 
belong  to  the  best  writings  of  their  kind  which 
have  ever  appeared  in  Germany.  His  works 
exhibit  a  rare  combination  of  profound  scholar- 
ship and  philosophical  depth  with  the  faculty 
of  presenting  the  results  of  scientific  researches 
in  a  perspicuous  and  graceful  form. 

FALLOPPIO,  or  Fallopitts,  Gabrtello,  an 
Italian  anatomist,  born  in  Modena  about  1528, 
died  in  1562.  He  was  one  of  the  3  naturalists 
who,  according  to  Cuvier,  contributed  to  the  re- 
vival of  the  study  of  anatomy  in  the  16th  cen- 
tury, the  other  2  being  Vesalius  and  Eustachi. 
He  w<is  a  pupil  of  Vesalius,  and  after  travelling 
through  the  various  countries  of  Europe,  he 
was  for  a  time  professor  of  anatomy  at  Ferrara, 
and  after^-ard  for  several  years  at  Pisa.  In 
1551  he  was  appointed  to  succee<l  Vesalius  as 
professor  of  anatomy  and  surgery  at  the  uni- 
versity of  Padua,  where  he  also  devoted  him- 
self to  the  study  of  botany,  and  became  director 


412                   FALLOUX  FALSE  DIFRIBOiniERT 

of  the  botftnical  garden.    lie  published  in  1561  nel,  at  the  mouth  of  the  river  Fal,  45  in.  S. 

hU  principal  work,  entitled  OMfrrationei  Ana-  Plymouth ;  pop.  in  1S51, 4,1N^     It  la  bull 

t0mic<r^  which  wits  one  of  tlie  best  anatomical  8teep  acclivity,  reaching  to  the  water  ■  edf 

treatises  of  hift  century,  and  haA  been  fieveral  consLsta  mainly  of  one  long  narrow  atre< 

times  reprinted.     He  pive  an  exact  deficription  has  many  good  stone  hoasea,  and  a  pl< 

of  the  structure  of  the  ear,  one  of  the  canals  supply  of  water  in  the  N.  and  S.  qui 

of  which  Htill  bears  his  name.     He  also  first  where  the  ground  is  arranged  in  terrace*, 

indicated  the  ui«e  of  the  2  ducts  extending  from  harbor  is  one  of  the  finest  in  Great  B] 

the  womb  to  the  ovaria,  on  each  side  of  the  and  may  be  entered  at  ail  times.     It  is  def 

fundus,  which  are  called  from  him  Fallopian  on  the  W.  by  Pendennis  castle,  and  on  tl 

tubes.    After  a  short  but  brilliant  career,  in  by  St.  Mawes  castle,  both  built  by  Ilennr  * 

which  he  became  distinguished  as  a  professor,  and  improved  by  Elizabeth.    In  1644  ^« 

botanist,  and  surgeon,  as  well  as  anatomist,  he  nis  castle  afford^  shelter  to  the  queen  IliO 

died  and  left  his  chair  to  Fabricius,  his  pupil.  Maria  when  embarking  for  France,  and  in 

FALLOUX,  Fb£o&rio  Alfred  Pisrri,  vi-  to  Prince  Charles  on  his  departure  for  S 

comte  de,  a  French  author  and  statesman,  bom  It  underwent  a  long  siege  br  CromweU,  t 

in  Angers,  May  11,  1811.    He  first  made  him-  of  whose  encampment  near  by  are  still  ri 

self  known  by  a  history  of  Louis  XVI.  (Paris,  The  castle  now  contains  barracks^  ttorebt 

1840;  2d  ed.,  184^1),  and  by  his  ITistoire  de  St,  magazines,  &c.    An  obelisk  in  the  grooii 

Pie  V,  (3  vols.,  Paris,  1844;  8d  e<l.,  1858),  Lord  Wodchouse's  estate  (Arwinick,  one 

the  former  of  which  showed  his  legitimist,  the  seat  of  the  ancient  family  of  Killigrewi,  ai 

latter  his  Catholic  sentiments.    In  1846  he  was  ing  the  town,  ia  dedicated  to  the  memn 

elected  a  member  of  the  chaml>er  of  deputies,  Sir  Walter  Raleigh,  who  visited  the  harl 

where  he  t«>ok  his  seat  among  the  legitimists,  the  reign  of  Elizabeth  on  hit  return  fhx 

After  the  establishment  of  the  republic   ho  coast  of  Guinea,  and  first  called  attention 

warned  the  inhabitants  of  \jl  Vendee  against  great  advantages,  which  had  till  then  bee 

civil  war,  and  exhorted  them  to  have  confidence  together  overlooked.     There  is  a  good 

in  the  new  government.    On  Dec.  20,  1848,  he  accessible  by  vessels  of  heavy  burden.    Tl 

was  made  bv  Louis  Napoleon  minister  of  wor-  trance  is  about  1  m.  wide,  and  the  bay,  i 

ship  and  public  instruction,  which  post  he  re-  runs  6  or  7  m.  inland,  is  a  favorite  rew 

signed  in  Oct.  1849,  on  account  of  his  health.  British  vessels  in  time  of  war.     Befi>re  tl 

After  the  coup  d'etat  of  Dec.  2,  1851,  he  re-  troduction  of  mail  steamers  it  was  a  prii 

fuseil  to  be  a  candidate  for  the  legislature,  and  station  for  the  Spanish,  Portuguese,  and  A 

retired  fn>m  public  life.     In  1855  he  became  can  packet  service,  and  carried  4m  an  ezt< 

assistant  editor  of  the  ^'t^rr<'/7>om/anf,  the  load-  trade  with  thi>«e  i^mntrie:^     It  is  «t;il  the 

ing  reviow  of  tlio  Catliolic  party.     In  this  ra-  Itonding  port  for  tuba^Ns  except  Plrmr*- 

pmMty  ho  t<M>k  an  ft<*tive  part  in  the  violent  I>evonsLire  and  Corn w.oll.     llfXiHn-t*|-i;c! 

controversy  which  the  Correjtptnuhint^  in  the.  which  are  taken  off  its  coast,  tin,  ariil  o 

name  of  the  nuKlerato  fre<'tinn  4>f  the  Cuth(»lic  and  iniintrts  tiinl»er,  hemp.  tall>w.  rum,  • 

party,  bu^itnined  a^Minst  the  r/iurr* «Iaily  news-  grain,  wine,  and  fniit."*.     It  ha^  liir,:*.'  *hr,^! 

paper.     Falloux    puhlij»h*.'<l    on    l*ehalf  <»f    liis  ing  yunls,  roj^eries,  bn-weries,  and  a  fi -iri 

f rie iidH  the  pamphlet /-<';*<ir/i  /'(I M»>///yf//'.     Ho  trade  in  maritime  sunplivii.      The  numi< 

siirri'iMlcd  M.  Mole  a-s  a  n)emlH?r  of  the  Freneh  vc^^sols  regi>tere<l  a**   l»elon«rin«;  to  the  j» 

a4'ailemy   (March  2t».   Is'iTk  and  jmlilifhed  in  1^50  was  lis,  tonnage  11,15a;  numU-r  *•! 

the  «aine  year  S^ntrrnirti  (U  rhuritt:  h.1?»  entered  during  that  year  1H'».  t.'n.^v 

FALLOW  DKKK.     See  HrtK,  an«l  Defr.  {♦T^'*:   numlwr  <»f  ve^M^ls  cleared  3:»v^.  tv.H 

F.VLLS.  a  central  co.  <if  Texa-s  intersiH-ted  25.517.    The  myal  Com  wall  i>«.|y:*»,hMi'«i« 

by  Hra7«»s  river  and  draineil  by  many  Miiall  the  lirst  institutitm  of  the  kind  i-«taM.<l 

creek-i;  area,  T!*5  ^.j.  m. ;  pi»p.  in  1S5**.  2,^*75,  Enjrhind,  founded  in  1*<:13  for  ihc  cno.i:r»ii 

of  whom  l.*2*2."i  wi-re  *lavi"«.     Most  of  the  Mir-  of  tho  sciences*,  art,  aud  iudu^trr,  u^ivis ; 

fart-  iH  oeiMipicd  !iv  rolliii;:  prairiv:*,  tlio  S4»il  of  allv  at  Falmouth. 

whirh  i*  a  rich  hWk  hiam,  a-hq.ied  to  wheat  FALSK     IMPKISOXMENT.      T.o    j 

and  iith«-r  varieties  of  ^rain.     The  river  bottuni'*  wntehfuhies"*  of  tiK*  «'"nimon  law  I'f  Ei, 

are  >X\\\  more  fertile,  and  pro*!uee  t:«HKi  rn'ps  fur  tfie  prater! ion  and  prcMrrvatjim  tif  jwr 

of  Indian  ei»rn  and  ('«)tt(Ui.  with  pientv  of  oak,  Ht»ortv  i.4  noiiherv  firoVi*«i  more  dt«:io>'ili 

|KTAn,   ci»<!ar,   r<i(t*inw<HM|,   and  i»lhi.T   timber  in  the  p^ovi^iorl•^  of  the  law  n««]i«'vCin/  »! 

valnahle   fi»r   buildint;    pnqHK«t'i.      Lime<«t4»iie  ti*i'hnir:illy  ealliM  fH]MMnipri<<»ame&t.    Tlrf 

nnder!ie<4  a  hirge  part  <>f  the  cuunty.  and  a  va^^t  in  their  extent  and  fiilni'^^  iimte|i«<i:I;tf  u. 

le<lire  nf  it   rn>^-inif  t!ie  bed  «tf   Hrazon  rivi-r  law;  and  while  the  prinriplv»  un  nhu-h 

cauM"*  the  falN  fmm  whirli  t!ie  county  derivi-s  re«'t,  and  H»mo  of  tho  rule*  derivi-d  fn-Ri  t 

its  nanx*.     Ft»rmed  from  Milan  and  Lime^tnno  may  U*  di<«ci»rniHl  even  in  iJie  Saxt*n  t:n>e\ 

C4iinitie«i  in  I'^.Vi.     Value  iif  real  estate  in  lN*>\  have  ei-rtairily  l»wn  d«vcli>(tcd  and  fy^tcuu 

|]5:t.5I*J.     Capit.nl,  Marlin.  in  later  a;:es  as  the  wunh  of  j^er^m*!  1. 

FAl.MoT'TH,  a  p.irliament.iry  U>rtHigh  and  UM^.tmemoroa^vuratelyotiniatodandtSe^ 

seij^irt  of  Cornwall,  KritrlaJid.  I K*au tif ully  hi: uai-  «if  preservin*;  it  Utie'r  nr.dvr^t*>»d.     Vii^ 

•d  ou  this  S.  W.  ude  of  a  harbor  ou  tho  clian-  prisoumcut,  in  the  law  of  i'Ji^i*>wi  mij  th« 


r 


JALSK  WaOKSCES  FALUN  41S 

m^  fluqr  BOW  be  defined  as  any  intentiosal  bo,  althongh  the  statements  which  were  troe  ez- 

awftd  restraint  oi  a  person.    As  to  the  ercised  the  principal  influence  in  obtaining  the 

rfidae  imprisonment,  it  may  be :  1,  the  re-  property  for  the  guilty  party,  provided  it  would 

NT  amat  of  a  penon  under  color  of  law,  by  not  have  been  given  him  but  for  the  statement 

#a&iU«gal or  insufficient  process;  2,  such  also  which  was  false.    It  may  be  remarked 

t  or  armt^  by  means  of  a  legal  instru-  that  no  false  pretences  made  after  the  contract 

■ft  at  an  illegal  time,  as  on  Sunday  or  any  was  completeli  will  constitute  the  offence,  even 

aj  generally  prohibited,  or  at  any  time  if  they  were  made  before  the  property  was  de- 

I  iD^al  and  Bnauthorized  in  respect  to  livered,  unless  the  delivery  or  execution  was  at 

lOQ  restrained;  8,  without  color  or  pre-  first  withheld,  and  tiien  brou^t  about  by  the 

r  law,  aa  when  one  confines  another  to  false  pretences.    At  common  law  the  nearest 

n  or  house  without  l^gal  authority  to  do  provision  to  this  of  the  modem  statutes  was  one 

be  imprisonment  may  be  with  force  or  which  exposed  to  indictment  and  punishment 

irttlioat  force ;  as  if  one,  without  touch*  as  a  cheat  a  person  who  obtained  possession  of 

kber,  ^7  words  only,  or  even  by  gestures  money  or  goods  by  means  of  what  were  called 

npela  him,  by  fear,  to  abstain  from  go-  false  tokens,  by  which  was  meant  forged  papers, 

«e  ]ie  has  a  right  to  go,  or  to  go  where  or  other  counterfeit  symbols  or  evidence  of 

ea  not  to  go  and  is  under  no  obligation  ownership  or  authority.    Language  mmilar  to 

It  ia  fidse  imprisonment  to  confront  a  this  ancient  rule  is  used  in  some  of  our  statutes, 

tiie  street^  and,  without  touching  him,  as  in  those  of  Penqsylvania.    The  first  statute 

n  him  to  arrest  his  course  or  change  it  against  false  pretences  in  England  was  80  George 

hSm  inXL — The  remedies  for  false  impris-  I.,  ch.  24 ;  and  this  has  been  followed  by  the  dif- 

aro  threefold :  1,  an  action  for  trespass  ferent  states  of  the  Union,  more  or  less  exactly. 

M^  when  the  party  imprisoned  may  re-  The  most  common  instances  of  indictments  un- 

onages,  indudmg,  if  the  Jury  see  fit,  not  der  these  statutes  are  for  the  obtaining  of  goods 

npensatiTe  dami^^  but  perhaps  exem-  by  buyers  under  false  pretences  as  to  their  res- 

imagea,  to  deter  the  guUty  party  and  ponsibility  or  resources;  and  it  was  mainly  to 

nun  a  repetition  of  the  offence ;  2,  the  suppress  these  that  the  statutes  were  intended. 
kaiem  earpui^  or  of  replevin;  8,  false       FALSETTO,  an  Italian  wwd   signifving  a 

iment  of  any  kind  is  an  o£fence  at  com-  little  fidse,  and  applied  in  music  to  that  high  re- 

r^  finr  which  the  guilty  party  may  be  in-  gister  of  a  man^s  voice  which  resembles  a  fe- 

md  on  conviction  severely  punished ;  male's,  and  is  therefore  not  strictly  his  own,  but 

ome  of  the  United  States  there  are  vori-  a  false  or  assumed  voice.    It  extends  about  4  or 

ntorj  provisions  respecting  certain  kinds  5  notes  above  the  natural  voice, 
impriscmrojunt.  FALUN  (Sw.  Fahlu),  a  Swedish  province,  in- 

QS  PRETENCES.    Any  one  who  ao-  eluding  Dalecarlia,  bounded  N.  by  Ostersund, 

foperty  by  means  of  false  pretences  has  E.  by  Grefleborg,  S.  by  Wusteras  and  Oererbo. 

title  to  it,  and  it  may  be  recovered  by  W.  by  Oarlstad  and  Norway,  comprises  part  of 

gr  from  whom  it  was  thus  obtained,  and  the  S.  mountain  region  of  Sweden  and  a  part 

(till  the  legal  owner.   (See  Fraud.)  But  of  the  famous  copper  mine  region,  whence  it  is 

hia  dvil  remedy  the  statutes  of  England  also  called  Kopparbergs-Laen,  or  copper  moun- 

htb  United  States  make  the  obtaining  of  tain  province ;  area  about  12,000  sq.  m. ;  pop. 

f  by  ftbe  pretences  an  indictable  offence,  in  1855, 158,755.    Almost  the  whole  province 

raasions  in  our  state  statutes  are  various ;  belonss  to  the  basin  of  the  Dd,  which  drains  it 

■aly  however,  any  one  who  by  means  of  directly  by  the  E.  and  W.  D^  and  by  many 

Btancea,  and  with  a  fraudulent  design,  tributary  streams.    Cultivation  is  chiefly  con- 

paweswinn  of  money,  merdiandise,  gocSs,  fined  to  the  valleys,  which  are  rocky,  and  bet- 

I  of  any  description,  becomes  liable  un-  ter  adapted  for  pasture  than  for  agriculture. 

rtatnte.    It  has  been  held  in  New  York,  The  N.  produces  only  hay,  but  rye,  barley,  and 

B  atetnte.  that  obtaining  a  party's  signa-  oats  are  produced  in  the  S.  and  S.  K ;  potatoes 

van  enaorsement  of  a  note  by  false  pre-  are  much  cultivated,  and  butter  and  cheese  are 

ras  an  offence  wiUiin  the  statute.    It  is  made  in  considerable  quantities.    But  the  chief 

lie  to  de&ae  precisely  the  false  pretences  wealth  of  the  country  proceeds  from  its  wood, 

Dcpoee  one  to  this  punishment.    It  is  which  furnishes  timber,  fuel,  potash,  and  rosin, 

tut  they  cannot  be  slight  suggestions  and  from  its  copper  ana  iron  mines  and  various 

TO  without  foundation,  or  open  and  ob-  quarries,  especially  of  porphyiy.  which  is  made 

Inlioods  by  which  no  man  in  his  senses  into  many  very  beautiful  articles.    The  lakes 

•  daoeived.  They  must  be,  in  Uie  first  (the  principal  of  which.  Lake  Siljan,  covers  50 
iandfld  t^  produce  an  iigurious  effect  *  sq.  m.)  and  rivers  abound  with  fish.  Mr.  Brace, 
fto  nazt  ^ace,  they  must  be  such  as  in  his  ^^  Norse-folk "  (New  York,  1857),  speaks 

•  IQufy  to  deceive  a  person  of  ordinary  in  the  highest  terms  of  the  excellent  moral  and 
Wl  who  ia  to  a  reasonable  extent  on  his  industrial  character  of  the  people. — ^Faluv, 
y  ibe  pretences  or  misrepresentations  capital  of  the  above  province,  is  situated  on 
IWMML  and  most  of  tiiem  are  honest,  but  the  W.  shore  of  Laxe  Bunn,  180  m.  from 
mdlman  is  at  once  material,  false,  and  Stockholm,  78  m.  froyn  Gefle,  in  about  lat. 
■I^lbiol^uiceia committed:  and  this  is  60""  $6'  N.,  long.  15"  85'  £.;  pop.  in  1855, 


414  FALUNS  VAMILT 

4.618.    The  honses  are  low  and  a]mo9t  entirely  radiaiCL,  artieulata^  moiliuea^  tad  t^rMrmit 

of  wood.    The  copper  mines  situated  W.  of  this  characterized  by  4  different  plana  of  ■tracivnt 

town  are  among  the  oldest  and  most  celebrated  Below  these  are  the  davea;  in  the  Tcrtebntei^ 

in  Europe.  Tlic  mines  produced  in  former  times  for  instance,  the  fishes  (divided  Into  4  by  Af»> 

upward  of  a,0(X)  tons,  but  declined  to  1,900  tons  siz),  amphibians,  reptiles,  birdsi  and  mantimli; 

in  1690,  to  1,230  in  1716,  and  now  hardly  ex-  these  are  characterixed  by  tha  manner  in  whid 

ceod  400  tons  annuidly.    The  external  opening,  the  vertebrate  plan  is  carried  oat|  as  to  tht 

made  by  the  falling  in  of  ancient  galleries,  Is  ways  in  which  life  is  maintained  and  the  diflw- 

about  300  feet  deep,  and  1,200  feet  long  by  ent  means  employed  in  establishing  those  wija 

600  wide.    The  descent  to  the  bottom  of  tliis  The  classes  are  divided  into  orders ;  for  InsCaaei^ 

is  by  easy  stairs,  whence  steep  ladders  lead  the  mammals  are  placed  by  Agawii  nndsr  I 

to    tlio  pit's   ^^'®  lowest  of  which   are  about  orders,  manupialiOy  Kerbiwra^  and  earaiwf^ 

1,300  feet  from  the  surface.    The  excavations  characterized  by  the  degree  of  the  oomolieaKisa 

extend  many   miles    under    ground,    forming  of  their  structure  within  the  limits  oC  tike  dsK 

several  magnificent  chambers,  where  banquets  Orders  are  divided  into  families,  characterise 

were  given  to  Bernadotte  and  his  queen,  and  as  above  stated,  by  their  form  as  far  as  di(«> 

Prince  Oscar  (the  present  king),  on  which  oc-  mined  by  structure ;  and  below  these  torn 

casions  the  mines  were  brilliantly  illuminated,  genera  and  species.    By  form  here  mnst  Ml  te 

The  region  about  Falun  is  osMiciated  with  the  understood  different  figures  having  a  eomasi 

wanderings  and  adventures  of  GuMtavus  Vosa,  character,  as  expressed  bv  the  nSiated  IbnL 

but  the  statement  tliat  he  had  worked  in  the  for  example,  of  tno  lowest  branch  of  the  auMl 

mines  has  l>een  contradicted  by  the  later  Swed-  kingdom,  the  word  in  this  case  evidently  meflh 

idh  historians.     According  to  Ge'^er,  his  ex-  ins  plan ;  as  far  as  mere  form  is  eonterusd,  s 

perience  as  a  laborer  was  confined  principally  holothurian  resembles  a  worm  more  than  hdoa 

to  the  threshing  fiail  and  woodman's  axe.    The  a  star-fish,  yet  the  first  and  third  bdong  to  tki 

mines  are  owned  by  a  company  of  300  share-  same  class  of  radiates,  while  the  seoood  bcksfi 

holders,  and  the  same  company  has  the  monop-  to  tlie  branch  of  articnlatea.     As  Ibnn  k  Ml 

oly  of  iron  and  other  works  in  the  vicinity,  characteristic  of  branches,  neither  is  It  of  di» 

Iknide  copper,  small  quantities  of  gold,  silver,  es  in  the  animal  kingdom ;  the  whale  in  hm 

and  leoftl  are  obtained  from  the  ore.    Connected  resembles  a  fi^  more  than  a  mammal,  ihe  Isl 

with  the  mines  are  a  school  of  practical  mining^  is  like  a  bird,  the  eel  is  like  an  ophidian  icplik; 

a  model  room,  a  largo  scientific  library,  and  a  yet  the  whale  and  the  bat  belong  to  the  dm 

mineral  and  geological  museum.  mammalia,  and  the  eel  to  the  claw  of  fiih« 

FALUNS,  in  geology,  a  term  used  by  Lyell  to  To  begin  at  the  other  end  of  the  scale  of  d'.tv 

designatcagroupofmioccno  strata  in  the  valley  sions,  and  using  f^rm  in  the  sence  uf  dvfi'itt 

of  the  L</ire,  which  abound  in  coral^  sliolls  and  figure,  as  commonly  applied  to  man  and  wcH 

other  marine  fos«ll4.     The  word  was  {provincial  known  animals,  it  will  bo  seen  that  it  i«  Dd  i 

with  the  agriculturists  of  Tuuraino,  U-ing  ftp-  characteristic  of  species  nor  geni>ni ;  the  ts- 

plied  to  tlie  materials  of  thcM)  bcdd,  which  tliey  meruus  Fpecics  of  monkevs,  catA,  seals  batkpr- 

UiK*<l  fur  fertilizing  the  soil.  IMiisesi,   owK   parmts,   fiumming   birds.   $r:.J\ 

FAMA(J(JSTA,or  KAMAorsTA  (anc.  Arsinofi^  ducks*  tortoises,  snakes,  lizards,  fn^.  fra!;*:a^ 

a  city  on  the  £.  coast  of  the  inland  of  Cvpnis,  and  hharks.    to  hAV  nothing  of  iuv«rtLl»rs:^ 

18  ni.  from  Nicosia.     Its  wall*,  fortrciiies,  tow-  could  not  be  dirtinguiMhed  from  each  oth*f  bf 

ers,  and  edifices  are  now  in  rniii«,  and  its  liar-  their  forms  alone;  in  like  manner  the  dtftnai 

bor  bk>Ciwfd  up  with  sand  ;  and  it  cont-iins  not  genera  of  natural  families  do  not  vorr  ^fr^ 

more    than   2(m)   inhabitants.      This  city   was  oiahly  in  their  general  form,  as  will  be  (t«- 

ftiimded  by  Arsin«H\  sister  of  Ptolofny  Phila-  ceded  on  examining  the  genera  of  the  vnU$, 

del [ih lis,  king  of  Egypt.      It  was  foriifie<l  by  the  phoriila,  tha /itlr»mid*r^  ihe  frin^ilM^A^ 

(fiiy  de  Liisi^'nan.  who  was  crowned  king  of  ehdouUUr^   the    ofekotU^^   the   fk^iuhriJm,  Ac 

Jerusalem  in  the  12:h  century.     It  was  taken  Ascending  to  ordenii,  what  similarity  of  fviai* 

by  the  iti':i(>^';4o  in  1372,  and  by  the  Venetians  tlicre  between  the  kangaroo  and  the  o^I:l^<^ 

in  14*<'.»,  uimIit  whose  rule  it  l>ccanie  one  nf  the  rhynchu.«s  the  elephant  and  the  h*»g.  the  ra!aa4 

prinri['al  coinrnon-ial  citie4  of  the  I.evant,  and  the  M^al,  the  ostrich  and  the  grouse,  the  ikfttt^ 

n,»ceivcd   new   furtitications.      It    sii*>taine<l    a  and  the  sea  turtle,  Wonginff  ri'^jieriivcW  l^»  lit 

memorable  biege  in  1571,  by  Selim  II.,  by  whom  same  orders  in  their  cla:too:^f     In  all  system*  ^ 

it   was  taken   and   nearly  dt'stroyid,   and   an  zoolo;:y  we  find  animal* grouped  ti«^tf»fra=-i<' 

eartlnmake  in  17'^'*  ciMnpleted  its  ruin.  divi.«ians  tmninating  in  i./*r  or  i?i.i.  mhirh  »■•• 

FAMIMAK  SlMKITS.     Soe  Pevon?*.  the  nearest  approaches  to  niturol  familir«.  T^ 

FAMILY,  a  natural  diviMi>n  of  animals  or  tcnninatiou;!  i4/<r,  oiti*r,  and  rks  are  c«^  r'^ 

plants,  clianicteriz^nl  by  their  fonn  as  detenu  in  ed  miM-iiou-^ly  by  authors   a<  indicitin^  fia;'** 

I'V  ^t^letu^al  tH*ruliaritie«.     In  cnlcr  to  .arrive  at  and  in  manv  coses  in  defianro  of  lii«  n.\f*  "^ 

the  prcciM?  Mgnltication  of  tin*  term  :is  at  pres-  t-tymology.    For  instance,  in  urtk/*,  rywii*.*" 

i'nt  undi-rstiHK],  it  will  bo  woll  to  detine  the  ^>riW(P  we  have  aCrr«H*k  tomiinatii^  to  a  U^;' 

hi.:hi*r  ani:nal  gr(iu[»<i.     Taking  then  the  animal  riK>t ;   in  such  caaies  the  termination  i*d  »>ot«i 

k:n;;ilu!ii,  the  highe>t  divioinn  istiiat  intriNlured  be  siibMituted,  making  urtin.!.  e^unk^  k*r\U. 

by  Cuvicr,  the  4  groat  groups  or  braoche^i  of  on  the  other  baud,  delpKinidm  and  tltfiUnt^ 


FAN  416 

vioild  be  proper,  being  wholly  Greek.   Though  in  Greece  we  find  traces  of  fans  as  early  as 

it  voald  be  of  advantage  in  most  respects  to  600  B.  0.    The  wings  of  a  bird  joined  laterally 

eomct  inch  errors,  it  would  introduce  consider-  and  fastened  to  a  delicate  handle  constituted 

iUe  eonfosion  by  having  some  family  names  a  fan  of  most  beautiful  appearance.    The  fan 

lodiiig  in  ina  and  others  in  ida^  the  latter  being  of  the  priest  of  Isis,  at  the  time  when  the 

ta  some  cases  unquestionably  the  best.     The  worship  of  that  divinity  began  to  prevail  in 

ibrmer  termination  also  has  been  employed  by  Greece,  was  in  the  form  of  a  semicircle,  made 

Gnj  and  other  systematists  to  express  divisions  of  feathers  of  different  lengths,  pointed  at  the 

intermediate  between  families  and  genera,  or  top  and  waved  by  a  female  slave.    In  one  of 

iiib*£unilie8 ;    as  /elintk,   canina^    musteUna,  the  tragedies  of  Euripides  a  eunuch  is  intro- 

Aeeording  to  the  rule  ofProf.Agassiz,  however,  duced,  who  states  that,  in  accordance  with 

the  latter  would  represent  families  equivalent  Phrygian  custom,  he  had  used  his  fan  for  the 

to  the  ftWLm  of  most  naturalists.     From  the  purpose  of  protecting  Helena  against  ^^  effects 

eooflieting  opinions  of  naturalists  on  what  shall  of  the  heat.     In  Rome  fans  became  popular 

eoostitate  ordinal  and  family  characters,  the  among  the  ladies,  and  were  used  at  dinner  par- 

eoofbnon  is  very  puzzling  to  the  student ;  hence  ties,  where  slaves  with  fans  stood  behind  their 

the  importance  of  adoptins  definite  characters  guests.    The  Roman  poets,  Ovid,  Terence,  and 

for  the  aeparation  of  the  divisions  pf  animals.  JPropertius,  frequently  allude  to  their  use,  and 

Flra£  Agassiz,  in  his  **  Essay  on  Classification"  the  pictures  upon  the  ancient  vases  also  in- 

(duipter  u.),  has  endeavored  to  introduce  order  dicate  the  wide  .prevalence   of  the  fashion. 

into  the  coological  chaos,  and  with  far  greater  Among  the  relics  of  Queen  Theodolinda  (who 

loeoawi  than  any  of  his  predecessors;  the  defi-  was  married  in  688  to  Autharis,  king  of  the 

altioiis  here  presented  are  taken  from  his  work,  Lombards),  in  the  cathedral  of  Honza,  is  her 

and,  if  they  could  command  the  general  con-  fan,  or  fiaibellum^  of  painted  leather,  with  a 

Ml  of  natnralists,  would  soon  lead  the  way  to  massy  metallic  handle  enamelled.    In  the  mid- 

a  natoral  classification  of  animals.    The  first  die  ages,  the  fans  made  of  eagle  or  peacK)ck 

riaooe  at  an  animal,  which  gives  us  an  impres-  feathers,  in  various  forms,  and  fastened  with  a 

Ml  of  ita  form,  affords  a  very  correct  idea  of  handle  of  gold,  silver,  or  ivory,  were  a  lucrative 

ito  limuly  reladonship,  whether  a  deer,  a  squir-  article  of  trade  in  the  Levantine   markets, 

nd,  a  pigeon,  a  duck,  a  crocodile,  a  frog,  or  a  whence  they  were  exported  to  Venice  and  other 

mrk;  it  is  not  the  mere  outline,  however,  Italian  cities.    Catharine  de' Medici  introduced 

which  la  characteristic  of  families,  but  the  form  them  into  France.    The  fan  which  she  brought 

li  determined  by  the  peculiarities  of  internal  could  be  folded  in  the  manner  of  those  of  the 

itmctore.    Among  fjEmiilies  may  be  mentioned  present  day.    After  having  been  favorably  re- 

li  examples  the  eS>\da  or  American  monkeys,  ceived  by  the  court  of  llenry  II.,  they  became 

/UmIs  or  cats,  vrnda  or  bearsj  pTiocida  or  objects  of  great  luxury  during  the  reigns  of 

laab,  haltjfnida  or  whales,  leponda  or  hares,  Louis  XIY.  and  Louis  XY.    No  toilet  was  con- 

hnim  or  oxen^equicUB  orhoncSyBJid  elephanti-  sidered  complete  without  a  fan,  the  cost  of 

im  or  elephants.      On  this  principle,  taking  which  frequently  exceeded  $70.     Picturesque 

oyptogams   and  dicotyledons  as  2  of  the  4  landscapes,  the  most  exquisite  paper  of  China, 

maehesofthe  vegetable  kingdom,  aZ^(9,  lichens,  the  most  elegant  taffeta  of  Florence,  precious 

ad  fenia  would  be  examples  of  classes ;  diaUh  stones  and  diamonds,  all  were  in  turn  put  in 

waw  and  fuci  of  orders ;  and  palms,  coniferm^  requisition  to  enhance  the  appearance  and  the 

mmpo$itmy  Jbc,  of  natural  families.    There  must  value  of  the  fan.     One  of  the  ladies  of  the 

dio  be  admitted  some  intermediate  divisions  court  of  Louis  XY.  wrote  of  it  in  ecsto^  to 

into  a  natural  zoological  classification,  based  one  of  her  friends :  Hy  a  tant de  fa^oru  de  m 

ipoa  caaes  of  special  development  of  certain  iervir  de  ee  precieux  colifichet^  qu'on  distingue 

mtema  of  organs,  which  will  require  the  estab-  par  un  coup  d^eventail  la  princesse  de  la  com- 

Mment  of  sub-orders,  sub-families,  suh-genera,  te»»e^  la  marquise  de  la  roturiere,    Et  puiSy 

wA  perhaps  sub-species  or  varieties.  quelle*  grdces  ne  donne  pas  Vetentail  d  rine 

FAN,  an  implement  used  to  produce  coolness  dame  ^ui  sail  e'en  servir  d  propos  /   II  serpente^ 

by  igitating  the  air.    Its  origin  is  to  be  traced  it  toltige^  it  se  reserre^  il  se  deploie^  il  se  fhie^  il 

Id  remote  antiquity,  and  is  ascribed  by  some  s*ahaisse^  selon  les  eirconstances,    (^^  There  are  so 

teiliHiiiis  to  Ean-si,  daughter  of  a  Chinese  man-  many  ways  of  using  this  precious  toy,  that  by  a 

Ma,  and  by  others  to  the  sibyl  of  Cumro,  who  stroke  of  the  fan  one  may  distinguish  tlie  prin- 

hind  to  have  used  a  fan  during  the  delivery  of  cess  from  the  countess,  the  marchioness  from 

W  oradea.    But  long  before  the  days  of  the  the  parvenue.    And  then,  how  much  grace  does 

Agi  the  artists  of  Egypt  painted  the  fan,  and  a  fan  lend  to  a  lady  who  knows  how  to  use  it 

« the  walls  of  the  tombs  at  Thebes,  the  king  skilfully  I     It  winds  like  a  serpent,  fiutters  like 

h  fapreiented  surrounded  by  his  fan-bearers,  a  bird,  folds  and  unfolds,  rises  and  droops,  ao- 

lAe  Dore  the  instrument  as  standards  in  war,  cording  to  circumstances.")    Manufacturers  of 

iridla  in  times  of  peace  they  waited  upon  fans  soon  became  numerous  in  Paris ;  and  even 

Ae  Bonareh  in  the  temple,   refreshing  him  previous  to  1673,  when  a  charter  was  granted 

vhh  the  fans,  and  at  the  some  time  driving  to  them  by  Louis  XIY.,  they  had  organized 

•vay  the  insects  from  the  sacred  offerings,  themselves  into  a  corporation.    In  England,  fans 

&•  Ihdiioa  spread  firom  Persia  to  Judasa,  and  existed  in  the  times  of  Richard  II.  and  Henry 


416  FAN  FAKABIOim 

VXII.  In  Shakespetre^s  *^  Verrj  Wives  of  Wind*  him  with  a  fan,  and  hit  haad  b  taken  off  whQ^ 

aor*^  an  allosion  to  fans  is  mode  bj  Falstaff  to  he  bows  and  stretches  oat  hia  hand  to  rse«t'r« 

PiBt<d.    A  superb  fan  sot  with  diamonds  was  the  fatal  gift.    Fans  were  osad  for  allegoric^ 

presented  to  Qaeen  Elizabeth  on  New  Year's  purposes  in  the  mjihcXo^  of  Greece,  and  tU 

daj.    Among  the  articles  received  by  Cortes  Egvptian  custom  of  employing  them  in  tan[4« 

from  Montezuma  were  6  fans  of  variegated  and  for  religious  purposes  has  also  been  pn^ 

feathers,  4  of  them  with  10  and  one  with  18  petuated  in  the  ntual  of  tibe  modem  Gnck 

rods  embossed  with  gold,  and  one  fan,  also  with  church,  wiiich  places  a  tuk  in  tha  baoda  c^  tsi 

variegated  feotherwork,  with  87  rods  plated  deacons.    Fans  are  to  this  day  used  in  Boom 

with  gold.    In  Spain,  fans  were  at  an  early  dav  on  various  public  occadona,  especially  at  ths 

speciid  favorites  with  ladies,  and  the  Spanish  /uta  di  catidra^  when  the  jwpe  is  esoorted  by 

lady,  as  well  as  the  ladies  of  Spanish  extraction  two  men  who  hold  feather  fans  with  ivory  hi^ 

in  the  new  world,  are  inimitable  in  their  manage-  dies  in  their  hands,  but  without  n^n^  tbta. 

ment  (mait^)  of  the  fan  (abanko).    They  carry  The  fan  of  the  dey  of  Alffiers  had  a  hiacoriedl 

on  conversations  with  it,  and  a  book  might  importance.     It  is  related  that  oa  April  1\ 

be  written  to  explain  the  code  of  signals  by  1828,  when  the  French  consul,  IL  Deval,  csDad 

which  thev  express  their  feelings  with  the  fan.  at  the  palace  to  present  hb  raspeeCa  oa  oeea^ 

Bci^amin  Disraeli  says,  in  ^'Contarini  Fleming  ** :  sion  of  the  great  festival  which  ia  o^brated  oa 

^*  A  Spanish  lady  with  her  fan  might  sliame  the  that  day  in  Algeria,  his  highness  pat  la  hn 

tactics  of  a  troop  of  horse.    Now  she  unfurls  it  some  question  about  a  negotiation  then  peod- 

with  the  slow  pomp  and  conscious  elegance  of  ing  between  the  two  countries.    The  evaars 

the  bird  of  Juno ;  now  she  flutters  it  with  all  answer  of  the  consul  exasperated  the  dey  to 

the  languor  of  the  listless  beauty,  now  with  all  such  an  extent  that  he  made  a 

the  liveliness  of  a  vivacious  one.    Now,  in  the  movement  with  his  fan,  and  faocording  to 

midst  of  a  very  tornado,  she  closes  it  with  a  accounts)  struck  him  with  it  in  the  , 

whirr  that  makes  you  start    Pop !  in  the  midst  the  other  European  consuls,  and  raqaastad  hia 

of  your  confusion,  Dolores  taps  you  on  the  elbow ;  to  leave  the  country.  The  deyrelbring  logiTi  al- 

J'ou  turn  round  to  listen  and  Catalina  pokes  yoa  Isfoction  for  this  insult,  the  rVench  ftnmiimMl 

n  your  side.    Magical  instrument  I    In  this  land  blockaded  Algiers,  and  the  protractAhoatililiH 

It  speaks  a  particular  language,  and  gallantry  ce-  which  ensued,  and  e  ventualh'  resaltcd  la  the  eo*' 

quires  no  other  mode  to  express  its  most  subtle  quest  of  Algeria,  may  thus  oe  traoed  to  a  slraka 

conceits,  or  its  most  unreasonable  demands,  than  of  a  fan. — Next  to  China,  Finance  la  most  eale* 

this  delicate  machine.    Yet  we  should  remember  brated  for  the  manufacture  of  fans,  bat  bcanii 

that  hero  as  in  the  north  it  is  not  confined  to  ful  fans  are  also  mode  in  the  United  ScateSi  ia 

the  delightful  sex.    The  cavalier  also  lias  his  England,  at  Brussels,  Geneva,  Vienna,  an<l  it 

fun,  and  tliut  tlic  habit  may  not  be  cousidcred  various  other  placo^t.     Fan-making  in  Fnsoi 

an  indication  of  etTominAcy,  learn  that  in  this  presents  an  interesting  instance  of  the  subdiTi- 

scorohinf?  clime,  the  s<»Mier  will   not  mount  sion  of  labor,  no  few vr  than  20  difl«.*runt  miaa- 

guard   without    this    solace/* — Tlio   l>est    and  focturing  proccs^ios  being  required  to  pn^doce  a 

cheai^est  lucfiuered  funs  ore  produced  by  tlie  fan  which  sells  fur  less  Uian  8  centA.    Thev  a."s 

nntives  of  China,  chiefly  at  Canton,  Su-Cliu,  chiefly  manufactured  in  tlie  deportment  of  Om, 

Nanking,  and  Ilang-Chu.    Thotie  mode  of  ivory  give  employment  to  over  l,fx>J  persons,  sal 

find  l>unc  and  of  feathers  are  destined  chietly  the  annual  sales  of  fans  in  Paris  omourit  to  alvxA 

fur  the  Kuroi>ean  and  Ameriran  morketii.    The  $1,000,000.     In  France,  the  fan  i4  occa»ioasllT 

fans  whirh    tlio  Chinese   use   fur    themselves  used  by  gentlemen  at  the  theatres,  havinit  fint 

arc  of  polished  or  japanned  bamboo,  covered  api>eared  on  a  warm  Kummcr  evening  uf  ]*<(3\ 

with    pui>er,    and    vary   in    price,    according  during  the  representation  of  Cori$andr€  a:  t^ 

to  the  <^iU:ility  of  the  fVamo  and  the  de>i^  of  comic  opera.    Hence  the  name  of  C^rUamirf^ 

the  loaf,  from  20  c«:nts  to  30  cents  {tcr  dozen.  a[)plied  m  France  to  fans  UKed  by  yrenUemrx 

The  *>tate  fan  which  is  used  on  great  <»coasions  Although  fans  ans  cinploved  pcncrallv  iaSpoJia, 

in  Cliina  nnd  India  nt  the  |>resent  day  is  pre-  Italy,  and  wherever  the  reason  or  the  CasoioQ 

ciselyofthe  some  semicircular  form  and  pointed  commands  their  use,  thoy  are  among  civiIiMil 

top  whii'Ii  WAS  i:i  fiL*>hion  among  the  ancient  nations  probably  at  the  prevent  day  in  grvate< 

(wrecks.    In  Ja[iau  the  fun  occupies  a  mo<  im-  um  in  the  new  wurld«  in  Mexico,  in  CaSa«  aod 

portant  i*a!iitiou.    There  it  is  as  it  were,  the  all  over  the  West  Indies  and  the  ruitedS) 

national  einMein,  and  in  to  be  si*en  on  all  occa-  The  multiplicity  uf  fans  gives  in 

Hions  :inioiig  oil  classes  of  society,  and  in  the  a  renuirkablypirturesiiue  appearance  to  chu? 

h:mds  of  men,  women,  and  children.   AVhere  the  ^  and  public  assemblies  in  tlie  I'nited  Suxcsl    \>zt* 

Ktin>iK':m  takes  utT  his  hat  in  t(»ken  of  polite-  ing  ttio  summer  it  is  common  in  America  t>) 


ne>^  the  .fapanese  |ierfonns  the  same  courtesy    gentlemen  using  fans  as  well  as  ladies,  aaw  .a 


by  waviii;r  his  fan.     In  the  M*hooU  of  Japan  places  i>f  public  amusement  fans  ans*  often 

diligent  M-liohirs  receive  faun  in  rewanl  for  their  trihuted  among  visitors. 

zeal.     A  gentleman  of  Japan,  in  di^ributing        FAN.VUIOTES,  or  PiiANACXi-tnuk  thefTr\>ckJ 

aim 4  to  a  in.-gLnir,  puts  the  money  upon  his  fan.  who  reside  in  the  Fanar  or  l*hanar  distrirt  id 

^Vheu  a  criminal  of  rank  Ls  N*ntence<l  to  death,  Constantinople,  and   who«o    ance»tiirs 

his  doom  is  proclaimed  to  him  by  presenting  there  after  the  capture  of  that  dty  by 


fANEUIL  FANNIN                      417 

Bed  n,  (14^)*    Originally  employed  aa  trana-  aobools  contained  273  pnpils.    Yalae  of  real 
laton  of  pablic  docaments  and  as  secretaries  estate  in  1858,  $992,080.    Named  in  honor  of 
lod  atewflirds  of  disting^hcd  personages,  thej  Co].  James  W.  Fannin.    Capital,  Bonham. 
indiudly  acquired  by  their  wealth,  as  well  as  FANNIN,  Col.  James  W.,  an  officer  of  the 
if  their  abilities  and  intrigues,  great  political,  Texan  revolntion,  born  in  N.  Carolina,  killed  at 
fioMidflJ,  and  social  importance  in  Tnrkey.    In  Goliad,  March  27, 1836.    He  held  the  commis- 
tbe  17th  century,  under  Mohanmied  IV.,  the  sionofcaptain,  when,  in  Oct.  1835,  Gen.  Stephen 
office  of  dragoman  of  the  divan  was  for  the  first  F.  Anstin,  who  had  jost  been  made  commander- 
time  intrusted  to  a  Greek,  and  has  since  been  in-chief  of  the  Texan  forces,  appointed  him  and 
Dnifonnly  conferred  upon  Fanariotes.   Nioolaos  Capt.  Bowie  to  reconnoitre  near  Bexar,  and 
ib?rocordatos,  one  of  the  most  eminent  among  select  a  fit  site  for  a  camp.    The  two  officers 
tbem,  waa  appointed  hospodar  of  Moldavia  in  marched  at  the  head  of  90  men  to  the  mission 
1709,  mnd  of  Wallachia  in  1711,  and  was  sue-  of  Concepcion,  li  m.  from  Bexar,  where,  early 
oeeded  in  this  office  by  other  Fanariote  families  in  the  morning  of  Oct.  28,  they  were  surprised 
(Mosuii,  Ypselante,  Callimachi,  Sntzo,  Manro-  and  snrrounded  by  a  party  of  400  Mexicans.    A 
gboi,  Hantzerli,  and  Eara4ja),  until,  more  re-  sharp  action  ensued,  in  which  the  Mexicans  were 
eeaUy,  the  privilege  was  confined  to  only  8  finally  driven  off  after  losing  60  men  and  a 
<mm1S^  (Mnsuri,  Calliinachi,  and  Sutzo),  and  piece  of  artillery,  while  the  Texans  had  but 
ihtSr  power  in  the  Danubian  principalities  was  one  of  their  number  killed.    Boon  afterward  the 
abolisbed  altogether  at  the  Greek  revolution  chief  command  was  intrusted  to  Gen.  Hous- 
of  lfi21.    They  were  the  principal  bankers  of  ton,  who  at  once  promoted  Fannin  to  the  rank 
ConsUuitinople,  and  as  such  dispensers  of  an  of  colonel  of  artillery,  made  him  an  inspector- 
•xtensiTe  patronage  in  the  bestowal  of  public  general,  and  ordered  him  to  recruit  at  Yelasco, 
cAeea.    Their  infinence  was  great,  but  their  at  the  mouth  of  the  Brazos.    Meanwhile  an  un- 
enpidi^  impdred  their  reputation.   The  Greek  authorized  expedition  under  Dr.  James  Grant 
Bierehanta  continue,  however,  to  monopolize  had  marched  against  Matamoras,  on  the  right 
(he  commerce  of  Constantinople,  and  many  bank  of  the  Bio  Grande,  and  measures  were 
amow  them  are  Fanariotes.  taken  by  the  general  council  of  the  provisional 
F^J^CIL,  Pktkr,  the  founder  of  Faneuil  government  to  reinforce  them.    To  this  course 
ban  in  Boston,  an  American  gentleman  of  for-  both  the  government  and  the  commander-in- 
tniie  and  liberality,  bom  of  a  French  Huguenot  chief  were  opposed,  and  a  quarrel  followed, 
&mOy  in  New  Rochelle,  N.  Y.,  7h  1700,  died  in  which  resulted  in  the  deposition  of  the  governor 
Borton,  March  3, 1743.    The  project  of  erecting  and  the  virtual  superseding  of  Gen.  Ilouston  by 
a  public  market  house  in  Boston  had  already  the  delegation  of  independent  authority  to  Col. 
been  discussed  for  some  years,  when  in  1740  Fannin.    The  council  empowered  Fannin,  under 
Mr.  Faneuil  ofiered,  at  a  public  meeting,  to  the  title  of  "agent,"  to  collect  and  organize  a 
h^  a  suitable  edifice  at  his  own  cost  as  a  gift  force,  to  appoint  subordinates,  and  to  borrow 
to  the  town ;  but  so  strong  was  the  opposition  money.    Accordingly  he  issued  a  proclamation, 
to  market  houses  that,  although  a  vote  of  thanks  Jan.  8,  1836,  calling  upon  volunteers  to  rendez- 
waa  pamcid  unanimously,  the  ofiTer  was  accepted  vons  at  San  Patricio  (the  nearest  Texan  settle- 
by  a  migority  of  only  7.  The  building  was  com-  ment  to  Matamoras),  where  he  expected  to  meet 
Bcnoed  in  Dock  square  in  September  of  the  them,  after  having  effected  a  junction  with 
ana  year,  and  finished  in  two  years.    It  com-  Grant  at  Refagio.    On  reaching  Goliad,  how- 
priwid  a  market  house  on  the  ground  fioor,  and  a  ever,  he  received  a  message  from  Col.  Travis, 
lovn  ball  with  other  rooms  (nn  addition  to  the  who,  being  hard  pressed  at  San  Antonio  de 
oripnal  plan)  over  it.    In  1761  it  was  destroyed  Bexar  by  Santa  Anna,  had  retired  into  the 
bgrllre;  in  1763  it  was  rebuilt  by  the  town ;  and  Alamo  fort  near  that  town,  and  unless  speedilv 
In  1771^  during  the  British  occupation  of  Bos-  relieved  would  be  forced  to  capitulate.    With 
tOB|  it  waa  used  for  a  theatre.    In  1805  it  was  300  men  and  4  guns,  Fannin  set  out  for  the 
eomlderably  altered  and  enlarged.    During  the  Alamo  3  days  after  receiving  the  message,  but 
iwululionary  period  it  was  the  usual  place  of  an  accident  which  happened  to  his  artillery 
mtififlnt  of  the  patriots,  and  from  the  stirring  train  induced  him  to  return  to  Goliad,  whence 
debaici  and  important  resolutions  which  were  he  resumed  his  march  to  Refugio.    Here  he 
often  heard  within  its  walls,  it  gained  the  name  heard  of  the  destruction  of  Grant's  party,  and 
nf  the  cradle  of  American  liberty.  the  rapid  approach  of  the  Mexicans,  where- 
FANNIN,  a  N.  £.  co.  of  Texas,  separated  upon,  retracing  his  steps  to  Goliad,  he  proceed- 
ftnm  the  Indian  territory  by  Red  river,  and  ed  to  put  that  town  in  a  state  of  defence.    On 
dndned  by  Sulphur  fork  of  that  stream,  and  by  March  18,  in  obedience  to  orders  from  Gen. 
Boiid'ArccreeK ;  area,  900  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in.  1858,  Houston,  who  was  now  acting  under  a  commia- 
8|14SL  of  whom  1,495  were  slaves.    It  consists  sion  from  the  convention  of  the  newly  formed 
■rinoipeny  of  highly  fertile  prairie  lands,  pro-  republic,  he  began  to  fall  back  toward  Victoria, 
do^tg  grun,  cotton,  and  good  pasturage.    In  but  was  intercepted  the  next  day  at  the  Coleta 
the  county  yielded  117,462  bushels  of  In-  river  by  a  Mexican  force  under  Gen.  Urrea. 
eom,  874  bales  of  cotton,  96,224  lbs.  of  Hastily  throwing  up  a  breastwork  of  wagons^ 
r,  and  large  numbers  of  horses  and  cattle,  baggage,  and  earth,  the  Texans  defended  them- 
waa  1  newspaper  ofl&ce,  and  the  public  selves  with  spirit  until  night  interrupted  the 
Tou  vnj— 27 


418                    FAKNINa  FANSflAWX 

fighting,  Col.  Fannin  being  among  the  wounded,  one  time  a  force  of  SOO  or  300  men.    Wb 

The  battle  was  renewed  on  the  20th,  bat  the  whigs  began  to  gain  the  asoendeocT  in 

Mexicans  having  received  a  rcOnfurcement  of  Carolina,  he  went  to  Florida,  and  afterw 

500  men,   with  artillery,  a  capitulation   was  St.  John's,  X.  B.,  where  he  assumed  a  n 

signed,  bj  which  it  was  agreed  tnat  the  Texans  able  deportment,  and  became  member  of ' 

should  be  treated  as  priitoncrs  of  war,  and  as  semblv.    About  180(1  however,  bo  wa 

soon  as  possible  sent  to  the  United  States,  tenced  to  be  hanged  ^r  rape,  but  escapes 

Having  surrendered  their  arms,  they  were  then  prison,  and  afterward  received  a  pardon, 

marched  to  Goliad,  where  on  the  26th  an  order  close  of  his  life  was  pasMd  in  infamy. 

was  received  from  Santa  Anna  requiring  them  FANNIXG  MACtllNE  (called  in  En(: 

to  be  shot.  At  daybreak  on  the  following  mom-  winnower,  and  in  the  U.  S.  natent  office  r 

ing  the  prisoners,  857  in  number  (the  4  physi-  a  fanning  mill,  fanning  machine,  pain  wt 

cians  and  their  4  assistantti  being  spared),  were  er,  or  winnower,  indisKriminately),  a  c« 

marched  out  of  the  fort  under  various  pretexts,  ance  for  separating  grain  from  the  chaff*  ai 

and  fired  upon  in  divisions.    Fannin  was  the  with  which  it  comes  from  the  threshing  mi 

last  to  sufier.    Many  attempted  to  escape,  and  It  consists  of  a  frame  surmounted  by  a  bop 

were  cut  down  by  the  cavalry,  but  27  are  be-  the  delivery  of  the  grain  to  a  series  of  vit 

Ueved  to  have  eluded  pursuit.  sieves,  through  which  it  falls  in  a  khowei 

FANNING,  David,  a  loyalist  and  fVeebooter  or  less  broken  by  the  number,  texture,  i 

of  North  Carolina  during  the  war  of  the  revo-  bration  of  the  sieves,  as  it  is  being  ^ubje< 

Intion,  bom  of  low  parentage  in  Wake  co.,  N.  C,  an  outward  current  of  air  caused  by  the  x 

about  1756,  died  in  I>igby,  Nova  Scotia,  in  tion  of  a  system  of  radial  fans  arrange 

1825.    lie  seems  to  have  been  a  carpenter,  but  shaft  in  the  rear  and  lower  section  of  the 

neglected  his  trade  to  lead  a  vagabond  life,  work.    Tliis  machine  was  fin»t  intrudoc* 

trafficking  with  tlie  Indians,  and  being  connect-  England  from  Holland  in  the  early  part 

•d  for  some  time  with  the  notorious  Col.  Mo-  18th  century,  and  it  is  not  known  to  hsv 

Girth  on  the  Pedee.    When  Wilmington  was  used  in  the  United  StAtes  prior  to  its  mi 

occupied  by  the  Uritisli  under  Miyor  Craig  in  tureby  Mr.  David  By  ram  of  Dutchess  co., 

1781,  Fanning,  having  been  robbed  by  a  party  of  in  1780. 

men  who  called  themselves  whigs,  attached  FANO,  a  seaport  and  episcopal  town 

himself  to  the  tones,  collected  a  small  band  of  Papal  States,  on  the  Adriatic^  near  t}.e 

desperadoes,  and,  mounted  on  a  horse  whoso  of  the  Metauro,  29  m.  N.  W.  of  An<>>na 

reputation  soon  equalled  his  own,  scoured  the  6,860.    It  is  surrounded  by  old  wuXU,  b 

country  attlie  head  of  his  followers,  laying  waste  the  emi>cror  Augustus  in  whuso  l.<>r.i 

the  settlements  and  coiiiniitting  frightful  otro-  erected  here  a  triiiiiii»lial  an*h  vi  wh::o  i 

citiots  but  doing  such  good  service  to  the  Brit-  which  i^  still  staiulin^.     ¥vw  ci:l«.^  if  * 

ish  that  Major  Cruig  rewarded  him  with  the  Italy  surpa>s  it  in  arlir*tic  trcasuri*^  i>r  r: 

royal  uniform,  and  gave  him  a  commLviiuu  as  of  the  surroundinc  soil  and  sxtivrv.     1 

lieutenant-Colonel  in  the  militia.     He  now  ex-  thedrol  u  a«lunied  with  IC  fre?0'-i  iy  ^^ 

tended   his  oi^eratiouM.     By   the   ra])idity   and  chino,  representing  cvenL<i  in   the  \.\ 

secrecy  of  his  movements  ho  succeeded  in  caj)-  Virgin.     Many  of  the  13  ollivr  eli::.-^  :.r 

turing  many  prominent  wliigs  wliom  he  eitlicr  several  public  buildinirs  and  |>riva:t.  :.:x 

conducted  to  tho  British  lieudquarters,  or,  if  contain  paintings  by  the  great  hai.r.  r.. 

Uiey   had  incurred    liiri    personal    reHi'ntment,  marbles,  statues,  and  line  nitmunu  (.*..«. 

hung  u[K>n  the  nearest  tri*e.     At  one  time,  liav-  are  numerous  coEivontji.  a  Jesuits*  cvW-  ^•'. 

ing  collected  30  or  40  men,  lie  dashed  into  tho  lie  sclio^tl,  uitd  a  library.     TIiv  iv.x.  /a 

village  of  l*itt*borongh,  .where  a  court  wa.s  tlien  are  ohielly  of  ^illi  *turt'-*  and  twi*:,  ar.<i ::.% 

in  M'SLoion,  and  carried  otVihe  jud;;es,  Lawvcrs,  is  in  corn,  oil,  Ai\     The  pi^rt  w;i*  i :.. v 

officers,  and  some  of  tho  citizens;  :i  wi'^ks  later  fn.Niuenti'd,  but  is  now  ehokvd  uj»  %  .::. 

he  captured  Co).  AUti»n  and  alxtut  SU  men  in  and  viMtt.**!  only  by  ••nullo'a^tin;?  \^*^-«« '.-. 

his  own  hoU'te  ;  a  few  days  after  ho  nlade  a  de-  weupivs  tlie  site  of  the  ancivnt  Fai.u*.]  K-. 

scent  u[K>n  Campbellton,  and  this  exi^loit  was  so  called  from  a  touiple  of  Fortuiit.*  i  u..: 

80c»n  followe<l  by  a  similnr  i»no  at  IliiUUyrough,  Uomans  and  coinmemorati^o  i<f  t^i;r  > 

when  he  took  prisoner  (Jov.  Burke  witli  his  over  IIa<*tlruliaI  on  the   river  Mi*.a:--«. 

whole  suite  and  a  numhiT  of  the  principal  inhnb-  2d  runif  war.     It  wa.*  tho  Kvnr  ii  a  i 

itants.     His  name  was  a  tiTror  to  the  whole  by  Nar^'s  uvi-r  the  (iKi:h<>  ihuIit  T^'.^a 

country;  he  w:ls  enviitvd  in  every  treaty  and  KANSIIAWK.  Sii:  Biihaki.,  ar.  K...-  • 

enactment  matlo  in  favor  of  the  ^oyaIi-t^  and  and  ilii'ioin:iti>t,  born  at  W.ir^>  I'lr*.  !;. 

was  one  of  the3i»erM>n<icicIude<Ihy  namefrom  bhin*,  in  Juno,   lt»o\  dii^l  in   Mjilr.  :.  - - 

the  Wnetits  of  the  pi-neral  '*a<'t  of  pardtm  and  l»»r»i;.     IK*  studii-d  i:i  .K^as  ci'l\ji*,  t  .*::: 

obtivitm**  of  oflTeni'es  Ciimmitttni  during;  thi*  rev-  and  in  the  Inner  Ti-niple.     .Vba:j<i.>:  re  I 

olution.      On   tho   other    h:uid,    his    n»niantir  for  literature,  he  went  abroail  t«' Kb^I,^  u. 

mode   <if  life   and   i>er»imal  darin;;.   di'^plavid  and  langua;:vs,  am!  on  hi*  r»t;ini  h-tc*  *. 

many  times  in  battle,  drew  around  hirn  nunivr-  MMTeLiry  ti>  the  vmb:i-v.«r  at  Madrid !.  «  h 

ous  followers,  wh«im  he  di'^.'iplinl•d  with  t:reat  remained  till  1C:>.     I'j  "n  tJ;o  uu:'  txjX 

•trictneaa.    He  is  said  to  have  coimuanded  at  civil  war,  he  declared  for  the  cr>im  u.  a: 


FAHT  FARADAY                    411 

Ntef  to  ibe  prince  of  H      i.     In  coast    About  180T,  becoming  involved  In  A 

WM  appointed  trei ar  to  i.^  navy  war  with  the  king  of  Ashantoe,  thej  obtained 

Inee  Biqpeit)  and  S  jeara  later  he  was  the  active  interference  of  the  EngUeh^  who  had 
ironeti  and  waa  sent  to  ICadrid  to  rep-  a  small  fort  in  oneof  their  towns;  bnt  this  alli* 
Philip  IV.  the  necessitous  condition  ance,  while  it  plunged  the  Britiflh  into  a  fliimi 
rereign,  and  to  implore  the  assbtance  trous  quarrel,  proved  of  no  benefit  to  the  Fan- 
He  was  taken  prisoner  at  the  battle  tees,  whose  territorv  after  a  long  atmg^  waa 
4iBt^  but  being  released  passed  several  fonnally  added  to  the  Ashantee  empire,  ^ee 
tetiiemOTt,  transkting  the  '^Lusiad^  Ashantxb.) 

nsL  and  upon  the  desih  of  Cromwell  FARADAY,  Hiohaxl,  an  En^sh  ohendsi 

anes  IL  at  Breda.    He  was  appointed  and  natural  philosopher,  bom  in  London  in 

*  requests  and  Latin  secretary  to  the  1794.  Thesonof  asmith,  herecdvedbutlittia 
Mitttjh,  and  after  the  restoration  was  instruction  in  his  youth,  and  waa  apprenticed 
leof  the  representatives  of  the  uiuver«  to  a  book-binder.  His  tastee  were  averse  to 
iiibiidge  in  parliament,  and  was  sent  the  trade,  but  led  him  to  the-stodr  of  book% 
omaHe  misdons  to  Madrid  and  Lisbon,  the  construction  of  machines,  and  tibe  peribriB* 
ha  negotiated  the  marriage  of  Oharles  ance  of  chemical  experimenta.  Hearing  a  ooarsa 
infimta  Catharine  of  Portugal.  Beside  of  lectures  by  Sir  Humphry  Davy  in  1818,  he 
n  cf  the  ^^  Lunad,**  he  wrote  a  trans-  sent  to  him  a  copy  of  the  notes  be  had  taken, 
ibe  Foiior  Fido  of  Guarini  and  of  the  and  requested  his  assjstaace  to  enable  him  **lo 
9f  Horace,  and  a  few  short  original  escape  fhnn  trade  and  to  enter  into  the  service 
Hie  ^Orijrinal  Letters  and  Negotia-  of  edence."  Davy  received  the  applioatioii 
ir  ISKdiardFanshawe,  the  Earl  of  Sand-  fitvorably,  and  in  March,  1818,  appointed  Fara* 
Eaii  of  Sunderland,  and  Sir  William  day  chemical  asdstant  in  the  laboratonr  ti  the 
&"  (8va.  London,  1724),  is  a  valuable  royal  institution.  In  the  autuom  of  the  same 
km  to  nistory.  The  ''  Memoirs  of  year  Faraday,  as  secretaiy  and  scientific  aarist- 
Mhawe^**  written  by  herself  with  ez-  ant,  accompanied  Davy  in  travdUng^  winch 
n  the  correspondence  of  her  husband,  was  contanued  till  April,  1815.  He  then  retom- 
8b  N.  H.  luicolas^  waa  puUished  in  ed  to  the  royal  institution,  with  which  he  baa 
1 1880.  ever  idnce  been  connected,  becoming  profeisw 

Ebik  Mikaxl,  a  Swedish  historian,  of  chemistry  in  1888.  His  earlier  reseiurehea  were 

Sikilstona  in  Sudermanland,  Jan.  9,  eminently  of  a  practical  character.    He  investi- 

d  in  Upsal,  Oct  23,  1817.     He  wss  gated  the  manu£Eusture  of  steel  and  the  charao- 

at  the  university  of  Upsal,  and  passed  ter  of  its  alloys  with  silver  and  platinum.    In 

BT  part  of  his  life  there  as  assistant  1827  he  published  the  first  edition  of  the  work 

ana  professor  of  history.    His  most  on  ^'  Chemical  Manipulation,**  of  which  the  8d 

;  work  is  the  collection  entitied  iSbrtp-  edition  appeared  in  1886.    It  contained  fhU 

m  Susdeanim  Medii  jBoi^  of  which,  descriptions  of  the  apparatus,  and  was  the  onfy 

he  had  only  completed  one  volume  at  practical  guide  for  the  various  operations  of  the 

tf  hia  death.  laboratory.    Experimenting  upon  gases,  aa  car^ 

&SIA,  in  musio,  a  spedes  of  compo-  bonic  add  and  others,  which  were  regarded  aa 

irhidi  the  writer  gives  free  play  to  his  permanent  in  form,  he  succeeded  try  employing 

m,  and  which   deviates  accordingly  mtense  cold  and  pressure  in  Uquefymg  and  even 

oranary  forms  of  musical  composition,  solidifying  them.    In  1880  he  published  a  vafai- 

eharacteristics   seem  to  be  sudden  able  paper ''  On  the  ManuflBui^re  of  Glass  for 

ad  inmiediate  execution.  Optical  ruiposes,'*  and  introduced  a  new  varie- 

EEL  or  Faiht,  a  countrv  of  the  €k>ld  ty,  which  he  formed  of  silica,  boradc  acid,  and 

•  Afirica,  bounded  K.  by  Assin  and  oxide  of  lead.  He  was  early  interested  in  eleo- 
SrhyAgoona,  S.  by  the  ocean,  and  W.  trical  researches,  assisting  Davy  in  1820  in 
V,  ^hig  near  hit  6^  80'  N.,  long.  1^  prosecuting  those  first  entered  upon  by  Oersted 
watered  by  several  rivers,  is  said  to  on  the  refitions  of  electridty  and  magnetism ; 
nd  pcpulous,  and  has  several  impor-  and  in  1821  he  performed  for  the  first  time  the 
Qg  stat&ns  along  its  coast  Theinhab-  remarkable  experiment,  devdopinff  the  doae 
I  remarkably  deanly  in  their  persons,  connection  of  those  two  forces,  of  cannng  a 

moaenlar  than  the  Ashantees,  and  magnet  fioating  on  mercury  to  revolve  oon- 

Mngniahed  from  other  African  tribes  tlnuously  round  a  conducting  wire,  and  again  a 

nvmeations  on  the  back  of  the  nedc  conductor  to  rotate  round  a  fixed  magnet  The 

Spart  of  the  cheek  bones.    Thdr  magnet,  still  more  wonderfully,  was  made  to 

i  and  round,  and  their  color  is  a  revolve  with  great  rapidity  when  an  dectriosl 

black.    The  dress  of  both  sexes  current  was  passed  over  naif  its  length.    In 

tmiiD^  piece  of  cloth  wrapped  loose-  1881  the  first  of  the  series  of  papera  azierwaid 

1  tlia  bMy.     They  pay  a  nominsl  collected  and  published  in  separate  foim  under 

t  to  ciiiefii  called  caboceers,  beside  the  titie  '*  Experimental  Researchea  in  Electri- 

!liky  'Village  has  its  local  magistrate,  dtjf,**  appeared  in  the  ^Philosophical  Trans- 

i44r  fovemed  or  influenceof  a  sea-  actions.**    They  were  continued  in  thia  and  in 

kteeBtnding  about  100  m.  along  the  other  sdentifio  Joumalai  and  were  finally  od- 


hotdl  in  t  tok  8m  (London,  1889, 1644,  and  near  Oft|s  in  I)«ip1ilnMn  148IL  iM  In 

1886).  TbeyeontointlMnralteofMrieBoforigi-  chAtel,8ept.l8, 1686.  Hiifrlwdandlnil 

nal  and  •yuamatioally  oondootad  inrettigationa,  Leftrre  d^£taplea  is  Uioaglit  tohnva  dran 

aitandad  throngh  man/  yaara  in  one  oC  the  toward  the  new  doctrinei^  and  be  enl 

BMMt  obaenra  ilelda  of  phrrical  reaeareh ;  and  them  with  the  aame  ardor  with  which  1 

Hmj  abound  in  brilliant  alaoGireriea»  the  oredit  dnng  to  the  old.  He  began  to  preach  ail 

of  niiioh  no  one  oonteata  with  Faradaj.    The  returned  to  Paris  in  16^  went  tbeoee  to 

BMMt  important  of  these  reasarohes  relate  to  the  next  jear,  became  intimate  with  Zi 

eleotro-cnemicai  deoompodtion  ;  the  Induction  Haller,  Grebd,  and  other  ieluimeia»  qnai 

of  aleotrie  ourreuta  from  other  cnrrents  and  with  Erasmn^  and  was  banished  Iran 

from  magnets,  leading  him  to  the  disoorery  ot  all  within  a*  few  weeks,  and  then  rstfa 

m^neto-«eotricit/:  the  inflnence  of  the  auig-  Bteittboorg,  where  be  was  intimate  with  1 

net  on  aU  bodie^  leading  to  the  division  of  Preaching  afterward  at  Montb41iard  and 

magnetics  and  diamagnetics,  and  the  optical  places,  his  intemperate  seal  drew  him  inta 

nhsngns  indneed  bj  msgnetlsm.     His  escperi-  tronbles,  and  did  s(Mne  damace  to  bis 

meets  showing  thai  the  amoont  of  any  com*  One  day  he  intermpted  a  Gatbolio  proc 

pooad  snhstanoe  deoomposed  hj  an  deetrical  in  honor  of  St.  Anthony  br  snatching  the 

enrrsni  is  proportional  to  the  qoantitj  of  eleo-  of  the  saint  from  the  priest  who  bore 

trioi^  employed,  and  that  the  elements  sspa-  throwing  it  into  the  river.    To  eaoape  th 

rated  in  the  aame  timeare  in  the  proportion  of  seqnencesof  his  rashness  he  fled,  and  tran 

their  atomio  welghti^  make  it  highlr  probable  Alsace  and  Bwitaerland.  In  1588,  with  A 

that  electrici^ia  the  aame  ibrce  as  chemlcalaf*  Baonier,  he  represented  the  reformed  thut 

fltti^,  and  that  it  iscenerated  by  diemieal  action  the  synod  convened  by  the  Vandois  of  Pie 

only.    The  flMt  whleh  he  discovered,  that  Jost  atChanforanapandonbisretomtoSwits 

eoooi^  electricity  Is  generated  by  the  orida&m  was  Invited  to  a  confrrence  with  theOsi 

inthebatteiyofoneatomofnnctodecompoee  at  Geneva,  where   the  controversy  t 

one  atom  of  water,  iaadditlonalproof  of  thsaame  stormy,  blows  were  Interdianged,  and  ti 

ooodoslon.    He  proved,  moreover,  the  identity  ^stratea  had  to  interfere.    He  waa  ordi 

bi  the  nature  of  electncity.  whether  derived  wave  theci^,  returned  in  1588,  waaagai 

from  the  battery,  the  frictJonal  machine,  thermal  ished,  came  back  In  1584  with  letters  frc 

or  magnetic  action,  or  aidmal  bodies;  and  ex«  aeignory  of  Bern,  and  in  1688 persuaded  < 

phdned  the  wonderful  diifbrences  in  its  manifta*  to  aid  him  in  the  orwuiisation  of  therel 

tations  resulting  fhMU  ita  devdopment  in  inten*  church  at  Geneva.    The  party  of  ^  liber 

rity  or  in  Quantity.    Phit  Faiaday  holds  the  gaining  the  upper  hand  in  the  electioQ  of 

highest  rank  among  popular  lectorerB  as  well  Farel  and  Calvin  were  banished,  and  i 

as  among  original  ezperimentere.    llo  has  made  Bern,  ZOrich,  and  Basel.    Farel  then  pro< 

it  a  practice  to  give  lectures  one  evoniog  in  to  Strasbourg,  and  organised  the  Ptutc 

the  week  not  exclusively  for  the  benefit  of  the  there  amid  much  opponition.    In  Mtfrh, 

claswes  of  the  institudon;  and  the  interest  he  a  body  of  troops  unaer  Claude  deGoise  fell 

has  ezdted  in  these  causes  them  to  be  regarded  a  congregation  gathered  around  him  at 

among  the  attractions  of  London  in  the  winter  in  France.    Farel  was  wounded,  and  nar 

season.    Ue  makes  them  interesting  by  perfect  escaped  with  his  life.    He  then  settled 


and  simplicity  of  manner,  while  wholly  tor  at  Neufchitel.    In  1557  he  was  imt 

absorbed  in  bis  subject,  and  by  his  talent  of  Protestant  princes  of  Germany  to  si4  th< 

dearly  explaining  its  principle^  at  the  same  sistance  for  the  Vaodoi%  and  toon  after 

time  that  he  la  skilfully  conducting  the  experi-  carred  the  displeasure  of  Cslviu  and  ochi 

ments  that  illustrate  iL    Few  scientific  men  marrying  at  the  age  of  69  a  yrmiig  gir 

have  received  so  many  distinctions  from  learned.  1661  he  preached  at  Gap  with  all  the  rii 

aodeties  and  institutions.    They  have,  however,  of  his  youth,  and  was  tlirown  into  priMoa 

fiyled  to  tempt  him  from  the  post  into  which  he  which  his  followers  released  him.    He  i 

was  instslled  by  hu  early  patron,  or  to  deprive  Calvin  on  his  death  bed.    His  writings  ai 

him  of  the  natural  modesty  and  artiesaness  of  merou^  but  mostly  of  temporary  interf< 

diaracter  that  secure  to  him  an  esteem  more  FARIN.\  (LsL  /arinm^  floor),  the  8m 

desirable  than  that  cdled  forth  by  the  highest  obtained  by  grinding  and  sifting  any  ki) 

talents.    The  queen  of  England  allotted  to  him  grain.    The  name  is  also  applied  to  the  i 

in  1858  a  residence  at  Hampton  court,  and  since  obtained  fW>m  roots  and  grmins.    Com  iti 

1886  he  has  received  a  pension  of  £800  a^-ear.  often  called  fkrina ;  and  a  number  of  vcr 

FARAFREH,  or  FiBAraA,  an  oasis  m  the  pie  nutritious  preparations  have  been  i 

Libyan  desert,  AfHca,  about  100  m.  N .  N.  W.  of  guished  by  thb  name  coupled  with  auaae 

the  oaais  of  Di^heL    It  contains  a  town  with  Munding  epithet, 

aometracesof  ancient  Greek  and  Roman  stnic-  FARINEjLLI,   Cablo  Bnoscm,    an  1 

tnrea,  and  a  few  small  villager.  The  inhabitanU  singer,  bom  Jan.  24,  1705,  died  in  Bo 

are  engaged  in  the  manufacture  of  cotton  yam,  July  15,  1782.    Tlie  extraordinary  boas 

coarse  woollen  fabrics,  and  earthenware,  and  in  lib  soprano  voice  was  attributed  to  the  C 

euhivaling  various  sniall  tracts  of  amble  land,  hia  having  been  emasculated.  He  wm  a  fr 

FAB£L,Gini  iJimi,  a  French  reformer,  bom  pupil  of  rorpors,andhis  brUUant 


FARINI  FAB1IER8-GENXRAL            421 

pnndpol  theatres  of  Italy  justified  the  high  anti«  1787.    He  was  educated  in  the  academy  at 

dpitioDS  of  that  maestro.  In  1784  he  ropmred  to  Northampton  under  Dr.  Doddridge,  and  hecame 

London.  Porpora  had  engaged  him  for  the  Lin-  pastor  of  a  dissenting  congregation  at  Waltham- 

ei^^s  Inn  ilelda  theatre,  where  he  soon  created  stow,  Essex,  where  he  wrote  several  theological 

taexcitement,tothe  great  detriment  of  Handel,  treatises,  which  were  issued  after  his  removal 

who  was  at  that  time  the  lessee  of  the  Haymar-  to  London  in  1761.  In  hb  **  Inquiry  into  the  Na- 

iet    He  performed  8  years  in  England,  and  ture  and  Design  of  our  Lord^s  Temptation  in  the 

netted  every  year  a  clear  income  of  $25,000.  In  Wilderness,"  published  in  that  year,  he  argued 

France  his  success  was  equally  great,  and  the  that  the  whole  scene  was  but  a  vision  prefigur- 

hriOiant  court  of  Louis  XV.  seemed  for  a  time  ing  the  fdture  trials  of  Jesus  in  his  ministry.  In 

to  be  completely  carried  away  by  the  bewitch-  his  "  Essay  on  the  Demoniacs  of  the  New  Tes- 

log  voice  of  the  Italian  singer.    In  Madrid  he  tamcnt"  (1775)>  he  maintiuned  that  they  were 

exercised  sach  a  magnetic  influence  upon  Philip  not  really  persons  under  demoniac  possession, 

V.  that  he  succeed^  in  dissipating  the  melan-  but  that  this  cause  was  assigned  for  uieir  mala- 

dioly  with  which  that  king  was  afflicted.    He  dies  by  the  popular  superstition.    In  his  "Dis- 

becone  the  king^s  chief  favorite,  and  after  his  sertation  on  the  Miracles**  (1771),  he  affirms 

deatti  was   similarly  honored   by   Ferdinand  them  to  be  absolute  proofs  of  a  divine  mission. 

VLf  while  at  the  same  time  he  received  an  FARMER,  John,  an  American  genealogist, 

amuial  salary  of  $10,000,  under  the  condition  born  in  Chelmsford,  Mass.,  June  12, 1789,  died 

that  he  should  renounce  singing  in  public,  and  in  Ck>ncord,  N.H.,  Aug.  18,  1888.  After  having 

raenre  the  fulness  of  his  genius  for  the  royal  been  for  10  years  the  teacher  of  a  school,  he 

sara.    He  prevailed  upon  Ferdinand  to  organize  applied  himself  to  studying  the  early  settlement 

a  theatre  in  the  palace,  for  which  he  engaged  of  New  England,  and  his  **  Genealogical  Regis- 

tmineot  artists  from  Italy,  and  of  which  he  be-  ter,*'  published  in  1829,  is  thought  to  contain 

time  the  director.    For  nearly  25  years  he  ruled  the  names  of  nearly  all  the  first  European  set- 

tfae  court  of  8pain,  not  only  by  tlie  charms  of  tiers  in  that  region.    A  new  and  enlarged  edi- 

Us  voice,  but  gradually  by  his  influence  in  po-  tion  of  this  work,  by  James  Savage  of  Boston, 

fitical  affairs.     In  1759.  on  the  accession  of  is  now  (1859)  passing  through  the  press.    Mr. 

Cbarlea  IIL,  Farinelli  fell  into  disgrace,  and  8  Farmer  superintended  an  edition  of  Belknap's 

Tears  later  was  ordered  to  leave  the  kingdom.  ^History  of  New  Hampshire,*'  to  which  he 

He  then  took  up  his  abode  at  Bologna,  where  added  many  valuable  notes ;  and  he  contributed 

1m  used  his  colossal  fortune  in  building  for  him-  various  papers  to  historical  and  antiquarian  so- 

idf  a  splendid  palace  in  the  vicinity  of  the  cietics,  and  to  periodicals. 

town,  in  which  ho  passed  the  rest  of  his  life  amid  FARMERS-GENERAL,  in  France,  financial 

the  treasures  of  art  and  the  delights  of  music,  and   privileged  associations  which  before  the 

FARINI,  Carlo  Luigi,  an  Italian  political  revolution  of  1789  took  upon  lease  various 

Triter,  bom  in  the  Papal  States,  Oct.  22, 1822,  branches  of  the  public  revenue,  as  the  imposts 

itodied  medicine  in  Bologna,  became  at  an  early  upon  salt  or  tobacco,  or  the  town  dues.  This  sjs- 

age  interested  in  libertd  political  movements,  tem  of  managing  the  taxes  ori^ated  in  the  18th 

nd  was  frequently  banished  from  the  Papal  century,  when  Philip  the  Fair,  m  consideration  of 

States.    In  1848  he  was  appointed  by  Rossi  di-  certain  sums  paid  to  him,  several  times  permitted 

rector-in-chief  of  the  sanitary  and  prison  de-  Lombard  bankers  and  Jews  to  collect  the  taxes. 

partment  in  Rome,  but  removed  to  Tuscany  on  The  rigors  exercised  in  collecting  these  imposts, 

the  advent  of  Mazzini ;  while  after  the  French  the  exactions,  cruelties,  imprisonments,  and  even 

intervention  his  purpose  of  resuming  his  oflice  executions,  often  caused  popular  rebellions ;  yet 

wss  frustrated  by  the  papal  authorities.    lie  in  the  reign  of  Louis  XIII.  the  farmers-general 

then  went  to  Turin,  where  he  was  cordially  hadbecomeapowerinthestate,  and  often  trans- 

ifcdved  by  the  Sardinian  government^  and  took  ferred  their  own  leases  to  still  more  unscrupulous 

apsrt  in  the  publication  of  the  Euorgimento.  subordinates.    An  association  of  40  (afterward 

In  1650  he  ofSciatcd  for  9  months  as  Sardinian  of  60)  farmers-general  was  formed  in  1720,  to 

Binister  of  the  interior,  and  afterward  became  which  the  government  for  an  annual  payment 

a  moDber  of  the  board  of  health.    lie  is  now  of  55,000,000  livres  yielded  the  privilege  of 

(1659)  a  member  of  the  Sardinian  parliament,  levying  the  taxes  on  articles  of  consumption ; 

■id  conspicuous  for  his  advocacy  of  liberal  con-  and  on  the  renewal  of  this  privUege  in  1726, 

rtitntional  principles.    An  English  translation  80,000,000  livres  annually  were  paid.    In  1774 

9i  his  principal  work,  II  state  Romano^  which  the  farmers  paid  185,000,000  francs  for  this 

ghres  a  history  of  the  Roman  states  from  1815  right,  and  in  1789,  180,000,000,  and  yet  made 

to  1650,  has  been  prepared  under  the  auspices  immense  fortunes.    Their  severity  had  so  ex- 

if  Mr.  Gladstone,  and  published  in  London  in  asperated  Uie  public  mind  that  one  of  the  first 

16S9.    He  is  preparing  a  history  of  Italy  to  acts  of  the  constituent  assembly  in  1790  was  to 

Mrve  as  a  continuation  of  that  of  Botta,  and  suppress  their  association.     In  1794  all  the 

iftMaj,  1 659.  addressed  a  series  of  letters  to  Lord  farmers-general  then  living  were  brought  before 

JobB  Russell  on  Italian  affairs  which  attracted  the  revolutionary  tribunal;  they  were  condemn- 

floosiderable  attention.  ed,  and  of  the  entire  number,  28,  including 

FARMER,  Hugh,  an  English  theologian,  bom  Lavoisier  the  chemist,  were  executed  May  8, 

in  Shn^ahire  in  1714,  died  in  London,  Feb.  5,  1794,  and  Hie  renudning  8  some  days  afterward. 


FABMIKOTOKftlMiliirttowBoflVttikliA  to«h6WMl»«iflireBtildHto«l  tiBiiiifkt 

•OS  Utility  on  Btndy  riTOT;  80  m.  K.  W.  fhMtt  WMtenttalttwithkMnnbvsdrthtnpa^ 

AiiigQtU;pop.iiil860^a»7tt.    It  ItilmiidAntlr  aooi.    TbeMiMTMritepabttriMiawMkm* 

mpfXM  with  water  power,  and  oootains  s  d«r  tho  title  of  ^Mj  Enrff  Di||i."    fikt  Mk»- 

MnUr  of  mami&otoriat.    Tiieiiidiiftiyoftlio  qoonUr  retomod  to  Oriifcrriti 

iidiafattaBti  iaalao  krselj  directed  towudfomi-  FABKHAM,  Tmoaus  J^  m  Jdmmimm  turn- 

inf.  TheprinoipelTiliaffe,oiaiedOeiitreTilIige,  eller,  liiisbend  of  the  meMng^  tan  in  Ter> 

]nieboiitlOOdwcmoghoiinM,MTeralflustorie%  moot  in  1804,  died  in  QdifDtnin  In  Sepl.  ISML 

an  aoademy,  a  bank,  and  the  ooan^  boildiiigB.  He  waa  by  profendon  •  lawyer,  bol  in  Jil8 

TberearetwooUierTillamioaliedFanniogton  be  ofganiaea  and  beaded  •  anMfl  en 

Mk  and  Upper  TiQam.  Tlie  town  oontaios  88  aoroet  the  continent  to  Orefon.    Hn 

pttliHe  aebooii  and  8  diwebea,  8  Bttitlit^  1  Con-  Oalilbmia  the  aame  year,  and  look  nn 

fTMationaLl  Methodiiti  and  8  UnkKi.    It  was  and  efieient  part  in  proenriof  the  niaaaa  of  n 

aetoed  in  1778,  and  inoorporated  Feb.  1, 1794.  larne  nomber  of  Amerieana  and  ^n^fUk  who 

FARMIKOTOir,  a  town^p  of  Hartford  oo^  had  been  thrown  into  primi  Igr  the  T 

ChxuL,  10  m.  W.  from  Hartford,  and  80  m.  K.  noremment.    In  1848  he  pabttdhed  * 

from  New  HaTon ;  pop.  in  1860, 8,88a  It  liea  hi  Oregon  Territory;**  in  1848,  **jhn«eii 


in  the  weotem  portion  of  the  alhiTialTaHeyez-  iiomiaandBoeneein  the  Bmiie;"  and  hi  tte 

tendinn  from  New  HaTon  to  Northampton  and  aame  year,  ^A  Memoir  of  tibe  Xortii-Weil 

enward.    The  town  oontaina  8  ^iUageii  Furm*  Boundary  Line.** 

ington  TiUage,  PhdoTiUe,  and  Unionirille.    The  FARO,  a  rifer  of  Afttea,  an  aflnonl  of  tte 

water  power  at  UnlonTille  ia  not  enrpemed  by  Benoowe,  diieorered  Jnne  18,  1881,  kf  Ik, 

any  in  the  itate.    UniooTiUe  and  PUinTiUe  are  Barth,atitipoiBtof  Jonetion,aho«llnt8^ar 

the aeata of  extenaJTe mannfaetnring  eatabliih-  N.,  knf.  18* SO' S.    ThenaliveB     ' 


BMnti^  eapedaUr  of  elooka,  paper,  te.    The  thatitnad  itaaooroein  MonntLiKboeitdMf 

railroad  from  Hiuiford  to  Waterboiy  and  the  marohtothe  aonth.  AtitaJnnetioQitwaeM 

eanal  railroad  pam  throorii  PlaioTiUe,  and  the  Tardi  broadjbot  generally  not  enaedhif  t  foil 

OoOinaTille  bnmdi  throogn  UniooTille.    Furm*  in  depth.    Tlie  oorrenl  ia  oitrMB^y  vMaM^ 

was  the  ftret  town  aettled  in  Conneetiool  approaoUng  a  rate  of  8  mOea  an  honr,  n  foil 

after  the  8  original  towns  of  Wethere-  indicathig  that  the  nwontahw 

field,  Hertford,  and  Windsor.  whieh  itlssoee  ia  not  for  diitaal. 

FARNE,  FkAKR,  or  Fnor  IsEjama,  sewral  FARO,orPftAnoi,agameof  ehanoenl 

small  islands  and  rooks  in  the  German  ooean,  aaid  to  derire  its  name  fttim  the  ignm  of  He 


from  8  to  6  m.  distant  from  the  Eo^ish  ooast  Egyptian  kins  Pharaoh,  which  waa  ibtmariy 

and  nearly  opposite  Bamboroogh  in  the  co.  of  npon  one  of  ibe  cardL    It  may  bo  played  ly 

Northnmberland.   On  the  larmt  of  them  8  any  number  of  peraoDS»  who  sit  aft  a  taUe  gta- 

Hgbtbooses  have  been  erected.  In  rough  weath*  erally  oovered  with  a  green  cloth.    The  keepff 

er  the  passage  between  the  isles  is  rery  dan-  of  the  table  is  called  the  benker.    The  pisytr 

geroQs,  and  soTeral  disastroos  shipwrecks,  at-  is  called  ponter  (from  Ital.  jnmlnrvX  who  f»> 

tended  with  great  Ices  of  life,  hare  occurred  here,  eeives  a  litret  or  small  book  frtan  which  to 

FARSHAM^  Euxi  W^  an  American  philan-  choose  his  cards,  npon  which  he  majr  at  his  en- 

thropist  and  aatbor,  born  at  Rensselaenrille,  tion  set  any  nomber  of  stakes,  whidi  are  limrt> 

Albany  co^  N.  Y.,  Not.  17, 1815.    Uer  maiden  ed  in  amoont  in  accordance  with  the  capital  ef 

name  was  Bnrhans.    In  1885  she  went  to  Uli-  the  banker.    The  banker  tnms  no  the  cardi 

nois.  and  in  1888  was  married  there  to  Thomas  fttmi  a  complete  pack,  one  by  onn,  ImrinK  thsm 

J.  Famham.    In  1841  she  retaraed  to  New  first  to  his  right  for  the  bank  and  then  to  his 

York,  and  employed  herself  In  Tisiting  prisons  left  for  the  pimter  or  player,  till  aU  the  cardi 

and  in  lectormg  to  women  till  the  spring  of  are  dealt  ont    The  banker  wins  when  the  carl 

1844,  when  she  accepted  an  ^>pointroeDt  aa  equal  in  points  to  that  on  which  the  stake  is  art 

matron  of  the  female  department  of  the  state  turns  np  on  his  right  hand,  bnt  kaee  wlMn  il 

prison  at  Sing  Sing,  that  she  misbt  prove  the  is  dealt  to  the  left.    The  player  losea  half  the 

possibility  of  goreming  such  an  Institution  by  stake  when  his  card  comee  oat  twice  in  the 

the  power  of  kindnees  akme.    She  filled  that  same  stroke.    The  last  card  hot  one,  tho 

poaition  for  4  years,  and  met  with  eminent  soo-  of  which  the  banker  daima,  bnt  wliieh  is 


While  aft  Sing  Sing  she  published  *"  Lifo  frequently  giren  on,  is  called  koeim  (aeertainlyX 

in  Prairie  Land."  and  edited  an  edition  of  Samp-  The  Isstcard  neither  wins  nor  kmml    Whrre 

son*s  ^^Crimhial  Jurisprudence.**    In  1848  she  a  ponter  gains,  he  ma^  dther  take  hia  mensy 

remored  to  Boston,  and  was  connected  for  some  or  paroli ;  that  is  to  say,  double  hia  chanee  ^ 

thne  with  the  hiatitntkm  for  the  blind  in  that  Tonturing  both  his  stake  and  gains,  whkh  W 

eity.    In  1848  she  went  to  California,  where  intimates  by  bending  a  comer  of  hia  card  n»* 

she  remained  till  1858,  wben  she  returned  to  ward.    If  he  wins  again,  he  may  pby  aipesr  « 

New  York,  and  published  a  Toloroe  entitled  eo,  which  means  that  after  haiteg 

"^California  Indoors  and  Out**    For  the  next  roli  he  tries  to  whi  seTen  fold,  ~ 

8  yean  she  deroCed  lierself  to  the  study  ai  a  second  time.    Should  he  again  ho 

medicine.    In  1859  she  organised  a  society  to  he  can  parM  fat  fniass  W  If  ea,  for  ifwmUHk 

aid  and  protect  destitote  women  in  emigrating  en,  and  finally  for  essaanls  eCliaa^  whieh  is  the 


f 


KABOE  FABQUHAB                 428 

UghnleluaiMiiithegaine.  Faro  was  formerly  The  ialandfl  are  coTered  with  basaldo  moan- 
in  TOgue  in  France,  England,  and  Europe  gen-  tains,  amid  which  are  numeroas  litUe  lakes  and 
erally,  and  still  retains  its  popularity  in  various  streams.  The  most  elevated  peaks  are  Skellings- 
parts  of  the  world.  A  variety  of  this  game  is  Qeld,  on  Stromde,  2,480  feet  high,  and  Slattare- 
also  mnch  played  by  gamblers  in  the  United  tind,  on  Oster6e,  whose  height  is  2,804  feet. 
States.  One  hundred  faro  banks  are  said  to  exist  The  climate,  though  mild  for  so  northern  a  lati- 
in  the  city  of  New  York  alone;  there  are  also  tude,  is  extremely  moist  and  variable.  Snow 
banks  in  almost  all  other  American  cities.  The  rarely  lasts  for  more  than  8  days,  so  that  the 
method  ofplay  in  the  United  States  is  as  follows:  cattle  pass  the  winter  as  well  as  summer  in 
The  dealer,  with  a  large  array  of  cheques  at  his  the  open  air.  Tlie  furious  hurricanes  which 
right  band,  representing  $1,  $5,  and  f^O,  and  so  prevail  cause  an  almost  total  absence  of  trMs, 
on  upward,  takes  his  seat  at  the  centre  of  a  table  and  peat  and  coal  are  used  for  fuel.  The  prin- 
with  18  cards,  representing  a  complete  pack,  af-  cipal  wealth  of  the  inhabitants  consists  in  oat- 
fixed  to  it  at  convenient  distance  to  mark  distinct-  tie  and  a  peculiar  breed  of  sheep.  The  native 
}j  the  bet  placed  on  each.  Persons  who  wish  to  horses  are  of  small  stature,  but  robust  and  active, 
liayezchange  at  pleasuremoney  for  such  amount  The  idanders  support  themselves  chiefly  by 
of  oheqnea  as  they  desire  to  risk,  and  place  the  fishing  and  by  bird-catching,  prosecuted  by 
amoimt  they  intend  to  stake  on  any  particular  scaling  the  precipitous  rocks  on  the  shore.  The 
card  upon  the  table.  The  dealer  then  produces  a  houses  are  ml  constructed  of  wood,  roofed  with 
pack  of  cards  and  shuffles  them  (the  option  of  birch  bark  obtained  from  Norway,  over  which 
afanlBing  resting  also  with  any  of  the  players  who  is  spread  a  layer  of  turfl  The  principal  articles 
can  for  itX  has  them  cut,  and  then  places  them  in  of  diet  are  milk,  fish,  fowl,  mutton,  and  barley, 
a  box,  from  which  one  by  one  he  deliberately  Bread  and  sdt  are  luxuries.  The  population, 
•lidet  them.  The  banker  loses  when  the  card  descendants  of  the  old  Northmen,  are  a  vigorous 
equal  in  points  to  that  on  which  the  stake  is  set  and  laborious  race,  of  loyal  and  religious  char- 
tuma  op  on  his  right  hand,  but  wins  when  it  is  on  acter.  The  language  is  a  dialect  of  the  Norse, 
the  left.  But  it  is  in  the  power  of  the  player,  by  but  the  official  language  is  the  Danish.  It  is 
placing  a  small  copper  on  the  amount  he  places  the  custom  of  the  men  before  attempting  to 
on  the  card,  to  reverse  the  chance.  This,  which  climb  dangerous  difis  to  bare  their  heads  and 
is  called  **  coppering,'*  enables  the  player  in  fiict  sing  psalms.  The  longest  day  of  summer  here 
to  bet  on  whichever  card  he  pleases.  The  dealer  is  %i  hours,  and  the  shortest  of  winter  4  hours. 
stops  between  each  two  cards  while  new  bets  Monks  from  the  Scottish  isles  first  founded  in 
are  being  made  as  cheques  change  from  one  the  Faroe  group  a  few  hermitages.  In  the  9th 
card  to  another,  and  thus  the  game  proceeds  to  century  fugitive  Norway  pirates  established 
the  doee  of  the  pack,  when  a  fresh  deal  is  made,  themselves  under  Grimr  Kamban.  The  islands 
and  the  same  process  is  gone  through.  The  bank  became  Danish  when  the  Danes  conquered  Nor- 
wina  on  *' splits,"  which  is  supposed  to  be  the  way  in  1880.  During  the  18th  century  they 
only  odds  in  its  favor,  but' it  possesses  others  in  were  notorious  as  the  seat  of  smugglers.  They 
its  soperior  amount  ofcapital,  and  in  the  inclina-  were  occupied  by  the  English  from  1807  to 
tion  of  moat  players  to  stake  heavier  in  the  effort  1814.  Tbe  administration  is  composed  of  a 
to  recover  back  than  to  support  good  lack.  In  Danish  amtmand  or  bailiff,  who  is  commander 
Germany  the  cords  are  not  dealt  from  a  box,  but  of  the  armed  force,  and  a  landtogt^  who  is  di- 
nailcd  to  a  pine  board  and  torn  off  one  by  one  by  rector  of  the  police ;  and  they  are  represented 
the  dealer.  Here  the  dealer  is  generally  assisted  in  Uie  legislature  of  Denmark  by  a  deputy  ap- 
abo  by  one  ot  two  croupiers,  who  attend  to  the  pointed  by  the  king.  Commerce  with  the  FarOe 
plying  and  receiving,  guarding  against  errors  islands  is  a  monopoly  of  government,  and  Danish 
ma  shuffling  the  pack.  ships  are  permitted  to  approach  them  only  be- 
FABdE,  FIbOe.  or  Frr5  Islss  (Dan.  Fdrd-  tween  May  and  September.  Capital,  Tborshavn, 
4nwX  *  STO^P  of  islands  belonging  to  Denmark,  on  the  W.  side  of  Stromde ;  pop.  about  750. 
and  Rtuated  in  the  Atlantic  ocean  to  the  N.  of  FABQUHAB,  Geobge,  a  British  comic  dra- 
SeoCland,  about  170  m.  N.  W.  from  the  Shetland  matist,  bom  in  Londonderry,  Ireland,  in  1678, 
ilka,  and  850  m.  S.  E.  from  Iceland;  lat  61''  to  died  in  London  in  April,  1707.  After  a  brief 
•8*  N.;  long.  6**  to  8**  W.  Thej^  are  22  in  number,  and  irregular  career  at  Trinity  college,  Dublin, 
of  whidi  17  only  are  inhabited ;  area,  495  sq.  he  appeared  in  his  17th  year  as  a  comedian  upon 
ai.;  pop.  in  1855,  8,651.  The  principal  of  the  Dublin  stage.  While  performing  a  part  m 
Unbi  are  Stromde,  the  largest  and  centre  of  the  **  Indian  Emperor"  of  Dryden,  he  acdden- 
Aa  group,  27  m.  long  and  7  m.  broad,  having  tally  inflicted  a  serious  wound  upon  his  antago- 
Aont  9,200  inhabitants ;  OstcrOe,  20  m.  long  nist  in  fencing,  which  caused  him  to  renounce 
Md  10  m.  broad,  pop.  about  1,200 ;  Suder6e,  the  boards  for  ever.  He  went  to  London  in 
SandOe,  Yaagde,  and  BordOe.  The  others  are  1696,  obtained  a  commission  in  the  army,  and 
varynalL  The  Farde  islands  are  formed  by  a  began  to  apply  himself  to  dramatic  composi- 
noBp  of  conical  elevations.  Their  coasts  are  tion.  He  lived  gayly  and  licentiously,  and 
m  mmenl  very  steep,  often  rising  precipitately  during  the  10  vears  before  he  sank  a  victim^  to 
to  iMtT  heights,  or  abruptly  broken  by  deep  in-  anxiety  and  ill  health  he  produced  7  comedies, 
kCn  fte  whole  archipelago  abounds  with  whirl-  superior  in  vivadty  and  ease  of  style,  and  in 
pooiaaiWI  rainds^  making  its  navigation  difficult  dear  and  rapid  devdopment  of  intrigue,  to  any 


4M  XABKAB 

UnfthadbeibraqipearadinEDi^d.    Tlielatl  ndDrmyltiM.   AUhoq^aTnygmaMnl 

•nd  bait  of  tlMM  WM  the '' Beaux  Btratagem^^  lively  ecteew,  ebe  owed  her  nfmmm  cfciily 

whieli  etill  keeps  the  etage.    He  alio  left  a  vol-  to  her  remarkable  beao^,  wMeb  reoilfvl  im 

une  of  *'MiaoeUanies,^ooD8i8tiiig  of  poeme.  hoinageof  themoetUhMmoQinMttdr  ll»liB% 

e«aji»  aod  letters.    Ilis  worka  have  much  of  each  aa  Fox  and  the  duke  of  ThoiMnnail.    She 

the  emartiieee  and  indeHcacy  which  wae  £uh*  waa  eileemed  aa  moeh  tat  her  virtaea  aa  hm 

Sonable  In  hii  time,  bat  they  are  writteo  in  bet*  beanty,  aod  became,  May  l,17«7t  the  wifcaftha 

ter  language  aod  are  km  deaignedlyvieloiia  than  ISthearloC  Derby,  thai  a  widewar^tibafmiBi* 

the  (days  whidi  preceded  the  revdntion  of  fiither  of  the  premnt  Britiih  pnoder. 
1688.    He  waa  married  to  a  huly  who  had  d*-       FAB8,  or  Fahstav  (ane.  Arriil  •  ii  ▼• 

hided  him  by  q>reading  a  report  that  aha  poa-  province  of  Parria,  bounded  H.  by  Iiik< 


aeaed  a  fcutone;  hot  he  pardoned  the deoep*  and  Khoraamn,  S.  by  Karman.  fiL  hf  Larataa 
tkm.  He  paaaed  a  tronUed  thoogh  merry  lim,  and  the  Peraian  gm,  W.  by  the  PanJaigalf 
and  left  9  danghtera  in  indigence,  whom  in  a    and  Khnfiatan,  lying  betwaes  IttL  ST*  Wmk 


brief  and  touching  note,  written  ahorUv  beforo    81*  6S'  K^  and  kiig.  4$^  W  uA  U*  WOf  Hi 

"  la  deatli,  he  recommended  to  the  klndncaa  of    graateat  length  aboot  800  m.^  breadth  t8D; 


hiafriend  the  actor  WUka.    Acomplete  edition  85,000  aq.  m.;  pop.  earimalad  at  l^TDMOit  i^ 

of  hia  worica  appeared  in  London  in  S  vob.  dnding  variooa  tribea,  TnriEonaD^  Mriaii^ 

18mo.  in  1779.  Peraiana^  and  a  amall  nomber  of  Java*    kbdl* 

FARRAR,  Jobs,  LLD^  an  American  mathe*  vided  into  the  Qermaaaer  and  Reariimt,  or  mm 

matician,  bom  in  Lincoln,  llaaa^  Jnly  1, 1779,  and  cold  regkxML    Tha  former  axlaaia  falaai 

died  in  Cambridge,  May  &  1858.    He  waa  grad-  fhmi  the  coast,  ita  anriiMa  being  a  aan^y  fUiW 

nated  at  liarvard  college  m  1808,  aod  afterward  wholly  dependent  Ibr  vegetatkm  oa 

aUidieddlviDityatAndover;bnthavinff  received  ioal  raina.    The  latter oompriaea  tha 

the  appointment  of  Greek  tutor  at  Harvard  in  vated  region  belonging  to  tha  great 

1805,  he  laid  aside  hia  intention  of  entering  tha  moontaina  which  extend  from  the  Ch 

ministry.    In  1807  he  waa  choeen  Hollia  profea*  the  gnlil  and  forma  tha  watershed  heti 

aor  of  mathematica  and  natural  phlloeophy  in  rivera  tnat  flow  to  the  aaa  and  to  tha 

the  aame  college.    The  standard  of  matbemati*  of  Rakhtegan,    Thia  portion  of  Iha  . 

cal  education  waa  then  low  in  American  col*  eooabta  or  fertile  vaUeya^  genarailj  8  to  10  ■• 

l^gea,  and  he  act  himaelf  the  taak  of  raiaing  it  in  width  by  15  to  100  in  length.    A  fow  af 

tothe£orop€«nleveL    In  1818  he  pnbllahed  for  theaevaUeya,aa8hirai,KasecooB,aadllanWk, 

the  uae  of  hia  pupila  a  tranalation  of  Lacroix^a  are  cultivated,  bnt  many  are  wooded 


^Elemenu  of  Algebra,'*  apeedily  followed  by  habited.  Eaatward  the  eoontry  ia  mora  aawL 
aekctioos  from  Legendre,  Biot,  B^zont,  and  sandy,  and  ill  supplied  with  water.  The  cUsf 
oUien.  Thene  works  were  at  ooce  adopted  aa  rivers  are  the  Firuxabad,  Tabria^  Nabos,  aod  Tab 
text  books  by  the  college,  and  by  the  United  (anc  Aro9u\  flowing  into  the  Persian  gnlC  and 
States  military  academy.  He  also  contributed  to  the  Bundemeer  (ana  Ara3Dm\  talUng  into  Lake 
the  acientific  periodicala  and  to  the  ^  North  Bakhtegan.  Another  aalt  lake  near  Shirat  aap- 
American  Review/'  For  18  years,  from  1811  to  plies  the  province  with  salt.  The  geoefal  pro> 
1884,  he  was  recording  secretary  of  the  Aiueri-  ducts  of  the  country  are  tobacco  in  large  qaan- 
can  academy,  its  vice-president  in  1829-'30,  and  tity,  wine,  rice,  dat^  opium,  linen,  eottoA,  silk, 
member  of  the  committee  of  publication  from  cochineal,  and  roses  for  the  mannfactnra  of  atlar. 
1810  to  1635.  His  principal  papers  in  the  ^Me-  Iron  and  lead  mines  exist,  aa  also  qoarriea  af 
moirs**  of  the  academy  are :  ^  Observations  on  marble  and  alabaster.  Bonx  and  "^^»>**  are 
the  Great  Comet  of  1811  f  ^*  Abstract  of  Me-  among  the  chemical  products.  Caitlaandaheip 
teorological  Observations  made  at  Cambridge  husbimdry  u  neglected,  but  attention  is  givea  to 
from  1790  to  1818  ;^*  **  Abstract  of  Meteorologi-  the  raising  of  bonea,  camels,  and  asaea,  for  ate 
cal  Olwervationa  made  at  Andover  ;**  ^  Account  and  export.  Tha  commerce  la  chMy  with  !>• 
of  the  violent  and  destructive  6torm  of  Beptem-  dia.  The  government  of  the  pruvinea  la  rmfkti 
her  23,  1815  ;**  **  Account  of  a  singular  Electri-  in  a  prince  of  the  sovereign's  fomUy,  with  got- 
cal  Phenomenon,  observed  during  a  Snow  Storm  emora  of  districts.  Several  interesting  raina 
accompanied  with  Thunder.''  In  1888  Bowdoin  exist.  Thirty  m ilea  K.  of  Shirax  are  the  raaaisMi 
college  conferred  on  liim  the  degree  of  LLD.,  of  Persepolis,  one  of  the  most  oelebratad 
and  in  1836  he  resigned  his  chair  in  consequence  magnificent  cities  of  antiquity.  The  dk 
of  a  painful  illness,  which  eventually  caused  his  of  Fessa  b  supposed  by  some  antiqnariea  to 
death.  resent  the  ancient  Paasrcada,  and  to  contain  iha 
FARREN,  Elba,  countcsa  of  Derby,  an  Eng-  tomb  of  Cyrus.  In  the  vidWy  of  Kaaerooo  are  the 
lish  actress  bom  in  Liverpool  in  1759,  died  remains  of  Shahpoor,  a  city  older  than  tha  dm 
April  23,  1829.  Iler  father,  a  native  of  Cork,  of  Alexander,  and  refonnded  by  Sapor.  Tne 
who  wa*  succeadvelv  a  surgeon,  an  apotliecary,  famous  sculptured  rockl^  ealkd  by  the  reishiM 
and  an  actor,  at  his  death  left  his  family  in  great  Kakhsh-i-Rostani,  are  in  tha  tdaia  of  narah> 
indigence,  and  Eliza  waa  f«>rced  to  appear  on  the  gcrd.  Lady  Shell,  in  her  ^Glimpoaa  of  liia 
atage*  She  made  her  debut  in  liverpool  in  and  Manners  in  Persia^  (Lundua,18MK««>nafff^ 
1778,  and  in  London  in  1777,  where  she  pbyed  ates  about  80  ditfereot  tribes  in  tha  nrovinea  of 
ively  at  the  IIaymarket|  Covent  Garden  Fars,  tha  most  namerona  and  troiVlmowa  af 


FABTHINGALE  FASn                       425 

vbom  are  the  Kashghai  or  Kasbkni  and  the  of  national  calamities.    Fasting  was  early  ob- 

JlmiaaeDee.    The  English  consu],  Mr.  Keith  served  as  an  act  of  devotion  by  Christians,  and 

Edwin  Abbott,  who  visited  Fars  subsequently  to  the  Lenten  fast  is  esteemed  by  the  Greek,  Roman 

LaAj  Shell  (In  1850),  derived  some  new  infor-  Catholic,  and  some  Protestant  churches,  a  tra- 

matioQ  from  the  Eel  Bcgghi  himself,  under  the  dition  from  tlie  age  of  the  apostles.    The  Greek 

iiereditary  anthoritj  of  whose  family  the  tribes  church  enjoins  fostinpr  on  Wednesday  and  Fri- 

of  Fan  have  been  for  some  generations  past,  day  of  each  week  and  on  numerous  commem- 

He  eetimatea  the  total  number  of  families  of  the  orative  occasions,  and  its  4  great  fusts  are  the 

varioos  tribes  at  from  20,000  to  22,000,  exclu-  40  days  preceding  Christmas,  the  40  days  of 

sve  of  the  Mamsenni^  who  number  about  2,000  Lent,  from  Monday  after  Whitsuntide  to  Peter 

funiliea.  Inoculation  is  said  to  have  been  known  and  Paul's  day  (June  29),  and  from  Aug.  1  to 

among  the  tribes  of  Fars  for  centuries.    Tlie  Aug.  15.    The  Roman  Catiiolio  church  makes  a 

eow-pox,  however,  is  unknown  among  them,  distinction  between  fasting  and  abstinence,  flesh 

Among  the  principal  towns  are  Shiroz,  the  cap-  but  not  fish  being  prohibited  for  food  on  fast 

ital ;  Jehroom,  the  principal  market  fur  tobacco,  days.    These  are  the  40  days  of  Lent,  the  4 

and  A  good  market  for  English  cotton  goods;  Ember  days,  the  Wednesdays  and  Fridays  of 

KaaerooD,  occupying  more  space  but  less  popu-  the  4  weeks  in  Advent,  and  the  vigils  or  eves 

loas  than  Jehroom,  with  excellent  opium  pro-  of  tlie  great  ecclesiastical  festivals.    The  church 

doeed  in  the  vicinity;  Darab  or  Darabgerd,  pos-  of  England  observes  the  Lenten  and  Ember 

■Ufcing  50  yean  ago  about  100,000  date  trees,  days,  and  also  the  8  Rogation  days  before  Holy 

vfaidi,  owing  to  the  neglect  of  cultivation,  are  Thursday,  every  Friday  except  Christmas  day, 

BOW  reduced  to  80,000 ;  Behbehan  or  Baba-  and  the  vigils  of  certain  festivals.    The  month 

han ;  and  Bushire,  the  chief  port  in  the  Persian  of  Ramadan  is  observed  as  a  period  of  fasting 

ffaU^  which,  during  the  late  war  between  Great  by  Mohammedans.    In  some  of  the  New  Eng- 

Britain  and  Persia,  surrendered  to  the  English  land  States  it  has  been  usual  for  the  governor 

under  Gen.  Ontram  in  Dec.  1856.  to  appoint  by  proclamatitm  a  day  in  the  spring 

FARTHINGALE  (Fr.  tertugadin^  It  guar-  to  be  observed  by  fasting;,  humiliation,  and 

ii^fitnU\  a  petticoat  spread  to  a  wide  circum-  prayer,  when  religious  services  have  generally 

Cereoce  by  hoops  of  willow,  wh^ebone,  or  iron,  been  conducted  in  the  churches. 

intiodnocMl  into  England  under  this  name  in  FASTI,  in  Roman  antiquity,  registers  of  the 

the  reign  of  Elizabeth.      Gentlemen  at  that  days,  months,  and  other  divisions  of  the  year, 

time  wore  trunk  hose  or  breeches,  and  ladies  corresponding  with  our  modem  calendars.  The 

wore  farthingales,  wliich  in  the  reign  of  Anne  term  is  variouslv  derived  from/(M,  divine  law, 

were  alao  termed  tub  petticoats.     They  ap-  and/ar/,  to  speak,  as  it  properly  designated  those 

peered  in  France  early  in  the  reign  of  Louis  days  of  the  year  on  which  legal  business  could 

aV.  under  the  name  off  ^<{/<7a(f  inland /Mznter^,  without  impiety  be  transacted,  or  legal  judg- 

or  basket  petticoats,  the  law  of  their  struc-  ment  be  given  by  the  magistrates.    The/a«^» 

tore  being  that  their  greatest  diameter  should  calendared  or  Mcri^  the  chief  division  of  these 

aqoal  the  height  of  the  lady,    llieir  abandon-  registers,  contained  the  enumeration  of  all  the 

ment  was  efTected  near  the  close  of  the  same  days,  divided  into  months  and  weeks  of  8  day& 

reign  br  Mile.  Clairon,  who  ventured  to  appear  according  to  the  nundina  ^the  days  of  each  of 

upon  the  stage  without  them,  but  they  again  the  latter  being  designated  oy  the  first  8  letters 

became  Huhionable  under  Marie  Antoinette,  of  the  alphabet),  the  calends,  nones,  and  ides. 

The  crinoline  petticoats  now  in  fashion  tlirough-  Days  on  which  legal  business  could  be  transacted 

out  Christendom  resemble  farthingales.  were  marked  by  F,  bs  fasti;  those  from  which 

FASCES  (Lat.),  in  Roman  antiquity,  a  bundle  Judicial  transactions  were  excluded  by.  N,  as 

of  roda  in  the  middle  of  which  was  an  axe,  car-  ne/asti;  and  days  on  which  the  assemblies  of 

ried  by  lictors  before  the  superior  magistrates  the  comitia  were  held  by  C.  Primarily  these  re- 

aa  a  symbol  of  authority.  gisters  are  said  to  have  been  intrusted  by  Numa 

FAST  (Sax./a»ton,  to  keep),  abstinence  from  as  sacred  books  to  the  care  of  the  pontifex  maX" 

feed,  especially  as  a  religious  obser>'ance,  ap-  mu«,  nnd  for  nearly  4  centuries  the  knowledge 

ijicd  aLM>  to  the  period  of  such  abstinence,  of  the  calendar  continued  to  be  in  exclusive  pos- 

Rafigknu  fasting  was  common  among  tlie  oldest  session  of  the  priests,  one  of  whom  regularly 

natioos  of  the  Orient,  being  from  the  earliest  announced  the  now  moon,  and  the  period  inters 

times  one  of  the  mortifications  of  the  fakirs  of  vening  between  the  calends  and  the  nones.    On 

ladia,  and  in  practice  among  the  ancient  Egyp-  the  nones  the  rez  Mcrorum  proclaimed  the  va- 

tiana  by  those  who  devoted  themselves  to  the  rious  festivals  to  be  observed  in  tlie  course  of 

WQffahip  of  Isifl.    The  Greeks  and  Romans  had  the  month,  and  the  days  on  which  they  would 

pwiodical  fasts,  some  of  which  were  ordained  fall.    This  knowledge,  wliicli  must  have  greatly 

^leeially  for  priests  or  women.    From  the  time  extended  the  infiuence  of  the  priests,  who  seemed 

of  Moaee  the  Jews  made  the  day  of  expiation  a  to  regulate  the  year  and  its  affairs  as  if  accord- 

d^of  fitting,  and  their  public  fasts  afterward  ing  to  revealed  divine  wisdom,  was  first  made 

became  nnnerous.    The  modern  Jews  have  6  public  (304  B.  C.)  by  Cneius  Flavius,  a  scribe  to 

ftitdaya  annually,  of  which  the  day  of  expia-  Appius  Claudius  the  Blind,  who,  having  acquired 

tiaa  ( Ycm  kippur)  is  the   most  strictly  ob-  sufficient  information  from  the  pontifical  books, 

ferrea.    All  other  days  are  commemorative  exhibited  a  table  of  the  fasti  in  the  forum,  for 


42S  FAT  OF  ANDCAIS  FATDOnOS 

which  ha  was  rewarded  bj  the  gratitude  of  the    rapidlTiipoiitheatagiiiDt^r,theilnUof  whU 

Mowlr  intei 


people  with  the  dignitr  of  curole  ledile.    From  hat  uowlj  iDtermingliiig  praMBt  m  ■eriat  cf 

this  timo  forward  soch  tables  of  stone  or  mar-  mirrors  which  variooslj  reflect   the    ol)}ecCi 

hie  became  common.    Beside  the  above  men-  upon  the  surface.    The  tides  nnai  have  optr- 

tioned  divisions  of  time,  with  their  notation,  ated  to  raise  np  the  snrface  into  a  cooTesfarmt 

they  generalljr  contained  the  enumeration  of  as  sometimes  occurs  at  this  looalitj.  Ot^jedsvpoo 

festivals  and  games,  which  were  fixed  on  cer-  the  Sicilian  shore  oppositei  beneath  the  dark 

tain  days,  astronomical  obMrvations  on  the  ris-  background  of  the  mountains  of  Mesrinai  are 

ing  and  setting  of  the  stars  and  on  the  seasons,  seen  refhtcted  and  reflected  upoo  the  water  in 

and  sometimes  brief  notices  about  religious  rites,  mid  channel,  presenting  enlarged  and    depli- 

as  well  as  of  remarkable  events.    In  later  times  cated  images.    Gigantic  figures  of  men  and 

flattery  inwrted  the  exploits  and  honors  of  the  horses  move  over  the  pictore,  as  annilar  im> 

rulers  of  Rome  and  their  families.    The  rural  ages  in  miniature  aie  seen  flitting  acrosa  the 

Iksti  (ruMtui,  distinguished  fVom   the  urbani)  white  sheet  of  the  camera  obscnra.    Itaoa^ 

also  contained  several  directions  for  rustic  labors  times  happens  that  the  sky  abore  the  waMr 

to  be  performed  each  month.  Ovid's  celebrated  is   so  impregnated  with   vapor   that  it  ser* 

Libri  Ftutomm  may  be  considered  as  what  we  rounds  these  oMects  with  a  colored  hoa.    Tbt 

would  call  a  companion  to  the  almanac,  being  a  wonderful  exhibition  is  but  of  short  doratioa. 

poetical  illustration  of  the  Roman  year  as  re-  Its  appearance  is  hailed  with  shoota  br  the  pop* 

modelled  in  his  time  by  Julius  Cosar.  A  differ-  ulace,  who  call  attention  to  it  by  tba  cry  af 

ent  kind  of /a$ti  were  those  called  annalei  or  "Morgana,  Morgana  I**  The  pheaoaaooo  isaet 

kiitcrkij  also  magUtralei  or  eoruulartM,  a  sort  peculiar  to  this  locality,  though  tba  aoaflgvfr 

of  chronicles,  containing  the  names  of  the  chief  tion  of  the  coast  and  the  meteorological  coafi- 

magistrates  for  each  year,  and  sliort  accounts  of  tions  of  the  region  ooncor  to  render  its  eikibitiaa 

remarkable  events  noted  opposite  to  the  days  on  more  frequent  and  also  more  beauttfal  beia  Am 

which  they  occurred.    Hence  the  meaning  of  elsewhere.    The  descriptioa  of  Minari,  which 

historical  records  in  general  attached  to  the  was  published  at  Rome  in  ITTS,  ia 


terra  /atti  in  poets,  while  it  is  used  in  prose  quoted  as  the  beet  account  of  this  miragcw    ^Ste 

writers  of  the  registers  of  consuls,  dictators,  *'  Nicholson^s  Journal,*'  4to.,  toL  L,  p.  tlB|  AcJ 

censors,  and  other  magistrates  belonging  to  the  FATES.    See  Parcjl 

public   archives.    Several  specimens   of  &sti  FATIMITES,  or  FATumyn,  the 

of  different  kinds  have  been  discovered  in  the  of  Fatima,  the  diiinghter  of  Mohammed,  a 

last   3  centuries  none  of    which,    however^  ful  Arab  dynasty  which  ruled  for  S| 

is  older  than  the  age  of  Augustus.    The  /a$U  in  Fgypt  and  Syria,  while  the  Abhasaiilacalipbs 

J/iijff'^ini,  the  complete  marble  orif^inal  of  which  reignca  at  Bagdml.    They  claimed  as   their 

was  loi)^  preRorve<l  in  the   Maffei   palace  at  founder  Ismael,  the  Cth  of  the  12  imams  vbe 

Koine,  but  finally  disappeared,  are  now  known  were  descended  from  AH  and  Fatima,  bat  tLif 

by  a  copy  of  Pighius;  the   IVm'aii,  known  as  claim  was  disputed,  and  they  were  varioiitly 

the  Pnencstino   calendar,   comprising  only  5  said  to  have  first  appeared  in  Pervia,  in  £g7J<i 

month's  arc  historically  no  less  remarkable,  and  at  Fez,  and  to  have  been  descendants  uT  s 

The  latter  appear  to  have  contained  ample  in-  Jew,  a  locksmith,  and  an  eastern  nge.    Thrf 

fonnation  about  festivals   and  details  of  the  first  attained  to  empire  under  Abo  ll«ihaniiM4 

honors  be<to«red  upon,  and  the  triumphs  ochiev-  Obeidallah,  who  in  the  year  of  the  hegiraSM 

e<l  by  CflDsfir,  OotavionuH,  and  Tiberius.  A  most  (A.  I).  90tf )  announce<l  himself  in  Syria  as  lbs 

rpinarkafile  FiMX'imen  of  the  Hccond  cla«8  was  m/iA^y,  or  director  of  the  laithful,  foretold  bj  tbt 

di'HX>vere<l  in  1540  in  the  forum  Rorruinum^  in  Koran,  and  expected  as  the  Mesnah  bv  adai 

lanre  frafnnents  and  is  known  under  the  name  of  hetennlox  MuMulmans.    Denoonccd  brtbi 

of  foMti  (*api(oUnu   Xew  fragments  of  the  same  caliph,  he  fled  to  £gvpU   ami   trmrened  tbt 

tahleLt  were  found  in  1817  and  in  1818.    Origi-  wliolo  of  the  north  o^  Africa  to  Sc«fi«lmtf^ 

nully  they  contained  the  reconls  of  Home  innn  where  ho  was  imprisoned,  lie  was  delivertdififl 

the  expulsi«m  of  the  kings  to  the  death  of  Au-  recognized  as  a  messenger  from  heaven  by  AU 

gustn*.     Several  modern  writer^  as  Sigonius,  Abdailoli,  who  had  iust  overthrown  the  Afhna 

Kehind,  ami  H;ut«T,  have  pubU;»Iied  chronologi-  dynasties  of  the  Aglabitesand  Medrarites.    B* 

cal  tal>Ie<i  of  Itoniau  magistrates  under  the  title  made  himself  master  of  northern  Africa  fron  t^e 

of  /*tJi(i.  straits  of  Gibraltar  to  the  b<»rder  of  Egypt,  sad 

FAT  OF  ANIMALS.  See  Aoirosa,  Ausixxt,  his  successor  conquered  the  inland  of  Sd^* 

and  Candle.  Moez,  the  4th  caliph,  wreste<l  Egypt  fruntbt 

FATA  MORGANA,  or  castles  of  the  lairy  Abbosisides  in  970,  founded  Cairo,  fiiinf  b« 

Mor;;aiiA,  a  ff»rm  of  mira;;e  iHvuAionally  foen  residence  in  its  present  sulriirb  of  Fosiat,  saJ 

by  ob^rvor?*  HLinding  on  eminenceH  on  the  Co*  compiervd  Palestine  and  a  large  port  of  ^^n^ 

lubrian  ^hftre,  and  looking  we<ttwanl  upon  the  Aziz,  his  succesKor  (975-996^  cnnsolidaud  t>4 

strait  of  Me<^Mria.     It  oixun  in  still  mornings,  extended  his  conquests,  emMU*ljed  Cairo  vitb 

when  tiie  water*  are  unrufHiNl  bj  breeze  or  cur-  many  monuments,  and  marrii*«l  a  Otriif  ian  ve- 

rent,  aiid  tlie  hun,  riMng  behind  tlie  mountains  man,  whtne  bMthers  he  m^e   pocrurrh*  «f 

of  Calabrin,   strikes  down  u(>on  the  hmuoth  Alexandria  and  Jenitalem.     His  f^ia   Hiit^ 

surface  at  on  angle  of  4o^.    The  heat  then  acts  (99^10:21)  was  prvvminently  dialiaguisbsii  U 


faho  ds  duillebs  fauna                 42T 

ieinn  and  crneltj,  penectxting  alike  Chris-  organization  of  which  he  took  a  prominent  part 

,  Jews,  and  orthodox  Mohammedans,  and  Admitted  to  the  academy  of  moral  and  poktioal 

g  the  first  impnlse  to  the  crusades  bj  his  science  in  1849,  he  gave  to  that  body  a  fund  of 

inieal  coarse  at  Jerusalem.    Declaring  him-  20,000  francs,  for  the  purpose  of  awarding  every 

.  nuwifestation  of  God,  he  became  near  the  8  years  a  prize  of  3,000  francs  to  the  author  of 

of  his  reign  the  founder  of  a  new  religion,  the  best  memoir  on  political  economy,  or  the 

represented  by  the  Druses  of  Syria,  who  best  biography  of  French  or  foreign  political 

)t  nis  reappearance  as  their  Messiah.  From  economists,  the  subject  to  be  suggested  by  the 

ime  the  power  of  the  Fatimites  declined,  academy.    On  the  free  trade  question  he  occo- 

le  death  of  Adhed,  the  14th  caliph,  in  1171,  pied  a  middle  position,  advocating  a  gradual  re- 

ynasty  was  extinguished,  and  a  new  one  auction  of  duties,  but  deprecating  all  violent 

iiahed  by  the  great  Saladin,  who  had  ac-  sweeping  reform.    He  proposed  the  formation 

lanied  an  army  sent  thither  by  the  sultan  of  a  commercial  league  between  France,  Bel- 

eddin  some  years  before,  to  settle  a  dispute  gium,  Spain,  and  Switzerland,  under  the  name 

een  rival  claimants  to  the  viaersJiip.  of  "southern  league,"  as  a  counterpoise  to  the 

lTIO  DE  DUILLERS,  Nicolas,  a  Swiss  German  Zolloerein^  and  published  his  views  on 

seler  and  religious  enthusiast,  bom  in  Basel,  the  subject  in  a  pamphlet  in  1842.    Among  his 

16,  1664,  died  in  Worcestershire,  England,  remarkable  earlier  efforts  was  an  essay  in  the 

68.  He  was  educated  at  Geneva,  and  at  the  Bevue  de$  deux  nionde$  on  the  relations  of  prop- 

i  18  wrote  a  letter  to  Cassini,  in  which  he  erty  in  France,  and  a  pamphlet  in  1888  on 

Med  m  new  explanation  of  the  rings  of  Sa-  prison  reform.    His  principal  work,  £tudes  ntr 

;  In  1685  he  gave  new  developments  to  the  VAngleterre^  a  description  of  the  social,  indus- 

7  of  lodiacal  light  propounded  by  Cassini ;  trial,  and  political  institutions  of  England,  ap- 

wttling  in  England,  he  bitterly  attacked  peal^ad  in  1845.    His  remarks  on  the  production 

litat^  whom  he  accused  of  having  stolen  of  the  precious  metals,  and  the  withdrawal  of 

Newton  the  discovery  of  the  differential  gold  from  circulation  in  several  countries  in 

Ina.    In  the  latter  part  of  his  life  he  be-  Europe,  were  translated  into  English  in  1852, 

one  of  the  most  ardent  defenders  of  the  by  Mr.  Thomas  Hankey,  ir.,  for  some  time  gov* 

bets  of  the  C^venncs,  and  ckdmed  for  him-  emor  of  the  bank  of  England. 

Siration  and  the  power  to  raise  the  dead.  FAUCIGNY,  a  N.  £.  province  of  the  duchy 

»nry  ridiculed  him  in  his  letter  on  en-  of  Savoy,  belonging  to  the  administrative  divi- 

tmn ;  and  Fatio,  with  two  associates,  was  sion  of  Annecy ;  area,  about  850  sq.  m. ;  pop. 

led  in  the  pillory  in  London,  in  Sept.  1707,  in  1857,  108,986.    Capital,  Bonneville.     Fau- 

abetting  and  favoring  Elias  Marion  in  his  cigny  is  one  of  the  most  elevated  districts  in 

Bd  and  counterfeit  prophecies.**    He  sub-  Europe,  being  partly  covered  by  the  Pennine 

flitlj  went  to  Asia,  intending  to  convert  the  Alps.  The  valleys  of  Chamouni  and  of  the  Giffre 

I,  bat  returned  to  England  and  lived  in  re-  belong  to  it.    The  most  beautiful  Alpine  flowers 

cnt  till  his  death.  abound  on  the  mountains ;  the  valleys  are  fertile 

kCCHER,  LtoN,  a  French  political  econo-  and  well  cultivated.  The  chief  occupation  of  the 

bom  in  Limoges,  Sept.  8,  1808,  died  in  inhabitants  consists  in  the  rearing  of  cattle. 

eillea,  Dec  14,  1854.    While  a  youth  he  FAULT,  in  geology,  a  displacement  of  strata, 

Nted  his  mother  and  defrayed  the  expenses  interrupting  their  continuity.    Faults  are  fre- 

I  edneation  by  employing  his  nights  in  de-  quently  met  with  in  working  coal  beds  in  the 

ig  embroidered  worL     Subsequently  he  English  mines,  the  miner  coming  unexpectedly 

leded  to  Paris  to  gain  a  livelihood  by  teach-  in  his  progress  against  an  abrupt  wall  of  other 

md  at  the  same  time  to  pursue  the  studies  strata.    The  angle  this  makes  with  the  plane  of 

ml  and  political  science.   After  the  revoln-  the  bed  he  is  working  indicates  whether  he 

of  1880  he  was  successively  editor  of  the  must  look  up  or  down  for  its  continuation  on 

M^  the  Catutitutionml,  and  the  Courrier  the  other  side  of  the  dislocation,  always  looking 

pmiM,    He  was  chosen  a  member  of  Uie  for  this  on  the  side  of  the  obtuse  angle.    Beds 

iber  of  deputies  for  Rheims  in  1846,  and  are  thus  heaved  from  a  few  feet  to  several  hun- 

Idng  himself  to  the  opposition  party,  took  dred  or  even  thousand  feet.    Faults  of  great  ex- 

mninent  part  in  debates  on  all  questions  tent  are  rarely  met  with  in  the  United  States, 

ling  upon  political  economy.  He  was  elected  though  some  have  been  noticed  in  Pennsylvania 

•  department  of  Mame  as  one  of  its  rep-  and  Virginia.  (See  Anthbaoite,  vol.  L  p.  647.) 
tatives  in  the  national  assembly  of  1848  FAUNA,  the  assemblage  of  animals  naturally 
Bsministerofthe  interior,  Dec.  29,  and  held  belonging  to  a  continent,  region,  or  district 
floe  till  May  14,  1849.  He  was  again  ap-  limited  by  geographical  or  physical  boundaries, 
ed  minister  of  the  interior,  April  10,  1851,  whether  of  land  or  water;  also,  in  geology,  the 
raa  floooeeded  by  M.  de  Thorigny,  Oct  26,  remains  of  animals  found  in   any  particular 

Ha  was  instrumental  in  preparing  the  formation.     Among  the  animals  constituting 

if  Ifay  81, 1850,  restricting  the  limits  of  the  fauna  of  a  country  we  And  certain  types  oc- 

m;  bnt  he  declined  to  accept  office  under  curring  nowhere  else,  as  the  sloths  in  South 

\  Kapdeon  after  the  covp  cTetat,     After  America,  the    omithorhynchus   in  Australia, 

bswing  from  politics,  he  devoted  himself  the  hippopotamus  in  Africa,  the  tiger  in  Asia, 

•  inlenits  of  the  OrSdit  fonder^  in  the  the  wahns  and  polar  bear  in  the  arctic  re- 


US  WJlWSJl 

9m  marmplalt  of  AmtatSikk,  repraieoted  in   floUaiii»  oompriMt  Um  Ifntahooritat  ~ 
AnierieAbjtlMO|Witiim;oUienoooiirliialmoil   OhiiMte.  ceotraJ MonpoMin,!    '^ 


•lipaitiof  the  wcNrld«ftitlM>ai>  which  allow    whoae  llmiU  are  ■uJBuiMiHy  wpfjiiirf  ly  thilr 

BMBr 


dlilmiit  ^Mciet  in  AnMiioa.  Eorope,  and  Aria.  DanMs;  among  Ha  animak  an  tba 

ThaidtimatediatiibatioQoftheipecieaofafaoiui  the  jtlk^  the  Baetrian  caaMl.  tha  wild 

li  isUmatetjr  oonnaotad  with  the  temperatore^  and  aai^  and  peooliar  Maciw  of  ' 

natore  of  the  aoil,  and  eharaoter  of  the  vegeCik  lope,  and  goat.    Z.  The  EiiroptiaB 

tioD ;  thia  ii  moot  atrikiogiy  pfoved  l^  the  aro-  habited  by  the  moat  onltivaaed  l.*^  «.^ 

tio  nnnai  which  hidodea  animala  eommoa  to  priaea  the  BoandiBaTiaa,  Boarian,  eaalnl  Sa- 

Amoricai  Europe,  and  Aaia,  contincinta  whoae  ropean,80otheni£iiropeaD,  north  Afrlea%Vg|^ 

apeoiea  in  the  temperate  and  tropical  aooea  are  tian,  Bjrian,  and  Iraman  fiw;  the  waily  of 

endrelv  different    The  flora  of  a  ooontrj,  thia  realm  ia  ahown  by  the  range  of  ilavHMBali 

which  ia  the  natoral  oombinatkm  of  plants,  like  and  bbdi^  and  1^  Ita  pbjma  geographif ;  Hi 

the  inma,  hat  peooUar  characten  more  reaam*  animab  repieaent  chimr  the 

hUngotheraaawegotowardthe  pole,  and  widely  thoae  of  Aaia,  bat  of  diwaat 

dUnrent  in  therqgloDaoftheeqQator.    In  the  ing  the  beat  known  aad  manr  of  the 

geologieal  hxum  we  find  OTidence  of  the  aame  of  the  domeetieated  epeolea;  toe  natiai 

lawa  of  dietribotioa  in  k>calitiea  beet  eoited  to  bear  a  Tory  atrikloff  relatkm  to  theaa 

ipedal  finrms  of  life,  in  many  cases  tt^noiding  aeribed  fiuinn.  4,  liie  American 

with  the  present  animala;  the  edentate  of  Bra-  ited  hr  the  American  Indiana,  < 

Ml  and  the  marsopUli  of  Anstralia  of  ibrmer  Canadian,  middle  states,  aonthern 

epocha  belong  to  the  aame  typea,  thoogfa  of  moantain%northwest,OaliDDmian,( 

mflbrentgenera  and spedea,  as  the  existing  ani*  loan.  West  Indian,  Brasilian,  nampaa^ 

mak    The  distribntlonofikonA  is  interesting  raa,PisniTian,andFstagonianannsi;a 

not  only  in  thebr  relation  to  paleontology  and  diaraeteristie  animab  aro  the  slotha  and 

aoology,  bnt  to  some  of  the  hi^iestandmost  dilloa,  opossom,  bison,  distinct  apeelai 

disputed  points  of  ethnology.    Asassis  and  k^ya,  deer,  bears,  goats,  and  riMsp,  the 

others  have  shown  that  the  natnrai  prorincea  and  mocking  birda,  ^toed  oatricn,  the 

of  animals  coincide  remarkably  with  the  natn-  gar>pike,4a    (BealmaS2Siiadi,lie 

lal  range  of  distinct  types  of  man.   Theigreat  temperate  aooclndaded  between  the 

primary  diriirions  of  anfanak,  tIs^  Tcrtemata.  of  8S*  and  74"*  F.)    6.  The  African 

artionlata,  mollnaea,  radiate,  are  foond  together  habited  by  negro  races,  comprisea  thefieham^ 

in  every  part  of  the  present  ocean  as  weuas  of  Knblan,  Abysnnian,  Seoegalian,  Gnlnaa,  tsM^ 

the  aodent  waters;  on  land  we  find  the  first  8  land,  cape  of  Good    II<H>a>  sod  Madspaw 

divisions  only,  the  last  being  entirely  aquatic,  faunso;  among  the  animals  are  the  cbimpeBSH* 

The  distribution  of  the  classes  Is  more  limited ;  hippopotamns,  lion,  zebra,  gno,  girafle,  Afticsa 

though    the  radiate  are  with  one  exception  elephant  and  rbiDocenxi,  2-toed  ostrich,  a.  Tks 

(hvdra)  marine,  some  mollusks   aro  marioe,  Malayan  realm,  including  the  Dokhon,  Isdi^ 

others  fiuviotile,  others  terrestrial ;  the  ssme  is  Chinese,  and  the  ^^and  fiuma,  correspoodfaf 

true  of  articulates  and  TertebratesL    Every  nat-  to  the  Malay  and  Teiingan  races  of  man ;  aaflai 

oral  province   has   its  peculiar  animals   and  Its  animals  are  the  oran^-oatang,  Imfiaa  ds* 

plants,  though  the  limits  of  such  provinces  are  phanti  rhinoceros,  and  tapur,  and  the  arnee  ex. 

as  yet  not  sufficiently  well  ascertained  to  be  of  7.  Tlie  Australian  realm,  characteriasd  priab- 

much  advantage  in  classification.    The  nneousl  pally  by  the  marsupials  and  monotreme^  aad  kf 

distribution  of  these  faunae  is  well  dimlayea  in  the  absence  of  monkeys,  raminanta,  carnlrank 

a  sketch  by  Agasdx  In  Kott  and  Uliddon*s  pachyderms,  and  edentates.    8.  ThePDlyoaMa 

**  Types  of  Mankind,^  which  may  be  regarded  realm,  inhabited  by  the  Sooth  sea  isUnden^  vitk 

as  an  approximation  to  a  natural  arrangement  numerouslocal&nnsB,  each  groop  of  islands  hsv> 

of  zoological  provinces,  whether  hii  condusions  ing  man  v  animab  peculiar  to  itsMC — ^Tha  haasa 

in  regard  to  their  relation  to  human  tvpes  be  race  is  distributed  all  over  theeartli ;  ihessoB* 

aecepted   or  not    ProC  Agassis  divides  the  beroid  fishes  have  an  equally  wide  dtsiribelioa 

|^U>be  into  8  realms,  as  follows :  1.  Arctic  realm,  In  the  sea.    Fishes,  thoogh  inhabiting  a  msdisn 

correspooding  to  tbe  arctic  circle,  or  rather  to  which  allows  the  freest  migrattoo,  are  cirewa- 

the  Isothermal  line  of  82''  F.,  witliin  which  the  scribed  within  locsl  limiU;  those  of  the  t«e 

fiirests  disappear;  inhabited  by  Esquimaux  and  sides  of  the  Atlantic,  except  a  few  northfra 

other  hyperborean  nations,  and  by  a  fauna  com-  ones,  are   specifically  distinct,  and  their  fr 

mon  to  the  8  northern  continents ;  its  charac*  tribution  is  principauy  Inflnenced  by  the  Gat 

teristio  animals  are  the  white  bear,  walrus,  of  temperature  eatablished  by  the  average  of  lbs 

reindeer,  seals,  large  cetaceans,  paltniped  birdsL  greatest  cold  during  tbe  80  coldest  days  of  lbs 

anmerous  fishes  (especially  the  mlmonida)^  and  year.    That  the  terrestrial  and  marine  imam 

a  variety  of  worms,  crostaces,  mullukks,  echino-  do  not  necessarily  correspond  in  the  same  ht** 

dermsi  and  medos» ;  no  reptiles  form  part  of  tude,  and  on  the  same  continent,  b  proved  ^ 

this  fanna;  the  vegetation  is  of  the  most  mesgre  the  facts  in  regard  to  the  aonthere  portioa  cf 

description,  consisting  of  mosses,  lichens,  and  a  the  United  States.    The  peninsnla  of  Flarids  n 

finrgramioeoos  and  flowering  plants  and  dwarf  inhabited  by  terrestrial  and  fiavisaila 


FAUNS  FAUST                     429 

ooTered  with  land  plants,  tbo  same  as  in  1810  a  translation  of  the  Parthenau  of  Bag- 

of  the  a^^oining  stated  of  Georgia,  Ala-  gesen,  and  soon  afterward  translations  of  2  of 

Mississippi,  &c,   which   are  with  few  the  tragedies  of  Manzoni.    The  latter  showed 

ions  those  of  a  temperate  or  at  most  sub-  his  esteem  for  Fam*iel  by  dedicating  to  him  his 

1  zone ;  while  the  marine  fishes  and  in-  Carmagnola,    He  began  a  history  of  stoicism, 

rates,  and  the  algsB,  are  cssentiaUy  tropi-  for  which  he  had  collected  many  materiids,  but 

kxne  of  the  most  remarkable  examples  of  he  wearied  of  the  labor  of  writing,  and  the  wori^ 

[  distribution  of  animals  in  local  fanned,  was  never  fini^ed.    In  1824-*6  he  published  his 

I  orangs  of  the  Sunda  islands,  the  gorilla  ^^  Popular  Songs  of  Modern  Greece,"  giving 

west  coast  of  Africa  near  the  Gaboon  both  the  original  text  and  a  French  version, 

he  rhinoceros  and  elephant  of  southern  In  IBdO  he  was  appointed  to  the  professorship 

and  Asia,  the  tapir  of  South  America  of  foreign  literature  in  the  faculty  of  letters  at 

the  East  Indies,  the  camel  and  dromedary,  Paris,  created  expressly  for  him  by  Guizot    In 

rich  of  Africa  and  of  South  America,  the  1836  appeared  his  ^^  History  of  Southern  Gaol 

ary  and  apteryx  of  Australia,  the  protons  under  the  German  Conquerors,"  in  4  vols.    This 

nthia,  and  the  blind  fish  and  crawfish  of  work  gained  for  him  admission  into  the  academy 

mmoth  cave,  Kentucky.  of  inscriptions  and  belles  lettres.    He  was  one 

INS,  in  Roman  mythology,  rural  divin-  of  the  collaborators  in  the  **  Literary  History 

lescended  from  Faunus,  king  of  Latium,  of  France,"  for  which  he  furnished  a  remarka- 

itroduced  into  that  country  the  worship  ble  notice  of  Brunetto  Latini,  beside  many 

gods  and  the  labors  of  agriculture.    The  others.    In  1887  he  published  a  ^*  History  of 

iBcribed  to  them  horns,  and  the  figure  the  Crusade  against  the  Albigensian  ^eretics, 

30t  below  their  waist,  but  made  them  written  in  Provencal  Verses  by  a  contemporary, 

ind  less  hideous  than  the  satyrs.    Fauns,  Poet,"  to  which  he  added  a  translation  and  in- 

tyrs,  were  introduced  upon  the  ancient  troduction.    After  his  death  one  course  of  his 

a  comic  scenes.    The  cabalistic  mythol-  lectures  was  published  under  the  title  of  a 

K>  admits  the  existence  of  fauns,  whom  *^  History  ofthe  Provencal  Literature,"  in  which 

rds  as  imperfect  creatures.    It  supposes  he  developed  his  theory  that  this  literature  gave 

od  had  created  their  souls,  but,  surprised  origin  to  the  romances  of  Charlemagne  and  of 

Sabbath,  had  not  time  to  finish  their  the  round  table,  and  to  the  ideas  of  honor,  love. 

Hence  these  unfinished  beings  seek  to  and  gallantry  which  modified  the  manners  of 

he  Sabbath,  on  which  day  they  retire  to  the  middle  ages.    An  English  translation  of  the 

ipest  solitudes  of  the  woods  and  forests.  first  22  chapters,  which  comprise  the  complete 

JQUIER,  a  N.  E.  co.  of  Va.,  bounded  K  history  of  rroven^al  lyricd  poetry,  by  Prof, 

the  Blue  Kidgc,  and  S.  W.  by  Kappa-  G.  J.  Adler,  has  been  announced  for  publication 

ik  river  and  one  of  its  branches ;  area,  (New  York,  1859.)    Another  course  of  his  lec- 

[.  m. ;  pop.  in  1850,  20,868,  of  whom  tures  was  published,  entitled  *^  Dante  and  the 

were  slaves.    It  has  a  diversified  sur-  Origin  of  the  Italian  Language  and  Literature." 

productive  soil,  and  is  rich  in  mineri^.  FAUST,  Dr.  Johann,  a  prominent  character 

are  several  gold  mines  which  have  been  of  the  national  and  popular  poetry  of  Germany. 

1  with  profit,  and  l>eds  of  magnesia  and  According  to  tradition,  he  was  a  celebrated 

>ne  have  also  been  discovered.  The  staple  necromancer,    born    about   A«    D.    1480    at 

ttions  are  grain,  wool,  and  hay.    In  1850  Enittlingen,  or  Eundlingen,  in  TVtlrtemberg, 

»Qnty  yielded  562,959  bushels  of  Indian  or,  as  others  have  itat  Roda  in  the  present 

^6,824  of  wheat,  8,523  tons  of  hay,  210,-  grand  duchy  of  Saxe-Weimar,  or  at  Saltwedel 

L  of  butter,  and  72,825  of  wool.    There  in  the  then  principality  of  Anhalt.    He  is  said 

85  churches,   and  923  pupils  attending  to  have  studied  magio  at  Cracow.     Having 

and  other  schools.    Value  of  real  estate  mastered  all  the  secret  sciences,  he  was  seized 

10,  $9,755,536.    Formed   in    1759,  and  with  gloomy  dissatisfaction  at  the  shallowness 

in  honor  of  Gov.  Francis  Fauquier  of  of  human  knowledge,  and  with  an  intense  long- 

ia.    Capital,  Warrenton.  ing  after  a  more  elevated  kind  of  mental  and 

JBIEL,  Claude,  a  French  historian  and  physical  enjoyment.    He  conjured  the  Evil  One, 

upon  belles  lettres,  born  in  St.  £ticnne,  and  made  an  agreement  with  him,  according 

I,  1772,  died  in  Paris,  July  15,  1844.    In  to  which  the  devil  was  to  serve  Faust  for  full  24 

le  became  an  ofiUccr  in  the  array  of  the  years,  obeying  all  his  behests,  and  at  the  expira- 

Ses,  but  after  a  year's  service  renounced  tion  of  the  term  Faust's  soul  was  to  be  delivered 

litary  profession,  and  devoted  himself  to  to  eternal  damnation.    The  contract,  signed  by 

He  was  for  2  years  secretary  to  Fouch^,  Faust  with  his  own  blood,  contained  the  fbllow- 

iniater  of  police,  but  resigned  when  in  ing  5  conditions :  \1,  he  shall  renounce  God  and 

«  saw  Napoleon  about  to  concentrate  the  all  celestial  hosts ;  2,  he  shall  be  an  enemy  of 

iment  in  his  own  hands.    Meanwhile  he  all  mankind ;  8,  he  shall  not  obey  priests ;  4, 

ide  acquaintance  with  many  literary  per-  he  shall  not  go  to  church  nor  partake  of  the 

ltd  attracted  the  attention  of  Madame  de  holy  sacraments ;  5,  he  shall  hate  and  shun 

had  become  associated  with  Condorcet  wedlock."    Faust  having  signed  this  agreement, 

)€rerando,  and  was  devoting  particular  at-  Satan  sent  him  a  tpiritua  familiarU  (Mephis- 

ito  the  oriental  languages.    He  published  topheles,  Mephostophilis,  or  Mephistophiles),  a 


480  FAUST 

devil  "who  likes  to  lire  Amongmen.^  Fanst  now  opinion  is  enentially  adopted  hj  the  brolheri 
began  a  brilliant  worldly  career.  He  rerelled  in  Grimm.  Karl  Rodenkrani  aaya :  **  The  popoUr 
all  manner  of  sensnaleniojment^  of  which  his  at-  history  of  Dr.  Faost  is  merely  a  eoubinatiua 
tentive  devil-servant,  with  an  inexhaustible  fer-  of  a  number  of  fables,  all  tomiog  apoo  tha 
tility  of  imagination,  was  always  inventing  new  same  puint,  viz. :  tlie  attempt  of  man  to  rite  to 
and  more  attractive  forms.  When  remorse  tor*  superhuman  mental  and  phyueal  power  by  a 
mented  Faust  and  surfeit  led  him  to  sober  rcflco-  compact  with  Satan.  Many  things  aaeribed  to 
tion,  Mephistoplieles  diverted  him  with  all  kinds  Faust  by  popular  belief  are  likewise  rdafted  of 
of  curious  devilries.  Faust  frequently  joined  in  other  men  whose  profound  knowledfs  or  skill 
them,  and  applied  his  supernatural  powers  to  the  the  mass  were  unable  to  oomprebend.  In  this 
most  astonishing  feats  of  witchcraft  This  period  respect  the  fable  of  Faust  msjr  be  oomparcd  to 
of  his  career  is  embellished  by  popular  poetry  those  of  Fortunatusor  the  Wsndering  Jew.**  la 
wi^  numerous  comical  tricks  ana  miraculous  its  very  earliest  and  crudest  form  the  laUs  of 
feats.  Disgusted  at  last  with  bis  life  of  dis-  Faustus  appears  as  an  iilostratioa,  howtrer 
sipation,  Faust  yearned  for  the  blessings  of  <^uaint  and  coarse,  of  a  deep  philosophical  sea- 
matrimony.  Satan,  afndd  of  losing  him,  ap-  timent  The  tragical  fate  of  Faostoa  b  repi^ 
pcared  in  all  the  terrors  of  fire  and  brim-  sented  to  result  from  an  irrecoocilaUe  eoflflkt 
stone,  and  frightened  him  out  of  this  purpose,  of  faith  and  knowledge.  In  the  sccood  part  of 
But  in  order  to  satisfy  his  desire,  he  sent  him  his  Fhuit^  Goethe  hiu  attempted  m  poetical  s^ 
from  the  lower  regions  the  beautiful  Greek  lution  of  the  legend.  Through  all  Ticisatada 
Helena  as  a  concubine.  Faust  lived  with  her,  he  leads  Faust  to  a  point  whOTO  at  last  hec» 
and  she  bore  him  a  son,  Justus  Faustus.  Fi-  riences  the  feeling  of  oerfect  happtnesa  in  » 
nally,  the  term  of  24  years  drawing  to  its  dose,  voting  his  intellectual  uculties  to  the  pmnaCioa 
remorse  and  fear  overpower  him  completely ;  of  the  welfare  of  his  kind.  Then  no  has  i|p 
as  a  last  resort  he  seeks  relief  and  salvation  from  tained  the  end  which  he  has  pointed  out  to 
priests,  but  nothing  mvuls  him.  All  flee  flrom  Mephistopheles  as  the  object  of  all  his  loofiaf^ 
the  doomed  man.  Midnight  approaches ;  an  and  is  removed  from  this  life,  not,  however,  t» 
unearthly  noise  is  heard  horn  Fausfs  room,  the  be  lost,  but  to  be  saved  by  love,  the  ^eiw* 
howling  of  a  storm  which  shakes  the  house  to  womanly"  that  '*  leads  us  on  high.^  GoedM'i 
its  very  foundation,  demoniacal  laughter,  cries  famous  poein  attempts  to  show  that  man*s  kMf* 
of  pain  and  anguish,  a  piercing,  heartrrending  ing  after  knowledge  may  lead  him  into  nsay 
call  for  liclp,  followed  by  the  stillness  of  death,  errora  and  failings,  but  cannot  destroy  bis  beOfr 
Next  morning  they  find  Faustus  room  empty,  nature. — The  first  printed  biography  uf  Faatf 
but  on  the  floor  and  walls  evidence  of  a  violent  appeared  in  1587,  at  Frankfort :  ffUtorim  im 
stru^'gle,  iKHils  of  blood  and  shattered  brains ;  />r.  Johann  Faust^n,  den  tetUhetchreyUn  Zi*- 
tlio  corpse  itself,  mangled  in  a  most  horrible  berer  und  tehttan  KHrutler.  In  1584  there  ip- 
mannt* r,  they  tind  upon  a  dunghill.  The  beau-  peared  a  rhymed  edition  and  a  translati'm  b'.o 
tiful  Helena  and  her  son  have  disam>earcd  for  low  Dutch ;  in  15^9,  a  tranalation  into  Frtach, 
ever. — That  some  such  person  as  Fuustus  has  Ilutoire  pnxiigieuu  tt  lamentahU  d4  Jr^m 
existed  is  asserted  in  the  most  direct  manner  Fau4t ;  about  the  same  time,  an  En^di^  v«^ 
by  writers  who  profess  to  have  conversed  with  sion,  **  A  Hidhid  of  the  Life  and  Ihnth  cf 
him.  AmouK  these  eye-witnesses  are  Philip  Me-  Doctor  Faustu;*,  the  great  Cunjurvr;*^  aai 
laiichthon,  the  great  reformer,  and  Conrad  Oes-  shortly  after,  '*  Tlie  History  of  the  I>amna^^> 
ner  0^<>l)i  ^d  even  in  Luilier's  *' Table- Talk"  Life  and  Deserved  Death  of  Dr.  John  FaartM."* 
mention  in  made  of  Dr.  Faustus  as  a  man  irre-  Tlio  latter  version  seems  to  have  bevo  the  baui 
trievably  lost.  But  it  Lt  by  no  means  certain  of  Christoplier  Marlowe^s  drama,  "*  Life  aai 
tLit  the  real  name  of  this  man  was  Faustus.  Death  of  Dr.  Faustu^**  which  in  its  torn  vst 
Joseph  Gorres  maintains  that  a  certain  George  transfonned  into  a  (ierman  puppet  play,  h  a 
SaU'llirus  is  the  only  historical  person  in  whom  from  this  i>upf»et  play,  which  has  prt-«crvcd  iti 
tlio  original  of  Faust  can  bo  recopiized.  In  popularity  in  Gennaiiy  for  two  centan•^  thaS 
his  opinion  Faustus  was  a  fictitious  name  which  Goethe  drew  the  first  conception  of  his  trvredr. 
8abeliicus  assumed.  Others  have  endeavored  a  fart  which  explains  tlie  striking  similaritr  l««- 
to  show  that  Croorgo  SalH'Uicus  disappeared  tween  the  opening  monologue  of  Fan^t  in  Mar* 
about  the  year  1510  or  ITilT,  and  tliat  Faust  lowers  and  GiK*the*s  ]K>em4.  la  15'J9.  G.  H. 
was  one  of  his  pupili.  Fuusfs  death  is  pre-  Widmann  publi**hed  (inGvnnan)  a**Trae  H^.^ 
sumed  to  have  taken  place  in  153S.  Tradition  tory  of  the  Horrid  and  Execrable  Sins  a&l 
has  connei^ted  with  his  noiuo  a  great  number  ViccH,  al«o  of  many  yiracul<*as  and  yati^zz 
of  biographical  traits  and  nia^ral  feats  former-  strange  Adventures,  of  Dr.  Johannes  Fao^:^*" 
ly  asoribid  to  other  reput«*<l  c«>njiirer4^  such  as  (3  vols.^  A  new  ver»ion  apiNrared  in  U'TI. 
Albertus  Magnus,  Simon  Ma^^UH,  and  Paracelsus,  bearing  the  title  (in  (forman  i.  '*  T!«e  Scaxjdil-.'^ 
'*  Faust,"'  havsGorros,  *'  is  rather  a  btN>k  than  a  Life  and  Horrible  [K^ath  of  the  Nutorkms  Ar\:i- 
person.  All  that  is  related  of  his  wonderful  Nfcn»mancer  Dr.  Johann  Fan^^L'*  Itvastf.cA 
magical  powers  has  formed  i>art  of  |K>puhir  tra-  reptiblisilied,  but  replaced  at  hut  by  an  9X>t\\s«^ 
dilion  fi>r  centuries  before  his  time.  Faust  edition  of  W  id  man  u's  version  (IT'JSV.  A  ft^is 
wa%  so  to  «pcak,  merely  the  seal  stam|>ed  mion  numl>er  of  books  on  noiTumancy  alM>  i^n-tcol 
the  colluctiun  of  all  these  traditions.*'    This  to  give,  from  original  manascnpts  of  Faoit. 


FAUST  rAYIGNAKA                  481 

ibalistio  formiilaa»  chaima,  talismans,  ^so.  are  attributed  to  thenu    The  quarrels  between 
r  these  pablicationS)  and  also  all  important  the  archbishop  Diether  von  Iseuburg  and  Adolf 
graphs  bearing  upon  this  subject,  have  of  Nassau,  which  resulted  in  the  sacking  of 
reprinted  in  the  valuable  collection  of  J.  Mentz  bj  the  latter  in  1462,  proved  disastrous 
ble,  Iku  Klo9ter  ueltlich  and  geUtlieh  to  Faust^s  establishment ;  his  workmen  were 
gart|  1847).     More  than  250  diflferent  scattered,  and  the  printing  process,  which  had 
I  on  the  legend  of  Faust  are  enumerated  been  kept  as  a  secret  in  Mentz,  was  divulged  bj 
iter's  Literatur  der  FauiUage  (2  vols.,  them  in  other  countries.    A  short  time  after- 
,  1849,  2d  edition  1851).  ward,  however,  Faust  was  enabled  to  resume 
UST,  or  Fust,  Johann,  an  associate  of  his  operations.     He  made  several  journeys  to 
iberg  and  Schoffer  in  the  first  develop-  Paris,  in  the  last  of  which  he  is  suppos<Mi  to 
of  the  art  of  printing,  bom  in  Mentz.  have  died  there  of  the  plague. 
in  Paris  about  1466.    He  probably  had  FAUSTIN  I.    See  Soulouqub. 
are  in  the  invention  of  Uie  art,  and  his  FAUSTINA,  Annia  Galbria,  daughter  of 
etion  with  it  commenced  in  1450,  when  Annius  Verus,  prefect  of  Rome,  and  wife  of 
ibei^  having  expended  a  fortune  in  ex-  the  emperor  Antoninus  Pius,  bom  A.  D.  104, 
enting,  induced  Faust  to  enter  into  part-  died  in  141.    She  ascended  the  throne  with 
ip  with  him,  and  advance  funds  to  estab-  Antoninus  in  188,  and  though  the  emperor 
vt  business  of  printing  at  Mentz,  the  latter  grieved  at  the  profligacy  of  her  life,  his  affec- 
;  alien  on  the  materials  as  security.    Hie  tion  for  her  made  him  place  her  aiter  death 
mown  productions  of  the  press  of  Faust  among  the  number  of  the  goddesses,  raise  tem- 
atenberg  are  an  indulgence  granted  by  pies  and  altars  to  her,  and  have  medals  strack 
Nicholas  v.  to  Paulinus  Chappe,  ambassa-  in  her  honor,  exceeding  in  number  and  variety 
the  king  of  Cypms,  of  which  18  copies  on  those  in  honor  of  any  other  Roman  empress. — 
1  printed  in  1454  remain,  and  2  copies  of  Axnia,  younger  daughter  of  the  preceding,  wife 
dition  printed  in  1455,  and  an  *^  Appeal  ofher  cousin  the  emperorMarcusAurelius,  bom 
ciitendom  against  the  Turks,"  supposed  to  A.  D.  125,  died  in  175.    She  was  the  Messalina 
rto  the  former  year.    Tlie  celebrated  folio  of  her  time,  surpassing  even  the  dissolute  man- 
bible  of  the  Mazarin  library  is  also  at-  ners  ofher  mother.    The  emperor  was  aware  of 
ed  to  this  period.    This  is  a  close  imi-  her  disorderly  life,  but  loved  her,  notwithstand- 
of  the  best  writing,  the  rubricated  cap-  ing  the  railleries  and  murmurs  of  the  people  and 
einff  written  in  by  hand ;  and  it  is  probably  the  advice  of  his  friends.    She  accompanied  him 
\  eoition  that  is  to  be  referred  the  wcU  in  an  expedition  to  the  East,  and  suddenly  died 
1  though  apocryphal  story  of  Faust  hav-  at  a  village  near  the  foot  of  Mt.  Tauras.    Au- 
en  arrested  at  Paris  on  a  charge  of  magic  relius  mourned  for  her,  ranked  her  among  the 
ling,  at  a  fraction  of  their  usual  price,  goddesses,  caused  medals  to  be  struck  in  her 
of  the  Bible  so  exactly  alike  that  they  honor  bearing  the  inscription  of  Pudicitia^  and 
not  have  been  produced  by  human  agen-  exalted  the  place  where  she  died  into  a  city 
06.    A  copy  of  this  edition,  the  only  one  with  the  name  of  Faustinopolis. 
lerica,  is  in  the  library  of  Mr.  James  FAYERSHAM,  or  Fbvbrshaic,  a  market 
,  of  New  York ;  it  cost  about  $3,000.  town,  borough,  and  parish  of  Kent,  England, 
>5  Faust  put  an  end  to  the  partnership  and  a  member  of  the  cinque  port  of  Dover, 
ng  Gutenberg  for  his  advances,  amount-  on  a  branch  of  the  Swale,  45  m.  E.  8.  E. 
parently  to  only  1,600  florins,  but  swelled  of  London ;  pop.  in  1851,  4,595.    It  contains  a 
irges  of  interest  and  expenses  to  2,020.  handsome  church,  built  of  flint,  with  a  light 
ut  residted  in  his  favor,  and  he  took  pos-  and  graceful  spire,  several  chapels,  schools,  and 
1  of  the  flreater  part  of  the  stock  in  satis-  assembly  rooms,  and  a  theatre.    The   town 
L  of  the  debt.    Faust  then  associated  with  has  long  been  famous  for   the  manufacture 
f  Peter  SchOffer,  his  son-in-law,  who  had  of  gunpowder,  and  has  also  some  factories  of 
in  their  employment,  and  had  perfected  Roman  cement.    Its  chief  trade  is  in  oysters, 
ooess  of  making  mova][)le  metallic  types  It  is  accessible  to  vessels  of  150  tons  burden, 
t  invention  of  the  punch.    The  first  com-  FAVIGNANA  (anc.  JSgma  or  jEthuta^  an 
result  of  this  new  invention   was    the  important  Roman  naval  station),  an  island  of 
umU  Divinorum  Offieiorum  of  Durandus  the  iEgades  group  in  the  Mediterranean,  8  m. 
Iblio,  1459).    Two  editions  of  a  Psalter,  from  the  W.  coast  of  Sicily ;  pop.  4,000.    It  is 
tblljr  executed,  had  previously  appear^  about  5  m.  long,  and  from  2  to  8  m.  broad, 
be  imprint  of  Faust  and  SchOffer  (1457  The  surface  is  low,  with  the  exception  of  a 
159X  but  in  these  the  large  capitals  were  range  of  hills  running  through  the  centre,  on 
L  wood.    Copies  of  9  other  works  from  theculminatingsummitof  which  is  the  castle  of 

SM  with  date  and  imprint  still  exist,  Santa  Oatarina.    There  is  a  fine  bay  on  the  E., 

a  Latin  Vulgate  Bible  (2  vols,  largo  on  which  stand  the  town  and  fortress  of  San 

X  and  the  De  OffieiU  and  Faradoxa  Leonardo.    San  Giacomo,  tlie  principal  place, 

•TO  (small  fol.,  1466 ;  a  copy  of  this,  the  is  on  the  N.  coast.    The  island  has  several  quar- 

irinted  classic  author,  is  in  the  Astor  ries.  and  extensive  tunny  and  anchovy  fisheries, 

%  New  York),  beside  several  not  so  an-  in  the  produce  of  which,  and  in  sheep,  goats, 

attod,  which  from  a  close  resemblance  poultry,  ^^,  it  has  a  flourishing  export  trade. 


VATKAS  I4¥X]BI 


TAYBAfl^  Tbomas   IQin,  marqiilf  <<  a  wodaimfag  en  Hit  OBMrfoa  Us 

JVeoeli  complrator  against  the  reTolatioiL  born  We  of  free  imtitatioiia.    In  tbe  ai 

in  Bloia  in  1748.  banged  in  Paris,  Feb.  19,  became  a  member  of  tbe  legidaftiTe  bbdlj, 

1790.    He  entered  the  annir  in  1766,  and  after  gare  a  nev  eTidenee  of  Ida  moral  oonrage  on 

aareral  campi^gns  was  made  first  liootenant  in  •  the  outbreak  of  the  war  wUh  AwCrin  (AfifK 

tte  Swiss  goards  of  Mondenr  (afterward  Loois  1869X  bjr  denouncing  in  that  bo^y  thalnesn 

XVnL\  and  in  1787  commanded  a  legion  in  sistency  of  the  Tident  oTerthrow  of  Bbartf  at 

HoUana  dorinff  the  insorreetlon  acainst  the  home  and  the  attempt  to  eataWirfi  ia  by  Met 

atadtholder.    In  1790  he  was  ai^raiended  aa  of  arms  abroad. 

the  ringleader  of  a  plot  to  introduce  an  armj  of        FAWKES,  Gut,  aBrlUsh  ooMDintor,  bsia 

80,000  men.  Swiss  and  Qermans,  into  Paria  by  in  Yorkshire,  executed  in  London,  Jan.  80L IM 

ninit,  which  was  to  murder  BaiHj,  Lafimtte,  A  s<^er  of  fortune,  he  waa  sarrinf  in  tin 

and  Necker,  and  to  eamr  off  the  royal  nmily  Spanish  army  in  the  Netherlands  wMn  sai^ 

and  the  seals  of  state  to  Peronne.    He  was  sop-  in  160i  the  scheme  of  blowing  np  the  psil^ 

poaed  to  be  a  secret  agent  of  the  highest  person-  ment  house  with  gunpowder,  and  thnadsstngn- 

ages,  and  suacHcion  waa  directed  to  Monsieur,  ing  at  a  blow  the  fing,  lords,  and  eon»non%  w 

who^alarmedoy  the  public  agitation,  ezcdpi^  conceived  by  Robert  Oateabr,  a  BomanOlitt^ 

Umaelf  by  aspeech  at  the  h6teldeTiUe.   Farraa  lie  of  ancient  and  opulent  ainfly.    It  was  Iip 

waa  aammoned  before  the  ChAtdet,  and,  whUe  tended  thus  to  take  Tengeanee  for  the  atvml^ 

the  populace  showed  the  greatest  fiury  againsft  of  the  penal  laws  against  Oatholica,nniaalbB 

hfan,  shooUng  **  Favraa  to  the  lamp-poat,**  he  of  w  ioh  had  been  Talnly  expected  on  tliaa^ 

waacrademMd  tobebanged;  and  he  met  hia  o       nofJamea.    Fawkeawasperlufatlnib 

fote  with  unshaken  fortitude.    When  told  that  ]      on  admitted  into  the  conspinMiy.  and  n^ 


no  rerelationa  woold  save  his  own  Ufa,  he  an-  iui  d  to  England  in  May,  1004,  banng  lea 
awered:  ** Then  my  secret  shall  die  with  me.**  ael*»p^edaaausefalcoa4|tttor!yThnniaawliln 
Hia  execution  took  place  at  night,  by  the  light  of    who  had  gone  on  a  ihiitless  ndaakin  In 


terehea,  amid  the  Jesta  of  the  crowd,  and  waa  the  the)  tenrention  of  the  Spaidsh  kiafin  beyf 

flni  example  of  the  equality  of  rsToliltionaiy  of  th«  Enc^ish  OathoUcSb    Thomaa  rer^y.  eai 

««,  cartel  punishment  haTing  formerly  been  of  the  confoderatea,  rented  a  hooae  anefaiH 

ted  on  nobles  by  decapitation,  and  only  on  that  in  which  parilament  was  to  aaseeaalafli 

plebeians  by  hanging.  which  Fawkea,  who  was  unknown  in  LbMi 

FAVRE,  GAmnxL  Ciavdi  Jvifta,  a  IVenbh  took  possession  as  his  aerrant,  vndar  the  » 

lawyer  and  politician,  bom  in  Lyons,  March  aumea  name  of  Johnson*    Parilament  wasieai 

91,  1809.    FhHn  1880,  when  he  adTocated  the  after  adjourned  till  Feb.  7, 160S,  and  on  Dm. 

abolition  of  royalty,  until  the  present  dar,  he  11  preceding  the  conspirators  secretly  met  la 

has  been  a  contUtent  champion  of  republican  the  liired  house  of  Percy,  and  began  to  exemli 

principles,  in  the  press,  in  the"^  Yomm,  and  at  a  mine.    Seven  men  were  thus  occupied  lalS 

the  Iwr,  where  he  nas  frequently  been  the  de-  Christmas  eve,  nerer  ap|>earing  in  the  i 

fonder  of  parties  indicted  by  the  government,  part  of  the  house,  while  Fawkea  kept 

After  the  revolotion  of  Feb.  1848,  he  became  watch  above.    Parliament  was  again 

secretary-geneml  of  the  ministry  of  the  interior,  from  Feb.  7  to  Oct.  3,  and  the 

hot  resigned  on  being  elected  to  the  constitu-  therefore  dii^rsed  for  a  time,  but 

ent  assembly.    He  officiated  for  some  time  as  their  arrangements  between  thefullowiaf  Fc^ 

under  secretary  of  the  ministnr  of  foreign  «f-  ruary  and  May.    Their  labor  waa  llghteiiM  If 

foirs,  and  was  often  heard  in  debate;    He  voted  hiring  a  vaalt  immediately  below  tlM  hoaw  ef 

for  the  proeecation  of  Louis  Blanc  and  Cans-  lords,  which  had  just  been  vacated  Iqr  a  dedff 

aldi^re,  on  account  of  the  insurrection  of  June,  in  coals,  into  which  they  conveyed  by  nlahl  M 

1848,  and  for  proscriptive  measures  against  po-  barrels  of  powder,  and  covered  thesn  witk  hf 

litical  clnbs  and  tumultuous  assemblies  in  the  gots.    They  again  dispersed,  Fawkcn  ptocesl 

street;  bat  he  proposed  a  preamble  to  the  con-  ing  to  Flandera  to  confer  with  ptrsons  tkn 

atltution,  making  it  incumoent  upon  the  state  with  a  view  to  securing  foreign  coOparatisB  la 

to  assist  tho^e  of  the  working  clasiee  who  were  the  military  and  politioil  movecaenta  that^ 

unable  to  find  employment,  refosed  to  join  in  to  follow  the  explosion;  and  aa  money  waai 

the  vote  of  thanks  to  Cavaignac,  and  opposed  ed  to  prepare  for  theae,  8  wealthy  gentli 

the  expedition  of  Dec.  1848,  to  Rome.    After  Sir  Evcrsird  Digby,  Ambrose  Roukwood, 

the  election  of  Lonis  Napoleon  to  the  presi-  Francis  Tresham,  were  made  privy  to  the  ploi 

dency  (Dec.  90,  1848),  he  became  his  strenuous  The  meeting  of  parliament  waa  again  dawrsl 

opponent,  and  after  the  flight  of  Ledm-Rollin  to  Nov.  5,  and  Fawkes  waa  imMlntad  ta  lie 

(Jane  18,  1849),  Favre  was  the  acknowledged  the  mine  with  a  slow  match.    The  i 

leader  of  the  m^mta^ns  party.    After  the  coup  was  detected  ttom  the  attempt  of 

d'itat  of  Deo.  9, 1851,  he  was  elected  member  privy  to  it  to  save  the  lifo  of  Lord  1 

of  the  general  council  of  the  departroeats  of  the  a  Roman  Catholic  peer.    Tbongh  It 

Loire  and  Rhone,  bat  refused  to  take  the  oath  decided  to  convey  no  expreos  inform 

to  the  new  conf^titntion.    In  1858  he  created  a  the  Roman  Catholics  who  wonid  ba 


profound  sensation  by  his  defence  of  Crsinl,    but  only  to  pre^  i     e  al  gronndsaamatf 

whoae  advocate  he  wai^  and  by  his  boldness  in    aspoariblen       h  yaionO)ei.MLM 


FAXABDO  FATAL                      4S8 

^onteigje  reeeired  an  anon jmons  letter  en-  classics  of  his  conntrj.    His  most  noted  work  is 

«atlng  his  absence  fh>m  the  parliament,  and  his  **  Fables  "  {Meakn^  Vienna,  1820 ;  German 

itimanng  m  terrible  dang:er.    The  letter  was  translation  by  Petz,  Vienna,  1821),  in  the  style 

lown  to  several  lords  of  the  council,  and  after-  of  those  of  Lessine.    A  collection  of  his  works 

ard  to  the  king,  and  resulted  in  a  search  in  8  vols,  appeared  at  Pesth  in  1848-'4. 

iroogh  the  neighboring  houses  and  cellars  on  FAY,   Theodobb  Sedowiok,   an  American 

le  night  of  Nov.  4,  when  Fawkes  was  seized  author  and  diplomatist,  born  in  New  York,  Feb. 

ist  alter  issuing  from  the  cellar,  in  which  the  10, 1807.    He  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1828, 

>wder  was  at  once  discovered  beneath  the  but  almost  immediately  afterward  resigned  his 

gsota.    Matches  and  torchwood  were  found  profession  for  a  literary  life,  and  became  a  con- 

^iB  pockets.    Brought  before  the  king  and  tributor  to  the  *^  New  York  Mirror,"  and  sub- 

»nncil,  he  boldly  avowed  his  purpose,  but  not  seqnently  one  of  its  editors.   In  1832  he  publish- 

'en  the  rack  could  extort  from  him  any  dis-  ed  *^  Dreams  and  Reveries  of  a  Quiet  if  an,"  m 

osare  concerning  his  associates  till  they  had  collection  of  articles  which  had  from  time  to 

inoonced  themselves  by  appearing  in  arms,  time  appeiu^  in  the  **  Mirror."     In  1888  be 

iM  failure  of  the  plot  was,  however,  completer  married,  and  soon  after  sailed  for  Europe,  where 

id  Fawkes  was  arraigned,  condemned,  and  he  spent  8  years  in  travelling.   Among  the  frnits 

wcvtcd,  as  were  7  of  his  confederates,  while  of  his  observations  abroad  was  the  **Minnte 

ben  were  tried  separately.    The  atrocious  Book,"  a  journal  of  travels.   During  his  absence 

leracter  of  this  conspiracy  prejudiced  the  appeared  also  hu  first  novel,  ^*  Norman  Leslie  ** 

fnds  of  the  nation  against  the  Roman  Catho-  (New  York.  1885),  which  had  considerable  sno* 

■^  and  led  to  the  enactment  of  additional  cess.  In  1887  Mr.  fay  received  the  appointment 

sud  atatntes  against  them.    The  anniversary  of  IT.  S.  secretary  of  legation  at  the  court  of 

the  plot  Nov.  5,  was  long  celebrated  in  £ng-  Berlin,  a  position  which  he  retained  until  1858, 

ad  and  New  England  by  the  boys  of  the  towns  when  he  was  promoted  to  be  resident  minister  at 

rrying  about  an  effigy  of  Guy  Fawkes  which  Bern,  in  Switzerland,  where  he  still  remains.  In 

M  finally  burned  in  some  public  place.    It  1840  he  pnblbhed  the  *^  Countess  Ida,"  a  novel 

■t  enatomary  for  the  boys  on  these  occasions  designed  to  bring  into  disrepute  the  practice  of 

•ing  verses  beginning:  dueUing,  which  was  followed  in  1848  by  **  Ho- 

-.        .             V    .V  -i^v  #  -B^       V  boken,  a  Romance  of  New  York,"  written  wiUi 

«■— mbtT,  remember,  the  fifth  of  Korember,  ^  «:»«;l—  ^k:«^4-      t«  i  qki  ..^.v^aLrwi  i»:-  it  n-:-. 

Th«  gnnpowder  treason  and  plot  &  Similar  Object,    in  1851  appeared  nis  **  UInc, 

or  the  Voices,"  a  poem  in  19  cantos  (to  which 
ua  enstora  has  entirely  ceased  in  New  £ng-  a  20th  was  added  in  the  ^  Knickerbocker  Gal- 
ad,  though  it  is  still  maintained  to  some  ex-  lery"  in  1865),  describing  the  struggles  of  the 
Dt  in  the  mother  country.  It  was  formerly  a  human  soul  with  demoniac  temptations.  Among 
pd  holiday  in  England,  but  has  recently  been  Mr.  Fay's  remaining  works  are  "  Sydney  Clif- 
loliahed  as  such.  ton"  (1889)  and  '*  Robert  Rueful "  (1844),  two 
FAXARDO,  DiEOO  Sa  avedra,  a  Spanish  an-  short  tales,  a  series  of  papers  on  Shakespear^ 
or  and  statesman,  bom  in  Al^ezares,  in  the  and  a  variety  of  fugitive  pieces  in  prose  and 
ovince  of  Murcia,  in  1584,  died  in  Madrid  in  verse.  A  *'  History  of  Switzerland  "  by  him  is 
48.   Havinff  been  graduated  as  a  doctor  of  law  announced. 

tba  imiversity  of  Salamanca,  he  lived  40  years  FAYAL,  one  of  the  Azores,  or  "Western  Isl- 

it  of  Spain,  employed  on  various  diplomatic  ands,  in  lat.  88**  80'  N.,  long.  28**  40'  W. ;  area 

tarions  for  the  government.    His  last  mission  about  27,520  acres,  nearly  one-half  of  which  is 

■t  at  the  congress  of  MUnster  from  1643  to  under  cultivation ;  pop.  about  26,000.  The  sur^ 

46  as  representative  of  Philip  IV.    Finally,  face  is  rugged,  and  m  some  parts  mountainoua. 

I  being  recalled  in  the  latter  year  to  Spain,  he  The  climate  is  mild  and  healthftil.    The  soil  is 

M  appointed  a  member  of  the  supreme  coun-  in  general  very  fertile.  The  principal  vegetable 

I  of  the  Indies.    The  first  edition  of  his  most  pr^uctions  are  firs,  palms,  vines,  pineapple^ 

mmaftJ  work,  Empresas  politicas^  6  idea  tU  oranges,  potatoes,  cabbages,  maize,  and  wheat. 

iprimeipe politico  Christiano^  &c.,  intended  to  The  chief  object  of  agriculture  is  the  vine,  and 

rtrnet  the  infante  of  Spain,  to  whom  it  was  the  island  has  produced  annually  about  200  pipes 

ifietfed,  in  the  duties  of  government,  appear-  of  wine,  and  in  good  seasons  fi'om  8,000  to  10,- 

I  tt  Monster  in  1646.    Ue  wrote  the  2  first  000  pipes,  the  product  of  all  the  islands,  have 

ioiiiee   of  the  ^*  History  of  the  Goths   in  been  exported  from  Fayal.    The  other  most  im- 

Mitt,"  which  was  continued  through  the  reign  portant  exports  are  fruit,  especially  oranges,  and 

.  Hmry  11.  byAlonso  Nunez  de  Castro.    Fax-  com.    The  imports  are  manufactured  gooda, 

^^  eomplete  works  were  published  at  Ant-  cotton  twist,  flax,  coffee,  sugar,  tea,  tobacco, 

m  In  1688,  and  a  new  edition  at  Madrid  in  and  soap.    In  1859,  the  island  was  visited  by  m 

r8i-'90.  severe  famine,  occasioned  by  the  failure  of  three 

FAY,  AkdrIs,  a  Hungarian  author,  bom  at  successive  crops.    Fayal  has  the  best  harbor  of 

ihiair,  in  the  county  of  Zempl^n,  in  1786.  He  all  the  Azorcan  group,  and  a  considerable  tranrii 

ifled  law,  was  active  as  a  member  of  the  trade.  About  170  American  whalers  touch  here 

tfonl  opposition  against  the  mle  of  Metter-  annually  and  land  the  oil  of  such  fish  as  they  have 

dh|  and  wrote  a  series  of  works  in  prose  and  caught  in  their  outward  voyage,  whence  it  is 

',  which  procured  him  a  place  among  the  shipped''^  ita  destination.    Capital,  Horta,  or 
YOU  vn. — 28 


'T'--' 


•yflltOrtftCniiaittiiM IniunmAf  aSMVmSL  In           Ft                     A  MMMB  i 

slMnteiiietowiionUie8.B.aideoft]MiitaiM,  ]         «».    j        n      >'       mnhm^md 

flffloiniiig  the  harbor  before  mentioned;  pop.  ]       li^tendiog  pubkw  ■cdoom.    (kftaa^  Fmtte 

LOOOore.000.    TheileimpMkelsQf tbeBrit-  o<        House.    V.  ▲  & £. eo. of  Tem^ Ma^ 


Idi  Weit  India  meil  oompiii J  regnlarlj  oall  it  eei     a  l^  the  Golondo  river,  wUeb  li 

Horte.  bki «  iring  half  the  year  fti  ftr  M  lAQfaMi^ 

FATSTTK  the  name  of  .ooontiea  in  aereral  th*  ^»mn^  seat;  areai  1,019  w^  bl  ;  fOfL  l^ 

of  the  United  Slaftfla.    L  A  a  W.oo.of  Pena,  :      w  9,467«  of  whom  t,8M  wire  rfavm    Th^ 


bordering  on   MaiyUmd  and  Vlniniay   and  eitnndiilatin9|andtheioO,eoMiaii^^ 

boooded  W.  bj  the  IConongaheb  riVer ;  areai    »  -•    sk  aandy  kMun,  ia  Ugfalj  fred»etif%>   U| 
ilNNit  800  iq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1860,  8«»11S.   There    1       .t  yielded  118,080  badMii  of  bdhm  e«^ 


» 


aretwomonntainridiee:  one  ealled  Laarel  hill,  l.ivibaMaofeottoo^880ll»of  1 

itrelohhigaloBgtheS.boQndaryoftheooimtj;  \    806  of  batter.    There  were  4  ctania^  I 

and  the  other  known  ai  Oheatnnt  ridge,  a  iwi    laper  office,  and  870  pnqAeattaBAaf  fab' 

braaeh  of  the  ADeghaniea,  trarening  ita  oea«  Uo  swioolai    Coal  it  the  moal  impnttaii  ■b> 

Inl  part    The  rest  of  the  sorfbee  k  moetly  nn-  era!  nrodaotkm.    YL  ▲  &  W.  eou  of  Ita, 

dolaong.    The  sofl  k  tetOe  in  the  K.  W.  part,  bon    ^  on  Ifisria^ipi,  and  walsrsd  Igr  las* 
bat  elsewhere  k  better  adapted  to  pastarage  liie  and  Wolf  rivers;  area,  abootMl^ 

tfian  to  tiOafS.    Iron  and  bitominoos  coal  ars  jii.|  |iop.  in  I860, 88,718,  of  whom  lUOIwM 

Itbandant.    In  1860  the  fffodnotkMis  were  888,«  sUves.    IthaBaforti]e,welloaiaTateassil,sri 


m  jNMhck  of  In^ffitt  oorn,  804^108  of  whe^    in  1860  yielded  larger  eropa  of  awaelpslBiM 


808,888  of  oats,  88^088  tone  of  hay,  and  668,-  and  cotton  than  any  other  ooonlgr  of 

856  lbs.  of  bnttor.  The  conntj  contained  aboot  The  prodnctioos  in  that  year  aoMMmtsi  tefl^ 

180  milk  and  fiMtories  of  Tarioos  kinds,  84  808  bales  of  cotton,  888,845  boahils  of  bla 

Aarcbes,  10  newspner  office^  and  a868  popik  com,  118^06  of  oats.  111,887  of  sweet  paMM 

atteodhig  schools.    It  k  intersected  by  ^  na-  and  148,788  Iba.  of  batter.    There  wme  H 

tkmalroad,  andaooesrfblebystesmboirtsonthe  d       les^  and  1,848  popik 

Xoooagahela.    Organised  in  1788,  and  named  i       wther  schools.    Ckpital, 

la  honor  of  the  marcjds  de  Lafimtte.  OqrftaL  a  oentrsl  co.  of  Ky.,  and  the  aaa 

Vniontown.    IL  A  w .  co.  of  Vk,  bounded  N.  state  in  popolatkia,  boonded  8L  by 

bj  the  Great  Kanawha  and  Ganlsy  ri▼e^^  and  lirer,  and  drained  hf  some  of  lis 

F.  S.  l^  Meadow  river;  area,  770  sq.  m. ;  popw  area,  abont  800  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1880^  W^ 

in  1860,  8,866,  of  whom  166  were  sUves.    It  of  whom  10,888  were  sUven    Iihoaanik| 

hasa  moontainoos  sorfsoe,  with  several  consid^  soHImw,  and  a  fertile  and  well  tllledaol,  wtkh 

arable  elevations,  the  higbest  of  which  aie  Geo*  lying  which  k  an  excellent  spades  of  MBisi 

ley  and  Sewell  moantaina.   Near  the  Kanawha  stone  called  blue  or  Trenton  limestone.   Ite 

or  New  river,  which  Inteniects  the  ooontj,  k  a  staple  prodactions  are    grain,  hemp,   cMk 

remarkable  dift;  1,000  feet  hifh,  ealled  Mar-  horses,  and  swine.    Id  1850  the  ooonty  y\Md 

8hall*s  pillar.    The  scenery  of  the  oonntf  is  ez-  1,679,688  boiheU  of  Indian  com,  78,074  if 

oeedingly  pictoresqae ;  the  Boil  k  generally  good,  wheat,  189,867  of  oats,  and  8,887  tone 

and  amoog  the  bighlaods  particalarly  there  are  There  were  87  chnrohea,  8  newspaper  o( 

many  open  tracts  of  remarlcable  fertility.   Iron  1,875  popik  attending  paUic  and  other 

ore  k  the  chief  minersL    The  staples  are  grain.  Capital,  Lexington.    YlIL  A8.W.oeLef0lk 

hay,  cattle,  and  batter,  and  in  1850  the  prodoo-  intersected  by  two  lines  of  railroad ;  am,  4U 

tions  were  111,064  bnshek  of  Indian  oom,  8,-  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1850,  18,788.    It  hsa  a  kni  w 

414  of  wheat,  66,037  of  oatt.  950  tons  of  bay,  and  nndnkting  sorfaoe,  and  a  fertile  aoiL  eearinkr 

and  66,409  lbs.  of  hotter.  There  were  6  chorohes  of  deep  bhck  loam.    Grain,  hay,  and  csClk  «• 

and  96  pnpik  attending  public  schools.  Valneof  the  chief  staples,  and  in  1858  the  ooonty  yr^ 

real  esUte  in  1856,  $801,278.    Cspital,  Fayette-  dooed  8,357,768  busliek  of  Indian  eora,  mi 

TiUe.    III.  A  W.  00  of  Ga.,  traversed  by  Flint  258.930  of  wheat  In  1850  there  were  81  cbsnk- 

river ;  area,  486  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1853,  8,800,  of  es,  1  newspsper  oAo^  and  8,080  papik  sOia4» 

whom  2,368  were  sUves.    The  sarface  k  most-  log  pablic  scnook.    Gspital,  Waaningtoa.   U 

If  kvd,  and  the  soil,  formed  by  the  dUintegra-  An  E.  co.  of  Ind..  one  of  the  irst  of  ths  fttto 

tton  of  primary  rocks,  k  nnprndoctive.    Gran-  in  population  and  improvementa ;  aria,abstf 

He  and  iron  are  the  principal  minerals.    The  800  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  I860, 10,817.    Ttiessfto 

prodootioos  in  1860were  318,118  boshek  of  In-  k  levd  or  nndnkting,  and  the  aoil  fcrtikL   Ibi 

dian  com,  84,866  of  oats,  54,456  of  sweet  pota-  chief  staples  are  grain,  cattle,  and  swias.   k 

toes,  and  4,868  bales  of  cotton.    There  were  1850  the  prodactions  were  946,814  Imhih  of 

18  churche^  end  800  papik  attending  pablic  Indiim  corn,  88,489  of  wheat,  48,588  ef  etfn 

acbook.    Cai^tal,  Fayettevilie.    IV.   AN.  W.  and  4,691  tons  of  hay.    There  were  87  cbsrrb- 

00.  of  Ala.,  bonleHng  on  MimiHiiippi ;  area,  aboat  ca,  3  newqMper  oflkce,  and  8«848  popik  aosni- 

900  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1850,  9,681  of  whom  1,831  ing  pnblic  schools,    limestone  k  the  friaofsl 

were  slaves.    It  has  a  moderately  aneven  sur-  rock.    Tlie  Whitewater  canal  and  a  rsikesi 

fsce,  drsined  by  nnmeroas  streams,  and  a  pro-  connecting  the  coanty  wiih  Ondanali,  Okia 

dnctive  soil,  soluble  for  oom  and  cotti>n.    In  int4Mrsect  it.    OrganlsHi  in  1818.  CapitaL  Coi^ 

1850  it  yielded  8,980  bales  of  cottoo.  826.844  aarsviHa.    X  A  osntral »  of  iMatsissrisi 


FATETTEVILLK  EEATHKB  GRASS              436 

bjEasfaiskia  river;  area,  640  sq.  m.;  pop.  in  by  Ilerodotus.     This  remarkable  monumeDt 

3855,  9,592.    The  sartace  is  level,  and  occapied  formerly  commnnicated  with  ^e  brick  pyramid 

by  alternate  tracts  of  fertile  praine  and  good  of  Howara,  which  stands  a  little  N.  of  it^  and 

timber  land.    The  productions  in  1850  were  which,  before  it  was  partly  destroyed  to  fomish 

898.765  bosbels  of  Indian  corn,  18,277  of  wheat,  material  for  other  buildings,  was  848  feet  square 

88,487  of  oats,  and  146,188  lbs.  of  batter.  There  at  the  base.    It  is  now  about  800  feet  squara 

were  4  chordiea,  1  newspaper  office,  and  900  and  106  feet  high. 

pupils  attending  public  schools.    The  central  FAZY,  Jean  Jamss,  a  Swiss  statesman,  bom 
nilnMid  of  niinois  passes  through  the  county,  in  Geneva,  May  12,  1796.    He  completed  his 
and  m  number  of  small  streams  supply  it  with  education  in  France,  wrote  several  treatises  on 
water  power.  Oapital,Vanda]ia.  XI.  A  N.  £.  co.  political  economy,  and  was  extensively  connect- 
of  Iowa;  area,  720  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1856, 8,857.  ed  with  journalism  in  Paris  (and  afterward  in 
It  is  drained  by  the  head  branches  of  Turkey  Switzerland)  where  his  radical  opinions  involved 
river,  18  well  supplied  with  water  power,  and  him  in  difficulties  with  the  French  government. 
bas  a  healthy  climate.    The  surface  is  undulat-  After  his  return  to  Geneva,  he  took  an  active 
lag,  and  occupied  partly  by  fertile  prairies,  and  part  in  the  establishment  of  a  new  constitution^ 
partly  by  forests.    In  1856  the  productions  which  was  adopted  June  7, 1842,  and  in  the  at- 
were  279,044  bushels  of  Indian  com,  94^560  of  tempt  of  his  party  (Feb.  18,  1848^  to  overthrow 
wheat,  84,886  of  oats,  48,885  of  potatoes,  and  the  government.    He  afterward  became  a  mem- 
y2.C57  lbs,  of  butter.    Capital,  West  Union.  ber  of  the  great  council,  dbtinguishing  himself  as 
FAYETTEVILLE,  a  post  town  and  capital  the  principal  champion  of  the  introduction  of 
flf  Cnmberland  co.,  N.  0.,  situated  on  the  W.  trial  by  jury,  which  institution  was  adopted, 
bank  of  Cape  Fear  river,  at  the  head  of  natural  Jan.  12,  1844.    In  1846  the  radicals  became 
naiiieation,  60  m.  8.  from  Raleigh,  and  100  m.  exasperated  at  the  neutrality  observed  by  the 
K.  W.  from  Wilmington ;  pop.  in  1850,  4,648  ;  Grenevese  government  in  the  conflict  between 
ia  1868,  abont  7,000.    It  is  one  of  the  largest  the  Catholic  and  Protestant  cantons.    A  revo- 
towns  in  the  state,  the  centre  of  an  active  trade,  lution  broke  out  (Oct.  5),  a  provisional  govern- 
and  the  seat  of  manufactures  of  some  import-  ment  was  established  ((>ct  9),  and  Fazy,  who 
«Boe.    The  cape  Fear  river  has  been  renaered  placed  himself  at  its  head,  became  the  ruling 
navigable  by  means  of  locks  and  dams  as  far  as  spirit  of  the  new  grand  council  of  Geneva.  The 
the  eoal  mines  of  Chatham  co.,  and  plank  roads  constitution  now  in  force  in  Geneva  was  com- 
bave  been  constructed  leading  to  various  parts  pleted  by  this  council,  the  demolition  of  the 
cf  the  interior.    The  pine  forests  which  cover  fortifications  of  the  city  of  Geneva  was  pro- 
much  of  the  adjacent  country  furnish  large  posed,  and  carried  into  effect  in  1850,  a  na- 
q[iiantitie8  of  lumber,  tar,  and  turpentine  for  ex-  tional   institution  for  arts  and  sciences  was 
portation.     The  town  has  several  turpentine  founded,  and  Geneva  was  embellished  under  the 
disulleriea,  cotton  factories,  and  grist  mUls.    It  direction  of  Fazy,  who  also  gave  a  powerful 
contains  m  large  United  States  arsenal  of  con-  impulse  to  the  construction  of  raiH'ays  and 
atmction,  covering  about  50  acres  of  ground,  telegraphs.    He  insisted  upon  an  unrelenting 
and  in  1850  had  8  newspaper  offices  and  8  banks,  opposition  to  the  Catholic  league,  and  upon 
Fayetteville  was  settled  in  1762,  and  before  re-  the  unflinching  application  of  democratic  insti- 
eeiving  its  present  name  in  1784  was  known  tutions  in  all  the  departments  of  the  govem- 
■Qoeessively  as  Campbelltown  aud   as   Cross  ment;  as  a  delegate  of  Geneva  in  1847  he 
Creek.    In  1831  it  was  partly  destroyed  by  a  exerted  himself  in  behalf  of  the  new  federal 
mat  ^n,  and  nearly  $100,000  was  subscribed  constitution,  which  was  adopted  Sept.  12, 1848. 
nr  its  relief  by  the  people  of  the  United  States.  From  Feb.  to  Dec.  1848,  he  was  out  of  office, 
FAYOOM,    Fayocm,    Fatfm,   Faioobi,   or  owing  to  disagreement  with  some  of  his  col- 
or Faiouic  (Copt.  Phioum^  "  the  waters"),  a  leagues ;  but  with  this  exception  he  was  unin- 
vaDey  and  province  of  central  Egypt,  abont  40  terruptedly  at  the  head  of  the  Genevese  gov- 
s.  8.  W.  of  Cairo,  on  tlie  W.  side  of  the  Nile ;  emment  until  Nov.  14,  1858,  when  a  coalition 
kngth  from  £.  to  W.  88  m. ;  breadth  81m.;  of  the  moderate  democrats  and  the  old  conser- 
fopL  about  65,000.    It  is  of  oval  form,  and  in  vatives  displaced  him  from  power.    But  after 
iB  parte  much  lower  than  the  Nile.    It  is  well  having  officiated  in  1853  as  vice-president  of  the 
k^gftted  both  by  natural  water  courses  and  by  federd  council  of  states,  he  became  its  president 
awnaber  of  canals,  the  chief  of  which  is  the  in  1854,  and  in  1855  he  was  reinstated  in  his 
Bihr-Tns6u^  or  canal  of  Joseph.    It  was  an-  former  position  of  president  of  the  government 
dntlT  the  garden  of  Egypt,  and  is  still  pro-  of  Geneva,  which  he  continues  to  hold  (1859). 
Ueoi  com,  cotton,  apricots,  figs,  grapes,  olives,  In  the  NeufchAtel  question  he  firmly  opposed 
mA  rosea.    At  the  N.  end  is  tlie  Birkct-el-Ke-  the  pretensions  of  rrussia,  and  he  opposed  in 
MBL  which  was  long  erroneously  thought  to  1849  as  well  as  in  1858  the  attempts  of  the 
be  iMntieal  with  Lake  Moeris.    The  principal  federal  government  to  molest  the  pohtical  refh- 
is   Medinet-el-Fayoom  (CroeoailopolU,  gees  in  Switzerland. 

ird  Aninoi),  near  which  several  broken  FEATHER  GRASS  (stipa  oennata,  Willd.), 

I  of  red  granite,  carved  in  old  Egyptian  a  grass  readily  distinguishable  by  its  elegant  and 

sMe^  with  lotus  bud  capitals,  mark  the  long  feather-like  awns.     It  grows  in  dose,  matted 

^«ted  ttte  of  the  famous  labyrinth  described  tufts,  having  very  long,  fine,  wiry,  dark  green 


lama,  nmunn  tall  flow«r  stalin  with  mil  thtlr  flat  Mf  t  on  to  mA  lAa^ 

taniu,  (BocMdad  hj  an  abandance  of  aharp-  uiabllDg  them  td  Jhwi/hiBaaadig 

MtaUd  eUlptieal  gndoa,  aaeh  of  whioh  ia  aor-  in  the  dlraetkM  of  tbrir  pUn^  m  Iba  tamlH 

■onted  b7  tha  fSaatbarad  awn  or  brktla  ofa  of  the  i^r  In  the  act  of  iUU,  ^cmA  jMB^ 

lBO»ornon  In  leocth.    Tbbbofariah  bird  nadily  to  aaj  too*  anOad  U  the  Dm  of  Iha 

af  paraJiaa  eolof,  and  dfaa  aramartaibla  boan^  duft.   ThebaitaUqiartoftMla^tatanbraal 

10  tha  plaot.    Gorank  a  bmooa  barbaliit  in  naar  Uw  abaft,  and  !■  Iha  lam  wtaf  fclhwi 

1597,  faubrma  na  that  tboM  awaad a««da  woTo  tbaeonroiltjaf  onaiaraealvadMOAaaMavitr 

von  in  bia  tima  b;  "aandrrladtaa  inrtaadof  of  aootbor:  bot  tba  barba  aro  kapt  b  ploa* 

fcatiMn."    It  la  thto  tpariea  whieh  U  Iba  prin-  MfAj  bj  barboloi^  ndnoto  carvad  iMaita 

^tal  iraw  in  thoaa  portiona  of  tha  atappaa  of  arWng  fran  tba  ni|Mr  adgaof  tbebai^ao  t^ 

nt»  or  pattnriag  gronndt^  lattar  doaaftora  tbadiaft;  tbaw  an  t  aafcai 

■a  onantltiea,  and  developinf  anrrad  upward  and  iha  otbtr  dowawwd;  mm 

kaaM)TetheM)il,inoebtotbo  of  ooobarfa  hookltyaoflnalylatoihoMaf  ft 


naoTanea  of  tbo  mowar.  Tbe  aeeda  of  thii  next  aa  to  fbnn  a  eJoae  and  ooMpiCt  ai 
bMomid  maa  ara  fboqoaBtljr  imnorted  tnta  tbo  oatrieh  tba  baibolw  arawaBdanli 
abroad  and  aold  ia  onr  aeod  ahopa,  iMt  thej  ad-    are  long,  looaa,  and  aeparal^  g[ 


__jBY«MteIa.     eharaotar  ooonTod  fey  Iha  torM  ■ 

FUTHER  RIVXB,  a  atraam  rUing  in  tha  barfaolaa  aro  ■omadiMO  prorldod  w\ 

V.  K  port  of  PloRiaa  oo^  Oallfumia,  which  apparatM  on  their  rid«  ealM  bafWaiHak 

iowa  B.  V,  and  S.  throng  a  rich  «ola  raglao,  the  qntUa  of  tbo  gMm  omIo  mA  ■Mmi; 

■id  omptiea  into  Iba  Baeramento,  SO  m.  aboTO  tbeaaaarra  tokaepOMbatMaBblpMida^W 

BaoramantoCltjileDgthaboatlSOm.  bianart-  aro      ■  aoaerona  than  tha  ktUr.    !■  Hi 

■able  aafiu-aa](aryBTlI]&  to  which  pc^ntataam-  ball     alhara  ti  aa  ^pendaca  Basr  lham|B 

toala  aaeaod  ftou  San  Franeiaoo,    The  Middle  i       luonaof  a  dowovehameler  eaDad  tho» 

Md  Sooth  fei^  and  Taba  riTor,  are  Ua  pria-  t>       Tploma;  Btatf  in  the  qolua  «f  (Im  «tv 

ttpil  tribotariaa.  auu     L  la  aoma  bodj  fcotharaof  ha«V  4■^ 
fEATHEBS,  a  oomplioatad  inodilleatioa  of  i    Da  it  ia  of  b^  da^  la  Mao  )T>KiB  ■ 

tlia  tagaiDenurf  ajatem,  Ibnniag  tbe  external  m>        a  tbo  ftatbar  vUeh  aaifotla  It ;  in  tU 

oorarlng  or  plnoueo  of  Urda.    Tlioogh  dwok-  <         «  pluar  fcatbam  arin  ft«a  «ao  qciU,  ml 

laaltj  rimOar  to  and  boowlogona  with  tbo  i  aaa  8  fa  tba  raaainriij.  tfaa  oiMi«»wJ 

hah-of  mammakthdr  analowtnal  atntrtoreJi  )•         i  being  tbeaa  aeeaawrj  ftalfcaWj  la  Itt 

In aome reapecta olflbrent.    An ordioarj' feather  <     ..uulhereta no aaeh  adwiooal  laft.   IhM 

la  oMupoaad  of  a  qaill  or  barrel,  a  ifa^  and  a  in,  theretbre,  trtrj  gradatiea  ftoB  a  dMb 

Tane  or  beard  oontitting  of  barb*  and  barbuloi.  barrel  and  shaft,  as  Is  the  laiiaaij^  qoK 

Tbe  qnill,  the  part  atiacbed  to  the  sifin,  ii  a  to  the  fcatber  with  barba,  barbola^  and  baH- 

hollow  ejliader,  serai- transpareot,  composed  of  cela;  some  feathers  are  all  down7,  like  tht  a^ 

eoagaUted  albunieD,  raMmbling  horn  both  in  dmninal  ones  of  tha  eag1o4vl;  otiMrs  ban 

impeanuice  and   chemical  coostitution  j    It   is  Tetj  little  down,  aa  tbe  hardi  {damage  of  the 

nght,  but  strong  terminated  below  b;  an  ob-  penguin;  lo  tbe  eider  dock,  and  other  «(tii 

tose  eilremitj  pierced  br  an  opeaing,  tbe  lower  apecies,  there  is  at  tbe  baaa  of  tba  (    '■" 

— t^..,        ..      ^     .|jj.^^.__,  _.  ,..  ... 


braaea,  fitting  one  opon  the  otiier,  that  have  skin  b;  the  fc 

fermerlj  bent  sobserrient  to  the  growth  of  of  down  b^ , 

the  feather.    The  bom^  sabetanoe  it  geaenUj  and  is  ooDtlnned  nntll  tba  balobiiy ;  10  Is  11 

arranged  In  longiindimd  fibres  Intenullj-,  and  la  radiating  filaments  are  fsraiad  at  tba  aaaas  lias 

oircolarfibTcaexteniallTihence  thegreatercase  in  an  epidermic  sheath,  which  aooa  afterMI 


s  enter;  above,  il  is  continnoua  with  the  withoat  wei^t,  like  tbe  a_     ...    .   _ 

shaft,  with  which  it  comma  nical  ei  IntemallT  bj  the  hair  of  arctie  mammals;   foang  bMi  tn 

an  opening,  tbe  upper  nmbilicns;  the  cavity  corcred  with  down  befur*  tl>a  den            '  ~' 

eontaina  a  series  of  conied  shrivelled  mem-  *    '*                                        •■   ■   -■ 

braaea,  fitting  one  opon  the  otiier,  that  have  ^      .  _.      ..._... 

fermerlj  bent  sobserrient  to  the  growth  of  of  down  b^ns  on  the  8ih  dajof  ii 

the  feather.    The  bom^  sabetanoe  U  oe 

arranged  In  longiindind  filtres  Intenullj-, 

"  rca  extemallr ;  hence  the  great  _        _.._._    

ai  aiabng  a  good  pen  after  the  extomd  lajer  dries  and  sets  free  the  plnmca,  aDowlag  tbim  H 

baa  been  aoraped  off    Tlie  ahaft  is  more  or  Ibh  spread  oet  as  a  pencil  of  down ;  a  sMs  is  1^ 

madrilateral,  gradtull^  dimloishing  in  siie  to  veloped,  and  tlie  dowar  filanoata  baeaH*  tb 

laa  tip;  it  la  alwajs  dightl;  currsd,  eonrex  primary  web  of  the  feather.    Faalhan  la  seat 

aboTo,  and  the  eoneave  lower  sorface,  divided  cases  resemble  stiff  bristl/  bain^  aa  abort  tb 

loagitodlnallr  b7  a  groove,  preeenia  8  iaclined  bill  in  nxist  bird^  and  tlia  tnft  oo  tba  brtaa  d 

planea  meeting  at  an  obtuse  anijlc ;  It  is  covered  the  wild  torker.    In  tbe  genna  ^aiylaaAa^  p» 

Dj  a  thin  homy  layer,  and  coriiaini  In  its  in-  cnliar  to  the  niDippiae  Idawla,  we  hsvt  le- 

taior  a  white,  toft,  elastio  sobstanee,  cdled  the  markable  initancet  of  tha  roodiSeaiioa*  ef  tb 

pith,  which  snpplica  strength  and  nonriihinent  epidermic  covering  of  hlrda.     la  D.  ftaiyt 

to  the  feather.    The  vane  consi-t*  of  9  wobii,  (nas-X  tlie   feathen  uf  the  seal,  trsaa,  wi 

eae  on  enrh  side  of  tha  diaft,  each  web  being  throat  are  dianged  at  thdr  extntnhiM  bM 

Ibratedof  aaeriet  of  lamina  or  barb*,  of  vsrying  ovoid  homy  hunella,  looking  like  shialBf  Uaik 

tbiefcnean,  width,  and  length,  arranged  ubliqoelv  spanglet,  cxpanainos  of  the  Iroa  bony  aramn 

oatbeabaft,asdooiDpoaodDftbetamemataiial;  of  tba  shaft;  a^atalhl^  <rf  tba  fciad  b  aaaa  b 


FEATHERS  487 

tbeBobftiDiaa  chatterer  or  wax-wing  {ampelU  here,  that  the  part  to  which  the  barbs  are  at- 
fomtluM^  linn.),  in  which  some  of  the  second-  tached  and  the  pith  of  the  shaft  are  formed 
inr  and  tertial  qaill  feathers  end  in  small,  respectively  from  the  outer  and  inner  surfaces 
lUoog,  flat  appendages,  in  color  and  consist-  of  the  membranes  of  the  compound  capsule; 
ince  resembling  red  sealing  wax,  which  are  the  shaft  and  barbs  at  tlie  apex  of  the  cylinder 
Iso  expanded  homy  prolongations  of  the  shafts  become  hardened  first,  and  are  softer  the  nearer 
if  the  ordinary  feathers.  In  D.  iupereilionts  the  base  of  the  matrix ;  the  first  formed  parts 
Cut.),  the  only  other  species  of  the  genus,  are  pushed  forward  by  the  cell  growth  at  the 
he  fiMithers  over  each  eye  are  changed  for  base,  the  products  of  the  bulb  being  moulded 
hree-fonrths  of  their  length  into  r^  silky  into  shape  by  the  membranes  exterior  to  it ; 
lairs  or  bristles,  the  base  of  the  feather  having  the  successive  stages  of  the  growth  of  ^e  med- 
he  usoal  appearance ;  each  shaft  seems  to  di-  ullary  matter  are  indicated  by  a  series  of  mera- 
ide  into  several  of  these  hair-like  filaments,  branous  cones  or  caps,  the  last  formed  of  which 
rhich  are  finer  and  more  silky  than  the  ap-  cannot  escape  from  the  hardened  and  closed 
lendage  on  the  breast  of  the  turkey,  and  di-  shaft,  and  constitute  the  light  dry  pith  seen  in 
ecCly  continuous  with  ordinary  feather  struc-  the  interior  of  the  quill ;  these  cones  are  origi- 
ore,  while  in  the  turkey  there  is  a  complete  nally  connected  together  by  a  central  tube,  and 
ransformation  of  feathers  into  hairs  in  the  the  last  remains  of  the  bulb  are  seen  in  tiie  lig- 
rhole  extent.  In  most  birds  there  will  be  ament  which  passes  from  the  pith  through  the 
oand  m  number  of  simple  hair-like  feathers  lower  umbilicus,  attaching  the  quill  to  the  skin, 
eattered  over  the  skin  after  they  have  been  Feathers  grow  with  great  rapidity,  and  in  some 
locked ;  they  arise  from  short  bulbs  as  slender  birds  to  a  length  of  more  than  2  feet ;  they  are 
oonded  shafts.  Feathers  are  developed  in  de-  almost  always  renewed  annually,  and  in  many 
cesBions  in  the  skin  lined  by  an  inversion  of  species  twice  a  year;  this  amount  of  formative 
be  epidermis,  which  surrounds  the  bulb ;  they  power  demands  a  considerable  increase  of  the 
fow  by  the  addition  of  new  cells  from  the  cutaneous  circulation,  making  the  season  of 
olfai,  which  become  modified  into  the  homy  moulting  always  a  critical  period  in  the  life  of 
ad  fibrous  stem,  and  by  the  elongation  and  ex-  a  bird.  The  plumage  is  generally  changed  sev- 
ension  of  previously  formed  cells ;  like  the  eral  times  before  the  bim  is  adult ;  but  some 
ittr,  they  originate  in  follicles  producing  epi-  of  the  falcons  are  said  to  assume  the  mature 
ermio  cells,  though  when  fully  formed  uie  plumage  after  the  first  moult,  as  the  Greenland 
dlolar  structure  is  widely  departed  from  ex-  and  Iceland  falcons. — ^Feathers  serve  to  protect 
ept  in  the  medullary  portion.  They  are,  when  birds  from  injurious  external  infiuences,  such 
nt  formed,  living  organized  parts,  developed  as  extremes  of  cold  and  heat,  run,  &c.,  for 
rom  m  matrix  connected  with  tne  vascular  layer  which  their  texture  and  imbricated  arrange- 
f  the  skin,  and  growing  by  nutrient  vessels;  ment  admirably  adapt  them;  and  they  also  fSr- 
rben  fully  developed,  the  vessels  became  atro-  nish  their  principal  means  of  locomotion,  in  the 
hied,  and  the  feathers  dry  and  gradually  die  latter  case  being  stronger,  more  compact,  and 
rom  the  summit  to  the  base,  so  that  at  last  longer  than  those  which  cover  the  body.  They 
bej  become  dead  foreign  bodies,  as  completely  generally  increase  in  size  from  the  head  back- 
icapable  of  vital  modifications  as  the  perfect  ward,  and  have  received  special  names  accord- 
loms  of  the  deer.  The  matrix  whicn  pro-  ing  to  the  region  of  the  body,  which  are  im- 
inees  the  feather,  according  to  Owen,  has  the  portant  aids  in  describing  and  recognizing 
onn  of  an  elongated  cylin(£ical  cone,  and  con-  species.  Some  of  these  names,  constantly  used  in 
iati  of  m  capsule,  a  bulb,  and  intermediate  the  ornithological  articles  ofthisCyclopsadia,  not 
nemhcanes  which  give  proper  form  to  the  se-  readily  understood  from  the  words  themselves, 
vetioa  of  the  bulb ;  as  tbe  conical  matrix  sinks  are  as  follows :  the  scapulars,  above  the  shoul- 
Dto  and  becomes  more  intimately  connected  der  blade  and  humems,  apparently  on  the  back 
rith  the  trae  skin,  its  apex  protmdes  above  when  the  wing  is  closed ;  axiUaries,  long  and 
Iw  anrfiioe,  and  the  investing  capsule  drops  off  straight  feathers  at  the  upper  end  of  the  bu- 
tt give  passage  to  the  feather  which  has  been  merus,  under  the  wing ;  tibials,  covering  the 
Rowing  dnring  this  period;  the  capsule  is  made  leg;  lesser  wing  coverts,  the  small  feathers  in 
ID  of  several  layers,  the  outermost  consisting  rows  upon  the  forearm ;  under  coverts,  lining 
■  epidermic  cells,  and  its  centre  is  occupied  by  the  lower  side  of  the  wings ;  the  largest  quiU 
i  soft  fibrous  bulb  freely  supplied  with  blood  feathers,  arising  from  the  bones  of  the  hand,  are 
iHKb  from  below  and  a  nerve ;  between  the  the  primaries ;  the  secondaries  arise  from  the 
Mb  and  the  capsule  are  2  parallel  membranes,  outer  portion  of  the  ulna,  and  the  tertiaries 
a  whose  oblique  septa  or  partitions  the  barbs  from  its  inner  portion  and  the  humems;  the 
■1  barboles  are  developed,  nearly  in  the  same  bastard  wing  consists  of  the  quills  growing 
nj  that  the  enamel  of  the  teeth  is  formed  be-  from  the  rudimentary  thumb ;  greater  wing 
wiaft  the  membrane  of  the  pulp  and  that  of  coverts,  the  feathers  over  the  quills;  tail  coverts, 
ka  capsole,  as  has  been  remarked  by  Cuvier.  upper  and  under,  those  above  and  below  the 
W  the  complicated  manner  in  which  the  stem  base  of  the  tail  leathers.  The  relative  size  of 
( famed,  the  reader  is  referred  to  the  article  the  quills  on  the  hand  and  forearm,  and  the  con- 
ATBti^  by  Prof.  Owen,  in  the  **  Cyclopccdia  sequent  form  of  the  wings,  are  characteristic  of 
riju^omj  and  Physiology.''    Sufiice  it  to  say  the  families  of  buxls,  and  modify  essentially 


"■+ 


'rrt^r^ 


powm  €f  flfht   TIm  teMdUi  of  Am  dtniik^tlMMlondHmi^ 

whif  2iptiida  prinrnpally  OQ  IIm  lei^itli  of  th«  piroo<«,wiihoBttbtloiidif» 

Mtoadaiy  qailli^  and  Itt  UogQk  on  tbat  of  tbo  winter  liTeij  iiieooedlns  tho 

prfaMvitiL    LtOTioff  out  of  mw  the  proportions  begins  to  a«nmo  iti  brvu  ohflnMl«%  Iho 

of  tboboBMnDdtMibroeofthemiMolasoftbo  oolor  goneraUj  oooibmiiom  oI  tbo  p«t  of  tbo 

vl^p^  wboii  tba  primarlai  aro  looMt  ot  the  web  neorest  tbo  body,  and  gndMQjr 

OKtroodtj  of  tbo  pinion,  m  in  tbo  ftloons  and  tbo  tip.    Until  within  tbo  bat  ' 

•woltow%  ooudns  an  aonminato  form  of  wing,  obangos  of  oolor  in  tbo  far  of  i 

wo  vmj  know  tbil  tbo  powon  of  flight  are  tbo  ormino  in  wintor).  and  In  Ibo 

naL  roqniring  oomparatmlj  littlo  eiwrtion  in  birds  in  tbo  season  of  roptodnolioi, 

the  bkd:bnt  when  tbo  kmmt  primaries  are  in  posed  to  bo  eflboted  Inr  tbo  sfaaplo  n| 

tbo  midAo  of  the  seriei^  living  rise  to  a  short,  of  the  bain  and  ftatbers;  bi*  tUa 

broni  wing^  as  in  the  partridge  and  groosoi  tbo  tbeoaso,as  msoyflMts  go  to  prove  ibaO 

bkdoanfljTonljadiortdistanooatatimoiWitb  obangeeooonr  at  other  tunea  tun  Ibo  forial 

gieal  eflbrti  and  a  whir  well  known  to  tbo  mooltiaig^  and  without  tbo  loos  of  n  ^  ' 

sportnnan.    Kot  onlijr  tbo  shm  of  tbo  wing^  ftather.    It  is  well  known  thai  HvU 

Mt  the  dose  tertnre  of  its  feathers,  most  be  of  IdMr  or  (prief  may  tnm  tbo  bvMB 

titai  into  aooonnt  in  the  rapid  strong  flight  of  or  white  in  so  short  a  period  tbsAlbero 

tbefidoon;  the  kweo  soft  feathers  of  the  wings  noohango  in  tlio  hair  itself  to  aoooiB 

fai  the  ow]%  and  the  serrated  outer  edge  of  too  and  a  ease  ia  on  record  of  n  otanfinf  wUdb  1^ 

primariesi  while  therpreTeotn^  flint,  onaUo  oaroo  white  after  being  rssonodfloaanosLbbn 

tbem  topoonoe  noiseleedj  npon  thmr  Tigilant  been  maintained  by  ScUeMl  and  Msrtin  Ait 

pcej,    Tbo  stnietnro  of  feathers  aiferds  some  man j  birds  alwaya  net  thnr  woddbg  plBniip 

of  the  most  striking  instanoes  of  the  adaptation  without  moulting.   ftorobservatlonoroiHill 

of  mesne  teendi^  and  Palmreaiiy  drew  attention  this,seeapaperb7l>r.Wein]nBd.ln  tba*Ai^ 

to  tiio  proofe  thfl^  oAr  of  oreatiTo  wisdom  and  oeedings  of  tae  Boelon  Oooialj  or  VaOnnl  Bl^ 

desijBi  — Most  bnds,  and  eqieciaDT  the  aqnalio  tory,**  toL  tL  p.  SB.)  The  feet  beiaf  niaiMii 

flHnfUe^  are  proTidod  with  an  oilf^andat  tbo  bowean.the  ohango  of  odor  bo  oifMnsi  la 

base  of  tbo  tail,  whoso  nnotooos  secretion  is  tbo  matore  feather,  wUdi  boa  Bovassrisrv 

dtatriboted  orer  the  feathers  by  means  of  the  nenrons  oommnniontloo  with  Ibo  aUnt    Us 

bOI,  protsoting  thefar  sorfeee  against  moistore;  wearing  away  of  tho  li^t  tipiL  aMnliSBsi  If 

the  shedding  of  the  water  ia  not  owing  entirelT  ICr.  Tarrell,is  not  onlrnnpbyaiolQgMLbi^ift 

te  the  oily  coTsring,  hot  alio  to  a  thin  plate  of  most  cases  does  not  happen.    Dr.  Wdtalm^ 

air  entangled  by  the  feathers,  and  probably  also  from  tho  oxsmination  of  Usasiisd  sped— i  la 

to  an  actnsl  repolslon  of  the  particles  of  water  moseom%  and  of  recent  birds,  expresses  tbst^ 

1^  the  feathers,  as  is  seen  in  the  leaves  of  many  lief  that  the  brightness  and  fedingof  the  eol 

aqnatio  plants;  the  arraDging  of  the  plnmes  by  are  owing  to  Um  increase  w  dimiantkn  of 

the  bill  of  the  bird  being  ratner  to  enable  them  oily  matter  in  the  feathers;  tho  mieroseq  ~ 

to  take  down  a  large  quantity  of  air,  than  to  amination  of  the  web  of  feathers  from  the 

apply  any  repolsiTe  oily  covering. — ^The  plumage  of  a  fresh  merganser  ( Jf.  Sffrafer,  linn^  ibe«« 

of  birds  has  an  infinite  Tariety  of  colors,  fh>m  ed  nnmerons  laeunm  of  a  reddish  oQ-like  flsii; 

tho  sombre  tints  of  the  raven  to  the  pore  white  some  weeks  after,  the  ssme  featben^  baring  t^ 

of  the  egrets,  and  the  gorgeous  hues  of  the  lory,  come  neariy  white  from  ezposnre  to  light,  db» 

toocan,  trogon,  and  bumming  birds ;  tho  females  dosed  air  Imbbles  instead  of  tbo  reddish  ini : 

have  generdly  less  lively  colors,  snd  the  sum-  from  this  he  conclodes  that  tbo  ovsporstisa  if 

mer  livery  of  both  sexes  Is  often  different  from  the  oily  flaid,  and  the  fillimr  of  tbo  spans  with 

that  of  winter.    One  of  the  most  curious  phe-  air,  as  in  tlie  case  of  the  white  water  fily,  pr^ 

nomena  connected  with  feathers  Is  the  annual  duces  the  cfaanaee  of  color.    If  tbisiddbsfiiv, 

moolt,  and  the  change  of  color  during  that  and  as  there  is  good  reason  to  believo,  mars  pbjdBsl 

the  breeding  season ;  moulting  nsually  tekes  imbibition  would  bs  soffident  to  intmnte  it 

plaee  after  the  young  have  been  hatehed,  the  into  the  dead  feathers,  as  it  Is  wdll  knows  tk« 

whole  plumage  i>ecoming  dull  and  rough,  and  fet  pssses  through  all  tissoes  very  rcnfitf  ,  o*>* 

the  bird  more  or  less  indisposed,  with  a  tem-  through  compact  bom.    In  tbo  saaaea  ef  rr 

porary  loss  of  voice  in  the  sinffing  species. — Ac-  production,  the  nutritive  and  orgaala  tettisss 

oording  to  Mr.  Ysrreil,  the  plomsge  of  birds  is  are  performed  with  their  ntmost  viM;  andtbs 

obanced  by  tho  mere  alteration  of  the  color  of  supply  of  fetty  coloring  matter  woold  iunfti» 

the  feathers;  by  the  growth  of  new  feathers  ly  to  the  featliers ;  nndertbeopposltooDnUoas 

witboot  tbo  loss  of  any  old  ones;  by  the  pro-  oif  debility,  cold,  or  insnficient  food*  tbs  eily 

dnction  of  new  feathers  in  the  phice  of  old  ones  matter  would  be  withdrawn  and  tbo  feslbws 

thrown  ofl^  wholly  or  in  part ;  and  bv  the  wear-  would  fede. — ^In  regard  to  tbo  valno  of  feslbws 

Ing  olf  of  the  light  tipe  as  the  breeding  sesson  to  roan,  it  will  be  soflidsnt  to  coamemte  lbs 

approaches,  exposing  the  brighter  tinte  under-  omamentd  employment  of  tho  plvnea  ef  tbs 


nesth.    The  first  two  of  these  changes  occur  in  ostrich,  egrete,  cranes,  and  peneoek;  Iha  ee»' 

adnltsat  the  end  of  spring,  the  third  being  par-  nomicd  nses  of  the  oown  of  tbo  eidsr  dock 

tid  in  spring,  and  complete  in  autumn.  Though  and  tho  nlnmago  of  tho  goose;   the 

the  poiicot  plnmago  »  noo-vascdar  and  epi-  tanoe  of  the  gooss  qdll  beniro  the 


FEBBUABY  FEDEBATIOIT  48B 

I  and  gold  pena,  and  the  adherence  of  Ephesns,  Colophon,  Miletns,  Priene,  Fhocna, 
t  the  present  day  to  the  more  perishable,  8amos,  Teos,  and  Chios,  the  last  8  being  the  cap- 
Qvenieot,  bat  aofter-moving  quill ;  not  itals  of  islands  of  the  same  names.    The  Dorian 
3  than  allude  to  the  consumption  of  the  league  was  composed  of  the  6  cities  of  Halicar- 
e  of  the  gorgeous  tropical  birds  in  the  nassus  and  Cnidus  on  the  mainland  of  Asia  Mi- 
eture  of  leather  flowers,  and  the  utility  nor,  Cos  in  the  island  of  Cos,  and  Halyssna,  Ca-  . 
downy  arctic  skins  as  articles  of  dress  in  mirus,  and  Dndus  in  the  island  of  Rhodes.    An* 
ions  of  perpetual  snow.  other  famous  Greek  federation  was  the  Achsan 
RUARY  (tat.  Februa,  the  festival  of  league,  formed  281  B.  C.  by  4  cities,  which 
}n  and  lustration,  which  was  held  on  were  gradually  joined  by  others,  until  in  191  B. 
h  of  this  month),  the  second  month  in  C,  when  Sparta  was  admitted  to  the  federa- 
«ent  calendar,  containing  28  days  ordi-  tion,  it  comprised  nearly  all  the  Peloponneaian 
and  29  days  in  leap  year.    It  was  not  in  states,  together  with  several  cities  of  northern 
mulian  calendar,  but  was  added  at  the  Greece.     The  Phcenician  cities,  during  neiuiy 
the  year  by  Numa,  and  was  first  placed  the  whole  of  their  national  existence,  formed  a 
muary  by  the  decemvirs  in  452  B.  C.  federation,  of  which  the  3  principal  membera 
ERALISTS,  a  political   party  in   the  were  Tyre,  8idon,  and  Aradus.    In  Italy,  the 
States  who  claimed  to  be  the  peculiar  most  celebrated  federation  was  that  of  Etruria, 
of  the  constitution  and  of  the  federal  which  existed  from  a  very  remote  period,  and 
ment.  Their  opponents,  the  republicans,  embraced  12  cities.    It  nourished  for  several 
died  anti-federalists,  and  charged  them  centuries,  but  finally  yielded  to  the  power  of  * 
rtain  extent  with  hostility  to  or  distrust  Rome  about  280  B.  C. — ^In  modem  times  the 
Cnited  States  constitution  and  the  gen-  first  great  federation  was  the  German  empire, 
•vemment.    The  republicans,  however,  which  was  formed  in  848,  and  in  962  took  the 
»usly  denied  the  truth  of  these  charges,  title  of  holy  Roman  emoire  of  Germany.    It 
lertdist  party  was  formed  in  1788.    Its  lasted  till  1806,  when  the  last  emperor,  Francis, 
iatinguished  leaders  were  Washington,  renouncedthetitleof  emperor  of  Germany,  hav- 
,  Ilamilton,  and  Jay ;   and  the  leading  ing  2  years  previously  taken  that  of  emperor  of 
ist  states  were  Massachusetts  and  Con-  Austria.  Shortly  before  its  dissolution  several  of 
t,  aupportcd  ffenerally,  though  not  uni-  the  German  states  formed  the  confederation  of 
,  by  the  rest  of  New  England ;  while  Jef-  the  Rhine,  under  the  protection  of  Napoleon  I. 
Madison,  Monroe,  Burr,  and  Gallatin  led  This  league  fell  with  the  French  empire,  and 
x>sition.    In  the  contests  of  the  French  was  succeeded  in  1815  by  the  present  German- 
ion  the  federalists  leaned  to  the  side  of  ic  confederation.    By  consolidating,  or  media- 
d,  the  republicans  to  that  of  France.  The  tizing,  as  it  was  termed,  a  multitude  of  small- 
were  defeated  in  the  presidential  election  er  states,  the  number  of  German  sovereignties 
),  when  the  republican  candidates  were  was  reduced  from  several  hundreds  to  88,  em- 
,  Jefferson  president^  and  Burr  vice-prcs-  bracing  84  monarchical  states  and  the  4  free 
Their  opposition  to  the  war  of  1812,  cities  of  LCibeck,  Frankfort,  Bremen,  and  Ham- 
ove  all,  the  calling  of  the  Hartford  con-  burg.    The  principal  monarchical  states  of  the 
1,  complete<l  their  destruction  as  a  na-  confederation  are  the  empire  of  Austria,  and  the 
party.    In  1816  Monroe,  the  republican  kingdoms  ofPrussia,  Bavaria,  Hanover,  Saxony, 
ite  for  president,  received  the  electoral  and  Wtlrtemberg.    The  federation  of  the  Hanse 
f  all  the  states  with  the  exception  of  towns,  or  the  Hanseatio  league,  was  formed  in 
hosetts,    Connecticut,    and    Delaware,  the  13 th  century  by  some  of  the  maritime  cities 
gave  84  ballots  against  him,  while  from  of  Germany  for  the  purpose  of  protecting  their 
ler  states  he  received  183  votes.    At  the  commerce  against  pirates  and  against  the  nobles 
ection  in  1820  the  federalist  party  was  and  princes.    At  the  height  of  its  prosperity  it 
ttely  d'lsbanded,  Monroe  receiving  every  comprised  85  cities.    In  the  14th  and  15th  cen- 
al  vote  except  one.  turies  this  federation  was  of  high  political  im- 
>£RATION,  or  Confedebation,  a  league  portance,  but  it  declined  as  order  and  good  gov- 
>n  of  several  sovereign  states,  gener^ly  ernment  advanced  in  the  states  of  Europe.  The 
the  direction  of  a  supreme  government,  last  diet  of  the  league  was  held  at  Ltlbeck  in 
I  unions  were  formed  very  early  in  his-  1630,  when  the  federation  was  dissolved.    The 
ad  were  common  in  antiquity,  especially  Swiss  federation,  which  has  lasted  for  more  than 
the  Greeks.    The  most  famous  of  these,  5  centuries,  now  consists  of  22  sovereign  can- 
aphictjonic  league,  embraced  12  states  or  tons,  and  its  affairs  are  controlled  by  a  diet  of 
whose  deputies  met  twice  a  year — at  deputies  chosen  by  the  states.  The  United  States 
in  the  spring,  and  in  the  autumn  at  a  of  America  afford  the  most  striking  example  to 
Dfar  Tbermopylo).    Similar  leagues  ex-  be  found  in  history  of  the  successfbl  working  of 
moog  the  Greek  colonies  in  Asia  Minor,  a  federation  on  a  grand  scale.    The  attempts  to 
Sdian  federation  possessed  Lesbos,  Tene-  imitate  them  made  by  the  Spanish  American 
d  other  islands,  and  on  the  mainland  12  republics  have  proved  failures,  and  have  reanlt- 
nmted  cities,  of  which  the  chief  were  ed  for  the  most  part  in  the  abandonment  of  the 
and  Smyrna.    The  Ionian  federation  also  federative  system  and  the  establishment  of  con- 
iaed  in  cities,  the  principal  of  which  were  solidated  governments. 


nDOB  (or  FhHnxm)  L,  iTAVomci,  oar  ktdi$^§BAnolMMkfactnM0km\ftm 

if  BoMlo  flrom  1584  to  1598,  Uie  kit  of  the  of  which  it  nmtt  demad  to  a  OMtaia  Mr  or 

hoanofBorig    Hit  ftther,  Iran  the  Terrible,  hdn,  in  ezdosion  of  the  rtit    A  Im  Maple 

amomtar  of  Tioleiioe  and  cmeltj,  bed  broken  may  be  acquired  bj  deeeent  orlnr  pmhaeau  In 

the  independent  apirit  of  hisnobleaanddtiea  by  kw.  porohaae  meane  erefj  OMide  of  noMirinf 

aaanerea  nnparalleled  in  hiatory^and  had  ag-  knd  except  deacent;  honee  if  land  bo  given  lo 

mndiied  the  atate  in  ware  with  Poland,  8wo>  a  man,  or  deriaed  to  him,  and  ho  takaa  hr  fift 

dan,  and  the  Tartan.    Fedor  wm  weak,  both  or  by  deTia^  atill  ho  ia  aald  in  kw  to  take  kgr 

kflundandbody,  and  hia  brother-in-kw  Goda-  pmohaae.    The  Wiential  worda  In  «qr  kab^ 

aoll^  member  of  the  council  of  atate,  a  man  of  ment  by  which  a  man  abonld  tako  knd  k  §m^ 

onormooa  ridiea.  of  rare  energy  and  ability,  am-  whether  by  will  or  deed,  are^  to  the  ffBla%  or 

bittooa.  enterpnaing,  and  nnacmpolooa,  bore  deTiiee^aiid^hkhein.'*  Forifkadbogkonk 

aoatofthocareaofthoflOTemment    Themoet  a  man  without  the  word '^keira,**  ho  tana  ert[ 

ranaricableeTento  of  thk  reign  are  the  eztenaion  an  eatato  for  hk  own  lifc^aad  at  himAmAa 

ofaerflom;  the  eatabliahment  of  an  independent  there  be  no  remainder  o?or)  it  ravotla  totk 

Unmian  patriarchate,  conaecrated  by  Jeremy,  grantor  or  hk  heira;  andat  ooonaoB  kw,  thm 

patriarch  of  GooatanUnople;  the  completion  of  are  no  wofda  whidi  coohl  anpnly  tko  waat 

thooooqneitofSiberia,  which  had  been giren  to  of  thoae  ^wofda  of  inharitanoa^**  oi  thavae 

Ivan  by  the  robber  and  adventurer  Termak;  the  calkd,  where  there  coold  be  heirOi  Tka^ifkai 

anrrenderofEsthonk  to  Sweden;  an  incuraioii  were  convered  or  deriaed  to  n  man  **aad  III 

anddokatof  the  khan  of  the  Crimea;  thecom-  aacceaon,*^he  took  on(y  an  eatato  Ibr  Ik;  kt 

nancoment  of  diplomatic  relationa  with  diatant  if  thea  worda  were  need  in  a  deed  or  davkati 

atatea,  particularly  with  England;  an  attempt  a  corporation,  they  were  the  proper  aoida  ti 

nado  to  gain  influence  in  Caocaala,  and  another  create  a  ke  aimpie,  beana  acorporatkftahodi 

to  unite  Poland  and  Ruaak  by  the  propoeed  hare  perpetual  roceeadon,  hot  cannot  hofokinL 

faction  of  Fedor  to  the  throne  of  Poland,  in  If  kndbegrantedordevktdtoA,BLaadC« 

ratam  for  which  the  conqueatand  annezatioa  tmiteea,  tian  ako  the  word  luecaaaow  ■aaiik 

to  Poland  of  MoldaTia,Wallachia,  and  Hungary  general  carry  a  fee.    The  andaai  aovori^ef 

wore  promiaed  by  GodunoC    In  order  to  ae-  the  ruk  requiring  worda  of  inheritanoo  k  mm 

ooro  hk  own  aocceetion  to  the  throne,  Godu-  relaxed eomewhat in Bngknd,  and  aora  ktk 


Boff  k  beliered  to  have  hired  aaaaiina  to  mnr-    Unitoi  Stake  (k  aomo  of  tlw  ataloa  1^  >kM^ 


dar  the  car'a  young  brother  Demetriua,  who  cnodally  k  reipect  to  wiUa  and 

wa  with  hk  mother  at  Uglitch.     The  deed  wUla,  waj  wofda  dirtinctly  indicatl^  the 

WM  flawed  by  a  aeria  of  horrible  crima  poa  <tf  the  teetator  to  devia  all  hk  ortaa  aa 

and  of  revolta  onder  the  lead  of  fala  Dome-  Intereat  k  a  piece  of  land,  are  alwaya  held  aw 

trii,  which  convoked  Roaua  long  after  the  to  carrv  a  fa  aimpie ;  and  in  tmata,  if  one  ka 

death  of  Fedor.  land  given  to  him  with  power  to  acU,  thii  ii 

FEE  (Sax.  /e\  or  more  accurately y^A,  com-  held  to  be  a  power  to  convey  k  fa  aimpk.  k 

penation  or  payment).    As  landed  eetata  were  deedi  it  k  always  better  to  odd  the  wofdicC 

given  by  the  northern  conquerors  of  the  Roman  inheritance,  bat  the  word  ^'aaigna'*  k  not  at* 

provinoa  to  their  nobles  and  aldiers  a  com-  cessary  to  give  tlie  power  of  tnmakr,  althopffc 

pensation  or  wages  for  military  arvice,  fa  came  nsuidly  added.    There  may  be  a  foe  aimpk  aol 

to  mean  the  estate  itself.    It  wa  Latinized  into  onlv  in  lands,  but  m  franchisa  and  libartiai; 

fmdum^  or  feodum^  from  which  the  word  feudal  and  in  England,  k  dignitia  and  the  righU  and 

arose,  becaoa  it  wa  this  tcnore  of  land  which  privilega  attached  to  them ;  and  oven  k  psr- 

characterized  what  k  called  the  ^*  feudal  sys-  aonal  property,  a  k  an  anniuty. — ^Foa  maj  be 

tem.^    The  derivation  and  original  maning  of  less  tlum  fa  simple,  and  they  are  a  whsnstsr 

thk  word  are  not  certainly  known,  but  wba  wo  not  simple ;  that  is,  whenever  the  ke  k  k  ai^ 

have  given  is,  we  think,  rapported  by  the  best  wav  restrained  or  diminished.    A  qualified  Im^ 

reesons.    In  law,  estate  doa  not  mean  the  land,  technically  a  called,  k  one  in  which,  by  a  ori- 

bot  the  title  which  a  man  lia  in  the  land ;  ao  ginal  limitation,  the  land  goa  to  a  man  and  kis 

the  word  fa  b  now  used  to  signify,  not  the  land  heirs  general,  and  yet  k  not  mnjined  to  the 

held  k  fa,  but  the  kind  of  estate  which  a  man  issue  of  hk  own  body ;  a  if  it  be  given  kki 

ha  m  land,  or  the  tenure  by  which  he  holds  it  and  to  hb  heirs  on  the  part  of  hk  kthtr  or  a 

The  word  tot  alone  means  an  esUte  without  artain  ancestor.    A  determinabk  la  k  a  fie 

Silification  or  limitation ;  hena  the  phraa  (eo  which  may  continue  for  ever,  but  which  may 

ipk  means  the  higbat  estate  held  of  any  su-  be  determined  by  Uie  happening  of  aoae  eveat 

panor  or  lord,  or  by  any  tenure  or  arvice,  or  which  k  unartain.    Instanca  nsoally  given  el 

atrictly  apeaking,  l^  any  tenua  whatever ;  and  this  are  lands  conveyed  or  devised  to  a  ma  and 

the  word  simpk  moans  only  that  nothing  k  his  heirs  until  an  inknt  shall  attam  n  oertak 

added  to  limit  or  condition  the  word  fa.   Hena  age,  or  until  rach  a  penon  shall  be  narrkd*  a 

an  estate  in  fa  and  an  estate  in  (e^  f  imple  are  shall  have  children.    A  cooditkoal  ko  aeaa 

tho  saoa  thing.    Thk  k  an  absolute  estate  of  either  a  fa  to  which  at  ita  origin  anna  oondi- 

inheritaoa ;  or  an  estate  which  a  roan  holds,  tion  wa  annexed,  which  being  performed  «i& 

daaeendible  to  his  heirs  for  ever.    Then  k  no  defeat  the  estate,  or  the  performana  of  whkh 

orant  by  which  it  must  bo  terminated  or  do*  k  neocasary  to  preserve  tao  ortala^  or  Iho 


.1. 


lEEJEE  Hit 

taunee  or  oeenrrenoe  of  which  is  necessarj  er  islands  are  Orolan,  on  which  most  of  the 

to  Test  the  estate.    Bat  these  three  phrases  are  white  residents  live,  Kandava,  Taviani,  Vona 

Bot definable  with  exact  accoracy,  and  are  some*  or  Somosomo,  Eoro,  and  Mban.    The  islands 

tBMi  nsed  one  for  the  other.    Fee  tail  is  a  law  are  mostly  of  volcanic  origin,  but  there  is  no 

term  of  more  precise  meaning.    It  is  derived  active  volcano  on  the  gronp.    Coral  isles  are, 

from  the  Norman  French  word  taillerj  to  cnt,  however,  not  wanting.    Earthquakes  are  fre- 

becuise  it  is  a  lesser  estate  of  inheritance  cut  or  qpent,  and  hurricanes  periodical  and  destructive, 

eanredontof  the  fee  simple.    The  words  which  The  highest  mountains  are  on  Viti  Levu,  and 

create  a  fee  tidl  are  to  a  man  and  ^*  the  heirs  of  reach  an  elevation  of  4,000  to  5,000  feet.    On 

loM  body,^  or  to  a  woman  and  ^*  the  heirs  of  her  Yanua  Levu  are  5  hot  springs,  tlie  temperature 

body."    By  virtne  of  these  words,  the  first  of  which  is  about  200**  to  21 0^  The  natives  boil 

tiker,  whether  by  devise  or  grant,  takes  only  their  yams  in  them  in  15  minutes.    The  islands 

in  estate  for  his  own  life,  with  a  remainder  in  are  very  dangerous  of  access  on  account  of  the 

tiQ  to  the  heirs  of  hb  body,  which  means  his  shoals  and  reefs  by  which  they  are  surrounded. 

ddest  aon ;  and  as  he  takes  nothing  else,  he  can  Hydrographical  charts  were  made  by  the  U.  S. 

gm  nothing  else  or  more ;  and  at  his  death  his  exploring  expedition  under  Capt.  Wilkes  (1840). 

iOB  oomes  into  possession  of  a  similar  estate  for  and  Capt.  Denham  of  the  British  ship  Herald 

kkown  life,  with  a  remainder  in  tail  to  his  son.  has  recently  been  engaged  in  a  more  accurate 

Eataled  estates  were  very  common  in  England ;  survey  than  had  before  been  made.    From  ob- 

bit  ways  were  devised  long  since,  even  there,  servations  taken  by  Wilkes^s  expedition  it  was 

br  breaking  them  up.    In  Ireland  and  in  Scot-  found  that  the  temperature  was  very  equable. 

iad  they  had  more  force  and  effect ;  and  were  The  mean  temperature  at  Ovolau  during  a  pe- 

igvnd  to  be  so  offensive  that  by  the  recent  legis-  riod  of  6  weeks  was  77.81** ;  the  lowest  was  62**, 

lation  of  the  British  parliament  they  may  now  the  highest  96**.    The  greatest  extremes  of  heat 

iiebroken  in  those  countries  about  as  easily  as  in  and  cold  are  experienced  inland.    A  tempera- 

bclaod.    In  the  United  States  estates  tail  have  ture  of  121^  was  noted  by  a  missionary  in  Vfr- 

ittd  no  practical  existence  since  the  revolution,  nua  Levu.    The  mean  temperature  of  the  group 

\n  tome  of  the  states  they  are  wholly  unknown,  has  been  estimated  at  about  80**.    Considering 

[■  others  they  become  at  once,  by  force  of  stat-  the  proximity  of  these  islands  to  the  equator, 

itory  provision,  estates  in  fee  simple.    In  others  the  climate  is  not  so  pernicious  to  white  men  as 

I  tenant  in  fee  tail  bars  the  entiul  by  a  simple  might  be  expected.    It  is  debilitating,  but  not 

xmreyanoe  in  fee  simple.    In  yet  others,  and  deaidly.    In  December,  January,  and  February 

ihej  are  numerous,  they  are  simply  abolished  the  heat  is  oppressive.    From  April  to  Novem- 

>y  etatote,  without  any  reservation  whatever,  ber  the  prevalent  winds  blow  from  E.  N.  E.  to 

FEEXEE,  Fiji,  or  Vin  Islands,  a  group  in  S.  E. ;  during  the  rest  of  the  year  the  winds  are 

Jbe  south  Pacific  ocean,  lying  between  lat.  15^  variable.    The  north  wind  is  very  disagreeable; 

10*  and  80**  30'  8.  and  long.  177**  E.  and  178^  it  is  a  hot  blast  rarefying  the  air  and  rendering 

W^  indnding  among  others  what  were  called  respiration  difficult.    February  and  March  are 

by  thidr  discoverer,  Tasman  the  Dutch  navi-  the  months  most  feared  by  seamen ;  these  are 

ntor.  Prince  WUliam^s  islands  and  Ueenis-  called  the  **  hurricane  months.^'    The  soil  is  a 

curic*t  ihoals,  and  extending  over  an  ocean  area  deep  yellow  loam ;  and  the  tropical  climate  and 

of  aboat  40,000  so.  m.    Some  geographers  class  abunoimce  of  water  cover  the  mountains  up  to 

Peefoe  with  the  Tonga  islands,  entitling  them  their  very  summits  with  a  luxuriant  vegetation. 

both  the  Friendly  islands.    These  two  groups.  Plants  grow  with  marvellous  rapidity.    Turnips, 

bovever,  differ  from  each  other  geologically,  and  radishes,  and  mustard  after  being  sown  24  hours 

the  Fecneeans  are  dissimilar  to  the  Tongans  in  are  above  the  surface,  and  in  4  weeks  are  fit  for 

pbyneai  conformation,  language,  and  mytholo-  use.    Of  the  bread-fruit  tree  there  are  9  native 

^.  The  Feejee  islands  were  discovered  in  1643,  varieties ;  of  the  banana,  6 ;  of  the  plantain,  3  ; 

Sker  which  date  they  remained  unvisited  until  of  the  cocoanut,  3.   The  Tahiti  chestnut  and  pa- 

ObpC  James  Cook  lay  to  off  an  island  in  the  paw  apple  are  found  wild,  also  shaddocks  red 

radward  group,  to  which  he  gave  the  name  and  white,  a  bitter  orange,  many  sorts  of  plums, 

if  Turtle  island.    In  1789  Capt.  Bligh,  in  the  and  the  Malay  apple.    The  vegetation  of  the  K 

iHneh  of  the  Bounty,  saw  a  portion  of  them,  and  W.  Pacific  seems  to  meet  at  this  central 

■d  in  1792,  when  in  command  of  the  Provi-  point.    The  tea  plant  of  China,  the  cocoanut, 

Inee,  pasMd  among  them.    There  are  225  isl-  caraway,  nutmeg,  sugar  cane,  arrow  root,  capsi- 

■id%  aooot  80  of  which  are  inhabited.    The  cum,  sarsaparilla,  Cape  gooseberry,  and  pineap- 

pepnlatioa  has  been  variously  estimated  at  from  pies  flourish.    The  chief  edible  roots  are  the 

MfiOO  to  800,000.    Two  of  the  islands  only  yam  and  the  taro,  of  which  large  quantities  are 

■v  of  oonsiderable  size,  namely,  Viti  Levu  raised.    Considerable  care  is  bestowed  upon  the 

grant  Feejee)  and  Vanua  Levu  (Great  land),  cultivation  of  the  yangona  (kava),  which  yields 

am  isnner  measures  90  m.  from  £.  to  W.  and  the  native  intoxicating  drink.    The  indigenous 

oin  N.  to  8.,  and  is  supposed  to  contain  at  turmeric  is  copiously  used  by  the  women  in  col- 

00,000  inhabitants.     The  latter  is  more  oring  their  p>ersons.    Cotton  grows  wild ;  so 

100  m.  long,  wi^  an  average  breadth  of  does  the  paper  mulberry  of  which  the  natives 

0  ol;  its  popuhition  is  estimated  at  31,000.  make  their  tapa  cloth.    Two  kinds  of  tomato 

[hn  BOft  important  and  populous  of  the  small-  and  two  kinds  of  nut  are  found.  The  pandanui^ 


« 


wlfth  the  groand  and  letBt  Qpoa  a  dnttor  of  with  oestra  and  tldaport^adMnMriigr 

aoPBiamentary  propa.  la  the  ▼egetahle  cnriority  ThewaUaarafrom4tol0wilMgii,  nal 

ofjMae.   Many  OK  the  lilanda  are  wdl  adapted  whichieof  wildaogarcaaiLlaofti 

teeofi^    The  botaniati  of  the  U.S.  exploring  to  the  ground  to  aa  to  hide  tMrfia 

enedi^n,  on  a  Terj  imperfect  ezammation,  doorwajaaregeoeraOyaokNraalo 

armg  from  the  impoarimlity  of  penetrating  Tiaitor  to  t^Um.    The  averega  ai»  la 

into  the  interior,  sathered  660  spedea  of  plant!,  ftet  aqnare;  the  roof  abQ«liDfcalfe||^    ■• 

The  ooaat  finherfoa  are  inexhanatiUe ;  tartle  one  can  ereet  a  hooae  withoaft  inl  mMbIb^ 

eatdiing  ia  the  bniiineai  of aeveral  tribea;  60  or  lnrpnrehaaeorotherwiaththaMmlmte«ft& 

100  tartle  oang^t  in  a  aeaton  by  one  partj  ia  obief  ofthedlatrietb    Thechiafofdaratti 

deemed  anecetaftd  work.    The  monntaineerai  tobedopebytheearpeptwaoftiUtrilai 

iriio  Uto  far  fhxn  the  aea-ooaBt^  and  eonae-  dwdUnghoonaaregenerailvMaHadaa 

^[■entlT  cannot  get  fiah,  aobatitnte  anakea  aa  able  liwSO  yean.    The  jalaaa  tribm ef 

an  edible.    Thwe  are  fbw  fbwb  and  lioga.  Fedee  export  to  the  eoaal  fianfiM 

The  ni^TO  agricnhoral  implementa  are  a  tool,  wliidi  they  prepare  by  diewluf  * 

knoet-diaped  and  about  a  ytfd  long,  made  ipitting  the  reaolt  into  pitahiff% 


of  liard  wood,  and  need  in  clearing  off  the  mati^  doth,  and  ine  aan  la  oad^a^fiL   Ha 

bnuh wood  and  coarM  graai;  a  digging  stick  trade  of  Fe^  with  their  nilghben^  tfcaft» 

madeof  aToongmangroTe;  alioefbrweeding,  cans  or  FHoidly  ialanden^  datea 

wlthal>laaeoftortoiaedidl  orthoTdTe  of  a  me  the  arriral  of  Taananij 

large  opter;  a  large  dibble,  8  fbet  long  and  18  inatedinthecanoeaofthaT 

ineneaincircnmfereneeatSfbetflromthepdnt;  en  among  the  windward  idea  of  1 

and  a  praning  knifb  made  of  a  plate  of  tortoiie  eaattirly  winda.    Tlie  acarlel  iM 

dMlllaahedtotheendofarod«    The  Fe<;}eeana  qnet  cani^t  in  SoaBoaomo  were  tiM 

were  nreeminent  among  Fdynedana  fbr  thdr  adeof  export.    TlieTongnapaidtiM 

BBndBetnrea,aaremarlced1^0api.C}ook.  Tlie  mana  with  artidea  of  firopaaa  man 

gnater  portion  of  the  procemea  are  perfbrmed  aaid  tlie  loan  of  their  women,    btiiawvftai 

by  women.    The  aiad  or  doth  ia  made  of  tlie  ware  waa  fbat  introdneed  latn  Wmjimk    Vm 

h&A  of  the  malo  tree,  which  ia  ateeped  in  wa>  Tongana  atill  pitMnre  f^om  Fe^M  tMr  eMH% 

tar.    The  l»arkia  then  beaten  on  a  flat  log  with  ipara,  aaOai  pottery,  and  moai|nito  oHtdaikai 

a  groored  mallet    Twolengthaofthewetanb-  wdl  aa  ainnet  and  varieoa  aorta  of  ih  od,  aai  piy 

atanoe  are  generally  beaten  together,  and  are  with  whales*  teeth,  nedKlaeei^iidaid  dnWesw* 


kept  together  by  their  ghiten.    Separate  piecea  riea,  Tonga  doth,  aica,  rnnsMa, 

are  stuck  together  by  the  starch  of  the  tara,  and  '^dceainwar.    Oneconaeoncnoeof  tUs 

are  then  dy  ^.    The  women  elaborate  the  bor-  connection  with  Tonga  is  that  in  aercral  parti  if 

ders.    Floor,  sail,  and  deepingr  mats  are  made  Fe^ee  there  are  tri^  descended  from  Tohhi 

from  the  leaf  of  the  dwarf  panuanas,  and  a  sort  forefiUhera,  and  called  Tonga-F«;)ee.    The  H^ 

of  mi h.    A  missionary  says :  **  The  wicker-  Jeeans  never  retomed  the  Tidta  of  the  TemH% 

work  baskets   of  Feejee   are   strong,   hand-  and  no  to  this  day  there  is  Imt  one  *«*^— >**  le* 

aome,  and  useful  beyond  any  I  have  seen  at  cordeaof  a  Feejee  chief  attenmtinc  to  crsssAs 

home  or  abroad.**    ]Mets  are  made  of  the  vine  ocean  in  his  canoe  to  Tonga.    The  mat  commit 

of  a  creeper  or  of  sinnet    The  fishing  nets  are  cid  interconrse  between  Enropeana  nnd  the  a^ 

weighted  by  shells.    Sinnet  is  composed  of  the  tivea  began  about  1806.    Veeacb  of  the  &  L 

fibre  of  the  cocoannt  husk,  and  furnishes  the  company  ridtcd  the  N.  E.  part  of  Vaona  Lisa 

native  with  his  materid  for  fastening  and  wrap-  to  procore  sandd  wood  and  tfipaafg.    Ih^ 

ping.     The  Fe<»|ees  understand  pottery,   for  paid  in  iron  hoop,  ipikea,  bcnda»  red  pda^ 

which  they  employ  red  and  blue  clays  tempered  and  similar  trifles.    The  sandd-wood  MM  k^ 

with  sand.    Lines  and  figures  are  traced  on  the  fbre  long,  and  as  the  nativea  had  mA 

Tsssels  while  moist,  the  work  being  done  ez-  fbretho^ht  to  plant  morei  little  i 

dusively  by  women.     Canoes  were  formerly  Tripang  and  tortoise  ahdl  next 

built  only  by  a  certdn  caste,  but  of  late  this  chief  artidea  of  furdgn  commerce. 

trade  has  been  thrown  open ;  thev  seldom  ex-  has  long  been  conducted  diiefly  by 

oeed  100  feet  in  length.    Before  the  introduc-  from    Balem.   Mass.     Tripang  ia  pickad  ap 

tion  of  the  Araerican  hatchet  and  the  bladea  fh>m  the  ree»  to  the  annnal  vahM  of  t8Qt6li^ 

and  chisels  of  Sheffield,  the  only  axe  of  the  na-  and  recently  small  lota  of  arrowro 

tive  mechanic  was  a  liard  stone  ground  to  an  not  oil,  and  sawn  timber  liava  Iwen 

edge ;  the  ^ines  of  echini  were  his  boring  ap-  fVom  the  islanders.    Abaoat  eootai 

paratos;  with  raU*  teeth  set  in  hard  wood  he  ly  with  the  earlicet  viaita  of  tha 

carvcdandengravcd;  he  still  uses  the  mushroom  trading  ships,  namely,  in  180i.  a 

cord  for  a  file,  and  the  Pumice  stone  for  gen-  convicts  escaped  from  New  Soolh 

erd  finishing  jmrposes.    The  form  of  the  houses  settled  chiefly  in  the  neighbofhood  of 

in  Fe^  vanes  according  to  loodity.    In  one  Rewa,  the  chiefr  recdvtog  them  oa 

island  a  village  lool»  like  a  dump  of  square  of  their  support  in  time  of  war.    TL . 

wicker  baskets ;  in  another,  like  nistie  arbors ;  27  in  number  at  the  tnne  of  their  flM  arrivs( 

in  a  third,  like  ublong  hayricks;  andinafburth  werathameanaofaoqairiBf  teXbaftandBavm 


FEXJEE  44ft 

B  pdlitieal  importance  in  Feejee  which  they  affectecl.--The  idandere  are  divided  into  a  mnn- 

w  ei^joy.    In  a  few  years  the  greater  part  of  ber  (if  tribeo,  each  governed  by  its  native  chief. 

NT  number  had  fallen  victims  to  native  revenge  Of  these  8  are  paramonnt  and  the  rest  in  a 

to  fends  among  themselves.    Their  leader,  a  state  of  vassalage  more  or  less  complete.    The 

rede  named  Savage,  was  drowned  and  eaten  in  rule  of  the  chief  is  absolute  and  patriarchal.    A 

18.    In  1 824  only  two,  and  in  1 840,  when  Capt.  well  defined  system  of  customary  law,  however, 

iikea  visited  Rewa,  only  one  survived,  an  regulates  the  subordination  of  one  district  to 

shman,  known  as  Paddy  Connor ;  at  the  dose  another.    The  king  is  assisted  by  a  council  com- 

his  life  his  children  numbered  60. — ^The  na-  poeed  of  the  elders  and  men  of  highest  rank. 

rea  are  above  the  middle  height,  sleek  and  The  law  of  descent  is  curious.    The  successor 

•rtly,  with  stout  limbs  and  short  necks.    Their  of  the  king  is  his  next  brother,  failing  whom, 

mi^zion  is  darker  than  the  copper-colored  his  own  eldest  son  or  the  eldest  son  of  his  eld- 

d  Ulster  than  the  black  races.    Their  hair  is  est  brother  fills  his  place.    But  the  rank  of  the 

lok,  long,  frizzled,  and  bushy,  sometimes  en-  mother  often  causes  an  infraction  of  this  rule, 

oaching  on  the  forehead  and  joined  by  whis-  The  person  of  a  pagan  high  chief  is  taboo  or 

n  to  a  thick  round  or  pointed  beard,  to  which  sacred.    In  some  coses  they  daim  a  divine  ori- 

joatacfaea  are  often  added.    They  are  almost  g^n.  Everv  thing  becomes  consecrated  whidiUie 

lefrom  tattooing;  only  the  women  are  tat-  supreme  chiefor  king  touches.  He  works  at  agri- 

Md,  and  that  on  the  parts  of  the  body  which  cultural  labor  when  otherwise  unoccupied,  and 

B  covered.    The  men  dress  in  a  sort  of  sash  plaits  sinnet.    He  has  always  several  attendanta 

white^  brown,  or  figured  masi,  using  gener-  about  his  person,  who  feed  nim  and  perform  the 

7  akbont  6  yards.    The  women  wear  a  liku  or  most  servile  oflSces.     He  has  no  throne,  but 

Dged  band,  made  of  tbe  bark  of  a  tree,  the  squats  on  the  ground  like  his  subjects.    A  pe» 

n  of  a  wild  root,  and  some  kinda  of  grass,  culiar  language  is  used  when  speaking  of  the 

Ml  fringe  ia  from  8  to  10  inches  deep.    The  chief.    AU  his  actions  and  the  members  of  his 

rbm,  worn  only  by  the  men  of  the  re«pectar  body  are  hyperbolized.    Respect  is  indicated  by 

I  ciaises,  is  a  fine  masi  of  one  thickness  only,  the  utterance  of  a  peculiar  shout  or  chant  called 

dbaaa  gauze-like  appearance.    This  is  the  tama.    This  is  uttered  by  inferiors  on  approach- 

gn  costume,  but  when  they  become  Chris-  ing  a  chief  or  chief  town.    It  is  necessary  to 

ins  both  sexes  adopt  a  fuller  dress.     They  crouch  when  a  chief  passes  by.    Standing  in  the 

re  tbe  lobe  of  the  ear  and  distend  the  hole,  presence  of  tlie  chief  is  not  afiowed,  and  all  who 

ith  eexea  paint  their  bodiefl,  and  seem  to  pre-  move  about  the  house  in  which  lie  is  creep, 

r  red ;  they  also  besmear  themselves  with  oil.  or,  if  on  their  feet,  advance  bent,  as  in  act  of 

r  the  toilet  the  hair  is  the  most  important  obeisance.    No  one  may  cross  a  chief  behind  his 

rt,  and  ia  dressed  in  the  most  grotesque  forms,  back.    The  inferior  must  pass  in  front  of  the 

OMtimes  attaining  the  diameter  of  6  feet.    The  superior.    On  the  same  pnnciple,  when  at  sea 

ieTa  barber  is  held  in  high  respect,  and  his  they  may  not  pass  the  canoe  of  a  chief  on  the 

oda  ere  not  allowed  to  touch  food.    Tbe  hair  outrigger  side.    If  a  chief  stumbles  or  foils,  his 

colored  sometimes  with  two  or  more  dyes,  subjects  must  do  the  same.    The  best  produce 

1^  ere  fond  of  music,  and  have  invented  the  of  the  gardens,  the  best  animals,  and  the  best 

ei  flute,  the  conch  shell,  the  pandean  pipes,  a  fish  are  presented  to  the  chiefs.    Pay-day  is  re- 

!«B-harp  made  of  a  strip  of  bamboo,  ana  sev-  garded  as  a  high  festival.  Whales'  teeth,  women, 

al  aorta  of  drums.    The  singing  is  invariably  and  canoes  are  prominent  articles  of  tribute, 

e  vmjar  key.    They  love  to  dance.    Tbe  mu-  According  to  the  native  ideas  of  justice,  the 

alalia  perform  on  one  note,  the  bass  alternating  criminality  of  an  act  is  in  proportion  to  the  rank 

illi  tiie  air ;  they  then  sound  one  of  the  com-  of  the  offender.    Murder  by  a  chief  is  less  hei- 

oo  chorda  in  the  bass  cleff  without  the  alter-  nous  than  petty  larceny  committed  by  a  man  of 

iCioii.    The  Protestant  missionaries  forbid  the  low  rank.    The  most  serious  offences  are  theft, 

wtomal  dances  as  immodest.    The  natives  are  adulterv,  abduction,  witchcraft,  infringement 

ed  of  poetry.   Their  verses  rhyme,  but  seldom  of  a  taboo,  disrespect  to  a  chief,  incendiarism, 

ewnre  a  uniform  measure.    In  chanting,  the  and  treason.    Theft  ia  punished  by  a  fine,  re- 

ntw  krepeated  at  the  end  of  each  line.    Few  payment  in  kind,  loss  of  a  finger,  or  clubbing. 

U  to  excesa.    Girla  are  betrothed  at  a  very  The  contumacioua  are  punished  by  a  fine,  or 

tij  ege,  and  often  to  old  men.    Brothers  and  loss  of  a  finger,  ear,  or  nose.    The  other  crimes 

firat  cousins,  fathers  and  sons-in-law,  are  punished  by  death,  the  instrument  being  the 

end  daughters-in-law  are  forbidden  to  club,  noose,  or  musket    Adultery  is  the  crime 

to  each  other  or  to  eat  from  the  same  most  severely  visited.    Tbe  adulterer  may  be 

A,    The  latter  prohibition  extends  to  bus-  put  to  death,  or  he  may  be  compelled  to  ^ve  up 

iidi  end  wives.    The  common  people  usually  nis  own  wife  to  the  aggrieved  party,  or  his  prop- 

ke  %  meela  a  day,  the  chief  8  or  more.    As  erty  may  be  destroyed  or  taken  away  firoin  him. 

Wf  M»or  drinking  after  each  other  from  the  The  principle  of  vicarious  atonement  is  ac- 

■•  cop,  they  hold  the  vessel  about  10  inches  knowledged.    A  man  sentenced  to  death  will 

lOve  tbe  mouth,  and  pour  the  stream  down  the  often  surrender  his  father  to  suffer  in  his  stead. 

naatb    Tlbey  eat  with  their  fingers.    Rheuma-  There  b  also  a  spedes  of  pecuniary  atonement 

m  la  common  among  them  ;  they  relieve  the  or  ioro,  of  which  there  are  6  varieties.    The 

liwi  bj  making  deep  incisions  over  the  part  soro  with  a  whalers  tooth,  a  mat,  dub,  musket^ 


1^ 


*   1    ■»!    -4 


orolbffTiIiiaIil%iitlMflMiieoiiiiB0D.    BoeMgr  km.   Aftijtem  fa 

fa dflvidid into 6  racognlwd  ciltmi :  1, kingt Miid  bis  nonnal  eoD^tloo.    Ttei 

Mos;  ^chiaiii  of  Urg«dlstiiets  or  bkiids;  are  w«Il  fortUled  l>y  ilraii 

ehieft  of  town%  prieftSi  and  ■mbawadon ;  i|  breaslworka,  pierced  wUh 

_jtiiigiiishedwarrionof  k>wbirtb,chiefrofUie  cfaieflj  med  are  dob^  ipaaik  battfa  mm^  jfca 

earpenteri,aDdobiefiiofUietiirUeeatcbera;  S,  bow,  the  diiigi  and  Ilia  auMSct    A  paei 

eomiDoii  people;  6,  ilaTca  bj  war.    Rank  it  weapon  is  the  mliiile  dob^  wUA  fa  ws 

hereditary  through  the  female  line.    The  dif-  in  the  girdk,  aomeCiniea  la  pain.    It  fa  a 

Bity  of  a  pagan  chief  is  estlmaled  br  the  nam>  stiok,  with  a  knob  al  ooe  endL  fa  hariad  wVk 

ber  of  his  wives.    The  rights  of  the  eofs  or  great  prseisloB,  and  fa  a  liinrorila  wwmtm  wlifc 

rister's  son,  oonstitnte  one  of  the  peeoliar  insti-  asssMUii,    The  side  and  aged  are  a^gfaelai,  m 

lotions  of  Feejee.    A  vasn  of  rank  can  daim  If  they  beeome  troablssoiBa  ar«  faoiad  afivaer 

aoy  thing  in  his  mother's  land,  ezoeptiog  the  stranmd.    The  relalivea  hold  a 

wives,  home,  and  land  of  a  chiet    In  the  moral  Intended  TicUm  whifa  Hvlag 

md  intdlectoal  state  of  the  Fe^eeani  there  fa  a  the  sepoldire^  and  go  inio  i  ^ 

wide  distinction  between  the  pagan  and  Chris-  entombment    The  signs  of  monrnlaif  ara 


tian  natives.    As  the  nujority  are  yet  pasama,    cropping  c^  the  hair  and  the  Jointaoftta 


Ihdr  costumsi  laws,  and  rdigion  may  still  be  toe  or  little  finger.    Anolhar 

TCgarded  as  the  national  standards  of  Feid^e.  lorn  fathe  I^MhiorsCran^agof  thawHw 

Oi^  Wilkes  says  of  them: ''They  are  tmly  next  ftiends  of  the  deeeased.    Aboiiioafa| 

wretdicsin  the  strongest  sense  of  the  term,  arc  Used  to  a  great  extsnt  by  medfaalad 

degrsdtid  beyond  the  conception  of  dviliaed  mechanicar  weana.    Boys  ara  ebom 


people.    For  the  sake  of  decracv,  and  to  avoid  attaining  poberty.— Feya  has  aooea 

shocking  my  readers,  I  have  refrained  from  re-  common  to  all  the  IsfandSb  The  aativw 

kling  niany  things  which  happened  nnder  m  are  local;  each  Island  has  Ita  owa 

own  eyes.''    Foremost  among  their  desoribahie  lkmS|  and  soperstiliona.  iUlIha 

i^css  standa  cannibalism ;  not  only  ara  prison-  to  the  fawest  types  of  pdythafan,  and  dl  tm 

ara  taken  in  war  consumed,  hot  persons  of  the  Imprsgnated  whh  the  filth  and  savagansM 

aame  tribe  and  village  fidl  victims  to  the  greed  charaoteriae  the  adad  ezfatsnea  or  tiM 

of  their  ndghbora.   The  cooked  hnman  bo4y  fa  Somefeatarssthemythdogfaabav^laai 

termed  in  the  FedeelangnageftaMs  or ''long  they  retdn  the disttnotfan  belweaa  M 

K**  AsanEngUshgentleinanmaysendadioica  and  liti  flaofarML  between  goda 

nch  of  veoison  as  a  complimentarv  present  to  The  latter  clsss  fa  made  op 

another,  so  ooe  Fe(()ee  chief  will  send  a  std  wart  diiefii  and  reipeotsd  ancesH 

snlject  rossted  entire  like  an   ox,  careftilly  other  defects  of  wonder  are  admfasibis  t»  tUi 

tnused,  and  escorted  by  a  prooesdon  to  the  res-  class.    Most  of  the  gods  are  suppoaed  to  kite 

idenoe  of  an  ally.    "  It  is  our  only  bed^*'  sdd  Jarisdiction  only  over  the  tribes,  idands»  cr  d» 

Thakoiubaa  to  the  British  Capt  Erikine.  There  triots  where  thev  are  worshipped.    Each  trail 

fa  one  district  called  Drekete,  where  the  inhab-  has  its  tateUry  deities.    Thn  rrrjmians  hart  as 

itants  from  generation  to  generation  are  all  idols,  hot  reverence  certain  stones  aa  shrines  d 

"preserved^*  to  be  consomed  by  their  more  the  god,  and  hold  certdn  birds  and 


powerfhl  neighbors.     The  epicores  of  Fe^ee  sacred.    Each  chief  has  hfa  mmhmii^  or  prisHi 

prefer  the  flesh  of  women  to  that  of  men,  and  who  acts  in  concert  with  him,  and  hdps  bim  t» 

deem  the  thick  of  the  arm  and  the  thigh  the  govern  his  dansmen.    The  temple  (adwv)  ii 

tit-biu  of  the  6aiv/i9.    The  flesh  of  white  men  nsed  for  all  poblie  pnrposesi  and  Is  the  onlr  pa^ 

fa  hdd  in  low  repute ;  it  is  said  to  be  compare-  lie  bnilding.    There  ars  priestesses,  bat  faw  d 

Hvdyinsipid  or  obnoziondy  tdnted  with  tobao-  soflident  importance  to  have  a  tcaptsL    lbs 

00.  Their  practice  of  appropriating  the  cargoes  portion  of  food  devoted  to  tha  god  fa  eatsn  If 

and  eating  the  crews  of  vessels  wre^ed  on  their  the  priest  and  dd  men.    The  pritsti  ars  esa^ 

shores,  hM  severd  tiroes  brooffht  down  upon  sdted  as  oradeiL    The  rssponses  ars  given 

them  chastisement  from  diips  of  war  belonging  convulsions,  supposed  to  be  caused  by  the 

to  France  or  the  United  States.    In  18S4  the  ence  of  the  god.    There  are  varioM 

chief  of  Viwa   captured    the    French    briff  divination,  im  of  the  most  childish 

L'dmable  Joe6phino^and  killed  the  captdn  and    such  ss  by  biting  a  leaf  or  pouring  m 

most  of  the  crvw.    Tbis  crime  was  avenged  by  the  arm.    They  have  a  strong  bdicf  in  sU 

two  French  ships  of  war  sent  out  to  Fe^ee  for  of  apparitions,  witches,  ghosts,  wiaudi^  sad  ths 

that  purpose.    At  Maldo,  one  of  the  smaller  evil  eye.    They  bdieve  in  a  sort  of  Unas  wha 

Islands,  Lieut  Joseph  A.  Underwood  and  Mid-  dance  on  the  hills  by  moonlight  and  si^  ^x^ 

shipman  Wilkea  Henry  of  the  U.  8.  ezpk>ring  The  future  worid  In  their  opinion  fa  mnch  the 


expedition  were  murdered,  July  84,  1S40.    The  same  as  the  present    In  a  large  aambsr  ef 

last  afikir  of  this  sort  took  place  in  Oct  1858.  the  islands,  a  particnfar  town  in  Vanna  Lfva 

The  marines  and  crew  of  the  U.  8.  sloop  of  war  fa  thougla  to  be  the  entrance  to  tha  spM 

Tandalia  burned  down  a  village  and  killed  U  world.    The  booses  hi  thfa  town  are  bdh  with 

and  wounded  10  of  the  inhabiUnts  of  the  isUod  their  doora  oppodte  to  eadi  other,  so  thai 

of  Ways,  in  Dunishment  lor  the  murder  and  the  shade  may  pass  throogh  withont  tatemf* 

masticatioo  of  a  New  Yorker  and  two  oompan-  tion.     Tha  *"^^¥»^"t*  speak  in  low 


FEUO  MB 

tod  If  at  ft  little  distaiioe  communicate  their  tims  to  pagan  wrath,  thongh  often  in  imminent 
tiMwhta  by  dgns.  The  making  of  charms  and  peril,  hut  scTeral  natire  teachers  were  sacrificed, 
amnfetB  is  a  favorite  occupation.  Sneezing  is  and  the  mission  premises  were  fired  on  one 
Qminoiia,  and  varies  in  its  Inck,  according  as  occasion.  Abont  1848  the  French  Catholic  mis- 
it  proceeds  from  the  right  or  left  nostril. —  nonaries  commenced  their  operations  in  Feejee. 
The  first  Christians  resident  in  Feejee  were  a  The  rektions  existing  between  them  and  their 
UfW  Tongan  emigrants  and  traders  who  had  Protestant  brethren  are  not  so  fraternal  as  could 
been  converted  in  the  Friendly  islands.  The  be  desired.  They  are  more  tolerant  of  some  of 
horrible  condition  of  Feejee  moved  the  hearts  the  native  practices,  such  as  dancing,  than  the 
of  the  British  Wesleyan  missionaries  in  Tonga  Protestants.  In  1857  there  were  54,281  attend- 
in  1884,  and  two  of  their  number  were  appointed  ants  upon  the  religious  services  conducted  by 
to  cqwn  ft  mission  there.  These  two  pioneers  the  Wesleyan  missionaries.  In  many  of  the  cir- 
wera  the  Rev.  William  Cross  and  David  Cargill.  cuits  the  Christians  support  their  own  pastors, 
They  reached  Lakemba,  an  island  of  the  wind-  who  are  natives  either  of  Feejee  or  Tonga.  By 
warn  group,  Oct  12,  1835.  They  came  fur-  the  latest  accounts  there  are  8  Protestant  mis- 
niibcd  with  letters  of  recommendation  from  sionaries  in  Fe^ee,  and  no  fewer  than  200  na- 
Ciig  George  of  Tonga  to  the  king  of  Lakemba,  tive  teachers  in  the  same  islands  and  in  Ro- 
who  received  them  kindly.  One  great  advantage  turoa,  an  island  a  considerable  distance  to  the 
that  the  missionaries  ei](joyed  arose  from  the  fact  north  of  Feejee.  For  the  numerous  children, 
that  the  Tongan  tongue  is  well  understood  at  chiefly  half  caste,  of  the  white  residents  at  Le* 
Ukemba.  The  first  part  of  St.  Matthew's  Gospel  vuka,  Ovolau,  a  school  has  been  established 
waft  translated  into  the  Lakemba  dialect  and  by  the  mission  society,  where  instruction  is 
fDnrmrded  to  Tonga  to  be  printed,  and  a  gram-  ^ven  in  the  native  and  English  tongues.^The 
mar  mod  dictionary  were  commenced.  The  Feejee  language  has  at  least  15  dialects.  The 
aarBfat  converts  in  Lakemba  were  Tongan  im-  missionaries  are  acquainted  with  7  of  these,  and 
■ligraiita,  who  became  class  leaders  and  ex-  books  have  been  printed  in  4  of  them.  In  1844 
bortera.  In  June,  1886,  Christianity,  or  the  it  was  determined  to  make  the  dialect  spoken  at 
Uhi  as  it  was  called,  was  already  of  suflScient  Hbau  the  standard  dialect  of  Feejee,  and  with 
fwUnftrA  to  prevent  the  massacre  and  eating  of  insignificant  exceptions  all  the  works  since 
the  crew  of  the  Active,  shipwrecked  near  La-  printed  have  been  written  in  this  dialect  The 
kambo.  Mr.  Cross  left  Lakemba  and  opened  chief  peculiarity  of  the  Feeiee  as  distinguished 
the  mission  at  Rewa,  Jan.  8,  1888.  In  Dec.  fn)m  the  other  Polynesian  languages  is  the  use 
I8S8I,  three  more  missionaries  direct  from  Eng-  of  the  combinations  f7i5  and  ng.  The  missionaries 
land  kmded  at  Lakemba,  and  brought  with  them  in  their  vocabularies  have  used  the  Italian  and 
ft  printing  press,  type,  and  binding;  material,  not  the  English  sounds  of  the  vowels.  The  New 
The  first  part  of  the  ^*  Conference  Catechism^'  Testament  was  completed  in  the  Mbau  dialect 
was  printed  at  Lakemba  in  the  native  tongue  chiefiy  by  the  Rev.  John  Hunt.  The  British 
in  Feb.  1839,  and  St.  Mark's  Gospel  not  long  and  foreign  Bible  society  gave  great  pecuniary 
after.  Two  more  missionaries  soon  arrive<^  and  other  assistance  to  this  work,  and  issued 
and  it  was  determined  to  remove  the  printing  an  improved  edition  of  the  some.    The  Rev. 

Gm  to  Rewo,  which  was  done  in  1839.    The  David  Hazlewood  published  a  grammar  and  a 

neoce  of  tlie  missionaries  was  seen  wherever  Feejeean-English  and  Englbh-Feejeean  diction- 

tliey  penetrated,  in  the  cessation  of  cannibal-  ary  in  1850.  The  same  indefatigable  missionary 

inn,  war,  and  murder,  and  various  other  pagan  completed  in  a  few  years  the  translation  of  the 

pffictioea.    One  custom  lingered  longer  than  Old  Testament  from  the  Hebrew.    Mr.  Calvert, 

otIierB,  that  of  polygamy.    Many  a  man  of  rank  for  17  years  missionary  in  Fe^ee,  is  now  (1859) 

wlio  had  changed  his  practices  in  every  other  re-  in  London,  supported  by  the  British  and  foreign 

refosed  to  break  up  his  domestic  establish-  Bible  society,  to  assist  in  revising  Mr.  Hazle- 

and  dismiss  all  his  wives  but  one.  In  such  wood's  translation  of  the  Old  Testament  in  its 

the  missionaries  always  refused  the  full  progress  throughthepre8s.—See  **  Lite  in  Fe^ee, 

frivilege  of  church  membership,  however  pow-  or  Five  Tears  among  the  Cannibals*'  (Boston, 

«fbl  the  chief.    At  the  same  time  they  taught  1851);  Laury,  **  First  and   8econd  Missionary 

fteir  converts  to  be  obedient  subjects  in  every  Visits  to  the  Friendly  and  Feejee  Islands'*  (Lon- 

tikbig  except  in  following  their  chief  to  wanton  don) ;  Erskine,  *'  Journal  of  a  Cruise  among  the 

aad  aggressive  wars.    As  the  Christians  were  Islands  of  the  Western  Pacific"  (London,  1858) ; 

Bona  industrious  and  skilful  than  the  pagans,  the  Robert  Toung,  *^  Journal  of  a  Deputation  ta 

oUafr  found  their  tribute  increased,  and  this  the  Southern  World"  (London,  1855);  Wilkes, 

pn&poaed  many  of  them  to  tolerate  the  pres-  "  U.  S.  Exploring  Expedition  around  the  World  " 

anoa  en  the  mis^onaries  and  the  spread  or  the  (New  York,  1856) ;  and  Williams  and  Calvert, 

ipfn;    Tet  the  persecution  of  the  missionaries,  *^  F^ji  and  the  Fyians"  (2  vols^  London,  1858.) 

Mitiva  teachers,  and  converts  was  great.    The  FEIJO,  Dixoo  Antonio,  a  Brazilian  stat€»- 

foond  their  houses  and  property  de-  man,  and  from  1834  to  1838  regent  of  Brazil, 


aCnijad  by  midnight  attacks,  and  were  often  bom  in  Itu,  in  the  province  of  San  Paulo,  in 

CongpeDed  to  migrate  in  a  body  to  seek  the  pro*  1780.     He  distinguished  himself  in  early  life 

"  ^   -  of  a  Christian  or  even  a  tolerant  pagan  by  his  eloquence  as  a  pulpit  orator.  When  the 

Kona  o(  the  missionaries  ever  fell  vie-  reUtion  of  Brazil  to  Portugal  began  to  agitate 


Am  piAdo  nliid,  1m  dftTOtod  liliiitdf  to  poll*  i 

ti0i|  and  after  haTiog  been  mdI  as  depo^  of  p<  i  m 

Ite  prcnrinoe  to  tba  eortoa  MmTened  in  Porto*  Ai«cri|B8iA»MidOQnMiaf  ofi 

pL  he  l>eoaiiie  in  18S1  and  OTor  afterward  re*  mina  18.87,  potadi  18^  per  < 

Budned  an  nnconiproQiiring  champion  of  the  na»  oxide  of  iron  are  eoomMM^f 

tlooal  iodepMidenoe  of  BiadL    In  1888,  when  i        itiei^  and  a  poctta  oC  dio 

tibe  Bradlian  declaration  of  Independenoe  be>  i«uw>jed  with aoda.    Inthats 

came  known  at  liebon,  Fbyo  waa  oonpelled  to        a  b  aabititnted  te  the  . 

flee.    After  apending  a  ehort  time  in  fini^and  uu      the  place  of  KG  In  tk!a  above 

In  atadjring  the  poBtlcal  intdtntiooa  of  that  Th«  oompodtion  ia  then  alllea  88Lr« 

ooontrj,  he  returned  to  hie  native  coontiy,  and  18.5^  'iod  aoda  11^  per  eenk  Ite  t«» 

pobliahed  a  pamphlet  in  wliieh  he  adTocated         i  imetimea  aeea  tofetlier  aa  oeartili 

the  eetaUiilinient  of  a  Booth  American  r^pob-  k       e^  aa  in  that  of  whkh  Fonpeu^ 

Bo  after  the  model  of  the  United  Statea.    He  •.    Labradoilte  k  a  benatlM 

waaeoondioeena  member  of  the  legidatiTe  ae>        >diU€i  peaiij  Inetra^  and  often 

oembly,  and  he  exerted  his  infloenoe  in  diaplao*  j       -/Uoe,  green,  yellow,  and  ted  ootaiL  li 


MU^fHvii 
I  wC^if 
ariAMHa 


l^g  Don  Pedro  from  power.    After  the  roToln*  iuv    me  and  aoda  tpfether  i epiaee  ttm 

tlott  of  April,  1881,  he  held  almoet  aopreme  '      lurmer  eommonly  heini  pr»eni  ' 
power,  altboogh  his  oAce  waa  only  that  of  min-  woflOtolSperosntysindtiio 

Hterofjnstloe.    He  ^ssolved  the  roTolotionary  <n    e  of  Iron  also  abont  1  per  eon 
army,  oiganiaed  a  national  guard,  made  strio-        w  be  fbsed  by  the  Uowpipo  on  lla 

KtlawsagaiostpditicaloflbodenLaodsabdned  mw    »enamd.    Inftaporsr' 

nnroly  spirit  tnparliament  and  in  the  coon-  i     >  material  tethe  eonstr 

trratlam.  His  oflloialdaticsi  however,  ehaiMp-  !•      u  being  groimd  to  powder, 

en  his  political  conviction^  and  from  a  stord^  %iui  rater,  and  baked,  the  si 

advocate  of  repnblioanism  be  became  a  con>  ng  being  8nt  Introdneed.    

adentions  champion  of  oonstitotlonal  monarchy.  -•       ImessobeantlAdfromltadbnIaTaat 
HerelinqQishedhisoflleeinl888,andlntheftH-        u^thatitiscmpfeyedinjawefay.   B!r*ai» 
lowing  year  entered  the  BraiUian  senate  aa  a  isltionoflblnsnathlorocia^tfainteli|at> 

aemberforBlode  Janeiro:  and  Ibr  some  time  j      w)  are  obtained,  whkharai 


•MVUSW*    SV*     AVIV  WV  VMIMMIV,     ■■«■    AWA    ^IW    AUUV  HB/  Vft  V  VWWIMWW,    W  WW!  MTW  WOTB  ■■  IHI 

be  edited  a  poKtical  Joomsl  in  the  province  of  t        re  of  porcelahi.    The  aoU  dstlved 

Sen  Panlo.    In  Ang.  1884^  he  was  appointed  1    iMwroe  is  enriched  by  the  potasli  or 

bishop  of  Marianne,  and  in  the  same  year  was  iroe.    The  mineral  is  one  of  toe  tag 


nominated  fur  4years  regentof  BraxiL   He  en-  the  varioos  granitic  rock%  and  oC  trag^  ^"^ 

tered  apon  his  adiniDistration  under  the  most  porphyry,  and  manyotliers.    In  tlie  lastasM 

aospicious  oircnmstances,  end  enlisted  the  tym-  it  is  in  crystals  disseminated  throng  a  fM- 

patbies  of  the  people  by  hts  apparent  solicitude  spathic  base.   The  appearance  of  ecattcred  cfj^ 

for  the  preservation  of  civil  and  religions  liberty,  tals  of  feldq>ar  in  granite  gives  it  the  nams  «f 

Soon,  however,  he  was  suspected  of  anti-libenl  porphyritic 

tendencies.  The  suspicion  received  confirmation       FElLAIIS,  the  people  In  modem  E^ypt  Ail 

by  his  attempt  in  1836  to  withhold  the  privilege  cultivate  the  soil    Ofthevariooa 


ni  trial  by  Jury  for  offences  of  the  prem.    The  exist  in  Egypt  the  Fellahs  ars  the  moss  anetaak 

oppositiou  sgainst  him  finally  assumed  such  for-  and  are  probably  the  desceodanta  of  the  ell 

midable  prt^rtions  that  be  was  compelled  to  Egyptians.  Although  numerons  invariens  baiS 

resign  bis  office  after  having  appointed  a  new  introduced  foreign  elementa  among  thtm^  yst 

prime  minister  in  the  person  of  Pedro  d^ArsnJo  the  original  race,  devoted  to  agrioiittaral  Umb; 

Lima,  who  succeeded  bim  as  regent  on  Sept  18,  has  always  at  last  absorbed  the  inv•di^g  ns% 

1838.    Since  then  Fe^o  has  taken  no  part  in  the  and  still  preeents  a  physiognomy  ifiaiHibliai|llsl 

public  affiurs  of  his  country,  excepting  in  1848,  which  is  found  upon  andenl  Egyptian  seBlj^ 

when  he  appeared  as  the  leader  or  a  revolution*  tnres.     A  patient  and  laborions  pripwIsSinsc 

aryattempt  at  San  Paolo.  they  have  held  for  ages  the  soQ  which  the  Kit 

FELDSPAR  (Qerm.  IWL,  field,  and  %>ath^  4^rtiiizei.    The  Fellahs  an  genaraDv  of  Is^s 

spar,  in  the  derivative  feldspathic).  an  impor^  stature,  with  broad  chests,  nmsenlar  nnH  M 

tant  minersl  species,  which  inclndee  a  large  black  and  pierdng  eyes.    The  oonfaasHoa 

number  of  varieties ;  also  the  name  given  by  of  the  brain  indicates  an  inteUlgent  nsK  ths 

Dsna  to  one  of  the  sections  of  the  anhydrous  facial  angle  bdngnsoslly  almois  n  riglit  angK 

silicates.    The  minersl  as  commonly  seen  is  the  though  w  ithin  the  DelU  the  Arab  type  of  osan- 

S fat-colored  Ingredient  of  granite,  distinguish-  tensoce  predominates.    Thoas  of  the  Dslto.  Ss% 

bv  iu  pearly  lustre,  and  a  hardness  little  have  an  almost  white  complexion,  while  ths 

inferior  to  that  of  the  quarts  with  which  it  others  are  copper^oiored.    The  anilqne  Egy> 

b  intermingled.     On  the  scale  iU  hsrdness  tian  type  reappesn   most   striking^  in  ths 

Is  8.    Iu  specific  gravity  is  2.4-3.6.    It  crys-  women,  who,  though  slender  and  gneafaL  see 

tsllins  in  oblique  rhomboidal  prisms,  which  remarkably  strong.    The  drssa  of  the  Feilshi 

*  sometimes  found,  as  at  the  quarries  at  indicates  misery  snd  privation,  being  rsnltf 

Idletown  and  Iladdam,  Conn.,  a  foot  long  more  than  a  shirt,  leaving  bars  the  araM,  h«i^ 

8  or  8  hioheo  thick*    In  oompositkm  the  and  brsast    Their  oq^laaiy  iiimlAmMH  ii 


IXLLATAHS  FELLER                       447 

I  bread,  mnnhj  water,  and  onions,  to  which  body  b j  gjranastics  and  games,  bj  cold  bathins^ 

thej  are  aometimes  able  to  add  cheese,  dates,  and  by  other  healthful  exercises.    Fellenberg^ 

bcana,  or  rice.    They  live  in  hnts  aboat  4  feet  aim  was  to  elevate  all  classes  by  opening  an  insti- 

hiA,  the  only  fnmitore  of  which  is  a  mat  on  tntion  alike  to  the  poor  and  the  rich,  and  by 

which  to  sleep,  a  water  jug,  and  a  few  kitchen  making  agricnltare  not  only  the  basis  of  his  in- 

vtensils.    They  renudn  attached  to  the  rudest  stmction,  but  also  by  elevating  that  profession 

agridiltaral  methods,  and  nse  almost  the  same  to  the  dignity  of  a  science.    Apart  iVom  the 

implenients  as  their  remote  ancestors ;  yet  the  agricultural  school,  he  founded  an  establish* 

frnitflilnesB  of  the  soil,  which  sometimes  yields  ment  for  the  manufacture  of  improved  agricnl- 

7  crops  annoally,  and  tlie  industry  of  the  Fellahs,  tural  implements.  At  the  same  time  he  laid  the 

eompenaate  for  their  lack  of  skilL  Mehemet  All  foundation  of  a  scientific  institution,  which  he 

ftiled  in  his  efforts  to  introduce  among  them  tho  desired  to  conduct  in  conjunction  with  Pesta- 

fanplcments  of  modem  invention.  They  are  able  lozzi :  but  Fellenberg^s  Swiss  system  of  economy 

to  endure  the  greatest  fatigue,  and  to  work  was  little  in  harmony  with  tlie  generous  but 

tfarougfa  the  whole  day  in  a  burning  climate  with  imprudent  habits  of  Pestalozzi,  who  withdrew 

but  very  little  food,  accompanyiug  their  labors  to  the  castle  of  Yverdnn.    Fellenberg  proceeded 

with  pions  hynms;  yet  they  arenatnrally  iodo-  with  his  task,  and  after  having  oi*ganized  his 

lent.  And  when  subsistence  has  been  secured,  scientific  school,  for  which  the  first  building 

thej  cease  work.  The  women  share  the  heaviest  was  erected  in  1807  (the  number  of  profes- 
laborsof  the  men.                                               '  sors  increasing  in  a  few  years  to  20,  and  the 

FELLATAIIS.    See  Foolah^  pupils  to  80),  the  agricultural  institution  was 

FELLEKBERG,  Puilipp  Emanukl  yon,  a  opened  in  1808,  while  he  established  in  the 

Swiss    educator  and  philanthropist,   founder  same  year  a  normal  school.    Although  this  be- 

of  the  institutions  at  Hofwyl,  bom  m  Bem,  June  came  popular  among  the  teachers  of  Switiser- 

iTv  1771,  died  there,  Nov.  21, 184i.    Uis  father  land,  it  soon  gave  umbrage  to  the  govemment, 

VM  a  member  of  the  govemmcnt  and  a  friend  and  was  eventually  incorporated  with  the  agri- 

ofFestalozzL    His  mother  was  a  descendant  of  cultural  institution.    This  grew  in  importance 

tlie  Dntdi  admiral  Van  Tromp,  and  was  re-  as  its  advantages  became  known  abroad.    The 

narkable  tar  her  noble  character  and  her  en-  emperor  Alexander  of  Russia  sent  Capo  d^stria 

tfaoBssm  for  liberty.     This  she  imparted  to  on  a  mission  to  examine  the  school,  and  was  so 

her  son,  who  after  devoting  several  years  to  pleased  with  the  account  which  he  received  of 

stndy  at  Golmar  and  Tabingen,  travellea  ex  ten-  it,  that  he  conferred  upon  Fellenberg  the  order 

sreijr  with  a  view  of  familiarizing  himself  with  of  St.  Vladimir,  and  confided  to  him  the  educa- 

tiie   condition  of  the  working  and  suffering  tion  of  7  Russian  youths,  for  whose  use  a  Greek 

rlsMnr     He  was  at  Paris  immediately  after  the  chapel  was  opened  near  the  school.    The  great 

ML  of  Robespierre,  and  there  hb  early  convic-  increase  of  pupils  called  for  a  constant  enlarge- 

tioDS  became  strengthened,  that  improved  sys-  mentofthebuildings,  which  comprised  altogoth- 

tams  of  education  alone  can  protect  society  er  7  distinct  schools,  to  which  a  primary  school 

sgainot  revolutions.     On  his  retum  to  Swit-  was  added  in  1880,  and  still  anotlier  school  for 

aerisad,  after  taking  part  against  the  French,  he  children  at  a  subsequent  period.     By  these 

was  eadled  when  they  had  succeeded  in  tak-  schools,  and  by  his  writings  on  the  subject  of 

ing  Bern.  He  fled  to  Germany,  and  sent  several  agriculture  and  education,  Fellenberg  exerted  a 

fiiwndsto  the  United  States,  whitherhe  had  some  remarkable  influence  in  Europe ;  and  although 

indention  of  repairing.    However,  he  was  soon  the  institutions  which  he  founded  were  d^ 

SfluaUed  to  retum  to  Switzerland,  and  was  em-  solved  after  his  death,  after  having  been  con- 

plored  br  the  government  in  a  mission  to  Paris,  ducted  for  several  years  by  one  of  his  sons, 

and   in  nigh  military  and  political  functions  kindred  institutions  have  sprung  up  in  Swit- 

al  home.    He  succeeded  in  quelling  the  insur-  zerland  and  Germany,  and  the  celebrate  pauper 

leetion  of  Uie  peasantry  in  the  Oberland,  but  as  colony  of  the  Netherlands  at  FredericVoord, 

tin  goremment  failed  to  fulfil  the  promises  province  of  Drenthe,  was  founded  in  1818  by  a 

hf  mich  he  had  pacified  them,  he  withdrew  pupil  of  Hofwyl.    Fellenberg  was  assisted  in 

fttm  irablio  afOurs.    He  now  devoted  himself  his  benevolent  labors  by  his  wife,  and  by  the 

sodrely  to   his  favorite  educational  projects,  greater  number  of  their  9  children.    SeeHamm, 

After  oflSciating  for  some  time  as  a  member  of  I'eUenherg^B  Leben  und  Wirken  (Bern,  1845). 

tin  board  of  education  in  Bern,  he  became  con-  FELLER,  FnAKgois  Xayikb  de,  a  Belgian 

vineed  that  nothing  could  be  accomplished  by  priest  and  author,  bom  in  Bmssels,  Aug.  18, 

Aa  gOTemment    He  resolved  therefore  to  de-  1785,  died  in  Ratisbon,  Hay  21,  1802.    He  was 

fola  his  larse  fortune  to  the  purchase  of  the  educated  at  the  Jesuits'  colleges  at  Luxemboore 

aiCata  of  Hofwyl  near  Bem,  and  to  the  estab-  and  Rheims,  and  after  becoming  a  member  of 

Mmeot  of  model  institutions  in  accordance  their  order,  he  was  employed  as  professor  at 

vkh  the  views  of  Pestalozzi.    The  principle  of  Luxembourg  and  Li6ge.    He  subsequently  ap- 

fldsiiystemwastoproduceaharmonious develop-  plied  himself  in  the  former  city  to  the  study  of 

■tf»f  all  the  various  faculties  of  the  pupil,  so  theology  until  1764,  when  the  suppression  of 

to  make  him  not  only  a  learned,  but  also  a  the  Jesuits  in  France  brought  so  many  of  them 

wise,  and  religious  man.    Great  atten-  to  the  Netherlands,  thnt,  to  make  room  for 

bestowed  upon  the  development  of  the  them,  many  young  Belgian  priests  were  sent  to 


448  tELLER  TBHOm 


other  countries  to  eontlnne  their  studies.    Fel-  to  r^eot  the  doctrines  of  the  fsfaWWied  dnrdi, 

ler  went  to  Tjman,  in  Hangary,  where  the  Jes-  and  to  adopt  the  opinions  which  are  given  at 

nits  had  an  establishment    After  having  pass-  length  in  his  **  Religion  of  the  UniTersc,**  poh- 

ed  some  time  there,  he  travelled  eztensiveijr  in  li^lied  in  London  in  18M.    This  work  was  m- 

Hnngary,  Austria,  Bohemia,  Pohind,  and  Italy,  ceded  by  a  **  Picture  of  Christian  Philosofiky* 

returned  to  the  Netherlsnds  in  1770,  and  was  (8vo.,  London,  1800);  *' Religion  wlthoot  Cant** 

preacher  in  the  college  of  Li^go,  when  tlie  order  (Svo.,  1 80 1 ) ;  ^  The  (tuide  to  Imroortality **  (3  volt, 

of  Jesuits  was  suppressed  in  Belgium  (1773).  Svo.,  1804) ;  '\A  Manual  of  Piety,  ad^ited  to 

Henceforward  ho  aevotcd  himself  to  literary  the  Wants  and  calculated  for  the  ImprorMnen: 

pursuits,  but  was  compelled  to  leave  Belgium  of  all  Sects  of  Christians **  (8vol,  1807);  ''A 

after  tlie  invasion  of  that  country  by  France  Body  of  Theology,  principally  practkal^  in  s 

(I79i).    He  spent  2  years  at  Paderbom,  West-  Series  of  Lectures'"  (2  vols.  8va,  180TX  Ac 

phalia,  and  in  1797  retired  to  Ratisbon.    Ho  The  general  merits  of  these  works  are  hicUy 

left  a  number  of  writings,  chieflv  on  religious  commended  by  Dr.  Parr  in  his  **  Spital  9cr> 

subjects.    lnh\»  Ob$ervationtphilc4<mhiquei$ur  mon."    Mr.  Fellowes  was  an  intinsate  Mad! 

le  ijfiUme  de  Kewton  (3d  and  enlarged  ed.,  Li6ge,  of  Dr.  Parr  and  Baron  Masirea,  the  kttsr  d 

1788),  ho  denies  the  existence  of  a  plurality  of  whom  left  him  the  greater  part  of  his  Ivfi 

worlds,  and  endeavors  to  prove  that  the  move-  fortune,  to  be  diqiensed  in  literary  aiid  bsDis» 

meut  of  the  earth,  although  so  universally  ad-  lent  enterprises.    He  was  one  of  the  eerfisn 

mitted,  may  still  be  open  to  doubt.    This  work  advocates  of  the  establishment  of  the  nnivsnily 

involved  him  in  a  controversy  with  the  astro-  of  London,  of  which  he  was  a  freqosat  mi 

nomer  Lalande.    A  4th  and  enlarged  edition  of  liberal  benefactor. 

his  Catechitme  pkiloiophique  appeared  in  Li^ge        FELLOWS,  Sib  ChabuSi  an  English  tivnl- 

in  1805,  and  an  edition  printed  from  a  copy  ler,  bom  in  Nottingham  in  1799.     In  1888  hi 

which  had  been  revised  and  annotated  by  Feller,  made  an  extensive  tour  in  Asia  Ulnar,  in  thi 

in  Lyons,  in  1819.    It  was  translated  into  Ger-  course  of  which  he  visited  the  valley  of  tht 

man,  Italian,  and  En;:lish.  Madame  deGenlis also  river  Xanthus  and  other  parts  of  ancient  Lras 

prepared  an  abbreviated  edition  of  it  entitled  previously  unexplored  bv  modem  trnvdw 

Catiehume  critique  ei  moraL     Feller^s  prin-  On  his  return  to Enghindne  published  a** JoB^ 

cipal  work  is  his  BiographU  unitertelle^  o%  nal  written  during  an  Excnrsion  in  Asia  ICasr* 

dietionnaire  hUtorique^  which  passed  through  (8va,  London,  1839),  in  which  he  gave  JsMrip 

many  editions,  and  after  his  death  was  reriaed  tions  of  the  rnperb  architectural  and  senlptsnl 

and  continued  under  the  direction  of  M.  Charles  remains  of  the  cities  of  Xanthos  and  Tlos.    Thi 

Weiss  and  the  abb6  Husson,  and  brouglit  down  interest  excited  by  the  work  indoced  the  fsf- 

to  1848  (9  volft.,  Parifl,  1847-56).    This  bio-  emment  to  apply  to  the  Porte  for  a  finan, 

graphical  work  is  ba^od  upon  that  of  Chaudon,  anthorixing  the  removal  of  »pe<*im«n9  of  tri 

but  is  more  zeulous  and  cmnhatic  than  that  in  ancient  wurks  of  art  described  by  Mr.  FeUovi 

the  assertion  of  Roman  Catholic  views.  The  latter,  anticipating  that  pennb*»ion  wccial 

FELLER,    IIexieietta,   a  Swiss    Protestant  at  once  be  granted,  offered  his  senrires  toibt 

lady  of  iMiusanne,  who  in  1835,  after  the  death  British  museum  to  superintend  the  it- lectioo  aad 

of  her  husband  and  of  her  onlv  child,  went  to  removal  ofthemarbUrs,  and  di-pArted  on  a  «eoQe4 

Canadn,  where  hho  becaino  celebrated  by  her  tour  through  Lyoia,  in  the  course  of  whtrh  bt 

educational  and  mis^iionary  labors.     Although  discovered  13  other  ruine<l  cities.    lIsTin^  Wa.««- 

frequently  interrupted  in  her  benevolent  enter-  e<l  that  the  Porto  declindl  to  grant  the  firmis^  Ks 

prices  by  opposition  and  by  the  loss  of  the  returned  to  England,  and  published  "  An  -Vc* 

am^)Io  means  she  brought  with  her,  her  i>erse-  count  of  Discoveries  in  Lycia«  beioff  a  Joarai 

vering  efforts  i>roduced  f^ood  results  upon  the  kept  during  a  Second  Excunion  in  Asia  Mjkc* 

education  of  the  poor  and  the  young  of  the  (8vo.,  London,  1S41).    The  government  v«9t 

French  i>opu1ation  of  Montreal  and  St.  John^s.  stimulated  to  make  another  attempt  to  prorat 

Fn>m  the  latter  place  she  was  exi>elled  at  tlio  the  desired  firman,  in  which  they  werv  so^vws- 

time  of  the  first  rebellion  in  Lower  Canada,  ful,  and  in  C>ct,  1841.  Mr.  Fellows  wiled  f**l.rnt 

when  she  Hod  with  GU  of  her  pupils  and  friends  as  the  agent  of  the  Briti^i  museum  in  Mpers- 

to  Champluin,  N.  Y.     Af^er  having  returned  to  tending  the  removal  of  the  works  of  art,     A!^tf 

Canada  in  iM.'tft,  she  removal  t*)  (irand  Ligne,  some  little  delay  the  ex|>editit>n  sorceed^i  ^^ 

abfjut  20  m.  from  Montreal.     Hero  she  opened  trans{>orting  to  England  a  number  \4  caM«  cf 

her  sohoid  at  fir«t  in  an  open  bam.     By  the  as-  sculpture\  which  are   now  de(io«itcd  ia  th« 

sistance  of  the  liev.  Mr.  (Jilinan,  a  Baptist  min-  **  Lycian  Saloon*'  of  the  British  masea«B.    A 

Liter  of  Montreal,  who  ci)Ile(*ted  funds  for  the  second  exjKsdition,  also  under  the  dinrcti-'Q  c( 

e<^tabli'*hment  of  a  mission  hou^o,  she  was  en-  Mr.  Fellows,  bn>uirht  a  number  of  aiUit>>»sl 

ableil  to  enlarge  her  institution,  which  contained  marbles  to  Eoghind  in  1 844.     For  thcne  mttmo 

in  1S55  over  S^M)  nupils.  he  receivMl  in  1845  the  hitmtr  of  knigbi*K«^ 

FKI.LOWE**,    BoBEirr,   an    Entrli^h   author,  His  remaining  publications  are:  '•  Acri>«n:  cf 

m  in  Norfolk  in  1770.  died  in  1S47.     Ho  was  the  Xanthian  Marbles  it 


bom  in  Norfolk  in  1770.  died  in  1S47.     Ho  was  the  Xanthian  Marbles  in  the  British 

graduatel  at  St.  Mary's  hall,  Oxfnnl,  and  in  (J^vo.,  1843  V  a  pamphlet  writlrn  toe*  • 

1795  took  hnly  onliT**.     Ilin  speculations  on  misstatements;  "  Account  of  the  Tmphv  M^o 

theological  subjects  gradually  led  him,  huworer,  mcnt  at  Xanthns  **  (Svo.,  1&46) ;  and  **  C\aas  of 


FELO  DE  SE  FELT                       448 

Andent  Lyeia^  (Svo.,  1855).    In  1852  ftppeared  with  death ;  and  therefore  when  a  statute  dedar- 

an  edition  of  his  two  jonrnaJs  in  one  volume,  nn-  ed  anj  offence  to  be  felony,  it  became  at  onoe 

der  the  title  of  "Travels  and  Researches  in  Asia  punishable  with  death ;  and  vice  tenOy  a  crime 

Minor,  particularly  in  the  Province  of  Lycia."  which  is  made  punishable  with  death,  becomea 

FEI^  D£  8E.    A  man  who  commits  felony  thereby  a  felony.    Even  in  early  times,  felony 

aninat  or  npon  himself,  is  &/elo  de  Be;  and  as  was  sometimes  defined  as  any  capital  crime; 

fdony  is,  in  common  law  language,  any  capital  although  it  is  said  that  before  the  reign  of  Henry 

offence,  and  morder  is  the  only  capital  offence  I.  felonies  were  punished  only  by  pecuniary  mulct 

which  a  man  can  commit  against  himself,  a/elo  or  fine,  and  that  sovereign  having  ordered  those 

de$e  iBm  self-murderer,  or  one  who  kills  him-  guilty  of  felony  to  be  hanged,  about  1108,  this 

self  with  malice  aforethought.  Indeed,  the  legal  has  since  been  the  law  of  England.    (Tomlin^s 

definiti(m  of  a  felony  de  $e  (or  suicide)  is  said  to  "  Law  Dictionary,"  word  ^*  Feiony.'*)  It  cannot 

indode  the  doing  of  any  unlawflil  and  malicious  be  doubted,  however,  that  at  oonunon  law  the 

•et,  although  aimed  primarily  against  another,  forfeiture  incurred  by  the  crime  was  the  essence 

wherebv  death  ensues  to  the  guilty  person.    In  and  the  test  of  felony.    In  the  United  States 

a^andf  this  crime  was  punished  not  only  with  there  is  little  or  no  forfeiture  for  crime  (see 

bitnre  of  goods  and  chattels,  like  other  felo-  FoBFRrriTRE) ;  and  in  England  capital  offences 

nNti  but,  to  mark  the  detestation  of  the  law,  are  far  less  numerous  than  formerly.    It  mar 

md  to  deter  others  from  a  similar  crime,  the  be  said  that  in  the  United  States  the  word, 

body  was  treated  ignominiously,  and  buried  in  so  far  as  it  has  any  definite  meaning,  signifies  a 

the  0£en  highway  with  a  stake  thrust  through  crime  punishable  with  death  or  imprisonment. 

tt.    This  very  ancient  rule  fell  into  general  But  in  truth  it  has  so  little  meaning  which  is 

If  not  entire  disuse  in  England  many  years  capable  of  definition,  and  therefore  so  little 

igo,  lyat  it  was  not  repealed  until  the  statute  4  which  is  capable  of  use,  that  it  might  be  well  to 

George  lY.,  ch.  61 ;  and  even  then,  to  manifest  abandon  the  word  altogether  in  legd  phraae- 

tiie  horror  of  the  law  at  the  act  of  suicide,  it  ology,  whether  that  of  process  or  of  statute. 

VM  ordered  that  the  body  (which  might  be  FELT,  a  fabric  of  wool  or  fhr,  separate  or 

placed  in  church  yards  or  other  consecrated  mixed,  manufactured  by  matting  the  fibres  to- 

groonds)  should  be  buried  at  night,  and  without  gether  without  spinning  or  weaving.    The  tar 

the  performance  of  religious  rites.  (See  Chitty's  of  the  beaver,  hare,  rabbit,  and  seal,  cameVs  and 

edition  of  Blackstone's  "Commentaries,"  vol.  iv.  goat^s  hair,  and  the  wool  of  the  sheep,  are  well 

n.190.)    Suicide  does  not  seem  ever  to  have  adaptedfor  this  process.  Felt  is  an  ancient mann- 

oeen  noade  punishable  as  a  crime  by  any  statu-  facture,  supposed  by  Pliny  to  have  been  produced 

tory  provisions  of  the  United  States ;  nor  are  before  woven  cloth.    Some,  however,  ascribe 

we  aware  that  the  barbarous  usages  of  England  the  invention  of  it  to  St.  Clement,  who,  they 

in  relation  to  the  burial  of  the  corpse  were  ever  say,  found  the  carded  wool,  placed  in  his  sandala 

practised  here.  to  protect  his  feet  on  a  pilgrimage,  felted  into 

FELONY.  The  origin  and  the  exact  meaning  cloth  by  the  moisture  and  rubbing.    It  is  also 

of  thia  common  law  term  are  both  uncertain,  supposed  that  the  material  is  the  same  as  the 

There  ia  about  equally  good  authority  for  deriv-  lana  coacta^  used  in  ancient  times  for  the  cloaks 

ioff  it  from  the  Saxon  words  feh^  fee,  and  lon^  of  soldiers,  and  by  the  Lacedaemonians  for  hats. 

pnee  or  pay,  when  its  primary  sense  would  be  Early  in  the  present  century  a  piece  of  ancient 

iDrfeitnre  or  loss  of  fee ;  or  from  a  single  word  felt  was  discovered  with  some  other  stuffs  in  a 

fden^  to  Ml  or  fail,  when  its  meaning  might  be  tomb  at  St.  Germain  des  Pr6s,  and  a  paper  re- 

the  fiining  of  the  guilty  party  into  crime,  or  the  lating  to  them  was  presented  by  Desmarest  in 

ftUing  of  his  land  into  the  hands  of  his  lord  by  1806  to  the  academy  of  sciences,  in  which  he 

fofftitnre.    It  seems  quite  certain  that  in  Eng-  refers  to  the  above  statement  of  Pliny. — The 

land,  from  the  earliest  times,  felony  was  always  production  of  a  fabric  from  the  loose  fibres  re- 

iftfteDded  by  absolute  forfeiture  of  land  or  of  suits  from  the  tendency  these  have  from  their 

gooda,  or  of  both ;  and  the  definition  of  Black-  barbed  structure  to  work  together  when  rubbed, 

alone  (4  Bl.  Com.  95)  is,  in  accordance  with  this  each  fibre  moving  forward  in  the  direction  of  its 

principle:  ^  An  offence  which  occasions  a  total  larger  end  without  a  possibility  of  progressing 

jorfeitare  of  lands  or  goods,  or  both,  at  the  in  the  other  direction.    This  peculiar  structure 

aoounon  law,  and  to  which  capital  or  other  of  the  animal  fibre,  so  different  from  that  of  the 

mt  may  be  superadded,  according  to  smooth  vegetable  fibres,  is  readily  perceived  on 

^  ie  of  guilt."  But  we  understand  Black-  drawing  a  filament  of  wool  through  the  fingers, 

to  mean,  generally,  by  felony,  all  capi-  holdingitfirstby  one  end  and  then  by  the  other. 

td  crimes  below  treason  (p.  98) ;  and  Coke  says  Examined  through  a  powerful  microscope,  the 

O  Imrt.  15)  that  treason  itself  was  anciently  short  fibre  exhibits  the  appearance  of  a  oontinu- 

Bdnded  within  the  meaning  of  felony.    In  ous  vegetable  growth  with  numerous  sprouts,  all 

fila 


distant  ages,  a  felon  was  to  be  punished :  pointing  toward  the  smaller  end.  In  a  filament  of 

1,  liT  loas  of  life ;  2,  by  loss  of  land ;  8,  by  loss  of  merino  wool  as  many  as  2,400  of  these  projee- 

goooa;  4,  by  loss  of  blood,  or  attainder,  under  tions  or  teeth  have  been  found  in  a  single  inch; 

whi^  he  could  have  no  heir,  and  none  could  and  in  one  of  Saxon  wool  of  superior  felting 

ever  daim  through  him.   In  more  recent  times,  quality  there  were  2,700  serrations  in  the  same 

iSdony  meant  in  practice  any  crime  punishable  space.    Southdown  wool,  which  is  not  so  modi 

TOL.  VIL — 29 


«M  nu 


te  tbif  QM,  ooDldiiad  ool J 1080  io^  VMftmiM  of  tlM  tateti  ft  BABl^  lo 

ntioni  In  one  indi ;  and  Laieofler  wool,  which  more  ettUy  in  oot  dlrMtUm  tim  aBoOMr.  aii 

li  Ml  at  an  adapted  for  felthiftonlj  1,860.  The  in  the  tendenor  of  the  material  to  loaalli  mm 

Aori  enr]T  fibres  of  wod,  med  from  grease  by  wear  or  bjr  being  wet  Fkem  these  ensss  the 

and  brought  together,  intertwine  at  onoe  Yerj  goods  had  a  poor  rspatatkm,  and  tiM  eomman 

eloaslj  and  form  a  compact  mat    By  mhbing  impresBion  soil  la  that  th^  are  for  tefoiior  te 

flds  with  the  hands,  and  moistening  it  with  some  other  woollen  fohries.    To  improve  tiMfnaBlj 

aoapjr  liquid,  the  matter  is  made  more  dense  ac-  of  the  article  ezperiineote  were  r 

ending  to  the  pressore  with  which  it  is  nibbed,  carefol  selection  of  the  matsriab 

At  last  the  fibres  can  ro  no  fhrther  without  and  it  was  found  that  erery  partfcte 

danger  of  fracture,  and  the  fobric  becomes  hard  and  aU  strange  fibres  nrast  be  sernpnkNi^  i» 

and  stilt    It  may,  howerer,  be  made  thidcerto  dnded  fromthewod;  andthen^eeeveeisd 

aqr  desired  extent  by  adding  nuve  fibres  and  strengthinerery  direction,  the  nbrsamHt  mm 

rabblngtheseinbyseparatolayers.— Until  with-  laid  and  intertwined  as  to  cross  eadi  other  wkb 

In  a  fow  years  ftk  has  been  cUefly  employed  much  regularity.    ToaceompiiahtUahaaWas 

for  hats,  either  for  the  whole  hat,  as  in  those  the  great  difficulty.    One  of  the  first  stepawas 

made  of  wool  and  of  ftar,  or  for  the  body  idone,  to  form  gossamer-like  sheete  and  ipp^  Ihsm 

which  is  afterward  stiffened  and  corered  with  one  upon  another  till  th^  attained  the  reqpM 

aOk.    Thi^  which  is  now  but  a  branch  of  the  tldckness;  hut  these  dieetB,MQg  fai  the  sane 

irit  manufocture,  will  be  treated  in  the  article  directiwi,  or  not  croesing  max  other  HgJalii 

Hat.    The  application  of  the  material  to  Tari-  husked  strength.    Methods  were  then  oaMttM 


cos  usss  under  modem  improrements,  mostly  tgr  which  each  sneeeesive  film,  as  it  eama  mm 

of  American  introduction,  has  given  a  new  im-  the  doflfer  of  the  carding  BiadilB%  wia  Ul 

portance  to  the  fobric,  and  the  preeent  article  win  xigssg  upon  that  before  depoalted  vfm 

treatenedallTof  themanufrwtnreoffoltforar>  apron;  and  aoain,  hy  •  s^i^Bghy  ^  ^ 

tides  of  dotmng  and  heaYT  cloths.    Bythedd  tory  motion  of  the  web,  it  was  laid  la 

procees  for  obtaining  a  foited  web,  the  frv  or  crossing  those  of  the  web  bsnsafh  afi  wmM 

wool  was  first  assorted;  to  eflbct  which  Tari-  an|^    These  improremeDtehafo bean eanM 

ooa  methods  were  emploTed.    Oneofthesewaa  to  thdr  greatest  perfoctkm  In  the  naoynaeef 

to  blow  the  mlKtares  through  a  long  wooden  the  ""Kew  York  Beamleee  CSothlng  Maaa*^ 

trank,inwhicheacheort,accordingtouagreater  toring  CkMnpaoy.**    In  1848  Mr.  &  IL  IMIbs 

orkssgraTity.foUsatalessorgiMterdbitence  of  New  York  coocdTed  the  Idea  of 

within  the  trunk.  Thus  a  sdection  could  be  made  the  edges  of  fdteddoth  by  ftltiag 

and  the  different  qoditles  be  mind  in  desired  gether ;  and  in  1851  he  obtained  a , 

proportions  for  the  required  fabric.  The  mixture  the  process.    This  was  afterward  Improved  If 

was  then  placed  upon  a  teble  and  whipped  with  a  Messrs.  L.  W.  Badger  and  D.  W.  Gildien,  to 

bowstriDg,  the  vibratory  motions  of  which  threw  whom  seTeraV  patents  were  issued,  the  lakla 

the  particles  about,  Beparating  the  knotty  lumps  1857,  covering  the  whole  ground  of  their  pset* 

and  causing  the  lighter  portions  to  fall,  over-  liar  operations.   They  commenced  the  msnaf^^ 

spreading  the  table  with  the  fibres  lying  in  tare  in  Winchendon,  Mass.,  in  1855,  and  aftsr 

every  direction.    Being  then  covered  with  a  carrying  it  on  there  2  yean  removed  to  Mait*- 

pieoe  of  dampened  blanket  staff  and  mbbed  awan,  near  the  Hudson  river,  where  the  fodliliis 

with  the  hand  applied  upon  this,  the  fibres  admit  of  greater  eztensioo  of  the  hnsinsaii    la 

readily  interlaced  and  formed  a  mat    This  pro-  their  opeiitions  the  wool,  chiefiy  obtained  fkiB 

cess  has  been  almost  entirely  superseded  in  the  New  York.  Vermont,  and  Ohioi,  Is  aas 

United  Stetes  by  several  ingenious  macliines  for  deaned, picked,  and  dyed  hy  the  ordinarr  i 

forming  a  mat,  some  of  which,  omitted  here,  ods;  and  being  then  pasted  throng  the 

will  be  noticed  in  the  article  Uat.    The  English  mon  caiding  machine,  it  ia  ddivmd  from  iM 

invented  an  improved  metliod,  which  is  called  apron  in  the  form  of  a  web,  usually  8  feet  wid% 

the  pneomatio  process.    Two  air-tight  cham-  and  as  thin  as  gossamer.    This  is  passed  bitwem 

hers  are  built  side  by  side,  a  portion  of  the  par-  2  horizontal  rollers,  and  is  then  taken  m»  Vy  ths 

tition  between  them  being  of  wire  gauze,  which  apron  of  another  machine  called  the  **formsr,* 

may  be  covered  air-tight.    In  one  of  the  rooms  upon  which  it  undergoes  the  operation  eaOsd  bf 

the  woolly  fibres  are  tossed  by  a  sort  of  win-  the  inventors  ^  weaving  in  the  wool,^  hy  whkh 

nowing  wheel,  so  as  to  bo  dispersed  throughout  a  bat  is  produced  of  anv  desired  lengthy  width, 

the  air.    The  air  from  the  at^ oining  room  being  and  tltickness.    The  endless  apr\m  of  tlie  **  form- 

exhausted,  and  the  coniinnnication  through  the  or"  runs  at  right  angles  to  aad  under  the  int 

wire  gauze  opened,  the  fl(»ccu]ent  |>articles  are  one.    It  has  a  length  of  60  fevt^  but  hy  msaaa 

carried  with  the  rush  of  air  against  tlie  gauze,  of  4  turns  is  made  to  occupy  only  15  feet.    B^ 

and  intertwining  with  each  otlier  as  they  cn>wd  side  iu  forward  motion,  the  carnage  It  Is  upon 

through  the  interstices,  tliej  are  instautane-  moves  laterally  up  to  the  carding  machine  aad 

ondy  matted  together  and  furm  a  web,  which  back  again,  the  distance  being  the  width  of  the 

maj  afterward  be  made  as  demH>  as  required,  bat.    In  consequence  of  these  two  mockms  the 

-*ln  all  the  felted  fabrics  preimrc<l  by  the  old  web  is  laid  diagonally  across  the  lower  apron  la 

method,  in  which  strength  is  an  eHsentiol  ele-  zigzag  linea,  and  the  motions  are  eottU^^tod 

menti  aerioos  defecu  were  experienced  in  the  with  each  turn  the  angle  mnda  la  a  nghe 


FELT  FELTO^  461 

iron  floes  round,  receiving  those  layers  finished  garment  ready  for  wear. — ^Felted  cloth  it 

is  whcde  lenfftb,  and  the  circuit  heing  also  prodoced  hy  a  somewhat  similflo*  method  to 

ted  the  next  layers  cross  those  first  de-  that  described,  at  Norwalk,  Gonn.,by  the**Uni<m 

;  and  the  third  set  leave  no  space  over  the  Mann&ctnring  Company."    Layers  of  delicate 

the  bat  uncovered.    As  many  as  80  films  web  are  piled  across  each  other  to  form  a  bat  upon 

8  piled  together,  binding  each  other  and  a  smooth  metallic  bed  plate,  and  the  pile  Is  tneii 

;  a  strong  fabric,  and  the  number  may  be  subjected  to  the  action  of  a  hffge  metfulic  beater, 

ed  to  give  any  desired  thickness.    In  the  weighing  2  tons.    The  whole  is  thus  oonsoU- 

on  the  films  are  partially  matted  together,  dated  into.a  compact  felt    By  using  alternate 

the  bat  coheres  as  one  piece;  indeed,  it  dark  and  light  webs,  stripes  and  plaids  are 

ot  be  carded  again  without  repicking.  It  formed  in  vie  fabrics.    Carpets  are  made  of 

removed  to  the  felting  machine  and  par-  felt  in  Lawrence,  Mass..  and  the  colors  are  print* 

ardened.    In  this  machine  the  rubbing  ed  upon  them  as  in  calico  printing.    The  heavy 

ied  by  a  slight  forward  and  backward  cloths  serve  a  useful  purpose  as  a  covering  to 

of  a  very  heavy  iron  plate  laid  upon  the  steam  cylinders  and  boilers,  and  they  have  also 

d  steam  is  introduced  to  facilitate  the  been  used  to  cover  the  roofs  of  houses,  being 

on.  The  bat  thus  produced  is  now  ready  rendered  for  this  purpose  water-proof  by  proper 

very  ingenious  operations  of  the  same  applications.    The  (Moths  serve  also  as  linings 

m  by  which  it  is  converted  into  articles  of  water-tight  compartments  in  ships. — ^Further 

olees  clothing.    It  is  first  cut  by  slulfol  details  on  this  subject  will  be  given  in  the  arti- 

in  patterns  half  as  large  again  as  those  cles  Nobwalk,  Conn.,  and  Wxixs,  Hskbt  A. 
r  tne  same  garments  in  other  materials.        FELTHAM,  Owkst,  an  English  author  of  the 

gea  that  are  to  be  joined  are  then  bevel-  17th  century,  died  about  1680.    No  event  of 

a  sort  of  combing  process  performed  by  his  life  is  known  except  that  he  resided  for 

ad  being  then  lidd  together  and  cotton  manyyearsinthehouseoftheearlofThomond. 

eing  introduced  into  the  openings  for  the  He  wrote   '*  Resolves,  Divine,  Political,  and 

I  and  the  sleeves,  in  order  to  prevent  the  Moral "  (2d  ed.,  1628 ;  8d.  and  1st  complete  ed., 

rfaoes  coming  in  contact  and  uniting,  the  1628 ;  10th  ed.,  1677),  which  has  been  liighly 

I  are  again  rubbed  for  a  short  time  under  admired  for  its  exuberance  of  wit  and  fancy, 

Q  plate,  when  the  pieces  are  found  to  bo  fervent  piety,  and  occasional  subtlety  of  thought. 

I^hly  joined  with   no  trace  of  a  seam.  Hallam,  however,  criticizes  him  as  a  labored, 

rments  are  then  fulled,  as  ordinarily  prac-  artificial,  and  shallow  writer.    Feltham  is  the 

rith  woollen  goods,  and  by  this  process  author  also  of  a  few  minor  pieces  in  prose  and 

re  reduced  to  the  required  size.    The  verse.    The  latest  edition  of  his  "  Resolves " 

of  felt  cloth  i9  effected  as  with  ordinary  appeared  in  London  in  1839. 

cloth  by  exposure  on  tenter  bars ;  but        FELTON,  Cobnklits  Conwat,  an  American 

unless  garments  are  dried  upon  hollow  scholarandwriter,  bom  at  West  Newbury,  now 

nr  models  of  sheet  copper  made  in  their  Newbury,  Mass.,  Nov.  6, 1807.    He  was  fpradu- 

ihapc,  and  heated  by  steam  introduced  ated  at  Harvard  college  in  1827.    While  m  ool« 

In  this  way  are  manufactured  a  great  lege  he  was  distinguished  for  his  literary  tastei, 

of  articles   of  wearing   appare^    as  and  the  wide  range  of  his  studies.  In  his  senior 

vests,  leggins,  gaiters,  slippers,  mittens,  years,  he  was  one  of  the  conductors  of  the 

c,  of  remarkable  strength  and  durability.  *^  Harvard   Register,^'  a   students*    periodical 

brio  is  a  very  different  article  from  that  After  leaving  college,  he  was  engaged  for  two 

nly  known  as  felt.    It  is  altogether  as  years,  in  conjunction  wiUi  two  of  his  classmates, 

and  strong  in  one  direction  as  another.  It  in  the  charge  of  the  Livingston  high  school  in 

and  agreeable  to  wear,  is  nearly  water-  Geneseo,  N.  Y.   In  1829  he  was  appointed  Lat- 

md  cannot  become  misshapen  by  being  in  tutor  in  Harvard  college,  Greek  tutor  in  the 

r% A  X_        A^x_»  -It*  t«  ••  1»-11 • 1 11 »   .._^A.»^~    ^.tf   /^..A^l.   Sa. 


mcer8,aabetteradapted  for  withstanding  he  has  ever  since  continued  to  discharge.    In 

sage  and  resisting  the  peltiog  of  rain  1888  he  published  an  edition  of  Homer,  with 

)et  than  any  other  material.    It  may  be  English   notes   and   Flaxman's    illustradona ; 

oi  thickness  adapted  to  any  degree  of  which  has  since  passed  through  several  editions, 

id  hence  is  equally  useful  in  protecting  with  revisions  and  emendations.     In  1840,  a 

the  rigor  of  an  arctic  winter  or  the  translation  by  him  of  Menzel's  work  on  "  Ger- 

r  the  tropics.    These  qualities  are  rapidly  man  Literature,"  in  8  volumes,  was  pubUsh- 

g  it  into  use  in  our  naval  service,  and  ed  among  Ripley's    "  Specimens  of  Foreign 

Km  establish  a  new  reputation  for  the  ar-  Literature."    In  the  same  year  he  gave  to  the 

t»  A  ttugular  feature  in  the  new  method  public  a  "  Greek  Reader,"  containing  selections 

nfikcture  is  the  rapidity  with  which  the  m  prose  and  verse  from  Greek  authors,  with 

Mtorial  may  be  made  into  wearing  appa-  English  notes,  and  a  vocabulary ;  this  has  since 

e  inventors  assert  that  the  wool  growing  been  frequently  reprinted.    In  1841  he  publish- 

dMep^lwck  may,  by  omitting  the  process  ed  an  edition  of  the  **  Clouds"  of  Aristophanes, 

ng,  M converted  within  24  hours  into  a  with  an  introduction  and  notes;  since  revised 


4BS  ISLTOH 


^;r•.l 


nd  ramblkhed  in  Endbuid.    In  184B  ha  aided  imptired  bealtli,  tad  ptttily  to  iOiiHiltIt 

PvoH  ie9n  and  Prot  fdwards  in  the  prepirar  inYosUgations  into  the  hfifn^ge^  loyogrndy, 

tioo  of  e  work  on  daarical  stodies^  conUaninc  edneaUon,  dtc^  of  Greeee, 

eiHtji  on  durical  eotjectii  moetljr  trandated  FEME,  tlie  anelent  Norman  nr«Mh  font  of 

ftom  the  Gemum.    He  aniited  hie  friend  Ph>il  the  word  fmms^  woman^  which,  belqy  itro" 

Loogfdlow  in  the  preparation  of  the  "  Poets  dooed  into  the  oommoQ  law  at  too  tinia  of  the 

and  roetrr  of  Enrope,**  which  appeared  in  1845.  Korman  oonqneat,  liaa  remained  thore  efvorrfnei^ 

In  1847  editions  <^  the  PoMyvricta  of  leoorateai  althoo^  now  superseded  generallf  hi  Bmhnd, 

and  of  the  AgQim$miM>%  of  .^schylosi  with  in-  and  almost  nniTerssI^  in  toe  United  8CiitaS|  bf 

trodnotions  and  English  notes,  were  published  the  appropriate  En^^iih  word.   Thna  ftir  i 

bjhim;  a  9d  edition  <^  the  former  appeared  and/MM|/MM  osmt^  and>SwM  ssli^  wo 

In  18M,  and  <^  the  latter  in  1859.    Inl8i9he  saj  husband  and  wife,  married  womaa.  aad 

translated  from  the  French  the  work  of  Prod  gte  woman. 

Qnjot  on  physical  geogn^hjr,  called   **  The  FENCING,  the  ari  of  attack  and 

Xarth  and  itan;**  andin  the  same  Tear  he  pnb-  with  anj  weapon  (not  a  projectSo)  fa  whieh 

lished  an  edition  of  the  ^^Birds""  of  Aristophanes,  address  to  employed;  therefore  the  wiaUar  of 

with  an  introduction  and  English  notes,  which  the  battle  aie,  mace,  and  sodi  arms  aseiasr 

waa  republished  in  England.    In  185S  he  edited  break  ^  sheer  force,  does  not  coBMvadsr  As 


n  aslection  from  the  writings  of  Prot  Popldn,    head  of  foncing. «  The  smafl  aword.  hariig 

II  whioli " 


his  predecessor  in  the  Eliot  professorship,  with  point  but  no  edge,  is  the  weqK» 

an  Introductory  biographical  notice.    In  the  tlie  highest  degree  <rf  adroitness  in  ita  .. 

aame  Tear  he  published  a  Yolume  of  selections  timi  for  attadc  and  defence;  heaoo  the  wad 

from  the  Greek  historians,  arranged  in  the  order  fencing  is  understood  toalludleesporiaHrte  lbs 

ofeTcnts.  The  period  from  April,  1868,  to  IfsTf  management  of  this  sort  of  aword,  ana  whm 

1864,  was  spent  by  him  in  a  European  tour,  m  any  other  arm,  snch  aa  broadsword,  bujoast, 

the  course  of  which  he  ^risited  Great  Britain,  or  stick,  is  used,  the  kind  of  weapon  is 

firance,   Germany,   Switaerland,    Italy,    and  fled,  though  its  use  is  alwm  in  m 

Greece;  giTing  about  6  months  to  the  last  with  the  same  prindples.    Fendng 

named  country,  Tisiting  its  most  interesting  tirated  by  the  ancients.    The  Boaas 

kwsllties,  and  carefally  stadying  its  architactunS  tors  instructed  the  soldieiy  of  thsi  epoch, 

remains.    In  1866  he  reTised  for  publication  in  but  aa  their  weapons  difRmd  ao  mirtamljr 

the  United  States  Smith's  *f  History  <^  Greece,**  frt>m  those  of  the  present  day,  and  aa  thiy 

adding  a  preface,  notes,  and  a  .continuation  dcMfended  Uiemsdves  by   sliielda  and 


from  the  Boman  conquert  to  the  present  time,  rather  than^  by  the  skilfol   management  d 

In  the  same  year,  an  edition  of  Lord  Carlisle's  the  weapons  themsolTea,  the  study  of  their 

^*  Diary  in  Tarkiso  and  Greek  Waters''  was  pre-  methods  can  be  of  litUe  adyantage  to  us.  Dir- 

pared  by  him  for  the  American  j>r68B,  with  ing  the  middle  ages  fencing  was  ne^lecttd. 

notes,  illostrations,  and  a  preface.    In  1866  a  probably  in  consequence  of  the  perfection  sad 

selection  by  him  from  modem  Greek  writers  in  completeness  of  the  soits  of  armor  worn  by  tht 

prose  and  verse  was  published.    Beside  the  comoatants,  from  which  circumstance  battit 

above.  Prof.  Felton  has  compiled  an  elementary  axes  and  other  ponderous  we^>ons  were  mncb 

work  on  Greek  and  Roman  metres,  is  the  aa-  adopted.    When,  however,  metal  casing  MI 

thor  of  a  life  of  Gen.  Eaton  in  Sparks's  '^Amer-  into  disuse,  fencing  came  again  into  vogue ;  sai 

lorn  BioffTspby,"  of  varioos  occssional  address-  as  in  those  times  all  gentlemen  wore  swucdi^ 

ea,  and  of  nnmeroos  contribations  to  the  **  North  the  advantage  of  being  '^  cunning  of  fence"  vsi 

American  Review,"  **  Christian  Examiner,"  and  palpable.    The  peculiar  state  of  society  exiftiac 

other  periodical  pablications.    A  series  of  vig-  *  In  Italy  in  the  16th  century  made  such  knovl- 

oroQs  articles  on  spiritualism,  which  appear«l  edge  more  needed  there  than  elsewhere ;  cnaw 

in  the ''  Boston  Courier"  in  1867-'8  is  under-  anenUy  the  Italians  became  the  most  cxpen 

stood  to  have  proceeded  from  his  pen.    lie  has  fencers  of  that  epoch,  and  were  the  taachcr»«f 

delivered  3  courses  of  lectures  before  the  Lowell  the  art  to  oUier  nations.    The  next  coonttj 

iiwtitote  in  Ikwion,  on  subjects  connected  with  which  found  the  art  to  be  a  necessity  was  ^paia. 

the  hiitory   and   literature  of  Greece.    The  whose  people  imported  it  from  Italy.    In  ^psia 

artidea   on  Agaasiz,  Atbeos,  Attica,  Demos-  the  art  was  improved,  and  the  amcodnieau 

thenea,  and  Euripides  in  this  Cjclopcedia  are  by  wore  accepted  in  Italy.    From  Italy  fc«naf 

hinu    These  literary  labors  have  never  inter-  was  also  imported    into   France,   wlierv  tht 

teed  with  the  faithful  discharge  of  bis  duties  ss  court  and  gentry  favored  it  so  much  ths:  i& 

an  officer  of  instruction  and  discipline  in  tiie  quickly  took  a  fircsh  development*  and  a  &r« 

college ;  to  which  has  been  addea  during  the  school  was  establUhed,  compriMng  not  merrlT 

last  8  years  a  diare  in  the  instruction  of  a  additions  to  the  knowledge  already  posse* wi 

young  ladies'  school,  under  the  charge  of  Prof,  but  working  in   many  particnlan  a  radxal 

Agassis  in  Cambridge.    Prof.  Felton  is  a  mem-  cliange.    Though  the  principal  object  instadv- 

her  of  the  Massachusetts  board  of  education,  ing  the  art  of  fencing  is  to  enable  men  to  wmh 

and  one  of  the  regcnU  of  the  Smithsonian  insti-  arms  with  advantage,  the  schools  ane  not  sfi- 

tntion.    In  the  summer  of  1868  he  made  a  seo-  tended  exdnsively  by  military  asan.     LitcratL 

ond  visit  to  £nrc^)e,  partiy  on  account  of  his  artists^  men  of  laiBora^  aad  maqy 


FENCING  468 

men  ibilowing  sedentary  occnpAtions,  practise  accounted  a  hit.  An  attack  or  a  ripotts  maj 
fendng  as  a  recreation  and  an  exercise,  and  in-  be  made  by  the  mere  extension  of  the  arm,  or 
deed  some  of  them  attain  the  highest  grade  of  accompanied  by  a  lunge — ^that  is,  by  advancing 
perfection;  for  example,  Alexandre  Dnmas  han-  the  body,  stepping  forward  with  tiie  right  foot 
dies  with  as  much  sldll  a  foil  as  he  does  a  pen.  without  moving  the  left  one.  An  engagement 
Bmtfded  as  a  mere  exercise,  it  is  different  from  means  the  crossing  of  the  blades.  A  HpoiU 
ordinary  gymnastics.  While  it  demands  no  vio-  means  the  attack  without  pause  by  the  fencer 
lent  straining  of  the  muscles,  and  requires  a  total  who  has  parried. — The  early  Italian  and  Span* 
absence  of  rigidity  of  limb,  it  nevertheless  de-  ish  schools  taught  the  management  of  the  sword 
velope  in  an  extraordinary  degree  the  whole  aided  generally  by  the  dagger  or  the  mantlet ; 
phvHqus  ci  man ;  for  it  is  evident  by  the  ease  the  shSting  of  the  position  of  the  fencer  to  the 
and  grace  with  which  fencers  execute  move-  right  or  left  was  also  called  into  requisition  in 
ments  of  extreme  velocity  that  thev  must  have  avoiding  an  attack.  But  since  the  habit  of 
a  great  soiplns  of  stren^,  otherwise  sudb  mo-  wearing  the  dagger  and  mantlet  has  been  aban- 
tioiis  would  be  performed  with  awkwardness  and  doned,  and  the  velocity  of  attack  and  riposte 
mani^Bst  effort  and  difficulty.  It  also  imparts  to  has  become  so  great  that  the  dagger  and  mantJet 
tbe  fencer  the  most  perfect  delicacy  of  touch,  with  would  be  an  encumbrance,  and  the  shifting  of 
ateidiness  and  lightness  of  band,  for  which  rea-  the  position  would  be  fatal  to  him  who  relied 
•on  it  should  be  practised  by  artists  and  by  surgi-  upon  it,  the  instruction  in  defence  has  been  con- 
cal  ODerators. — ^The  fundamental  principle  upon  fined  solely  to  the  foil.  The  Italian  foil  is  long, 
whioi  is  based  the  defence  of  tne  person  by  some  88  to  40  inches ;  the  ancient  were  longer 
means  of  the  small  sword  is  a  peculiar  applica-  than  the  more  modem ;  they  are  also  much 
tkm  of  the  power  of  the  lever,  whereby  the  heavier  and  less  pliant  than  the  French  foils, 
fencer  who  parries  an  attack  causes  the  point  which  are  only  84  inches  in  length.  The  han- 
of  his  adversary's  blade  to  deviate  from  the  die  has  just  beneath  the  guard  a  ring  in  whidi 
direct  course,  and  throws  it  aside  from  his  body  the  fencer  inserts  his  fore  and  middle  fingers  to 
throogh  pressing  or  striking  the  feeble  (part  grasp  firmly  the  weapon,  which  is  further  Se- 
near the  point)  of  his  adversary's  weapon  by  cured  to  the  hand  by  a  bandage ;  whereas  the 
the  /arU  (part  near  the  handle)  of  his  own.  French  use  neither  the  ring  nor  the  bandage. 
The  surface  of  the  front  of  the  body  is,  in  The  guard  to  protect  the  hand  is  of  metal  in  Uie 
fendng  language,  divided  by  an  imaginary  line,  Italian  foil,  and  very  large ;  in  the  French  foil 
horizontal,  and  just  below  the  breast,  separating  this  is  much  smaller  and  lighter.  The  pure 
the  upper  from  the  lower  portion ;  the  upper  Italian  school  is  in  vogue  only  in  lower  Italy 
part  is  again  subdivided  by  a  perpendicular  line,  and  Sicily,  and  the  Neapolitan  masters  are  just- 
the  right  of  which  is  termed  the  outside,  the  left  ly  celebrated  for  their  adroitness  in  this  partic- 
tfae  inside.  There  are  (or  rather  there  were)  in  ular  method.  The  characteristic  of  the  Nea- 
fhe  old  school  8  parries,  distinguished  by  the  politan  school  (which  more  than  any  other  par- 
Italian  numerals  primo,  aecondo,  terto^  quarto^  takes  of  the  old  Italian  and  Spanish)  is  to  extend 
Iec,  from  which  are  taken  the  modem  terms  the  arm  so  as  constantly  to  present  the  point 
prme^  Hconde^  tierce^  earU,  &c.  The  instrument  direct  to  the  adversary's  breast ;  the  hand  is 
adopted  for  exercise  is  called  a  foil ;  it  has  a  han-  kept  in  the  centre  of  the  person  at  nearly  the 
die  nmilar  to  the  small  sword,  which  it  is  elevation  of  the  shoulder ;  the  large  guai^  be- 
intended  to  represent ;  it  has  a  guard  of  metal  tween  the  handle  and  the  blade  serves  some- 
or  leather  between  the  handle  and  the  blade,  what  the  purpose  of  a  little  shield  by  causine 
which  blade  is  of  pliant  steel,  having  at  the  end  the  attacking  point  to  glance  off  the  hand  of 
a  button  in  place  of  a  point.  The  parries  are  the  fencer  on  the  defensive,  slightly  bearing  to 
made  with  the  weapon  itself;  the  upper  port  tlie  left  or  right  (cort^  or  ft«re«),  according  as  he 
of  the  body  to  the  right  is  defended  by  the  parry  finds  himself  menaced.  The  arm  being  already 
termed  tieree,  the  upper  port  to  the  left  by  that  fully  extended  has  the  tendency  to  keep  an  ad- 
termed  earte,  and  the  lower  line  by  $econde,  versary  at  a  distance,  and  also  facilitates  the 
Of  the  old  parries  these  are  the  chief;  indeed  lunge  of  the  attacker.  The  fencer  can  also  de- 
the  others  are  nearly  obsolete,  or  used  only  in  fend  himself  by  a  circle  parry,  which  the  Neapol- 
eertain  exceptional  cases.  When  the  fencer  is  iton  makes  by  describing  with  the  point  a  smidl 
left-handed,  the  left  of  his  person  instead  of  the  circle  8  to  12  inches  in  diameter,  for  the  purpose 
ti^t  is  most  exposed  to  his  adversary,  and  the  of  catching  up  an  adversary's  point  which  may 
Mrries  of  carte  and  tierce  are  reversed.  The  glide  away  fi'om  the  engagement  under  the 
ittoer  is  expected  to  depend  upon  his  sword  blade,  menacing  the  lower  line,  or  the  upper  one 
lumd  for  protection,  rather  than  upon  his  agility  if  it  complete  the  disengagement.  The  arm  and 
of  kg;  nevertheless  he  must  be  quick  and  ac-  weapon  being  extended  to  the  utmost  presents 
thre  on  his  legs  to  be  able  to  advance,  retreat,  a  great  temptation  to  try  a  liement  (or  leverage 
or  bmge.  The  knees  must  therefore  be  some-  movement)  upon  it ;  but  this  being  a  weak  point 
wliat  bent  when  the  fencer  is  on  guard,  that  he  of  the  Neapolitan,  he  is  always  on  the  alert, 
BMj  be  light  and  springy  in  his  movements,  and  with  a  wonderful  dexterity  avoids  the  ef- 
Unsts  are  directed  solely  at  the  body ;  any  hit  feet  intended  to  be  produced,  and  in  his  turn 
on  a  Ihnb  would  be  accidental  rather  than  in-  attacks  with  the  greatest  velocity.  The  Nea- 
tTfitii?aft1,  and  in  a  fencing  school  would  not  be  politan  throws  his  weight  chiefly  on  the  left  leg 


vktMncboogiunrd.    BtlB^i^trjimlumm'  toapttii^poiiiiftUttlaflMVtMl  OiAdM 

attivwnry^butthaatiidjofUiatMhoQldoet  inoffta^ttiwo^aiidMeoDdi.    IfUh  9m  gamt 

tn^ttrt  a  genenl  knowledge  of  the  use  of  be  keeps  the  bodf  eQoaQjr  wel^Uaf  m  mA 

Ijbe  evord,  wUoh  hee  moh  a  wietj  of  modifi*  l^g^endhebeodithekiieieweieOMloeMiii 

eakioM;  itifftpeciiliftri^yortotospeakatiii-  graeter  eleitkitr  of  BmK    He  ettedoe  alwiy* 

^  ehepteti  finely  ezecnted.    The  Venetian  with  an  ann  fhlqr  ertended ;  yet  eo  Hfhi  tn 

•iliool,  of  those  of  upper  Italy,  reeemblee  moit  hk  mofeniettta  that  there  fa  w>  pemplftie 

IJhaKeapoUtan:  theiiedmonteeeiimized,par*  pense  between  the  esteneioB  oC  tiM 


taking  cSr  tlM  oM  Ejrench  and  the  Keapoitta^    the  adfanoe  of  the  bodjin  badtaf ;  the  en- 


Ihe  Bpaniah  aohool  ia  a  modlfieation  of  the  ward  mofement  of  the  iwini 

Veapotttan,  in  whieh  the  attack  ii  aaristed  by  ffia  drde  parriea  hafo  a  fafgeawaap  wiihAa 

estmon^tinary  ffjmnaitiea  of  the  leib  the  ftnoer  point  to  pcDteot  the  whole  pewon,b«ttb  a  band 

aft tluMa throwing himaelf  nearly  on thegroond  doeanotpartkbatelntiilaaweiatiManibaliy 

and  attaoklngmneh  in  the  lower  line.    TUa^like  ImnHyTable^andthe  wriitthepmt    Theka» 

every  other  pecnliari^,  when  well  ezeonted,  ia  circle  parry  of  Bertandianeoe  widi  tiM  Mb 

embairaadng  to  one  not  aocnatomed  to  it  nnwara,  the  hand  at  the  bai|^  and  lotiMi|i|Ui 

the  IVendi  eatabliihed  a  method  of  ortheibrahead,thearaiaM»ethaB^ 


ttiair  own.  the  deviation  from  the  Italian  model  ed,  the  point  Tcry  ifi^tly  dapnaaad  and  j» 

eoMirted  in  the  fencer  haTing  a  kaa  extended  lecting  leftward  lOKMii  aa  te  aa  tl»  liae  of  Iba 

awofd  arm,  the  hand  (mediom  goard)  at  the  hit  ahonlder,  rather  but  not  pomplatejy  la  iba 

»ht  of  the  broMt,  the  elbow  aligbtiy  bent,  direotioa  of  the  adveraary.    I¥e  Made  in  Ml 

the  point  of  the  sword  at  aboot  the  hei|^  parry  catdisa  np  the  attaciring  ML  and  espsaai 

of  the  eye.    The  knesa  were  a  little  more  bent  the  entire  body  of  the  attadur  to  a  riyaii^ 

bnt  the  body  was  kept  beck  aa  if  to  get  oot  of  wbidioomea  with  incredible  valoel^vtiM 

rnaeh  of  attack.    Among  the  adUtiona  to  the  after  the  balf-cirda  parry  baiaf  veiX  M 

ieftoce  may  be  especially  noted  the  half  drde  the  breaat  of  the  opponent    TheaHnaaa 

Md  afyleX  baTinff  the  hand  aboot  lerel  with  oUjaadpncUoaofther^oato  of  Bertnaili 

tte  ahoolder  and  the  point  depreaaed  to  the  one  of  the  ramarirable  ftatoraa  of  bia  aahad^ 

heii^  of  the  waist,  protecting  the  lower  Une  to  and  this  he  attaina  bymakinf  bia  puihialy 

tibe  left  (earie%  and  being  oonaeqoently  the  iqMn  deDoacnr  of  tonch,  not  on  tiM  e|fi^   Ba^ 

oppoaite  ofsisofiii,  which  bora  the  adTermry'a  trend  aaid :  ^  Ton  maal  think  and  aaawmbs 

blade  to  the  right    A  new  mode  of  attack  waa  endsofyoarfinMB.**— Thf  instraetfoaftrlbs 

also  introduced,  termed  csi^  or  the  catting  small  sword  is  ttiebariaof  the  attack  aadit* 

over  the  point  instead  of  difengagingnnder  the  fence  with  cTSfT  other  weapon,  becaaaelt^Nm 

bbde.    Tbe  objection  to  this  mode  of  attack  to  thefenoer  ajastappredatioaof  the  apfwa' 

lay  in  its  reqmring  leaa  delicacy  of  execution  tion  of  the  pnncl|^  of  the  lever  in  parties 

than  the  disengagement,  which  latter  exercise  and  a  regularity  of  moTement,  together  wiih 

waa  therefore  neglected  by  manr,  and  some  got  ligfatneaa  of  hand  and  Ydodty  of  axecmion; 

ao  balntoated  to  repeat  eovp^  after  eot</>^  rush*  ncYerthelem  almost  CTery  attack  and  pany 

ing  forward,  as  cTcnto  ooatiune  to  deliver  them  with  the  broedsword  is  the  reTerae  of  iImm 

amr  their  attack  had  been  parried  and  the  ri-  with  the  email  sword.    Instead  of  batiag  tht 

noste  delivered.    Ilere  were  slso  introduced  the  point  ferther  oot  than  the  band  on  the  mi$ 

miUment  or  sharp  tap  preceding  an  attack,  the  of  the  guard,  the  blade   ia  kept  acroaa  thi 

effect  of  which  is  to  make  the  peraon  thus  at-  body ;  instead  of  the  touch  being  the  gidde,  the 

tacked  ffraap  his  foil  nenroudy  and  thus  render  eye  prbidpally  directs  the  moTomenta ;  iailiad 

bia  hand  for  the  moment  rigid  and  nnsuited  to  of  piereiog  with  the  point  the  hH  conate 

parry  with  rapidity.    The  change  of  engage-  of  a  cot  with  the  blaoe.    Theee  peeoliaribM 

ment  baa  much  the  same  effect    Home  disarms  being  kept  in  riew,  the  lines  of  parry  are  aaar^ 

were  introduced,  but  they  are  practicallv  useless  It  dmilar  to  tboee  of  the  amaU  awora,  the  ob* 

except  when  the  hit  is  given  by  the  same  ject  being  to  prevent  the  cot  from  the 

blow,  for  an  adversary  who  is  seen  to  be  die-  eary  by  atopping  the  actkm  of  bia  we 

armed  cannot  be  touched.    Lofeug^re  iotro-  causing  the  iSsebie  of  his  blade  to  be 

diced  the  cotinmii^iiMJit,  which  was  made  by  abrupuV  by  the  forte  of  oiie*a  own.    The  pr^ 

rdaing  the  hand  instantly  after  the  parry(Mrto  d§^  height  ther^bre  of  the  band  of  him wbe 

or  iUre$\  and  with  the  forte  of  one's  own  blade  purles  must  be  regolated  by  bia  aye  in  esa- 

mastering  the  feeble  of  the  adversary's,  then  formity  with  the  directioo  of  tlie  attaek.    Tbe 

(aa  the  latter  in  thia  situation  tries  to  dose  arms  and  lege  are  apeeial  dijecca  of  attack: 

the  line  of  the  riposte)  turning  or  sliding  the  they  can  be  aecared  oy  tbe  parry,  or  hj  rapid* 

blade  round  it  without  quittimr  it,  and  deliver-  Iv  and  momentarily  withdrawiog  from  dawifw 

Ing  the  riposte  in  the  opposite  une  to  that  of  the  the  limb  menaeed.    The  cot  can  be  givon  as  a 

parrv.    Lafeugdre  often  riposted,  rising  erect  blow,  which  tenda  to  render  the  band  bsai y ; 

on  the  right  foot  after  the  lunge,  thus  brinaina  or  with  a  11^  band,  which  makaa  the 

bimaelf  Tory  doee  to  bia  adversary .— The  acbou  raiorfeahl 


raiorfeahlon.  There  are  also  circle 
of  Bertrand  ia  remarkable  for  many  radical  im-    ed  ssoullafte,  whereby  tbe  man  who 
pfforementa.    Insteed  of  the  medium  guard,  be    awinga  roond  hie  aword,  diSfiiibiM  a 
alwi^ya  ek»ea  the  line  of  the  engagement    Ha   oireU  with  the  polal,  and  batrl«gUaoiVB 


FENCING  F£N£L0N                   4fi6 

It  fbe  pirot  far  the  moTement.    A  swordsman  Paris  in  1818  (TraiU  de  Tart  de$  armei) ;  «fter 
inned  with  a  broadsword  would,  if  fighting  whom  Lafang^re  (teacher  of  the  hassars  of  tJie 
•gainst  an  adversary  armed  with  a  small  sword,  guard)  enriched  rather  than  reformed  the  art 
keep  at  a  distance  from  the  latter,  and  wonld  in  an  elaborate  work  (Nbuveau  manuel  compUt 
maim  his  limbs  ;   whereas  the  latter  wonld  d^etcrime^  Paris,  1837).  Bertrand,  who  both  en- 
strive  to  thrust  in  his  point  whenever  his  oppo-  riched  and  reformed  it,  and  is  justlj  styled  the 
nent  ihonld  raise  his  hand  to  strike.  The  use  of  father  of  the  present  school  (teacher  of  the 
the  broadsword  on  horseback  is  but  a  variation  body  guard  of  Charles  X.,  and  subsequentiy 
of  its  application  by  a  combatant  on  foot ;  the  professor  at  the  polytechnic  school  in  Paris), 
boneman  is  obliged  to  protect  his  horse  as  well  has  written  nothing;  but  his  pupil  Hugh  Forbes 
as  himself.  Heavy  cavalry  are  armed  with  long  has  compiled  and  arranged  his  principles  in  a 
heavy  swords,  and  hit  heavily.  The  Turks  have  work  in  English  and  in  French,  entitled  the 
eonred  scymitars  and  adopt  the  razor  cut ;  they  ^  School  of  Bertrand  ^' — Veeole  ds  Bertrand. 
also  nse  swords  weighted  at  the  extremity,  F£n£LOK,  Fbanqois  db  Sauonao  db  la 
whereby  they  combine  together  the  blow  and  Mothe,  a  French  prelate  and  author,  bom  at 
the  raaor  cut    The  G^ermans  have  a  long  sword  the  chateau  of  F^n^lon,  P^rigord,  Aug.  6, 1^651, 
which  they  (students   especially)  manoeuvre  died  in  Cambrai,  Jan.  7, 1715.    He  was  the  son 
with  an  extended  arm ;  it  may  be  regarded  as  of  Pons  de  Salignao,  count  of  La  Mothe  F6n6- 
the  Neapolitan  school  appli^  to  the  broad-  Ion,  and  a  nephew  of  the  marquis  of  F^n^lon, 
sword.    The  bayonet  at  the  end  of  the  musket  under  whose  care  he  received  much  of  his  ed- 
ii^  when  employed  by  a  line  of  soldiers,  a  very  ucation.    At  the  age  of  12  he  was  sent  to  the 
iKmidable  weapon ;  but  for  an  isolated  man  it  university  of  Cahors,  and  a  few  years  later  he 
ii^  on  aoconnt  of  the  leverage  it  offers,  of  little  removed  to  Paris  in  order  to  complete  his  course 
lae  miless  to  defend  himself  against  a  mounted  of  philosophy  in  the  college  of  Plessis.    He  next 
dragoon.    The  motion  of  Uie  bayonets  in  line  entered  the  theological  seminary  of  St.  Sulpicei 
(the  stock  of  the  musket  graced  by  the  right  under  the  direction  of  the  abb6  Tronson,  ana 
hand  and  the  barrel  steadied  by  the  left)  should  about  1675  received  holy  orders.    He  wished  at 
be  straight  forward ;  any  attempt  to  parry  by  first  to  devote  himself  to  foreign  missions,  but 
krerage  right  or  left  would  only  cause  a  point  this  design  was  overruled ;  and  after  8  years 
to  i^ance  fh>m  one  man  into  some  other.    The  passed  as  a  preacher  and  catechist  at  the  church 
foot  soldier  isolated  can  parry  head  or  body  of  St.  Sulpice,  he  was  appointed  by  the  arch- 
eots  and  thrusts  from  sabre  or  lance,  and  can  bishop  of  Paris  superior  of  the  society  of  NoU' 
riposte  by  jerking  forward  or  right  or  left  the  f:eUt9  Catholiques,  established  for  the  instruction 
point,  striking  the  horse  if  he  miss  the  rider,  of  female  converts.    Meanwhile  he  cultivated 
Certain  modern  bayonets  used  for  the  rifle  corps  the  friendship  of  the  abb6  Fleury  and  of  Bos- 
are  very  long,  with  a  view  to  compensate  in  a  suet,  bishop  of  Meaux,  and  was  a  frequent  guest 
measoro  for  the  shortness  of  the  firearms  at  the  at  the  brilliant  reunions  which  took  place  at  the 
Old  of  which  it  is  fixed.    Such  bayonets  have  bishop^s  country  seat.    The  distinguished  soci- 
beside  their  x>oint  an  edge  wherewith  to  cut  ety  into  which  he  was  thus  thrown,  the  charm 
The  lance  is  utterly  worthless,  except  for  caval-  of  his  manners,  and  his  eloquence  in  the  pulpiti 
17,  l>y  whom  it  can  be.  most  efficiently  employed  soon  drew  him  into  public  notice.    To  enaole 
in  pvnsning  a  routed  foe ;  its  use  as  a  fencing  wea-  him  to  meet  his  expenses,  one  of  his  uncles,  the 
pon,  therefore,  requires  little  explanation.    The  bishop  of  Sarlat,  gave  him  a  small  living  at 
knife  or  dagger  requires  quickness  of  hand  and  which  he  was  not  required  to  reside  permanent- 
eye.   The  blow  can  be  given  by  striking  down-  ly.    It  yielded  him  8,000  francs  a  year,  much  of 
ward,  straight  forward,  or  upward ;  in  the  two  which  he  spent  upon  the  poor,  and  this  until 
latter  cases  the  weapon  is  shifted  from  the  or-  1694  was  his  only  income.    His  first  public  ser- 
dSaury  grasp  of  the  handle,  so  that  the  pommel  vice  was  in  the  capacity  of  missionary  to  the 
rests  in  the  palm  of  the  hand  and  the  stab  is  Protestants  in  Saintonge  and  Poitou,  after  the 
^ven  with  ease  and  force.  The  Spanish  colonists  revocation  of  the  edict  of  Nantes.    He  was  pre- 
cmpk^  theur  hats  held  in  their  left  hands  as  sented  to  Louis  XIV.  by  Bossuet,  and  the  only 
shieldsL  and  also  to  mask  the  attack,  concealing  favor  he  asked  of  the  king  in  accepting  the  of- 
tfae  kmfe  behind  the  hat    The  stick  is  a  formi-  fice  was  that  no  violence  should  be  used  within 
dable  weapon  used  to  inflict  blows,  as  with  the  field  of  his  mission.    Aided  by  the  abb^ 
the  broadsword ;  the  ferrule  end  can  as  a  point  de  Langeron  and  Fleury,  but  still  more  by  his 
bt  most  effectually  driven  into  the  face  of  an  own  mild  and  amiable  character,  he  suoccNBded 
■drersary.  The  auarterstaff  is  out  of  use ;  it  was  in  winning  over  large  numbers  of  the  Protest- 
held  in  tlie  middle  and  used  not  only  in  striking  ants,  and  soon  tranquillized  a  population  whom 
hit  in  thrusting,  when  one  end  was  suddenly  persecution  had  roused  to  a  dangerous  exoite- 
drivsn  forward  like  a  bayonet. — ^There  are  few  ment.    On  his  return  to  Paris  in  1689  Lonis 
tnatises  on  fencing.  In  1586  Marozzo  of  Venice  appointed  him  preceptor  to  his  grandsons,  the 
VBhUshod  the  first  work  on  the  subject,  and  dukes  of  Burgundy,  Anjou,  and  Berry.    The 
flrisni  of  Venice  enlarged  the  principles  al-  first,  the  heir  prospective  to  the  throne,  was  a 
madj  reduced  to  writing  by  his  predecessor.   St  young  prince  equally  remarkable  for  the  bright- 
DUBer  of  Paris  compiled  them  in  1578,  after  nesa  of  his  intellect  and  the  viciousness  of  hia 
vUeh  Danet  wrote  in  1766;  Laboessi^re  of  temper.    Comprehending  at  once  the  oharaoier 


4ii  rtStLOiS 

«f  lU  pm^  FteOon  so  wisely  blended  stem  tfandftft  wIiom  errors  be  HhonAi 

nithMitieiiieasiiree,  that  withontbreakinff  the  thoee  of  too  forrid  langoage  tmn  of  berelW 

yoollriepirit  he  gained  over  him  a  control  which  opinion.   Afterpobliihinganenteutkaiofhii 

■eemed  almoet  Uke  faaoination.    The^  rirtnea  ooone,  with  whteh  the  stern  aaannijninpffnwii 

wMohaftco^wardillnstrated  the  dake*8  short  hie-  ing  Bossoet  was  far  finom  p1sastd»  be  fsie  Is 

tory,  and  the  warm  affection  which  he  alwajs  the  world  in  1697  his  Ekmfkmtimi  im  mmmm 

ehnished  for  hia  preceptor,  are  the  beetproofii  Sm  mimU^  which  was  Jooged  to  be  Uttb  da 

cftheabb^^sikillandaeTOtion.    It  was  for  the  than  the  adTocacy  of  a  mitigated  qnlsHi,  mJk 

nse  ^  his  royid  popils  that  F^ntion  composed  completed  the  separation  b^weeii  \Sm.  and  Us 

bis  ^^DiiJognes  of  the  Dead.*'  "Direction  for  former  firiend.    A  violent  eoutiui  eisj!  was  thss 

ttie  Oonacience  of  a  King,"  "Abridgment  of  the  opened.    Bossnet  denoonoed  him  to  tbe  eoart 

liTes  of  Ancient  Philosophers,**  and  the  "Ad-  as  a  ftnatio;  the  king  stmck  bis  name froa the 

tentnresofTelemachns."    Bnt  the  success  with  list  of  preceptors  to  UierojalftniOj,  and  < 

wldoh  he  discharged  his  important  and  delicate  ed  him  to  retire  to  his  diocese ;  Mne.  de 

trast  gdned  him  for  some  time  neither  praise  tenon  withdrew  her  fivor,  and  bis 

Bor  pecnniaiy  reward.    Lonis,  though  not  blind  for  Mme.  Gojon  was  erca  made  a 

to  bis  merit,  was  never  his  IHend ;  but  Mme.  the  grossest  cdonmiea.    He  refbted  tbese 

de  Ibiintenon  had  long  been  one  of  his  warmest  ders  with  little  diflknlty,  and  nwaawbfle 

admirers,  and  it  was  probably  throogh  her  in-  the  obnozioos  book  to  Borne,  where  Lnris 

flaenoethst  he  received  in  1694  the  rich  abbacj  all  his  infloenoe  to  obtain  its  eoadenaaliflk 

cf  Saint  Viderj.    Toward  the  dose  of  tbisyear  After  a  delay  of  9  months  bmoesBi  XIL  pr^ 

be  drafted  the  funoas  anonymons  letter  to  the  nonnced  a  mild  censors  of  the  Mmimm  4m 

king,  setting  forth  the  disorders  and  abuses  of  sstii^  hot  addressed  at  the  same  tiose  to  esrtrin 

bis  reign,  wnich  was  first  published  by  D*Alem*  prelates  who  had  been  most  severe  in  tfMir  si- 

bert  in  bii  HuUnr€  dm  mMibrm  ds  FaeademU  tseks  on  the  author  the  IbUo  wing  eansCienbihs: 

Jt^aipttiii^  and  whose  authenticity,  after  mudi  P^eeacii  memtu  amorii  ilietnl,  ssd  ese  jHsaarfli 

dl^mte,  was  settled  by  the  discoveirof  the  ori-  itt/tefwawertt  jirsgiwf("Hebaashiaedtiw^ 

gfaud  MS.  in  1885.    It  is  not  probable  that  Louis  excess  of  divine  k>ve^  but  yon  banre  ■ 

sospeoted  the  anthor,  for  in  the  following  Feb-  through  lack  of  love  for  vonr  neighbor  Tl 

rvary  he  nominated  F6n61on  to  the  archbishop-  medi^ely  on  reeeiving  Uie  sewteneiL  in  " 

rio  m  Oambrai.    The  ceremony  of  consecration  1699,  F^n^lon  hastened  to  dedare  ns 

was  performed  in  the  chapel  of  St  Ovr,  July  don,  and  to  publish  the  coodeauMtfawi  of  Us 

10,  lo96,  but  the  new  preli^  retdned  his  con-  own  book  in  a  mandatory  letter.    In  tbefel- 

aecUon  with  his  puoils^  with  whom  it  was  ar-  lowing  month  his  "Adventures  of  TeleamdMH* 

ranged  that  he  should  pass  8  months  of  every  which  had  hitherto  remdned  in  maanacfml, 

year.    Honored  by  the  king,  beloved  by  the  was  given  to  the  world  by  the  dishoneAy  of  a 

young  princes,  esteemed  and  consulted  bv  the  servant  who  had  been  employed  to  baf«  tbt 

most limaential  person  of  the  conrt,  and  hold-  work  copied,  but  who  sola  it  to  a  booksdbr 

ing  high  stations  in  tlie  church  and  tlie  pdace,  witliout  alsdosing  the  antbor^s  name.  Tbe  kiag 

be  was  now  at  the  heiglit  of  his  prosperity ;  but  having  been  told  that  it  was  from  tbe  pea  of  the 

bis  disgrace  was  dreaily  preparing.     With  a  archbbhopofCambral,  and  probably  diariag  a 

naturd  tendency  to  dl  that  is  mild  and  spiritud  unfoondea  suspicion  then  current  that  tbe  beak 

In  religion,  he  had  long  felt  a  sympathy  for  the  was  a  satire  on  the  court,  took  meaanrcs  to  sap- 

doctrines  of  Mme.  Guyon,  whose  system  of  press  it ;  but  a  few  copies  caosped  aetzare,  mm 

**  quietism*'  was  attracting  a  lan^  diare  of  at-  an  imperfect  edition  was  printed  in  HoDand  ia 

tention  at  court,  and  had  gdned  proselytes  1699.    Others  followed  rapidly,  and  for  a  kac 

In  the   klng*s  household.     She  was  charged  time  the  press  was  unable  to  keep  op  with  tbt 

with  heresy,  and  demanded  a  commission  to  public  demand.    This  event  destroyed  aD  bopet 

Inquire  into  the  matter.     Bossnet  and  Tron-  of  restoration  to  royd  favor,  and  forlbe  rest  of 

son  were   appointed,  and  before  their  con-  his  life  F^n^lon  devoted  himadf  esdadidy  lo 

forences  were  closed,  F^n61on,  having  become  the  affdrs  of  his  diocese  and  to  literary  parsaiia, 

archbishop,  was  added  to  the  number.    The  It  was  now  that  his  character  was  aeea  la  its 

decidon,  drawn  up  in  84  a^ticle^  80  of  which  brightest  light    He  visited  thepeasaaU  ia  tbeir 

were  composed    oy  Bossuet  and  the  others  cottages,  shared  their  humble  fare,  heard  tbsir 

Igr  Ftodon,  conveyed  a  qudified  censure  of  compldnts,  relieved  their  waata,  and  OMde  bis 

Mme.  Quyon^  doctrines,  though  it  respected  pdace  an  asylum  for  tbe  unfortunate.   Iliscbsr- 

ber  character.    Mme.  Guyon,  however,  con-  ities  were  enormous.    When  his  diocese  was 

tinned  to  disseminate  her  ideas,  and  Louis,  traversed  by  hostile  armies  during  tbe  war  «i 

who,  like  royd  voluptuaries  before  him,  aspired  the  Spanish  sucoeesion,  he  was  allowed  to  paie 

to  be  a  theologian,  caused  her  to  be  arrested,  unhindered  throogh  the  ranks  c^  tbe  ea«ay 

Bossoet  composed  his  In»truction  $ur  U$  eiaU  on  his  errands  of  benevolence.     He  reaofad 

^rarnn  to  counteract  the  extraordinary  effect  the  theologicd  seminary  of  Valeorteaace  te 

-     :h  she  had  produced,  and  asked  for  his  book  Cambrai,  and  admitted  no  one  to  orders  aacfl 

probation  of  the  archbishop  of  CarobraL  he  had  himself  examined  him  5  tinea.    Tbo^b 

ardudon  was  unwilling  to  go  fbrtber  than  in  exile,  he  was  not  in  retirement.    Tenpfvase 

dygoneinoppodtkmtoapioiiaea-  and  ain^  ia  bis  own  tastes^  ba  j«S  " 


F£N£L0N  FENNEO  467 

ished  and  profuse  hospitality,  and  made  ncation  of  Daughters'*  was  translated,  ^'  with  an 

ible  a  favorite  resort  of  the  most  distin-  Original  Chapter  on  Religious  Studies,"  bj  Dr. 

ed  persons.    When  his  pupil  the  duke  of  T.  F.  Dibdin  (8vo.,  Cheltenham,  1805) ;  and  the 

andy  became  dauphin  by  the  death  of  his  **  Lives  of  the  Ancient  Philosophers"  by  John 

r,  he  addressed  to  him  a*' Plan  of  Govern-  Cormack  (2  vols.   12mo.,  Edinburgh,   1803). 

,"  proposing  the  establishment  of  states  The  **  Demonstration  of  the  Existence  of  Grod " 

-al  ana  provincial,  with  many  reforms  in  (12mo.,  1754),  and  the  *^  Dialogues  of  Uie  Dead" 

s  administration ;  and  had  the  prince  lived  (12mo.,  1757),  were  published  by  the  Fonlises 

gp,  it  is  thought  that  F^n^lon  would  have  at  Glasgow.    A  selection  from  F^n^lon's  writ- 

hia  prime  minister.    The  archbishop  did  ings,  with  a  memoir  of  his  life,  by  Mrs.  FoUen, 

>ng  survive  his  pupil. — Of  the  excellence  appeared  in  1881  (16mo.,  Boston).    F^n^lon  is 

*n3on*8  best  work,  the  **  Adventures  of  known  to  have  translated  the  JSneid  for  his 

lachua,"  no  better  proof  could  be  given  pupils,  but  it  was  never  printed,  and  the  MS.  is 

its  general  and  lastmg  popularity.    It  is  lost.    His  life  has  been  written  by  the  chevalier 

hat  no  book  except  the  Bible  and  the  ^*  Im-  Eamsay  (the  Hague,  1728),  the  marquis  of  F^n^- 

D  of  Clirist"  has  been  so  often  reprinted.  Ion,  grand  nephew  of  the  archbishop  (1747),  Y. 

m  denies  it  the  high  character  of  an  epic,  M.  de  Querbeuf  (published  with  the  Paris  edi- 

pves  it  the  first  place  among  classical  tion  of  1787-92),  Cardinal  Bausset  (3  vols.  8 vo., 

Dces;  and  although  the  abandonment  of  Paris,  1808;  translated  into  English  by  Mudford, 

,  according  to  the  same  authority,  has  London,  1810,  and  abridged  by  Charles  Butler, 

iced  too  much  diifuseness,  its  purity  of  London,  1810),  Lemaire  (taris,  1826),  Beauchot 

age,  poetic  spirit,  richness  of  incident,  (Lyons,  1829),  Roy  (Tours,  1842),  C^larier  fPa- 

ligli  lessons  of  politics  and  morals,  claim  ris,  1844),  Yillemain,  Lamartine,  &c.    The  J7<>- 

t  tlie   lasting    admiration    of  posterity,  toire  litteraire  ds  Fenllon^  ou  revue  historique 

controversial  writings,  which    comprise  et  analytique  de  eee  (Buvree^  by  the  abb6  Gosse- 

B  against  the  Janscnists  and  Galileans,  on  lin,  appeared  in  1843. 

am,  kc^  are  distinguished  by  that  devo-        FENNEO,  an  African  canine  animal,  resem- 

to  the  church  and  gentleness  of  temper  bling  a  diminutive  fox,  belonging  to  the  genus 

1  characterized  his   life.     His  spiritual  megalctU  (Illiger).    So  vulpine  is  its  look,  that 

I,  a  collection  of  which  ((Euvres  epiritu-  Mr.  Gray,  in  his  catalogue  of  the  British  museum, 

5  vols.  12mo.)  appeared  at  Amsterdam  calls  it  vulpes  Zaarensis  (Skiold.).    When  first 

31,  are  used  by  persons  of  all  denomina-  described  by  Bruce  the  traveller,  its  zoological 

His  sermons  (12mo.,  1744),  written  dur-  position  was  so  ill  determined  that  Buffon, 

is  youth,  hold  no  very  high  place  among  who  gives  a  good  figure  of  the  animal,  called 

etions  of  their  kind,  though  not  without  it  Vanonyme ;  it  was  referred  to  rodents  and 

ent  passages.    Among  his  other  works  are  quadmmana  by  others ;  but  Zimmemiann,  from 

iU  de  V^ucation  dee  filles  (12mo.,  1687),  the  examination  of  the  teeth,  seems  first  to  have 

m  at  the  request  of  the  duchess  of  Beau-  detected  its  dog-like  affinities,  and  placed  it  in 

•a;  TraiUduministlredespaeteurs{\%S%)\  the  genus  canis;  but  whoever  discovered  its 

nstration  de  Vexietenee  de  Dieu  (1713),  af-  true  position,  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  it  be- 

Felemachus"  his  longest  and  most  impor-  longs  at  the  end  of  the  canine  family  of  digiti- 

rork ;  Dialogues  eur  V eloquence  en  general^  grade  camivora.    From  the  enormous  compara- 

*  ^Ue  de  la  chaire  en  particulier^  with  a  tive  size  of  the  ears  Illiger  established  the  genus 

f  atrr  la  rhetorique  et  la  poeeie,  addressed  megalotis,  which  does  not  appear  to  differ  much 

)  French  academy  (1718).    The  only  com-  from  vulpee  ;  taking  this  well-selected  name  of 

edition  of  Feiielon's  writings  is  that  be-  the  genus,  and  the  name  of  its  first  scientific 

it  Versailles  in  1820  and  finished  at  Paris  describer  for  the  species,  it  may  properly  be 

to  (34  vols.  8vo.).    An  edition  appeared  at  called  M,  Brucei  (Griff.).    According  to  Bruce, 

in  1787-92  (9  vols.  4to.),  to  defray  the  the  animal  is  9  or  10  inches  long,  with  a  foxy 

if  which  the  assembly  of  the  clergy  of  snout^  ears  half  as  long  as  the  body  and  broad 

«  appropriated  40,000  livres ;  but  this  col-  in  proportion ;   the  color  white,  mixed  with 

D  does  not  contain  the  Maximes dee eainte^  gray  and  fawn  color;  the  tail  yellow,  dark  at 

^amdemenU^  nor  the  writings  on  Jansenism  the  end,  long,  with  soft  and  bushy  hair  like  that 

oietism.    Of  the  English  translations  of  of  a  fox ;  the  ears  thin,  and  margined  with 

imachna^^  the  most  esteemed  is  that  of  white  hairs.  The  dentition,  general  appearance, 

Hawkesworth,  LL.D.  (4to.,  London,  1768,  and  habits  are  canine ;  tlie  feet  are  4-toed,  with 

8mo.,  New  York,  1859).    The  following  the  rudiment  of  a  6th,  and  the  nails  are  not  re- 

dio  be  mentioned :  by  Smollett  (2  vols,  tractile  as  Desmarest  at  first  supposed.    It  in- 

,  1776) ;   in  verse,  by  M.  A.  Meilan  (4  habits  northern  Africa,  particularly  Abyssinia, 

8to^  1776) ;  in  verse,  by  Gibbons  Bagnal  Nubia,  and  Egypt.    Tliere  seems  to  be  a  second 

n  8to.,  Hereford,  1791) ;  in  blank  verse,  species,  nearly  allied  to    but  different   from 

Tonde  (8  vols.  12mo.,  1793) ;  with  notes,  Bruce's  fennec,  the  M.  Lalandii  (H.  Smith); 

M^  Robertson  (2  vols.  12mo.,  London,  this  is  gray,  with  the  hairs  of  the  dorsal  line 

,   ^e  "Dialogues  concerning  Eloquence  longer  and  blacker  than  the  rest,  and  the  tuft- 

nanl"  were  translated  by  W.  Stevenson  ed  tail  black  with  a  gray  base.    Rappell  gives 

LoodoD,  1722) ;  the  "  Treatise  on  the  Ed-  the  discovery  of  the  first  species  to  Skidlde- 


IHS                    mnOEEi  nSDIKAIDl 

tend,  a  8w«da,  whom  Bnm  MeoMt  of  am.  «0lltnlMiiledtlMlik»4ll^lML«rf 

pfantiiig  him  bj  an  unworthy  artifioe ;  Ke  ealJi  ofthalporai.    Inl7SSatnf«r«atld 

m  Ibmieo  cmift9  Mnb  (ZinuiLX  and  makes  U  rUmiM|''w!dQhhobraQ|^oil|hadM: 

tt  inohaa  lone,  faidndiiig  the  tail,  which  is  8  meoess,  and  gdned  him  mon  tiMm  £UOQl   k 

teoliea.    It  Uvea  in  hoka  which  itdigsintha  1717  ha  pofittibed  n  new  afitka  af  MBM^ 

amd  of  the  deswts,  and  not  in  treea  as  is  sop-  worin,  to  whidihamfiaadnbriaftaldMl 

posed  by  Brace;  it  is  shy,  Tery  quick  in  ito  life  of  the  author.    Tbiawaiaoa«tibvadV» 

moHottSi  and  sditary ;  its  food  consists  mainly  fine  annotated  a^lioo  of  WaDsr* 

of  iuecta,  en>e<»aUy  locnsta»  eggs,  dates,  and  FENTRESS,  a  K.  oa  of  TemL,  koviariMaa 

^ther  sweet  fniitsi  and  probiU)^  small  animals;  1^.,  and  drained  byaewal  aflMlBaf  Om^ 

ki  bark  resemUea  that  of  a  dog,  hot  is  more  beriand  riTsr;  area,  570  aq.  m.;  mi  In  IM^ 

shrill ;  the  internal  orifice  of  the  eara  is  said  to  i^tfi,  of  whom  148  were  abvaa.    fWaaadksi 

ba^erysmalL  eonsista  prine^aDy  ofl^  tabManfc  af  As 

WESJXEL  (JiBmieMhm^  Koeh.),  a  genns  of  Chmiberiandmoaiitaina,aflbfdi^g 


la  ooltiTated  fiir  the  sake  of  the  pleasant  aro-  boshels  of  Indian  corn,  S8J68  of  oali^  iMN 

matie  qualities  of  its  leares.    It  Is  frequently  to  Iba.  of  butter,  and  7,097  of  wooL    TWva 

ba  met  with  in  dd  gardens  in  the  United  StiUea,  5  ehurdieiL  and  480  pupQs  attaodki 

laUoa  of  the  once  proTalent  taste  for  herb  cul*  aehodla>€wpltsl,  Jameatown. 

tura.    Its  leaTca  are  aingidarly  spread  out  into  FENWIOK,  Gnonoi,  proprietor  af  lart  af 


findly  cut  and  almost  hair-like  aegmenta;  its  Oonneotlcuti  came  to  America  in  1888 

towers  are  yellow,  and  the  stalks  of  thajdant  diarga  of  the  plantaUnn  of  Sajbrool^  aa 

ara^ancousL    Once  introduced  into  the  gvden,  after  Lotda  Siqr  and  Brook,  wha^  win 

it propasates  itself  for  yeara.    Amoreattrae-  in  1888 had proeured apalsnt for  Ifaa  ai 

tlTO  Idnd  is  the  Ibmku  or  Aiorean  fonnd  {P.  finom  Robert^  earl  of  Warwick.    BalanM  » 

imlm\  an  annual  cultivated  in  Italr  aa  celery  ia  T^g'f**^,  ha  came  bade  agsfai  in  188iLaBi MB 

withus.    Its  seeds  are  aown  thinly  in  a  good  thatUme,aaonecf  thepBtaataaa»aai8P88>r 

apotofligfat,  rich  earth,  not  dry  norirery  wet^  the  others,  auperintandaa  and  gpimnadttassl 

aa  It  will  not  thrire  in  either  extreme.    When  tlementofSiqrbrook  till  1844^  i^MaiwaBliii 

the  plants  have  grown  a  little  ther  should  be  jurisdiction  and  territory  to  the  Oosmaallml 

thinned  out  so  as  to  be  8  inchea  distant  from  colonr,  aa  his  amociates  bad  given  nptfMir< 

each  other.    The  earth  is  to  be  drawn  up  about  temphrted  removal  to  America.    Ha 

the  stems  to  blanch  them  for  table  use.    It  is  returned  to  England,  where  he  waa 

considered  advisable  to  sow  fresli  seeds  ever]r>8  one  of  the  Judges  for  the  tiial  of  Charlaa  I,  i 

weeks  during  the  season,  to  insure  a  succession  died  in  1657. 
of  the  crop.    Several  other  species  of  fennel  are       F£y  YES,  Elxk,  a  IIungBrian  gaographsr  mi 

known,  some  of  which  are  admired  for  their  statirtidan,  bom  in  Ck4u^  in  the  coaaty  sf 

pungency.    The  seeds  (or  ''  half  fmiu'')  are  Bihar,  in  1807.    lie  took  up  his  abode  at  FhH 

flat  on  one  side  and  convex  on  the  other,  seldom  in  1888,  and  became  associated  with  the  pciaci- 

ezceeding  i  inch  in  length.    They  have  a  fra-  pel  agricultural  and  industrial  institolions  sai 

grant  odor,  and  warm,  pleasant  taste.    Tlieir  publications  of  that  city.    In  1888^*40  he  pa^ 

Infosion  in  boiling  water  is  used  as  a  carmine-  fished  an  '^Account  of  the  Preeent  Oonditioa  s( 

tive,  and,  having  no  actively  exciting  qualities,  Hungary  and  Annexed  Provineea,**  which  obtaa- 

is  employed  to  disguise  by  its  pleasant  aromatic  ed  a  prize  of  $800  fh>m  the  n*»r^»|  a<  m\wmj 

nature  the  flavor  of  disagreeable  medicines,  as  This  was  followed  by  ''Statistica  of  ifm^ai;.' 

aenna  and  rhubarb.  which  is  Idghly  estemned  both  in  Hungarr  mi 

FENTON,  Eluah,  an  English  poet,  bom  in  Germany.    In  1847  he  published  a  manaJeBa- 

Shelton,  Staffordshire,  May  80,  1883,  died  in  taining  a  synopsU  of  his  principal  worfcw 
East  Ilampsteod,  Berkshire,  July  IS,  1780.    He        FERDINAND.    The  sovereigns  of  this  him 

studied  at  Cambridge,  but  becoming  a  non-Juror  will  be  treated  in  the  following  order :  Gsh 

ha  was  obliged  to  leave  the  university,  after  many,  Naples,  Spidn,  Tuscany.    Awlria  will  bi 

which  he  accompanied  the  earl  of  Orrery  to  focloded  under  Germany,  Sicily  undtf  Ko^ 

Flanders  as  nrivate  secretary.    On  his  return  and  Aragon  and  Castile  under  Spain. 
to  England  in  1705,  he  employed  himself  in  L  oerxaxt. 

school  teaching.    In  1710  Mr.  St  John  (after-       FERDINAND    1.,  emperor  of  Oensaay,  a 

ward  Lx>rd  Bolingbroke)  persoaded  him  to  give  son  of  Philip  I.  of  Spain,  and  younger  brothsr  «f 

up  his  school  under  a  promise  of  political  em-  CharlesY.. bomst  A]cala,8pafai, in  1508,iahsns> 

nioyment,  which  remaining  unfulfilled,  Fenton  ed  the  dudiy  of  Austria  and  other  Ocrman  pes- 

ibund  himself  much  embarrassed  and  in  debt,  sessions,  was  elected  king  of  Hungary  aaHl  Do^ 

Icrd  Orrery  now  confided  to  him  the  education  mia  after  the  death  of  hisbrocber-in-kw  Umb  IL 

af  his  son,  and  8  yearsbter  FenUm  became  as-  in  the  battle  of  MohAca  (1688X  and  anaeaadsd  Iris 

aodated  with  Pope,  who  was  then  undertaking  brother  Oharlea  V.,  after  hia  rssignatfam,  on  tka 

htoveriionofthe««Odyssey,"andwasinaoest  throne  of  Germany  (1558).    In  UoBiPtfy,  when 

ofMriatanU    According  to  Dr.  Johnaon,  Fan-  ha  inanguatad  the  unpopular  nign  of  tUlisf*^ 


RRDIKAND  L  (Aitbibu)  FERDINAND  L  (ths  Two  Sioiubb)   459 

^  and  was  acknowledged  only  hj  a  part  of  troubled,  and  the  nobles  conspired  to  aid  John 

ation,  he  had  to  wage  a  long  war  against  of  Anjou  in  a  descent  upon  the  country.    Fer- 

ival,  the  national  king  Ziipolya,  and  the  dinand  lost  the  battle  of  Samo  in  1460,  e8Ciq[)cd 

B  under  Solyman,  who  advanced  as  far  as  to  Naples  with  but  20  followers,  and  was  re- 

oa  (1529).    In  Grermany  he  was  tolerant  to  daced  to  the  last  extremity.    He  was,  however, 

*h>testants.    He  died  in  1564.    Of  hb  15  favored  by  Pope  Pius  II.  and  by  Francesco 

ren  Maximilian  (IL)  became  his  successor.  Sforza,  duke  of  Milan ;  and  his  partisans  were 

RoiMAXD  U.,  emperor  of  Germany  (1619-  greatly  strengthened  by  tlie  alliance  of  the  Al- 

king  of  Bohemia  (1617-37)  and  Hungary  banian  chieftain  Scanderbeg,  who  put  himself 

r-*87),  grandson  of  the  preceding,  and  son  at  the  head  of  the  army  of  Ferdinand,  defeated 

larles,  duke  of  Carinthia  and  Styria,  bom  John  of  Aiyou  at  Trola  in  1462,  and  forced  him 

78,  died  Feb.  15, 1637.    He  early  imbibed  to  leave  Italy.    Ferdinand  was  cruel  and  re- 

foond  hatred  of  Protestantism,  and  vowed  vengeful.    Count  Piccinino  was  one  of  his  iUns- 

TOtto  its  extermination.    His  bloody  per-  trious  victims.    In  this  reign  the  Turks  made  a 

iona,  and  his  disregard  of  statutes,  charters,  descent  upon  Italy  and  captured  Otranto,  and 

promises,  brought  about  the  outbreak  of  Ferdinand  recovered  this  city  from  them  in 

0  years' war  (1618),  of  which  he  survived  1480.  Five  years  later  the  nobles  revolted 
nost  memorable  events,  the  battle  of  again,  and  Ferdinand,  after  yielding  to  their  de- 
26  (1520),  won  by  his  friend  and  chief  sup-  mands,  refhsed  to  fulfil  his  promises,  and  put 
r,  Maximilian  of  Bavaria ;  the  victories  the  leader  of  the  revolt  to  death.  He  was  ex- 
assassination  of  Wallenstein  (1634) ;  the  communicated  by  the  pope,  and  died  while  ihe 
of  Magdeburg  by  Tilly,  and  his  defeat  formidable  expedition  of  Charles  YIII.  of  France 
neitenfdd  by  Gustavus  Adolphus  (1631) ;  was  preparing  to  set  out  toward  Italy. 

mt  victory  of  the  Swedish  king  at  Latzen  FERDINAND  I.,  king  of  the  Two  Sicilies 
IX  and  the  victory  of  the  imperialists  at  (or  Ferdinand  IV.  of  Naples),  bom  in  Naples, 
lingen  (1634).  Simultaneously  he  waged  Jan.  12,  1751,  died  in  the  same  city,  Jan.  4^ 
gainst  Gabriel  Bothlcn  of  Transylvania,  and  1825.  When  in  1759  his  father  Charles  HI. 
o^oontents  of  Hungary.  He  was  far  from  became  king  of  Spain,  he  succeeded  him  upon 
igreachedtheendofhisbloody  work  when  the  throne  of  Naples,  in  accordance  with  a 
ra. — ^Ferdinand  IU.,  emperor  of  Germany  family  statute  which  prohibited  the  reunion  of 
:ing  of  Hungary  and  Bohemia,  son  of  the  the  two  crowns.  In  1768  he  married  Caro- 
ding,  bom  in  1608,  roigned  from  1637  to  line  Maria,  daughter  of  the  empress  Maria 
He  was  of  a  milder  and  more  tolerant  Theresa,  and  left  the  affairs  of  government  to 
ntion  than  his  father,  and  during  his  reign  his  imperious  wife  and  her  favorite  minister 
>  years^  war  was  terminated  by  the  peace  of  Acton.  The  cabinet  of  Madrid  lost  all  influence 
phalia  (1648).  His  son,  who  was  crowned  over  the  court  of  Naples,  which  closely  allied 
r  the  name  of  Ferdinand  IV.,  as  king  of  itself  with  the  cabinets  of  Vienna  and  London, 
mla.  Hungary,  and  Rome,  died  before  as-  and  in  1794  joined  the  coalition  against  France. 
Dgthethroneinl654.  His  younger  brother  Though  forced  in  1796  to  make  peace  with 
M  I^  succeeded  his  father.  France,  Ferdinand  renewed  the  war  after  the 
RDINAND  I.,  emperor  of  Austria,  son  of  departure  of  Napoleon  to  Egypt,  and  drew 
art  German  emperor,  Francis,  bom  April  upon  his  kingdom  the  arms  of  the  Frendi,  who 
r9d,  succeeded  his  father  on  the  imperial  in  1799  entered  Naples.  Ferdinand  with  his 
16  of  Austria,  March  2,  1635.  His  weak-  family  escaped  in  an  English  fleet  to  Palermo, 
bordering  on  imbecility,  mode  him  a  mere  and  the  Parthenopian  republic  was  instituted  in 
Bi  in  the  hands  of  his  chief  minister,  Naples.  .  But  after  a  few  months  Ferdinand  was 
e  Metteraich.  In  1848  his  kindness  of  restored  to  his  capital  by  a  Calabrian  army  under 
,  would  not  allow  him  to  suppress  the  rev-  Cardinal  Ruffo.  A  terrible  inquisition  now  he- 
rn bv  violent  means,  and  after  having  began  against  the  republicans,  the  city  was 
kmed  and  betrayed  it,  by  decrees,  oaths,  abandoned  to  the  lozzaroni,  and  Ferdinand  seem- 
ilota,  aU  extorted  from  him,  and  after  hav-  ed  to  have  retumed  only  to  shed  the  blood  of  his 
ed  repeatedly  from  his  capital,  he  was  pre-  subjects.    The  successes  of  the  French  in  Grer- 

1  upon,  or  rather  compelled,  by  his  crafty  many  and  Italy  obliged  Ferdinand  in  1801  to 
^in4aw,  the  archduchess  Sophia,  to  resign  sign  a  treaty  under  which  he  was  forced  to  sm> 
ror  of  her  son,  the  youthful  Francis  Joseph,  render  a  portion  of  his  territory,  and  to  support 

that  time  he  has  mostly  resided  at  Prague,  French  troops  in  the  remainder,  thus  putting 

ing  in  his  retirement  a  certain  degree  of  Naples  under  the  domination  of  France.    When 

larity  with  the  masses,  but  without  any  the  war  broke  out  in  1805  between  France  and 

eal  influence.  Austria,  the  haughty  Neapolitan  queen  thought 

II.  NAPLES.  it  a  favorable  opportunity  for  throwing  off  the 

SDINAND  I.,  first  king  of  Naples,  illegit-  French  yoke,  and  prompted  Ferdinand  to  vio- 

i  fon  of  Alfonso  the  Magnanimous,  born  in  late  the  t'reaty  and  to  receive  the  support  of  an 

died  Jan.  25,  1494.    Ills  father,  who  had  Anglo-Russian  army.    Hardly  had  he  done  this 

both  Naples  and  Sicily,  as  well  as  Aragon  when  Austria,  conquered  at  Austerlitz,  signed 

Sardinia,  bequeathed  to  him  at  his  death  in  the  treaty  of  Presburg.    The  Moniteur  in  a  sig- 

th*  throne  of  Naples.  .  His  reign  was  nificant  article  declared  that  of  8  daughters  of 


4WFIBDIIiriJn>n.(nDiTMSnBai)  RBDDUXD 


tovM  tiM  hmfmlm 
iaLMiLDM.lf,10iC 


Hirla  Tlienn,  one  bid  deitrojed  the  BonriNXi       m*  VfAOL 

moDtrehy,  the  seoood  had  rallied  tbe  hooae  cf  FERDINAND  L(TiiBGnAT] 

Fiviiia,  and  now  the  third  had  lost  the  throne  Leon^  and  GaUcia,  bom 

of  Naplea.     Nnpdeon  aeot  an  armj  afainat  of  the  11th  oentnixj  died 

Naples,  obliged  Ferdinand  and  his  queen  again  He  wastheSdsooof8iiidioel]lam|kiMef 

to  take  reftun  in  8i^f  refbaed  offers  of  nego-  NaTarre.    In  108$  be  reeslved  ttio  Mai  «f 

tiatkm,  and  in  1806  dedared  that  the  boose  of  Sancha,  the  sister  of  BermadoIIL  of  Lean,  i    ~ 

Boorbon  had  oeased  to  reign  orer  that  kingdom,  the  title  of  king  of  OastilaitUs 

and  gaTo  the  throne  first  to  his  brother  Joseph,  benoeforth  reoogniaed  aa  anin  . 

and  bi  1806  to  his  brother-in4aw  Marat    Fer-  ereignty.    On  the  death  of  Saaoho  In  IM^ 

dbiand.  protected  by  Sngbmd,  was  able  to  saTO  Bennooo  attempted  to  reaaDiS  the  MW 

BieQ7  nom  French  eonqoest;  hot  the  qaeen^aa  to  bis  dominion;  bat  be  ^ 


little  willmff  to  bear  Ei^sUsh  aa  French  saprem-  bj  Ferdinand  in  1087.    Tbeyomg  Um  ef  01^ 

S,  embrofled  hersdf  with  the  English  ambas-  tOe  forthwith  dabned  and  reeslved  the 

or,LordWi]liamBentinck»andwasoUigedto  of  Leon,  in  ri^  of  bis  qnesa; 

IsaiTe  the  isbnd  in  1811,  wbQe  Ferdinand  waa  management  and  focbeanmes  be 

ibroed  to  rerign  his  gOTsmment  to  bis  aon  his  canse  many  lorda  who  at  test  had  appsssilii 


fVanda.    After  Marat  was  dethroned  by  Aos-  aeoesrion  to  the  throne.    He  aooa  niMA  fSf^ 

trie  in  1816,  Ferdinand  was  restored  to  his  for-  nkrity  by  his  respect  Ibr  the  kws  oi  the  esi» 

merthronei  and  in  1817  anited  Sicily  and  Naples  try,  bis  maintenance  of  the  anabntyiMiW^ 

bito  a  sbigie  state,  nnder  the  title  of  the  Two  bis  strict  admhiistration  of  Jostioa.    His 


Sidfiea.    He  abdished  the  constitotion  which  brother,  Garcia  UL,  kbig  of  Namn%  bailm 

he  had  been  Ibreed  to  grant  in  1818,  hot  was  attacked  bhn  bi  1064,  hist  bis  fife  in  a  haiS 

obliged  to  promise  to  restore  it  by  a  riring  of  iba^t  near  Borsna,  in  the  plaiaa  of. 

the  carbonari  in  1890.    He  waa  soon  after  re-  Br  this  Tictory  Feramaad  gafaied  s 

established  in  absolate  power  by  the  Aostriana.  tiioU  wUoh  Ibrmer^  belonged  to  Ni 

FERDINAND  n.,ldng  of  the  Two  8iciliea»  became  the  moat  powerfkd  amomi  the 

grandson  ofthepreoeaingn>om  in  I^ermo,  Jan.  prinoes  in  the  peninsobL    He  taaa  ti 

li,  1810,  died  k  Naples,  Mar  82,  1868.    He  arms  agabist  the  Mohammedaaa;  ia  IW  ki 

aooceeded  his  fiither  Francis  I.  in  16^  and  at  crossed  the  Dooro^  seiaed  aamiy  fuHiassM^ml 

once  excited  the  most  Uvely  hopes  l^  pardoning  obtained  great  plnnder  and  annieroaa  eqdna 

seversl  political  offenders  and  introdnc^  eco-  Two  years  later  be  took  the  iaqK»taatcktoil 

nomical  reformsand  liberal measares.    ElaTina  Yisea  and  Lame^p,  and  in  tbs  b^giaiB|  d 


thas  lolled  the  revolationary  party,  he  changed  1068  inTested  Ooimbra,  whieh  be  fsiasl  If 
his  policy,  adopting  the  principles  of  alMolut-  capitolaUon,  after  a  riegeof  6  months.  Hsisi 
ism ;  and  the  history  of  toe  kingdom  fh>m  that  thas  added  to  bis  dom&ion  the  whole  eoaaliT 
time  is  a  bLstory  of  conspiracies  and  rebellions,  between  the  Dooro  and  the  Mondego.  Toms 
followed  by  tnals,  imprisonments,  and  execa-  the  centre  of  the  peninsola,  he  exteadsi  thi 
tions.  There  were  revolts  in  1888,  '87,  '41,  bonndary  of  Castile  to  the  gatea  of  Akskii 
^44,  and  '47,  but  in  every  case  order  was  re-  Henares,  and  carried  hoedlitiea  into  Vakads 
stored  by  the  prison  and  the  scaffold.  Daring  and  Andidusia,  compelling  the  emir  of  Ssvflka 
the  general  agitation  of  1848  all  Sicilv  rose  in  swear  allegiance  and  to  restore  to  him  tbs  nlia 
rebellion,  and  10,000  men  in  arms  marched  upon  of  St.  Isidoro.  His  laat  days  were  spent  ia  si- 
Naples  to  demand  a  more  liberal  government  traordinary  devotional  exerctsesL  Attacked  If 
A  oonstitntion  was  granted  them,  modelled  a  sickness  which  he  knew  would  be  frtsLk 
after  the  French  charter  of  1830,  but  within  a  returned  to  Leon :  on  the  ere  of  bb  dsatk  k 
Tear  Ferdinand  dimolved  the  chambers,  annihi-  had  himself  carried  to  St  John*s  cbsreb,  ias 
lated  the  constitution,  and  restored  the  ancient  penitentid  habit,  and  breathed  has 
order  of  thinfni.  In  1849  Pope  Pius  IX.  took  trated  before  the  image  of  the  aaint 
refogo  at  Gaeta  under  his  protection.  In  the  FERDINAND  III.,  saint  kbig  of  ( 
contest  with  Uie  insurgents  Ferdinand  had  Leon,  bom  in  1200,  died  bi  Serillc,  X^  9k 
ordered  the  troops  to  bombard  his  rebellious  1252.  The  son  of  King  Alfonso  IX.  of  Lena  \9 
cities,  and  thus  obtained  the  epithet  of  ^om^r-  Berengaria,  quivn  of  Cartile,  he  waa  iadtM 
dator^  abbreviated  into  *'  Bomba,''  by  which  to  his  mother  for  the  latter  kbigdoat  of  i  ' ' 
be  has  often  been  devifnated.  The  harshest  he  was  placed  in  poasesnon  in  ItlT.  Hk 
treatment  was  exercised  toward  the  political  er  being  firmly  established,  and  tbe  lebsL 
prisoners  in  Naples,  who  were  esUmatea  by  Mr.  spirit  of  the  Larss  qoeOed,  in  12t5  be  ess- 
Gladstone  in  1857  to  number  at  least  18,000,  menoed  against  the  Ifohammedana  a  cHier  sf 
though  his  statements  were  called  in  question  conquest  which  effiBctually  broke  tbe  Araktaa 
by  writers  friendly  to  Ferdinand.  In  1857  the  power  in  Spain.  In  concert  with  sewil  ochsr 
aeixnre  and  confiscation  of  the  Cagiiari,  a  Sar-  princes  he  fint  carried  bis  anaa  tbio«b  Mm- 
dinian  merchant  steamer  in  which  revolution-  cia  and  Andalmiia.  Alfonao,  dying  in  ISM^ 
had  been  conveyed  to  Naples,  l«)d  to  a  dip-  declared  his  marriage  withBefeamv^  eeii 
mi  iture  between  Naples  and  Sardinia,  and  designated  his  two  daagbten^bto 
F  ^1  Enaland,  which  Usted  till  after  marriage  as  his  socoessorsu  Fesdiaaad 
of  his  son,  Ferdbiand  UL  ropted  bis  profreas  for  a  wMte   la 


RBDIKAin)  lY.  (SpAnr)  FERDINAND  Y.  (Bpaih)           461 

iheritance,  which  he  soon  accomplished,  never  legally  proved.    Finally  in  1479  a  treaty 

has  permanently  nnited  the  kingdoms  pnt  an  end  to  the  civil  war,  and  Jnana,  deserted 

stile  and  Leon.    Being  now  sovereign  of  by  dl  her  partisans,  took  the  veil.    John  II.  hav- 

from  the  bay  of  Biscay  to  the  banks  of  ingdied  at  the  beginning  of  the  same  year,  Fer- 

uadalqnivir,  and  from  the  confines  of  For-  dinand  inherited  ArojKon,  and  thns  became  the 

to  those  of  Aragon  and  Valencia,  he  was  undisputed  master  of  the  peninsula,  with  the 

)d  to  push  his  conquests  with  renewed  en-  exception  of  Fortugal,  Navarre,  and  Granada. 

In  1233  he  triamphed  over  Aben  Ilud,  Ho  now  pursued  a  threefold  policy:  the  eztir- 

»f  Murcia ;  he  then  successively  obtained  nation  of  highwaymen,  the  curtailment  of  the 

don  of  Toledo,  Cordova,  Ubeda,  Truxillo,  mimunities  of  the  barons,  and  the  maintenance 

and  finally  Seville,  which  surrendered  of  the  Ohristian  faith.    The  first  had  become 

28,  1248,  after  a  siege  of  nearly  2  years,  very  numerous  during  the  civil  wars,  and  their 

land  was  an  unspariDg  enemy  of  the  Jews  boldness  had  increased  through  the  inefficiency 

Ibigenses  who  had  sought  a  refuge  within  of  the  general  and  local  governments.    They 

minions.  He  was  canoidzed  by  Pope  Clem-  not  only  robbed  travellers  and  merchants  on  the 

.  in  1671.  roads,  hut  getting  possession  of  castles  in  which 

JDINAND  rV.,  king  of  Castile  and  Leon,  they  forti^ed  themselves,  they  spread  terror  all 

n  Seville  in  1285,  died  in  1312.    He  was  over  the  country,  levying  tribute  even  on  towns 

0  Tears  old  when  his  father,  Sancho  IV.,  and  villages.  In  this  they  were  frequently  aided 
ind  he  saw  himself  assailed  at  once  by  his  hy  the  nobles.  The  ordinary  weapons  of  justice 
Enrique,  who  coveted  the  regency,  by  Don  ^  were  powerless  against  them ;  but  Ferdinand  ap- 
'SnUez  de  Lara,  who  wanted  to  increase  *  pealea  to  the  people,  and  encouraged  the  orgam- 
Ates,  and  by  the  infantes  of  La  Cerda,  who  zation  of  a  militia  and  the  union  between  towns- 
d  the  crown,  and  who,  respectively  aided  men  and  villagers,  who  took  arms  to  protect 

1  kings  of  Portugal  and  Aragon,  aimed  at  their  lives  and  property,  thus  reviving  one  of 
ition  of  the  kingdom.  In  these  difficult  the  most  respected  and  useful  institutions  of  old 
istances  the  young  king  was  preserved  by  Spain,  the  hermandady  or  brotherhood,  which 
ili^  of  his  mother,  Maria  de  Molina.  She  soon  destroyed  the  hands  of  highwaymen  and 
ded  in  dividing  lus  enemies,  conciliated  reOstahlished  order  and  security.  This  brother- 
Dg  of  Portugal,  whose  daughter  Constanza  hood,  which  had  existed  at  intervals  and  exer- 
larried  to  Ferdinand,  and  also  made  an  al-  cised  great  influence  in  Castile  since  1295,  was 
with  the  king  of  Aragon.  Ferdinand  in  reorganized  in  1476,  perfected  during  the  follow- 
oade  war  upon  the  Mohammedans,  gained  ing  years,  and,  its  primary  object  being  accom- 
tages  over  them,  and  took  Gibraltar.  The  plished,  greatly  modified  in  1498.  Ferdinand 
of  Templars  having  been  abolished  by  improved  this  element  of  power  in  his  struggle 
nt  v.,  he  confiscated  their  property  and  against  the  nobles,  in  which  it  again  did  jood 
I  their  spoils  with  the  other  orders  of  service ;  cities,  towns,  and  villages  threw  off  the 
ry.  In  an  expedition  against  the  Moors,  yoke  of  their  lords,  while  the  king  himself,  hy 
J  ordered  the  two  brothers  Corviyal  to  bo  subjecting  the  nohlesto  the  ordinary  tribunals  of 
\  death  upon  mere  suspicion,  they  cited  justice,  infficted  a  deadly  blow  on  their  already 
)  appear  with  them,  in  80  days,  before  the  diminished  infiuence.  He  meanwhile  succeeded 
lent  seat  of  God ;  and  within  the  prescrib-  in  vesting  in  the  crown  -the  mastership  of  the 
le  he  was  found  dead  on  his  couch,  on  great  military  orders.  On  the  death  of  the  grand 

he  had  been  taking  his  siesta.  master  of  Cdatrava,  in  1487,  he  forhade  the  elec- 

IDIKAND  THE  Catuolio,  V.  of  Castile,  IL  tion  of  a  successor,  assumed  the  administration 

igon,  lU.  of  Naples,  and  H.  of  Sicily,  bom  of  the  order,  and  procured  the  papal  sanction 

,  in  Aragon,  March  10,  1452,  died  in  Ma-  for  this  profitable  usurpation.    The  orders  of 

Jo,  Jan  28, 1516.  The  son  of  John  II.,  Alcantara  and  Santiago  were  dealt  with  in  near- 
Navarre  and  Aragon,  and  of  his  second  ly  the  same  manner,  the  first  in  1494  and  the  sec- 
Tnana  Henriquez,  he  was,  as  early  as  1468,  ond  in  1499,  and  the  chief  dignity  of  hoth  like- 
^  the  infiuence  of  his  mother,  declared  wisebecamemerged  forever  in  the  person  of  the 
father  king  of  Sicily  and  associate  in  tlie  reigning  monarch.  But  it  was  against  apostates, 
of  Araflon.  Oct.  19,  1469,  he  married,  or  converts  who  after  baptism  reverted  to  Juda- 
ladolid,  Isabella,  princess  of  Asturins,  the  ism  or  Islamism,  that  Ferdinand  evinced  a  zeal 
ind  lawful  heiress  of  King  Henry  IV.  of  which  in  many  cases  amounted  to  implacable 
K  On  the  demise  of  the  latter,  Dec.  12,  hatred.  Tlie  king  (Isabella  giving  a  reluctant 
Ferdinand  and  Isabella  were  proclaimed  consent)  in  1478  obtained  from  Pope  Sixtus  IV. 
lovereigns  of  Castile.  Several  powerful  permission  to  establish  the  inquisition  in  Castile, 
,  amonff  whom  were  the  marnuis  of  Ville-  with  unlimited  power  over  the  property  and 
e  archbishop  of  Toledo,  and  the  grand  lives  of  all  religious  delinquents.  The  intoler- 
•  of  Galatrava,  aided  by  the  king  of  Portu-  ance  was  perhaps  still  greater  agjunst  the  Jews 
■a  in  arms  in  the  name  of  Juana  (called  than  the  relapsed  heretics.  On  March  80, 1492, 
nda,  fipom  her«upposed  father,  Beltrande  an  edict  for  their  expulsion  was  issued  by  the 
▼■),  whom  the  late  king  had  recognized  as  sovereigns  at  Granada.  The  number  thns  driv- 
ifl^Dter,  but  who  had  been  sot  aside  by  the  en  forth  is  estimated  by  some  as  high  as  800^ 
on  a  oharge  of  illegitunacy,  which  was  000,  but  by  others,  according  to  Frescott  with 


I 


IM       RBDDAXDy.  (BMii)^  RBDIKAIDVIL 

moreprobaMBtif,  afclMyOOO.  OrenrlieliMdwUli  Ij  the  anfaduke  FliiBp^  IViiTlMnfl  ft«i  VM 

laWwy.tliyiOMhtwfagetoPftrtogaL  Frmoa^  6ttniig«d  IK>m  bfe  gnuMion,  ObnlM  of  L»> 

Iti|j,  Africa,  and  the  LeTUit.    Bafbrethi&bow*  emlm]^  afterward  emperor  vdAot  ihs  lllla  «f 

eifer,  FSerdinand  and  laaheDa  liad  meoeeded  in  Ohariea  V. ;  and  he  thoa^  ef  dewlfiM 

eeoomj^flhiDg  their  long  eherithed  design  of  ofpartaileaatofhiiinhemBiee.    BehM< 


deatiuylujl  the  kit  TOittee  of  Mooriah  power  in  eeqaentlT  married  in  1606  GeraalBe  do  Voiiie 

flpdn.    The  Idogdom  c^  Granada,  all  that  re-  nieoe  or  King  Lotds  XILof  Fk«Mo;  tat  tta 

mdned  of  the  onee  powerftd  empire  of  the  child  he  liad  b/  her  died,  and  ta  was  dtap* 

Hoon,  ODCcnmbed  to  the  aannlta  of  the  Ohria*  nointed  in  hii  hopea.    Inl61StatOQknpiltoa 

liaen  warriors;  the  city  itsdf;  the  siege  of  which  for  the porpoae  of  restorii^  Ma  afhaMStad  f%ni ; 

was  condocted  bj  the  king  and  qnecn  in  per-  bat  the  potion  oolj  deetiogrcd  bis  eooiltallan 

SOIL  surrendered  Jan,  fi,  149i,  otera  herdo  andprodncedaMngaringinnssi^Jdieaisiia 

rsmtanee;  and  the  last  <^  its  soTereigns,Abdal-  deatn.   Ferdinand  was  tteinnder  of  Itagna^ 

lah  or  Boab^  retired  to  Africa.  That  great  ness  of  Spain:  he  consolidated  ltaiHboleMi» 

«?«nt  was  soon  followed  by  e  ihr  greater  one:  insoln,  with  the  eioepHoa  of  TViiimal,  We  • 

OolnmbDs.  ssUing onder  the  Oastilian llag^  die-  dngle  political  body;  gained  §or fStm 

eorered  tne  western  hemMiere:  hot  in  this  power  which  it  liad  nererpooseai 

Ferdinand  had  little  if  any  snare  ;ne  evinced  no  tended  its  InHnoioe  beyond  the 


diaposition  to  assist  the  discoverer,  and  the  ^ory  mtc  it  weight  in  the  seneral  nfldm  of 

of  nariog  hdped  Cdnmbos  bekmgs  enlonrely  To  reach  tbe  aim  of  nis  ambttfon  ta  waa 
tolsahdln.  CnariesYIILoflVanoehnTinffcon-.fttNn  being  orer  acnipakNia  la  Ua  aaav;  • 

4Qered  the  kingdom  of  Kapleain  1494  Fer&Mnd  oraftjpoUUcian,hedldnolheaitatolobmkldi 

sent  thither  hu  great  general  GoniaiTo  de  Cor*  royal  word,  or  eren  his  oatii, 

dora,  and  within  e  few  months  the  French  were  bigotry  coamumded.   BotnoC 

onmedandtheBpaniaidsgote foothold inltal/f  perfidy  and  treachery,  his  memocy 

wmch  advantage  th^  afterward  impro? ed.    in  ncMlngreat  reverence  in 8pafai;sDdtl 

1600  he  condnoed  a  treaty  of  alliance  with  Lonla  diown  toward  him  by  aQaMhlatorlnB% 

XILofFVanoe,by  whiohthetwomonarchsdi-  If  the  IVench,  cannot  prevent  poatar^f  i 


Tided  between  themselves  beforehand  the  king-    regarding  hfan  as  the  aUeit  prince  of  mbm 


dom,  which  was  to  be  conqpered  by  their  nnited  AJnsta|»reclatlonof  UslifoiBd 

forces.    The  plan  aucceeded  throng  F^mich  fonnd  in  nescott**  **HlstoffT  of 

vakr  and  Oasulian  conning;  bat  scarcely  was  IsabeUa/*    (Bee  laABUXA  IL) 

this  accomplished  when  the  allies  oaarrelled,       FERDIKAND  VII,  king  of  Spaia,  tan  la 

and  Gonzalvode  Cordova,  for  the  2d  time«  drove  San  Ddefonso,  Oot  11^  178L  died  fai 


the  French  cot  of  eoathem  Italy,  which  thence-  Sept  S9,  1888.  He  was  the  eldest  son  of 
forth  remuncd  in  the  hands  of  Ferdinand.  Fam-  Charles  IV.  and  Loisa  Marie  of  Parma.  In 
Hy  difficulties  interfered  for  a  while  with  his  1789  he  was  declared  prince  of  Aitarlaa  sni 
power  and  the  progress  of  bis  conquests.  Ju-  heir  i4>parent  to  the  crown.  Under  the  la- 
ana,  the  only  daughter  left  to  him  (Isabella  hav-  flnence  of  his  preceptor,  the  canon  Eseoh|rii^ 
ing  been  married  to  Emanuel  of  Portugal,  and  he  early  felt  e  strong  averrtoo  to  Godoy,  the 
Catharine  to  Prince  Artlmr,  afterward  to  lien-  notorious  Prince  of  toe  Peace,  the  fovnrile  ef 
ry  VIII.,  of  England),  had  been  married  in  U96  both  his  parents.  Thto  was  acgraraSed  by  Xsria 
to  the  archduke  Piiilip,  son  of  the  emperor  Max-  Antonietta  of  Nanles^  whom  he  marrkd  tai  IM^ 
imilian;  and  on  the  ueath  of  Isabella,  in  1504,  and  kindled  into  hatred  in  1806  upon  the 
this  Toung  prince  claimed  the  re|?ency  of  Cas-  den  death  of  his  wife,  whom  he  vm 
tile,  in  the  name  of  his  wife.  This  brought  on  out  sufficient  proofs  to  have  been 
e  contest  between  him  and  his  father-in-law.  Henceforth  two  hostile  foetlons  openly  JiTkhJ 
which,  however,  tenninated  in  favor  of  Fer*  tlie  court :  that  of  Godoy,  soppoitea  by  Ae 
dinand  by  the  premature  death  of  Philip  in  king  and  queen,  and  that  of  the  prinee  ef  A^ 
1006.  The  king  found  himself  still  at  liberty  to  turias,  comprising  the  great  mi|)onty  of  the  n^ 
give  undivided  attention  to  the  afTairs  of  Italy,  tion,  who  shared  in  hb  hatted  of  the  fl 
and  exercise  there  a  paramount  influence,  not  by  The  dissensions  between  the  son  and  the 
hisarmsonly,  but  by  litssuperior  political  talents,  who  was  but  a  tool  in  the  hands  of  hla  . 
He  took  part  in  the  lea^ie  of  Cambrai  against  and  Godoy,  grew  into  scandaloos  nnarnis*  The 
Venice  in  1508 ;  then  in  tlio  holy  league  in  151 1  crown  prince,  at  the  instigation  of  Eseoiqnis  si 
against  the  French,  whom  the  princes  of  Italy  others,  addressed  a  letter  to  Kapc^eoa,  com^ 
desired  to  expel  from  tlie  peninsula ;  and  in  all  ing  of  Godoy^s  conduct,  and  proposing  to . 
tlie^e  transactions  he  was  ^nerally  the  gainer,  himself  nnder  his  protection,  and  to  marry  a 
Beside  the  kingtiom  of  NapliMi,  he  added  to  his  member  of  his  &mUy.  He  abo  cnpied  a  BBSm>> 
dominions  rtweral  towns  and  fortrcfwes  on  the  rial  to  the  king  a^^nst  Godoy,  which  be  was  to 
coa!*t  of  Afri(*a,  which  were  conquered  by  Car-  have  read  to  him  in  person ;  hot  Charles  beoig 
diiial  Ximenes  and  Count  Navarro  in  15<>9  and  made  awaro  of  his  proceedings  and  yidfing  to 
1510,  and  the  kinf^lom  of  Navarre,  which  ho  the  solicitations  of  Loisa  Maria,  liad  hhoanestod^ 
wrested  from  Catliarine  de  Foix  and  her  bus-  and  kept  in  close  confinement,  A  royal 
ban«l,  Jean  d*Albret,  in  151d.  By  a  sin^nilar  tion  isf^ued  Oct  80,  1807,  denooncrd  ! 
whun,  or  perhaps  throogh  the  troubles  created  as  having  hdd  e  plot  against  the  power 


FERDINAND  YH  (Spa0)  46S 

the  life  of  bis  father.    This,  however,  failed  to  energetic  measores  had  powerfhOy  aided  in  the 

make  an  impression  against  the  nrince.    Ilis  national  resistance,  were  annulled ;  the  old  des- 

own  pliancy  and  GkKlo^rs  want  of  decision  pre-  potism,  with  all  its  abuses^  was  refistabtished ; 

▼ented  matters  ih)m  being  pushed  to  extremeii  and  persecution  was  directed  against  the  verj 

in  a  vagae  but  humble  letter,  Ferdinand  con-  men  who  had  most  strenuou^y  resisted  tlie 

ftflsed  that  he  had  sinned  against  his  father  and  French  invasion,  their  attachment  to  constitn- 

Idng,  implored  forgiveness,  and  was  publicly  tional  freedom  being  deemed  to  outweigh  tiieir 

Mraoned.    These  transactions  were  soon  fbl-  former  services.    Mi  the  members  of  tl^  cortea 

lowed  by  more  serious  events.    The  royal  Dun-  or  the  regencies,  all  those  who  had  participated 

i|y,  who  acted  under  the  advice  of  Godoy,  hav-  in  the  framing  of  the  constitution  of  1812  or  had 

isg  attempted  to  leave  Araniuez  with  the  ulti-  faithfblly  adhered  to  it,  were  arraigned  before 

mate  view  of  embarking  for  America,  a  sedition  courts  martial,  tried,  and  sentenced.   A  number 

broke  oo^  March  18, 1808 ;  the  departure  was  perished  on  the  scaffold ;  hundreds  of  the  most 

prevented,  and  the  people,  infuriated  against  Gk>-  illustrious  were  sent  to  dungeons  in  Africa  qr 

doy,  stormed  his  palace,  seized,  wounded,  and  imprisoned  at  home ;  the  most  fortunate  were 

wwud  have  murdered  him,  had  not  the  prince  ezued.    For  6  years  Spain  was  given  up  to  ti^e 

of  Asturias^  moved  by  the  tears  of  his  mother,  unrelenting  cruelty  of  a  revengeful  tyrant    At 

ved  his  influence  over  the  crowd  to  save  his  last  discontent  ripened  into  insurrection,  the 

fifo.    The  king  was  so  much  frightened  that  he  signal  for  which  was  g^ven  by  the  army.  Troops 

abdicated  the  next  day  in  favor  of  his  son.  assembled  at  the  isle  of  Leon  to  sail  for  South 

Two  days  later  he  attempted  a  retraction,  main-  America  revolted  under  Col.  Biego,  Jan.   1, 

teining  that  his  abdication  had  been  forced  ;  1820,  and  proclaimed  the  constitution  of  1812, 

bat  the  prince,  who  had  been  active  in  all  these  and  the  whole  army  followed  their  example. 

Imiaactions^  assumed  the  title  of  king,  and  made  Ferdinand  convoked  the  cortes  and  swore  (March 

Ida  solemn  entry  into  Madrid,  March  24.    The  9)  fai^fully  to  observe  the  instrument  he  had 

peniiunila  was  already  invaded  bv  French  troops,  formerly  annulled.    Under  the  influence  of  a 

and  Hunt  soon  marched  into  the  capital.  Fer-  provisional  junta  who  assumed  the  direction  of 

dlnand  hoped  to  conciliate  Napoleon  by  sub-  affairs,  he  abolished  the  inquisition,  banished 

miflion;  he  went  as  far  as  Bayonne  to  meet  the  Jesuits,  and  reestablished  the  fi*eedom  d 

him ;  here,  notwithstanding  the  empty  honors  the  press.    On  the  opening  of  the  cortes,  July 

wludi  were  paid  to  him,  he  found  himself  a  9,  he  renewed  his  oath  to  we  constitution,  and 

prisoner,  and  was  made  to  understand  that  he  appeared  to  act  in  perfect  accord  with  that 

must  restore  the  crown  to  his  father.    The  old  assembly,  while  at  the  same  time  he  was  intrigu- 

kLog,  his  queen,  her  favorite,  and  the  infantes  ing  to  defeat  the  plans  of  his  own  cabinet  and 

had  also  been  brought  to  Bayonne ;  interviews  to  encourage  the  plots  of  the  opposite  party. 

were  held  between  the  members  of  the  royal  This  double  dealing  soon  brought  about  bloody 

&mily  in  presence  of  Napoleon;    degrading  riots  and  finally  civil  war  in  the  capital  and 

scenes  took  place  between  Ferdinand  and  his  nearly  all  the  provinces.  The  liberals  or  consti« 

parents ;  and  yielding  to  a  pressure  he  was  un-  tutionalists,  wno  formed  a  large  majority  of  the 

able  to  resist,  Ferdinand  assented.  May  6,  to  the  nation,  were  strenuously  opposed  by  the  serviles 

surrender  of  his  royal  title.    But  this  tide,  and  or  ultra  royalists.    The  latter,  pretending  that 

an  the  rights  it  conferred,  had  already  been  re-  the  king  was  a  prisoner  in  the  hands  of  the 

dned  by  Charles  into  the  hands  of  Napoleon,  cortes,  organized  an  apostolic  junto,  and  raised 

The  emperor  declared  that  ^^  the  house  of  Bour-  bands  of  insurgents  in  Navarre  and  Catalonia, 

bmhad  ceased  to  reign  in  Spain,^'  and  placed  his  under  the  name  of  ^^  army  of  the  faith."  Monks 

brother  Joseph  on  the  vacant  throne.   Ferdinand  and  friars,  among  whom  Merino  was  conspicuous, 

wss  immediately  transferred  to  the  castle  of  Ya-  were  at  the  head  of  these  bands.  At  Madrid,  the 

kncay,  the  property  of  Talleyrand.  Meanwhile  royal  guards,  secretly  incited  by  their  own  mas- 

tbe  Spanish  nation  rose  in  arms,  and  Napoleon,  ter,  attempted  in  July,  1822,  to  reestablish  by 

la  the  hope  of  diverting  Spain  from  the  oodUtion  force  his  absolute  power;  but  after  a  violent 

MsiDsthim,  liberated  his  captive ;  by  the  treaty  struggle  they  were  put  down.    Henceforth  the 

of  Deo.  11, 1813,  he  restored  to  him  the  Spanish  constitutionalists  held  Ferdinand  in  a  kind  of 

crowD.  on  condition  that  ho  would  make  the*  imprisonment  scarcely  disguised  under  court 

KhgliMi  evacuate  the  peninsula,  secure  a  large  ceremonial.    A  liberal  ministry  was  appointed ; 

ineome  to  his  parents,  and  keep  in  their  offices  energetic  measures  were  resorted  to ;  the  *^  army 

and  immunities  all  the  Spaniards  who  had  been  of  the  faith"  was  totally  defeated ;  its  chiefs  and 

in  the  service  of  King  Joseph.    On  March  8,  soldiers,  as  well  as  the  ultra-royalist  committee 

1814^  Ferdinand  left  his  prison ;  and  on  his  known  as  the  regency  of  Urgel,  fled  to  France. 

arrim  in  Spain  he  was  welcomed  by  popular  The  revolution  was  thus  triumphant ;  but  the 

acclamations.    Ilia  progress  to  Madrid  was  a  "  holy  alliance"  were  preparing  for  its  over- 

triunph ;  but  his  return  became  the  signal  of  throw.    France,  which  had  assembled  an  army 

the  most  dreadful  reaction.    That  he  did  not  of  observation   near  the  Pyr6n6es,  received 

abide  by  the  tenns  of  his  treaty  with  Napoleon,  orders  from  the  congress  of  Verona  to  march 

that  he  expelled  at  once  all  the  afrancesados^  into  Spain  for  the  purpose  of  restoring  Ferdi- 

was  nothing  surprising;  but  he  went  much  nand*s  authority.   On  the  news  of  the  threatened 

father ;  all  the  proceedings  of  the  cortes,  whose  invasion,  tlio  king  was  removed  to  Seville,  March 


4Ak    ¥KBDJSAXn[>  UL    (TutcAVT)  fXBGDBOH 

SO,  1823;  «nd  on  the  rapid  idTaoce  of  the  independence  of  Italx.    The  battle  of  Watcrioo 

Ironch  through  the  peninsakL  he  was  deckred  restored  him  to  hia  Uirooe. 
to  be  insane,  suspended  from  his  power,  super-        FERGUSON,  Adax,  a  Scotch  phOoaopbcr 

leded  by  a  regcncj,  and  taken  to  Cadiz,  where  md  historian,  bom  in  Lpgierait,  PerthBiinp, 

the  constitutionalists  intended  to  make  a  stand.  June  20, 1723,  died  in  St.  Andrew*!,  Feb.  22, 

Bat  this  prqjcct  was  baffled  by  the  French  arm  J,  1816.    He  was  educated  in  Perth,  and  ia  the 

which  stormed  the  Trocadero,  Sept  15.    The  university  of  St  Andrew'a.    He  lelecled  the 

oortesthen  decided  on  dedaring  King  Ferdinand  derical  profeasioo,  and  atodied  in  Edinhargh. 

reestablished;  and  the  monarch  at  once  pub-  where  he  became  associated  with  Robertson, 

liahed  (Sept  80)  a  proclamation  granting  a  Blair,  and  Home.    In  1745,  tbonsfa  he  had  sCaS- 

general  amnesty,  and  securing  the  engagements  ied  but  half  the  required  term,  be  was  ordaia- 

entered  into  bv  the  constitutional  government,  ed,  in  consequence  of  harinc  been  aeleded  tor 

But  having  left  Cadiz  the  next  day,  he  revoked  his  knowledge  of  the  Erse  language  to  act  as 

the  proclmnation  and  all  his  acts  since  March  chaplain  of  one  of  the  highland    regioicatA» 

7, 1820 ;  he  made  his  solemn  entrance  into  wbich  he  accompanied  to  Flandera.    He  r»- 

lladrid,  with  the  applause  of  the  ultra  royal-  mained  in  this  situation  till  1757,  when  be  be 

iats,  Nov.  13,  and  the  work  of  vengeance  com-  came  con^icooua  by  his  defence  of  the  moral* 

menced,  and  was  continued  for  years.    The  ity  of  stage  plays,  written  upon  ooeaaioo  of  the 

noblest  victims  fell  under  the  sword  of  the  ex-  success  of  his  friend  Homers  tragedy  of  ^^Daog- 

eootioner,  and  terror  reigned  throughout  Spain,  las.^'  In  1759  he  was  elected  professor  of  aatanl 

Ferdinand  did  not  even  evince  the  least  for-  philosophy  in  the  university  of  Edinbox]^  a 

bearance  toward  those  who  had  served  him  position  wbich  he  exchanged  6  years  later  lor 

most  faitbfuUy,  but  used  his  power  against  his  the  chair  of  moral  philosophv.    In  1778  bs 

friends  as  well  as  his  foes.    He  had  already  came  to  America  as  secretary  of  the  comnikriw 

been  married  8  times  and  had  no  children,  and  appointed  to  negotiate  with  the  reTolted  eofe. 

took  as  his  4th  wife,  Oct  11, 1829,  Maria  Chris-  nies,  his  pkce  in  the  university  beiiw  aoppU 

tina,  daughter  of  King  Francis  of  Naples.    This  during  his  year's  absence  by  Dngala  Stewart 

qneen,  much  younger  than  her  husband,  gave  him  who  in  1785  became  his  successor.    In  bia  7Wh 

a  daughter,  Isabel,  and  procured  from  him  the  year  Dr.  Ferguson  pud  a  vidt  to  the  prinaps2 

publication  of  a  decree  abrogating  the  Salic  law.  cities  of  the  continent,  and  waa  electea  a  mtm- 

This  excited  the  anger  of  the  partisans  of  Don  ber  of  several  learned  societaea.    The  last  years 

Carlos,  the  king^s  brother ;  ana  insurrectionary  of  his  life  were  passed  in  St  Andrew^  vbcn 

movements  broke  out  in  the  provinces,  while  he  observed  a  strictly  Pythagorean  diet    Bk 

intrigues  were  set  on  foot  at  the  court  for  the  ^*  HlBtory  of  the  Progress  and  TenninatioB  cf 

recafl  of  the  decree.  During  a  temporary  illncsi  the  Roman  Republic,"  published  in  17S8,  i« 

tlie  king  was  prevailed  upon  to  abrogate  it ;  but  valuable  for  its  philosophical  reflections,  cUv- 

ChrUtina,  resuming  her  sway  over  hvr  husbnnd^s  ness  of  *tylc,  aud  masterly  purtraitures  of  cLi?* 

mind,  had  it  confinned,  and  received  herself  the  acter.     His   **  Essay  on  the  History  of  C;^^ 

title  of  regent,  while  Carlos  and  many  of  his  Society,^*  which  appeared  in  1768,  discoses  t^ 

adherents  wore  ordered  out  of  the  kingdom,  origin,  end,  and  form  of  govemioi'&t  aSrcs 

This  rekindled  civil  war,  wliich  broke  out  with  the  natural  sociabilitv  of  men,  in  oppcMitivrc  :j 

great  violence,  soon  after  the  death  of  Ferdinand,  the  hypothesis  of  Holibes  of  their  natural  b** 

His  daughter,  scarcely  4  years  old,  inherited  the  tility,  and  defends  civilization  a^n«t  the  charfirf 

crown ;  but  it  was  not  secured  to  her  till  after  of  Rousseau.     His  philo^phical  views  ar«  r<  c- 

a  protracted  and  blomly  contest.  taioed  in  his  ^  Institutes  ut  Moral  PhikMk^p  ):y' 

IV.  Ti'dCANY.  published  in  176^,  and  in  hU  "  Principltr*  i^ 

FERDIN'ANT)  III.,  grand  duke  of  Tuscany  Moral  and  Political  Science,"  pnbli*hcd  in  IT/i 

and  archduke  of  Austria,  bom  in  Florence,  May  Ho  belongs  by  his  general  method  to  the  sch  • » 

6, 1769,  died  in  the  some  city,  June  18, 1^24.  of  Bacon,  recommending  everywhere  expcnrci^ 

He  coino  into  pos^session  of  Tuscany  in  17U0,  and  the  study  of  fkcts  as  the  c^mditioa  of  fac- 

wlien  his  father  Ix*oih)1(I  II.  wsm  called  to  the  cessful  research  into  moral  and  phytical  law 
im]>erlal  throne  of  (iemiany.     In  the  difficult        FERGUSOy,  JAHKii,  a  Scotch  ezperimifru^ 

period    following  the   French   revolution,    ho  philosopher  and  a'«tronomer,  bom  near  K<>'^ 

maintained  a  strict  neutnility  in  the  wara;;ainst  in  I^flshiro  in  1710,  died  in  I^>ndi«n  in  177^ 

the  French  republic,  which  he  was  the  first  He  was  the  son  of  a  peasant,  and  when  ozily  T  <:* 

sovereign  to  recogiiizi.'.     Hy  the  treaty  of  Lune-  8  years  old  his  attention  was  turtwd  to  :i»: 

villoin  1801  he  lost  the  sovereignty  of  Tuscan v,  study  of  mechanics  by  seeing  his  father  !t9«  i 

but  in  lb03  obtained  ra  incleninity  the  arcfi-  beam  for  a  lever,  and  a  prop  for  a  fulcrum.    II.^^v 

bishopric  of  Soltzburg,  with  the  title  of  elector  of  cupied  himself  with  drawing  disfp-ams  ar.  i  t>  c 

tlio  empire.     This  eli'<*torato  he  ezc)ian:red  in  structiug  models  till  ho  under^timd  K4ne  « f  :"■■< 

lb05  for  the  grand  duchy  of  Wurzhurg,  and  was  more  remarkable  properties  of  the  mrcha^vi. 

adniitt«'d  into  the  confeileration  o(  t!ie  Rhino,  powers.     While  employed    in    trndinx  ^••^^> 

After  Nai>oleon*s  abdication  in  IS  14  Fenliuand  ne  acquired  the  rudiments  of  Lis  artrv^^a.  ."t^ 

was  restored  to  the  grand  duchy  uf  Tuscany,  but  ical  knowledge.      His  taste  for  dravic^   w 

was  again  oblieed  to  abandon  his  capital  fnr  a  also  very  decided,  and  lie  cultivated  :!  w.ih 

short  time  in  1»15,  when  Murat  prgcliiimed  tho  sudi  assiduity  tliat  at  length  he  became  a^U  u 


FEBGUBOM'  FERICAKAGH                405 

nppoit  Umself  by  taking  portraits  dnring  the  trated  Handbook  of  Arohitectore"  (1856),  Ib 

praoecation  of  his  studies  at  Edinbnrgh.    In  the  preparation  of  which  be  wed  the  materiab 

1748  he  removed  to  London.    In  1747  he  pub-  ah-eady  collected  lor  the  SEicceeding  volumes  cf 

Eslied  hb  first  work^  ^*  A  Dissertation  on  Ae  the  former  work.  In  these  works  ho  gives  a  com-' 

Phenomena  of  the  Harvest  Moon ;"  and  in  1748  plete  survey  of  the  architectural  monuments  of 

he  delivered  in  the  metropolis  a  course  of  )^>  the  chief  nations  of  ancient  and  modem  time& 

tores  on  experimental  philosophy  and  astronomy,  and  offers  many  suggestions  of  great  prad^ou 

which  were  so  well  received  that  he  subsequent-  value.    His  **  PtrilAces  of  Nineveh  and  Peraepdlli 

ly  repeated  them  in  most  of  the  principal  towns  Restored  "  (1851),  published  while  Mr.  Layaid% 

in  £ngland.     George   III.  settled   on  him  a  excavations  were  proceeding,  exhibits  a  pi^ 

pension  of  £50  a  year.    In  1768  he  was  elected  found  knowledge  of  the  architecture  of  the  As- 

a  feOow  of  the  royal  society,  and  in  1770  a  Syrians  and  Persians;-  and  vpon  the  sabseonent 

member  of  the  American  philosophical  society,  establishment  of  the  crystd  palace  at  Sydeimam, 

His  latter  years  were  mostly  devoted  to  the  of  which  he  was  the  genenu  manager  for  some 

defivery  of  his  lectures,  which  had  become  very  time  after  its  opening,  he  personally  superin- 

p<nm]ar.    The  most  important  of  his  works  are  tended  the  arranffement  of  the  Assyrian*  oamrt. 

**  Astronomy  Explained  on  Sir  Isaac  Newton's  His  attention  had  been  drawn  in  mdia  to  the 

Principles"  (4to.,  London,  1756);    ^*  Lectures  use  and  application  of  earthwoiics  in  modern 

on  Mechanics^  AcJ*  (Svo.,  1760);  **  An  Easy  fortifications,  and  he  proposed  the  substitotSon 

Introduction  to  Astronomy  "  (8vo.,  1769) ;  and  of  circular  forms  for  angles  and  bastions,  and 

an  "  Introduction  to  Electricity  "  (Svo.,  1770.)  of  earthworks  for  masonry.    On  this  subject  be 

Sir  David  Brewster  published  corrected  edi-  has  also  published  the  ^  Peril  of  Portsmontii,^ 

tions  of  his  "  Lectures "  and  •*  Astronomy  "  in  and  "  Portsmouth  Protected." 

1805  and  1811.  FERISHTAH,  Mohammed  Oasim,  a  Persian 

FERGUSON,  Samuxl,  an  Irish  poet  and  prose  historian  of  India,  bom  in  Asterabad,  near  the 

writer,  bom  in  Belfast  in  1810.    His  first  writ-  Oaspian  sea,  m  1670,  died  hi  1611.    His  father 

SngSy  among  which  was  *'  Willy  Galliland,"  left  his  native  country  to  travel  in  India,  where 

were  poblished  in  the  **  Ulster  Magazine.''    In  he  settled  in  the  Deccan  as  instractor  to  the- son 

Feb.  1882;  his  ballad,  the  "  Forging  of  the  An-  of  the  reigning  prince*    The  young  Ferishteh 

chor,*  appeared  in  "'  Blackwo(^,''^and  was  in-  was  advanced  to  honors  at  court,  and  after  the 

trodnced  into  the  "  Nodes.''    It  is  perhaps  his  civil  commotions  and  changes  ef  government  in 

finest  composition.    Ho  continued  to  write  for  the  province  in  which  he  had  liv^,  repaired  to 

**  Black  wood,"  and  in  1834  became  connected  the  court  of  Ibrahim  Adil  Shah  in  Bqjapore. 

with  the  **  Dtiblin  University  Magazine,"  which  where  he  passed  the  remainder  of  his  life,,  ana 

he  afterward  for  a  time  conducted.    His  aim  to  wrote  his  history.    This  work,  one  of  the  most 

elevate  the  standard  of  Irish  literature  and  to  authoritative  of  oriental  histories^  was  pnblash- 

rqyrove  the  caricaturists  of  Irish  life  appears  in  ed  in  1606,  contains  all  the  facts  which  the  an- 

his  "  Hibernian  Nights'  Entertainments  "  (re-  tbor  deemed  worthy  to  extract  from  more  than 

published  in  New  York,  1857),  and  in  his  papers  80  older  histories,  and  is  still  in  India  the  most 

on  Hardiman's  collection  of  Irish  minstrelsy  popular  history  of  the  country.    The  introdoo- 

(1834).    He  was  called  to  the  bar  in  1838,  and  tion  gives  a  brief  accomnt  of  India  prior  to  the 

continues  to  practise  his  profession  and  to  con-  Mohammedan  conquest,  and  then  follows  in  12 

tribute  to  the  *^  Dublin  University  Magazine."  books  a  history  of  the*  kings  of  the  difElerent 

FER6USS0N,  James,  a  British  architect  and  provinees,  and  of  the  European  settlers.  At  the 
writer  on  art,  bom  in  Ayr,  Scotland,  in  1808.  conclusion  there  is  a  short  account  of  the  ge- 
He  was  educated  at  the  high  school  of  Edin-  ography,  climate,  and  other  physical  circum« 
borgfa,  and  after  several  years'^  experience  in  a  stances  of  the  country.  After  having  been  sev- 
ooonUng  house  in  Hollimd  and  England,  went  eral  times  partially  translated  into  English^  the 
in  1829  to  India,  where  for  10  years  he  was  whole  work,  with  the  exception  of  some  passages 
ennged  in  mercantile  pursuits.  Returning  which  have  been  since  discovered,  was  publish- 
to  Ei^land,  he  devoted  himself  to  the  study  of  ed  in  London  in  1829  by  Col.  John  Brigga, 
art  and  literature.  During  his  residence  in  under  the  title  of  the  "  History  of  the  Rise  and 
India  he  had  taken  great  interest  in  the  ancient  Progress  of  the  Mohammedan  Power  in  India, 
architectural  remains,  and  among  the  fruits  fromitscommeneeraent  in  1000tol620."  Cc^ 
of  his  observations  was  a  description  of  the  Briggs  also  published  an  edition  in  Persian  at 
rock-eat  temples  of  Hindostao,  with  illustrations  Bombay  in  1831 . 

Ijyhinwelf  (1846),  and  "Picturesque Illustrations  FERMANAGH,  an  mland  co.  of  Irehmd, 

of  Andent  Architecture  in  Hindostan"  (1847-  province  of  Ulster;  greatest  length  fromN.  W. 

2L    In  1847  he  published  **  Ancient  Topogra-  to  S.  E.  45  m.,  greatest  breadth  26  m. ;  area, 

y  of  Jerusalem,"  in  which  he  undertook  to  714  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1851, 116,007.  It  lies  almost 

abowthat  the  building  known  as  the  mosque  of  wholly  in  the  basin  of  Lough  Erne,  which  di- 

Omar  la  the  church  of  the  holy  sepulchre.    In  vides  it  lengthwise  into  two  nearly  equal  por- 

1849  appeared  the  1st  volume  of  his  ^^  Historical  tions,  and  is  itself  composed  of  two  lakes,  con- 

Inqofary  into  the  True  Principles  of  Beauty  and  nected  by  a  short  river.    Its  "W.  part,  on  the 

Art|  more  especially  with  reference  to  Archi-  borders  of  the  counties  of  Leitrim  and  Cavan,  is 

tMtare,**  which  was  succeeded  by  the  *^  HIus-  mountainous,  and  the  rest  of  the  surface  is  di- 

VOL.  VII. — 30 


486  FERMENTATION  FERNANDO  FO 

Tsnified  by  steep  hills.    The  soil  is  as  varied  as  is  a  conical  mountain  aboat  1,000  feet  bigh, 

the  sorface,  but  except  a  wide  belt  in  the  8.  is  the  npner  part  of  which  is  rcry  steep,  and  oa 

not  reinarkablj  fertile.    The  productions  are  one  8ide  overhangn  its  base.     It  i«  composed  of 

oats,  barley,  wheat,  flax,  potatoes,  tumiiMi,  and  phonoUtic  rock,  which  ha5  been  serered  into  ir- 

hay.    Cattle  are  bred  on  the  liigh  grounds,  and  regular  columns.    Tlie  whole  island  is  oovcrcd 

butter,  egg^  d^;.,   are  export^.    Limestone,  with  wood,  but  such  is  the  aridity  of  its  climate, 

marl,  potcer^s  clay,  and  small  quantities  of  coal  there  being  sometimes  no  rain  fur  2  year^  thai 

andiron,  are  the  chief  mineral  products.  Timber  Tegetablo  production  is  venr  limited.    The  Lil- 

Is  more  abundant  than  in  most  Irish  counties,  and  contains  2  harbors,  and  its  c^msts  abound 

bat  is  grown  principally  on  tlio  large  estates,  with  fish.    It  b  use<i  as  a  place  of  banuhment 

many  parts  of  the  county  having  a  barren  and  b^  Brazil,  whose  government  maintains  a  gar- 

deaolate  appearance.    There  are  no  important  nion  there  to  prevent  the  escape  of  criininsl4, 

manufactures,  and  few  large  towns ;  those  wor-  No  woman  is  permitted  to  land  on  it.    Another 

thy  of  notice  are  Enniskillen,  Lisnaskca,  and  of  these  islands  is  about  1  m.  square,  and  the 

Lowtherstown.    The  county  returns  two  mem-  rest  are  mere  rocky  islets,  separated  from  lbs 

bers  to  the  house  of  commons.  main  island  by  very  narrow  channels. 

FERMENTATION,   a  term  applied  to  va-        FERNANDO  PO,  an  island  in  the  biglit  of 

rioos  spontaneous  changes  which  take  place  in  Biafra,  W.  coast  of  Africa,  about  25  ra.  frno 

organic  matters  after  life  has  ceased.    In  these  the  main  land,  lying  between  lat.  8'  12'  and  3' 

changes,  the  occurrence  of  which  is  dependent  17'  N.,  and  long.  8^  26'  and  6^  57'  £. :  po^ 

on  a  eertuin  degree  of  heat  and  moisture,  the  estimated  at  from  10,000  to  12,0()0.     It  b  aboat 

elements  of  the  bodies  enter  into  new  combina-  44  m.  long  and  20  m.  bn>ad.     Risini^  in  bold 

tiona  among  themselves,  heat  and  gaseous  mix-  precipitous  cliffs  from  the  wa,  its  surface  (rraio- 

tnres  being  eliminated.    Several  kinds  of  fer-  ally  becomes  more  and  more  elevated,  until  in 

mentation  are  distinguished  by  chemists,  and  Clarence  Peak,  near  the  N.  extremity  of  the 

the  tendency  of  chemical  science  is  to  refer  to  bland,  it  attains  an  altitude  of  10.»>54>  fret.  The 

this   principle    a   great    variety  of  chemical  rocks  are  wliolly  of  volcanic  formation.    The 

changes.    Formerly  only  4  kinds  of  fennenta-  soil,  which  is  mostly  covered  with  wood,  ii 

tlon  were  recognized,  viz. :  the  vinous,  panary,  everywhere  well  watered  and    fertile.     The 

acetous,  and  putrefactive ;  and  some  chemists  scenery  is  exceedingly  picturesque  and  beftst^ 

still  admit  but  S,  omitting  the  second  named,  ful,  the  highest  summits  and  the  deepest  rales 

The  process  is  induced  in  an  aqueous  solution  of  being  alike  adorned  with  luxuriant  vetretatioQ. 

snitaole  tem(>erature  by  the  presence  of  a  nitro-  The  principal  vegetable  products  arw  palc\ 

genous  orgiinic  boily,  which  it  b  believed  must  the  magnificent  U>mbax,  or  silk  cotton  try^, 

itself  be  in  a  state  of  cliange  or  decay.     Yeast  tho  gt>ora  or  stcrculin,  a  si»t»cit'«  of  rU)r*T.  tK« 

or  leaven  i.s  a  familiar  example  of  tlils  substance,  sugar  cane,  liere  pn)winjr  wild,  and  yarns,  ii  y  ■■.  .* 

called   the   ft.*rment.     Tlio  principle   lias  been  form  the  staple  ftHxl  of  tho  inhaSt!ant4.     T:.« 

variously   explained    by   ditlVrent    authorities,  most  numerou;)  quadru|>ods  aro  autcl<^:»i'%  n  ■'.- 

Mit.<cherlirh  refer?*  it  to  a  vt'jroiablo  prtnluction,  keys,  t»«iuirrcls  and  r.its.     Tho  rivcr*  a* -tan  !  -. 

and  in  tho  ca-m  of  putrofartioii  to  the  action  of  fi-^h,  but  arc  al'^o  infostod  witli  alli^ji-T*.     T.  -f 

a  certain   siKJcies  of  infill »riri.     Herzelius  and  cliniate  wiw  onro  o^tooinoil  Kilu!>ru»u*.  V::  :\* 

others  Rtip[H)so  that  forinontati(m  is  pnnlucod  majority  of  tho  E»in»f>fanH  win  ivf;ifir»-i!  :..^r  ? 

by  catalvbis,  the  nicro  pro'H.Mu'o  or  cimtact  of  on  tho  islaml  bavins  Invn  carrii'ii  i»:f  by  ;.. ..  -. 

the  ferment   beinjr  fiiitVioient   to   produce   tho  tlic   British  parrison  was  withdrawn   in    i*  4 

phenomena  in  tho  otlior  hiMlios,  without  itself  Tho  roa<t  is  indontdl  with  n^'Veral  rri-^V.-  a-  i 

oontributin^  its  own  elements  to  tho  now  com-  bays,  tho  most  oapaciotm  o(  whirii  i*  Ma;.N:  -  • 

pound.      Lil-bi;?    supiK>'<'M    that   the  chemioal  bay.  at  tho  N.  E.  cxtrornily,  ik  here  is  >;:  .'.-I 

chancre  takini;  place  in  tlio  fernuMit,  which  i**  it-  tho  capit.il,   Clarencotown  (p<»p.  ^'*''  t*'  >  •    , 

self  in  a  state  of  dooomiMi^iiion    thnui^h  the  which  was  founded  by  the  Hriti-h  in  l*»'jr.  a:  1 

oxidizing  action   <»f  tho   air,   comniunioatos  a  is  now  chietly  inhabited  by  omanripat**'!  ri-* 'S 

chemic:d  or  moKTuIar  movement   to  the  elo-  from  Sierra  Iamuo.     Thoa!K»riLH:jt*>*ff  Kerr.ii.  i? 

ments  of  tho  otiier  UMlies  in  runtac?,  imluoiiii;  Po,  called  Edeeyahs  are  witlely  «li!!*.rx -*.    :"; 

their  rear  ran  pel  lie  Mt  in  other  f«»rni*.     Tho  sub-  apfK^aranco  and  lan;;uaf.'o  from  the  nat.\t-*  .•:' 

Ject  is  inriilfutally  tre:ite<l  in  numerous  articles  tlio  rontinont.     They  an,*  t»f  li^'Lier  c  niipln    i 

in  this  work,  and  reI"«Teiico  may  bo  made  to  and  l»etter  feature*,  well  nindo  a:j  1  mus-  .  \r. 

Acrrir  Ai'ih,  Anoin.r,   Hhkwinn;,  Catalysis,  and  in  di^spo-sition  bravo,  ct-rier*  »:•,*.  .an-l  ar:;.i    -. 

ERKVACArsts.  rrTKKrA<TM\,  and  Yea-jt.  Th.ir  dwellin;rs  ,are  of  vt-ry  r-.ilo  ifri-i.-u. :.  -. 

FEKNWNIM.!  1)E  NtU'ONIi.V,  a  pri»np  of  coUMsting  merely  of   pal-n-'.eaf    n;.it*  ti.r  i :-. 

small  L-^lands  in  tho  .\t hint iciK-ean.  brlnn;rin::  to  hnt^'ly  i»ver   upri;:ht   |««'!es.     ll.i-  i*'. \^.  I  «  •-• 

Brazil,  Mtuitt'd  al»out  210  in.  N.  K.  of  Cipf  St.  diseuveri'd   hy   tho   ri»rtujiU'-*»   in    UTl.    i-  i 

Itoque;  lat.  of  S.  E.  extrornity  of  tin-  prinripil  immel  aftor  tho  b-ader  of  tho  it]n^.!.:.  :• 

island,  '6    :)«»'  S.,  lonjr.  ^'2'  2s  *W.      The  ".liMre^  177^  it   was  code.1  t<»  t!ie  Spu.  .iroN  »^      ■• 

of  those  iolandn  are  PK'ky,  and  ditrwult  of  a^'e^-^^  teinpte<l  to  coloni/o  it,  but  wero  r*  ;w-",,l  ».    •.    - 

on  account  of  tho  violence  <»f  tin*  sirf.     Tiio  nativis.      In  1**27  .*^pain  iK.'nn;i:e.J  r.  !••  N     •- 

largest  i.<*land,   wliich  gives  thi*   name   to   the  cupied  by  tho  Hrili-h,  %*};.>  n^»:i   aNxr  I  ■-. -!    : 

group,  is  about  20  m.  in  circumference,     lu  it  on  account  of  its  insalubrity;  »ncc  wlu-^ii  ;i>- 


FEBNET  FERNS                         ASI 

riod  the  SpaniArdB  hare  again  claimed  it  and  which  communicate  with  the  footstalks  of  the 
changed  its  name  to  Puerto  de  Isahel.  leaves,  and  which  commonly  present  a  hone- 
F^NET,  or  Fsbnsx,  a  French  town  in  the  shoe  appearance  when  cot  across.  Eadi  of  these 
department  of  Ain,  on  the  frontier  of  Switzer*  woody  plates  is  soft  in  the  interior,  where  the 
land,  at  the  foot  of  the  Jura  mountains,  about  5  texture  principally  consists  of  scalarlform  and 
m.  from  Geneva.  It  was  a  place  of  refuge  for  the  pitted  vessels  and  cells ;  the  whole  covered  with 
Hngnenots  during  the  era  of  religious  persecu-  a  hard  cellular  integument,  which  serves  in* 
tion  in  France,  and  was  for  20  years  the  residence  stead  of  bark.  The  trunks  seem  always  to  pro- 
of Volture.  When  he  bought  the  land,  about  duce  roots  in  great  abundance  from  their  surface, 
1758,  Femey  was  a  miserable  hamlet,  consisting  even  when  elevated  in  the  air,  clothing  them,  es- 
only  of  a  few  hovels.  By  his  exertions  it  became  pecially  near  the  ffronnd,  with  a  thick  matting, 
a  proq)erou8  town,  with  nearly  1,600  inhab-  andafiTordingamplemeansof  nutrition,  and  per- 
itanta.  He  drained  and  cultivated  the  adjacent  haps  some  kind  of  protection.  The  same  general 
grounds,  and  caused  Geneva  watchmakers  and  structure  as  that  of  the  tree  ferns  may  be  seen 
other  industrious  artisans  to  settle  there,  while  in  the  herbaceous  species,  such  as  are  common 
the  constant  concourse  of  visitors  and  travellers  in  temperate  and  boreal  r^lions.  The  leaves  of 
eontzibuted  to  enhance  the  general  prosperity,  the  ferns  are  called  fronds,  and  are  inserted 
The  death  of  Voltaire  proved  disastrous  to  the  .upon  the  stem  by  an  angular  base;  they  are 
indostry  of  the  place,  Uie  persons  employed  in  often  of  considerable  size,  and  are  cut  into  re- 
the  mannfhcture  of  watches  being  reduced  from  peated  divisions  called  pinna.  Each  leaf  and 
800  to  about  200;  but  the  inhabitants  still  cher-  leaflet  (pinna)  is  penetrated  by  veins,  and  so 
iih  the  remembrance  of  tiieir  benefactor,  and  diverse  are  these  that  a  kind  of  natural  arrange- 
admirers  of  Voltaire  still  make  pilgrimages  to  ment  of  genera  has  been  based  upon  the  charao- 
Femey.  The  ch&teau  in  which  he  lived  has  ters.  Upon  the  back  of  the  frond  are  spedal 
undergooe  many  alterations,  so  that  but  few  organs  for  propagation,  called  tporanaia^  or  in- 
reliea  of  him  remdn.  His  long  cane,  his  seal,  accurately  fruit  dots.  These  are  at  first  gener- 
his  diver  inkstand,  one  of  his  wigs,  his  cap  of  ated  under  the  epidermis,  which  is  sepanU^d 
white  satin  embroidered  with  gold,  his  MS.  and  borne  upward  to  protect  the  sporan^a, 
oorreqiondence  with  Frederic  the  Great,  and  the  This  scale  of  epidermis  becomes  the  induHwm, 
Bbrary  of  his  last  secretary  Wagni^re,  are  all  When  fully  ripe,  the  indusium  falls  away  and 
the  curiomties  which  are  left  for  the  inspection  leaves  the  sporangium  more  or  less  exposed, 
of  visitors.  Adjoining  the  ch&teau  are  two  The  sporangia  assume  a  great  variety  of  forms, 
mall  edifices,  one  the  theatre  and  the  other  the  whereby  genera  are  determined.  A  large  number 
church  built  by  the  philosopher.    Upon  the  of  ferns  belong  to  the  eaYhorder  polypodiacea^ 

Sreh  of  the  latter  Is  the  following  inscription:  of  which  the  rock  fern  {polypoaium  tmlffare^ 

»  ererit  Voltariut.    In  front  of  the  chateau  Linn.)  may  be  taken  as  a  familiar  type.     In 

is  the  mausoleum  which  he  had  built  with  the  this  plant  we  notice  rounded,  brown  or  cin- 

utmost  attention  to  artistic  execution.  namon-colored   dots,  situated   in  rows  upon 

FERNS    (JiUeUy  Jussieu),  commonly  herba-  the  back  of  the  leaf.    On  removing  the  in- 

oeoos  plants,  with  permanent  root-like  stems,  dnsium,   numerous   elastic   rings,  filled  with 

buried  under  the  soil,  and  emitting  fibres  from  round,  seed-like  bodies,  will  be  seen,  which  are 

their  surfaces,  creeping  over  the  surrounding  a  sort  of  buds  or  bulbs  from  which  new  plants 

ol^Jeets,  such  as  the  stems  of  other  plants  or  their  are  to  issue.    In  the  scolopendrivm,  instead  of 

roots,  or  between  the  crevices  of  rocks,  and  rounded  dots,  the  indusium  covers  numerous 

producing  from  their  extremities  a  succession  obliquely  transverse  lines  of  sporangia.    In  the 

cf  new  l^ves  from  year  to  year.    Sometimes  maiden's  hair  (adiantum  pedatum^  Linn.),  the 

the  stem  assumes  an  upright  position,  elon-  edge  of  each  leaflet  seems  to  be  turned  over, 

aUng   into   a   simple   tnmk,   and  rising  to  and  covers  the  sporangia  beneath ;  and  the  same 

Uie  height  of  50  or  60  feet,  becoming  then  arrangement  occurs  in  the  brake  (pterit,  Linn.). 

the  most  gigantic  of  the  acrogens  or  flower-  Such  as  these  are  called  dorsiferous  ferns,  in 

Ini  plants^  approaching   the    palms  through  distinction  from  the  adder's  tongue  (opAio^Wum 

the  ateadaeea^  and  vieing  with  them  in  beau-  vulgatum^  Unn.),   where  the  spore  cases  or 

tj.    These  tree  ferns  are  chiefly  to  be  met  sporangia,  having  two  valves,  ore  collected  into 

i|ith  in  the  torrid  zone,  and  there  only  are  they  a  spike  formed  out  of  the  sides  of  a  contracted 

fimnd  in  abundance.  Indeed,  it  has  been  thought  frond,  without  any  trace  of  on  elastic  ring.   The 

that  they  were  confined  to  the  equatorial  re-  spores  themselves  resemble  fine  powder,  instead 

ciooa,  but  Mertens  found  them  of  60  feet  in  of  conspicuous  seed-like  dust.   The  elastic  rings 

Engfat  near.  Japan,  in  lat28^  R.  Brown  speaks  are  also  wanting  in  the  danaaeem   (tropical 

of  arborescent  ferns  at  the  southern  extremity  forms),  whose  spore  cases  are  sunk  within,  or 

of  Van  Diemen's  Land,  and  even  at  Dusky  bay  rarely  seated  upon  the  back  of  the  leafiets.    As 

in  Kew  Zealand,  near  lat.  46**.    The  interior  of  the  mcreose  and  normal  propagation  of  the 

the  tmnk  of  the  tree  ferns  consists  of  a  cellular  ferns  is  through  these  spores,  some  brief  account 

•abrtance,  which  often  disappears,  and  among  of  the  mode  will  be  proper.   In  some  species,  it 

which  bundles  offibro-vascular  tissues  are  some-  maybe  remarked,  bulbs  and  even  viviparous 

tiaoMM  mixed;  beyond  the  cellular  centre  lies  a  ofibets  are  produced  on  the  fronds;  yet  these 

of  woody  plates,  much  folded  and  plaited,  are  exceptional  cases.    The  spore,  falling  upon 


468                 FEBOZEPOOR  FEBBABA. 

thA  surface  of  tho  moist  earth,  dcT^ops  in  a  few  fbrt,  were  Joined  by  th%  oatiTe  gnaid  limdi^ 

weeks  into  a  small,  tender,  cellular,  leaf-like  and  attempted  to  aeixo  the  maicazine.     Thej 

<Nrgan  called  the  prothallui  or  prottnbryo.  This  were  driven  oat  by  a  liandful  cif  £uropc«H»  and 

lapidly  dcveloixs  itself,  until  two  distinct,  small  after  burning  and  plundtfrins  the  uaiigaluv\ 

bodies,  which  represent  the  flower,  make  their  mess  houses,  hospitals,  and  chorch,  deounpcd. 

appearance  in  different  ports  of  the  surface.  A  European  regiment  was  at  the  station,  poked 

Alter  a  while  one  or  more  of  these  alter  in  so  badly  that  ft  was  able  to  render  no  scnioe. 

appearance   and   size,  and  tender  roots   are  Two  other  native  regiments  were  diaamed,  one 

found  to  issue  from  beneath.    The  proembryo  of  which  (the  10th  cavalry)  rose  on  Aug.  19, 

now  disappears,  leaving  only  one  or  more  of  killed  several  persons,  and  attempted  to  seise 

theso  points  attached  by  roots  to  the  soil  These  the  guns,  but  was  repulsed  and  dispened. 

are  the  young  forms  of  the  ferns,  and  are  thus  FERRAND,  AiSTOixBFKAN^isCi.Ari>i«coiuit, 

germinated  and  growing  buds,  having  an  axis  a  French  politician  and  historian,  bom  in  Pani^ 

or  future  stem  and  roots.  From  this  diminutive  July  4,  1751,  died  there,  Jan.  17,  1825.    Attiw 

bad  the  fronds  spring;  and  growing  rapidly,  age  of  18  years  he  was  admitted  a  coonsellor  in  tbe 

they  help  to  develop  the  axis  or  stem,  to  multi-  parliament  of  Paris  by  special  dispensation,  Qe 

jdy  the  roots,  and  maintain  the  life  of  the  plant,  left  Paris  in  1789,  and  attached  himself  to  ths 

in  a  few  years  the  young  plants  moke  strung  prince  of  Ck>nd£ ;  and  after  the  death  of  Loois 

and  efficient  organs,  and  the  fronds  now  having  aVI^  he  was  appointed  a  member  o^  the  ooon- 

grown  to  proper  size  begin  to  show  by  the  ap-  cil  of  regency,    lie  returned  to  France  in  Iwl, 

pearance  of  the  indusium  that  the  seed  cases  devoted  himself  to  literature,  and  pnUi&bed  a 

are  being  formed,  when  the  process  goes  on  as  work,  on  which  he  had  been  long  engaged,  en- 

before. — ^The  value  of  tlje  ferns  is  chiefly  me-  titled  Ik  VtiprU  de  Vkistoire^  which  was  a  boU 

dicinaL    The  leaves  generally  contain  a  thick,  defence  of  absolute  monarchy.    The  cnr  vi 

astringent  mucilage  with  a  little  aroma,  and  are  Russia  sent  the  author  a  flattering  letter  and  a 

eonsidered  lenitive  and  pectoral.    Some  Peru-  valuable  ring.    Ferrand  was  en^iged  to  cuo- 

Tian  q>ecies  are  said  to  have  solvent,  deobstru*  plete  the  unfinished  **  History  o^  the  Anarchy  is 

ant,  sudorific,  and  anti<rheumatic  properties.  Poland^'  byRulhieres;  but  the  polios  prercair 

Some  of  the  stems  or  root  stocks  of  ferns  are  ed  the  publicaUon  on  the  gronnd  that  toe  work 

eaten  by  swine.    The  aborigines  eat  the  roots  belonged  to  the  government.    Ferrand  was  ae- 

of  a  Tasmanian  fern,  after  roasting  it.    The  cused  of  having  changed  the  mannscript  to  scis 

common  brake  (pUrii  aquilina,  Linn.)  and  a  his  own  ideas.     After  the  restoration  uf  tht 

species  of  tupidium  have  been  used  in  mak-  Bourbons  he  was  appointed  minister  of  lUU 

ingbeer,  and  A,Jilix  nuu  has  been  employed  as  and  iK)st master-general, 

a  substitute  fur  tea.    S>uie  tropical  terns  eon-  FLU  U.VU  A,  the  northern  most  province  of  *J.< 

tain  a  fra;;rant  arumo,  used  in  scenting  cocoa-  Papul  States,  lM>unded  N.  by  the  main  bra:.  :i 

nut  oil.     The  ferns  are  all  beautiful,  and  many  of  the  Po,  wliich  divides  it  fri>m  LomliAnl;.  L 

are  of  exquisite  ]>roportions;  aiul  us  oruaineutol  by  the  A<lriatic,  S.  by  the  nrovinces  of  Rati.:.!:s 

plants  for  the  garden  or  greenhou^.*,  thoy  are  and  Bologna,  and  W.  by  Modcna,  from  vLi.h 

nnsurfiQsscd ;   moUture,  shade,  and  a  uniform  it  is  partly  separated  by  the  river  Panonj  :  rr\x 

temperatnro  being  tho  chief  re<|uisites  iu  their  823  s*).  m. ;  pop.  in  180:1,  244,.V24.     The  '•zrCi^ 

cultivation.                                                           '  is  flat,  and  m  many  ports  U'low  the  k-vi:!  uf 

FEROZEPOOR,  a  distrirt  of  Sirhind,  Briti:>h  the  Pa,  and  pn)tected  from  iuuudatio:i4  I7  rra- 

Indio,  forming  part  of  the  Cis-SiitK-j  territories,  bankments  along  tho   river.      A  cun*iiltT»:  1% 

and  crossed  by  the  parallel  of  3u'  45'  N.  hit.,  i)ortion  of  tlie  E.  part  of  tlic  province  is  ^I-jik^ 

and  tiio  meridian  of  75    E.  lon^r.     Its  hounda-  constantly  under  water.    The  si.»Il  is  ricL  kuti 

ries,  area,  and  fiopulation  are  ini]H.Tfei'tIy  known,  fertile,  but  tiie  vast  swamfts  rvndcr  the  atn^.*- 

but  tlie  Ixkft  is  said  to  be  very  M.*attered.     Not  sphere  more  or  less  unwholesumc.  e:ftpecUl'.v  ;a 

more  than  ^\  part  of  the  diMrict  is  cultivated,  hununer.    Tho  chief  products  are  grain,  rx 

and  a  large  proi>ortion  of  the  renininder  U  to-  flax,  hemp,  wine,  olives,  and  silk.     Exteii-'.Te 

tally  unproilurtive ;    but  Njverul  ruined  towns  posturesfavor  the  roaring  of  cattle,  and  thi*  IjC- 

and  villages  indicate  a  fonnvrAtote  of  pros{Krity,  cries  are  of  Fome  im|H.trtancc.     The  ptK^xiz^ 

and  it  is  again  ri>in;;  into  importance.     It  pass-  formerly  con^^tituted  the  grvator  port  vi  *.jc 

ed  into  the  hands  of  the  Ea<»t  India  company  in  duehy  oi  Ferrani,  which  was  ruled  br  the  L.  -^m 

1835. — Fekozei^ook,  a  town   and  fort  of  tho  of  E>te  from  tho  early  i>art  of  tlio  lith  ti.*  i^e 

above  district,  3  m.  from  tho  left  bank  of  tho  end  of  tiio  IGth  century,  when  It  w&a  a::aK  itJ 


Sutlc^,  7tl  m.  W.  from  L(NMlian;i,  antl  l,lhl  m.  to  tho  Papal  Static.  At  the  end  of  lli^  >'^ 
N.  ^^ .  from  Calcutta;  \t*t\K  aUuit  i\{jUO.  It  is  century  it  was  token  by  the  French  aai  f-.--  t-i 
surroundetl  by  a  ditch  and  :i  w«.ak  nmd  wall,     part  tirst  of  the  Ci  sal  pine  republic^  ;kDd&f:«.T^j^''i 


.tra, 

\ery  lar^»  town.  On  May  i;j,  ls."j7,  >4>nio  cum-  by  tlie  conjrcps  uf  Viciin:s  toi:i:!i*-r  *.:!.  :i.« 
fianies  of  the  45lh  rci;imvnt  of  nut  ivc  infantry  ri^htof  garrison  in;:  the  citadel  u:Fi.rrar^  «':.« 
revolted  here,  scaled  a  dilapidated  port  of  tho    province  was  governed  by  a  pafial  ic^^au*  wc 


r-' 


flBBSARA  KBRASt                    461 

wrfinal,  and  wss  called  a  legadon,  untQ  ITor.  ralnable  editions  of  the  ISth  and  16ih  oentarleft 

18501,  when  it  came  nnder  the  administration  of  Ferrara  possesses  one  of  the  finest  and  largest 

IB  inferior  prelate,  and  is  now  a  delegation,  theatres  of  Italj,  a  botanical  garden,  and  rxuatf 

ftmning  part  of  the  k^ion  of  the  Bomagna,  charitable  institntions  and  conventSL     In  tha 

and  fiTidsd  into  the  districts  of  Lngo  and  Fer*  centre  of  the  citj  is  a  castle  flanked  with  tow* 

ma.    The  prindnal  towns,  beside  the  capita],  ers  and  surrounded  hf  wet  ditches,  which  was 

ara  Logo,  Cento,  BagnacaTallo,  and  Oomaochio,  formerly  the  palace  of  the  dokes  of  Fernaa, 

fb»  latttf  a  fortifiea  town  lately  garrisoned  by  and  is  now  that  of  the  papal  ddegpile*    Tba 

Anatriana,  ntnated  on  an  island  in  the  midst  of  population  is  chiefly  oolle<^  in  the  ridnity  of 

dfeenriTo  awamps,  and  noted  for  its  fisheries,  this  castle,  and  but  thinly  scattered  over  the  re* 

whidi  are  celdntiSted  by  Tasso  and  Ariosto. —  mainder  of  the  town,    llie  city  is  endoaed  with 

Tha  c^tal,  Fbrbara,  is  rituated  in  a  flat,  un-  walls  and  defended  on  the  W.  side  by  the  dtadeL 

bealthy  country,  only  about  7  feet  above  the  The  Austrians  took  possesdon  of  the  whole  dtj 

level  c3r  the  sea,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Vdano,  in  Aug.  1847,  but  the  troops  were  withdrawn  in 

an  arm  of  the  ro,  about  6  m.  S.  from  the  main  December  following,  and  the  Austrian  oocmpth 

diamid  of  that  river,  26  m.  from  Bologna,  tion  remdned  conmied  to  the  citadd  until  Jmj 

and  98  m.  fh>m  Ravenna ;  pop.  in  1866,  82,000,  14, 1848,  when  the  city  was  seized  bv  the  Ana- 

coapridng  about  2,000  Jews,  who  are  not  per-  trian  general,  Prince  Liechtenstein.  On  Feb.  18^ 

aitted  to  redde  outdde  of  the  ghetto.     Fer-  1849,  it  was  occupied  for  a  diort  time  by  Gen. 

fara  was  fbr  a  Ions  time  only  a  small  village,  Haynau,  who  imposed  upon  the  inhabitanta* 

mtfl  about  the  end  of  the  6th  century,  when  contribution  of  200,000  scudi.   In  1859,  aftertiba 

It  vaa  walled  Iv  the  exarch  of  Ravenna.    The  battle  of  Magenta,  the  Austrian  forces  withdrew 

MdioDrio  of  Femora  dates   fh>m   661,   the  fW>m  the  dtadcl,  when  they  evacuated  dl  the  otb- 

anhlmfaqnric  firom  1785.     Under  the  rule  of  er  places  they  had  occupied  in  the  Papd  Statea. 

fb»  pcinoea  of  Este  the  city  gained  great  impor-  FERRARA,  Fkanobsco,  an  Itdian  pottt^oal 

ta&M^eR)eciaI1yinthel6thcentnry,whenitwa8  economist,  bom  in  Pdermo  in  Dec.  1810,  be- 

ODa  or  tne  dties  of  Europe  most  celebrated  for  came  in  1884  director  of  the  statisUcd  depart- 

laamlDft  poetry,  art,  and  for  the  refinement  and  ment  of  Sidly,  and  founded  the  GiomaU  di 

aplendor  of  its  ducd  court    In  the  15th  century  ttatistiea.    Having  expressed  liberd  politiod 

It  was  fiunous  for  its  school  of  pdnting.    In  the  opinions,  he  was  imprisoned  in  1847,  but  re- 

aar^r  past  of  the  16th  century  it  gave  an  asylum  leased  in  the  following  year.    In  1849  he  was 

to  Oaivin  and  other  religions  reformers.    6ua»  appointed  professor  of  politicd  economy  at  tha 

Tinl,  Boiardo,  Ariosto,  and  Tasso  were  amons  university  of  Turin,    tie  still  (1859)  holds  thia 

tiie  most  illustrious  ornaments  of  the  court  m  position,  and  among  other  vduable  writings  he 

ranL    The  dty  had  in  its  most  prosperous  hBspn\A\BhedImporianMdelPeeawnniapmiieB 

over  80,000  inhabitants.     It  still  retains  (Turin,  1849-^50).    His  most  important  publi- 

ly  vestiges  of  its  former  splendor.     The  cation  is  the  Biblioteea  deW  eetmamiita^  whidi 

drarciies  contdn  fine  works  of  art,  especidly  gives  annudly  biograi>hie8  of  eminent  politiod 

tiiat  of  the  Campo  Santo,  which  occupies  the  economists,  and  selections  from  important  <U»> 

dta  of  tha  old  Oertosa  convent.    The  cathedrd  quisitions  on  the  sdence.    He  commenced  it  In 

of  8t  Paul  was  consecrated  in  1185,  and  con-  1850,  and  10  volumes  of  it  had  appeared  in 

taiiia  the  tomb  of  Urban  III.    Santa  Maria  del  1858.    He  b  a  zedous  advocate  of  free  trade 

Yado  is  the  oldest  church  of  Ferrara.     That  prindples. 

of  San  Francesco  is  famous  for  its  echo,  which  FERRARI,  Gaudskzio.  a  pdnter  of  the  10- 

tea  16  reverberations.    Ariosto  was  buried  in  lanese  school,  bom  in  Valdnggia  in  1484,  died 

ihb  dinrdi  of  San  Benedetto,  but  in  1801  his  in  Milan  in  1550.  His  prindpd  works  are  illus- 

laaadna  were  removed  to  the  public  library,  trative  of  the  story  of  creation  and  of  the  eariy 

Tha  flnest  of  the  pdaces  of  Ferrara  are  the  dia-  events  of  Christianity,  and  are  found  in  the  gai- 

Bood  palace,  or  Villa  Ercole,  and  the  pdace  del  leries  and  churches  of  Lombardy.    He  was  also 

Ma^kiro,  where  the  aeeademia  Ario$Ua  holds  a  sculptor,  architect,  mathematician,  and  poet. 

ka  atttiaga.    In  the  hospitd  of  Santa  Anna  a  FERRARI,  GnTSBPPS,  an  Itdian  philosopher 

anaD  room  on  the  ground  floor  is  still  shown  and  author,  bom  in  Milan  about  1811.    Toward 

k  whIdi  Tasso  was  confined  as  a  lunatic  for  1831  he  was  graduated  as  a  doctor  of  law  in  the 

■BDy  years  bv  Alfonso  II. ;  and  near  Ferrara  univerdty  of  Pavla,  but  devoted  himself  to 

iltiia  vffla  BA  Biguardo.  where  the  poet  paid  literature,  and  became  intimate  with  the  phl- 

Ua  court  to  Eleonora  of  Este.  The  university  of  losopher  Romagnosi,  of  whose  views  he  pubudn 

Baiaia  was  founded  in  1264,  renovated  in  1402,  ed  in  1886  an  interesting  account  in  the  BHii^ 

iioaad  in  1794,  and  reopened  in  1824.   It  was  teea  Italiana,    In  the  same  year  appeared  liia 

iaafn  doaed  during  the  revolutionary  troublea  complete  edition  of  the  works  of  Vico,  reprinted 

V  lMS-'9,  and  reopened  Nov.  1, 1850,  after  the  in  1858,  in  Milan,  in  the  cdlection  of  Italian 

HHrtaliBriimentof  Aepapd  authority.  Itischief-  classics.    In  1887  he  repdred  to  France^  and 

^naownedasaschoolofjarispradenceandme-  published  in  1889  Vieo  et  VltaHs^  i^ndiX 

mUkm^  and  is  attended  by  200  to  800  students,  which  gives  a  sucdnct  account  of  Vice's  in- 

II  aaetajna  a  coHection  of  antiquities,  a  library  fluence  on  the  Itdian  mind,  and  of  tlie  rdatioa 

tf  80^000  vdumea  and  900  M8S.,  comprising  between  his  theories  and  those  of  modem  phip 

afChuniBiyArkwto^  and  Tasso,  and  many  loeophera.    He  also  wrote  a  series  of  artideaoa 


k^ 


«• 


-1:^:^  ■'i; 


popular  Itilim  authors  in  the  iZ^MM  «bi  <Ina  frmi  li  alwi^  whita^  with  pink  ayWi  •■  Md^ 

wMdm.  which  inTolved  him  in  a  oontroTanj  indiridnala  are  oolj  alMno  Tariatia%  meh  aa  oe- 

vithM.  LibrL    In  1840  lie  became  profeMor  of  onrinmanjotheranimak;  the  general  oolorii 

yiiilosophy  at  the  college  of  RoohelbrL  and  an  irrcgolar  miztnre  of  y^Uoif  nod  lUmck^  the 

afterward  at  Stratbooi^,  where  be  took  the  fhr  bdng  long  and  fine,  with  an  noderfrowth 

plaee  of  the  abb6  Bautain.     He  waa  Tebe-  of  einereoos  wool! j  hair;  the TeOoweaianhnali 

nently  oppoaed  bj  the  Oatholio  party,  who  ao-  are  most  anl^{ect  to  albiiten.    Both  aeiaa  art 

cned  Um  oi  baring  advocated  commoniiUo  alike  in  color,  but  the  male  is  the  laissr,  bsi^g 

theories.    But  this  charge  was  onlj  founded  abootSinobsshtohattheshonlderaiiddfltthe 

npon  the  cirenmstance  that  he  had  translated  saomm.    Thoo^^  ranked  aa  adomsalkafad  sni 

n  passage  of  Plato  on  those  snljectsi  and  ex-  mal,  and  emptmred  br  man  to  hnnt  rabbUs  ani. 

plained  it  to  his  popils.    He  wrote  a  paro*  rats,  it  is  far  mm  docile  or  gsnftoi  and  nstw 

phlsi  to  Tindicate  himself  (Idim  tur  la  poU'  seems  to  have  anj  aibctkm  Ibr  those  who  iMd 

ligms  d4  Platan  €i  d^AriUoU.  1^2),  bat  eould  and  takecareof  it  AcoordingtoStraboit  was 

aot  regain  his  proliBSSorship.  In  1847  he  publish-  introduced  from  northern  JiHca  into  flpao^ 

^l^Ataiiurl4prineipeals$UmiU$dela  whence  it  has  mead  over  Europe^    Inksnal- 

fkilmphie  d4  rhiUoir^,    After  the  revolution  nral  cooditioQ  it  has  the  hablta  of  thejoliBSt 

of  Febu  H  IBiS,  he  wss  reinstated  in  hie  office  and  weasela,  sookiuff  the  blood  of  saeall  qaad* 

at  Straabourg^  but  the  dislike  of  the  IVench  rupedsand birds, and devooring eggs; ills noe- 

storcr  ibUowed  him  there,  and  to  Boorges.  tumal,  sleeping  nearlv  all  daj;  In  eaptiTitj  it  ii 

wUtner  he  removed  at  the  end  of  1848,  and  fed  on  brMd  and  muk  and  raw  meat.    It  pr»- 

tiisj  eventaslljT  succeeded  in  procuring  his  dis-  duces  young  twice  a  year,  and  fiixn  5  to  S  at  a 

aikiial  (June  18, 1849).    He  has  written  many  time;  mtaUon  isaboutd  weelc%aiidtheyone| 

woika  in  IVench  and  in  Italian,  the  most  im-  are  add  by  F.  Cuvier  to  be  bom  hairlsss,  sad 

portantof  which  is  hm  ffittaire  dm  rholutionB  with  dosed  eyes,  and  to  be  frequently  dtvoared 

itltaUs,  ou  Onsifm  si  Oibelim  (4  vols.,  Paris^  by  the  mother.    lu  natural  enmity  to  the  rab- 

1866-'5i8).  bit  haa  been  taken  advanti^  of  by  nan.  who 

FSRiiEIR  A,  Aarrosrio,  the  reformer  of  the  trains  it  to  enter  the  burrows  of  these  anfanaK 

national  poetry  of  Portugal,  bom  in  Lisbon  in  and  to  drive  them  out  into  nets  ipread  over  ths 

16S8,  diea  there  of  the  plague  in  1569.  He  was  entrance;  the  ibrret  is  muiiled  to  prevent  its 

n  contemporary  of  CainoOna,  and  perfected  the  killinff  the  rabbits  otherwise  it  la  beQavei  il 

eteffiae  and  epistolary  style  already  introduced  would  suck  their  blood,  and  go  to  sleep  In  ths 

wlUi  socceis  by  8a  de  Miranda.    He  enriched  burrow.    It  will  also  soon  rid  a  house  of  fsis 

Fbrtngucse  poetry  with  the  epitbalamium,  the  and  mice.    For  tliese  reasons  the  Ibnvt  is  esred 

epigram,  ode,  and  tragedy,  and  the  influence  for  by  man,  without  whose  aid  it  would  nut 

which  be  exerted  in  kindling  a  lovo  for  classical  survive  in  Europe ;  it  is  Uicrefare  carefully  br«d 

scholarsliip  caused  him  to  l^  called  the  Horace  in  captivity,  and  sometimes  crossed  with  the 

of  Portugal.    His  FdemoM  LuMitaium^  which  are  polecat,  wliich  is  supposed  to  increase  its  ferodiy. 

distinguished  by  remarkable  purity  of  language,  The  ferret  is  easily  irritated,  and  then  cniu  a 

appeared  in  1598,  and  his  coinplcto  works  in  strong  disagreeable  odor.  It  is  generally  believed 

1771.    His  best  coinedv  is  Cotnedia  do  C'wo  that  the  ferrets  kill  by  suckmg  the  UouJ  uf 

(the  ^Jealous  Man**),  and  liis  mastori>iec6  is  the  their  victims,  aiming  at  the  Jugular  vein  or  the 

tragedy  of  /net  dt  CoMtro,    An  English  trans-  great  vessels  of  the  neck ;  but  the  rapidity  of 

lation  of  this  tragedy,  by  Mr.  Musgrave,  ap-  the  death  is  entirely  inconsistent  with  so  lu«g  a 

peered  in  1825.  process  as  this.    Experiments  have  ahown  XlmI 

FERRET,  a  carnivorous  digitigrade  animal,  tlio  ferret  often  iimicts  but  a  single  wcoail, 

beloo^g  to  the  wcas«l  family,  and  the  ^nus  which  b  almost  instantly  fatal,  and  frvqaecoj 

putanus  (Cuv.).    The  dentition  is :    incisors,  immediately  disengages  itself  from  the  budy  cf 

4;  canines,  |:} ;  molars,  i},  S  above  and  8  be-  its  victim  to  attack  and  kill  another  in  a  similff 

Idw  being  false  molars.    Since  the  time  of  Lin-  manner ;  tlio  simple  woond  b  in  the  aiile  of  tht 

ueua  the  ferret  has  been  generally  coMidered  a  nock,  under  or  behind  the  ear,  and  m^  or  msy 

southern  or  albino  variety  of  the  {K)lecat(i'.  not  pierce  the  large  bloodvessels;  tlkecamass 

AtidvM^  Klein),  principally  from  their  produc-  enter  Uie  spinal  cord  between  the  aknll  ani  tbe 

ing  oflspring  togetlier ;  but  they  may  more  pro-  first  vertebra  of  the  neck,  d^troyinc  its  vie- 

perlv  be  coosiderod  distinct  sfiecivs  for  the  fol-  tim  by  tlio  same  process  as  the  ball-d|jhter  with 

lowing  reasons :  the  ferret  is  a  native  of  Africa  his  keen  sword,  or  the  Cuban  ezecntsaocr  wiih 

and  warm  regiooa,  and  only  exists  in  Enrope  in  a  the  steel  point  of  Uie  garrote,  making  miUmt 

domesticated  state,  being  very  sensitive  to  coki,  a  lacerated  nor  a  contused  wound,  hot  pcs*- 

nnd  requiring  the  protection  of  msn;  its  size  U  trating  into  the  medulla  oblongata^  the  very 

smaller,  its  shape  more  slender,  and  its  snout  centre  of  life,  and  instantly  arresting  the  sc- 

sharper  than  in  the  polecat;  and  its  habitM,  tioo  of  Uie  heart  and  respiratory  nMvds^  aD>l 

though  quhe  as  sanguinary,  do  not  enable  it  to  at  once  destroying    conscionsweas» 

live  wild  in  the  woods.    Ttie  len};th  of  the  fer-  and  motion.    Thb Is  one  of  many  I 

nUP./uro,  Linn.)  b  from  12  to  UindiesfVom  which  tlie  instinct  of  animab  haa 

nose  to  base  of  Uil,  the  latter  being  about  5  tlie  slow  deductions  of  scienos^     The  tnU 

toohas  kog.    It  b  an  error  to  suppose  that  the  aeems  to  be  that  when  the  «teal  b  nf 


FEBBIKB  FESCENNINX  YSBSES          471 

',  it  is  killed  by  the  ferret  by  wounding  the  are  common  carriers,  and  hare  the  rights  and 

upper  part  of  the  spinal  cord ;  bnt  that  when  come  under  the  obligiuions  of  common  carriers, 

it  IS  of  superior  size  and  strength,  the  ferret  Thus,  they  may  determine  (within  reasonable 

seizes  it  wherever  it  can,  producing  death  by  limits)  when  and  how  often,  and  upon  what 

lots  of  blood,  pain,  and  exhaustion  of  strength,  terms,  their  boats  shall  cross  Uie  water,  and 

After  the  animal  is  dead,  the  ferret,  like  other  what  they  will  transport;  but  all  these  things 

weasels,  no  doubt  sucks  its  blood,  though  the  they  must  do  by  general  rules,  without  favo^ 

statement  generally  made  in  works  on  natural  ism  or  arbitrary  exception.    They  are  liable  for 

histoiy,  from  Buffon  to  F.  Cuvier  and  Geofiroy  all  loss  of  or  injury  to  property  in  their  posses^ 

St.  Hiliure,  that  the  death  is  uniformly  caused  sion,  unless  it  be  caused  by  t£e  act  of  uod  or 

in  this  manner,  is  certainly  untrue.  of  the  public  enemy.    But  this  liability  does 

FERRIER,  Mart,  a  S<K>tti8h  novelist,  bom  not  attach  when  persons  or  things  are  coming 

in  Edinburgh  about  1782,  died  there  in  Nov.  toward  or  going  from  their  boats,  but  begins  as 

1854.    Her  works,  all  published  anonymously,  soon  as  they  are  on  the  boat,  or  on  the  ^p  or 

are:  "Marriage^'  (1B18);   *'The  Inheritance**  flat,  and  continues  while  they  are  there.    One 

(1824) ;   "  Destiny,  or  the  Chiefs  Daughter*'  who  owns  a  ferry,  and  employs  persons  to  do 

(1881).    She  poss^sed  a  rare  ability  for  deline-  all  the  labor  and  the  actual  transport,  is  in  law 

ating  national  characteristics,  genial  wit,  and  the  ferryman,  and  liable  accordingly.    Bnt  if 

a  qaick  sense  of  the  ludicrous.    Sir  Walter  he  leases  the  ferry,  reserving  only  his  rent,  tlie 

8cott  pays  a  tribute  to  her  talent  at  the  conclu-  lessee  in  possession,  and  not  the  owner,  is  the 

sion  of  his  "  Legend  of  Montrose."    She  was  his  responsible  ferryman ;  and  this  is  tme  eren 

freqoent  guest  at  Abbotsford,  and  contributed  if  the  rent  reserved  be  a  certain  proportion  of 

hj  her  society  to  relieve  the  sadness  which  the  receipts. 

donded  the  last  days  of  his  life.  FERSEN.  Axkl,  count,  bom  in  Stockholm 

FEBRO,  or  IIiebro,  the  most  westerly  and  in  1755,  killed  June  20,  1810.    He  was  edn* 

smallest  of  the  Canary  islands,  in  lat  27^  40'  cated  chiefly  at  the  military  academy  of  Turin, 

N.,  long.  18^  W. ;  length,  18  m. ;  breadth,  9  m.;  and  entered  the  Swedish  military  service,  bat 

area,  100  sq.  ro. ;  pop.  4,387.    The  ancient  ge-  afterward  repaired  to  Versailles,  and  was  made 

ographers  supposed  this  to  be  the  westernmost  colonel  of  the  roval  regiment  of  Swedes,  a 

point  of  the  world,  and  drew  through  it  tlieir  famous  body-guard  of  Louis  XVI.    He  served 

first  meridian,  as  is  still  done  by  German  geog-  in  tlie  American  revolutionary  war  with  dis- 

rsphers,  and  others  of  eastern  Europe  who  fol-  tinction,  and  was  aide-de-camp  of  Rochambean 

low  thetn.    Chief  town,  Valverde.  at  Yorktown.    We  find  his  portrait  in  a  group 

FERROL,  a  seaport  city  of  Spain,  on  the  N.  of  officers  in  TrumbulPs  picture  of  the  snr- 

arra  of  the  bay  of  Betanzos,  in  the  province  render  of  Comwallis,  in  the  rotunda  of  the 

and  12  ni.  N.  £.  of  the  city  of  Corunna;  pop.  capitol  at  Washington;  and  it  appears  that  be 

14,286.    Its  harbor  is  one  of  the  best  in  £u-  received  the  badge  of  the  Cincinnati  from  the 

rope.    The  town  is  well  built,  and  protected  on  hands  of   Washington.    Upon  his  return  to 

the  land  side  by  formidable  foi*tifications.    It  France  he  became  a  devoted  adherent  of  the 

has  an  immense  marine  arsenal,  covering  nearly  Bourbons.    Marie  Antoinette  especially  distin- 

S4  acres,with  a  basin  and  docks,  which  are  among  guished  him,  and  scandal  was  not  slow  to  attrib- 

the  most  magniiicentin  Europe,  but  are  decaying,  ute  her  &vor  to  improper  motives.    In  tlie 

The  marine  barracks  afford  accommodation  for  memorable  flight  to  Varennes,  Fersen  was  the 

6,000  men.    Ferrol  has  a  few  manufactures,  but  disguised  coachman  of   the   royal    fugitives. 

being  a  military  port,  foreign  merchant  vessels  After  their  capture  he  escaped  to  Prague,  and 

areezdoded  from  it.    It  was  but  a  small  fishing  was  employed  by  Gustavus  III.  in  funhering 

town  prior  to  1752,  when  its  fortifications  were  the  project  of  reinstating  the  Bourbon  dynasty 

began  by  Fenlinand  VI.    The  English  failed  in  in  France.    He  became  the  favorite  of  CharleiB 

an  attack  upon  it  in  1790,  but  it  was  taken  by  XIIL,  and  his  sister  enjoyed  in  an  equal  degree 

the  French  in  1809  and  1823.  the  favor  of  the  queen  ;  but  both  were  unpo- 

FERRY  may  be  defined  as  a  place  where  puiar  with  the  people.    Fersen  was  made  grand 

persons,  animals,  or  goods  are  carried  across  marshal  of  the  kingdom ;  but  the  sudden  death 

a  river  or  other  water;  but  the  more  tech-  of  the  crown  prince.  Christian  Augustus  of 

nleal  common  law  definition  is  a  liberty  or  Augustenburg,  gave  rise  to  suspicion  that  Fersen 

fhuichise  so  to  transport  persons  or  things.    It  had  poisoned  him.    A  tumult  occurred  at  the 

can  exist  in  England  only  by  grant  from  the  funeral,  and  while  tlie  troops  looked  on  with 

king,  or  by  a  prescription  whicli  supposes  a  indifference,  the  mob  slowly  tortured  Fersen 

grant;  and  being  granted  and  accepted,  the  to  death  in  the  great  square  of  the  Riddarhus 

gru&tee  is  indictable  if  he  have  not  suitable  in  Stockholm.    The  sister,  disguised  as  a  Dale- 

imnns  of  transport    In  the  United  States,  fer-  carlian  girl,  escaped  after  great  peril  across  the 

lies  are  created  as  well  as  regulated  generally  Baltic.     There  appears  to  be  no  probability 

hf  statntes,  although  there  may  bo  ancient  fer-  that  Fersen  was  implicated  in  the  death  of  the 

nss  resting  on  usage  and  prescription.    The  ter-  prince ;  but  the  event  is  enveloped  in  profound 

mfad  of  the  ferry  are  at  the  water^s  edge,  and  mystery. 

riiift  with  that  if  it  varies;  but  the  owner  has  a  FESCENNINE  VERSES,  licentious  poems 

ri^  of  way  to  and  from  the  ferry.    Ferrymen  sung  at  the  private  festivals  of  the  ancient  Bo- 


MMi^BaitieiilnlyttiRiptiilodakvtSoDf.  IVjT  MM.  Ij  Jmtqih  Deimkb  tad 

taii^tlidriMoie  And  origin  from  Fefloraniiiiiiy  One  of  hb  poeuMi  ^  The  Oouftiy  Lov«%"'wa0 

m,  Jliimeii  oi^,  where  they  eeem  to  haTo  Terr  popohg  in  New  Kngtod.  u  1801  he 

beea  e  rode  drunatic  enterteiament  hnprorieed  to  Engtend  ae  the  acent  ibr  a  u&w]f  iam 

la  the  intoxication  of  roetio  tetiTala.    They  maohine,thelkilareof  whidi  toaonnrila 

were  oempoeed  with  the  moet  nnhonnded  1^  poee  inv^Ted  him  in  peeonlaqr  dl 

eMMeiaooempaniedwithnnooiithpoetariagand  Obliged  to  resort  to  hie  pen  ibr  a  aal 

daoeeei  and  gave  deU|^  to  the  yet  lamge  he  prodaeed  in  1808  a  poem  in  the  BadibmCle 

aad  nntangfat  Ramani.    The  kterntire  and  Tein,  entitled^  Terrible  Traefeoratioo,**tawlikh 

eemedy  took  ite  origin  frem  them^aad  OatoUos  the  metallio  traotort  of  F)erkina  are  adieitiwd, 

Jntrodoeed  them  iiSo  his  epithalamia;  bat  in  and  the  medical  profesiion  in  gemtal  ii mlir- 

attaining  a  better  literary  character  theeeveraee  iaed.  ftwaemcccMAilinLoodoii,  whereHwae 

httdly  improred  their  morals.  pablished  anonymoosly,  and  was  atttibolsd  to 

FEsOHfJoeKPB,  cardinal,  and  arbhbiahop  of  wolcott,Giflbrd,andothenL  ItwasrspabBsM 

Imns,  bora  in  i^jiudo,  Oersioa,  Jan.  8, 1763,  in  New  York  in  1804,  and  Main  in  1808  in  m 

&d  in  Rome,  May  18. 1889.    He  was  the  son  iiiilsiuiiil  fi ,  miilii  lln  lillii  iif  lbs '^  Mhili 

dt  a  Swiss  officer  in  the  Genoese  serrice,  and  Philoiopher.*^  A  third  editioa  ttpeared  towari 

half-brother  of  Letizia  Bamolino,  the  mother  the  dose  of  the  anther's  lift.    If  r.  FesssadM 

dt  Napoleon  Bonapartei    After  porsoing  his  retnmed  to  America  in  1804^  aettled  to  Bee* 


atadies  at  Aiz,  in  Profenoe,  he  received  noly  ton,  and  in  1888  commenced  the  iwibBnalina 

trdsrs,  and  was  archdeacon  of  the  chapter  of  of  the  **  New  Engjaad  Farmer,**  with  wUch  he 

Aitodo  when  the  chapters  were  soppressed  by  remained  connected  daring  the  remainder  «f  hb 

the  reTolaUon  of  1789.    In  1798  he  was  exiled  life.    He  also  edited  the  ^  Hortkoharsl  Btgi^ 

ftwn  Corsica  with  the  BoniH[Nurte  fiunilr^and  ter"andtlie^Sillclfanaal,**andoootrlbafeedarti- 

haiag  withoat  resoarcee  renoanced his  ecdesias-  dee  on  agriooltore  and  hortionltare  to  a  varlsty 

tieaihabit  and  was  appdnted  commissary  of  war  ofjoomali.    His  remaining  worlu  are  **Origiasl 

fta  the  army  of  Italy,  of  which  his  nephew  Poems,**  poblisbed  in  Fjigland  and 

Napoleon hdd command.    He  resumed  his eo-  ^Democracy  UnveUed**  (1808X 


I  ftmctions  when  the  firrt  consol  de-  Clerk*8  Companion**  (18151  and  "Lawa  ef 

lennhied  to  reestablish  in  Fhmce  the  Catholio  Patents  ibr  new  InTentions*^(18S9). 
worship,  and  was  actlTO  in  tiie  negotiations  be-       FESSENDEK,  Wiuiam  Pnnr,aU>flLsswstnr 

tweea  Napdeon  and  Pius  VIL  which  prepared  from  Maine,  son  of  the  Hon.  Samod  Fesseadea. 

iMr  the  concordat  of  July  18, 1801.    The  infla-  bom  in  Boecawcn,  Merrimack  co.,  N.  IL,  Oct 

aaee  of  his  nephew  rdsed  him  to  the  arch-  16, 1808.    He  was  gradaated  at  Bowdoin  f*A- 

hidioprio  of  Lyons  in  1808,  and  obtained  a  lego  in  1B23,  8tndied  law,  wan  admittiMl  to  the 

cardinal's  hat  for  him  in  1803.    As  ambassador  bar  in  1827,  oponctl  an  office  in  Bridirton,  Cvan- 

of  France  at  Rome  in  1804,  after  condacting  berland  cc,  Me^  and  in  1828  removed  to  IV-rt- 

the  oegotiationa,  he  accompanied  Pins  VII.  on  land.  In  1881  he  was  elected  to  the  state  legi»» 

his  wav  to  Paris  to  crown  the  emperor.    Many  latare,  and  thoagh  the  youngest  member.  b« 

tiwiL  digpiities  and  emolaments  were   subse-  roee  at  once  to  distinction  in  that  body,  boch  as 

«nently  conferred  upon  him,  but  in  1809  he  a  debater  and  a  legislator.    In  a  debate  on  the 

declined  the  archbi^oprio  of  Paris,  to  which  U.  8.  bank  the  yoatliful  orator  displayed  rr* 

Napdeon,  wishing  to  make  some  one  of  his  markable  spirit  and  ability.  From  1833  to  1^38 

family  the  head  of  the  French  clergy,  nominat-  Mr.  Fessemlen  devoted  himself  exdosiTvlv  to 

ed  him.    He  was  president  of  the  council  which  his  profession,  in  which  he  rery  soon  vom  to 

sat  in  Paris  in  1810,  and  also  of  tlio  national  the  first  rank  both  as  aconnsdlor  and  adTotatc 

canndl  of  181 L  called  to  consider  the  disagree-  In  183S  ho  was  solicited  to  become  a  caiy!> 

Bient  between  Napoleon  and  the  holy  see  con-  date  for  congress,  but  declined.     In  18S9  b* 

eeraing  the  nomination  of  bishoiM.    In  this  was  again  chosen  to  Uie  Icffislature  ftotn  Port- 

capacity  he  did  not  satisfy  the  emperor,  and  land.    The  house  was  largely  democratic.    Nr. 

Imt  a  time  be  disappeared  irom  court;  and  he  Fessenden  was  pUoed  on  the  Judiciary  commi:- 

afterward  adliercd  to  the  pope,  greatly  to  the  tee,  and  thoufrii  a  whig  from  the  first,  aai 

displeasure  of  his  nephew.    Upon  tlio  fall  of  always  distinguished  for  nncomprumising  se- 

NsMileen  he  retired  to  Rome,  but  was  recalled  sertion  of  his  principles,  he  was  made  diair- 

to  Paris  during  the  Hundred  Days.    After  the  man  of  the  house  committee  to  revise  the  statofees 

hatUe  of  Waterloo  he  lived  in  retirement  in  of  the  state.     In  1840  he  was  nomanalvd  by 

BomcL     Hb  oolleoUoa  of  paintings,  one  of  the  acclamation  as  the  whi;;  candidate  for  coogrms 

largest  erer  brought  togetlier  by  a  single  person,  and  was  elected,  ontrnnning  the  strength  uf 

was  dispersed  after  his  death.  his  party.    In  congress  he  participated  ia  the 

FESSENDEN,  TaoiiAa  Gaissr,  an  American  current  debatea,  uul  made  speeches  oa  th« 

author  and  journalist,  bom  in  Walpolo,  N.  H.,  loan  bill,  bankrupt  act«  army  appnipnatsoB  iiS. 

April  88,  1771,  died  in  Boston,  Nov.  11,  1837.  against  Uie  repeal  of  the  bankrajpi  law.  aad 

He  was  graduated  at  Dartmouth  college  in  1796,  in  roply  to  Calvb  Gushing  on  Mr.  C.*a  pcrsooal 

and  studied  law  in  Vermont,  employing  his  position.    He  was  nominated  for  rr^lecCioa  ta 

Msore  hours  in  writlnghumorous  poenis  for  Uie  1843,  but  declined,  preferring  to  rscars  to  the 

WalpoU  **  Pamier^a  weakly  Musetm,**  then  prMtioeofhisproMdoii.  liiatlms  ha  laasit- 


r*. 


•littfliekgldaftimofiliatjearthevoteBofihe  oertts.  Tlnniffh  he  declined  to  be  elected 
ivUf  ptftyibr  A  Tttcant  seat  in  theU.  S.  senate,  except  as  a  Whig,  this  event  may  be  said  to 
^IbIIw  1m  was  again  induced,  by  considerations  have  been  the  preliminary  step  toward  estab** 
growingoiitcfUiepodtion  of  parties  on  the  tern-  Ushing  the  republican  party  in  Maine,  the  ne- 
peranoe  ooeslioo,  to  become  a  candidate  for  cessity  of  which  new  oisanization,  after  the 
tiie  elate  kc^^itmre,  to  winch  he  was  chosen,  as  action  of  the  m«n  body  of  the  sonthem  whiga 
sbo  in  the  succeeding  year,  when  he  declined  on  the  Nebraslca  bilL  Mr.  Fessenden  was  one 
to  terra  fbrther.  While  a  member  in  1845  he  of  the  first  to  proclaim  and  advocate.  He 
i^afai  reoeiTed  the  Totes  of  the  whigs  of  the  took  his  seat  in  tne  senate,  Feb.  28, 1854,  and 
kgUflftore  fbr  a  seat  in  tiie  U.  S.  senate.  From  on  the  night  of  March  8  following,  at  which 
1846  to  1852  he  was  in  private  life,  devoting  time  the  bill  was  p&ssed,  delivered  one  of  the 
Mmsetf  to  his  profession  with  a  constantly  ex-  most  electric  and  effisctive  speeches  made  against 
tflBfing  practice  and  reputadon.  During  this  it.  This  effort  established  his  reputation  at  onoe 
period  he  was  associatea  with  Daniel  Webster  as  one  of  the  ablest  members  of  the  senate.  Of 
m  an  Iniportant  case  before  the  supreme  court  his  subsequent  speeches  in  the  senate  the  most 
fltWariniigton,  involving  a  legal  question  never  important  are  on  a  bill  to  protect  U.  8.  ofbcera 
beteo  ^scnssed  in  that  court,  viz. :  how  far  the  (1855) ;  on  our  relations  with  England,  on  Ean^ 
frasdnlept  acts  of  an  auctioneer  in  selling  prop-  sas  affidrs,  on  the  president's  message  (1856) ; 
ortf  dKRdd  affect  the  owner  of  the  property  on  the  Iowa  senatorial  election  (1851^ ;  and  on 
■old.  he  being  no  party  to  the  fraud.  Mr.  Fes-  the  Lecompton  constitution  (1858).  Mr.  Fessen- 
■emii  had  to  contend  against  the  weight  and  den  has  also  taken  a  prominent  part  in  the 
laflaoDoe  of  Judge  Story^s  opinion  and  deci-  general  debates  and  business  of  the  senate,  be- 
-*—  against  his  chent  in  the  court  below.  He  Ing  a  leading  member  of  the  finance  committee, 
■oceessftil,  and  Judge  8tory*s  decision  was  He  was  reelected  as  U.  8.  senator  for  6  years  in 
Mr.  Fessenden's  argument  on  that  oc-  1859,  by  a  unanimous  vote  of  his  party  in  the 
a  remarkable  for  its  logical  force  and  legislature,  vnthout  the  formality  of  a  previoos 
legal  acoteness,  and  won  the  highest  admiration  nomination,  it  being  the  fi^  histance  of  the 
from  the  most  fiistidious  judges.  Onceduringthe  kind  in  the  history  of  the  state. 
period  (in  1850)  Hr.  Fessenden  was  elected  to  FETH  ALT  8HAH,  called  before  his  accession 
fflHigr<w,  but  his  seat  was  given  to  his  eompeti-  BiiBi.  Khan,  second  king  of  Perna  of  the  Tur- 
tortibrouglh  an  error  in  the  returns.  Mr.  Fessen-  coman  dynasty  of  the  Eacyars,  bom  about  1762, 
den  dedined  to  contest  the  case  before  congress  succeeded  in  1797  his  undo  Aga  Mohammed, 
from  an  unwillingness  to  serve  in  that  body,  died  in  1884.  In  1808  war  broke  out  between 
which  he  had  decisively  expressed  in  advance  to  Persia  and  Russia  for  the  possession  of  Oeorgia, 
the  conventions  of  the  whig  and  freesoil  par-  whose  ruler  had  trsnsferred  hb  allegiance  from 
ties^  which,  asainst  his  wishes,  had  insisted  upon  the  former  to  the  latter  power.  In  1805  Napo- 
nominating  him.  He  was  elected  a  member  of  leon  offered  Feth  All  his  alliance  and  protection 
the  mrtional  convention  which  nominated  6^n.  in  the  prosecution  of  the  war,  and  in  1807  sent 
Hanison  for  the  presidency  in  1840 ;  was  a  Gren.  Ghardanne  as  ambassador  to  Persia.  The 
number  of  the  convention  of  1848  which  nom-  treaty  of  Tilsit  having,  however,  put  an  end  to 
inated  Gen.  Ta^or,  in  which  he  supported  the  hostilities  between  France  and  Russia,  the  Persian 
(iahna  of  Mr.  Webster;  and  a  member  of  the  king  abandoned  the  French  alliaift^e  for  that  of 
eonvention  of  1853,  which  nominated  Gen.  the  English;  but  he  was  obliged  in  1818  by  the 
Seott  He  was  opposed  to  Mr.  Webster  on  the  last  successes  of  the  Russians  to  yield  Georgia  to  the 
oeearion,  and  advocated  Gten.Scott^s  nomination,  czar  by  treaty.  In  1821  a  war  broke  out  be- 
hA  was  one  of  the  67  who  opposed  and  voted  tween  Persia  and  the  Ottoman  empiro  on  ao- 
Mpiut  the  platform  at  that  time  set  up  by  the  count  of  the  extortions  and  oppressions  practised 
iniig  party.  In  1858  he  was  again  rotnroed  as  by  Turkish  functionaries  upon  Persian  pilgrimsi 
member  of  the  state  legislaturo  from  Portland,  and  was  terminated  in  1828  by  a  treaty  fbvor- 
and  was  chosen  by  one  branch  (the  senate)  as  able  to  Persia.  In  1825  Feth  Ali,  thinking  to 
U.  &  amator.  The  democrats  had  a  minority  in  profit  by  the  death  of  the  czar  Alexander,  and 
Hm  hooae,  and  that  branch  failed  to  concur  in  the  to  reconquer  Georgia,  declared  war  against  the 
eWetion  by  4  votes;  a  concurrent  vote  being  Russians;  but  bb  army  was  vanquished  by 
iMlWteto  a  choice,  no  election  of  senator  was  Gen.  Paskevitch,  and  he  was  forced  in  1828  to 
flMed  at  that  session.  The  same  house,  though    abandon  Persian  Armenia  to  Russia,  and  to 

SMsd  to  Mr.  Fessenden  in  politics,  associated  make  the  Aras  the  boundary  of  his  dominions. 
with  the  Hon.  Renel  Williams  in  negotiatins  He  amused  himself  in  his  leisure  with  writing 
fhepmndbase  of  the  large  body  of  wild  lands  of  versea^  and  left  a  collection  of  odes  and  songa^ 
MMMhnsetts  lying  in  Maine,  which  was  success-  FETIALES,  or  Fscialxs,  in  ancient  Rome,  a 
frPyaeoompUshed.  In  the  succeeding  year  (1854)  college  of  priests,  consisting  of  20  members  be- 
lb;  Vmsenden  was  agun  a  member  of  the  legis-  longing  to  the  noblest  families,  who  held  offioe 
Mnra.  which  was  democratic  in  both  branches,  for  life,  with  power  to  fill  vacancies  in  th^ 
Vm  Kanaaa-Kebraaka  question  operating  as  a  number,  and  whose  duty  it  was  to  carry  the  oom- 
~  ing  etoment,  Mr.  Fessenden  was  now  plaints  and  grievances  of  the  Roman  people  be- 
aenator  by  both  branches  on  the  first  fore  the  magistrates  and  rulers  of  offending  dt- 
bf  a  mtoi  of  the  whigs  and  freesoil  dem-    iea  and  tribesi  to  aak  redressi  to  dedarein 


L., 


474  jmUUUBIC 


■«iitt:i  -^ 


of  relbitl  whether  thaM  was  nffideDt  Miioa  ^kiiii, TuAMqcta  Jooni^ aBeUkn  mipoM 

flir  hoetUitlei,  to  perform  the  religiooe  ritee  of  and  writer  on  mnsiei  bora  ICann  SB|  1TM»  ii 

warnioff  the  enemy,  of  dedaration  of  war,  and  ModBi  where  hh  Umat  waa  oqamiit.    Be  wai 

of  ratineatioQ  of  peace,  and  to  watdi  over  the  intended  lor  hia  latber^a  prnftMinn,  and  aft  thi 

atricftobeenranee  of  treaties.  This  institotion  is  age  (^  10  jears  he  waa  aUe  to  mdertake  an  e» 

belieTed  to  have  existed  among  the  people  of  gagement  bm  orsaoist  in  lusnafthre  town.    Aitfl 

Etmria.  Its  introdnction  at  Bcoie  is  attnboted  taung  lessons  nom  the  most  emlaeiit  tssghm 

Irr  some  to  Nnma,  by  others  to  Ancns  Martins,  in  Paris,  among  whom  waa  Bolaldieo,  be  ftisv- 

when  the  poli^  of  Rome  became  that  of  oontin*  elled  in  Germany  and  Itafar,  and  made  Umssir 

md  conqaest,  the  institution  lost  its  influence,  ikmiiiar  with  the  worfca  of  the  mat  naassn  ef 

pesenriog  only  its  reU^^oos  character.  The  term  those  oonntrles.    Be  retorned  to  Faria  la  IM 

kTarionsiy  derived  from  the  Latin  worda^Kfl,  married  n  rich  woman,  and  deroled  UBmdf 

/Uui^/erio^  and  /aeia^  and  the  Greek  ^/u.  to  a  profound  study  or  the  history  of  nari^ 

FETICHI8M,orFBTisHisif(Nigritian>Mf00^  espedslly  of  that  of  the  middle  i«ea.    la  1811, 

a  magic  thin^  from  which  the  Portuguese  have  a  reverM  (^  Ibrtone  obliging  him  to  ittan  ta 

derived  /eit%fd^  mM^c),  the  relifftous  worship  the  praetiee  of  his  profesdoo,  he  took  the  peii- 

of  material  things  (fotiches)  as  the  abodes  oi  tion  (^orgaiM  and  teacher  of  moaio  at  Doaaji 

nlritiL    It  is  the  lowest  <n  the  mu^ystematio  and  in  1818  was app<^ntedprofsasor la  the eoa- 

mrms  of  worship  found  among  unciviliMd  tribea,  aenratory  of  PteISi    In  1887  he  ftwaded  fho  im 

and  exists  especially  among  the  negroes  -in  Journal  of  musical  criticism  that  had  appsaiai 

Africa.    There  are  two  kinds  of  fetiches,  natu-  in  France,  entitled  the  JUms  sssvjsali^  whld 

rsl  and  artiflciaL    Among  the  former  are  cele-  was  continued  till  1885.    At  the  aame  tiaM  hi 

hrated  rocks,  particularly  high  mountain  peaka  was  pursuing  his  researdiea  apoo  the  theory  sf 

where  the  lightning  is  suppoeod  to  dwell ;  single  harmony,  writing  artidea  for  Yariooa  perlodiwl^ 

treei^  and  more  frwiuenUy  whole  forests ;  many  and  volumes  upon  the  history  and  oorfcaitiss  sf 

animals,  as  serpents,  one  of  which  has  its  own  music,  and  compodnff  operaa  and  pleeas  of  » 

tomple,  where  the  snakes  are  kept  by  priestesses;  cred  mnsia    In  18^  he  began  his  hliSerfcsl 

anails,  crocodiles  (with  the  Ashantees),  goata,  concerts,  which  have  since  found  fanftaftew  ii 

aheep,  Ac    Usefulness  and  hurtfulness  seem  to  Germany  and  Kngland.     In  1888  the  Una  sf 


have  often  dictated  their  selection,  but  not  al  Belgium  appointed  him  chapd 
ways.  Artificial  fetiches  are  either  public,  pre-  rector  of  the  royal  conserratory  of 
aerved  by  priests,  or  private,  [lurchasable  from  which  offices  he  still  holds.  Bis  bos_ 
them  usually  at  a  very  high  price.  Kings  and  fol  opera  was  La  vUilk^  but  his  marieal 
princes  have  large  collections  of  fetiches,  and  sitions  have  been  less  favorably  reosived  thsa 
every  family  has  at  least  one.  Thoy  are  lieredi-  his  works  on  the  history  of  the  art.  Ameof 
tary,  and  either  hung  up  in  the  dwellings  or  worn  the  most  important  of  the  latter  was  Bitfrafkk 
on  the  nock  or  elsewhere,  and  ore  oven  fastened  univenelU  d€$  musicUnSj  et  hihliogTapkit  ^m- 
on  domestic  animals.  They  ore  made  to  rescm-  ^^U  d4  la  musi^ue^  preceded  by  an  epitnme  of 
ble  the  human  form,  and  the  public  fetiches  are  the  history  of  music  (8  vols^  Brnssehk  lb3S-*44^ 
sometimes  of  gold  and  very  largo.  Tho  worsliip-  Among  his  more  recent  writings  are  7VMi/«  trm- 
pers  provide  their  fetiches  liberally  with  food,  but  pUt  de  la  ikioru  et  dt  la  pratiqu4  de  Vkarmmki. 
if  their  prayers  are  not  granted  they  frequently  eontenant  la  doctrine  de  la  teiena  et  de  TjK 
maltreat  them,  throw  them  away,  or  beat  them  (ParLi,  1853),  and  a  ^etch  of  Meyerbeer  in  tht 
to  pieces.  They  have  alno  festivals  and  socnfices.  £etue  eonUmporains  (Paris,  1859). 
For  tlie  latter  the  victims  ore  oxen,  swine,  and  F£UC1I&R£S,  Sorma  db,  baroneas,  mistrai 
other  animals;  but  sometimes,  when  tho  royal  and  of  tlie  last  prince  of  Gmd^  (IJoois  Henri  Jotefihi 
priestly  power  are  united  in  the  sarrificer,  crim-  duke  of  Bourbon),  bom  in  the  iiile  of  Wi^ 
loals,  prisoners,  or  persons  of  the  lowest  classes  about  1795,  died  in  England,  Jan.  8, 1841.  Sbt 
of  the  tribe  are  immolated.  Tho  festivah^—  was  the  daughter  of  a  fisherman  named  Clsrki^ 
among  which  the  Yam  and  Adai  festival  with  represented  herselfss  the  widow  of  a  Br.  Da««^ 
the  Ashantees  and  the  festival  in  honor  of  and  is  believed  to  have  been  for  soose  time  sa 
Khimavont;,  the  god  or  divine  messenger,  are  cs-  actress ;  but  tho  accounts  of  her  li£»  are  cpoAkt- 
pecially  celebrated — ore  generally  attended  by  ing  until  about  1817,  wlteo  she  becane  the  mi»- 
ozcess  in  drink inj;,  theft^  tights,  and  gross  licen-  tress  of  the  prince  of  Cood^.  At  his  im*^**^ 
tiousoess.  The  priests  form  a  separate  society,  slie  married  in  1818  the  baron  Adi4phe  de  Fco- 
with  hereditary  dignity,  property,  and  privi  chi-res,  who  became  a  member  of  his  honwhrni  \ 
leges.  They  have  in  particular  tho  right  of  re-  on  which  occasion  the  priuce  wtlled  apoa  her 
tatning  the  hlaves  who  ctune  to  them,  or,  as  tliey  72,000  francs  per  annum.  In  1883  she  was  6- 
call  it,  present  their  bodies  to  tlie  fetich. — See  vorced  from  the  baron.  She  eitniied  onr 
De  Browes,  Du  culU  dee  dUux  Jetichee  (Dijon,  tlie  weak  mind  of  Conde  an  almoia  naboaod- 
1700),  Uirough  whom  the  tonns  fetich  and  fet-  ed  influence.  In  1884  he  nrreintwl  har  with 
ichism  were  introduced  into  the  history  of  rcli-  the  domains  of  Boissy  and  bC  Leo,  aad  hi  IM 
gious  womliip.  It  must,  however,  bo  observed  with  1,000,000  fhmcs,  beside  leaving  her  lOOC^- 
that  the  limiu  of  the  tenu  fetichism  have  not  000  by  his  will,  dated  Aug.  M,  1889.  A  yw 
yet  been  agreed  upon,  as  some  exclude  from  it  afterward  (Aug.  87, 1830)  the  prince  was  fatti 
the  worship  of  forests,  monnuins,  rivers,  dec.       dead  in  hia  roooi,  nnder  oiroanalaaoaa  wUcb 


r 


XEUDAL  8IBTB1C  4Tfr 

iaed  llbe  mrngkHmiB  of  Lis  relatiTes  upon  the  time,  a  progreodye  formatioiu  "  No  great  htit/* 
tanMM«|  and  alao  upon  Loab  Philippe;  for  in  Bays  M.  Gnizot,  writing  on  this  snljeoti  ^no 
otd«  to  ingratiate  herself  with  the  Orleans  fiim-  sodal  state,  makes  its  appearanee  complete  and 
i^ibe  is  wM  to  have  prevailed  upon  the  prioce  at  once ;  it  is  formed  slowlj,  saocsssivdy ;  U 
to  beqaeath  the  hnlk  c^  his  lam  fortune  to  his  is  the  resnlt  of  a  maltitnde  of  difforent  &cti^ 
fodaoo,  tibe  dnke  of  Anmale,  a  msposition  which  of  different  dates  and  origins,  which  mo&ff 
joat  bome  his  death  he  seemed  inclined  to  re-  and  combine  themselves  in  a  thoosand  ways  be- 
▼olDe  in  flivor  of  the  count  of  Ohambord.  His  fore  constitnting  a  whol^  presenting  itself  in  a 
■aiaHiia  aoooBed  her  of  having  murdered  the  dear  and  systematio  form,  receiving  a  flpedal 
nriiM^  and  insisted  upon  a  judicial  investigation  •  name,  and  standing  through  a  long  me.**  So  ft 
Ml  nothing  could  be  proved  against  her,  ana  was  with  the  feudal  qrstem^  which  emerged 
ttaprisoe's  death  WAS  ascribed  to  suicide.  The  into  life  after  several  centuries  of  barbarinn* 
ttom|iU  of  the  prince's  relatives  to  break  the  The  struggle  out  of  wluch  it  grew  began  with 
wfll  wen  equally  fhiitless;  but  public  oninion  the  ML  of  the  imperial  authority  in  so  manj 
was  against  tbt  baroness,  and  the  trial  ere-  parts  of  the  Roman  empire;  and  when  feudu- 
aHad  a  great  sensation.  (See  Eutoire  eompUU  ism  had  established  itself  the  way  had  been 
praolf  telatif  d  la  mart  et  au  UUammU  du  prepared  for  a  far  greater  advance  toward  the 
4b  Jburfton,  Paris,  1882.)  She  left  her  im-  establishment  of  civilization.  In  France,  fen- 
^  fortune  to  her  niecei  MQe.  Sophie  Tance*  dalism  was  brou^^t  into  a  rude  but  intelligible 
The  baron  de  Feudieres  gave  to  the  hos-  form  in  the  10th  century,  and  ^^  the  feudal  pe» 
nMak  of  Paris  the  whole  amount  of  his  share  riod  "  is  held  to  synchronize  with  the  10  gen* 
m  thm  property  of  his  former  wife.  orations  during  which  the  throne  of  that  conn- 
¥SIJDAL  SYSTEM,  the  name  given  to  the  try  was  held  by  the  elder  branch  of  the  Ci4>et 
^amSilkm  of  sodety  that  prevailed  throughout  family,  that  is  to  say,  from  the  accession  of 
tta  greater  part  m  Europe  during  the  middle  Hugh  Capet  to  the  death  of  Charles  the  Fair, 
,  Of  its  origin  little  is  known,  and  learned  987-1828.  For  some  generations  previous  to 
have  differed  largely  on  the. subject,  be-  the  extinction  of  the  Carjovingian  dynasty 
» they  have  inquired  into  its  history  under  it  had  had  a  rude  existence,  and  many  of 
iiba  idea  that  it  was  from  the  first  a  system,  its  incidents  are  traceable  in  legislation  to  the 
whweaa  it  was  long  in  coming  to  maturity,  reign  of  Charlema^e,  throughout  the  limits  of 
Iboy  of  its  conditions  existed  for  several  cen-  whose  vast  domimon  feudalism  had  at  a  later 
taries  in  Europe  anterior  to  its  establishment  period  its  fullest  continental  development. 
ttara.  Its  germs  were  probably  Asiatic,  and  in  ^  The  regular  machinery  and  systematic  estab* 
Alia  it  has  outlasted  the  system  established  in  lishment  of  feuds,  in  fact,"  says  Hallam,  ^may 
Eorope,  though  in  that  quarter  of  the  world  it  be  considered  as  almost  confined  to  the  domin* 
atver  was  so  frilly  developed  as  it  came  to  be  in  ions  of  Charlemagne,  and  to  those  countries 
the  western  nations.  The  countries  in  which  which  afterward  derived  from  them.**  It  ia 
it  liad  the  firmest  existence  were  France,  Ger-  not  however,  until  a  much  later  period  that  we 
auoiy,  Aragon,  a  hurge  part  of  Italy,  England  find  ^Uhefeooal period**  clearly  established.  As 
after  the  conquest,  and  Scotland.  Other  Euro-  the  object  of  the  great  monarchs  of  the  Carlo- 
man  oountries  were  more  or  less  infiuenced  by  vingian  line  was  the  establishment  of  a  consdl* 
II  bnt  in  them  it  never  had  the  hold  which  it  idated  empire,  it  can  scarcely  be  held  that  they 
Attained  in  those  we  have  named.  The  cause  deliberately  sought  to  develop  a  system  toe 
wliy  tlie  system  was  so  little  developed  in  Cas-  very  essence  of  which  was  the  disintegration 
IQe  is  explained  by  Prescott  ^  The  nobles,**  of  every  country  in  which  it  existed.  As  has 
be  aajB,  '*  embarked  with  their  sovereign  in  the  been  Justly  said :  "  The  peculiar  general  charao- 
Mma  eommon  enterprise  of  rescuing  their  an*  ter  of  feudalism  is  the  dismemberment  of  the 
ciaat  patrimony  from  its  invaders,  felt  entitied  people  and  of  power  into  a  multitude  of  pet^ 
la dlTMb  with  him  the  spoils  *of  victory.  Is-  nations  and  petty  sovereigns;  the  absence  m 
■riag  forth  at  the  head  of^  their  own  retainers,  any  usefhl  nation,  of  any  central  govemment." 
tnm  their  atrongholds  or  castles,  thev  were  The  imbecility  of  the  later  kings  of  the  second 
aoatJimany  enlarging  the  circuit  of  their  terri-  race  fovored  the  advance  of  feudalism  in 
Mik^  with  no  other  assistance  than  that  of  France ;  and  in  that  country  it  was  known 
IMr  own  good  swords.  This  independent  mode  earlier  than  anywhere  else,  and  there  it  receiv- 
er, eflbetlng  their  conquests  would  appear  unfa-  ed  its  essential  peculiarities.  At  the  time  of 
laiaUe  to  the  introduction  of  the  feudal  sys-  the  conquest  of  Gaul,  and  the  rise  of  the  Me* 
which,  although  its  existence  in  Castile  is  rovingpans,  there  were  many  freeholds,  that  ia, 
f  asoertained,  by  positive  law,  as  well  as  independent  properties,  bnt  in  the  course  of  the 
aever  prevailed  to  anything  like  the  same  5  following  centuries  most  of  these  had  disap- 
j  aa  it  did  in  the  sister  kingdom  of  Ara^  peered.  The  beneficiary  condition  became  the 
,  and  other  parts  of  Europe.**    The  system  common  condition  of  territorial  property.  Ben- 

S'rap  in  Europe  from  the  6th  to  the  9th  cen-  efice  and  fief  are  words  that  express  the  same 

;  and  was  the  conseqnence  of  that  struggle  fiicts  at  different  dates.    In  the  middle  of  the 

Bit  barbttism  and  for  civilization  in  which  12th  century /M)^t<m  and  henefieium  were  used 

a  constantly  engaged.    It  had,  like  all  indifferently,  as  they  had  been  used  for  some 

Hiat  have  uved  for  any  great  length  of  time  previously  to  that  date.    The  exact  na^ 


47C  JXDDtALfilBIKIC 

loieofbeiMfieethMbeaitliennrQeof  ooiMid-  TbewadnieM  oftliellflnvlBifMkiBffi 

trabk  dispute^  but  the  better  oi^ioii  is,  that  tbote  offioentobeoooM  Tenr  inportSBti 

their  ordtnaiy  dnratioQ  was  the  life  of  the  jM»-  intheitite.   TheOurloriiipaBtMMghftlo 

tenor,  after  whidi  thej  reTeiied  to  the  nae ;  their  power^  and  with  aone  aweevao  ^9^ 

yet  there  were  instances  of  hereditary  benefioea  that  race  fmidiieedaUe  kings;  bataodarCMiw 

aa  early  as  the  Merovingian  times.    The  ten-  lemagne'ssooeessorsthe  cooBtafaiiMly  amiind 

deney  to  retain  property  m  their  fiunillea  would  infloenoe  and  wealth,  and  polkioafslalkn.    The 

iMd  men  to  make  nse  of  a  variety  of  meana  to  aame  man  was  allowed  to  ei^loyaereralec 

lender  what  ther  hcM  heredituy,  while  the  in  all  of  whichbe  endeaToredto  aeqairi 

weakncssof  the  Kings  woald  not  enable  them  property,  and  to  assume  a  richt  to  lnad| 

to  resist  olaims  powerfoUy  urged  in  behalf  of  In  the  iMt  quarter  of  the  Mi  oaotory  tii 

the  sons  of  beneficiaries.    ^  A  natoral  eonse*  cesrion  of  a  son  to  a  &ther'a  comity  waa  a  ra^ 


qoence  of  hereditary  benefices,"  aaya  Hallam.  ogniiad  nsage;  and  *^  in  the  next  eentary  thsi^ 

*^  was  that  those  who  possessed  than  canrea  followed  an  entire  prostratioQ  of  tba  vofal  aia» 

oat  portions  to  be  held  <n  themselTes  by  a  sim-  thority,  and  the  connta  nsnrped  their 

flar  tenure.    Abundant  proolb  of  this  custom,  ments  aa  little  sorereignties^  with  the 

best  known  by  the  name  of  sobinfeodation,  oo-  and  all  regalian  rights  saMeetooJIy  totba 

our  even  in  the  capitularies  of  Pepin  and  Oharle-  superiority  of  the  kiw    Tb^  bow  added  the 

macne.    At  a  later  period  it  became  uniTersal;  name  of  the  coun^  to  their  own,  and  thsirwiwa 

and  what  had  becun  perhaps  through  ambition  took  the  appeUatioo  of  countess.     la  Ila(y,te 

or  pride  was  at  Ust  dictated  by  necessity.    In  independence  of  the  dukes  was  stitt  mor%  osa^ 

that  dissolution  ofallkw  which  ensued  after  the  plete;  and  although  Otho  the  Graaft  nd  hb 

death  of  Charlemagne^  the  powerful  leaders,  con-  descendants  kept  a  stricter  rein  orer  Hmhs  ef 

atantly  engaged  in  domestic  warfare,  placed  thehr  Germany,  yet  we  find  the  great  fi^  of  Ihsir 

ohiefdependency  upon  men  whom  they  attached  empire,  throughout  the  10th  csntnry, 

br  gratitude,  and  bound  by  strong  conditions,  almost  iuTariably  to  the  male  and  erei 

Tlie  oath  of  fiddity  which  they  had  taken^  the  heirs  of  the  kst  possessor."    Thw  the 

homage  which  they  had  paid  to  the  sovereign,  tary  prindi^e  was  recogniaed  ia  a  doable  i» 

they  exacted  firom  their  own  vassals.  To  render  speotr— as  related  to  the  possessioa  of  lai  ~ 

military  service  became  the  essential  obligation  as  rdated  to  the  posssaiioo  of  poUtieal 

which  the  tenant  of  a  benefice  underto<dc ;  and  The  counta  became  the  enemlea  of  the 

out  of  those  ancient  grants,  now  become  for  the  proprietors, whose  importance  waadarhradftuma 

most  part  hereditary,  there  grew  up  in  the  10th  ^stem  entirely  unlike  that  upoo  whidi  tiMir  can* 

century,  both  in  name  and  realit^,  the  system  sequence  rested.    The  allodialista,  or  iadepaa^ 

of  feaoal  tenures.^^    A  marked  distinction  be-  ent  proprietors,  had  no  protection.  Thekinsraad 

tween  the  hereditary  right  to  the  benefice  and  the  law  could  not  prevent  them  from  being  ipeii- 

the  right  of  fiefs  was  tliis :  **  Whenever  the  ben-  ed  by  their  enemies.    Many  of  them  sorrendcnd 

eficiary  or  the  giver  died,  the  possessor  of  the  their  lands,  and  received  them  back  upon  fcodii 

benefice  thonglit  it  necessary  tliat  he  should  be  conditions ;  or  they  acknowledged  Timiilni 

confirmed  in  his  possession ;  so  strongly  was  the  vassals  of  a  sazcrain.   Tet  the  allodial  lands  was 

primitive  idea  of^the  personalitv  of  this  relation  not  entirely  extinguished.    Thev  were  commoa 

and  the  right  which  resulted  from  it  engraved  in  the  sonth  of  France,  the  strength  of  tbe 

upon  their  minds.    At  the  end  of  the  10th  ecu-  feudal  tenures  being  between  the  Somme  aad  dbs 

tury,   when  we    enter  truly  into  the  feudal  Loire.  According  to  the  old  French  law,  aDodai 

period,  we  no  lon^r  find  any  thing  of  the  kind ;  lands  were  always  noble,  like  fie6^  dowa  U 

the  right  of  fiefM,  inheritance,  is  no  longer  called  1680.    In  the  German  empire  many  esuui 

into  doubt  by  any  one,  it  has  no  longer  any  need  continued  to  be  held  by  alloaial  ienoiesL    Iba 

of  confirmation.'*    Under  the  feudal  system  the  part  of  the  subject,  however,  is  iarolved  is 

territorial  clement  was  known  as  tlie  fief,  and  it  considerable  obscurity,  for  in  the  roynl  rharirn 

has  been  argued  that  thisdid  not  mean  originally  of  the  10th  and  11th  centuries  the'  word  sC^ 

the  land  itself^  but  only  the  tenure  thereoC  its  dium  is  continuallv  used  for  a  feud*  or 

relation  of  dependence  toward  the  suzerain;  itary  benefice. — IJallam   nocicea   the   < 

but  the  weight  of  authority  is  adverse  to  this  of  **  commendation,*'  concerning  which 

Tiew,  thongh  it  is  admitted  tliat  at  a  Uter  period  writers  are  silent     '^  Several  paaiajce  ia 

there  majr  have  been  some  such  distinction  laws  and.  instruments,'*  he  sayi,  ^co 

made.     ^  Ytether /rodum  is  of  Latin  or  German  prove,  that  beside  tlie  relaUoo  estahlahcd  be- 

origin  is  not  distinctly  settled,  but  the  German  tween  lord  and  vassal  by  beneficiary  craatK  thtft 

claim  is  best  supported.    The  titles,  or  most  of  was  another  species  more  penmuilL  aad  moct 

them,  which  became  so  identified  with  feudal-  ckisely  resembling  that  of  patroa  and  ditac  is 

iim,  were  not  originallv  hereditary,  but  were  the  Itoman  republic    This  was  amaBy  crilfd 

made  so  gradually,  like  the  property  possessions  commendatioa,  and  appears  to  have  beca  teaM 

which  rendered  the  great  vassals  so  powerful,  on  two  very  general  princifilea,  both  of  vb^k 

Dukes,  counts,  and  marquises,  or  margraves,  the  distracted  state  of  society  iacakattd.    TVs 

were  at  first  provincial  governors,  officers  in-  weak  needed  the  protectiun  of  the  powerM; 

trusted  with  certain  specifitcdutiea,  the  margraves  and  the  government  needed  soase  accaritv  far 

being  charged  with  thecostody  of  thefhmtiera.  public  order.    £tcb  bafoca  tha  iavaaioa  oj  thi 


'  1.  _ 


nCUDAL  8YBXBIC  iff 

BihriMi,  a  wrtor  of  the  5fh  oentnrj,  the  ihther;  and  that  the  lord  ahoold  not  liHen- 

itbeeoBtomofohtainiogthepotectloii  ate  the  fief  of  his  Tassal  without  his  consent'* 

cf  tlM  great  by  nHHief,  and  blames  their  rapa-  This  edict,  thongh  rdating  immediately  only  to 

tilyt  thoqgfa  ne  allows  the  natoral  reasonable"  Lombardy,  is  thought  tomark  theftJlmatoritiy 

a«Mcf  tbapraoUoe.   The  disadyantageoos  oon-  of  the  feodal  system,  and  the  last  stage  <tf  ifca 

AimicftlieleaBpowerfalfireemen,  which  ended  progress.    Its  object  was  to  pot  an  end  to  dis- 

li  Uie  aerritnde  of  one  part,  and  in  the  feudal  agreements  between  inferior  yassals  and  their 

liige  of  another,  led  sach  as  fortonately  immediate  lords,  which  had  bem  cansed  by  the 

pnmamd  their  allodial  proper^  to  insore  want  of  settled  nsage.    Gnizot  is  of  opinion  that 

ifcoce  by  a  stipulated  payment  of  nxm^.  the  essential  &cts,  the  constituent  elements  of 

i  Momenta  maybe  traced  in  extant  chai^  the  feudal  system,  may  be  reduced  to  three^  vis: 

,  ciilHly  indeed  of  monasteries.    In  the  case  1,  the  particular  nature  oi  territorial  proper^, 

af  private  persona,  it  may  be  presumed  that  real,  full,  hereditary,  and  yet  derivea  firam  a 

lUa  ^vimtaiy  oontnct  was  frequently  changed  superior,  impocdng  certain  per8<»al  obligatiaDa 

hf  tiw  atronger  party  into  a  pmect  feudal  de»  on  its  possessor,  mider  pain  of  forfeiture ;  in  a 

Mtttaioa.    mm  tma,  howeyer,  as  I  imagine,  word,  wanting  in  that  complete  independence 

kfnliaUydiflSBred,  in  being  capable  of  dissoln-  which  is  now  its  characteristic ;  2,  the  amal- 

IM  aft  the  inftrior's  pleasure,  without  incurring  gamation  of  sovereignty  with  property,  the  at- 

a  faftitore,  as  well  as  havhig  no  relation  to  tribution  to  the  proprietor  of  the  soil,  over  all 

BooMge,  however,  seems  to  have  been  the  inhabitants  of  that  soil,  of  the  whole  ot 

t  to  commendation,  as  well  as  to  vassal-  nearly  the  whole  of  those  rights  which  con* 

Iditary  service  was  sometimes  the  con-  stitute  what  we  now  call  sovereignty.  Mid 

of  this  engagement.    It  was  the  law  of  which  are  now  possessed  only  by  govemmenL 

j^  ao  late  at  least  as  the  commencement  the  public  power ;  8,  the  hierardiic»l  system  of 

af  Hw  third  race  of  kings,  that  no  man  could  leaislative,  judiciid,  and  military  institutioDa, 

triba  a  part  in  private  wars  except  in  defence  which  united  the  possessors  of  fiefs  among 

af  UiOWB  lord.    This  we  learn  from  a  historian  themselves,  and  formed  them  into  a  general  so- 

akMt  tiM  end  of  the  10th  century,  who  relates  ciety.  These,  he  thinks,  are  the  truly  essential 

Am*  aoa  Erminfrid,  having  been  released  from  and  constitutive  facts  of  feudalism,  containing  aU 

Ida  kwnago  to  Count  Burchard,  on  ceding  the  the  others,  though  it  would  be  ea^y  to  resolve  it 

iaf  W  had  held  of  him  to  a  monastery,  renewed  into  a  larger  number  of  elements,  and  to  asnga 

aereniooy  on  a  war  breaking  out  between  to  it  a  greater  number  of  characteristics.    Of 

and  another  nobleman,  wherein  he  property  we  have  already  spoken.    Of  feudal 

siroos  to  give   assistance ;    since,  the  relations,  support  and  fidelity  were  the  prind- 

observes,  it  is  not,  nor  has  been  the  paL    The  vairaal  owed  service  to  his  lord,  and 

(in  FraiKse,  for  any  man  to  be  concerned  the  lord  protection  to  his  vassal.    If  the  vassal 

',  except  in  the  presence  or  by  the  com-  failed  in  nis  obligation,  his  land  was  forfeited ; 

of  his  lord.    Indeed,  there  is  reason  to  if  the  lord  feiled,  he  lost  his  sdgniory.    It  is 

ttom  the  capitularies    of  Charles   the  disputed  whether  the  vassal  was  bound  to  fol« 

Bdd^  that  ev«y  man  was  bound  to  attach  him-  low  his  lord^s  standard  against  lus  own  kindred. 

mH  to  some  kmL  though  it  was  the  privilege  As  respected  the  king,  the  relations  were  loose 

ef  a  freeman  to  choose  his  own  superior.    And  and  shifting.     There  are  instances  of  vaseala 

tlia  ia  strongly  supported  by  the  analogy  of  our  aiding  their  immediate  superiors  against  tlM 

A^^o-Saxon  laws,  where  it  is  frequently  >e-  king;  and  the  royal  power  was  always  in  an- 

pea&d,  that  no  man  should  continue  without  tagonism  to  the  feudal  system. — ^The  ceremo- 

alonL    There  are,  too,  as  it  seems  to  me,  a  nies  followed  when  a  fief  was  conferred  were 

gPMit  number  of  passages  in  Domesday  book  prindpally  homage,   fealty,  and   investiture. 

vMeii  eonfirm  thb  distinction  between  personal  The  mst  expressed  tiie  submission  and  devoted- 

ndation  and  the  beneficiary  tenure  of  ness  of  the  vassal  toward  his  lord.    The  oath 

Perhaps  I  may  be  thought  to  dwdl  too  of  fealty  difiered  little  in  language  from  the  act 

/  on  this  obscure  custom ;  but  as  it  tends  of  homage,  but  was  indispensable,  was  taken  by 

iilnsitrate  those  mutual  relations  of  Uftd,  and  ecclesiastics,  but  not  by  minors,  and  could  be  re- 

whioh  supplied  the  place  of  regular  gov-  ceived  by  proxy.    Investiture  was  the  actual 

it  in  the  polity  of  Europe,  and  has  seldom  conveyance  of  feudal  lands,  and  was  proper  or 

nr  been  explicitly  noticed,  its  introduo-  improper.    By  the  first,  the  vassal  was  put  in 

•eemed  not  improper.** — By  the  edict  of  possession  upon  the  ground,  by  the  lord  or  his 

ki  Issued  by  Conrad  U.,  emperor  of  Genua-  deputy,  which  the  English  law  calls  livery  of 

■If  (lOST),  4  regulations  are  established :  "  that  seisin ;  by  the  seconcL  possession  was  given 

■a  should  DC  deprived  of  his  fie^  whether  symbolicdly,  by  the  delivery  of  a  branch,  turi^ 

of  the  empetor  or  a  mesne  lord,  but  by  the  or  stone,  or  some  other  natural  object^  aocord- 

cf  the  empire,  and  the  Judgment  of  his  ing  to  custom.    Nearly  a  hundred  varieties  of 

;  that  fit>m  such  ludgment  an  immediate  investiture  are  menticiied.    The  vassal's  dutiea 

iii(^t  appeal  to  his  sovereign ;  that  fiefe  commenced  with  his  investiture.    These  were 

be  inherited  by  sons  and  their  children,  very  numerous,  and  it  is  impossible  to  define 

la  their  feilure,  l^  brothers,  provided  they  them  at  large.    They  embraced  nearly  eveir 

,/^rKAi|Ni<<ma,  such  as  had  descended  frcmi  obligation  that  can  exist  ia  such  a  state  of  sod- 


171  noDtALSTsnoi  mmwAig 

|fcf  asthenmfifledO'TcriiiottdfCniristaiidoiii.  treated  mora  gentlj,  from  wboM  flbt  tol 

nej  Ttrieo,  too,  with  place  and  time.    Mili-  take  nothing  botciMtioaBaiyj 

tarj  senrioe   depended   upon   oireumstaneeii  their  death  idltbej  have  en 

thoogh  40  days  was  the  usual  tenn  that  the  ably  at  no  time  in  the  werid%  hirtory 

tenant  of  a  knight^a  fee  was  bound  to  be  in  the  maes  of  the  people  aobadjytfealadaaifciiliilhs 

Md  at  bis  own  expense.     Among  the  feudal  existenee  of  the  Ibiidal  qntam;  aad  mai^  ef 

IneidenU  advantageooa  to  the  kird  were  reliefi^  those  eostoma  and  opinkma  thai  itfl  Impeiatha 


fines  upon  alienatkm,  escheats,  aid,  wardshin,  growth  of  the  people  in  kaowMgi  aai  iMni- 

and  marriage,  the  two  latter  placing  the  wards  ness  in  ssTeral  countries  are  bat  nlieacf  ttA 

and  orphan  minors  among  bis  yaaaala  almost  qrstem,  and  Tetoootiniie  to  delta  work.— Thaie 

entirelj  at  his  mercy.    Tbe  contrd  of  female  were  several  eanaea  for  the  deefiae  loA  idl  ef 

vassals  waa  carried  to  its  utmost  extent  in  the  feudalism.    The  two  extremea  dt  apclaljf 

Latin  kingdom  of  Jerusalem,  founded  by  the  firrt  alike  interested  in  ita  destmciioa, 

ermadtts  at  the  time  when  the  feudal  qrstem  ally  aought  it:  the  king^  iMh|j 

waa  at  its  height    Improper  fieft»  as  they  were  tre  that  was  not  an  embma  of 

ealtod  to  distinguish  them  from  the  militarv  aearoe|y  more  than  a  Ibol^  baable";  nd  the 

fie&,  were  in  time  granted,  in  order  to  gratify  aquaUd  people,  who  were  treated  bgr  the  n^ 

pride,  or  to  ndse  money.    ^  They  were  granted  ii^^  classes  with  ksa  coosiderathm  thmi  tfasy  W> 

mr  a  price,  and  without  reference  to  military  atowed  upon  beasts  of  chase.    The  grorvtii  ef 

aervioe.    The  language  of  the  feudal  law  was  the  institntioB  of  chivalry,  whieh  waa  eoeeflhs 

applied  by  a  kind  of  metaphor  to  almost  every  diildren  of  lendalism,  waa  fa^arioaa  to  the  wf^ 

traufer  of  property.  Henoe^  pensions  of  money^  tem  whence  it  sprung.    The  iMidal  lyalMi  Ml 

and  allowances  of  provisions,  however  remote  much  to  do  with  the  emaadea,  aod  it  wm  ftiih* 

from  rigbt  notions  of  a  fiet;  were  sometimea  ably  the  only  state  ef  sooiety  lo  whhh 

granted  under  that  name;  and  even  where  land  expedltioas  could  either  have  beeo 


the  subset  of  the  donation,  its  conditlona    or  have  been  reoewed  from  time  to  tiae  ^BlaB 


were  often  lucrativei  often  honorary,  and  some*  nearly  900  years;  yet  th^  workod 

times  ludicrous."     Fleb  of  office,  too,  were  ously  toitiandhelpedtoprsparatliewi^iMrto 

granted,  by  which  persons  received  grants  of  iblL    The  growth  of  the  towii%  tlie  tosaaaaef 

had  on  condition  ofperforming  some  domestic  commerce,  tlie  development  of  the 

service  to  the  lord,   llie  mechanic  arts  were  car-  splriti  the  acqulsltloii  of  military  ~ 

riedon  inthehousesof  the  creat  by  persons  re-    tne  people  in  several  coonfa<es»a 

edvinglandsupon  those  conditions.*— The  liradal  tlons  aiid  discoveries^  and  the  aftpfiaaliaB  ef 

qrstem  was  exclusive  in  its  spirit    In  strictness,  gunpowder  to  the  uses  of  war,  were  aaosv  lie 

a  person  not  noblo  by  birth  could  not  possess  a  causes  of  the  down&U  of  the  system.    Its  chirf 

fief^  though,  OS  with  all  general  principles,  there  seat  was  France,  ai^  in  that  country  k  ided 

were  occastonid  exceptions  to  this  rule,  which  utteriyaaa  bulwark  afnunst  the  En 

increased  as  the  aristocratical  spirit  declined,  of  the  14th  centary,  wliich  rapidly 

Three  descents  were  necessary  to  remove  fully  late.    It  might  have  remained  powcrM 

the  stain  of  ignoble  blood.     Children  bom  the  first  century  of  the  Valob  kings  had  It 

of  an  ignoble  mother,  in  lawfal  wedlock,  were  proved  totally  unequal  to  tlic  boaincas  it  di 

looked  upon  as  of  ille^timato  origin.     The  ed  to  be  peculiariy  its  own,  that»  naoMly.  «f 

hifflier  clergy,  as  prelates  and  abbots,  wore  feudal  defending  the  soil  its  members  owned,  and  ths 

nobles.    Ecclesiastical  tenants  came  within  the  country  they   governed.    Crfcj  and  INaticrs 

aeopo  of  feudal  duty.     Below  the  gentle  classes  were  blessings  to  France,  and  the  Jmtfmnit  m 

were  the  freemen  and  the  serfs.  Tho  former  were  well,  for  they  led  to  changes  that  were  iares- 

dwellers  in  chartered  towns,  and  were  destined  patible  with  the  existence  of  political  feodafimk 

toharean  important  part  in  destroying  the  feudal  — See  Sismdudi, //itfinrf  dm  IVumfrnml^mn^ 

ayutem ;  and  in  England,  the  yeomanry,  to  whose  182 1-^43) ;  Guizot,  Hkt&ire  de  la  eitiimaiim  m 

existence  that  country  owed  its  leading  pUce  in  Dranes  (Paris,  1880);    Michelet   HiiMfv  dr 

the  militar}'  system  of  Enrope,  were  abo  among  Ih»nee  ( Paris  1838-*67 1 ;  Hallam,  **  Ewvpe  di^ 

the  freemen.    The  serfs,  or  villeins,  were  amona  ing  the  Middle  Ages**  (London,  1818);  BcB,  **  H*- 

the  most  abject  of  mankind,  and  were  hated  torical  8tmlies  of  Feudalism**  (Loodon,  18Ui 

and  maltreated  becanse  they  had  been  injured.  FErERBACII,  PAn.  Joesni  Asctauiu  ehrta- 

In  some  countries  tlierc  was  a  distinc-tion  made  lier,  a  German  Jurist,  bom  in  Frankfort-es-tbt* 

between  villeins  and  serfs,  the  latter  being  com-  Main,  Nov.  4,  1775,  died  May  29,  1831.   Ht 

pelled  to  the  nerformanco  of  the  vilest  labors, ,  studied  law  at  Jena,  where  he  became  a  fuiji 

and  thoronghly  enslaved,  while  tho  condition*  or  of  the  university  in  1801,  and  afterward  kr- 

of  the  former  was  not  so  harsh,  their  payments  tured  at  Kiel  and  Landshut.    Frmn  18i)$  to  IMS 

and  duties  being  defined.     **  The  third  estate  ho  was  asitii>tant  sooretary  of  justice  and  pri<7 

of  man,^'  says  IWaumanoir,  **  is  that  of  snch  as  councillor  in  liavaria.    He  lost  this  place  la  cta- 

are  not  free;  and  these  are  not  all  of  one  con-  sequence  of  his  lil>eral  opinions,  and  was  appntsl- 

dition,  fur  some  are  so  subject  to  their  lord  that  c<l  cinef justice  of  the  supreme  coart  at  XutftA 

he  may  take  all  they  have,  alive  or  dead,  and  While  there  he  intcrest^sl  himself  in  the  nnc^ 

imprison  him,  whenever  ho  pleases,  being  ao-  rions  circumstances  snrroanding  the  Cste  «f  tht 

eounUble  to  none  but  God;  while  others  are  nnh^pyCaqMurIIaaser,aiidatt«Bii*adleprsls 


RDILLAinS  nVBB                      43$ 

AftOijiterytritfaoiitiiuich  regard  to  the  lorer-  of  Austria,  in  PariflL    The  aoTere  diaoipline  to 

eicB  liuiiiliee  whioh  were  thought  to  be  compro-  which  the  members  of  this  order  at  first  sab- 

■Eed  in  the  matter.   Fenerbach  was  the  anUior  jected  themselves  caused  the  death  of  many  of 

of  a  code  oi  criminal  law  for  the  kingdom  of  Ba-  Uiem,  and  was  reprimanded  by  the  pope.    The 

wiftp  and  of  many  standard  law  books.  Of  these,  order  lasted  till  1790. — In  the  French  revolntioQ 

tktrUMmeh  de$gemeinen  in  Deutsehland  giU-  a  club  opposed  to  tlie  Jacobins  was  known  as 

tifm  pnnlieken  JSeehti  (1801)  is  to  the  present  the  Feuillants,  from  their  meeting  in  a  convent 

djj  one  of  tiie  highest  authorities  on  the  sub-  of  the  abolished  order. 

jeei  of  criminal  law  in  Germany. — ^Ludwio,  son  FEUXLLET,  Octavb,  a  French  author,  horn 

of  tlM  preceding,  a  German  philosopher  of  the  in  8t.  Lo,  Manche,  in  1822.    He  was  educated 

•o-eaOed  younger  HegeUan  school,  born  in  Ans-  at  the  college  of  Louii  U  Grand  in  Paris^  and 

pash  in  1804,  studied  theology  and  philosophy  rince  1845  has  guned  a  high  reputation  as  a 

atHeidelberg  and  Berlin  from  1822  to  1825,  and  gracefbl  writer  of  novels  and  plays,  in  some  of 

iMM*«y  a  tntor  at  the  university  of  Erlangen  in  which  other  literary  men  have  been  his  collabo* 

1888^  but  reUred  into  private  life  soon  after,  rators.    A  collection  of  his  writinra  was  pub- 

ooonying  himself  solely  with  literary  labors,  lished  in  1858-^56,  in  8  vols.,  in  ihQMihlioiM^^ 

Ha  1844  he  delivered  a  brief  course  of  lectures  eoniemparaine.    His  most  popular  novel  Bamtm 

at  the  university  of  Heidelberg.    He  subse-  <ru»J0tin«A^iitffM^tter0rParis,  1858),  has  been 

qawflj  retired  to  a  small  village  in  Franconia,  dramatized  in  France  and  in  Germany  (Viennai 

i»  lie  directs  an  industrial  establishment,  1859),  and  translated  into  English  (New  Torl^ 

devotes  his  leisure  hours  to  literary  pur-  1859). 

Amouff  his  works  (a  collection  of  which  FEVER,  the  name  commonly  applied  to  the 

has  been  published  in  9  vols.,  1846-^57)  the  fol-  assemblage  of  s^ptoms  formed  by  acceleration 

loving  are  tJie  most  important :  Abdlard  und  of  the  pulse,  chills  followed  by  heat,  thirst,  and 

&ltiss(1883);  GeichieMe  derneueren  Fhilo$(h  a  general  feeliuff  (^lassitude  and  uneasiness; 

aUijg  Tda»  18d8-'87);  Pierre  Bayle  (1838X  various  names  have  been  added  to  the  fever, 

im  wmem  dee  Chrutenthume  (Leipsie,  1841);  according  to  the  organ  affected,  or  the  sup- 

23lBi1l'^Msa<I«>i20lt^»(2ded.,1849),  Theogenie  posed  nature  of  the  morbific  cause.    There  is 

(judaic^  1867). — ^The  leading  principle  of  Feuer-  no  subject  whioh  has  been  a  greater  source  of 

badri  philosophv  is  the  identification  of  God  contention  among  physicians,  or  has  been  more 

with  the  idealized  essence  of  man,  or  the  deified  discussed  in  the  schools  of  medicine  from  Hip- 

eMeoee  of  nature.    His  own  statement  is:  "My  pocrates  to  Louis  and  Chomol,  than  that  of 

theory  may  be  condensed  in  two  words:  nature  the  nature  and  seat  of  fever;  and  even  at  the 

aad  man.    That  being  which,  in  my  opinion,  is  present  time  different  and  opposite  opinions 

the  preanpposition,  the  cause  of  existence  of  mrevail  concerning  it    According  to  La6nneO| 

■aOy  is  not  God — a  mysterious,  vague,  indefi-  Hippocrates  considered  fever  as  a  simple  disease, 

■Hi  term — ^but  nature.     On  the  other  hand^  always  of  the  same  nature,  regarding  as  compli- 

tfaat  being  in  whioh  nature  becomes  conscious  cations  the  symptoms  which  modem  pathological 

of  UmHf  u  man."    "  True,  it  follows  from  my  anatomy  has  made  characteristic  of  the  numerona 

theory  that  there  is  no  Gk>d,  that  is  to  say,  no  varieties  of  fever.    Oelsus  regarded  fever  as  a 

alMtiaet  being,  distinct  from  nature  and  man,  general  disease.    Galen  seems  to  have  been  tha 

iriAoh  ^^Bposes  of  the  destinies  of  the  universe  first  to  give  a  precise  definition  of  the  word,, 

and  SMUikind  at  its  discretion ;  but  this  negation  and  to  have  divided  fevers  into  the  idiopathio* 

iiOBlf  a  conseooence  of  the  cognition  of  €h)d*s  or  essential,  and   the   symptomatic,  an  idea 

Heatftv  with  the  essence  of  nature  and  man."  which  has  been  the  cause  of  endless  and  bitter 

ISUILLANT8,  a  branch  of  the  order  of  Gis-  disputes  in  the  medical  world.    He  made,  how- 

tmiaoai  ibunded  in  France  in  1577  by  Jean  ever,  a  great  progress  when  he  discovered  that 

dala  Barridre  for  the  stricter  observance  of  the  many  so  called  fevers  are  the  consequence  of 

laka  of  8t  Benedict,  and  declared  independent  local  inflammations ;  it  has  been  said  that  in  hia 

Igr  Siatai  V.  in  1586.    It  received  originally  a  writings  may  be  traced  the  division  of  fevers  into 

retf  laTere  discipline,  its  members  being  ob-  inflammatory,  bilious,  mucous,  putrid,  and  ma- 

tfpn  to  go  with  naked  head  and  feet,  to  sleep  lignant,  the  famous  '^pyretological  pentateuch,^ 

plimks^  and  to  eat  on  their  knees.    The  sanctioned  afterward  by  the  authority  of  Pinel. 

were  sobsequently  greatly  relaxed,  and  the  The  principles  of  Galen  influenced  the  medical 

'  q>read  over  France  and  Italy.    It  was  world  until  the  time  of  Stahl,  Hoffhiann,  and 

ifatingiiiHhed  by  the  part  which  its  members,  Boerhaave.    Stahl  considered  fever  a  salutary 

MMially  the  preacher  Bernard  de  Montgaillard,  effort  of  the  vital  principle  to  throw  out  morb^ 

mmd  Ze  petit  Feuillant,  took  in  the  civil  wars  fie  matter  by  the  increased  excretions  and  secre- 

i  in  the  time  of  the  league.    After  hav-  tions ;  Hofimann  made  it  consist  in  the  febrile 

the  centre  of  numerous  agitations,  the  heat  (fever  of  the  Greeks),  and  in  its  preceding 

I  ofFrance  were  in  1680  separated  from  chill;  Boerhaave  laid  still  more  stress  onme- 

of  Italy.    Their  costume  was  a  white  robe  chanical  principles,  and  regarded  it  aa  an  acceler- 

~^  a  scapular,  and  a  white  cowL — ^De  la  ation,  agitation,  and  combination  of  the  various 

I  founded  at  the  same  time  a  female  or-  fluids,  by  which  the  cause  of  cUsease  under- 

FaoHlantes,  whose  convent  was  first  near  went  a  ooction  and  elimination,  with  the  char- 

and  afti         I,  by  invitation  of  Anne  acteriatic  iiymptoms  of  fever.  Cullen  disbelieved 


480  EEVEB 

the  humoral  causes  of  fo  ver,  and  traced  its  origin  the  sweeping  conchuions  of  the  nev  iioeologr, 
to  the  nervous  system,  the  depression  of  whose  which,  from  the  very  fact  of  its  tzclasiTcocH^ 
energy  produces  at  first  feebleness  of  all  its  opposition  to  receiycd  opinionsi  and  bold  adro« 
Amctionis  fullowed  by  reaction,  spasm,  and  in-  cacy,  as  in  many  subsequent  and  present  me<ik 
creased  circulation,  on  the  degrees  of  which  the  cal  delusions,  led  away  in  a  body  tne  great  ua&N 
varieties  and  duration  of  fevers  depend ;    he  of  routinepractitioners  and  the  ever crednlo^ 
divided  remittent  fevers  into  inflammatory  and  public,     while  with  Bouillaud  there  is  no  snclj 
nervous,  calling  the  former  9ynocha  and  the  thing  as  essential  fevers,  all  anch  heing  smp. 
latter  typhxu  ;  be  admits  also  a  tbird,  the  com-  tomatio  of  inflammation,  vascular  initatioa.  cr 
mon  fever  of  his  country,  a  combination  of  the  action  of  comphcating  putrid  matters  In  tiie 
other  two,  but  most  rciiembling  typhus,  which  blood,  Chomel,  at  the  same  time  that  he  adoiti 
he  calls   tynoehxu.     Hauvages,  by  combining  fever  as  symptomatic  of  local  inflammatioaiL 
together  different  febrile  symptoms,  establisbea  from  clinical  and  post-mortem  resesrcbes,  nuiD- 
more  tbsn  150  kinds  of  fever,  ridiculing  the  tains  the  existence  of  idiofiathic  fevcri»  viih 
Idea  of  essentiality,  and  considering  all  fevers  as  acute  and  general  symptoms,  independent  cf 
symptomatic.    The  results  of  the  observations  local  affections,  and  leaving  after  death  no  le- 
c^  the  18th  century  had  in  all  countries  dimin-  sions  to  which  the  phenomena  could  be  fiurir 
ished  the  number  of  essential  fevers,  and  in-  attributed.    Louis  has  estAbliahed  satisfaetonlj 
creased  that  of  local  inflammations.  Sydenham  a  conneeUon  between  typhoid  fever  and  the  so- 
regarded  the  violence  of  inflammation  as  the  atomieal  lesion  of  the  glands  of  the  ileum;  bet 
principal  cause  of  what  was  then  colled  the  he  does  not  explain  the  nature  of  this  knot, 
malignancy  of  fevers,  and  said  that  the  conse-  whether  it  is  the  cause  or  conieqneDce,  vhr 
quences  arising  from  the  previous  understanding  death  occurs  in  this  disease  before  the  appcs^ 
of  that  word  had  been  more  destructive  to  the  ance  of  the  intestinal  aficction,  and  why  tbc 
human  race  than  gunpowder.  Notwithstanding  grave  symptoms  continue  and  even  prove  iirtal 
the  occurrence  of  several  epidemics  in  the  last  after  the  cicatrixation  of  the  ulcers;  infiM(,tk!i 
third  of  the  18th  century  which  seemed  to  prove  fever,  which  many  make  the  tnming  poiat  b 
that  intestinal  inflammation  is  the  cause  of^some  the  discussion,  stands  much  in  need  or  fortltfr 
fevers,  the  essentiality  of  these  diseases  still  held  investigation.    It  is  evidently  impoasibW  to  de- 
firm  possession  of  the  minds  of  physicians ;  the  cide  for  one  or  the  other  of  the  ezdnsive  01^0- 
mucous  fever  at  Grntingen  in  1760  and  17C1,  ionsof  essentiality  or  non-essentiality  of  fevcn: 
that  at  Naples  in  1764,  and  the  i)etechial  fever  the  most  able  physicians  of  the  worM  vtcU 
at  Genoa  in  1799  and  1800,  in  most  cases  were  probably  occupy  at  present  the  middle  gnM&c 
what  is  now  called  t}'phoid  fever,  whose  princi-  of  Chomel,  accepting  the  febrile  affections  »7t&;^ 
])al  lesion  is  in  tlie  Peyer*s  patches  of  the  ileum,  tomatio  of  inflammation,  but  also  certain  «a?«k£- 
At  \\m  time  Piuel  divided  osontitU  fevers  into  tial  or  continued  fovcra  characterized  Ij  t. 
6  varieties  which  ore  onlv  badlv  chnracterized  want  of  relation  K'tween  the  sevt.ritr  if  :. 
portions  of  the  course   and   nio^lilicntions  of  symptoms  and  the  elipht  extent  <.*f  aosti-OKs^ 
typhoid  fever ;  and,  thoufrh  lie  deniid  their  con-  lesion,  by  the  si>eeial  nature  of  their  caii'v^  i»  - 
nection  w  ith  local  iiiflainuiatioiis,  his  very  names  contA^ousi,  endemic,  and  epidemic  u-vcr^i.  mz\ 
of  angiotei)i<\nK*nin(;:o-^ustric,  andadeiKwnenin-  by  Mich  a  series  of  general  plu-numvos  thit  c^^ 
geal,  rectt^niize  the  influi.-nce  of  tsuch  inflanima-  one  h>CAl  lesion  C4>uid  in  any  m-ay  exf'I^n  tb«s. 
tiouA,  espi'rially  those  of  the  pistn>-iniestinal  Leaving,  then,  the  nature  of  fcver  to  be  ie:u*i 
mucous  UK-nit'ranoL    Tlio  researches  of  Prost  by  future  researchfs,  a   few  of  iho  j^nB-".:*. 
in  ls<>4  gave  the  flr>t  decided  Muw  to  the  theory  forms  mentioned  in  the  IxKiks  may  t-c  »Ili»wr. 
of  the  esx-ii  tial  ity  of  fevers.  Tlie^k*  were  fi>llowed  to  liere.     .Vmon^r  the  fewrs  iiymptomAt.:  »* 
by  the  discovery  of  Petit,  who  traced  in  a  clear  external  t>r  internal  inflammBtioiL<k  are  .  tt:vtn: 
and  {Kisitive  manner  tlie  connection  between  the  matic  fi-ver.  accompany  in;;  wounds  an'!  f^zTf-  - 
ulceration  of  Peyer's  glands  ami  iiitero-nie«k'nte-  oiK'ratit>n< ;  lumr  iVvir,  which  i«s  put  um<  lo.  *' 
ric  fevi-r,  afterward  ko  fully  illu-«trated  by  I^mis  inflammation  of  tht*  lun^:  brain  tV^cr.  tc  :r 
in  his  work  on  tyjthoid  fcver.     l']K>n  this  fever  flammatuiii  of  the  Mu))>tunco  or  mvmiraiiu'*  i- 
was  made  ti»tnrn  the  whok-  theory  of  non-eHj»en-  this  or^'an  ;  rht-iiniutic  fivrr,  or  acat<  ri*i--i 
tial ity,  its  intestinal  manifestation  fonning  the  tisni ;  catarrhal  t« Mr,  accfinjianyitij  «1•^.l;.•' 
eonnectini: link  between  the  febrile  exanthemata  influenza;  milk  fever,  the  funetiunal  c-x^-'- 
with  evident  cutaneous  inflammation,  andother  ance  attending  the   ['hv^itiliMjiea]   K'eret;  c  ^' 
fevers  where  anatomical  le> ions  were  not  so  ai>-  this  fluid,  ct>niintf  on  the  :td  or  4th  1L15  s:V- 
parent.  It  was  res*.TVed  for  Uroussiiis,  the  author  delivery,  ami  rarely  hL^iini:  nii»re  th,m  ;^4  :.-  -^-^ 
of  the  si>  railed  physiolopcal  d<H'trine,  in  1816,  and  puerperal  fe\rr.  b\  whieh  i*  uiid«.r»:  •<  .1 
to  completely  overturn  the  d«>ctrine  of  essen-  flammation  of  the  peritcniuui.  or  if  il.v  ^*.*ri- 
tiality,  and  to  maintain  that  all  fevers  enter  into  and  its  Hpi»emlai*e%  atta«.'kinc  iii-i:i«t:  r^^-^r'..; 
the  cateu'ory  of  ItK^d  intlamniatioiL<(.      Ahm»st  deliveri-il,  and  Hinietinu-H  r^urini;  i-Cidez^^-; 
all  the  me<lic]d  writers  of  Kran<*e  fliK-kod  to  the  K'comin;;  Cimtai^iiMis.  and  M;-<einin;:(>)  sr»v  :^^- 
atantlard  of  lirou.<«'^iis,  who  in  his  own  country  and  to  prtKluce  phleK^minoiL<in<-;[i«.Uft.     It:  ^ 
at  lea*t  Imre  down  ail  oppiiMiion.     Still,  many  lhe^e  furm**  the  heat  of  the*>urf]»c^'  i«  it.-rxA.-'C 
enliirhtenvd  phvxirians  in  nther  i\>un(rii->,  and  the  pul^*  atHndenited,  the  ihir*4gr\At.  thv  .r.^ 
Chomel  and  Gcndriu  in  France,  did  not  accept  les^,  with  huuitudv,  wvaLnesik  •«' 


FEYEB  FEW                         481 

peeoHar  symptoinfl  according  to  the  organ  at-  bnt  the  febrile  condition  itself  limits  this  in* 
tacked;  tiiis  condition  may  nnqnestionablj  be  crease;  in  typhoid  fever  the  decrease  of  fibiine 
prodficed  by  fatigne,  by  the  influence  of  physi-  in  proportion  to  the  corpuscles  is  still  more 
cti  agents,  and  by  moral  causes.  Intermittent  marked,  though  here  also  any  local  inflamma- 
hren  (like  fever  and  ague)  are  characterized  by  tion  will  increase  it ;  the  eruptive  fevers  were 
paroxysms  of  chiUs,  heat,  and  sweating,  regu-  not  found  to  present  such  a  sUiking  dispropor* 
larly  socceeding  each  other,  with  intervals  of  tion  between  the  fibrine  and  the  corpuscles, 
complete  apyrexia;  they  are  irregular,  quotid-  and  their  specific  inflammations  did  not  tend  to 
lan,  tertian,  or  quartan,  according  as  the  inter-  increase  the  former  like  ordinary  inflammation; 
▼al  is  one,  two,  or  three  days,  or  of  varying  and  in  the  so  called  putrid  fevers  not  only  the  fib- 
longer  dnration ;  in  miasmatic  districts  many  rine  but  all  the  solid  constituents  of  the  blood 
disrasrn  take  on.  an  intermittent  type,  which  are  diminished.  The  prognosis  of  fevers  de- 
vnder  ordinary  circumstances  have  no  such  pends  on  the  type,  the  constitution  of  the  in- 
character.  According  to  Ghomel,  the  double  dividuals  attacked,  and  the  surrounding  circum- 
qnotidian  fever  is  always,  and  the  common  stances  as  to  pure  air,  cleanliness,  and  proper 
anoddian  in  half  the  cases,  symptomatic  of  in-  attention;  continued  fbvers  are  most  connnoii 
flamnuition  in  the  pulmonary,  digestive,  or  uri-  and  most  fiital  among  the  poor  and  crowded 
nary  mucous  membranes,  of  the  2d  stage  of  populationsof  cities  and  of  unhealthy  localities; 
phthisis,  or  of  deep-seated  and  superficial  sup-  wherever  such  diseases  are  known  to  prevail^ 
pnrations ;  so  that  the  duration  of  intermission  hygienic  and  sanitary  measures  will  generally 
oeoomes  an  important  diagnostic  sign.  Even  remove  the  predispodng  and  render  harmless 
in  the  coarse  of  typhoid  fever,  chills  will  often  the  exciting  causes.  The  treatment  of  fever 
oeeor  at  the  same  hour  for  a  few  days  in  sue-  must  depend  also  on  the  type,  and  be  antiphlo- 
eearion.  Remittent  fevers  are  characterized  by  gistic,  tonic,  stimulant,  specific,  or  expectant, 
A  eontinuous  febrile  condition,  complicated  wi^  according  to  the  ascertained  nature  of  its  cause. 
Intermittent  symptoms  of  chills  and  heat  at  the  FEVER  BUSH  (beMcnn  odar\ferum^  NeesX 
beginning  of  their  course,  and  of  heat  toward  &  shrub  from  4  to  10  feet  high,  with  long,  slen- 
their  ckoe ;  they  seem  in  many  coses  to  be  of  der,  and  brittle  branches,  common  in  the 
imaeiiiiiiii  origin,  and  to  be  modified  intermit-  northern  United  States,  and  remarkable  for  its 
tenta.  Continued  fevers  have  no  intermissions  graceM  form  and  large  handsome  leaves,  espe- 
dnring  their  course,  but  generally  one  or  two  cially  when  it  grows  upon  the  margin  of  some 
paroxysms  of  increased  febrile  condition,  with-  cold,  swampy  place  in  the  deep  shade  of  woods. 
ont  ehiUs  during  the  24  hours ;  they  affect  the  Here  it  produces  an  abundance  of  flowers  and 
whole  system,  independent  to  a  certain  extent  fruit  The  flowers  appear  in  April  or  May  in 
id  organic  lesions,  yet  characterized  by  symp-  clusters  from  8  to  6  in  number,  are  of  a  green- 
toms  indicating  cutaneous  or  gastro-intestinol  ish  yellow  color,  and  come  out  where  the  last 
irritation.  The  simplest  is  the  ephemeral  con-  yearns  leaves  were.  The  fruit  is  a  small,  oval, 
tumovs  fever,  having  the  usual  symptoms  of  dork  red  or  purple  drupe,  in  bunches  of  2  to  6. 
lasMtnde  and  uneasiness,  with  heat  of  skin,  The  twigs  or  yoimg  branches  are  smooth  and 
thirsty  headache,  and  rapid  pulse,  rarely  lost-  of  a  bright  green,  which  assumes  an  olive  tint 
iag  more  than  a  day  or  two,  and  frequently  the  next  year,  and  afterward  a  pearly  gray.  A 
eaued  by  fatigue  of  body  or  mind,  or  vivid  decoction  of  the  twigs  i&  used  to  alleviate  the 
enofelona.  The  most  common  continued  fever  itching  from  poisoning  by  sumach.  Accord- 
ot  the  United  States  is  the  typhoid,  which  ing  to  Dr.  Darlington,  it  is  also  used  as  a 
win  be  described  under  its  own  title ;  slow  medicine  for  homed  cattle  in  the  spring.  The 
and  nervous  fevers  are  mere  forms  of  it.  Hec-  berries  have  a  pleasant,  spicy  taste,  and  are 
tie  fever  is  that  form  well  known  in  persons  suf-  much  admired,  and  have  sometimes  been  used 
ftring  from  lingering  and  exhausting  diseases,  as  allspice. 

as  in  consumption  and  chronic  suppurations.  FEW,  Wiluam,  colonel,  an  American  revolu- 

Yellow  fever,  or  black  vomit,  is  endemic  in  tionary  officer,  bom  in  Maryland,  June  8,  1748, 

tropical  and  subtropical  America,  requiring  for  died  in  Fishkill,  iN'.T.,  July  16, 1828.  His  father 

ilB  derelopment  a  high  temperature  and  a  local-  removed  to  North  Carolina  when  his  family  was 

M^  on  or  near  the  sea  coast ;  it  seems  to  spend  young.    Here  William  received  a  good  duca- 

Ite  finA  force  upon  the  gastro-intestinal  mucous  tion,  and  on  the  breaking  out  of  the  revolution 

membrane,  as  does  the  epidemic  cholera.-   In  became  distinguished  for  zeal  and  ability  in  the 

fUi  class  M'con tinned  fevers  belong  the  exonthe-  patriot  cause.  <  In  1776  he  removed  to  Georgia, 

snch  OS  small  pox,  measles,  and  scarla-  where  he  was  elected  a  member  of  the  conven- 

The  division  of  fevers  into   idiopathic  tion  for  framing  a  constitution.;  For  the  next 

symptomatic  seems  to  be  sanctioned  by  the  25  years  he  was  employed  in  various  public 

itity  of  fibrine  in  the  blood,  Andral  having  offices ;  he  was  surveyor-general  of  the  state,  pre- 

*  ita  amount  invariablv  diminished  in  the  siding  judge  of  Richmond  co.  courts  and  in  1780 

and  increased  in  the  latter ;  in  ordinary  a  member  of  congress,  remaining  in  that  body 

td  fever,  when  uncomplicated  with  local  till  the  peace,  and  again  appointed  in  1786. 

the  amount  was  more  or  less  diminish-  The  next  year  he  assisted  in  forming  the  fed- 

•d,  with  an  increase  in  the  quantity  of  corpus-  end  constitution.'-'  He  distinguished  himself  in 

*    k;  local  inflammation  tends  to  increase  it,  various  actions  with  the  English  and  Indians. 

VOL.  TIL— 31 


CS 


ffs 


AJboot  1T8S  be  engaged  in  the  p reetioe  of  the  for  export  gniiMi  apleei,  eetridi  fteliMn»  tvorj, 

law,  and  in  1798  was  a  member  of  the  third  eon-  Ac    CaraTans  aet  out  ftom  the  eity  aioii  an 

atitntional  conrention  of  Georgia.  From  1789  nnally,  In  March  and  October,  neroaa  the  4Mrt 

to  1798  he  held  a  teat  in  the  U.  S.  lenate.  for  Timbnetoo.    Th^  complete  the  ronadionr- 

About  1800  he  remored  to  the  city  of  Kew  ney  in  189  dayii  of  which  oqIj  64  are  eBploveA 

Toric,  where  he  filled  aereral  oAcea,  and  waa  in  actual  travel.    The  Piratea  who  inhahk  KfiC 

at  one  time  mayor.  one  of  the  prorincea  of  Fea.eomMirted 

FEZ  (Ar.  AfX  <^  prorinoe  of  Morocco,  occn-  tions  in  1865  and  1866  on  maali 

jing  the  N.  portion  oi  that  empire,  bonnded  reaaela  as  well  aa  on  a  Spaniah 

.  by  .the  Meaiterranean,  £.  by  Algeria,  8.1^  on  the  eoaat,  and  the  aoltan  made  n 

the  monntaina  of  Atlaa,  W.  by  the  Atlantie.  tion  to  the  French  joremment  In  18Bi. 
The  lace  of  the  prorince  ia  a  rich  champaign       FEZZAN  (ano.  jPUaanjeaad  thehmdoftk 

country,  prodneoTe  in   grain,  chiefly  wheat  Oaramantea),  n  country  of  Geatnl  AMeai  gm- 

and  barley,  honey,  tobacco  of  the  kind  called  erally  suppoaed  to  readi  ftom  lat  M*  toSl^K<, 

■Mftifaeii,  ollTca,  and  wine.     The  principal  and  from  long.  18* to  17*  R,Uit  ttie  houniailM 

mountains  are  the  Zaragh  and  Zarfcon, or  Zara-  areiU  defined;  pop. estimated  at  ftomTSJiMli 

hamm.    The  chief  river  Is  the  8ebou,  which,  160,000.    ItlieaaouthofthepnAnfieofTripsI, 

rialngin  the  E.  part  of  the  prorince  near  the  to  which  it  ia  tributary,  and  ia  bounded  en  J 

Atlas  mountdn,  passes  within  6  m.  of  the  city  other  sides  by  the  Sauim.    IneoMaoasaeeif 

of  Fei.  and  enters  the  Atlantic  at  Manunn,  the  want  of  moisture  and  thejmnt  um^  Hii 

whoe  it  la  narigable.    The  chief  cities  are  Fes  almost  barren  of  Tegetation.    TlieaoBeasnfcli 

sand  Tangiera,  the  principal  commercial  seats  of  of  black  ahining  aaiwstone,  or  the  fine  aaadsf 

the  empire,  Mequinei,  Tetnan,  Larach,  8alee,  the  deaert    Tm  Talleya  interaeethy  the  liv 

BidMt^  and  Al-Kasar.    The  Spanish  i»^dioe  nmgesofhillsoontaln  theeultlTnUeMdefte 

of  Genta,  Alhnoemaa,  Beflor-de-Veles,  and  Me-  region.     The  Bla^  Hmleh,  the  WhUa  Be* 

una  are  in  this  province,  on  the  Mediterranean,  rateh,  and  other  mountain  raM%  cat  Fbbbb 

Fes  was  an  independent  kingdom  till  cooqner-  generally  In  the  direction  of  N.  w.  to  flLSL  Us 

ed  and  annexed  to  Morocco  in  1648. — ^The  land  Ilea  In  a  hollow  lower  Uiaa  the  aavBUBAsg 

dty  of  Fes  is  situated  in  lat  84<^  6' 8"  N.,  long,  desert    The  heat  In  anmmer  tsliliasi^ifci^ 

6<^rir'W.,  86  m.&  from  the  Mediterranean,  aometimea  to  ISS'^F.    In  whiter  tiie  cril  b 

100  m.  E.  from  the  Athmtie,  and  80  m.  &  E.  greater  than  might  be  anticipated  fruaa  itolsfr 

from  Tangier,  on  the  slope  of  a  rslley  watered  tude;  in  1860  snow  Ml  at  w*****?^  nd  lee  as 

Sthe  river  Fes,  also  called  Wad-el-Jabor  (river  thick  as  a  man*s  finger  waa  found  at  Mo 

pearls),  whidi  dirides  within  the  city  into  2  There  are  no  rivers  nor  brocks,  and  trin 

branch^,  supplying  the  baths  and  fountains ;  foils,  thnnder  storms  sre  rare,  and  the 

pop.  estimstea  at  £),000,  including  10,000  Ber-  is  very  nnhealthy  for  Earv^waoa.    Dates  sn 

Den,  6,000  negroes,  and  a  large  nnrober  of  Jews,  the  staple  product;  small  qnantitlea  of  a 

The  city,  surrounded  by  dilapidated  wslK  is  4  and  bariey  are  grown.    Among  the  other 

m.  in  circuit,  and  is  dividea  into  the  old  and  dnotions  are  figs,  pomemnates,  waM 

new  towns,  botli,  however,  ancient,  and  both  legumes,  durra,  ana  a  Ittlle  wheat    Of 

composed  of  narrow,  dirty  streets.    The  houses  animals,  goats  are  the  moat  numerous; 

are  of  brick,  with  galleries  and  flat  roofs.    It  is  horses,  and  asses  are  reared.    Of  wild 

one  of  the  8  residences  of  the  emperor,  but  the  there  are  the  lion,  leopard,  hyena,  Jackal, 

palace,  although  large,  is  not  remarkable.  ' In  fox, and  porcupine ;  among  bir^^vuhurs^ fcl- 

the  16th  century  this  piece  wss  a  famous  seat  cons,  and  other  birds  of  prey,  with  oatrkhss  sb< 

of  Arabic  learning.    It  has  yet  a  university  bustards.  Feszan  is  exempt  from  fiiea,  but  aati^ 

called  the  house  of  science,  colleges,  and  ele-  scorpions,  and  bugs  abound.    Pknted  eu  Iks 

mentary  schools.    Formerly  the  city  contained  high  road  of  commerce  between  the 

some  hundreds  of  mosques,  and  is  said  still  to  Africa  and  the  interior,  the  F 

ha\e  100,  of  which  the  principal  are  El  Caroo-  their  main  reliance  upon  the 

been,  and  the  mosque  of  8ultan  Muley  Edris,  From  Cairo  to  Moorsook  the 

founder  of  the  city.    The  former  has  a  covered  about  40  days,  from  Tripoli  to  the 

court  for  women  to  pray  in,  and  the  latter,  about  26  davs.    Of  mann&cturee  the .  - 

which  contkins  the  remains  of  the  founder,  is  a  almost  destitute.    Fexian  Is  inhabited  by  two 

sanctuary  for  criminals.    From  its  sbundance  branches  of  the  Berber  race :  the  Tuarlkik  whs 

of  mosqnes  and  relics  Fez  is  the  holy  city  of  the  occupy  the  K.  W.,  and  the  Tlbbooa,  who  dwnl 

western  Arabs.    It  possesses  200  caravansaries,  in  the  S.  E.    Their  complexloo  la  dark  brova, 

aome  hospitals,  and  manufactories  of  woollens,  their  cheek  bones  are  prominent  hair  woeOr. 

aashes,  silk  stnffii  and  airdle^  the  red  woollen  fooes  flat,  eyes  small,  lips  thick  and  nrstabsr- 

caps  called  fez  (dyed  of  a  bright  red  color  by  ant    Their   penoos  are  well  formsd.    IWv 

means  of  a  berry  found  in  the  vicinity),  slippers,  totak  a  oormpt  dialect  of  Arabic  and 

coarse  linens,  fine  carpets,  saddlery,  Ac    Of  tneir  media  of  exchange  are  8pa&fah 

the  fine  leather  known  by  the  name  of  morocco,  grain.    The  country  is  ruled  by  a 


the  red  conies  from  Fez.  « lu  artisans  are  also  resides  at  Moorzook^and  can  bring  about  Ift^fitl 
very  skilfol  in  goldsmith*s  work  and  Jewelry,  men  into  the  fidd.  The  chief  aouraee  of  hbrw- 
It  ia  the  depot  of  the  inland  trade*  and  coUecta    enne  are  taxes  upon  davea 


FIABD  FIOHTE                     488 

Hie  onl^  places  exoibiting  to  the  eye  some  de-  analyses  of  animal  fibrine  by  8herer  might  almost 
gree  of  lifeand  prosperity,  according  to  Dr.Bartb,  equally  well  be  given  for  either  of  the  other  snb- 
tre  Moorzook  and  Sockna.  The  population  of  stances,  or  indeed  for  the  caseine  of  milk,  which 
esch  is  estimated  at  about  8,000.  Cornelius  is  in  no  respect  different  The  following  is  one 
Balbas  Gaditanns,  Roman  proconsul  of  Africa,  of  many  quoted  by  Liebig:  carbon,  64.454; 
penetrated  into  Phazania  about  20  B.  G.  The  hydrogen,  7.069 ;  nitrogen,  15.762;  oxygen,  sul- 
remains  of  Roman  civilization,  in  the  shape  of  phur,  phosphorus,  22.715.  When  meat  is  cooked, 
colmnns  or  mausoleums,  are  still  found  as  far  8.  the  quick  application  of  a  strong  heat  or  of  boil- 
as  26®  25'  N.  In  the  7th  century  Fezzan  fell  ing  water  causes  the  albuminous  Hquid  which 
under  the  dominion  of  the  Arabs,  who  intro-  surrounds  the  fibrine  to  coagulate  and  enclose 
dnced  Mohammedanism,  to  which  religion  the  the  savory  juices  in  a  coating  they  cannot  pene* 
Fezzaneers  are  still  fanatically  attached.  Since  trate.  The  fibrine  is  also  Uius  protected  and 
then  Fezzan  has  generally  been  tributary  to  remains  tender.  Gold  water  does  not  coagulate 
some  Arab  potentate.  In  1811  the  bey  Mukni  the  albumen,  and  so  the  juices  esci^e  when  the 
usurped  the  throne,  and  acknowledged  allegi-  meat  is  placed  in  it,  and  the  fibrine  afterward 
anoe  to  the  pasha  of  Tripoli.  Fezzan  has  been  contracts  in  cooking  and  becomes  poor  and 
much  visitea  by  modem  travellers,  and  is  re-  tough.  In  young  animals  the  fibrine  is  aocom- 
carded  as  the  starting  point  for  the  interior  of  panied  with  more  of  this  albuminous  liquid  than 
Kegrdand.  Denham  and  Glapperton,  Oudney,  m  those  that  are  older. 
Homemann,  Lyon,  Ritchie,  Barth,  Richardson,  FIGHTE,  JohjlKit  Gottlicb,  a  German  phi- 
and  lastly  Dr.  Vogel,  have  all  visited  and  de-  losopher,  bom  in  Rammenau  in  Lusatia,  May 
■eribedit.  19, 1762,  died  in  BerUn,  Jan.  27, 1814.   He  was 

FIARD,  Jean  Baptistb,  abb^  a  French  de-  the  son  of  a  poor  weaver,  and  owed  his  educa- 

Bionologist,  bom  in  D^on,  Nov.  28,  17S6,  died  tion  to  the  munificence  of  a  wealthy  nobleman, 

there,  Sept.  80,  1818.    He  accounted  for  the  the  baron  of  Miltitz.    He  studied  theology  at 

perrersitiesof  human  conduct  by  supposing  de-  Jena,  Leipsie,  and  Wittenberg,  1780-^83,  and 

inonifto  agency,  and  it  was  his  opinion  that  Vol-  for  10  years  obtained  a  precarious  living  as  a 

taira  and  other  philosophers  of  his  time  were  private  tutor.     Not  unfrequently  during  this 

merely  demons,  and  denounced  them  as  such  time  he  was  brought  to  the  verge  of  abject  pov- 

b^fore  an  assembly  of  the  clergy  of  France  in  erty.    While  at  Ednigsberg  in  1792,  he  became 

1776.    The  French  revolution  seemed  to  him  acquainted  with  the  philosopher  Eant,  of  whom 

a  great  diabolic  triumph,  and  his  opinion  was  he  had  been  one  of  the  earliest  and  most  en^ 

confirmed  by  his  own  imprisonment  for  2  years  thusiastic  admirers,  and  as  an  application  of  his 

lor  persistence  in  the  exercise  of  the  priest-  philosophy  wrote  a  pamphlet  entitled  Kritik 

hood.  aller  Offenbarungen  (^^  Review  of  All  Revela- 

FIBRDTE,  a  nitrogenous  compound  which  tions**),  which,  having  been  published  anony- 

ibrms  the  solid  portion  of  the  flesh  or  muscular  mously,  was  generally  believed  to  have  been 

fibre  of  animals,  and  also  the  fibrous  portion  of  written  by  Eant  himself.    In  1793,  while  resid- 

the  blood.    A  substance  identical  with  it  in  ing  in  Switzerland,  he  published  a  work  in  2 

oomposition  is  found  in  tbe  newly  expressed  volumes  *^  to  rectify  public  opinion  in  regard  to 

jnioes  of  plants,  particularly  in  the  grape,  when  the  French  revolution."    In  1794  he  obtained 

these  are  allowea  to  stand  for  some  time,  and  a  professorship  at  the  university  of  Jena  through 

the  gdatinous  substance  that  is  deposited  is  the  influence  of  Goethe,  then  secretary  of  state 

washed  fireo  from  the  coloring  matter  associated  of  Saxe- Weimar.    In  the  same  year  he  pub- 

withit.    This  iscalled  vegetable  fibrine.    It  ex-  lished  a  treatise  containing  the  fundamental 

isto  idso  in  wheat  fiour,  being  separated  in  the  doctrines  of  his  philosophical  system :   Ueber 

■Qbstance  commonly  called    gluten.     Animal  denBegnffderWisunichafUUhre{^^0nihQl<die9k 

fibrine  is  separated  from  the  muscle  or  flesh  by  of  a  general  Theoi^  of  Enowledge^),  and  during 

wadiing  the  soluble  saline  coloring  and  alburai-  the  next  5  years  his  system  was  matured  and 

nous  matters  with  cold  water,  and  then  dissolv-  completed.     By  it  he  immediately  took  rank 

ing  the  gelatinous  and  fatty  matters  with  hot  among  the  most  original  living  philosophers. 

water.    The  residue  is  principally  fibrine.  It  is  and  as  it  appeared  to  furnish  a  metaphysical 

dbteined  from  freshly  drawn  blood  by  taking  up  basis  for  progressive  political   and   religious 

tte  rc^y  iK>rtions  that  adhere  to  a  twig  with  views,  he  was  considered  one  of  the  leaders  of 

wbieh  it  is  stured,  and  thoroughly  cleansing  the  liberal  party  in  Grermany.    The  Saxon  gov- 

ftese  of  coloring  and  soluble  matters  by  wash-  emment,  becoming  alarmed  at  the  boldness  of 

ing.  It  is  a  soft  white  substance,  which  becomes  his  theories,  insisted  on  his  removal,  and  Goe- 

en  drying  yellowish,  brittle,  and  semi-transpar-  the,  though  secretly  sympathizing  with  him. 

cnL   Numerous  analyses  have  been  made  of  the  felt  himself  bound  to  express  to  him  his  official 

fibriiie^  albnraen,  and  caseine  derived  from  vege-  disapprobation.   Exasperated  by  these  proceed- 

tdtemed  for  food — the  albumen  from  the  clari-  ings,  Fichte  resigned  his  professorship  and  ap- 

fied  imoe  of  turnips,  asparagus,  &c.,  and  the  pealed  to  the  public  in  a  pamphlet  entitled  Ap- 

CMSine  from  beans  and  peas — and  the  results  peUatian  gegen  die  AnklagedSu  Atheumui,  But 

prora  an  identity  of  composition  not  only  among  this  appefd,  although  proving  the  deep  eamest- 

flMmsdves^  but  withthe  chief  constituents  of  the  ness  of  Fichte,  could  scarcely  be  considered  as 

Uood,  anmiai  fibre,  and  albumen.    One  of  the  a  conduaiye  refutation  of  the  objections  raised 


484  FICUTE 

against  his  doctrines.    Ho  maintaiQed  iq  it  that  callod  the  absolute,  and  by  the  ancient  pIaIofc>- 

scieuce  could  concoive  the  idea  of  exisUDco  phcra  the  subAtaiicc.    Fichte^d  philo0Oti!ijr  mii 

onljr  in  regard  to  such  beings  or  things  as  be>  intended  to  amplify  tliat  of  Kaut.     Kant.  In 

longed  to  the  province  of  sensual  perception,  investigating  tlie  theory  of  Lunian  cognitifC, 

and  that  tlierefore  it  could  not  be  applied  to  had  arrived  at  the  conclusion  that  all  propertied 

God.     God  was  not  an  individual  being,  but  of  external  objects,  by  which  they  are  diticvruvd 

merely  a  manifestation  of  supremo  laws,  the  and  known,  are  not  realities,  tranaferrvd  fmu 

logical  order  of  eventi,  the  ordo  ordinaru  of  tlio  without  into  the  hnman  mind,  but  mere  fon&t 

universe.    For  the  rest,  Fichto  held  that  the  of  conception  innate  in  the  hniuan  mind.   Beoce 

question  whether  a  philosophical  system  was  he  argued  that  objects  per  sr,  or  aoch  as  thij 

atliei^tic  or  not  was  utterly  preposterous.    It  really  are,  independent  of  human  oognilioo,  an 

was,  ho  said,  no  less  ridiculous  to  ask  a  philos-  utterly  unknown  to  man.  So  lar  as  man  is  cuo- 

opher  if  his  doctrines  were  atheistic  than  to  cerned,  tliey  are  only  phenomena,  that  is  to  ssr, 

ask  a  mathematician  whether  a  triangle  was  for  man  they  exist  only  as  they  appear  to  tlMS 

green  or  red.    From  Jena  Fichte  went  to  Ber-  human  mind  according  to  its  forms  of  cooctp- 

n,  where  by  his  writings  and  lectures  he  ex-  tion  (categories),  while  as  noumttia,  or  such  m 

erted  a  great  influence  on  public  opinion,  and  they  are  per  sf,  they  aro  unknown  and  incoc- 

after  the  reverses  which  befell  the  Prussian  ceivable.    Now  that  which  Fichtc  attempts  lo 

monarchy  became  one  of  the  most  conspicuous  prove  is  simply  this,  that  between  d^jucts  m 

and  powerful  anti-Napoleonic  agitators.    For  a  they  appear  to  human  conception,  and  such  ti 

few  months  only  (1805),  he  accepted  a  profes-  they  are,  Uiero  is  no  real  diuerence,  since  t^ 

•orship  at  the  university  of  Erlangen.  After  the  fonns  of  hnman  cognition  aro  identical  wiih  the 

battle  of  Jena  (1800)  ho  went  to  KOnigsberg,  action  of  the  absolute  intellect:  that  objecuirt 

and  thence  to  Copenhagen,  but  returned  to  Ikr-  only  the  limit  set  by  the  absolute  wltmn  itself 

lin  in  1807.    While  the  French  conqnerorswero  in  order  to  arrive  at  perfect  self-consciuomrtt ; 

itill  there  he  delivered  in  the  academy  his  that  the  absolute  (tlie  Jek)  is  at  the  aame  tic^ 

^'  Addresses  to  the  German  Nation"  (Jieden  an  subject  and  object,  the  id^  and  the  reaL    S*- 

dis  deuUche  Xation\  which  even  to  this  day  aro  duced  to  plainer  language,  all  thu  would  mess 

admired  as  a  monument  of  the  most  intense  that  God  (the  absolute  subject,  the  gnoat  active 

patriotism  and  depth  of  thought.    Immediately  and  creative  *'  I  *")  and  nature  (the  ^  not  I,**  ihe 

after  the  establishment  of  the  Berlin  university  aggregate  of  objects)  are  united  in  a  sinilir 

in  1810,  he  accepted  a  professorship  there.    In  manner  as  soul  and  body ;  Uiat  the  ahic^st« 

1813  he  resumed  his  political  activity  with  great  intellect  pervades  all  and  every  thin^^  and  tli; 

success.  When  at  last  the  deliverance  of  Germany  the  human  mind  is  an  integral  iiart  of  the  si  4o- 

from  French  oppression  had  given  himhufficient  luto  intellect.    Hut,  clothetl  in  the  mo<t  9:r.j:uLi.* 

tranquillity  of  mind  to  resume  the  completion  of  and  ob:«ure  fonnulos,  tlie  theory  of  Firhic  «  ^* 

his  philo!ii>]>hioal  styiitem,  ho  fell  a  victim  to  the  understood  by  many  to  moan  tliat  all  rv^alii;  1 1- 

noblo  exertions  of  Lis  wife  in  the  caum)  of  char-  isted  only  in  the  imagination  of  man,  aiM  wa»  .:; 

ity.    By  nursing  the  f<ick  and  wounded  in  the  fuc i  merely  un  out wonl  re tk-ctiun  or  man: fi-«t.i:.r. 

military  hospitals  for  5  months  she  had  become  of  the  workings  of  the  hniuon  mind.    SucL  «2»« 

infected  with  typhus.     .She  recovered,  but  her  not  his  idea,  and  the  tenn  ^idealist,**  wLcsi;" 

hu.sband,  who  had  also  taken  the  di:»easo,  sue-  |>lied  to  Fiohto,  hasadilVerontmcaninff  fr^iiuC^ 

cumbed  to  it. — Ik*Mdo  the  al>ove  mentioned  m  which  it  is  applied  to  Berkeley.     Thai  il*. 

publications  of  Fichte,  the  following  are   his  ultimate  consequences  of  Fichtc'ssystcx:;  Vir.. I 


L'fber  die  IkMimmuiuj  dt^s  MfUMhtn  (l(«ul) ;  works,  set  forth  ah  (icnl,  and  all  individual  l..:^> 

An  vceUung  turn  uUg*  n  Lthtn  ( 1  .SLH» ).   1 1  is  c«  >ia-  only  us  rotle<'tions  of  the  absolute.    Applyi£<:  L» 

plete  Works  were  published  at  Berlin  in  lSi5.  metaphysical  theories  to  ethioi,  Fichte  cuntl:^t« 

To  give  a  succinct  nnd  intelligible  analysis  of  that  morality  iH^nsists  in  the  harmony  of  uxtLf 

Fichle's  philosophical  system  is  next  to  imi>os-  thoughts  (conscience)  and  acti«ms.   IjQtln:  frix- 

sihle.    llis  laji;:uago  is  extremely  pedantic,  ab-  dom  of  action  and  sell'-determiualiun  Is  ^c^^i 

struse,  and  liable  to  ii)l>iCon  struct  ion,  to  which,  ing  to  Fichti\  not  merely  the  preUmlziarr  cvc- 

indeed,  Fichte's  philt>s4»phy  has  been  subje<'t  in  diiion  of  morality,  but  morality  its^-lf.    XL'.zkX 

a  higher  degree  i Perhaps  than  that  i>f  any  other  law  bhouM  bo  nothing  nk»rc  than  a  ditcr::.::i»- 

moilern  philosopher.     Thu>,  for  instance,  to  de-  tion  of  the  l*o(inihiries  within  in  hie h  t2^'  fr- ' 

signate  tiio  sclf-consi'ious  intellect  fis  controsti'd  action  of  the  individual  must  bo  coufiix-i.  t^.- 1» 

with  the  non-cousciourt  objects  of  ilh  conception,  to  concede  the  humc  frt-v^loni  lu  wthcrsk    Ia« 

he  UM.S  the  jK-rsonal  pronoun  **  I*  ascoutra>tM  has  no  meaning  or  vxlntinco  without  **.**.:;. 

to  the  **n«»t  ]*'  (Irh  and  SifhC-Ich^  iu  English  The  object  of  society  i.t  the  rcallxalk<i  ^  H: 

ver>ions  generally  rendered  by  the  Latin  «7o  and  supremo  law  as  conocivi'd  by  huuiAn  rvas^w 

nvn-t'/v);  and  this  was  misi^uiNtruod  bv  many  The  nu^st  perfect  state  of  human  kku-It  m.  ^ 

of  his  contcm|>oraries  as  a  deilicatitm  of  his  ow  n  bo  the  true  kin,^lom  of  lieav^n,  sia^v  i!.c  x.-*.* 

iudivlduol  i*i'If,  whilo  iu  fniintof  fact  he  meant  luto  or  (iotl  is  revealed  iu  tlie  ratiiiOal  dtwl  ;- 

•nly  that  which  by  other  moderns  has  been  mvut  of  maukiud.    It  is  ttuih  K«i;  Lov  iLcsc 


HOHTE  YICUSO                      48S 

oetrines  of  Fiebte  appeared  in  practice,  between  the  theories  of  the  so-called  yoanger 

ling  that  self-reliance  and  self-deter-  Hegelian   schod   and   the  republican  moye- 

.  were  the   only  goarantoes  of  tme  ments  of  that  time.    Fichte*s  transcendmital 

^  and  contending  against  the  assumption  idealism,  as  it  was  called,  is  therefore  not  a 

irine  riglit  of  political  institutions,  he  philosophical  sjrstem  in  the  same  meaning  as 

1  a  philosophical  basis  to  the  liberal  those  of  the  ancients,  but  merely  a  single  stage 

parties  who  opposed  the  sanctity  of  in  the  intellectual  and  political  progress  of  Ger* 

nghts  to  the  assumed  diyine  right  of  many.    Viewed  in  this  light,  it  has  in  its  time 

a    In  order  to  insure  to  the  people  the  exerted  a  great  influence  on  the  mind  ci  the 

possible  amount  of  rational  well  being,  German  nation,  and  largely  contributed  to  thai 

lught  that  the  introduction  of  the  most  popular  enthusiastic  excitement  by  which  tiie 

I  popular  education  was  one  of  the  French  dominion  over  central  Europe  was  de- 

i  auties  of  the  state.    In  regard  to  stroyed.     The  0runds6ge  de»  gegeniwHrtiffen 

feet  his  urgent  appeals  to  the  Ger-  ZeiiaUen  (Characteristics  of  the  Present  AgeX 

remments  have  been  higtily  sucoessftiL  Wue%  de»  Gelehrten  (Nature  of  the  SdiolaxX 

itity  of  the  subject  and  object,  or  of  the  BesOmmung  de$  MoMcTien  (Vocation  d  l^m), 

1  real,  as  taught  by  Fichte,  afterward  Batimmung  de»  Gelehrten  (Vocation  of  the 

the  basis  as  well  of  Schelling's  nature-  Scholar),  and  some  other  of  Fichte^s  works, 

by  as  of  HegeVs  philosophic^  system,  have  been  translated  into  English  by  Smith, 

er  of  which  attempts  a  logical  construe-  who  has  also  written  a  memoir  of  the  author. — 

be  universe  from  the  standpoint  of  the  IiiMAinjBL  HniMAKv,  son  of  the  preoeding,  bom 

nature),  while  the  other  attempts  tlie  at  Jena  in  1797,  filled  from  1822  to  isis  pro* 

•m  the  point  of  view  o(  the  subject  (the  fessorships  at  several  Prussian  colleges,  and  nnoe 

mind).    Heinrich  Heine  draws  an  inge-  1842  has  been  professor  at  the  universi^  of 

rallel  between  Kant  and  Robespierre  on  Ttlbingen.    He  has  published  many  philoaopM- 

hand,  and  Fichte  and  Napoleon  on  the  cal  works,  mostly  fbllowing  the  theories  of  his 

Like  Robespierre — ^this  is  Heine's  state-  father,  though  he  claims  to  have  established  a 

Cant  by  his  reasoning  destroyed  all  that  system  of  his  own,  which,  in  eontradisdnetion 

r  thinkers  had  appei^ed  as  reality,  leav-  to  the  Hegelian  pantheism,  he  calls  oonorete 

•oKtary  with  his  thoughts  and  his  cog-  theism. 

[ike  Napoleon,  Fichte  combined  thought  FIGHTELBERG,  or  Ficrtelosbibob  (monn- 

OB  into  one,  and  attempted  to  recon-  tain  of  pines),  a  chain  of  mountains  in  the  king- 

le  world  of  realities  by  the  unrestrained  dom  of  Bavaria,  province  of  Upper  Francoma,  be* 

r  gigantic  thought    This  parallel  might  tween  the  Bohemian  forest  and  the  FranconisA 

er  extended  to  Schelling,  whose  mysti-  Jura,  covered  with  forests  of  firs  and  pines.  By 

re-philosophy  would  then  correspond  reason  of  its  position  in  the  centre  of  Germany 

Mriod  of  the  French  restoration,  and  this  chain  is  regarded  as  the  nucleus  of  all  the 

iod  of  French  literature  represented  by  Germanic  mountains,  though  it  does  not  sur> 

mtic  school;  and  to  Hegel,  whose  elab-  pass  the  neighboring  chains  in  elevation.     It 

lilosophical  system  of  checks  and  bal-  separates  the  affluents  of  the  North  and  Black 

Sht  be  made  to  correspond  to  the  con-  seas,  the  river  Naab  descending  from  it  on  the 

period  of  French  history  under  Louis  S.,  the  Saale  on  the  N.,  the  E^r  on  the  £., 

•    These  comparisons  are  no  mere  fan-  and  the  Main  on  the  W.    It  extends  in  length 

ertain  it  is  that  all  those  seemingly  ab-  36  m.  N.  £•  from  Baireuth  to  the  Bohemian 

"Stems  of  philosophy,  which  to  outsiders  frontier,  and  its  2  loftiest  summits  are  Ochsen* 

1  merely  as  abstract  metaphysical  lucu-  kopf  (Qx  head)  and  Schneeberg  (Snow  moun- 

,  bad  for  Germany  herself  a  practical  tain),   respectively  8,897  and  8,450  feet  high* 

',  u4  served  as  an  ultimate  basis  for  the  The  Fiohtelberg  possesses  a  robust  and  laborious 

tts  of  political  parties.    Thus,  it  might  population  of  155,000.    The  upper  part  of  the 

a  that  the  system  of  Kant  lay  at  the  bot-  mountain  yields  oats  and  wood  in  abundance, 

lesympathies  with  the  levelling  tenden-  and  the  lower  parts  produce  rye,  barley,  flax, 

le  IVench  revolution,  which  during  the  pulse,  and  a  litUe  wheat ;  but  the  chief  indns* 

laraof  the  18th  century  became  manifest  try  of  the  inhabitants  is  in  working  the  nnmer- 

portions  of  Germany ;  that  Fichte^s  ous  mines  of  iron,  vitriol,  sulphur,  lead,  cop- 
was  the  bource  from  which  sprang  the  per,  and  marble.  The  mountains  are  densely 
QB  of  the  Burtchemchaft  toward  a  re-  populated  and  traversed  by  good  roads,  and  in 
m  of  the  German  empire  in  all  its  me-  the  S.  W.  by  the  Saxon-Bavarian  railway. 
plendor;  that  Schelling's  mysticism  had  FIGINO,  Marsilio,  a  Platonic  philosopher 
do  with  the  retrograde  political  roman-  of  the  16th  century,  bom  in  Florence,  Oct  19, 
r  the  feudal  party ;  and  lastly,  that  the  1483,  died  in  Caregffi,  Oct  1,  1499.  He  was 
i  qritem  was  tbe  guiding  light  of  those  the  son  of  the  first  physician  of  Cosmo  de'  He- 
parties  in  Grermany  whose  aim  was  a  diet,  and  was  intended  for  his  father's  nrofee- 
loDal  monarchv.     The  close  affinity  sion.    A  learned  Greek,  Gemistus  Pletno,  an 

those  philosophical  systems  and  polit-  enthusiastic  student  of  the  long  forgotten  phi- 

lendes  was  as  apparent  to  their  imme-  losopby  of  Plato,  inspired  Ck>6mo  with  so  much 

Hemporaries  as  was  in  1848  the  affinity  of  his  own  enthusiasm,  that  the  latter  deters 


nOQUXLHDBT  BUD 

■mied  to  natonllae  thb  pliOoaoplij  at  boDM.  Hut  Im  loit  tbe  tliiiiy.iii  qpwtlw,  and  tte  4» 

Bm  Mleoted  Toang  iiciiio  as  a  yooth  of  great  fendant  came  ii^  poiiaiMioii  of  it  hj  i>teg,  aad 

womise,  to  be  imtmcted  io  the  myeteriesof  baseooTertedittobbowaiiM;  aadtlMdeiBd* 

Platoolni,  and  to  become  the  chief  and  preoep-  ant  ia  not  Mmitted  to  deny  tlia  loriiif  or  iad- 

tor  of  a  new  Flatonio  academy.    He  eancated  ing,  tbe  oolj  qneetion  biinff  whether  he  haa  re- 

Umin  hie  palace^  comimded  him  with  Oieelc  ftuM  to  Mre  to  tbe  plaintiff  nro|Mrifwideh  tbe 

■MMteriy  encooragadliimtoreadlntbdrnatiTe  nlaintiffbaaarl^ttodemaiiamailila.   Otlier 

kngnage  the  pbSceopben  of  antiqoitj,  placed  nmiliar  fmtancec  are  tlie  wmndffm  %mm  aiippo- 

him  wbenSO  jearaoldattbelieadoftbeacad-  litiona  tliat  a  tiling  done  now  waa  done  aft  a 

eBB7  of  Florence^  and  charged  bim  to  be  tbe  former  time»  and  afl  tbe  John  Doe  aad  llBhgd 

hiterpreterand  propagator  of  tbe  Flatoidc  phi-  Boe  proceedlnga.    Tbe  llctieoa  of  the  ecawa 

kaoplij  in  tbe  Wect.    FIdno  made  nomerooe  law  were  derlTcd.  it  ia  aaid,  flnoaa  the  BoaMn 

traaeb&iooa  from  Flatcv  lamblicboi^  Hermea  dTil  law,  in  wbicn  tlie  prntor,  for  tlM  aake  ef  i 

Mamcgiftaa,  whom  be  eipeciallj  adimred,  and  doing  Jnatioe  witbont  Tiohitiqg  tlM  hnr,  wm 

foom  moft  of  tbe  Alexandrian  pbHoeoMienk  permitted  to  npooee  n  atato  or  foda  to  eilift 

Too  weak  to  bold  tbe  balanee  between  Flato  other  than  tbe  raai  one.    In  the  oU  law,  ietini 

and  Artototle»  and  betweenPkto  and  tbe  Alex-  wereaaidtobe^of  UToaortaiahfTaDeeftNBrillw; 

andrian^he  became  tbe  diedple  of  all  adiookL  lelatioiL  pieeiimpti<m,  and  rftprftaewtation,*  To 

and  borrowed  from  an  ayitema.   Hetreatedoc  aToid  the  miwiblefo  wJiich  might  rearit  fri 

tiie  nature  and  immortaUtj  of  tbe  loiil,  tbe  fonc-  them,  there  wwe  cwtain  mlea^anehaattefr^ 

tkna  and  difttinffoiihing  cbaracteri  of  anseliL  lowing:  1,  the  law  nerv  aiakee  fteHona  Wil 

wdtbebdngandattriboteeofGod.    Hia chief  from  necmiity  and  to  a^oid  a  ■iimgi  %ibtf 

merit,  bowerer,  ia  as  tbe  trandaior  and  fint  most  not  be  of  a  thing  imnoarfbie ;  S|«(ffle 

weatem  admirer  of  Flate^  and  in  bii  partialis  ncTcr  adndtted  where  tmtli  wiU  wwk  aa  wiB; 

for  tbia  nbiloftopber  be  ia  said  to  baye  endeaT-  ^  thej  are  cnnflned  to  ciril  eeao%  and 

ored  to  introdoce  fragments  from  bis  writings  permitted  in  criminal  trials^    Bnft 

hito  the  oAoes  and  prayers  of  tbe  cborob.  excepting  tbe  last,  were  noft  of  aa 

nOQUELM ONT,  Kabl  LcDwio^  coont,  an  Tahie;  and  tbe  trae  explanation  ef 

Anatrian statesman  andgeneral,  bomat  DienaCi  is»  that  tber  belong  to  the  old  ajateaa  ef 

Lorraine^  March  tS,  1777,  died  in  Veidce,  eality  and  formula,  and  haTO  mr  the 

April  7. 1857.    He  was  a  son  of  Connt  Joseph,  disaimearsd.    What  are  called  prsse 

wno^  after  emigrating  from  Lorraine  to  Anstria,  law  (wUcb  will  be  treated  vndcr 

died  in  1799  from  a  woond  receiTed  at  tbe  bead)  are  sometimsa  clssssil  with 

battle  of  Magnano.    Like  bis  father,  be  fo«ight  not  acooratelj. 
agidoft  the  French,  and  became  in  1813  mijor-       FIELD,  Datid  Dtdut,  an  Americen  Jerirt. 

general,  and  afterward  general  of  cavalrj.    He  bom  in  Haddam,  Conn^  Feb.  IS,  180&,  tbe  cid- 

wss  employed  as  Austrian  ambaasador,  and  on  est  son  of  tbe  Coogregstioosl  minister  of  that 

special  important  diplomatic  missioos  in  rarious  town.    When  be  was  l'^  bis  fiuher  msoT^ 

countries,  became  minister  of  foreign  affiun  to  Stockbridge,  Masiw,  and  in  1831  he  entcnd 

during  Mettemich*s  temporary  absence  from  Williams  college.    In  1825  be  commenced  tb* 

Vienna  in  1839,  and  Joined  the  cabinet  in  1840  study  of  law,  was  admitted  to  tbe  her  in  IWC 

as  minister  of  conference  and  as  director  of  the  and  immediately  entered  upon  praeiioe  ia  the 

war  department.    During  the   revolution  of  city  of  New  York,  where  be  has  been  ooMie- 

1848  be  was  for  a  short  time  minister  of  foraign  nous  at  the  bar  for  more  tlian  tO  jeara.    ttt  n 

affairs,  and  then  prorisional  prime  minister,  till  especially  known  by  his  labors  1^  the  came  «f 

May  4,  when  he  retired  on  account  of  a  hostile  law  raform.    As  early  as  18S9  be  published  )m 

demonstration  of  the  people,  who  looked  upon  first  essay  on  tbe  subset,  pointing  oot  the  de- 

bim  as  a  disciple  of  Mettemich.    He  afterward  fects  of  the  old  system,  and  the  nneadiy  ef  a 

wrote  aereral  politicalpamphleta,  some  of  which,  reconstruction  of  the  modee  of  legal  woeedarv. 

mLordPalmerttcn^^iffUMdyUndder  Cantinent  This  he  followed  up  by  other  artielv  oo  the 

^Vienna,  1852),  and  Zttm  hik^ftigen  Frieden  same  subject  in  1842, 1844, 1S4«,  and  1847.   Ia 

(1856)^  attracted  considerable  attention.     Xei  the  Utter  year  be  was  appointed  by  the  h^tU- 

penua  H  r^flexum$  morali$  $1  politiatui  du  tura  of  New  York  a  commissiooer  oo  vtaetke 

UomU  d$  Fkqudmont  appeared  in  Paris  in  1859,  and  nleadiugs,  and  as  such  took  the  leadng  pert 

with  a  biocraphical  notice  by  M.  de  Barante.  in  tiie  preparation  of  ibe  code  of  procedare^ 

FICTION,  in  law,  a  supposition  which  b  Of  this  work  only  a  part  baa  been  as  yes  to- 
known  not  to  be  true,  but  which  is  taken  to  be  acted  into  law,  half  of  the  code  of  chra  vr»> 
true,  in  order  that  certain  conclusions  and  infer-  cedure,  and  the  whole  of  tbe  code  of  crwaKal 
eocee  may  be  supported.  Fictions  were  for-  procedure,  remmning  still  to  be  acted  vpon  Vj 
merly  used  more  frequently  than  at  present ;  and  the  legislatnra.  The  radical  deaign  of  the  asw 
most  of  those  which  are  sUll  retained  are  simply  code  of  civil  procedure  is  to  oblilersle  the  d*> 
absurdities  which  might  better  be  abandoned,  tinction  between  tbe  lorma  of  actios  aDd  be* 
Thus,  in  the  sction  of  trover,  in  whicli  tbe  tween  legal  and  equitid)ile  soita,  ao  thai  all  lbs 
plaintiir  demands  damages  fur  the  defendant's  rights  of  the  ptftiee  in  relation  to  the  snl^^cts 
leftisal  to  deliver  to  the  plaintiff  Lis  property  in  of  litigation  can  be  determined  In 
the  defendant's  poessssion,  tbe  plaintiff  dedarsa  instead  of  diridiaf  theoi  as 


FIELD   '  FEELDFABE                  487 

^flTerent  suits,  often  inconsistent  and  alwajs  the  Union.  Mr.  Held  is  now  (1859)  in  £ng* 
perplexing.  Upon  this  idea  as  the  foaDdation  land,  engaged  in  forwu^ng  a  third  attempt 
the  whole  system  is  huilt,  and  the  effect  has  to  lay  a  submarine  Atlantic  cable,  the  dectno 
been  to  produce  a  legal  revolution,  not  only  in  communication  over  that  of  1858  having  been  in- 
New  York,  but  in  the  states  of  Missouri,  Ohio,  terrupted. — Henrt  Mabttn,  an  American  der- 
Kentucky,  Indiana,  Alabama,  Minnesota,  Gall-  gyman  and  journalist,  brother  of  the  preceding, 
fbmit,  and  Oregon.  From  America  the  reform  born  in  Stockbridge,  Mass.,  April  8, 1822.  He 
soon  attracted  the  attention  of  the  law  reform-  was  graduated  at  Williams  college  at  the  age  of 
era  of  England,  with  Lord  Brougham  at  their  16,  and  after  4  years'  study  of  theology  became 
head,  and  through  their  influeuce  it  has  modi-  pastor  of  a  church  in  St  Louis  in  1842.  Aitet  5 
fied  the  legislation  of  Great  Britain  and  her  col-  years  he  resigned  his  charge  to  go  abroad.  The 
oniesL  In  1857  Mr.  Field  was  appointed  by  the  summer  of  1847  he  spent  in  travelling  over 
legislature  of  New  York  at  the  head  of  a  new  Great  Britain,  and  the  winter  foUowing  in 
commission  to  prepare  a  political  code,  a  penal  Paris.  Returning  to  America  in  the  autumn 
code,  and  a  civil  code,  works  which  are  de-  of  1848,  he  published  a  historical  sketch  of  the 
ai^oed  to  contain,  with  the  codes  of  procedure,  Italian  revolutious,  and  a  letter  from  Rome,  on 
the  whole  body  of  the  law — Ctbtjs  West,  an  the  "  Good  and  the  Bad  in  the  Roman  Catholic 
American  merchant,  brother  of  the  preceding.  Church,"  which  provoked  a  good  deal  of  criti- 
chiefly  known  from  his  connection  with  the  cism.  Soon  after,  an  acquaintance  with  the 
Atlantic  telegraph,  bom  in  Stockbridge,  Mass.,  families  of  the  Iri^  exiles  residing  in  New 
Nov.  80, 1819.  He  was  educated  in  his  native  York  led  him  to  study  Uie  history  of  the  rebel- 
county,  and  at  the  age  of  15  went  to  New  York,  lion  of  1798,  and  finally  to  write  a  book  upon 
and  in  a  few  years  fought  his  way  from  a  clerk's  it,  which  was  entitled  "  The  Irish  Confederatee'* 
deriL  to  the  head  of  a  large  and  prosperous  mer-  (12mo.,  New  York,  1851).  In  Jan.  1851,  he  waa 
cantile  house.  Such  was  his  success  that  in  settled  at  West  Springfield,  Mass.,  whence  he  re- 
1858  he  partially  retired  from  business,  and  moved  in  1854  to  New  York,  to  become  one  <^ 
nent  6  months  in  travelling  in  South  America,  the  editors  of  the  **  Evangelist,"  a  religious  lour- 
On  his  return  he  became  deeply  interested  in  nal  of  that  city.  In  1858  he  again  vbited  En- 
tbe  project  of  a  telegraph  across  the  ocean,  rope,  a  tour  which  he  described  in  a  volume 
He  waa  first  applied  to  for  aid  to  complete  the  entitled  "  Summer  Pictures  from  Copenhagen 
telegraphic  line  commenced  between  St.  John's  to  Venice"  X^^^  York,  1859). 
and  Cape  Ray  in  Newfoundland.  While  in-  FIELD  MARSHAL  (Ger.  Peldmanehall)^  the 
vestigating  the  subject  ho  considered  the  prac-  highest  military  dignity  in  some  of  the  prmci- 
ticability  of  establishing  telegraphic  communi-  pea  countries  of  Europe.  The  title  origin^ed 
cation  between  Europe  and  America  by  a  in  France  at  a  remote  period,  but  never  con- 
submarine  cable  stretching  from  Newfound-  ferred  exclusive  military  command,  the  marS" 
land  to  Ireland.  In  the  early  part  of  1854  cJmux  de  camp  of  the  old  French  service  being 
he  was  instrumental  in  procuring  a  charter  inferior  officers  whose  duty  it  was  to  select 
from  the  legislature  of  Newfoundland,  granting  proper  places  for  encampment,  provide  subsist- 
an  exclusive  right  for  50  years  to  establish  a  ence  for  the  troops,  and  in  battle  to  command 
telegraph  from  the  continent  of  America  to  the  wings  or  the  reserve.  The  corresponding 
Newfoundland,  and  thence  to  Europe ;  associat-  title  in  France  at  present  is  mareehal  de  France. 
ing  himself  with  Peter  Cooper,  Moses  Taylor,  The  term  in  its  present  signification  was  intro- 
and  other  citizens  of  New  York,  under  the  title  duced  into  Eugland  in  1736,  when  George  U. 
of  the  **  New  York,  Newfoundland,  and  London  created  the  duke  of  Argyle  and  the  earl  of  Ork- 
Tdegraph  Company,"  for  the  purpose  of  car*  ney  field  marshals,  although  it  had  long  previ- 
ning  tlus  design  into  effect,  and  tliereby  uniting  ously  been  used  in  the  German  military  service. 
Europe  and  America  by  a  submarine  cable.  The  following  are  (m  1859)  the  field  marshals 
Hr.  Field  thenceforth  devoted  himself  almost  of  the  principal  European  nations :  England,  the 
exdosively  to  the  execution  of  this  project  king  of  the  Belgians,  Prince  Albert,  Viscount 
He  participated  largely  in  the  construction  of  Combermere,  and  the  earl  of  Strafford ;  Austria, 
the  land  line  of  telegraph  in  Newfoundland  and  Prince  Windischgratz,  Counts  Nugent  and 
Gape  Breton  island,  and  in  the  two  attempts  to  Wratislaw ;  Prassia,  Count  von  WrangeL  The 
lily  the  submarine  cable  between  Cape  Kay  and  present  marshals  of  France  are :  Count  Reille 
Gape  Breton,  visiting  Endand  in  1854  and  1856  (1847),  Prince  Jerome  Bonaparte  (1850),  Count 
OQ  the  latter  business.  In  1856  he  organized  Yaillant  (1851),  Magnan  (1852),  Count  de  Cas- 
tlie  ** Atlantic  Telegraph  Company^'  to  continue  tellane  (1852),  Count  Boraguay  d^Hilliers  (1854), 
the  existing  line  to  Ireland,  subsequently  pro-  P^lissier,  duke  of  Malakoff  (1855),  Count  Han* 
eared  from  the  British  and  American  govern-  don  (1856),  Certain-Canrobert  (1856),  Bosquet 
nieDtaaid  in  money  and  ships,  and  accompanied  ^1856),  McMahon  and  Regnaud  de  oaint-Jean 
the  expeditions  which  sailed  from  England  in  a^Angely,  created  marshals  after  the  battle  of 
1857  and  1858  for  the  purpose  of  laying  the  Magenta,  and  Niel  after  the  battle  of  Solferino 
cable  acroes  the  Atlantic  ocean.  Upon  his  re-  (1859).  The  title  does  not  occur  in  the  military 
torn  to  America  in  1858,  after  the  successful  service  of  Russia. 

leying  of  the  cable,  he  was  the  recipient  of  en-  FIELDFARE,  a  European  bird  of  the  thrush 

thmiarrtiiT  ovations  in  some  of  the  chief  cities  of  famUy,  the  turdtupilaru  (linn.),  in  form,  nze, 


488  FIELDIXa 

proportions  of  parts,  uid  characters  of  tHo  pin-  illation  was  pecnliar,  bot  it  fepnanta 
mage,  resembling  Uioinigratoiy  thrush  or  Anicr-  spheric  effects  with  groat  frashiiess.  The  d»- 
ican  robin  (71  migratoriuMj  Linn.).  The  length  mand  for  his  works  was  so  grcAt  that  they  were 
is  between  10  and  11  inches,  the  extent  of  produced  too  rapidly,  and  fell  into  manperiam. 
wings  17i,  the  tarsus  li,  and  the  weight  about  FLELDIXG,  llaNRT,  an  English  nordirt  and 
4  ounces ;  it  is  a  stout  bird,  and  from  its  long  dramatist,  born  at  Sharpham  Park,  near  Olas- 
tiul  and  wiugs  rather  elegant  in  form.  The  bil^  tonbury,  Somersetshire,  April  22,  1707,  died  in 
which  is  tliat  of  the  thrushes,  is  orange  at  the  Lisbon,  Oct  8,  1764.  Uis  father  was  a  grand- 
base,  and  brownish  black  at  the  end ;  the  in-  son  of  the  earl  of  Desmond,  and  great-gruidMQ 
side  of  the  mouth  is  orange,  the  edges  of  the  of  the  first  earl  of  Denbigh,  and  served  nndrr 
lids  yellow,  the  iris  brown,  the  feet  and  claws  the  duke  of  Marlborough,  attaining  to  the 
dusky;  the  head,  hind  neck,  and  rump  are  gray,  rank  of  lieutenant-general  at  the  dose  of  the 
most  of  the  feathers  on  the  first  with  a  central  reign  of  George  I.  The  family  of  the  Fieki- 
dusky  streak ;  a  space  before  the  eye  brown-  ings  is  stated  in  the  Engiisli  peerages  (where  the 
ish  black,  and  a  whitish  line  over  the  eye ;  the  name  is  spelled  Feilding)  to  be  descended  froaa 
anterior  half  of  the  back  and  the  wing  coverts  the  same  ancestry  as  the  imperial  hoose  of 
arechestnut,8hadingbehindintoash-gray ;  fore  Ilapsburg.  Gibbon  says:  ** Far  difTorent  have 
neck  and  breast  yellowish  red,  with  elongated  been  the  fortunes  of  the  English  and  Gcmsn 
triangular  brownisli  black  8])0ts,  the  sides  paler  divisions  of  the  family  of  Ilapsburg.  The  Hor- 
with  broadly  rounded  spots ;  the  lower  breast  mer,  the  knights  and  sheriffs  of  Leicestershire, 
and  abdomen  grayish  white  tinged  with  red;  have  slowly  risen  to  the  dignity  of  the  peerage; 
the  wings  are  grayish  black,  with  the  edges  of  the  latter,  the  emperon  of  Germany  and  kiofs 
the  featliers  jialer ;  tail  dcener  black,  the  lateral  of  Spain,  have  threatened  the  liberty  of  the«iU 
feathers  grayish  toward  the  end ;  the  lower  and  invaded  the  treasures  of  the  new  worUL 
wing  coverts  and  axillary  feathers  are  pure  The  successora  of  Charles  V.  may  disdun  ihtir 
white,  conspicuous  during  flight.  The  sp^ific  brethren  of  England;  but  the  roinanee  «»f  'Tom 
name  is  derived  from  a  few  hairy  filaments  on  Jones,^  that  exquibito  picture  of  human  mao- 
the  occiput,  which  are  also  found  in  other  ners,  will  outlive  the  palace  of  the  Escartal  and 
q>ecie8,  and  even  in  otlier  genera.  The  female  the  imperial  eagle  of  Austria."  This  eloquent 
very  closely  resembles  the  male.  The  above  is  eulogy  is  as  just  as  it  is  unique,  and  the  vabe 
the  plumage  when  it  enters  Great  Britain  from  of  the  eulogy  is  enhanced  by  remembering  the 
the  continent ;  varieties  in  size  and  coloring  are  preposse«siuns  of  ita  author  in  farur  of  rank 
met  with,  and  albinos  are  occasionally  seen,  and  position.  Tlie  early  e<lucation  of  Fieldiag 
They  arrive  in  October  and  November,  and  was  intrusted  to  the  care  of  the  Ke v.  3fr.  Olirrr. 
some  remain  until  the  following  spring  if  the  a  private  tvachiT  in  (ten.  Fielding*^  Cunilr.  •-<! 
season  is  mild  ;  tlicr  roost  in  trees  if  they  can,  wiio,  witli  what  justice  wo  are  uhaMe  la  Ur'.ir- 
leavin^  for  tlie  fields  at  early  dawn,  in  parties  mine,  npiH-ars  in  ^*  Ju>eph  Andrvwai**  nvA*-^  tho 
of  from  8  or  <4  t4>  many  hundreds ;  tlieir  flight  unenviable  character  of  Panum  TmlliUT.  1!-.* 
is  QOf^y  but  not  rapid,  and  their  nioveinents  in  received  but  little  benefit  from  hi<  private  tn^  r. 
the  trees  and  on  the  ground  are  gnbeeful ;  they  and  wils  Rviit  at  an  early  aire  to  Eton,  wbi-re  ^i^ 
frequent  open  fields,  nssooiating  often  with  other  db'tingnislieil  hiinsilf  by  hU  Imlliant  ]iart%  ar.J 
spe<*ie^,  and  arc  generally  very  iihy.  T!ic  foo<l  U'toro  his  li'nh  year  had  made  great  pnnrrr^  n 
consistn  of  hawtluirn  and  other  berries  woniiH,  classieal  learning,  the  intlut-ntH.*  of  whieh  bflair.- 
larvae,  int^eets,  heed<«,  and  grains.  They  gener-  ly  evinced  in  lii^i  writings,  and  eiKpocialiv  :ii  L.i 
ally  diMi[»pear  in  A]iril  ur  May,  retiring  pruba-  dramatic  works,  which  are  now  never  aciola:  \ 
bly  in  snmiucr  to  the  north  to  l»reed ;  the  nost^  but  rarely  read.  From  Eti>n  he  was  si*nt  t»»  \\< 
are  built  in  nociety,  usnally  in  fir  nnd  Fpnioo  university  uf  Ix'vden,  where  ho  plart<<l  Lins^A 
trcen,  and  witli  the  eggs,  which  nro  5  (tr  G  in  under  tlic  tuition  uf  the  ci-lebrmtid  Vitn^r^s 
number,  reiH'MiMo  thoie  of  tlie  bloi-khlrd.  Tho  profi*ssor  of  civil  law.  He  applied  hiru^If  b:'J. 
flesh  in  rtinHderiMl  un  excellent  article  of  fiKxl,  great  a:»si4hiity  to  \\\i  studies  but  di«l  not  font: 
being  tender,  fat,  and  of  good  flavor;  this  U  tliatho  wa^theFi^of  agentU-man;  anil  h«kr«i4o 
the  frpecit^  tliat  i^  supposed  to  have  been  so  gayalife  that  his  father,  who  ha«l  toki-n  a Mc^iOtl 
highly  e^tverni■4l  by  the  ancient  Honian.^.  wife,  and  had  a  numerous  family,  fmind  hit:.««!:' 
FIELI>lN(f,  CopLKT  Vanpyke,  an  English  unable  to  defray  the  cti»t  of  hi<i  ton'^eitr^TB- 
nainter  in  water  colors,  Utrn  about  17^7,  die«l  game.  In  his^iothyear Field ingwoAc^tn: {^rL*-! 
m  Wortliing,  Suhm.*x,  March  3,  isr*.*!.  Ho  be-  to  ri'tnm  to  England,  and  was  at  oimc  thrvwa 
longed  to  a  family  of  artists  and  his  first  picture  upon  his  own  resources  with  a  fi'iidi:**^*  U-: 
was  exhibited  in  ISlo.  Ho  early  U'camo  a  r(t}»tly  pleasures  and  but  »2cndi>r  mean*  il  {•*«- 
teacher,  in  witich  capacity  ho  ac<iuin*d  many  ins  for  thi'Ui.  Hi*<  futlu-r  hoil  pr(itiut«d  Lir^  &a 
pupiU  and  frirncbi.  On  tho  deatli  of  Joshua  allowance  of  X^iH)  |*er  annum :  but  tht*.  i* 
Criittoll,  he  wart  elected  president  of  the  old  Fii-lding  said,  ** any  uue  miglit  pay  who  vmhaI 
society  of  p.! i litters  iu  m' ate r  c«»lors  which  ofli CO  His  vivut'ity,  pMnl  humor,  and  c^l-^  «: 
beheld  till  his  death.  FieMing*s  favorite  subjeciH  g?tine<l  him  tho  coni|ianii<n»ip,  if  nia  t!.«  fr.^L^- 
were  eithiT  rii'}i  winnKmI  LuuW.ipes,  ur  h!iip(i  bliip,  (»f  thenio«t  emiitent  wit*  of  h:»i;:.ir.  ■:: . 
atseaoiVa>tormvand  rock-boundeoa^t.  Fr^ni  nfti-r  ho  arrivi**!  in  Uind-m,  wbiU»  vrt  a  r:.  !.  r. 
these  twu  ty |ivs  he  aeldum  varied.    His  manip-  ho  commenced  writing  for  the  »tag^     iiis  nra 


FIELDING  489 

eoDwdj,  **Love  in  Several  MasqneS)**  was  pro*  writer  sajs  *  ^  We  hod  really  no  norelist  in 
dtowed  in  1787,  when  he  was  bat  20  years  of  age.  England  until  Fielding  wrote  and  set  the  world 
He  wrote  his  dramatio  pieces  with  great  rapid-  ever  sinoe  writing."  But  this  is  hardly  tme,  for 
ihr,  and  threw  into  them  a  maryellons  amoont  thongh  one  of  the  greatest  of  English  novelists,  ha 
of  wit  and  satire;  bat  it  was  only  his  necessi-  cannot  be  called  the  earliest,  since  his  first  novel, 
tiee  that  indnoed  him  to  expend  his  resoaroes  in  *' Joseph  Andrews  "  (1742),  professedly  in  the 
a  fine  which  was  not  in  accordance  with  his  manner  of  Cervantes,  was  began  as  a  barlesqae 
gaiim.  As  the  pay  he  received  was  small  the  on  Richardson's  '^Pamela,"  which  was  then  the 
neoesRty  for  constant  prodaotions  left  him  little  most  popalar  novel  of  the  time.  '^  Joseph  An- 
time  to  make  ^borate  plots,  or  to  pay  mach  drews,"  an  inimitable  story  of  English  life  in 
attention  to  the  diaracters  of  his  plays.  The  the  last  century,  is  mfinitely  better  than  the 
**  Wedding  Day,"  one  of  his  roost  snccessM  author  intended  to  make  it,  and,  if  his  fame 
eomediea,  gained  him  bat  £50,  and  his  voca-  rested  npon  that  work  alone,  he  would  be  re« 
tionof  a  dramatist  brought  him  in  contact  with  member^  while  the  language  in  which  it  is 
a  etaaa  of  acquaintances  who  were  not  ealcu-  written  endures.  In  1743  he  publbhed  8  vol- 
kted  to  improve  either  his  finances  or  his  nmes  of '^  Miscellanies,"  including  the  ^'Journey 
moralab  In  the  midst  of  his  gay  career,  while  from  this  World  to  the  Next,"  a  work  which, 
livfaig  from  hand  to  mouth  by  his  pen.  and  though  incomplete,  and  seemingly  without  any 
writuig  the  scenes  of  his  plays  on  the  backs  of  special  plan,  exhibits  the  same  strength  of  ima- 
his  tavern  biUs,  he  formed  an  acquaintance  gination  and  satirical  power  so  splendidly  devel* 
with  »  young  lady  of  rare  personal  endowments,  oped  in  his  novels.  The  ''  History  of  Jonathan 
Ifiv  Craddock  of  Salisbury,  whom  he  mar-  Wild,"  which  appeared  at  the  same  time,  is  a 
ried  in  his  d7th  year.  As  his  wife  had  a  for-  great  storehouse  of  wit,  of  profound  thoifght, 
tone  of  but  £1,500,  the  financial  condition  of  serioussatire,  and  of  benevolence  so  gen  nine  that 
the  gay  dramatist  was  not  much  improved  by  even  under  the  guise  of  the  greatest  villains  that 
his  marriage.  Soon  after  this  event  he  retired  ever  disgraced  humanity,  we  are  made  to  love 
to  a  small  estate  in  the  country  which  he  had  our  brother  man,  vile  as  he  is.  The  Newgate  or- 
inherited  from  his  mother,  worth  about  £200  dinary  in  this  great  prose  satire  is  the  ropresen- 
per  annom.  He  was  devotedly  attached  to  his  tative  of  the  whole  class  of  worldly-minded 
yoong  bride,  and  made  serious  resolutions  of  ecclesiastios,  as  much  so  as  Macbeth  is  the  type 
reform.  He  gave  up  writing  for  the  stage,  having  of  unscrupulous  ambition,  or  Othello  of  noble 
during  the  brief  time  that  he  followed  it  as  a  Jealousy.  Shortly  after  the  publication  of 
business  produced  about  20  comedies,  farces,  ^  Joseph  Andrews,"  amid  an  accamulation  of 
and  burlesoues,  only  one  of  which,  the  bur-  illness,  broken  fortunes,  and  constant  disap- 
lesqaa  of  '^Tom  Thumb,"  has  kept  its  place  in  pointments,  he  had  the  misfortune  to  lose 
the  theatre.  He  applied  himself  with  great  his  wife,  whom  he  tenderly  loved  and  most 
vigor  to  literary  studies  in  his  country  retreat ;  sincerely  mourned ;  thongh  in  a  few  months 
but  he  also  gave  himself  up  with  all  tbe  energy  after  her  death  he  married  her  maid,  an  act 
of  his  generous  nature  to  such  pleasures  as  the  curiously  apologized  for  by  his  relative,  Lady 
eonntry  afforded,  and  what  with  horses  and  Mary  Wortley  Montagu.  Thongh  he  had 
hoonda^  and  entertainments,  and  open  doors  for  faithfully  served  the  whi^  party  with  his  pen, 
Mi  neighbors^  he  was  soon  insolvent,  and  the  only  reward  he  received  was  his  appoint- 
eompeUed  to  return  to  London  to  retrieve  his  ment,  in  his  42d  year,  when  his  constitution 
fsrtnnes.  At  the  ase  of  80  he  entered  him-  was  completely  broken,  as  an  acting  ma- 
ielf  a  student  at  the  Inner  Temple,  studied  dili-  gistrate  for  Westminster.  lie  was  not  con- 
gently,  and  in  due  course  was  admitted  to  the  bar.  tent  to  confine  himself  to  his  official  duties,  but 
But  repeated  attacks  of  the  gout  compelling  him  published  several  tracts  on  the  causes  of  crime 
to  abandon  legal  practice,  he  again  had  recourse  and  pauperism  in  the  metropolis,  the  most  re- 
to  his  pen.  He  renewed  his  connection  with  markable  of  which  may  be  regarded  as  the  first 
fh0  theatre  by  furnishing  dramatio  pieces  for  the  temperance  tract  ever  published.  It  was  an 
itagei,  and  wrote  essays,  poems,  satires,  and  **  Inquiry  into  the  Increase  of  Thieves  and 
wnittver  else  the  taste  of  the  day  demanded.  Robbers.'^  Robbery  was  then  frightfully  prev- 
§ar  the  Kterarv  periodicals  that  would  pay  for  alent,  and  he  attributed  it  to  the  great  con- 
tfaem.  Though  he  could  no  longer  travel  his  sumption  of  a  kind  of  drink,  then  in  great  vogue 
dromL  he  turned  his  legal  acquirements  to  ac-  with  the  lower  classes,  called  ^^  gin."  It  was 
eoantoy  preparing  a  work  on  crown  law,  which  amid  all  these  avocations  that  he  found  time  to 
erSooed  nis  remarkable  capacity  for  patient  write  that  greatest  of  all  compositions  of  its 
dnidcery.  Failing  to  obtain  from  these  sources  class,  the  Iliad  of  prose  fictions,  *^Tom  Jones,  or 
the  moome  requisite  for  his  daily  wonts,  he  the  History  of  a  Foundling"  (1749).  His  third 
wrote  nearly  the  whole  of  the  literary  contents  novel,  the  *'  History  of  Amelia,"  wherein  he 
*  of  the  **  Champion,"  a  periodical  which  is  now  portrays  the  virtues  of  his  first  wife,  and  the 
only  knownfrom  his  oontributions  to  its  columns,  reckless  conduct  of  his  own  earlier  years,  and 
But  now  his  genius  was  first  attracted  to  that  on  which  he  probably  bestowed  more  care- 
sphere  for  which  it  was  most  happily  adapt-  M  labor  than  on  any  of  his  other  produc- 
ed, and  in  which  he  was  destined  to  secure  an  tions,  was  published  in  1752.  So  inconsider- 
eodoring  fame.    A  recent  anonymous  English  able  was  his  income  from  his  official  position, 


490  FIEIDING  FIERI  FACIAS 

and  from  the  rale  of  his  writings,  that  in  this       FIELDING,  Sarah,  8d  dster  of  tbo  prcocd^ 

year  he  was  compelled  to  the  necessity  of  pro-  ing,  and  an  antboress  of  some  contemporaii«oai 

Jecting  another  literary  undertaking,  which  popularity,  bom  in  1714,  died,  nnmarried,  in 

was  his  last,  *'  The  Covent  Garden  Journal,  by  IkUh,  in  1768.     Her  principal  works  are  the 

Sir  Alexander  Drawcansir,    Knight^   Censor-  '^AdTentnrea  of  David  Simple  in  search  of 

General  of  Great  Britain/'    Ue  now  undertook  a  Faithfbl  Friend "  (8  vols.  12ma«  London. 

as  magistrate,  at  the  re<)uest  of  the  duke  of  1744;  a  8d  toI.  added  in  1752);  ^*  History  of 

Newcastle,  tlie  prime  minister,  to  extirpate  sev-  the  Countess  of  Delwyn  ;^  '*  History  of  Ophelia" 

eral  gangs  of  ruffians  which  infested  London ;  (2  Tols.  12ino^  1785);  and  ^  LiTca  of  Cleopatra 

and  in  this,  amid  great  bodily  suffering,  and  and  Octavia."    In  1763  she  poblisbed  a  traos- 

with  very  meagre  pecuniary  aid,  he  completely  lation  of  Xenophon's  "  Memorabilia  of  8ocratc\ 

8uccee<led.    Hut  it  was  at  length  announced  with  the  Defence  of  Socrates  before  hie  Judges,'* 

that  his  bodily  strength  would  no  longer  sus-  in  which  she  was  asidsted  with  nolea  by  Mr. 

tain  the  burden  imposed  upon  it;  the  dropsy  Harris,  a  gentleman  of  Salisbury, 
with  which  he  had  long  been  troubled  had       FIELDS,  Jamis  T^  an  AmericaR  poet  aaA 

alarmingly  increased,  and  by  the  consent  of  his  publisher,  bom  in  Portsmoath,  N.  U.,  in  ISKL 

physicians  and  his  friends  he  was  induced  to  He  has  resided  for  many  years  in  Boston,  before 

try  the  influence  of  a  change  of  climate,  Lisbon  the  mercantile  library  associatioo  of  which  citr 

being  selected  as  the  most  desirable  ^pot  for  the  he  delivered  an  anniversary  poam  in  his  iM 

Surpose.    Hut  it  was  too  late.    He  left  Eng-  J^ar,  the  orator  of  the  occasion  being  Edwsrd 

inu  on  his  journey  in  pursuit  of  health  on  June  Everett,    In  1848  he  read  a  poem  entitled  lbs 

S6,  1754.    The  Journal  which  he  kept  of  his  **  Post  of  Honor*^  before  the  same  sodetv,  Difi- 

Toylge  gives  a  most  touching  proof  of  his  affec-  lei  Webster   officiating  as  orator.      lie  is  a 

tionsto  and  noble  nature  in  detailing  the  events  member  of  the  Boston  publishing  house  of 

of  his  parting  with  his  saddened  family  at  Ticknor  and  Fields,  among  the  pablicatioas  of 

Furdtiook.    But,  when  once  away,  though  suf-  which  is  an  edition  of  Db  Quinoey*s  writiafii 

fering  great  pain,  being  hardly  capable  of  mov-  in  21  volnmes^  prepared  under  the  persona!  fa- 

ing  himself,  and  forced  to  be  continually  tap-  pervision  of  Mr.  FieldsL     He  viMted  £nrcf« 

ped,  his  intellect  retained  all  iu  activity ;  he  in  1847-8,  and  soon  alter  his  return,  in  1>49, 

made  a  record  of  all  the  incidents  of  his  voyage,  published  a  volume  of  poems.    A  similar  vtJ- 

and  lie  furnishes  us  in  his  iournol  the  best  ac-  ume,  for  private  distribution,  appeared  in  l&H 

count  we  have  of  the  condition  of  shipping  in  and  anotlier  in  1858,  entitled  ^  A  Few  Vcnei 

the  lost  century,  and  of  the  inconveniences,  for  a  Few  Friends." 

troubles,  and  debys  those  were  subjected  to        FIERI  FACIAS,  tlie  name   of  a   writ  i: 

wlio  iiuulc  pu!«sage«  Ity  sea.     Unhappily  the  cli-  common  law,  so  ancient  that  its  origin  ;i  ii- 

mato  of  Lisbon  did  imt  a^ree  witli  him,  uiid  ho  known.     By  it  a  sheritf,  or  other  coni^Htt:*. 

dkni  2  iiiontliA  after  his  arrival,  leaving:  behind  officer  to  whom  it  was  directed,  was  «.r!tr\U 

liini  iiisriccond  wife  and  4  children;  all  of  whom  quo<l  Jirri  jWias^  dt  terrU   tt  catallU  ,- r   *'# 

were  nn»st  jrenerou<ly  provided  for  by  liis  bri>-  lonu  et  cattiUU)^  **thot  you  caU9«  to  l«e  rr.i'* 

tlier  Sir  John  Fielding,  oidoil  by  his  friend  Al-  out  of  the  lands  and  chattels/'  or  **  th«.'  c^-^'ii 

len,  tlio  ori^rinal  of  Sjuiro  Allworthy,  to  whom  and  chottels  of/'  A'c,  a  certain  turn  cf  m-  -'7. 

heikMlicatt'dhi.'*immortal  workof  "TomJono-*,''  being  that  to  which  the  party  for  wl..tci  ::.e 

and  in  allusion  to  whom  he  Imd  said,  if  a  letter  writ  was  issued  was  entitled  by  th«  juti^r-ir*. 

were   inscriWd   himplr    Iktur    Optimo,  there  of  court ;  and  it  may  lie  remarked,  thai:' xi  :!t 

would  be  Wvi  f  KTsons  who  would  think  it  need-  regular  foundation  for  the  writ  of.rtVri/'ui-i  u :»  a 

c<I  any  other  diriM'ti*  in.    In  }>ersonal  appearance,  Judgment  of  court.    Itistin  fact  the  gn-at  bt  :  .^ 

FieKIini^  had  a  comnianiling  ]»re>enee;  he  was  execution  in  general,  though  mit  cai*lu»iTtf.  '.v 

more  than  ti  feet  hich,  htrondy  built,  and  of  Uiroughout   the   United   States^    and    U  <:'''f^ 

1no^t  en^Miring  manners.     Cirest  as  his  literary  siK»ken,  or  at  least  mrittenof,  by  way  of  a! '  *^ 

lahiirs  Nvere,  and  the  liMietits  which  his  writings  viation,  a^  aH,/a,    By  virtue  of  it  th«  <.£«^r ; ' 

have  conferred  u|M»n  the  world,  they  wereliard-  whom  it  is  diri-cted  will  obtain  fr^-^m  the  ;*  "• 

ly   sujKTior   in    iinnortance  to  the  services  he  erty  of  him  against  whom  it  is  dinHrtt*^  <?'■  cj . 

rendered   during    the    brief  time  he  oi'ted  as  to  satisfy  the  amount  of  debt  it  dams^'»  ^.:  i 

a   police   niat:i*«trate,   in    reforming;   the   law:*,  ci^ts,  which  arc  always  s;tC4*iticaI!T  (tsu-d  ;;:  M.* 

and  in  intriHlucin;;   nieaMiren  f«ir  the  extir]>a-  writ.     The  rights  which  this  writ  coti«r%  t;«  ~ 

t ion  of  thieves  and  de'*]ieradiM>s. — The  works  of  the  officer,  and  the  manner  in  which  l«  :•  *. 

Fielding  have  pas<i.'d  thn>ugh  very  many  edt^  exercise  them,  ore  to  Hmio  extent  mattvrv  vf 

tiofi'i,  the  principal  o(  which  are  thoHi*  <»f  1702  statutory  regulation.     In  general  it  may  l«  •&  : 

(4  voN.  4to.  ami  8  voU.  bvo.,  Lundiun.  with  a  that  he  must  not  obtain  an  entrance  Vy  V?^  li- 

life  of  the  author;  17S4  (iM  voN.  Svo.  >,  with  ing  an  outer  dooror  windom;  a:id  it  wosila^  « 

an  eiNay  nn  lii^  life  and  geniu%  hy  Arthur  Mur-  frt»n)  this  rule  that  there  grew  up.  Viii.  t^.*  l  . 

phy  ;   InlM  i\u  vnls.  ^vn.),  edited  by  Alexander  of  a  little  rhetoric,  the  faxui'Ua  ai«*U<<|rrr.  •.•  xi 

Chalrni-r«»:  l^Vt  lirnp.  nvi».  ).  with  a  life,  and  no-  *•  every  Kngli<diman*s  home  wa«l.L»raA;!r.'    ;•-*. 

lice  iif  ]ii"»  uurk-j,  hv  Tln^Tna-*  K«»«i**<»o  ;  and  his  he  mav  break  the  outer  d«K»r  of  a  l^d  rr  *L«- 

**>ilect  Wi.rk-,"  witli  a  ineitioir  by  Sir  Waller  C(»nne*'ted  with  a  dwelling  houw«  as  a  ^"^rs  •? 

bcutt  (ruyai  b\u.,  Ediuburgh,  1&21>.  store;  and  being  peacvably,  by  volaaLary  ai- 


FIESCHI  FIFE                         491 

miflrion  or  bj  entry  withont  opposition,  within  which  be  succeeded  in  procuring  for  a  deserv- 

a  dwelling  house,  the  sheriff  may  break  open  ing  brother  monk.    He  painted  frescos  in  his 

inner  doors,  or  chests  or  boxes,  in  search  of  own  monastery  and  in  the  church  of  Santa 

goods ;  and  it  is  said  that  he  may  do  this  with-  Maria  Novella,  at  Florence,  and  numerous  easel 

out  the  ceremony  of  asking  that  they  be  opened  pictures,  of  which  the  Louvre  possesses  a  noble 

for  hira.  specimen,  the  "  Coronation  of  the  Virgin."    In 

FIESCHI,  OiovAiTNi  Lnoi  db',  count  of  La-  many  of  the  details  of  his  art  he  was  excelled 

Tagna^  a  conspirator  of  Genoa,  bom  there  about  by  his  contemporaries ;  but,  in  the  language  of 

isis,  drowned  Jan.  2, 1547.    Wealthy,  accom-  Mrs.  Jameson,  *^  the  expression  of  ecstatic  faith 

plisbed,  and  of  high  rank,  he  evinced  fh>m  his  ear-  and  hope,  or  serene  contemplation,  has  never 

BiMt  youth  an  insatiable  lust  of  power,  and  sue-  been  placed  before  us  as  in  his  pictures." 

oeeded  in  making  himself  popular  with  the  mob  Fl£  V£E,  Joseph,  a  French  politician  and  au- 

of  Grenoa.    Andrea  Doria  was  at  that  time  the  thor,  bom  in  Paris,  April  8, 1767,  died  there,  May 

mkr  of  Genoa,  and  although  Fieschi  was  not  so  7, 1889.  At  first  employed  in  a  printing  office,  he 

mneh  opposed  to  Andrea  as  personally  exasperat-  devoted  himself  also  to  literature  and  politics,  em- 

ed  against  his  nephew  Giannettino  (who  was  al-  braced  the  principles  of  the  revolution  in  1789, 

lowd  a  precedence  of  rank  which  was  due  to  and  assisted  Gonaorcetand  Millln  in  editing  tJie 

himself),  ne  instigated,  in  concert  with  Calcagno,  Ohranique  de  Pari*,    Disgusted  with  the  ex- 

Yerrina,  Sacco,  and  other  discontented  politi-  oessos  of  the  terrorists,  he  entered  in  1795  upon 

eiaii9|  a  conspiracy  with  the  view  of  overthrowing  a  perilous  course  of  opposition,  and  shone  as  an 

tlie  existing  government.    The  rebellion  came  to  orator  in  the  public  assemblies  of  Paris  during 

an  explosion  during  the  night  of  Jan.  2,  1547.  the  period  of  the  reaction.    Proscribed  by  the 

€riannettino  Doria  was  killed,  but  his  jinde  the  revolutionists,  he  was  imprisoned  in  1799,*  and 

doge  escaped.    Fieschi  himself  was  drowned  restored  to  liberty  on  the  18th  Brnmaire.    In 

wmle  on  nis  way  to  the  galleys  in  the  port  of  1802  he  was  sent  by  Napoleon  upon  a  delicate 

Genoti  and  his  death  put  an  end  to  tne  out-  mission  to  England,  and  on  his  return  publi^ed 

oreak.    The  life  of  his  widow  was  spared,  but  a  volume  of  letters  conceming  that  country 

two  of  his  brothers,  Geronimo  and  Ottoboni,  which  were  severely  judged  in  the  ^  Edinburgh 

were  put  to  death,  and  the  other  leaders  of  the  Review.'*    He  took  part  in  editing  several  roy- 

revolt  had  their  property  confiscated  and  were  alist  journals,  and  especiaJly  contributed  by  his 

banished  by  the  doge,  although  an  amnesty  had  skill  m  polemics  to  the  power  of  the  Journal  dm 

been  originaUy  granted  to  them  by  the  senate.  debaU,    He  wrote  several  romances,  remarka- 

FIESOLE,  Fra  Giovanni  Anoelico  da,  one  ble  for  grace  and  simplicity,  published  a  pam- 

of  the  most  celebrated  of   the  early  Italian  phlet  in  1795  Sur  la  n€ce»ite  d'une  religion, 

painters,  born  in  Fiesole  in  1887,  died  in  Rome  which  first  gave  him  a  leading  position  in  the 

u  1455.    No  character  in  the  history  of  art  is  religious  and  monarchical  party,  and  left  a  great 

more  beautiful  to  contemplate  than  that  of  this  number  of  political  treatises. 

painter  monk.    At  the  age  of  20,  for  the  sake  FIFE,  a  small  instrument  of  the  flute  species, 

of  a  tranquil  life,  and  particularly  for  his  spirit-  consisting  of  a  narrow  tube,  from  a  foot  to  1 G 

val  benefit,  he  entered  the  Dominican  monastery  inches  in  length,  perforated  on  one  side  with 

of  St  Mark  at  Florence  (previous  to  which  holes  for  the  regulation  of  the  tones,  and  blown 

time  he  had  borne  the  name  of  Guido  Petri  di  through  an  opening  at  the  side.    It  has  but 

Mogello),  where  he  passed  the  remainder  of  his  one  key,  and  emits  a  shrill,  piercing  sound,  very 

days  in  the  devout  discharge  of  his  religious  effective  in  military  bands,  in  which  it  is  chiefly 

duties  and  the  pursuit  of  his  art    A  more  employed. 

humble  or  holy  spirit  never  animated  an  artist,  FIFE,  or  Fifeshiub,  a  peninsular  county  of 
tfid  from  the  seraphic  beauty  of  his  angels  and  Scotland,  bounded  N.,  E.,  and  S.  by  the  frith  of 
^orified  sunts  he  was  called  by  his  countrymen  Tay,  the  German  ocean,  and  the  frith  of  Forth, 
%l  heaio  (the  blessed),  and  the  angelic  He  and  W.  by  the  counties  of  Clackmannan,  Perth, 
painted  only  sacred  subjects,  would  never  ac-  and  Kinross ;  greatest  length,  43  m. ;  greatest 
eept  money  for  his  pictures,  and  never  com-  breadth,  17  m. ;  area,  459  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1851, 
menoed  them  without  prayer.  The  practice  of  153,546.  The  surface  of  the  county  is  much  di* 
his  art  was  thus  with  him  an  act  of  religion,  versified.  The  chief  mountains  are  the  Lomond 
and  to  the  species  of  devotional  ecstasy  with  hill&  Largo  Law.  and  Norman  Law.  The  soil 
which  it  was  pursued  must  be  ascribed  the  is  of  various  quality,  but  so  productive  in  gen- 
elevated  purity  which  his  works  display,  and  in  eral  that  fully  two-tnirds  of  the  whole  is  under 
which  they  are  not  surpassed  by  the  most  in-  cultivation.  During  the  last  half  century  agri- 
^ijred  creations  of  Raphael.  Whenever  the  culture  has  made  extraordinary  advances  in 
iilrfeet  is  not  in  harmony  with  his  gentle  spirit  Fifeshire,  especially  in  the  department  of  drain- 
he  k  len  snooessful,  and  his  delineations  of  hu-  ago.  In  the  mountainous  districts  and  on  inferior 
mao  poflsioQ  or  vigorous  action  are  compara-  soils  oats  are  the  principal  crop,  but  elsewhere 
tivelj  feeble.  He  visited  Rome  at  the  com-  wheat,  barley,  beans,  potatoes,  and  turnips  are  ex- 
niand  of  Nicholas  V.  to  decorate  the  papal  tensively  grown.  The  Fife  breed  of  cattle  have 
flhapsL  The  pope  offered  to  make  him  arch-  long  been  celebrated,  and  are  in  high  repute 
Ushop  of  Florence,  a  dignity  which  his  great  both  at  home  and  in  the  English  markets. 
hnraiuty  would  not  permit  him  to  accept,  but  Coal,  iron,  limestone,  and  freestone  are  abnn- 


492  IFTEEKTH  FILAKGDERI 

dant  The  principnl  manufacture  is  linen,  which  aro  called  fomnier  figa»  ana  nted  for  esportatm. 

is  carried  on  very  extensivclj  at  Ihinfermlino  By  continaed  high  lemperatore  Mr.  Kaigkl  Km 

and  KirkoiUdy.    There  aro  salmon  fisheries  in  produced  in  England  8  crops  in  19  moftth^ 

several  of  the  rivers,  and  herring,  cod.  tnrbo(|  showing  at  least  the  remarkable  power  c^  the 

and  haddock  fisheries  on  the  ooasts.  tree. — ^The  fig  tree  b  easily  nropesatcd  frna 

FII-TEENTH,  iu  music,  an  interva.  eqniva>  cuttings,  or  by  ringing  some  branch  and  sm^ 

lent  to  2  octa^xa.    The  term  is  also  applied  to  rounding  the  cut  i^aoe  by  a  small  pot  of  earth, 

that  stop  of  an  organ  whose  tones  are  2  octaves  Into  which  the  roots  will  penetrate  mud  increase 

higher  than  those  of  the  diapasons.  to  such  extent  that  the  branch  nay  be  sepansed 

FIFTII,  in  music,  an  interval  embracing  5  before  the  fruit  upon  it  has  ripened.    Branches 

degrees  of  the  scale,  as  C-G,  D-A,  &c.  also  girdled  by  removing  a  narrow  rinf  d  tbt 

FIG  TREE  (Jicus  eariea^  Linn.),  a  native  of  bark  below  the  fruit-bearing  parte,  wfll  proteet 

Asia  and  liarbary,  much  cultivated  in  the  warm-  earlier  ripening  figs,  tlie  procea  being  tend 

er  portions  of  the  globe.    The  loaves  of  tlie  fig  as  safe  and  efficacious  as  with  the  pear  ties 

tree  are  rough,  lobed,  and  deciduous.    The  flow-  or  the  grape  vine.    It  is  cultivated  to  a  eo»> 

era  ore  so  curiously  concealed  from  observation,  siderable  extent  around  Boston,  Maea,,  im  eo»- 

that  many  persons  think  it  has  none,  though  they  servatories  and  forcing  honsea  such  m  are  nssd 

are  verv  mi  morons,  being  borne  inside  of  a  suo>  in  the  cultivation  of  foreign  grapea.     ~ 

culent,  hollow  receptacle,  which  first  appeara  on  upon  the  back  wall  of  snch  stmctorea,  by 

the  sides  of  the  young  shoots  like  a  small  round  espaliers  or  by  nailing  in  the  branchea,  a 

bud.    This  receptacle  is  called  a  9ycoru$^  and  tree  may  be  made  to  produce  larige  eropa.    The 

on  being  cut  open,  the  minute,  chafiTy,  apetaloua  branch^  are  spread  oot  horiiofifaWy,  aad  m 

florets,  each  furnished  with  8  stamens  and  S  arranged  that  they  can  be  looaeaed  fron  tke 

atylos,  will  be  seen  lining  its  walls.    If  these  walls,  pruned,  washed,  and  deaned  when  w^ 

florets  have  become  duly  impregnated,  the  sy-  oeesary.     Judiciona  manageraent  ia  iaspuftaat 

eonis,  after  having  remained  entirely  at  rest  for  to  prevent  too  great  grcywui  of  yoqnf  or  weka 

flomo  timo  at  its  half  growth,  begins  to  swell  shoots.    By  this  mode  two  crops  aro  aecoied' 

again,  augments  considerably  in  size,  becomes  There  are  many  choice  varietic*  of  the  fliE,  cKh 

Terr  pulpy  and  sweet  when  it  ripens,  assumes  having  some  necoliar  merit.    The  Laodao  ho^ 

aome  kind  of  color,  and  is  the  ^^.    The  pulpy,  ticultural  society's  catalogiie  for  18tt  giTtf  41 

awect  mass  will  bo  found  to  be  penetrated  with  varieties,  and  in  this  number  are  eomprksd 

small  rc»und  seeds  <^^h  of  which  is  the  result  fruits  of  white,  green,  yellow,  and  browo  eoloni 

of  a  minute  cliafTy  fioret.    The  fig  tree  attains  As  an  abundant  beut^r,  and  hardier  tbaa  ssv 

the  heiclit  of  20  feet,  with  a  branching,  spread*  other,  the  brom'n  Turkey  fig  seems  to  be  pn* 

ing  hoa«l.  like  an  apple  tree,  in  thoiio  countries  ferred.     I>owning  consitlera  it  the  be<  for  :Se 

where  it  U  indigenous;  but  in  northern  conn-  open  air,  ami  Kays  that  it  has  a  dolici<Mts  i!iv-*f. 

tri('5  it  is  Si'lduiii  si>en  exrcnt  as  a  shrub,  unless  The  brown  l!«<'hia,  white  Marseilles,  IlransByc. 

wlion  trninotl  umlcr  elass.    In  the  middlo  states,  and  whito  Ischia  aro  hiirhly  corauend<«l.    Mr. 

whore  cult  i  vat  oil  in  the  o]>en  air,  it  is  purposely  J.  F.  Allen,  a  sucoe«»fuI   cultivator,   mM«9i 

kept  luw  nnd  hhruli-Iike,  so  that  it  may  be  bent  very  hi(rhty  the  black  fig  of  St.  Mirhael'iL    Tbs 

to  tlio  i^oiiiul  and  ooveretl  with  earth  in  winter,  fresh  rii>oneil  fig  is  delicious  ami  laKioos.     F<«. 

to  prote<*t  it  from  frosts.    In  England  the  tree  however,  fancy  it  on  firnt  acqnaintancc.  Vci 

is  usually  ])lantcd  against  a  low  wall,  in  order  experience  f<K>n  decides  in  its  favor  or«r  the 

thai  it  may  n^'oive  home  of  the  heat  reflected  dried  and  pressed  fruit  of  coraroercei — N«r> 

from  tlie  stirt'iiro  of  the  soil.     Sueh  walls  are  all  tlio  tl?s  consumed  in  the  Tnited  ScatMt^*. 

sometimes  fumiitlKil  with  tines  to  conduct  arti-  (iroat  Britain  are  grown  in  Tnrkey.    T^.^  •/-- 

fioial  hf-at  to  the  ri|>ening  crop  of  figs  in  autumn,  ports  into  iireat  Britain  in  1S56  wetv  43>'i! 

In  some  ]>arts  of  l-ranco  it  is  grown  as  a  dwarf  cwt.,  of  the  computed  real  value  of  fSS.?;:'.'*. 

stnmhnl  tree,  the  chief  end  being  to  keep  the  and  the  imports  into  the  I'nitcd  Scatrsdv^ 

bnmrluM  ^llort,  low.  and  spreailing,  in  order  the  year  ending  Jane  80,  IS^.  werv*  4,t^:^>'4 

that  t}ie\  mny  iK^notit  by  the  sim*tf  rays  reflect-  Ib^.,  valueil  at  1^08,47*2,  of  which  15y.4^  IS*-. 

Ing  heat    from   the  earth.     The  K>il   is  ma-  valued  at  f  K».*5C7,  were  rcc'Xportcd  to  e«ixr 

nured  oeoasionally  and  stirreil  once  a  year,  and  parts  of  the  western  hemiKph^rr. 
some  hli^'lit  prctertion  U  given  to  the  lower        FILAN<ilKKI.  (iactaxo.  an  Italian  fQU<«^< 

branehes  and  ba^  of  the  trunk  in  the  winter,  bom  in  Naples,  Aug.  18. 1758,  dird  July  i!. I T■•^ 

In  die  fonth  uf  Endand  it  has  been  treatitl  in  From  1777  ho  held  variooa  offices  at  cunr.,  tsJ 

the  same   way   with   success.     Two  or  woro  in  1 7^7  ho  was  colled  to  the  rapmne  coet^rv  (^ 

crops  of  fruit  are  protluce«l  from  the  tig  tree  by  finance.     His  principal  m*ork  U  tiie  .Sri#iu^stfV  ij 

judirion 4  pruning  and  t minim;,  each  crop  being  /c7iJi/«iiii>nr,  the  first  4  bi.<ok4  of  wbtch  vcrr 

pnNliircd  on  distinct  sets  of  shoots.     Thesceond  publi^ihed  between  178n  and  17^  and  iW  *i.S 

cn>p.  for  in>t:in<M\  grows  from  the  eyes  or  buds  was  left  unfinii^hed  at  his  death,  csosed  !«>«:.*- 

of  the  »»lmot:4  made  in  cirly  summer,  and  if  the  turely  by  Ids  excessive  hibor*. — (*AKLA,a  »«^ 

Beav>n  be  s'ltTn-i^-ntly  long  and  warm,  the  fruit  the  |»receding.  liorn  in  Nsidea  in  \1*^\  wt»  rs- 

willripui:  but  t Id:*  si-Idom  happens  in  the  oih'U  debted  tVtr  his  military  cilucaiino  at   Pant  b> 

air.     In  liot  rlinmtes  it  in  the  heeond  cnip  tliat  the  kindness  of  Napoleon   I.,  f««ghi   la   ir^ 

is  the  mo.-t  prolitic  and  valuable,  being  what  ranks  of  the  French  at  the  battle  «f  Ai 


FILBEBT  FILE                         498 

liHy  wrred  in  the  Neapc^itan  army  under  Mo-  Minor  by  C.  eoluma  (Linn^X  the  Oonstantino- 

nl,  and  bntvelj  exposed  himself  to  the  rifles  of  pie  hazel,  which  rises  to  a  tree  of  50  or  60  feet 

the  Tyrolese  in  1816  by  making  a  reconnois-  in  height^  growing  rapidly  and  with  great  Tigor 

wnoe  at  Uie  bridge  of  the  Tannaro  with  only  in  the  climate  of  London,  having  l^n  intro- 

80  men,  on  whi<m  occasion  he  was  severely  daced  into  England  in  1665.    A  smaller  tree  of 

wounded,  and  appointed  generaL     The  late  20  feet  in  height  is  found  in  Asia,  a  native  of 

ktaiff  Ferdinand  placed  him  at  the  head  of  the  the  top  of  the  monotun  Sheopar  in  Nepanl,  with 

artiUery  and  of  the  engineers,  employed  him  a  small  nnt^  having  an  exceedingly  hard  shell, 

in  IMS  in  bombarding  Messina  and  in  qnelling  and  of  a  sweet  flavor,  described  by  Wallich  aa 

Ohm  rtbeilion  in  other  parts  of  Sicily,  and  as  the  (7.^raB,  the  edge  of  the  calyx  being  remark- 

ETemop^neral  of  that  island,  he  invested  ably  laciniate  and  shaggy. — In  the  Ajnerican 

n  with  onlimited  power.    Shortly  after  the  flora  the  filbert  is  represented  by  two  species, 

daatii  ot  Ferdinand,  he  became  Neapolitan  pre-  both  shrubs,  and  prodncinff  small,  sweet  kernels. 

Bier  aad  minister  of  fbreign  aflairs  (June,  1859).  The  most  common  is  0.  Americana  (Walter^  a 

FILBERT  (coryZut^M/^fio,  Willd.),  a  term  brandling  bush  from  8  to  6  feet  high,  with 

applied  to  those  sorts  of  hazelnuta  which  have  coarse  leaves,  broad-ovate  or  elliptical,  acumi* 

Tcrrlaifahiisks.  The  original  species  is  a  nativo  nate,  heart-shaped  at  base,  irregularly  serrate 

ef  Eorc^,  and  derives  its  specific  name  from  on  their  edges.    It  is  one  of  the  earliest  bloom- 

AvdliiM^  a  city  of  Naples,  near  which  it  grows  in  ing  plants,  flowering  about  the  same  time  with 

gnat  abondance.    The  conmion  hazelnut  also  the  black  alder.    It  may  be  found  along  fences, 

mws  wild  in  many  coppices  and  woods  in  stone  walls,  and  among  bushes  and  weeds  in 

lriteia.>    Tlie  name  of  coryluM  comes  from  the  neglected  places,  having  pale  nrayaments,  whibh 

Grtak  «opvr,  a  bonnet,  to  which  the  enwrapping  elongate  and  shed  the  abuncLant  yellow  pollen, 

calyx  may  very  well  be  compared;  and  hazel  is  to  fiEdl  upon  the  little  starrv,  crimson,  fertile 

from  hmul  (Anglo-Saxon),  which  signifies  a  flowers,  which  project  in  small  clusters  from  the 

kfaid  of  head  dress.    The  fruit  of  the  filbert  sides  of  the  branches  and  just  below.   The  nut  is 

^ll-bear^  is  8  or  4  times  as  large  as  that  of  the  about }  of  an  inch  in  breadth  uid  rather  less  in 

oommon  hazelnnt,  and  surpasses  it  in  flavor,  length,  covered  with  2  broad  leaves  much  larger 

The  ahnib  is  raised  from  layers  made  in  the  than  the  nut,  deeply  and  irre^arly  cut  uid 

spring ;  bat  scdoos  will  grow  if  engrafted  upon  the  fringed  on  the  boraer,  and  turmng  brown  when 

haacL    It  is  xeoommended  to  extirpate  all  the  mature.    Some  accidental  varieties  are  said  to 

soekera  from  the  roots,  and  to  keep  the  bush  equal  the  European  filbert  in  size ;  and  the 

down  by  giving  it  a  low,  spreading,  rather  thin  flavor  of  the  American  hazelnut  is  preferred  by 

bead,   brtmohing  out  about  2  feet  from  the  some  tastes.    There  is  another  wild  species,  not 

gnxmd,  and  shortening  back  the  extremities  of  so  common,  called  the  beaked  hazel  ((/.  rostrata^ 

the  young  shoots  one  half  every  spring.  ^The  Alton),  a  smaller  shrub,  with  pear-shaped  leaves, 

most  esteemed  varieties  among  cultivators  are  irregidarly  serrate,   smooth  above,   hairy  or 

only  4  or  5  in  number,  viz. :  the  frizzled  filbert,  downy  beneath.  The  nut  is  small  and  roundish, 

amily  Imown  by  its  handsome,  deeply  cut  husk ;  having  a  bristly  husk  closely  set  about  it,  which 

tha  Northamptonshire  prolific,  with  a  thick  lengthens  into  a  jagged  beak,  whence  its  com- 

aheD,  haury  hudcs,  and  ripening  early ;  the  cob-  mon  name.    According  to  Dr.  Bichardson,  this 

nut,  avery  prolific  kind;  the  Gosford,  with  a  species  extends  as  far  north  as  tbe  Saskatchewan, 

lam,  oUong  nut,  hain^  husks,  remarkably  thin  in  Canada.    It  occurs  also  upon  the  highest 

riiMl,  and  of  excellent  flavor.    The  filbert  grows  Alleghanies,  and  even  in  the  S.  W.  port  of  the 

best  in  a  good  soil,  tolerably  dry,  and  occasion-  United  States. 

•Ut  manured.    In  Great  Britain,  the  filbert  is  •   FILE,  a  bar  of  steel,  roughened  by  lines  upon 

ehiefij  caltiTated  for  the  London  market  in  that  its  surface,  and  used  for  wearing  down  the  face 

part  of  Kent  where  the  soil  is  a  loam  upon  a  dry  of  metals,  or  fashioning  these  into  various  shapes, 

■aiidy  rode    The  filbert  is  monoecious;  that  is,  If  the  instrument  is  cut  with  only  one  set  of 

It  bears  barren  flowers  in  the  form  of  aments  or  lines,  which  form  a  succession  of  parallel  ridges 

*•**■<  ^  beneath  which,  on  the  same  branches,  across  it,  it  is  said  to  be  single  cut,  and  is  called 

Ika  ivtile  flowers  may  be  perceived.    Failure  a  float ;  if  roughened  by  triangular  teeth  or 

la  tba  crops  is  sometimes  attributable  to  the  loss  burrs,  which  are  pushed  up  from  the  face  of  the 

oCllie  aments  by  iijudicious pruning  or  by  frosts,  metal  by  a  pyramidal  sharp-pointed  diisel,  it  is 

to  goard  against  which  it  is  recommended  to  called  a  rasp.    The  latter  is  used  for  working 

aDoir  mipmned,  wild  specimens  to  grow  among  down  wood ;  floats  are  preferred  for  copper  and 

tha  better  kinds ;  these  prove  of  value  in  im-  other  metals  of  inferior  hardness ;  while  the 

fngaatiA",  and,  being  murdier,  do  not  suffer  double-cut  files,  made  by  two  sets  of  lines  cross- 

BEOm  iin"ff!^^  cold.    In  the  United  States,  so  far  ing  each  other,  are  best  adapted  for  taking  hold 

aa  wa  are  infimned,  the  filbert  is  only  found  in  of  the  hardest  metals.    Files  are  applied  to  such 

aoQaolbna  of  curious  shrubs  and  trees,  and  is  a  variety  of  pun>06e8,  from  the  heavy  work  of 

aoC  coltivated  to  any  extent.    The  value  of  the  machinists  to  the  delicate  operations  of  the 

ilbert  in  the  neighborhood  of  London  may  be  watchmaker,  that  they  are  found  in  a  great 

lated  bj  the  not  that  as  many  as  80  cwt  number  of  forms  and  sizes.    Some  are  2  or  even 

ere  have  been  grown  on  particular  lands.  3  feet  in  length,  while  others  do  not  exceed  i  of 

filbert  ia  repraaented  in  Turkey  and  Asia  an  inch,    T^ir  patterns,  though  nnmerous,  are 


& 


404  HUB 

motdj  limHed  to  certdn  ertftblished  dMM  of  tliaiillaftiaiidantliatlMmteMtiiloacMdi^ 

formt,  of  which  8  are  reoognised,  distiogiiialiod  are  hekl  iipoQ  *  Uodic  of  loft  lillorf  of  ImmI  mm 

hjrthocroiiaectioiisofthohar,  tIx.:  thoaodo-  tin,  adapted  tnrgvooTia  or  odMrwiaa  to  iMMtko 

rhred from  the  aquare,  from  the  drde,  andfrom  bhmka  with  the  ofiper  Me  |M'0|iei|j 

the  eqailateral  triao^    The  common  namee  IbrreeeiTingtbecnta.    TheddMiwi 

6t  aqnare,  romtd,  half-ronnd,  three-eooaie,  te^  porpoae  are  TOfy  dMxi  fat  the  aake  of 

are  given  from  the  form  of  the  aeenon  of  the  and  for  being  oooTOriithr  liald  fai  ^ 

bar.    In  its  length  also  TariooamodifioatioQa  are  of  the  left  hind,  and  they  Mfo  a  e 

glrentothe  alupeof  the  bar,  bj  which  many  thantbe  wUUhof  thefoeetobe 


forma  of  files  are  distingniihed.    Taper  filea  are    to  an  an^e  of  aboot  M^.    Om  Mat 

ofOie 


^wn  down  and  terminate  in  a  aharp  point;  npon  the  olank  at  the  fortliar 

parallel  files  are  made  of  a  uniform  sitethroa^-  ia  held  inelined  toward  the 

cot  their  length;  and  blnnt  files  are  intermedi-  of  It^  or  14^  from  the  pi 

ate  between  tiiese.    FUes  of  the  dilferent  classsa  then  smartly  stmek  with  the' haonav 'Mi  li 

(xf  croes  section  are  subject  to  these  roodifica-  the  ri|^t  hand.    Agwwfolsthwacrtaawths 

tfons.    Then  they  are  Tariooaly  derignated  ao-  UankwithanydesiredobliqtBilj,Midnil4iief 

oordBng  to  the  number  of  lines  cot  to  the  inch,  steel  turned  up;  the  chisslia  iImi  bs«i||ft  §th 

an  established  number  being  adopted  by  the  wardanddidfiroaatheoMnlorMtflilMi 

English  file  makers  for  each  length  of  file ;  the  the  ridge  Just  made,  wUebdcloiaiMa^: 

coarsest  are  called  rough,  the  next  bastard,  the  tion  of  the  next  odL  which  ia  iaa 

Ihirdsmooth,  and  the  lastdead  smooth  or  supers  by  anolhsr  blow.    Tnnatheblowai 

fine.    Other  Tarleties  are  produced  bj  leoTing  are  made  at  the  rate  of  00  to  SDia  a: 

an  edge  or  side  or  other  portion  smooth,  or  safe,  their  parallelism  and  uniformltj  beiM 

as  it  is  technicaUy  called,  thua  adapting  the  filea  by  the  guiding  ridgea  and  by  wlfw  ■Mj  ii  lbs 

for  working  in  an^ee  and  reeesies  without  cut-  force  ofthe  bwwa.    TheheK?iarlhobia«%As 

ting  away  portions  it  is  desirable  to  preeerre.  deeper  the  onta  and  the  higher  the  M§m  an 

The  smooth  pert  serresaometimea  as  a  guide  by  thrown  up,  thus  inTolring  ooorsar  w«riL   Ike 

which  the  file  is  directed.  For  the  sake  cfecono-  hammsca  vary  grsat\y  in  wolfbii    Vm 

my  an  inferior  blistered  steel  is  commonhr  used  files  requhne  them  to  be  of  T  or  8 

for  the  heavier  files,  but  for  the  finer  ones  the  beat  the  finest  oiiea  are  made  with  hani 

east  steel  is  selected,  rolled  in  rods  approaching  totwoounceaonly.    Qrsal  pnaeUso  b 

the  dimendons  of  the  files.    The  laige  fiat  filea  always  to  give  the  blows  of  oq[ual  iara 

are  drawn  down  from  the  bars  upon  the  foee  aoring  uniform  work.    WImq  the  hm  «f  As 

of  the  anril,  one  man  striking  with  a  heavy  blank  is  gone  over  oooe  the  proeeaa  b  nmmtd 

hammer  and  the  other  with  a  small  hand  ham-  for  donble-cnt  files,  thechlsd  being  heldse  ss 

mer.    The  three-floaara  half-ronod.  and  manv  to  cause  the  two  sets  of  lines  to  eroas  each  olhtr 


mer.    The  three-sqaare,  half-ronod,  and  many  to  cause  the  two  sets  of  lines  to  < 

other  forms  are  shaped  from  square  rods,  the  obliquely.    The  blows  are  lighter,  ao  thsA  lb* 

end  of  due,  heated  to  blood-red,  being  lidd  along  second  set  if  finer  than  the  fint     Aa  the  smsl 

in  a  die  which  is  set  io  the  anvil,  and  then  ham-  ends  of  taper  files  will  not  bear  the  blows  sCrack 

mered  in  until  it  fills  It  and  receives  its  fonn,  upon  the  middle  of  them,  the  work  ia  oaoMOoah 

the  hammers  shaping  the  top  side.    The  die  finer  at  their  eztremitiea.    FQea  with  curfM 

of  the  half-round  files  presents  a  section  of  the  suHaces  are  cot  with  the  aama  aott  of  chiirii  ss 

segment  of  a  circle ;  that  of  a  trianguUir  file  is  those  with  plane  sorfooea,  n  row  of  siien  cm 

formed  by  two  sides  of  a  triangle  meeting  at  the  being  first  made  the  length  of  the  fik,  thM  si^ 

bottom.    The  sauare  rod  is  placed  with  one  edge  other  row  whose  ends  connect  with  tkloae  ef  tht 

down  in  this  channel,  and  is  then  hammered  first  row,  then  a  thfard,  and  ao  on  tiB  tha  esai 

into  place  and  shape.    Before  the  process  is  meet  around  the  cylindrical  §U  or  cofver  ths 

completed  the  tang  also  is  shaped  out  of  the  curved  surface  of  the  aectloii  of  the 


blank.     The  next  operation  b  to  anneal  the    cone.    The  fine  round  filea  aonaittMa  rsque 


blanks,  so  as  to  soften  the  steel  for  receiving  the  aa  many  as  80  rows  of  cuts  to 

Impressions  of  the  chisel  used  to  cut  the  hues,  and  an  inch  of  the  file  may  eootaia  100 

This  is  commonly  done  in  a  brick  annealing  The  burrs  npon  rasps  are  puiebod  up  W  n 

oven ;  sometimes  by  beating  the  blanks  buried  Uar  hand  process.    The  wutkman  aoanara 


in  sand  in  an  iron  box,  the  heatnot  being  al-    skill  in  raising  them  In  true  Boas^  UM  In  bfiuf' 

InthsnL 


lowed  to  exceed  a  blood  red.    They  are  then  Ing  each  one  oppodte  n  vacant  . 

smoothed  upon  the  face,  the  small  bhinks  by  J^ent  lines.    The  dirsctkma  of  Ibo  laas  vny 

filing,  the  large  ones  bj  grinding,  and  sometimes  according  to  the  purposes  for  wllieh  the  taivs 

those  with  pmllel  faces  bv  planing.   The  blanka  are  required. — ^Afler  the  filaa  va  cai  Ihey  are 

are  then  ready  for  the  nie  cutter,  who,  seated  to  be  hardened—^  nroeasa  widch  ra^iriiua  as- 

astride  of  a  low  bench,  has  in  fh>nt  of  him  perience  and  dexterity.    Tbatao(kanalbe|so- 

an  anvil  of  nze  proportionate  to  the  files  he  cots,  tected  from  the  direct  action  of  thoin^^  thi^ 

Taking  one  of  these,  he  lays  it,  if  fiat,  directly  will  become  oxidised  and  i       ~ 

on  the  smooth  face  of  the  anvil,  the  end  points  most  be  heated  unlfonnly 

ing  toward  him.    The  file  b  kept  in  place  by  beyond  a  cherry  red.  They  s 

two  leather  straps,  one  pasring  over  each  end,  cold  water,  irai  jpartkular  care  In 

whkh  are  held  down  by  the  foot    FUea  other  them  toinaiuiit  their  ooaMfit 


FILE  FILLIBUSTEB  495 

be  warped  from  a  straigbt  line.    Long  thin  files  which  may  particularly  be  named  the  works  of 

are  partical^ly  liable  to  this,  as  also  the  half-  Hr.  John  Russell  at  Sing  Sing,  on  ^e  Hudson. 
roond,  and  the  defect  is  afterward  corrected  with        FILIOA  JA,  Yincenzo  da,  an  Italian  lyrical 

difficulty.    To  protect  the  teeth  in  fine  files  they  poet,  born  in  Florence  in  1643,  died  there,  Sept 

are  first  covered  with  a  strong  brine,  thickened  24, 1707.    He  studied  theology,  philosophy,  and 

with  beer  grounds,  yeast,  or  some  cheap  kind  of  Jurisprudence,  was  appointed  to  several  civil 

flooTf  as  that  of  beans.  As  this  dries,  the  salt  melts  ofllcc^  and  was  made  senator  and  governor  of 

uniformly  over  the  surface.    The  carbonaceous  Pisa.    His  poems  are  distinguished  for  their 

matter  is  thought  to  increase  the  hardness  of  the  patriotic  and  religious  sentiments,  and  their 

gteel,  but  animal  charcoal,  as  that  of  burnt  lea-  purity  of  style.    An  ode  which  he  composed 

tber,  horn,  Ac,  which  is  used  by  some  makers,  after  the  raising  of  the  siege  of  Vienna  by  the 

ii  better  adapted  for  this  object,  and  probably  Turks  in  1683  gained  for  him  the  felicitations 

the  prussiate  of  potash  may  prove  still  better,  of  several  European  sovereigns.    The  abdica- 

Tlie  temper  of  the  tang  is  brought  down  by  im-  tion  of  Christina,  queen  of  Sweden,  induced 

mersing  it  in  melted  lead.    After  hardening,  the  him  to  write  a  poem  in  praise  of  that  princess, 

files  are  thoroughly  cleansed  by  scouring  with  and  he  afterward  received  many  favors  from 

eand  and  water,  and  the  salt  is  got  rid  of  by  her.    One  of  his  sonnets,  entitled  Vltalia,  is 

kavlng  them  some  hours  in  lime  water.    They  esteemed  among  the  most  admirable  in  the 

are  then  well  dried,  rubbed  over  with  olive  oil  Italian  language. 

containing  a  little  turpentine,  tested  with  a        FILIGREE  (It  filigraruiy  from  Lat.  filumj 

piece  of  steel,  sorted,  an^  packed  in  papers  for  wire,  and  aranumy  a  grain),  ornamental  work 

the  market. — ^A  variety  of  machines  have  been  in  fine  gold  or  silver  wire,  often  made  with 

inrented  to  take  the  place  of  hand  labor  in  cut-  little   metallic   beads   or  grains   interspersed 

ting  files.    Some  of  tnese,  as  that  patented  by  among  the  wires.    The  work  may  be  complete 

Oapt.  Ericsson  in  1836,  were  made  with  great  in  itself,  or  it  may  be  used,  as  is  the  common 

inflenuity,  and  when  introduced  into  large  estab-  method,  by  applying  the  wire  in  flattened  and 

liumenta,  as  this  was  in  the  works  of  Messrs.  twisted  shapes  upon  the  surfaces  of  the  trinkets 

Tnrton  and  sons  of  Sheffield,  each  machine  was  or  whatever  else  it  is  designed  to  adorn,  and 

loond  to  do  the  work  of  nearly  10  men ;  but  so  soldering  it  there  in  the  patterns  of  stems  and 

many  difilcnlties  have  been  met  with  in  their  leaves  of  plants.    It  is  much  practised  by  the 

nsCi  that  they  are  for  the  most  part  entirely  Italians,  who  derive<I  the  art  from  the  eastern 

given  up.    A  machine  has  recently  been  patent-  nations.    Fine  specimens  of  it  were  seen  at  the 

ed  in  England  by  M.  Lacroiz,  which  is  recom-  great  exhibition  of  1851,  in  London,  from  Sor- 

mended  as  embracing  eveiy  motion  requisite  dinia,  Turkey,  the  Ionian  islands,  and  Malta. 

for  catting  files,  producing  the  varying  degrees  The  inhabitants  of  Sumatra  are  very  expert  in 

of  fineness,  the  blows  of  difierent  lorce,  the  va-  it,  working  with  the  rudest  sort  of  tools.    The 

rioQi  inclinations  of  the  chisels,  and  all  the  other  leaves  to  be  attached  to  the  roughened  wires, 

dbrices  required  in  cutting  the  different  kinds  of  which  represent  the  stems,  are  hammered  out 

fite.  In  the  London  exhibition  of  1851,  a  Prus-  of  these  same  wires  and  clipped  off  their  ends, 

■ian  machine  of  this  class  was  exhibited,  and  the  when  they  are  arranged  in  their  proper  places 

display  of  hand-cut  files  from  France,  Austria,  and  soldered  down. 

and  other  portions  of  Europe  showed  that  the        FILLIBUSTER.    The  river  Yly  in  Holland  la 

art  was  carried  to  a  high  degree  of  perfection  said  to  have  fVimished  the  name  fiyboat  in  Eng- 

in  other  countries  beside  England.    The  follow-  lish,  in  Spanish /7t5o^  or  by  a  softening  of  the 

ingis  recorded  of  the  Danish  articles  of  this  first  syllable^Zioof^,  to  a  sort  of  small  fast-sailing 

dais:  "In  the  Danish  department  was  a  series  vessel  ofabout  100  tons  burden,  which  in  the  17tn 

of  filea  manufactured  of  cast  steel  by  J.  W.  century  held  in  point  of  sailing  qualities  the  place 

Kaykr  of  Copenhagen.    The  largest  file,  which  now  occupied  by  the  Baltimore  clippers.    The 

waa  square,  was  covered  with  a  series  of  file  buccaneers  of  the  West  Indies,  who  began  their 

cntter's  cuts,  representing  on  one  face  the  city  depredations  against  Spanish  commerce  in  mere 

of  Copenhagen,  on  another  face  the  operations  row  boats,  as  they  acquired  the  means  for  a  more 

of  the  forge  and  of  file  cutting,  &c.    These  formidable  outfit^  selected  these  vessels  as  the 

eflbcta  were  entirely  produced  by  the  file  cut-  sort  of  craft  best  suited  to  their  purpose.    Hence 

ttr'a  chisel ;  the  effect  of  color  and  shading  be-  they  became  known  in  French  h&flibustien^  and 

ing  riven  by  the  various  angles  of  the  teeth  re-  in  Spanish  as  ^lihusters^  an  appellation  gnidu- 

fleetmg  the  light  at  different  degrees  of  obli-  ally  extended  m  those  languages  to  any  kind  of 

folty.    The  teeth  of  a  large  circular  file  were  pirates.    The  term  fillibuster  has  recently  been 

ent  10  as  to  represent,  in  a  spiral  g6ing  several  mtroduced  into  the  English  language — ^its  use 

timet  roond  the  file,  the  maker^s  name,  the  date,  commencing  in  New  Orleans,  but  thence  rapid- 

mrnOm  of  fiowers,  dec    This  file  was  hollow,  ly  spreading  wherever  English  is  spoken— as  a 

and  contained  within  it  a  second  hollow  file,  designation  for  certain  adventurers  who  since 

whidi  in  its  turn  contained  10  others,  all  oma-  the  termination  of  the  late  war  between  Mexico 

mented  with  wreaths,  dec    The  smallest  filo  and  the  United  States  have  busied  themselves 

was  Dot  larger  than  a  small  needle."    In  the  with  setting  on  foot  within  the  United  States 

United  States  the  manufacture  of  files  is  success-  military  expeditions  designed  to  operate  in  the 

fidkf  oondocted  in  several  localities ;  among  Spanish  American  countries  to  the  south  of  us. 


496  FILLMOIiE 

Tbo  pretencQ  of  theso  expeditions  bos  been  the  be  conceived  tbe  design  of  •tndjinir  law.    Tbe 

emancipation  of  UioM  countries  from  t^ninoj  laws  of   New   York  tbcn  requir^  7  yeari' 

ibreign  or  domostio,  and  tbe  introduction  of  preparation  for   admission  as  at  tome  j  fn*D 

democratic  institutions  after  tbe  model  of  tbe  tbose  wbo  bad  not  rvoeiTed  a  dawical  cdn- 

United  States.    Tbe  real  object  is  generally  un-  cation*     Fillmore  bad  yet  two  7i«rs  of  Li* 

dcrstood  to  be  the  enrichment  of  tbe  |>er8ons  apprenticeship  to  serve.    lie  agrewd  with  hi* 

engaged  therein  bj  a  reenacting  of  tbe  part  of  employer  to  relinquish  bis  wages  for  fai«  lata 

the  original  Spanish  conquerors.    Tbe  setting  vear^s  services,  and  to  paj  him  $30  for  his  tiBM. 

on  foot  of  such  expeditions  is  prohibited  by  our  His  master  took  his  promise  to  paj  and  r%ri«:ai- 

neutrality  laws,  but  in  Mobile  and  New  Orleans  ed  him.  At  tbo  same  time  bemMie  with  Wiilt«T 

they  have  been  a  grcAt  deal  encouraged  by  a  Wood,  Esq.,  a  retired  lawyer,  who  possrSMd  a 

Erevailing  sentiment  in  their  fsvor.  Thus  tbe  law  library,  an  arrangement  by  which  be  wai  u» 
tws  liavo  been  frequently  evaded,  and  where  receive  his  board  during  such  time  as  be  it^vid 
violations  of  them  have  been  prosecuted  tbe  devote  himself  to  Mr.  Wood's  private  Uwncai. 
parties  have  often  escaped  conviction.  The  most  Blackstone  and  Tidd*s  **  Practice  *'  arere  placed  ia 
noted  expedition  of  this  sort  hitherto  was  that  bis  bands,  and  be  gave  bis  leisure  time  to  m 
led  by  William  Walker  against  Nicaragua  in  nninstmctcd  and  bewildered  study  of  their  ecs- 
1855,  to  tbe  pecuniary  expenses  of  which,  at  tents,  wondering  why.  in  America,  be  sbonU 
least  toward  the  close  of  it,  several  largo  cax)i«  be  put  to  reading  tbe  laws  of  England.  Thit« 
talists  are  understood  to  have  contributed,  by  months  of  the  next  winter  wens  devoted  to 
means  of  a  military  force  recruited  from  the  teaching  scliooL  The  entire  prodoct  was  IM^ 
United  States,  Walker  was  for  some  months  ofwbicb  $80  ftxlfiUed  his  promise  to  bis  loaMer; 
master  of  the  country ;  from  which,  however,  the  remainder  had  to  suffice  for  the  year's  ti- 
after  maintaining  himself  in  it  for  nearly  two  penses,  except  board.  At  the  age  of  SO  he  v« 
years,  he  was  finally  expelled  by  tbe  union  mvited  by  bis  fellow  citizena  to  deliver  the  4(h 
against  him  of  tbe  other  Central  American  states,  of  July  oration  for  that  year,  and  mcceedwd  m 
Similar  designs  are  understood  to  be  still  en-  well  that  be  was  requested  to  pnlilish  it ;  a  i«- 
tertained  against  Cuba  and  Mexico.  Though  quest  which,  after  consulting  Judge  Wcwd.  be 
expeditions  of  this  sort  are  regarded  in  some  modestly  and  with  characteristic  caatiua  de- 
portions  of  tbe  United  States  with  favor,  and  clined.  At21,  concluding  that  he  never  sbocid 
are  countenanced  to  a  certain  extent  by  men  of  learn  his  profession  by  attending  to  Jad^ 
position  and  character,  the  parties  actually  par-  Wood*s  afiairs  in  summer  and  teaching  §ct*^i 
ticiputing  in  them  have  consbted  largely  of  in  winter,  and  being  desirous  to  be  near  U 
foreigners. — ^FiUibustering  is  a  cant  term  much  family,  bo  removed  to  Buffalo.  The  Jncrbrj 
used  of  lato  years  in  tbe  Icgiiilativo  assemblies  was  perfonnod  mostly  on  f^mL  lie  arnw-i 
of  the  Tuited  States  to  detfi^iate  the  employ-  there  an  outiro  straiigi«r,  with  $4  in  bi«  {<vk 
ment  of  parliamentary  tocrticd  to  defeat  a  ueos-  ot.  llis  only  resourre  was  kei-ping  k:.  •  . 
ure  by  raising  frivuluus  questions  of  order,  colls  During  bis  tinst  winter's  rejiidtzice  ml  h^f.x 
of  tbe  bou^^e,  inutions  to  ailjourn,  dec,  in  order  lo,  he  ro»c  while  it  was  yet  dark.  swip*.  *.:.: 
to  weary  out  thcopiK)tiito  ]>arty,  or  to  pain  time,  law  otrice  in  which  be  wait  peniiitt«*d  to  »;>^;. 
FII.LMC»KK,aS.£.  CO.  uf Minnesota,  bounded  built  bis  own  tire,  and  studivtl  law  till  bn&i- 
S.  by  Iowa;  urea  about  UuOHq.m.;  i>op.acconUng  fast  time.  lie  knew  no  I^atin  ;  bU  El^Lsc. 
to  inooinpleto  returns  in  1657,  G,595.  It  i:i  inter-  eilucation  was  hardly  be^un:  larb  V.Lt  «u 
sectvd  by  Uoot  river  and  its  branches,  and  bos  a  reoil  faithfully  over  and  ovi-r  apiin,  and  trz.  j 
rolling  surface  and  an  excellent  ^ioi^  well  adapt-  inipreKsetl  u{K»n  the  nieninry.  NotbLn^  %»s 
e<l  to  groin,  potatoes,  and  pasturage.  Capital  po^si-d  until  it  was  tboruuirblv  aadvrv;.<«i 
Pn.'stt>n.  The  dny  was  devote<l  to  K-bonl-kecpib,:.  :.  c 
FILLMORE,  MiLLABP,  13th  pri'sident  ot  the  eveniiijr  to  diM-UKMii^r  tbe  suljeots  ii  :.♦« 
Vi:it<d  Mates  bt»rn  in  tbe  t<>wn'*hii>  of  I^ocko  moniins*s  study  witli  a  feUi*w  »tud«r.t.  Tr.< 
(ni>w  Surniii(^^riiilh«  Cayupa  ro.,  N.  V..  Jan.  7,  surctH.-iling  winter  was  Ftill  more  lai^vr.-  -•. 
ihn\).  Hi*  \v:i«tbe2d  ot'theUehililrenof  Nathan-  IIl-H  s<*b(Mil  won  2  miles  fri*m  the  villac^-.  Tu 
iel  and  riiielie  Fillmore.  Coyupa  co.  w:is  at  poi»tmaHt(T  U'ing  absent,  Fdlmoro  was  •  !s ;'.•.* - 
that  time  a  wildcrnosrt,  bruken  by  a  few  pi(»ni*cr  e<l  tein}M)r»rily  to  |KTfiinn  a  largt»  sharv  «.{'  ::.< 
settlements.  The  nearest  house  to  that  of  the  duties  of  the  i»tlioe.  He  ro«e  in  winUr  in  '.:*  « 
Fillmorci  w:is  1  m.  di>iunt.  Youn^  Fillmore's  for  the  4  o'oliK'k  morning  »ta|re  which  F«.**«'- 
CHiiirHtion  WHS  limited  ti>  iii^inu'tion  in  rea<lin(r«  by  his  M*ho4>l  bf>UM»;  niatlo  his  fire,  swi;:  ha 
wriiiii;:.  HpcDin::.  aii«l  xUv  simplest  branrlu-s  of  M*h(inl  nntm,  and  MUtlietl  law  alone  and  ^;  ~ai- 
arittinii-iie.  lie  never  saw  eitlu-r  o  grammar  or  die  lif:ht  til^  b^eakfii^t.  Tlie  day  va»  f^-%:.'  .i 
a  iri>>jrn{ihy  until  he  won  VJ  yiurt»  of  u;re.  At  M^hiKil ;  the  evening  till  hitv  at  night  wAl  xcjJ.« 
14  he  wa-apprcnticHtl  toloarn  the  fuller'otraile,  and  post  oflicp  aci*ount«.  IW  th*"  ^-r^fi;:  xi 
and  the  nrxt  5  vfors  were  devnted  to  dressing  IViO  he  hiul  §o  far  gained  the  eoatidrz^e  • :'  '.1% 
clntli,  «ar«iin;c  ^ix>l,  lind  to  lal^or  upon  his  bar,  tliat  by  the  interooa^inn  of  ser^ral  r'  '* 
fntlii-r's  ]arm.  A  portion  c*f  caih  winter  was  lemling  members  he  wa:«  admit  trtl  ms  an  s::- * 
al'«<»siK-nt  in  attentlinirtlte  rudeommon  M'honU  ney  by  the  court  i»f  c«»mnHtn  pleas  of  Erw  i.^.. 
of  tiie  eountn.  In  l^^lU  bin  t'alher  reinoviMl  although  he  bad  not  coniidet<^  thr  |<n  ^  ^' 
to  Aurora,  in  Kriuco.  liviug  IdliuCayugaco.,  study  usually  rvqnirvd.    lie  porcLasvd  a  Sew 


FILLMORE  497 

law  books  for  $39,  payable  in  8  annual  pay-  and  took  no  part  in  tbe  debates  npon  it.    He 

ments  of  $13  each,  secured  by  a  mortgage  on  was,  however,   a  decided  whig,  and  labored 

the  property ;  and  placing  a  box  which  contain-  earnestly  in  support  of  the  internal  improve- 

ed  all  his  effects  on  a  farmer^s  wagon,  he  ac-  mcnt  and  protective  tariff  policy  of  that  party, 

companied  it  on  foot  to  Aurora,  where  his  father  In  the  struggle  which  took  place  upon  the  ones- 

then  resided,  and  where  (in  1859)  ho  still  lives,  tion  of  the  rec-eption  of  petitions  for  the  aooli- 

Here  he  commenced  the  practice  of  law.    Busi-  tion  of  slavery  in  the  25th  congress,  he  supported 

ness  was  small,  but  large  when  compared  to  Mr.  Adams,  and  voted  for  their  reception.    In  a 

the  pay  received  for  it.    There  was  time  how-  letter  written  to  certain  of  his  constituents,  Oct 

ever  for  hard  study,  and  none  of  it  was  lost.  17,  1838,  he  distinctly  avowed  that  he  was  op- 

In  the  course  of  a  few  years  Mr.  Fillmore  ac-  posed  to  the  annexation  of  Texas  so  long  as 

quired  not  only  a  large  practice,  but  a  thorough  slaves  should  be  held  therein ;  that  he  was  in 

knowledge  of  the  principles  of  the  common  law,  favor  of  congress  exercising  all  its  constitutional 

whidh  placed  him  in  the  first  rank  among  the  powers  to  abolish  the  slave  trade  between  the 

lawyers  of  the  state  of  New  York.    The  first  states,  and  in  favor  of  immediate  legislation  for 

fhuts  of  his  profession  were  punctually  paid  the  abolition  of  slavery  in  the  district  of  Colum- 

to  Judge  Wood  in  fiill  of  a  small  advance  made  bia.    He  expressly  stated,  however,  that  he 

by  him  to  Mr.  Fillmore  while  he  was  in  his  would  not  pledge  himself  as  to  his  future  coarse 

employ,  and  which  was  the  only  pecuniary  aid  npon  any  of  these  subjects ;  but  reserved  the 

he  ever  received  after  he  was  14  years  of  age.  right  to  modify  or  change  his  views,  as  npon 

In  1826  he  married  Abigail,  the  daughter  of  the  further  reflection  or  examination  he  might  deem 

Eev,  Lemuel  Powers.    In  1827  he  was  admitted  proper.    Mr.  Fillmore  took  a  prominent  part  in 

as  attorney  and  in  1829  as  counsellor  of  the  su-  the  debates  in  congress  npon  the  subject  of 

preme  court  of  the  state.    In  1830  he  removed  the  burning  of  the  steamer  Caroline  by  British 

to  Buffalo,  where  he  continued  in  the  practice  troops  at  Schlosser,  on  the  Niagara  frontier,  in 

of  the  law  until  the  autumn  of  1 847,  when  he  was  Dec.  1837.    On  Dec.  2, 1839,  at  the  opening  of 

elected  comptroller  of  the  state,  and  retired  the  26th  congress,  the  clerk  commenced  calling 

firom  the  profession.      Shortly  after  ho  was  the  roll  of  members.    When  ho  came  to  New' 

eatablislied  in  Buffalo  he  associated  with  him-  Jersey  (whose  members  were  then  elected  by 

self  in  business  Nathan  K.  Hall,  who  had  stud-  general  ticket),  he  stated  that  the  seats  of  5  of 

led  law  with  him,  and  who  was  afterward  U.  S.  the  6  members  from  that  state  were  contested ; 

postmaster-general,  and  is  now  (1859)  U.  S.  dis-  that  he  did  not  feel  authorized  to  decide  the 

trict  judge  for  the  district  of  New  York.  Solo-  question    of  their   right  to  their  seats,  and 

mon  &.  Haven,  afterward  member  of  congress  tnat  ho   should    therefore    pass    over    their 

from  Erie  co.,  was  a  student  in  tlieir  office,  and  names,  and  proceed  with  the  call.    The  eleo- 

was  subsequently  taken  into  partnership. — ^Mr  tion  of  these  members  was  certified  to  by  the 

Fillmore's  politicallife  commenced  in  1828,  when  governor  of  New  Jersey,  under  the  broad  seal 

be  was  elected  representative  to  the  state  Icgisla  of  the  state.    It  so  happened  Ibat  these  5  mem- 

tan  by  the  anti-masonic  party.  lie  served  8  sue-  hers  were  all  whigs.    Parties  were  so  evenly 

oearive  terms,  retiring  in  the  spring  of  1831,  and  balanced  in  the  house,  that  if  these  5  members 

•astaining  while  in  the  legislature  a  high  reputa-  were  admitted  at  once  it  would  give  the  whigs 

tioa  for  integrity,  candor  in  argument,  thorough  .control  of  its  organization,  including  the  elec- 

inyestigation,  and  the  faithful  performance  of  the  tion  of  speaker,  while  if  they  could  be  deprived 

minutest  details  of  every  duty.  lie  particularly  of  their  seats  until  the  house  should  bo  organ- 

djstinguished  himself  by  his  advocacy  of  the  ized,  its  organization  would  be  controlled  by  the 

act  to  abolish  imprisonment  for  debt,  which  democrats.    The  whigs  contended  that  the  cer- 

was  passed  in  1831,  and  which  was  drafted  by  tificate  of  the  governor,  authenticated  by  the  seal 

him,  excepting  the  portions  relative  to  proceed-  of  the  state,  should  be  received  as  presumptive 

iogi  in  courts  of  record,  which  were  drawn  by  evidence  of  the  right  of  the  5  members  to  their 

the  Hon.  John  0.  Spencer. — ^In  the  autunm  of  seats  ;  that  they  should  be  permitted  to  parti- 

1883  he  was  elected  on  the  anti-Jackson  or  anti-  cipate  in  the  organization  of  the  house,  and  that 

administration  ticket  to  congress.    After  serv-  anerward  the  claims  of  contestants  to  their 

ing  one  term  he  retired  till  1836,  when  he  was  seats  should  be  investigated  in  the  ordinary 

rrtleeted  to  the  same  position  as  a  whig.    Ho  course  of  business.    The  democrats  insisted  that 

waa  chosen  again  in  1838,  and  again  in  1840.  the  honso  should  decide  the  question  before 

la  1842,  although  he  had  previously  written  a  electing  a  speaker.  A  violent  debate  arose.  The 

letter  declining  to  serve  another  term,  he  was  house  remained  in  a  disorganized  and  confused 

vnanimously  renominated  by  the  whig  conven-  condition  until  Dec.  5,  when  Mr.  Adams  was 

tioQ  of  his  district,  and  it  was  with  difficulty  chosen  temporary  chairman.    Two  weeks  were 

tbat  he  obtained  leave  from  his  constituents  to  consumed  in  discussing  the  question  whether  the 

ratire  from  the  public  servico.    In  congress  ho  5  New  Jersey  members  should  be  permitted  to 

roae  gradually  to  the  first  rank  for  integrity,  in-  participate   in  organizing  the  house.    A   res- 

dwtrjr,  and  practical  ability.    During  the  early  olution  to  admit  them  was  lost  by  a  tie  vote. 

part  of  his  congressional  career  a  national  bank  A  speaker  was  chosen  on  Dec.  16,  and  the  dis- 

waa  the  prominent  subject  of  discussion.    Mr.  cussion  then  resumed.    Mr.  Fillmore  was  as- 

rOlmore  was  never  a  warm  friend  of  the  bank,  signed  a  place  on  the  committee  on  elections. 

vou  vn. — 32 


ttS  ULUCOBK 

He  cinrassed  the  entire  vote  of  the  state  of  Btatet»  in  the  wh!^  lutioiia]  coQTentkm  which 

New  Jcraer,  devoting  8  months'  time  to  this  met  at  Baltimore,  Maj  1,  1844.    In  the  cod- 

repulsive  drudgery.    A  minority  of  the  com-  vcntion  of  the  whigs  of  the  state  of  Xew  York, 

mittee,  heing  democrats,  reported  that  tlie  6  which  met  Sept.  11,  he  was  nominated  for  goT- 

contestants,  also  democrats,  were  entitled  to  ernor  hy  acclamation,  hat  was  defeated  by  Silas 

the  seats,  to  the  exclusion  of  the  6  whifr^  who  Wright,  Mr.  Clay  being  defeated  at  the  same 

held  the  certificate  of  the  governor.    The  mi-  time  in  the  president!^  election  by  Mr.  Polk. 

nority  of  the  committee,  among  whom  was  Mr.  — In  1847  Mr.  Fillmore  was  elected  compCrulkr 

Fillmore,  were  satisfied  that  8  at  least  of  the  of  the  state  of  New  York,  an  office  which  si 

whig  members  were  unjustly  excluded  by  the  that  time  included  in  its  sphere  many  duties 

minority  report.    On  March  6,  bv  a  strict  party  now  distributed  among  Tarions  departmenu. 

▼ote,  overruling  the  decision  of  tne  speaker,  Mr.  In  his  report  of  Jan.  1, 1849,  he  suggeafted  that 

Fillmore  was  declared  to  be  out  of  order  while  a  nationu  bank,  somewhat  upon  the  plan  of  the 

supporting  his  views  on  this  question,  and  sJl  free  banking  svstcm  of  New  York,  with  the 

fbrther   debate  was   substantially  prohibited,  stocks  of  the  tlnited  States  as  the  sole  hasifl 

On  March  10  the  democratic  contestants  were  upon  which  to  issue  its  currency,  might  be 

admitted  to  their  seats,  and  their  title  to  them  established  and  carried  on  so  as  to  prove  a  grest 

confirmed  by  a  party  vote  on  July  IG.    This  convenience  to  the  government,  with  entire 

brief  history'  of  tne  celebrated  New  Jersey  case  safety  to  the  people,  flis  suggestions  hare  sioos 

is  given  in  this  place,  as  Mr.  Fillmore  was  one  been  approved  by  many  of  our  roost  emioeot 

of  the  most  prominent  actors  in  it,  and  by  his  financiers  of  diflferent  political  parties. — In  Jooe, 

labor  in  the  committee  and  zeal  in  debate  upon  1848,  he  was  nominated  by  tiie  whig  natiocal 

the  questions  involved,  added  greatly  to  his  rep-  convention  for  the  vice-pre&ideacr,  with  Gto. 

utation  throughout  the  country.    Hitherto  Mr.  Zachary  Taylor  for  president;  and  was  elected 

Fillmore  had  always  been  in  a  minority  in  the  in  the  ensuing   November.    In  Febroanr  be 

national  councils;  but   the   whig  party   was  resigned  the  office  of  comptroller,  and  on  March 

lar^lyin  tlie  majority  in  the  27th  congress,  6, 1849,  was  inaugurated  as  vice-pre»id<nt.  Wbca 

which  assembled  in  1841.    A  new  financial  sys-  congress  met  in  December,  California  pnsenMd 

tem,  and  an  entirely  new  tariff,  were  to  be  de-  itself  for  admission  into  the  Union,  under  a  oc«- 

rised  and  put  in  operation.    Under  the  cir-  stitution    excluding   slavery,   frained    withnot 

cumstanoes  the  position  of  chairman  of  the  legal  authority,  by  a  convention  of  its  peopk^ 

committee  of  ways  and  means  was  the  most  There  being  at  this  time  an  equal  numher  o«' 

arduous,  the  most  responsible,  and  at  the  same  free  and  slave  states  in  the  confederacy,  th« 

time  the  most  honorable  place  in  the  house.   It  proposition  to  admit  California  and  thusdevcrrT 

was  assi^j^ed  to  Mr.  Fillmore,  and  he  duvoted  the  balance  of  power  in  the  Kuate  in  fa\i*r  ti 

himself  to  the  performanoo  of  its  duties  with  the  free  states  exciti'd   throU};)i<iut  the  S^*..::. 

even  more  than  his  accustomed  industry.    The  the  most  violent  opi>osition,  fi^undcd   in  ;&:: 

session  continued  9  months,  during  which  time  on  the  irrepular  inauuor  in  whirh   il.<i  ci.r>:.- 

he  was  not  absent  a  Muglo  hour  from  tho  house,  tution  had  been  framed.     At  tho   ^ar.io  t: :..-?. 

though  he  did  Iiis  full  share  of  tho  labors  of  the  Deseret,   now   Utah,   and  Now  Mi*x;r<\   wv.v 

committee.     Tho  preparation  of  the  new  tariff  without    a    povernnjcnt ;  while  the  l-*»ur.vi4.-7 

bill  involved  an  examination,  digestion,  and  ar-  between  the  latter  and  Texa.^  was  in  coc:*-- 

rangoment  of  figures  and  statistics  appalling  to  versy,  and    Texas   was    threatening    to    ul: 

any  but  a  mind  strcnpthenetl  by  years  of  toil-  poswssion  of  the  disputed  territory  ly  f  r:. 

some  inve.*tigat ions.   Althoujrh  Mr.' Fillmore  did  l^resident  Taylor,  in  his  message,  rcci^cinK  c  io! 

not  profo'iH  to  be  tho  discoverer  of  any  original  the  admission  of  California*  and  t];a:  cun^r«» 

system  of  revenue,  still  tho  tariff  of  1843  was  a  should  await  tho  action  of  tho  pto;-:e  of  i.c 

new  creation,  and  ho  is  justly  entitled  to  the  other  newly  acquired  territories    a:.d    airi.: 

difltinctif>n  of  being  its  author.     At  tho  same  them  in  tho  form  of  states,  with  or  wi'L.*:: 

time,  with  jrroat  labor,  ho  prepared  a  digest  of  slavery,  as  their  constitutions  ihi<u!d  j  rc^r.>. 

the  laws  autliorizing  all  appro[)riations  re|>orted  He  made  no  suggestions,  however.  f*.'r  li.c  f^- 

by  him  to  the  hnuM  as  chairman  of  the  commit-  eminent  of  the  territories  in  tho  nu-an  tim^.  c  r 

tee  of  wavj*  and  means  so  that  on  the  instant  for  the  settlement  of  the  biiundary  lice  bc:wf«z 

he  could  pnnl  u'o  tho  lepal  authority  for  every  Texas  and  New  Mexico.  To  riTuncUe  i!.v  S-::- 

expenditure  \\lii<li  lio  re<'o!nmende<i.     Sensihle  to  tho  admissiuu  of  California,  Mr.  Clay  ir.rr- 

that  this  wiLs  a  great  safffTUurd  against  improper  duced  his  famous  **  omnibus  bili.**   (^^*  C:^t. 

exi)enditnros,  and  one  that  was  likely   to   be  Hkxrt.)  Tho  whig  party  wa^di^idei.  a  p.*rt.  z 

neglerted,  he  pnMMired  the  passage  of  a  resolu-  8Up{H)rting  tho  policy  of  IVt^-tiuerl  T.i>'  r.  lil 

tion  rcquirint;  the  departmeut<*,  when  tlu'V  Hub-  a  i>ortion  that  of  Mr.  Clay.     Thi>  d«'l^:«^  ^ 

mitted  estimates  of  expente-*,  to  accompany  the  Si»nato  were  extremely  acrlintciia-.  .\i.*- 

them  with  a  rcforenco  to  the  laws  authorizing  lent  agitatii>n   en>ued   thro'ivln'M   the  r:...c. 

them  in  oadi  instance.  This  has  ever  since  boeu  Threats  of  Si'cewion  in  caM?  of  the  Adci.^.-::    ' 

the  practice  of  the  govcrnnunt.     Mr.  i-'illinoro  California  wvre  maile  by  K»u:2i».Tn   fiA,:<-^s:xz 

retired  fnim  cur  press  in  Man  h,  1^3.     He  was  even  C'f  the  nKHlerate  and  couM.rvA:;Tc  ?%i..»  " , 

tlte  candidate  fjf  the  vii^proidvncy,  .(•up|M>rti'd  and  many  iH:r»ons  not  hitherto  d«<«.r.it«l  :.' .  : 

by  his  own  state  and  by  some  of  tho  western  men,  were  exceedingly  atixious  and  alarcxco  xt 


FILLMORE  4M 

to  tbe  resalt.  Scones  of  Tiolence  occarred  in  the  Thejr  were  snbstantiaUy  approved  by  resolntiooi 
senate.  In  1826  Mr.  Calhoun,  then  Tice-presi-  passed  by  the  democratic  and  whig  national 
dent)  had  established  the  rule  that  that  officer  conventions  of  1862,  and  by  most  of  the  lead« 
had  no  power  to  call  senators  to  order.  Mr.  ing  politicians  of  the  country  north  and  soath, 
Fillmore  in  a  speech  to  the  senate  announced  and  there  has  been  no  serious  effort  made  to 
his  determination  to  preserve  order,  and  that,  repeal  them.  But  there  were  thousands  of 
ahoold  occasion  require,  he  should  reverse  the  whigs  as  well  as  others  in  the  North  whom  no 
nsageof  his  predecessors  upon  that  subject  This  constitutions  nor  considerations  of  political 
announcement  met  with  the  unanimous  approv-  expediency  could  reconcile  to  a  law,  by  tiio 
al  of  the  senate,  which  ordered  Mr.  Fillmore's  provisions  of  which  the  whole  force  of  the 
remarks  to  be  entered  at  length  on  its  journaL  government  was  to  be  employed  in  render- 
He  presided  during  the  controversy  on  the  ing  fugitives  back  to  bondage.  Although  Mr.* 
**onmibu8bill "  witn  hisnsual  impartiality.  No  ilUmore's  administration,  as  a  whole,  was  ao- 
one  knew  which  policy  he  approved,  excepting  knowledged  to  be  patriotic,  able,  and  useful ; 
ti&e  president,  to  whom  he  privately  stated  although  his  purity  as  a  public  man  was  nnques- 
that  should  he  be  required  to  deposit  his  casting  tioned,  and  not  a  angle  other  measure  of  bis 
vote,  it  would  be  m  favor  of  Mr.  Clay's  bUl.  administration  could  be  called  unpopular ;  it 
Over  7  months  of  the  session  had  been  exhaust-  nevertheless  cannot  be  doubted  that  Mr.  Fill- 
ed In  angry  controversy,  when,  on  July  9, 1860,  more  by  signing  the  fugitive  law  not  oi^y 
President  Taylor  died.  Mr.  Fillmore  took  the  afforded  a  pretext  for  the  opposition  of  his  ene- 
oath  of  office  as  president  on  July  10 ;  Presi-  mies,  but  lost  the  support  of  a  very  large  pro^ 
dent  Taylor's  cabinet  at  once  resigned,  and  a  portion  of  his  party  in  the  northern  states. 
new  cabinet  was  nominated  on  the  20th.  Mr.  In  his  message  to  congress  in  Dec  1850,  the 
Hllmore  immediately  ordered  a  military  force  president  recommended  a  reduction  of  inland 
to  New  Mexico,  with  instructions  to  protect  postage  to  8  cents  on  each  letter  when  pre- 
that  territory  from  invasion  by  Texas.  Mr.  paid,  and  5  when  not ;  and  also  a  reasonable 
Clip's  bill  having  been  in  the  mean  time  defeat-  reduction  on  printed  matter.  He  also  nrged 
ed,  the  president,  on  Aug.  6,  sent  a  message  to  congress  to  provide  a  supply  of  water  for  the 
congress  advising  that  body  of  the  danger  of  a  city  of  Washington.  These  recommendationa 
ooDuion  with  Texas,  and  urging  a  settlement  were  adopted.  He  also  recommended  the  es- 
of  the  controversy  in  respect  to  its  boundary,  tablishment  of  an  agricultural  bureau;  liberal 
Yarioos  acta,  known  as  the  compromise  meas-  appropriations  for  rivers  and  harbors;  the  eslab* 
nres,  and  embracing  substantially  the  provisions  lishment  of  an  asylum  for  the  relief  of  disabled 
of  Mr.  Clay's  bill,  were  passed  before  the  end  and  destitute  seamen;  a  moderate  but  permanent 
of  the  month.  The  president  referred  to  the  tariff,  with  specific  duties  where  practicable, 
attorney-general  the  question  whether  the  act  and  discriminating  justly  in  favor  of  American 
respectmg  the  rendition  of  fugitive  slaves  was  industry;  the  opening  of  communication  be- 
in  conflict  with  the  provisions  of  the  constitu-  tween  the  Mississippi  and  the  Pacific ;  a  provi- 
tion  relating  to  the  writ  of  habeas  corpus.  That  sion  for  settling  disputed  land  titles  in  Califor- 
oiBcer  prepared  a  written  opinion  in  favor  of  nia,  and  an  extension  of  the  system  of  land 
ita  constitutionality.  The  president  concurred  laws  over  the  newly  ac(|nired  territories ;  a  law 
in  this  opinion  and  signed  the  act,  together  to  provide  for  the  retiring  of  superannuated 
with  the  rest  of  the  compromise  measures.  The  officers  from  active  service  in  the  army  and 
ftigitive  slave  law  was  exceedingly  offensive  to  navy ;  a  board  of  commissioners  for  the  adjnst- 
great  numbers,  if  not  to  a  majority,  of  the  whig  ment  of  private  claims  against  the  government ; 
party  of  the  North,  as  well  as  to  those  known  and,  in  conclusion,  "  an  adherence  to  the 
strictly  as  anti-slavery  men.  Its  execution  was  adjustment  established  by  the  compromise 
resiited,  and  slaves  were  rescued  from  the  cus-  measures,  until  time  and  experience  should 
tody  of  the  marshals  by  mobs  at  Boston,  Syra-  demonstrate  the  necessity  for  future  legis- 
eoae,  and  Christiana  in  Pennsylvania,  in  the  lation  to  guard  against  evasion  or  abuse." 
last  of  whidi  places  one  or  two  persons  were  But  his  administration  being  in  a  political 
kiDed.  The  president  announced  his  intention  to  minority  in  both  houses  of  congress,  none  of 
enforce  the  law,  and  issued  a  proclamation  call-  these  recommendations  calling  for  action  were 
ing  npon  all  officers  to  perform  their  dutv  in  its  adopted,  excepting  those  for  the  settlement  of 
czeeotion.  Prosecutions  were  instituted  in  land  claims  in  California,  and  the  survey  of  its 
Tarions  instances  against  the  rescuers,  but  with-  public  lands,  and  for  an  asylum  for  disabled  and 
out  practical  results,  owing  to  the  unpopularity  destitute  seamen.  During  this  session  congress 
of  toe  law.  Although  it  was  known  that  the  made  an  appropriation  for  the  extension  of  the 
pwridcnt  was  in  favor  of  the  compromise  meas-  capitol  according  to  such  plan  as  might  be  ap- 
nria  at  a  whole,  and  selected  a  cabinet  enter-  proved  by  the  president.  Having  adopted  a 
tiUng  the  same  views,  yet,  in  pursuance  of  a  plan,  on  July  4,  1851,  he  laid  the  comer  stone 
generu  rule  which  he  bad  laid  down  for  his  of  the  extension,  amid  an  immense  concourse 
ofldal  action,  he  did  not  seek  to  exercise  any  of  people,  who  were  addressed  by  Daniel  Web- 
inflnence  in  their  favor,  nor  did  he  assume  anv  ster.  Learning  that  an  attempt  was  to  be 
revponrilnUty  in  respect  to  them,  excepting  such  made  to  invade  Cuba  by  lawless  citizens  of 
as  strictly  belonged  to  his  duties  as  president  the  United  States,  the  president  on  April  26, 


IM  ULUiOiBI 

1SS1|  iMMd  a  prookmatkm  wtiniDg  tiiem  of  Americni  rtatmer  RpomtUisoi  at  8m  Jm, 

^  eooteqaenoes.     On  Aog.  i,  however,  an  an  ample  vpckgj  waa  reqniwd  aad  sitmi  in  a 

aipedition  under  Lopes,  in  the  steamer  Pam-  letter  oy  Lord  GranTiOe,  Jan.  16^  IBSL   In  te 

paro,  Moled  from  New  Orleans  bj  the  eonnlT*  antomn  of  1852,  Mr.  Oeoifa  Law  of  New  York 

anoe  of  the  collector  of  that  port  and  landed  in  dtj  daimed  the  right  to  asiid  to  Coba  In  tba 

Onba.    The^j  were  there  captured ;  some  were  steamer  Graaoent,  owned  by  bimi  aa  inAiidaal 

axecnted,  a  few  pardoned,  and  the  remainder  obnoxious  to  the  Cnban  aatboritfaa,     Tbcj 

sent  prisoners  to  Spdn.    Those  sent  to  Snain  would  not  permit  Ibe  ressel  to  land.    Mr.  Lav 

were  finally  pardoned,  and  congress  paid  their  propoaed  to  mtk  redress  by  foraa.    la  a  lettsr 

expenses  home.    The  odleetor  of  New  Orleana  to  the  ooDeotor  of  Kew  York,  dated  Nor.  lt» 

was  remoTed  from  officci  and  the  steamer  Pam-  1868,  Mr.  Fillmore  atated  that  the  contioi^w 

Vero  seised  by  the  goremment,  and  condemned  was  one  to  be  aettled  by  Ibe  goremnMBL  and 

and  sold  for  a  violi^on  of  the  neotrality  laws,  not  1^  a  priTate  dtiaen,  aad  that  should  Mr. 

Daring  the  ssme  summer  information  was  pri-  Law  attempt  to  obtain  redress  aa  a  priTafea  ehi- 

irataly  eommnnicated  to  the  preddent  wluch  sen  by  Ibree.  the  whole  power  of  iKa  foftn* 

lad  Um  to  sospeot  that  a  Dr.  Gardner  had  pre-  ment  would  be  interpoaea  to  pntwmA  fL    TUs 

asnted  a  fraudulent  dahn  to  the  Meidcan  com-  letter,  at  Mr.  Fillmore^  reqi 


nissioQers,  which  had  been  maintained  by  for-  cated  to  Mr.  law,  who  demited  from  smtethv 

MT  and  perfnTfi  and  allowed,  and  on  which  he  warlike  demonstratioDs.  Mr.WebateroiadOBt 

Sad  drawn  from  the  treasurr  nearly  $500,000.  S4.  1868,  and  Mr.  Edward  Everslt  was  mh 

A  prosecution  wss  immediately  instituted,  Gard-  pointed  mssoocessor  as  secretanr  of  atata.    m 

waa  couTioted  and  committed  suicide,  and  a  iirief  term  of  office  waa  distingaiBliad  by  Us  Is^ 


kige  portion  of  the  mon^obtahiedb^  him  waa    tar  declining  the  nroposition  ibr  a  faipaitiis 

treaty  with  £og)ana  and  FhnesLWwl ' 


tacorered.    In  his  message  of  1861,  beride  re-  treaty  with  England  and  Fhnea,WwhmeaBh 

ksrating  the  Tiews  expressed  in  that  of  IBOQl  country  was  to  ^sdaim  then  and  nr  tibataan 

ttuB  preSdent  urged  a  roTision  of  the  fee  bill  of  aU  intentioQ  to  obtain  posssssJoo  of  tha  isbiii 

tiia  U.  8.  courts  a  thwough  rerision  and  codi-  of  Cuba,     fiut  in  his  message  to  finaisss  la 


ieatioQ  of  the  laws  of  conaress  then  in  foroe^  Deo.  1868,  the  president  expfiased  his  OBWoa 

and  a  law  prescribing  the  reJatiye  rank  of  offi-  that  the  incorporatioii  of  Onba  into  the  Uata 

osrs  in  the  army  and  navr.    Mr.  Fillmore^  ad-  would  be  a  hasardona  and  Hr^tk  aaaaasn. 

Bidnistration  is  distinguished  by  the  expedition  Mr.  Fillmore  retired  from  the  presidaiiBy  Mawh 

of  Commodore  Perry  to  Japan,  in  a  souadron  4, 1868.  He  Irft  thn  nnnntrj  st  pnsrie  a iihia  and 

which  sailed  in  the  autunm  of  1868,  ana  which  without,  and  in  the  enjoyment  of  a  U^h  d^^as 

lesulted  in  a  favorable  treaty  with  that  conn-  of  prosperity  in  all  departmenta  of  nmdaalry. 

try.    During  the  years  1861  and  1863  trea-  In  his  cabinet  there  had  ncTcr  been  a  dissenting 

ties  were  also  formed  with  Peru,  Costa  Rica,  Toice  as  to  any  measure  of  his  admimitratioB ; 

BrazU,  and  other  South  American  states.    A  and  upon  his  retiring  from  office,  a  letter  was 

steamer  wss  sent  to  explore  the  La  Plata  and  addresBed  to  him  by  Si  its  members»  expreaaaf 

its  confluents.    Believing,  from  the  gold  pur-  their  united  appreciation  of  his  alMtitiei^  his  in- 

chased  on  the  cosst  of  iUHca,  that  there  must  tegrity,  and  his  devotion  to  the  public  snriea 

be  large  deposits  of  that  metal  in  its  interior.  At  the  whiff  convention  of  1863^  althoogh  hii 

and  in  the  hope  that  the  discovery  of  large  qaan-  policy,  the  nigitive  slave  law  indoded,  was  sp- 

tities  of  gold  there  would  result  in  the  prosper-  proved  by  a  vote  of  227  against  60,  and  althosfh 

oos  emigration  of  many  of  the  free  colored  |>eo-  one  of  his  cabinet,  who  was  known  to  have  sp- 

ple  of  the  United  States,  Mr.  Fill  more  despatched  proved  of  all  his  measures,  was  iiimi^nattii  ibr 

an  expedition  under  Lieut.  Lynch,  with  instruo-  vice-president^  he  could  not  command  fO  voCm 

tions  to  explore  the  interior  of  Africa,  and,  if  fh>m  the  free  states.    Thte  waa  owing^  no  doabc, 

possible,  to  ascertain  the  location  of  its  gold  de-  partly  to  his  lack  of  friends  among  active  po2r 

posits.    This  expedition,  it  is  understood,  failed  ticians  whom  he  had  never  son^t  to  itimriiit** 

on  account  of  the  sickness  of  the  commander,  by  hopes  of  patronsge,  and  psyrtly  to  the  cxcr 
Another  exploring  expedition  ntfdorCapt  Ring- ^  tions  of  the  friends  of  other  candidate^  bat 

gold  was  despatched  by  order  of  congress  into  chiefly  to  his  unpopularity  with  that  large  fe^ 

the  Chinese  seas.    An  expedition  was  also  or-  tion  of  his  party  wuom  he  had  alieaatad  by  kk 

dared  by  the  president  to  explore  the  valley  of  signature  of  the  fugitive  slave  lav.    Hia  depart- 

the  Amazon.    This  accomplished  its  object,  and  ure  from  the  aeat  of  government  was  alao  c»- 

instmctive  reports  wore  made  by  Lieuts.  llem*  bittered  by  a  heavy  ^Hnestio  griaC    Mrk  Fifl- 

don  and  Gibbon.     Mr.  Fillmore  carried  out  more,  whose  early  advantages  luid  been  superior 

strictly  the  doctrine  of  non-intervention  in  the  to  his  own,  and  who  through  his  ri^ngJbrtDMi 

affiurs  of  foreign  countries,  and  frankly  stated  had  been  hb  nearest  friend  and  cooaseikv;  dk^ 

his  views  upon  this  subject  in  an  interview  with  at  Washington,  March  80,  and  ha  leiainsd  to 

Kossuth.    At  the  same  time,  bowevcr,  it  ap-  >  Buffalo  deprived  at  once  ci  public  i  miikijiasit 

peared  clearly  enough  by  the  celebrated  letter  and  of  the  solaces  of  private  life.^iaes  thi 

of  Mr.  Webster,  secretanr  of  state,  to  M.  UaUe-  close  of  his  administration,  Mr.  FtUmora  has  d^ 

maun,  how  little  theadmtnutration  sympathized  voted  himself  to  the  study  of  general  Btsratsit 

with  Austria  in  its  struggle  with  llungarv.  TLe  with  systematic  industry.  Durh^tlia  spris^  »i 

British  man-of-war  Express  having  fixed  into  the  summer  of  IB^  ha  made  aa  aiSiDsivo  Isar 


FILLMORE  CITY  FILTKB                      60l 

through  the  sonthem  and  many  of  the  western  sitnation  of  Fillmore  is  very  heantifal,  heing 
states ;  bat  the  ^ear  was  rendered  one  of  the  directly  at  the  foot  of  the  main  WahsatoE 
saddest  of  liis  hfe,  by  the  death  of  his  only  range,  and  commanding  a  view  of  at  least  160 
daughter.  By  this  bereavement  he  was  left  m.  westward  into  the  Great  Basin.  The  alti- 
with  an  only  son,  now  a  practising  lawyer  in  tade  of  the  site  is  more  than  5,000  feet  above 
Boffido.  In  the  spring  of  1865,  after  an  excnr-  the  sea,  considerably  exceeding  that  of  8alt  Lake 
sioQ  through  New  England,  he  sailed  for  Europe,  City.  In  one  respect  Fillmore  differs  notioei^ly 
where  he  remained  until  June,  1856.  He  was  from  the  chain  oftownsranning  northward  from 
received  with  nuirked  distinction  by  the  leading  it  toward  the  Salt  lake ;  it  is  open  on  all  sides, 
statesmen  and  at  the  principal  courts  of  Europe,  whereas  most  of  the  others  are  wdled.  The 
The  degree  of  D.C.L.  was  tendered  to  him  by  difficulty  of  transit  from  the  northern  and  most 
the  mil  versity  of  Oxford,  but  he  declined  the  hon-  populous  portion  of  the  territory  in  the  winter, 
or.  While  at  Rome  he  received  the  news  of  his  fed  the  Mormon  legislature  in  1856  to  pass  re- 
nomination  as  candidate  for  the  presidency  by  the  solves  removing  the  seat  of  government  to  Salt 
American  party.  He  accepted  the  nomination,  Lake  City ;  but  it  has  been  conceded  that  these 
bat  before  the  close  of  the  campaign  it  became  resolves  were  unauthorized,  and  the  capital  is 
evident  even  to  his  friends  that  the  real  strug-  now  definitely  established  at  Fillmore. 
rie  was  between  the  democrats  and  the  repub-  FILTER,  an  instrument  for  separating  from 
BcmnsL  Very  many  of  those  with  whom  he  was  fluids  the  foreign  substances  mechanically  inter- 
the  first  choice  for  president  cast  their  votes  mixed  with  them.  Beds  of  sand  and  gravel  con- 
either  for  Mr.  Buchanan  or  Mr.  Fremont,  be-  stitute  natural  filters,  through  which  the  waters 
liaring  that  there  was  no  hope  of  Mr.  Fillmore's  of  springs  flow  upward  clear  from  all  sediment 
dection ;  and  though  he  received  the  support  of  and  visible  impurity.  Artificial  filters  are  eon- 
large  numbers  in  all  the  states.  Mainland  alone  structed  upon  the  same  principle;  a  diaphragm 
Kve  him  its  electoral  vote.  On  Feb.  10, 1858,  of  some  substance  is  presented,  through  Uia 
was  married  to  Mrs.  Caroline  Mcintosh,  the  pores  of  which  the  fluid  can  penetrate,  but 
joongest  daughter  of  the  late  Charles  Car-  which  are  so  fine  that  they  arrest  the  partidea 
michael  of  Morristown,  N.  J.  He  has  since  re-  held  in  suspension.  They  are  variously  oon- 
rided  in  BufiEalo,  devoting  himself  to  study  and  structed  according  to  the  nature  of  the  fluid  to 
to  the  society  of  his  friends,  and  enjoying  that  be  purified.  The  chemist  takes  a  disk  of  on- 
general  respect  to  which  ho  is  justly  entitled  by  sized  white  paper,  and  doubling  it  twice,  intro- 
his  many  years  of  public  8cr\icc,  and  by  his  duces  it  into  a  funnel  of  proper  size,  which,  for 
punctilious  and  faithful  performance  of  aU  the  facilitating  the  passage  of  the  ^fluid,  is  com- 
daties  of  private  life.  monly  ribbed,  and  opening  one  of  the  folds, 
FILUaORE  CITT,  the  capital  of  Utah  ter-  pours  in  the  liquid.  This  soon  drops  through 
ritory,  is  the  principal  settlement  in  Millard  co.,  the  paper  and  the  funnel,  leaving  the  sediment 
and  lies  about  150  m.  almost  due  S.  from  the  behind ;  if  any  of  this  passes  trough  in  the 
Great  Salt  lake.  Both  it  and  the  county  were  commencement  of  the  operation,  it  is  common- 
named  in  honor  of  Millard  Fillmore,  who  is  ly  retained  when  returned  after  the  pores  of 
held  in  great  esteem  among  the  Mormons  on  the  paper  are  wet  and  partially  obstructed, 
account  of  the  favor  he  displayed  toward  them  The  sediment  is  often  the  object  of  this  pro- 
St  the  time  of  the  organization  of  the  territory  cess ;  in  this  case  it  may  be  washed  clean  of 
in  1850.  The  city  charter  was  granted  by  the  the  liquid  which  contained  it  by  the  use  of 
territorial  legislature  in  Feb.  1852.  The  white  water,  or  sometimes  of  some  other  fluid  which 
population  now  (1859)  is  about  700.  In  the  has  no  chemical  action  upon  the  residuum. 
vicinity  is  one  of  the  government  Indian  farms,  Paper  is  an  excellent  material  for  filters ;  but 
which  is  the  head- quarters  of  a  band  of  Pah-  those  kinds  should  be  selected  which  contain 
Tsnt  or  Para-vant  Indians,  an  offshoot  of  the  the  least  amount  of  earthy  matters,  lime  partic- 
grest  Utah  nation.  The  chicf^  Canosb,  is  not-  ularly,  the  presence  of  which  may  affect  the 
ed  as  one  of  the  most  inveterate  thieves  that  composition  of  the  substances  employed.  These 
infest  the  roads  across  the  continent.  The  main  may,  however,  be  in  part  dissolved  out  by  acids 
wagon  road  to  California  via  Parowan,  Moun-  before  using  the  filter.  Each  filter  is  usckI  only 
tun  Meadows,  Santa  Clara,  and  San  Bernardino,  once ;  and  thus  there  is  no  accumulation  of  im- 
passes through  Fillmore,  and  for  many  years  purities  to  impair  its  quality.  The  weight  of 
the  principal  subsistence  of  Canosh  and  his  the  ashes  yielded  by  a  disk  of  the  size  used 
hand  has  been  derived  from  depredations  upon  being  known,  the  quantity  of  the  insoluble 
American  travellers.  The  only  building  in  Fill-  precipitate  collected  in  the  filter  may  be  deter- 
more  of  any  pretension  b  the  capitol.  The  plan  mined  by  burning  both  together,  thus  avoiding 
of  this  edifice,  of  which  one  wing  only  has  been  risk  of  loss  in  removing  the  fine  particles,  and 
completed,  is  in  the  shape  of  a  Greek  cross,  of  uncertainty  as  to  the  proportion  due  to  the 
witharotundain  the  centre  CO  feet  in  diameter,  filter  when  the  burnt  product  is  weighed. 
Hie  material  is  red  sandstone,  rough  hammered.  Apothecaries  also  use  paper  filters,  but  generally 
AH  the  other  buildings  in  the  town  are  of  of  coarser  material  and  folded  from  a  square 
adobe  or  else  of  fire-burned  brick,  which  last  is  piece  in  a  number  of  folds  like  those  of  a  paper 
made  nowhere  else  within  the  territory,  and  fan,  all  of  which  terminate  in  one  point  which 
lardj  here,  owing  to  the  scarcity  of  fuel.   The  was  the  centre  of  the  square.    Paper  filters  are 


602  FILTER 

itrengthened  and  made  more  impervioos  when  like  rain,  in  order  to  take  up  the  ur  foond  in 

necessary  bv  using  one  within  another.    In  fil-  rain  water,  and  which  it  has  lost  in  its  filtering 

tering  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining  eztractit,  a  When  the  river  water  is  Tcry  tnrbid,  the  npprr 

Tery  efficiout  apparatus  is  niado  use  of  by  the  strata  require  renewal  twice  a  day  on  acconnt 

apothecaries,  called  Boullay*s  filter,  which  has  of  the  impurities  deposited.    The  quantity  of 

been  already  noticed  under  Extracts.    The  old  water  passed  through  them  is  proportional  to 

pharmaceutists  used  a  cone-shaped  bog  of  cot-  the  area  of  the  filtering  surface.    Each  square 

too  or  woollen  called  Ilypocrates's  sleeve,  and  metre  of  surface  produces  in  24  hours  abuct 

the  same  contrivance  is  still  one  of  the  best  for  8.000  litres  of  pure  water,  or  each  square  iixti 

the  clarification  of  sirups  and   other  viscid  al>oot  78 (  standard  gallons.    Tlie  result,  liow- 

Bquids.    Cotton  flannel,  which  has  a  Uiick  nap,  ever,  varies  with  the  state  of  clcanline«ft  in 

is  an  excellent  material.    The  conical  hat  body  which  the  filtering  materials  are  kept ;  and  at 

made  of  felt  is  well  adapted,  before  its  shape  is  the  degree  of  retardation  cannot  be  ascertained 

^tered,  to  the  filtration  of  fixed  oils.    Curro-  beforehand,  it  will  be  impossible  to  calculaie 

live  liquids,  as  strong  acids,  may  be  cleared  by  with  accuracy  the  capacity  of  any  filter  of 

passing  them  through  pure  silicious  sand  sup-  this  nature.    An  ingenious  filter  was  nucictd 

ported  upon  coarse  fragments  of  glass  placed  m  at  the  London  exhibition,  sent  by  the  WenLaa 

the  neck  of  a  funnel  and  gradually  diminishing  lake  ice  company  of  MassachusettA,  tlie  inveo- 

in  size  upward.    Sponges  have  been  used  for  tion  of  Mr.  Alfred  Bird.     It  consists  of  a 

filters  from  time  immemorial  for  purifying  the  siphon,  the  short  limb  of  which  tcmiinatei  in 

water  of  the  Niger ;  unless  often  replaced,  tliey  a  cylindrical  box,  which  is  placed  in  a  cask  of 

have  the  defect  common  to  all  filters  made  of  water  under  tlie  surface.    This  box  conulss 

organic  materials,  as  straw,  hemp,  cotton,  saw-  the  filter,  and  on  drawing  the  air  out  of  the 

dust,  shavings,  branches,  leaves,  ic,,  of  under-  long  arm,  which  projects  from  the  cask,  th« 

going  a  chemical  change  from  constant  expo-  water  is  forced  up  through  the  filter  and  {msms 

•nro  to  dampness,  which  at  last  causes  them  to  through  the  siphon,  its  now  being  reculated  L; 

affect  injuriously  the  quality    of  the  liquid,  a  stop-cock  at  the  lower  end  of  the  lung  arta. 

The  fibres  of  osbestus  might  m  substituted  with  It  has  the  advantage,  if  the  cask  is  kept  pn>p- 

advantage,  and  would  moreover  find  a  proper  erly  supplied,  of  drawing  the  water  neitlMr 

application  in  the  filtration  of  corrosive  fluids,  from  the  top  where  the  lighter  sediment  cc^- 

Cfharcoal  is  a  favorite  material,  particularly  for  lecta,  nor  from  the  bi)ttom  to  which  the  heavier 

the  purification  of  water  used  at  sea ;  it  has  impurities  sink.    Filters  upon  a  largo  scale  are 

the  property  not  only  of  separating  tlie  impuri-  connected  with  the  reservoirA  from  which  dtics 

ties  passed  through  layers  of  it  alternating  with  receive  supplies  of  water.    These  reservolrt  arc 

others  of  Earn],  but  also  of  riMiioving  diiMigrocablo  divided  into  several  basins,  the  fireit  of  vL!  L 

odor*.   Tho  Jupaucse  use  iK)rous  sandstones  hoi-  are  intended  for  receiving  the  tciliiiKZit  IJ.^ 

lowed  into  the  fonn  of  an  egjcr^  and  set  in  a  frame  will  subside  as  the  water  is  \vit  »tand:T.j ;  i:  *... 

over  a  vess<»l,  into  which  the  wator  drops  as  it  tlieso   it  passes  through   porous   U.'Os    «!.. 

percolates  through  the  stone.    The  Efryptians  separate  them  from  an  ndji>ining  l>a>in.  ll': 

adopt  the  soino  inctho<l  for  clarifying;  the  wutc-r  which  collect  the  impurities  >till  rciiial:.ii>^  »  -^ 

of  the  Xilo.  A  stone  which  answers  tIiispur|K>so  pendeiL     By  using  several  such  b.v:ii«  iLv  s-.- 

Well  has  long  been  known  utTenerilfe,  and  was  may  l>e  kept  alternately  in  U!<\  all\>rdt:i,;  a:.   ; 

formerly  largely  im|>orted  into  England.     In  portunity  for  their  cleansing;  whenevi-r  tl..*    - 

Si>ain  jKinms  earthenware  vessels  are  innnufao-  required. — In  connection  with  t!.e   p-ri'-iji. 

turcd,  called  a//-«irn««M,  which  are  used  for  this  of  water  by  filtration,  in}^>nli»U'«  invt!.'-l>  :.\ 

purpose,  and  also  for  wine-ciH^lers.    (See  Evai»-  been  devised  of   Si>)>ara:ing   the   ».»'."-l>  m..- 

OKATif>N.)     New  devices deMjrned  for  exhihitiiij;  of   lime,   Ac,   which    give    the   jri'j«*r..^      " 

or  rendering  more  etliciout  the  pn*cess  of  lilter-  hanlncss  to  water,  and  w  Inch  Iteirii:  ;n  U.k-  ••  ■." 

ing  .iro  con^tantly  apiKraring,  some  t^f  them  not  of  Mihition  piL«»s  throu;;h  the  tUler.     Pure  »  v.  * 

ditfering  from   methods  loni;  ago  intriKluced,  run  tlius  hold  only  Hln^nt  two  graiL«  :<ii!.'.  .* 

yet  pri^tected  by  patent  right.<^     Filterin;^  U|>-  h>n  oi  carlM»nale  of  limo,  or  ,,5. ,,  .  I  ;:  ■.- " 

ward,  by  intnKliiciiig  the  liquid  at  tho  bottom  water  nhsorhs  carlMmio  a<'id  j:a.s  \i*  |-  w  ■  r    : 

of  a  ca*»k  and  cau^iu};  it  to  ri>e  by  the  pressure  di.'»>olving  carhunato  t»f  lime  iiiiTeA*^  -,  i  ..     • 

of  tlic  column  behind  through  sand  .nnd  gravel  capacity  may  be  10  tinu--^  thut  <  £'  ;  uro  v  i'-  ■ 

or  charcoal,  was  patented  in  En^'Iand  in  ITUl,  It**  hardne:*.'*  inrroa'k\'»  with  the  ij'i.v.'.f.v  i ;  . 

together  with  the  iia-thiul  of  gi'tiing  rid  of  tho  taken  up.     Thu-.  the  water  of  >irinL-N  i-t-    . .. 

sediment  by  wa>hiug  it  out  with  currents  of  ly  in  districts  where  raliareiU-  r^^Lt  jl-     ■ 

wotor  pas«k.'d  under  pre-isuro  in  the  c«»ntrarydi-  dilfi-rs  in  compujiititm  from  tiie  ><i:l  ru.-;  »  ..'  " 

rection.     In  1><U<)  a  prod--*  n«»t  i*SM.nlially  dif-  whii  h  ha-*   Ui»t   lliiwt»il   t\ri  ".,:h    iSe   jr    .: 

fer»nt  was  patented  in  Trance,  tho  water  Iwing  When  Mirh  water  U  b'tiled.  t!ic  ex**''*  *.:  fi" 

luttile  t«»pa>"*  in  a  downward  direction  through  b<>nic  acid  pJis  is  expelled,  and  »  /.ii  ::  :*.r  cy  . 

Liyors  «»f  sut'h  materials,  to  >v!iio!i  >pon;res  were  city  of  holdin»r  a  iK*rtii»n  i^"  t!.e  cur*.-.::*:* 

also  added.     I:  wa-.  empli>yed  <n  a  1  »r^e  f«*alc  lime.     Tliis  falU  a^*  a  prerij.i:.i!.-,  a;.«I  f.  rr..*  :    ' 

in  ISnt;  i.>  clarilv  ihe  water  of  tlje  Seine.    Aiter  crust  whirh  c«dlects  nn  tho  iL^-ie  i !  ki  ::i* 

the  water  pa>se<ithnin:;!i  the  layers  containeii  in  whirh  such  water  is  U>tle«!.     Uy  »*■:.:  :  -.- j  *. 

leodeu  boxes,  i:  is  made  to  drop  from  a  height  boiling,  all  the  lime  may  bo  thus  m  \  mrJLK^  %  i 


UNOH  JMtt 

eept  about  two  grains  to  the  gallon ;  and  it  is  more  or  less  conical  bill,  withont  emargination 
then  in  the  best  condition  to  be  purified  by  at  the  tip.  This  family,  according  to  Gray, 
filtering.  Other  salts,  the  solubilitj  of  which  comprises  the  eah- fannhesploeevMBy  or  weaverii 
does  not  depend  upon  the  carbonic  acid  gas  African  for  the  most  part,  except  the  tjrpical 
present,  as  the  sulphate  of  lime,  or  the  dilorides  genus  ploeeus  (Cuv.),  which  is  Asiatic ;  eoeeo- 
of  soda,  magnesia,  <bc.,  which  give  the  saltness  thratutimBy  or  hawfinches,  well  scattered  over 
and  hardness  to  sea  water,  con  only  be  separat-  the  globe,  of  which  the  rose-breasted  grosbeak 
ed  by  ^stillatiqn. — ^There  are  {dso  some  sub*  isa  familiar  representative  in  the  United  States; 
stances  often  present  in  the  state  of  suspension  tanagriruB^  or  tanagers,  peculiar  to  this  oonti- 
in  water  which  may  not  be  separated  by  subsi-  nent,  especially  to  South  America ;  fringiUinm^ 
denee  or  filtration.  Such  are  some  organic  or  finches,  found  all  over  the  world ;  emherinnmy 
matters,  and  the  fine  clayey  or  aluminous  par-  or  buntings,  of  which  the  common  snow  bunting 
tidesL  Waters  which  wash  cli&  of  clay  be-  is  a  good  example;  a2af/<2»nai,  or  larks,  of  which 
Gome  saturated  with  the  impalpable  material,  the  shore  lark  of  the  north  and  a  second  spe- 
whieh  they  almost  wholly  renise  to  shed  by  any  cics  on  the  Pacific  coast  are  the  only  American 
mechanical  action.  This  property  may  be  wit-  specimens :  this  sub-family  is  by  some,  and  with 
DCMed  upon  a  large  scale  m  passing  in  a  steam-  good  reason,  removed  from  the  fringUlidm; 
boat  along  the  north  shore  of  Lake  Erie,  where  pyrrhulin<By  or  bullfinches;  loxinay  or  croas- 
the  water,  particularly  after  a  storm,  carries  the  hills ;  and  phytotominoy  or  nlant-cutters.  The 
sediment  from  the  clayey  banks  miles  out  into  characters  of  the  bullfinch,  bunting,  and  croes- 
the  lake,  and  receives  from  it  a  milky  appear-  bill  have  been  given  under  those  titles  respeo- 
anee.  8udi  water,  it  is  found,  may  be  purified  tively ;  those  of  the  grosbeaks,  hawfinches,  wks^ 
by  adding  to  it  a  few  grains  of  alum  to  the  gal-  plant-cutters,  tanagers,  and  weavers,  will  be  no- 
Ion.  The  alum  is  decomposed,  and  its  ingredi-  ticed  in  their  alphabetical  order ;  leaving  noth- 
ents  fall  in  insoluble  precipitates,  carrying  with  ing  for  this  article  but  the  proper  finches.  ^  The 
them  the  alumina  or  other  impurities  which  dis-  characters  of  the /ringiUiruB  are,  in  addition  to 
color  the  water ;  and  all  may  be  separated  by  those  already  alluded  to  as  belonging  to  the 
filtration  or  decantation  except  the  excess  of  whole  family,  wings  more  or  less  lengthened 
alum  that  may  have  been  added.  Its  use  is  ob-  and  pointed ;  tail  varjring  in  length,  sometimes 
jectionable  from  the  liability  of  adding  it  in  with  the  feathers  acuminated ;  tarsi  rather 
excess,  and  also  from  the  formation  of  a  sul-  shorter  than  the  middle  toe,  in  a  few  cases  as 
phi^  of  lime,  a  portion  of  which  remains  in  long,  slender  and  transversely  scaled ;  toes 
solution,  rendering  the  water  hard.  Caustic  or  long  and  slender,  the  hind  toe  moderate,  with 
quick  lime  is  also  used  for  a  similar  purpose,  the  claws  curved  and  acute.  The  genus  estrel- 
It  acts  by  seizing  upon  the  free  carbonic  acid  da  (Swains.)  is  found  in  Africa,  Asia,  and  Aus- 
present,  and  thus  all  the  carbonate  of  lime  in  tralia,  occurring  in  small  fiocks  in  meadows 
solution,  except  two  grains  to  the  gallon,  is  ren-  and  bushy  grounds,  and  occasionally  visiting 
dered  insoluble,  and  Hills  together  with  the  lime  (^urdens.  The  wax-billed  finch,  or  bengaly 
introduced  to  the  bottom.  This  process  has  (B,  astrild,  Linn.),  is  of  the  size  of  a  wren, 
been  put  in  practice  upon  a  large  scale  at  the  about  4^  inches  long ;  the  bill  is  deep  red,  and 
Mayfield  print  works  in  Lancashire,  England,  a  streak  through  the  eye  and  the  middle  of  the 
in  which'  300,000  gallons  of  water  are  daily  breast  are  of  the  same  color;  the  general  color 
purified.  Filtration  is  not  necessary  unless  the  above  is  brown,  and  below  reddish  gray,  every- 
water  was  turbid  before  the  liming,  the  precip-  where  crossed  with  fine  blackish  undulations. 
itate  formed  subsiding  in  the  course  of  24  This  handsome  bird  inliabits  Africa  from  Sen- 
hoars,  so  that  the  clear  water  may  be  drawn  off.  egal  to  the  cape  of  Good  Hope  ;  it  often  com- 
In  the  spring  of  1851  experiments  were  made  mits  considerable  havoc  in  gardens,  where  it 
upon  tlie  water  of  the  Thames  river  at  the  devours  both  buds  and  seeds ;  it  is  frequently 
Chelsea  water  works,  from  8,000,000  to  4,000,-  kept  in  cages,  more  for  its  beauty  than  its  song. 
000  gallons,  or  nearly  a  day^s  supply,  being  sub-  The  wings  in  this  genus  are  short,  and  the 
jected  to  this  process.  The  quantity  of  lime  flight  is  consequently  for  small  distances  at  a 
admitted  was  regulated  by  testing  the  water  in  time ;  the  tail  is  lengthened.  There  are  more 
the  reservoir  by  a  drop  of  nitrate  of  silver,  the  than  40  other  species.  As  a  specimen  of  the 
formation  of  a  brownish  precipitate  indicating  genus  amadina  (Swains.),  differing  from  the 
that  an  excess  has  been  introduced.  All  the  last  chiefly  in  a  more  uniformly  conical  bill  and 
fixed  constituents  contained  in  one  gallon  of  in  a  short  and  rounded  tail,  may  be  mentioned 
water  were  found  to  be  reduced  from  24.07  to  the  Java  finch,  commonlv  called  here  Java  spar- 
8.81  grains,  and  the  organic  matter  from  2.60  row  (A,  oryzivorct,  Linn.) ;  other  names  are  the 
to  1.60  grains.  The  water  was  rendered  com-  padda  and  rice  bird.  This  is  of  the  size  of  a 
paratively  soft  and  transparent,  acquiring  nei-  sparrow,  in  length  about  6  inches;  the  bill  is 
tber  odor  nor  taste  by  the  process.  The  cost  stout  and  red;  the  eyelids  are  of  the  same  color; 
was  estimated  at  about  £1  for  1,000,000  gallons,  the  head  and  throat  block;  the  sides  of  the 
FINCU,  a  name  given  to  many  birds  of  the  head,  under  the  eyes,  white ;  the  upper  parts 
orderjMiM«r«i,  tribe  eonirastres^  and  family /nV  pale  ash ;  belly  and  thighs  pale  rose,  white  to- 
^tf^MM,  including  a  numerous  series  of  small  ward  the  vent ;  the  tail  black.  It  inhabits  Java, 
and  generally  brilliant  birds,  with  short,  thick,  China,  and  India,  where  it  occasionally  doea 


S04  iniOH 

modi  inisbhief  In  tbarioe  grounds;  it  eaif  seeds  the  tail  shorti  snd  the  bodf  biilkT;  vUeh  cShsr- 
snd  insects;  it  is  (Mflen  seen  here  as  a  cage  bird,  aoters  have  led  Mr.  Ctonla  to  coonder  it  ralbcr 
and  ia  a  favorite  for  its  beantj.  Tliere  are  more  a  grosbeak  (coeeothrmuitei)  than  n  ilaehi  and  it 
than  60  other  species  of  the  geDos. — ^The  tjpi-  no  doabt  is  one  of  the  Intermediate  tema  be> 
eal  finches  are  found  in  the  genns  fringUia  tween  this  KoAfringUla.  The  male  ia  brfglit 
(linn.),  which  is  distributed  over  all  the  world,  dive  men  above,  pasdng  into  jellow;  the 
uving  in  floclcs  in  which  are  often  associated  quills  blackish  grav,  with  oater  weba  brUht 
aerenl  species;  their  food  conrists  of  seeds  of  samboge  jellow ;  the  tail,  except  the  1  adddla 
various  kinds  of  planta  and  trees  in  winter,  and  feathers,  which  are  gray  with  li^t  veDow  mar- 
oC  larvn,  grubs,  and  grain  in  summer ;  somcL  g^ns,  are  jellow  like  the  wings,  with  the  cztcr> 
Hke  the  red  poll  and  the  snow  bird,  are  found  nal  edges  ffrayish  brown;  bdow  greenish,  pass- 
In  very  cold  regions.  There  are  more  than  80  lug  into  sulphur  yellow ;  the  bill  Is  wliitc,  with 
ineoies,  which  bv  Qray  were  brought  under  the  a  pink  tinge;  the  legs  brown;  the  joang  are 
Qmuean  genus/rta^ula;  some  of  the  old  sub-  marked  with  oblong  dashes  of  brown  on  the 
divisions  have  been  re-adopted  in  Prince  Bona-  lower  waxftnot  and  the  upper  part  of  the  hadL 
narte^s  (hntpecUu  Athtm.  and  in  Baird*s  cata-  This  is  an  indigenous,  non-migratory,  har^ 
logne  of  North  American  birds,  but  the  simpler  bird,  living  in  flocks,  fiuniliar  and  dodla;  it  is 
methodof  Gray  will  be  adhered  to  in  this  article,  often  kept  in  confinement  for  ita  ftdfity  in  !■!• 
In  the  genua  /HnaiUa  the  wings  are  long  and  taUng  the  notes  of  other  birds;  ita  own  aoog 
pointed,  and  the  tau  is  generally  slightl v  forked,  consists  of  8  or  4  short  mellow  notea,  whieh  are 
The  chaffinch  (II  ecMt^  Linn.)  Jmm  been  de-  very  pleaalng  during  the  bree^ng  season ;  It  is 


aoribed  under  that  title,  and  the  siskin  (F,  sptnui^  not  iMrtioular  in  ita  chdoe  of  food,  eaUnc  ^ 

linn.)  under  ABiBDBvnrB;  the  goldfindi  (J!  tfor-  usual  gndna  and  seeds  given  to  caged  oMl 

Atalit,  linn.),  the  redpoll  linnet  (JFl  Unaria.  The^gsare4or5innnmber,pa]eblniihvhlfei^ 

linn.),  the  snow  bird  (P.  hpemalii^  linn.X  and  q>eckM  at  the  larger  end  with  reddish  biowa. 

tlie  yellow  bird  or  American  goldfinch  (F.  trii-  —The  pine  finch  (F.  ptaii^Wils. :  cArfssmifri^ 

liL  linn.),  will  be  noticed  under  their  req)ective  Boie),  distributed  over  North  America  ftmn 

titles.— The  bramblbg  or  mountain  finch  (F.  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific,  is  4f  indiea  kng, 

wimUiflrinffiUa^  Linn.)  is  a  little  smaller  than  with  an  extent  of  winn  of  6^  InehesL     The 

tlie  <»affinch,  being  about  ti  indies  long,  with  plnmase  is  soft,  but  with  little  gloas;  tha  Aoc^ 

an  extent  of  wings  of  10^  inches ;  it  resembles  conies^  acute  bin  is  light  yellowish  hrowB,wlih 

this  bird  in  its  fonn.  mode  of  flight,  gait,  and  adusky  Up;  the irb brown;  general  ookrabova 

manners;  the  bill  is  larger  in  nroportion.    The  yellowish  gray,  with  daric  brown  atreaka;  tlM 

greater  part  of  the  upper  manaible  and  the  end  wings  and  tail  dusky,  with  grayish  white  edccs; 

of  the  lower  are  dusky,  the  base  of  the  former  the  base  of  the  secondaries,  the  tips  of  their 

ee  gray,  and  the  rest  of  the  latter  yellow ;  the  coverts,  and  the  margins  of  the  rutnn  feath<>n 

A  and  back  in  the  roalo  arc  deep  black,  the  are  cream-colored;  grayish  white  below,  with 

leathers  with  a  tinge  of  rusty  gray ;  the  tliroat,  streaks  of  dull  brown,  and  a  brown  tinge  on  tU 

breast,  and  upper  wing  coverts  are  light  rod-  fore  neck ;  the  female  very  closely  rcsembks 

diah  brown;  the  rump  white  tinffcdwitli  yellow;  the  male.    Thb  6i>ccics,   though   seen  in  t2*c 

the  quills  and  larger  coverts  black,  the  former  southern  states,  prefers  the  norUiem  regions  of 

margined  with  yellow  externally,   Uie  inner  the  country  ana  the  Canadas,  whervver  pics 

with  a  reddish  margin  and  a  white  spot  at  the  trees  abound ;  it  is  most  common  in  the  north 

base ;  the  sides  spotted  with  block ;   the  tail  during  winter,  where  it  is  seen  in  small  fiucks 

black,  the  exterior  feather  white  on  the  outer  with  Uie  redpoll  and  the  crossbill ;  the  favorue 

web,  and  the  middle  ones  edged  and  tipped  with  food  is  founa  amid  the  branches  of  the  fairbert 

ash  color;  abdomen  and  lower  tail  coverts  yel-  fir  trees,  where  tliey  hang  head  downward  l&e 

lowiah  white.    The  female  is  much  less  bright;  tlie  titmouse;  the  seeds  of  the  thistle  and  tie 

the  sides  of  the  head  and  the  back  of  the  neck  sweet  gum  are  also    much   eaten  bv   then, 

are  gray,  the  top  of  the  head  and  back  being  Though  ho  could  find  no  nerts,  AodnVoo  bbcc 

dusky  margined  with  gray ;  the  rafons  mark-  with  great  numbers  of  theae  birds  accompanitd 

ings  of  the  bresst  and  wings  are  very  faint ;  the  by  their  young  on  the  coast  of  Labrador  toward 

alae  la  smaller.     It  is  seen  in  Great  Hrit&in  in  the  end  of  Julv ;  and  they  doubtless  breed  there, 

large  fiocks  in  winter,  with  the  cliaflinch  and  The  mode  of  dtght  and  notes  resemble  those  of 

allied  species,  disappearing  toward  the  end  of  the  goldfinch ;  like  the  latter,  it  sweeps  through 

apring,  going  nortti  to  breed;  it  is  hardy  and  the  air  in  long  graceful  curves,  uttering  its  sweet 

hold,  feeding  on  seeds  and  what  it  can  pick  up  and  clear  song  as  it  takes  a  fre«h  start.— Ths 

in  the  open  fields;  its  flight  is  rapid  and  undu-  genns /hus^  (Briss.)  includes  the  s|isnt>wi  of 

latins;  the  note  is  like  the  *'twcot"  of  tlie  the  old  world,  which  are  rarely  called  finches 

ehafflnch  repeated  several  tiroes ;  according  to  The  American  sparrows  are  eonUuned  in  the 

Montagu,  it  builds  a  nest  in  fir  trees,  and  lays  4  genns  ionotrichia  (Swains.) ;  many  of  these  ars 

or  6  vellowl«h  spotted  ens.    Albinos  are  occa-  popularly  called  nnchcs;  tiie  bill  is  perfectly 

akxuuly  seen.     It  is  said  to  be  very  fond  of  conical,  the  wings  nooderate,  the  tail   loog; 

beech  mast — The  green  finch  (F.  chiorii^  IJnn.),  broad,  and  nearly  even  at  the  end.    The  grass 

also  a  European  species,  is  about  6  inches  long  finch  (Z.  graminra^  Gmel. ;    genns  fK»i^n^ 

and  9  in  extent  of  wings;  the  bill  is  very  stout,  Baird)  Is  5|  inches  loog,  with  an  extant  of  wii^ 


unoh  S05 

of  10  inches ;  the  general  color  above  is  light  taming  to  the  shores  and  rice  fields  at  high  tide ; 

brown,  streaked  and  mottled  with  darker ;  a  the  note  is  a  single  "  tweet  ;**  the  nest  is  placed 

narrow  circle  of  white  around  the  eye ;  throat  on  the  groand,  near  the  water,  in  a  slight  hol- 

and  breast  yellowish  white,  the  latter  streaked  low ;  the  eggs,  4  to  6,  are  laid  sometimes  twice 

with  dark  brown ;  the  larger  coverts  and  the  in  a  season ;  the  color  is  dull  white,  with  light 

qnills  deep  brown,  the  former  edged  with  paler,  brown  dots,  most  numerous  at  the  larger  end ; 

and  the  nrst  of  the  latter  with  white  external  from  the  quickness  with  which  they  move  on 

margin ;  lesser  coverts  bay ;  tail  deep  brown,  the  ground,  they  are  most  easily  shot  on  the 

marked  and  margined  with  white;  sides  and  wing.    The  seaside  finch (^.  f7»an^2mu«,  Wils.). 

abdomen  pale  yellowish  brown,  the  former  with  similar  habits  to  the  preceding,  and  founa 

streaked  with  darker ;  under  tail  coverts  white,  in  the  same  localities  as  far  north  as  Long  island, 

It  is  distributed  far  to  the  north  and  over  the  has  the  crown  of  the  head  deep  brown,  sur* 

United  States  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific,  rounded  by  a  lino  of  grayish  blue ;  upper  part 

and  there  is  a  variety,  or  perhaps  a  species,  to  of  the  back,  wings,  and  tail,  olive  brown  mixed 

the  west  of  the  Allegbanies ;  it  seems  to  prefer  with  pale  blue ;   lesser  wing  coverts  reddish 

sandy  and  barren  soils  in  cultivated  districts,  brown ;  a  yellow  streak  from  the  bill  over  the 

its  80Dg  is  sweet  and  protracted ;  it  is  shy  and  eye ;  throat  and  fore  neck  grayish  white ;  breast 

solitary,  and  runs  nimbly  through  the  grass,  in  and  sides  grayish  blue,  the  abdomen  paler.    The 

which  the  nest  is  built ;  the  eggs,  4  to  6  in  eggs  are  grayish  white,  with  brown  freckles  all 

number,  are  laid  about  the  middle  of  April  at  over ;  many  nests  are  found  in  company.    The 

the  Bootli,  where  2  broods  are  generally  raised  food  consists  of  marine  insects,  snails,  crabs, 

each  year:  they  are  {  of  an  inch  long,  bluish  sand  beetles,  and  seeds. — Bachinan^sfinch,  placed 

white,  with  reddish  brown  blotches ;  the  food  in  the  genus  ammodromu$  by  Gray,  belongs 

oonnsts  of  various  kinds  of  seeds  and  insects,  to  the  genvLspevecea  (Aud.) ;  this  (P.  cBstivalii^ 

and  the  flesh  is  tender  and  of  good  flavor.    This  Licht)  is  reddish  brown  above,  with  the  centre 

bird  employs  a  great  variety  of  artifices  to  de-  of  the  feathers  black  and  their  margins  bluish 

ceive  any  one  who  approaches  her  nest,  imitat-  gray ;  the  quills  dark  brown,  with  lighter  edges; 

ing  lameness,  and  attempting  to  draw  attention  tail  feathers  brown,  lighter  on  the  outer  edges; 

to  another  locality.    Lincoln's  finch  (Z.  LineoJr  ochre-yellow  streak  over  the  eye ;  tliroat  pale 

niA,  And. ;  fnelospuOj  Baird)  is  yellowish  brown  yellowish  gray ;  fore  part  of  the  breast  and 

above,  with  streaks  of  brownish  black ;  head  sides  tinged  with  brown,  lower  parts  yellowish 

chestnut,  streaked  with  brownisli  black,  with  a  gray.    The  length  of  the  bird  is  6  inches,  and 

grayish  blue  band  in  the  centre  and  two  at  the  the  extent  of  the  short  wings  only  8.    The 

sides ;   qnills  and  larger  coverts  deep  brown,  habits  of  this  species  render  it  difiicult  to  ob- 

wich  lighter  margins,  and  the  latter  tipped  with  serve ;  it  runs  in  the  grass  more  like  a  mouse 

whitish ;  tail  yellowish  brown ;  throat  white,  than  a  bird,  and  is  much  oftener  heard  than 

with  dusky  streaks  and  spots;  below  grayish  seen;  the  notes  are  soft  and  sweet,  justifying 

white.    It  is  found  as  far  north  as  Labrador,  the  remark  that  it  is  perhaps  the  finest  songster 

from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific,  and  south  of  the  sparrow  family.    The  food  consists  of 

through  Mexico  to  Guatemala.     The  song  is  grass  seeds,  beetles,  and  berries.    It  is  confined 

very  sweet  and  loud ;  the  fiight  is  rapid  and  to  the  southern  states. — In  the  genus  spiza 

low ;  the  food  is  insects  and  berries ;  the  males,  (Bonap.),  or  cyanotpiza  (Baird),  the  wings  and 

as  in  most  finches,  are  pugnacious. — ^The  genus  tail  are  moderate,  and  the  latter  even.    The 

ammadramtu  (Swains.)  has  the  wings  short,  the  painted  finch  {S.  eiris,  Linn.)  is  5^  inches  long 

tail  lengthened,  the  lateral  feathers  graduated,  and  7i  in  extent  of  wings ;  in  the  adult  male, 

with  tlie  end  of  each  acuminated ;  the  species  the  head  and  neck  are  azure  blue ;  the  back  and 

generally  remain  within  the  limits  of  tide  water,  lesser  wing  coverts  yellowish  green ;  circle  round 

and  run  along  the  shores  among  the  weeds,  like  the  eye,  lower  back,  and  under  parts  carmine ; 

sandpipers,  climb  along  the  rushes,  or  swiftly  quills  and  tail  purplish  brown;  secondary  coverts 

dart  amonff  the  tufts  of  grass ;  they  eat  shrimps,  green.    The  female  has  a  brown  bill,  the  upper 

small  moUusks  and  crustaceans,  and  other  mi-  parts  light  olive-green,  and  the  under  parts  dull 

ante  marine  animals.    The  sharp-tailed  finch  orange,  paler  behind ;  the  male  of  the  first  year 

(A,  eavdaeutvMy  Gmel.)  is  found  along  the  whole  resembles  the  female^,  except  in  having  the  blue 

Atlantic  coast  of  the  United  States,  being  most  lower  mandible  of  his  sex ;  the  adult  male  plu- 

abnndant   among  the  salt  marshes  of  South  mage  is  not  obtained  until  the  4th  year.    It  is  an 

Carolina.    The  crown  of  the  head  is  bluish  gray  inhabitant  of  the  south  Atlantic  and  gulf  states, 

in  the  middle  and  deep  brown  at  the  sides,  with  extending  into  Texas  and  Mexico;  its  fiight  is 

a  band  of  yellowish  red  from  the  bill  over  the  short  and  quick,  and  its  movements  on  the 

€76;  bind  neck  dull  gray,  tinged  with  brown ;  ground  like  those  of  the  sparrows;  its  song  is 

fore  neck  pale  yellowish  red  with  dusky  streaks,  very  sonorous  and  pleasing,  and  is  continued 

iba  tliroat  paler  and  unspotted ;  back  brown,  through  the  hottest  part  of  the  day ;  the  nest  is 

tinged  with  sray  ;   primaries  and  tail  wooa  usually  built  in  an  orange  tree,  and  the  eggs,  4  or 

bruwn;  secondaries  and  smaller  coverts  reddish  5,  are  of  a  fine  bluish  pearl  color,  speckled  with 

brown ;  sides  yellowish  red,  with  dusky  streaks;  blackish.  It  appears  in  the  vicinity  of  New  Or- 

breastand  abdomen  grayish  white.    They  come  leans  about  the  middle  of  April,  when  great 

down  to  the  marshes  when  the  tide  is  oat,  re-  nmnbers  are  taken  in  traps,  set  with  a  stuffed 


606                       TIKOH  nNDING 

speGiraen  of  a  male  bird;    all  miles  which  flesh  equal  to  thai  of  aDy  fmaU  bird,  except  the 

perceive  this  are  led  bj  their  pugnacious  dispo*  rice  buutiog.  Thej  are  sometimes  kept  in  cage* 

sitions  to  attack  it,  and  the  trap  springs  npon  and  in  aviaries,  bat  thej  do  not  sing  in  condne- 

them  during  the  operation ;  they  are  eauly  kept  ment. — ^Manj  other  sparrows  and  buutinp  are 

in  confinement,  ana  will  sing  and  breed  in  captiv-  called  finches  in  different  parts  of  the  cuantrr, 

itj  if  properly  cared  for.    Great  nnmbers  of  but  thej  all  belong  to  the  family  of /rinffillida^ 

this  beautiful  finch  were  formerly  carried  to  and  may  bo  found  described  in  any  work  oa 

Europe,  where  they  brought  almost  fabulous  ornithology. 

prices,  a  bird  which  cost  8  cents  in  New  Orleans  FINCII^  Hnnuox,  1st  earl  of  Kottinffhanu  a 

selling  in  London  or  Paris  for  more  than  twice  as  British  statesman  and  jurist,  bom  in  Lent  in 

many  dollars.    Their  flocks  sometimes  occasion  Dec.  1621,  died  in  Dec.  1682.    lie  was  educated 

considerable  damage  to  ripe  figs  and  grapes,  of  at  Westminster  school  and  at  Chriatchnrchcol- 

which  they  are  exceedingly  fond.    The  laxuli  lege,  Oxford,  subsequently  stodied  law  in  the 

flinch  (S.  amana^  Say)  is  another  handsome  and  Inner  Temple,  and  rose  to  great  eminent  ai  a 

allied  species,  belonging  rather  to  the  Pacific  lawyer.  During  the  revolution  he  eigciyed  gcn- 

fauna.   The  bill  is  brownish  black ;  the  head  and  end  respect  and  confidence.    At  the  rebtoratien 

neck,  hind  part  of  back  and  rump,  are  beautiful  ho  was  made  solicitor-general,  took  pan  in  the 

grcenisli  blue ;  fore  part  of  the  back,  scapulars,  prosecution  of  the  regicides,  of  whicU  he  wnice 

wings,  and  tail,  brownish  black,  the  feathers  a  full  account,  and  in  1661  entered  psrliamcax 

witli  blue  margins;  aconspicuouswhitebandon  as  member  for  the  imirersity  of  Oxiurd.    la 

the  wings;  on  the  fore  part  of  the  breast  a  broad  1667  he  defended  Lord  Clarendon,  when  im- 

band  of  brownish  redf;  the  sides,  lower  wing  peached  for  high  Crimea  and  misdemeanors,  aad 

coverts,  and  tibial  feathers,  bluish  gray ;  lower  after  being  sncoessively  attorney  general  aaJ 

parts  white.    The  female  is  far  less  brilliant,  a  lord  keeper,  was  appointed  in  1675  lord  hich 

grayish  tint  prevailing  in  most  parts  of  the  chancellor  of  England.    Inl681  he  wascrcaud 

plumage.    It  is  rather  a  shy  bird,  with  a  lively  earl  of  Nottingham,  having  for  some  years  pKv- 

and  pleasing  son  jr.    Anotlicr  beautiful  species  js  ions  borne  the  title  of  Baron  Finch  of  Dsveotir. 

the  S,  eyanea  (Linn.)«  which  will  be  noticed  lie  was  equally  celebrated  for  hia  eloquence  ia 

under  Indigo  Bikd. — The  last  finch  which  will  the  senate  and  at  the  bar.    Ilis  literary  rcmaiai 

be  mentioned  belongs  to  the  sub-family  of  j^yr-  include  a  number  of  published  parUamcfitary 

rhulina^  and  to  the  genus  carpadacu$  (Kaup.).  speeches  and  legal  arguments,  and  some  Tglam« 

The  purjilo  finch  ( (7.  purpuneus^  Gmel.)  is  6  inch-  of  manuscript  cliancery  reports. 

es  long,  with  an  extent  of  wings  of  9  inches;  FIKD£N,Wiluax,  an  Eufflish  line  engraver. 

Tlie  bill  is  very  robust,  conical,  bulging,  and  bom  in  London  in  1787,  died  there,  SrpL  9'. 

acute,  dcop  brown  above,  bluish  below;   the  1852.    He  was  apprenticed  to  an  ezigravir,  l:  I 

hi'sJ,  nock,  brt'ost,  back,  and  upi>er  tail  coverts  afterword  found  einpluyment  as  an  tc..:rft\i.T   :' 

are  of  a  rich  hiko  color,  nearly  crimson  on  the  book  plates.     Being  remarkable  fur  a  crr.:^ 

bend  and  nock,  and  fading  into  rose  color  on  the  neatness  of  lino  and  smoothnes^s  of  finish.  Lt*  l^ 

alNl(inu-n ;  the  fore  part  of  the  ba(*k  is  streaked  came  one  of  the  nu>st  |K>pular  engravi-n  if  :  * 

with  briiwn;  the  quilLs,  lar};or  coverts,  and  tail  time,  and  was  selected  to  engrave  La«rtr.i<  » 

arc  vlei'p  brown  margined  with  red  ;  a  narrow  celebrated  portrait  of  George  IV.,  fur  wl..tL  l.< 

creani-culorod  band  a<Toss  the  forehead  close  to  received  2,000  guineas.     He  al*-«»  cngravi^l  ;:-? 

the  bill.     The  leinalo  and  young  are  brownish  **  Village  Festival ''and  the  "High I.-ii^J^t'*  H*- 

olivo  above,  with  dark  brown  streaks ;  the  un-  turn/'  both  from  well  known  pictun.^-  It  W^k... 

der  parts  prayi>h  white,  the  sideM  streaked  with  lie  published  some  very  exteuMvc  K-ri^-i  if  ti- 

brown ;  quills  and  tail  feathers  dark  brown  with  graving^,  the  best  of  w*hich  b  the  '*  ii^^IIvr,^  - : 

olive  niarpns;  a  brood  white  line  over  the  eve,  Briti:>h  Art;''  ho  lost  heavily  by  li*j  c;;ir- 

and  another  from  the  gapo  backward.     In  the  prise. 

southirnbtates their tloekri arc 8eeufrt>mNovem-  FINDING.    It  is  a  little  ^trar^  tliat  «' *  = 

Kt  to  April,  feedin^on  the  interior  of  buds  which  the  act  of  finding  is  so  common,  &r.d  i!«a:* 

tht-y  hu^k  with  ^Teat  hkill;    they  are  uaually  mui^t  havebeen  so,  the  Iswuf  fin<iing  i.%  in  <«  ::-? 

seen  in  th^  niorniiig  and  at  night,  darting  after  particulars,  not  quite  si-ttled.     It  i>  c«  rtAiti  t:-ii 

insects.     Their  son;;   is  bweet  and   continued,  nothing  can  l>c  found  that  wa«  not  K»«t :  Inr  v. 

They  are  fuiind  from  Labrador  to   I^iuisiana,  unless  the  owner  of  property  has  it  no  k>r^:  -^ 

being  rcplaceii  oti  the  Tacitio  coa>t  by  t!ie  ('.  his  ]>ossossion  or  within  bis  roach,  and  i*  ^^- 

r«i/(/i'r/ii>Mj(l>aird)andtho  ('. ('fiMi/tii  (Baird);  prived  of  all  (tower  over  it,  ci:iKr  ly  »i.v.i:«i* 

tht-v  breed  in  the  north,  where  thev  are  seen  in  or  voluntarilv,  as  when  he  ca>u  i:  a«&v.  a:- 

winter  in  company  u  ith  crossbills  and  other  other  man  who  harpi^us  u]H)n  it  ar';i:;.-r9  u  z.<  «: 

hanly  bir«l!4,  feeding  on  the  lorries  of  the  ever-  the  rights  of  a  tinder.     LA>«t  g^Knls  « erv  d<  f :.<^: 

greens.     Their  nests  liavo  U'en  tuund  in  Mas.sa-  by  the  old  law  os  bona  tarautui ;  and  M^^  .*^. 

diusvtts:  the   cgtr*  are  of  an   emerald  green  in  his  "Treatise  of  l\i!«*.'*«»i».n*' l«'f  » Lie t  t:\r» 

color,  with  a  few  black  dots  and  htreaks  near  in  an  excellent  translation  into  £:\fl4»L,  1}  >.* 

the  iM)int,  and  6<mio  pur|>li»li    hlotdies.     The  Edward  Perry),  sa}*^  $  IS:    )'d%-.u  r*.',  f i-<« 

farmers  bvlii-vo  them  to  be  iijiiri«>UH  to  fruit  nrmo  JftiMt.  The  aneiint  law  of  tr\:aj^r:rY  t.-v<« 

trecA  by  di-^irovin:f  the  blos.somH,  great  niimU-rs  wai  said  to  apply  to  gold  and  lulvir  ocIt  .  or  J 

of  which  they  pull  otT.  Atidubon  considers  tlicir  indeed  only  to  that  which  had  Ic^n  porpuicly 


FINDING  FINIST&BE                     607 

biddeQ  in  tha  eArth,  and  of  "which  the  owner  timated  hj  one  Iiigh  anthority,  at  least,  Judge 
was  unknown.  Originollj  it  belonged  to  the  Storj  O'BaUment,"  sections  85  et  seq.)^  that 
finder ;  but  many  centuries  ago  it  was  adjudged  the  finder  may  also  make  a  further  charge 
to  belong,  to  a  greater  or  less  extent,  to  the  against  the  owner  for  compensation  for  care  and 
•OTereign,  and  Grotius  says  tliis  rule  had  become  labor,  and  perhaps  for  reward.  There  are 
in  bis  tim^  jut  eommun€^  qua»i  gentium.  Black-  moral  reasons  for  this,  but  no  legal  authority ; 
atone  ('^Commentaries,'' vol.  i.  p.  296)  makes  a  and  except  when  property  is  found  at  sea,  and 
distinction  between  goods  hidden  by  the  owner,  comes  under  the  admiralty  law  of  salvage,  we 
-which  the  owner  never  reclaimed  being  pre-  know  no  law  which  authorizes  the  finuer  to 
vented  by  death,  forgetting,  or  neglect,  and  claim  more  than  his  expenses.  5.  For  what- 
goods  voluntarily  or  accidentally  cast  abroad.  In  ever  the  finder  may  lawfully  demand  of  the 
the  first  case,  there  was  no  intention  to  abandon  owner  in  respect  to  the  property  found,  he  has, 
them,  and  when  they  were  not  the  owner's  they  wo  think,  as  one  of  the  consequences  of  the 
became  the  king's,  to  whom  the  finder  must  constructive  bailment  above  spoken  of,  a  lien  on 
give  them.  In  the  latter  case  they  became  the  the  property  itself;  that  is,  a  right  to  hold  it 
property  of  the  finder.  The  law  of  treasure  even  against  the  owner,  until  his  demand  is 
trove  never  had  much  force  in  this  country*  satisfied.  6.  It  seems  now  to  be  settled  that 
and  although  there  were  formerly  some  colonial  the  place  where  propertv  is  found  has  no  effect 
legnlations  and  are  now  some  statutory  pro-  upon  the  rights  of  the  nnder.  Thus  if  A  finds 
visions  in  respect  to  finding,  they  do  not  appear  money  on  the  floor  of  B's  store,  and  hands  it  to 
to  have  much  force,  unless  it  be  in  relation  to  B  for  the  owner,  and  B  advertises,  and  does 
what  may  be  termed  wrecks.  The  law  on  what  else  ho  should  to  discover  the  owner,  and 
this  snbject,  so  far  as  it  can  be  gathered  from  fails  in  this,  the  finder  may  demand  it  of  B, 
the  anthoritiea,  seems  to  be  this:  1.  The  finder  tendering  B's  expenses  in  discharge  of  his  lien. 
of  lost  property  is  owner  of  it  against  all  the  There  was  at  one  time  some  disposition  to  say 
world  excepting  the  original  owner ;  but  the  that  if  A  found  goods  buried  in  B's  lands,  they 
owner  may  reclaim  it  from  the  finder  at  any  were  the  property  of  B ;  but  this  seems  to 
time,  although  leaving  it  unclaimed  in  the  have  passed  away,  or  rather  never  to  have  been 
findor'a  hands  for  a  sufficient  length  of  time  settled  law,  and  the  rule  above  stated,  that  the 
after  the  owner  knew  where  it  was  and  could  place  where  found  has  no  effect  whatever  on 
elaim  it  ^perhaps  20  years,  the  ordinary  period  the  right  of  the  finder,  is  without  qualification. 
of  prescnption,  might  be  necessary),  would  be  7.  If  a  reward  be  offered,  which  is  specific  and 
equivalent  to  a  waiver  or  abandonment  of  his  certiun,or  can  be  made  so  by  reference  to  a  cer- 
ownership.  The  finder  has  therefore  all  the  tain  standard,  the  finder  by  bringing  the  thing 
rights  of  action  of  an  owner,  either  to  recover  found  to  the  owner,  or  otherwise  complying 
posseesionof  it,  or  damages  for  loss  of  it  or  injury  with  the  terms  of  the  advertisement,  becomes 
to  it.  2.  The  finder  is  always  at  liberty  to  leave  a  party  to  a  contract  offered  to  all  by  the  od- 
what  he  finds  untouched,  and  cannot  be  made  vertiser,  and  may  sue  for  the  compensation  or  re- 
aooountable  for  any  injury  thereafter  happening  ward  promised.  But  if  the  advertisement  is  gen- 
to  it^  But  if  he  takes  it  into  his  possession,  he  eral  only,  as  that  the  finder  shall  bo  liberally 
•equires  some  rights  and  comes  under  some  ob-  rewarded,  the  finder  has  no  specific  claim,  and 
ligatioiis  which  do  not  seem  to  be  perfectly  well  can  have  no  action.  8.  The  rule  that  the  finder  is 
defined.  On  the  one  hand,  it  is  said  by  the  old  owner  against  all  the  world  except  the  original 
authorities,  that  if  the  thing  found  perish  by  his  owner  has  one  important  exception.  A  finder 
mere  neglect,  or  without  his  active  aid,  he  is  of  what  the  law  colls  a  ehote  in  action,  or  mevQ 
not  responsible.  But  the  tendency  of  modem  evidence  of  debt  or  claim,  cannot  demand  pay- 
law  is,  that  while  he  may  abstain  if  he  pleases  ment  of  it ;  and  if  one  should  pay  a  note,  a 
from  any  interference  whatever,  if  he  chooses  check,  or  a  lottery  ticket,  to  a  holder  known  by 
to  take  what  he  finds  into  his  custody,  he  makes  the  payer  to  have  come  into  possession  of  it  by 
himself  responsible  not  only  for  any  wilful  in-  finding,  the  payer  would  be  bound  to  pay  the 
Jury  to  it  (which  is  qnite  certain),  but  for  the  amount  to  the  owner  who  could  prove  his  prop- 
eoosequences  of  his  gross  negligence.  8.'  As  the  erty.  9.  A  finder  may  incur  punishment  as  for 
eorrelative  rule,  or  as  the  right  which  corre-  crime,  by  misconduct  about  the  property  he 

rids  to  this  obligation,  he  may  demand  from  finds.    Thus,  if  he  knows  the  owner,  or  there 

owner  all  his  expenses  necessarily  incurred  are  circumstances  which,  if  he  chose  to  profit 

la  keeping  and  preserving  the  property,  and  by  them,  would  lead  him  to  the  owner,  a  con- 

^nhMy  his  reasonable  expense  in  the  way  of  version  of  the  property  to  his  own  use  is  larceny 

advertising,  or  for  similar  charges  for  the  benefit  or  theft.    But  it  is  not  larceny  unless  the  animus 

€f  the  owner.    We  should  say  that  where  a  furandi  existed  at  the  time  of  the  appropria- 

finder  takes  into  his  possession  the  thing  found,  tion ;  for  if  the  finder  only  discovered  Uie  owner 

it  becomes  a  kind  of  bailment ;  and  the  owner,  after  he  had  made  the  appropriation,  and  then 

by  reclaiming  and  receiving  it  firom  the  finder:  concealed  his  finding,  it  would  seem  to  bo  the 

inents  as  it  were  to  this  bailment ;  and  out  of  law  that  he  is  answerable  only  in  damages. 

this  oonstmotive  bailment  grow  the  obligation  FINIST^RE,  or  Fixistbkre,  the  extreme  W. 

and  responsibility  of  the  finder  on  the  one  hand,  department  of  France,  from  which  position  (Lat. 

rights  on  the  other.    4.  It  has  been  in-  fintM  terrm^  land's  end)  it  derives  its  name,  sor- 


508  FINLAND 

Toandcd  on  8  nidos  by  tlio  ocean  and  the  English  broad  and  oeep,  bnt  owing  to  eataraeU  if  not 

channel,  and  bounded  £.  by  the  departments  of  navigable.    The  lakes,  bowerer,  conrtitate  a 

06tes-du-Nord  and  Morbihan ;  length  N.  and  S.  prominent  featnre  in  the  geography  of  tha 

65  ro. ;  breadth  about  55  m. ;  area,  8,675  aq.  m. ;  country,  being  very  nnmeroin  and  oocnpTing  a 

pop.  in  1856.  CI 7,710.    It  was  included  in  the  large  proportion  of  the  territory.     looefieo- 

lormerFrcncn  province  of  Brittany.  The  coasts,  dently  of  Lake  Ladoga,  which  bes  partly  is 

generally  steep  and  deeply  indented,  are  about  Finland,  the  largest  of  these  aheeta  of  water 

410  m.  in  length,  and  present  many  excellent  are  Lakes  Saima  and  Enara.    The  eommaot- 

bays  and  harbors.  The  most  important  ports  are  cation  between  the  various  wat«rsheds  and  die 

Brest,  Morlaix,  Landcmeau,  Quimper,  and  Don-  Fmnish  gulf  has  been  established  aince  1^54 

amencz.  Ofnumcrous  rivers,  8  only,  the  Anlne,  by  the  lake  of  Saima.    The  aorface  Is  table- 

tho  Elom,  and  tlie  Odct,  are  navigable.    Two  land  IVom  400  to  600  feet  above  the  level  of  the 

hill  chains,  tlmt  of  Ar6s  in  the  N.,  and  that  of  sea,  with  occasional  higher  elevatiooa.    Tht 

the  Black  mountains  in  the  S.,  run  through  this  Maanselke  mountains  in  the  N.  have  an  avvfaft 

department  £.  and  W.  The  climate  is  mild,  but  altitude  of  8,000  or  4,000  feet.    The  priaeipil 

humid ;  fogs  are  common  ;  W.  winds  are  most  geological  formation  is  red  granite  with  hm 

prevalent,  and  violent  storms  often  occur.    The  limestone  and  slate.    The  granite  is  of  a  kind 

eoil  of  Eomo  parts  is  good,  and  the  pasturage  is  which  readily  disintegrates.    The  aoil  b  poor 

excellent ;  but  heath  or  waste  land  covers  no  and  stony,  bnt  during  a  long  period  it  fomiibed 

less  than  a  third  of  the  department,  and  agricul-  considerably  more  grain  than  was  required  for 

ture  is  in  a  backward  state.    The  wealth  of  the  home  consumption.  The  climate  is  more  severe 

department  consists  especially  in  its  argentiferous  than  that  of  Sweden,  although  rcaemUing  ii  ia 

mines  of  lead ;  those  of  Poullaouen  and  Iluelgoat  many  other  respects.    Dense  foga  are  freqacfit, 

are  perhaps  the  largest  in  France.    Iron,  zinc,  and  the  rains  in  autumn  are  very  heavy,  la  the 

coal,  and  bitumen  are  also  mined.  The  fisheries  S.  provinces  the  winter  lasts  7  roontha.     Ia  tht 

employ  about  880  boats  and  4,400  hands,  and  N.  the  sun  disappears  in  December,  and  is  aol 

realize  a  gross  pnKluce  of  about  $500,000  a  year,  seen  again  until  the  middle  of  Jannarr.  bH 

There  are  manufactures  of  linen  and  woollen  during  the  short  summer  it  iaalinoat  contuaally 

fabrics,  paper  mills,  rope  yards,  saflcloth,  and  above  the  horizon.    The  mineral  prodncta  cob* 

earthenware  factories.  prise  bog  iron,  lead,  sulphur,  arsenic,  and  a  htik 

FINLAND  (Fin.  Suomema^  region  of  lakes),  copper  ore.    Salt  is  very  scarce,  and  ia  one  of 

a  grand  duchy  in  the  N.  W.  of  the  Russian  the  principal  articles  of  importation.    Aaoaf 

empire,  lying  between  lat  GO""  50'  and  70**  N.,  the  fauna  are  the  bear,  wolt^  elk,  deer,  beaver, 

and  long.  82*'  and  21**  E.,  bounded  N.  by  the  polecat,   and  various  kinds  of   gaiue.    Larr* 

Korwopirm  province  of  Finmnrk,  E.  by  the  Rus-  nerds  of  reindeer  are  domcAticate^l  in  t!.r  S, 

sian  provinces  of  A rchancel  and  Olonctz,  S.  by  and  cattle-breeding  is  a  prominent  bra.-:rh«f 

the  gulf  of  Finland,  and  W.  by  the  gulf  of  Bothnia  industr}*.     The  seal  and  herring  are  cau.:':.:  •  f 

and  Sweden  ;  area,  about  136,000  sq.  m.     Tlio  the  coasts,  and  tlic  lakes  and  Ftroan}4  aU>cr-i  .:i 

name  of  Firilan<l  wa**  given  to  it  by  the  Swedes,  salmon  and  a  small  species  of  ht-rrini:  »L.*b 

The  i><)i>iilation  in  ls5G  wns  as  follows:  form  an  important  part  of  the  fm^l  of  ;h<  :> 

Nviam! 1.M.918  habitants.    When  connected  with  >weilra.r:3- 

;}.*"•     ; ^y^**  land  was  called  the  pranarv  <»f  Swe«len ;  bu:  *:='•' 

v,h,,rj: stO^H  *"®  Russian  conquest  agricultural  pnxia«.tioc  a 

H.  Miri.j*i '.'..'.'.'.  iM>ii  said  to  have  declined.  The  chief  cT\>f»s  arv  l*r>T, 

ViiC/'!*!  ■  ■  ;    ■  •  «>  ;li  O'o»  hops,  hemp,  flax,  oats  Icgtiminous  piii'A 

I'lcfcbiin:    .  v.  .........'.'..'.'.'.'.'.'.'.  \'A\iti  and  potnt<K'j».  A  little  tobarco,  camtt^v,  <vk>»  >rt, 

-,     ,  -; — TTT  parsnips,  and  onionn,  ore  al«  grown.    Wild  l*r- 

''*^*'^  ries  are  almort  the  only  fniit.     Thefort<»irt 

Tl)o  population  compripcs  125,000  Swedish  Finns,  extensive,  reaching  N.  tolat.69\c..»n»i*t;nrr<"-*- 

B,(MM)  Ru^Mans,  Ij.KK)  Ijipp!*,  1,00<I  gypsies,  4()0  cipallyofpinc  and  fir,  but  containing  alK»b«<h, 

Germans  aii<i  the  n.>t  aro  Finns  i>ropir.     The  elm,  oak,  |K)plar,  a-sh,  and  binh.     Th*#e  fopntt 

most  populous  districts  are  along  the  coast:  there  areoneofthechiefi»ourco9ofnational  wraliKtat 

are  wmio  di^^trirts  in  the  interior  wh«.lly  unin-  havel)eenmuch  wa.-<tc<lby  aM>temof  mancnsi 

habite<l.     The  iK)i»nlation  of  the  whole  country  land  with  their  ashes.   The  soil  re«;uLre»  frwpc£t 

is  about  12  totljCNiuare  mile.— The  S.  cox^i  of  stimulus,  and  when  the  rleared  land  craic*  so 


ij»frt«^. 

near  the  Quarken,  and  in  some  parts  is  not  less  pasture  lnnd«i  are  goo.!,  but  ill  mana^^nl.    .\S.«i 

dangiTous  than   the   southern.     S>me   of  the  50,(hx>.000  lbs.  of  butter  are  made  anar.a:'.j  — 

iiilands  as  tho^  of  Sweaborg,  whirh  command  Manufactures  aro  chiefly  dom«^tic     Tli«  j»fsikast 

the  entrance  to  the  harbor  of  Ilel^infrfom,  are  prepares  his  own   tar,"  fiota^h.   and   c>.»rr\^ 

atn»nply  fortitii-iL     The  rivers  are  few  and  un-  builds  his  own  boat,  make^  hi«  o»  n  f  i.aj^  to^i 

imjiortant ;    the    principal   is   the   Kyninune,  tables,  and  in  his  ditt.nse  are  wovon  t!i*  roir* 

which  llowa  into  the  gulf  of  Finland,  and  is  woollen  and  other  Cabrica  of  which  hi*  diMs  ■ 


poaed.  But  there  are  Eevoml  cotton  ntAnn- 
iriea,  one  of  which  emplojs  1,000  worlimen. 
r  bare  the  priTilega  of  exporting  their  pro- 
iona  to  Russia,  and  have  hitherto  jmported 
r  raw  materia!  from  England;  but  within 
laat  few  years  the  attention  of  the  manu- 
irara  has  been  drawn  to  a  direct  importation 
tUoafriHn  America.  There  were  in  3856  in 
and  3  man  a  factories  of  stearu  engines,  SO 
■baoco,  8  of  doth,  7  of  porcelsuD,  9  of  paper, 
leatlier  and  tan,  and  variona  others.  The 
fexports  BTO  timber,  potash,  roan,  tar,  pitch, 
rood,  cattle,  sheep,  hogs,  bntter,  cheese,  tal- 
•kins,  herrings,  salmon,  furs,  game,  &«.  The 
aipal  imports  are  tobacco,  sugar,  coffee,  tea, 
»,  nit,  copper  and  other  metals,  atoclc  fiah, 
t,  airack,  ram,  fraits,  spicea,  aillcs,  linen,  and 
a,  gloss,  porcelain,  drags,  &c.  The  following 
M  uhibit  the  atala  of  Finnish  commerce  and 


»""■"'■'•- 

iBpoH.. 

Is 

S3,ffit0 

Sr!.*'r^;v;."\v...":: 

*0,lTfl 

■ot.1 

3.«>».SI« 

t.-(ai,h-.i 

Art.-.       1       cu««,. 

'—^ 

na. 

T-Mp.     ^■-- 

Touw.. 

'■i?? 

'S?S^  '-Si^ 

Ni.»tl 

>tal 

1.609 

SILSM  !  1.3--9 

SOMBO 

oommercial  fleet  in  1B3G  consisted  of  about 
fMMla,  of  which  the  greater  part  were  em- 
ad  in  the  trade  with  Sweden,  Russia,  and 
aany.  Uanj  ore  employed  in  the  Moditer- 
u,  about  12  in  Brazil,  end  a  few  in  the  East 
Ilk  TraTelling  is  effected  mostly  hj  posting 
magM  without  springs.  The  principal  road 
n  ^e  ooast  from  Abo  to  Viborg,  ftnd  thence 
to  St,  PeCerabnrg,  bnt  there  are  pnblic  con- 
IMM  only  on  a  part  of  it.  Steamers  ply 
•an  St  Petersburg  and  Stockholm  and  the 
j^iaiooaittowns.— Of  the  whole  population 
.,SS8  are  Lntherans,  dirided  into  8  dioceses, 
B  eontrol  88  provostsh^s,  48T  Lutheran 
An,  and  233  achools.  The  archbishop  re- 
at  Abo.  The  rest  are  mostly  of  the  Greek 
ibf  and  acknowledge  the  archimandrite  of 
Merabnrg.  Education  receives  constdera- 
m,  and  the  stady  of  the  Finnish  tongue, 
kma  mnoh  neglected  while  the  country 
Wljact  to  Sweden,  has  boon  encouraged 
rtbaRnsaian  government.  O^erbranchea 
■dattoo  have  reoeived  equal  attention  from 


the  caar.  Beside  the  Alexander  Qniveraity, 
transferred  from  Abo  to  Helsingfors,  there  are 
3  gymnnsinms  and  13  auperior  elementary 
achoota,  beside  a  military  academy  with  31 
teachers  anill40 pupils;  andmostof  thepariahea 
have  primary  scnools. — The  flnnish  language, 
(rinniah,  Satimen  Kieli)  is  one  of  the  chief 
branches  of  the  Uralo- Altaic  family;  being, 
with  the  Esthonic  and  Lappio  collaterals,  kin- 
dred to  the  languages  of  the  UgriaDS  or  eastern 
Tnrka-Osmanli  Turks,  Samoyedaand  other  Tar- 
tars, Magyara,  Uongols,  and  Tnngnses,  whose 
chief  branch  are  the  Manlchoos.  All  these  con- 
stitute the  so-called  Scythic,  or  Turanian,  or  Al- 
lophylio  family.  The  Eieli,  which  is  spoken  by 
more  than  2,000,000  people,  conusts  of  many 
dialects,  of  which  the  principal  are  the  lower, 
used  along  the  coasta  (except  the  islands  and 
towns,  where  Swedes  have  settled)  of  Tavastia, 
as  far  as  Hemola  and  Jilmsu,  of  Sacndla  as  &r  ai 
Buovoo,  and  of  Ostro-Bothnia,  to  the  highland 
of  Maanselka,  its  Abo  variety  being  the  dialect 
naed  in  books;  tbo  upper,  or  that  of  the  inland 
region,  divided  into  the  snb-dialecta  of  Ulea  and 
Viborg,  and  the  varieties  of  Savolax,  Karelia, 
Aumnltuaet  (Oloneta),  C^anohnrg,  Ingria,  tus. 
The  Suomio  language  is  written  with  2S  Latin 
or  German  letters,  of  which  two  are  repeated 
at  the  end  of  the  alphabet  with  a  diacritic  sign, 
viz.,  d,  S.  It  containa,  however,  but  19  gennine 
sounds,  viz.,  8  vowels  and  11  oonsonants.  The 
letters  h,e,d,f,g  occur  only  in  a  few  foreign 
words  and  in  some  dialects,  and  q  is  now  obso- 
lete. K,  p,  K  are  the  most  frequent  initials,  h, 
p,  t  the  most  fireqaent  letters  on  the  whole,  and 
sound  a  little  aculer  than  in  other  languages. 
The  concurrence  of  consonants  b  avoided,  so 
that  the  foreign  words  li^neit,  Stmhea,  tchool, 
tUibU,  become  IbinUi,  Tthnan,  toulUy  tallit. 
There  are  many  diphthongs.  Long  vowels  are 
written  double.  The  hiatus  is  not  avoided.  A 
few  themes  end  in  consonants,  but  none  in  n. 
The  rhythm  ofthe  language  is  trochaic,  and  the 
root  b^rs  the  tone.  Bask  considers  the  Buomio 
to  t>e  the  most  harmonious  of  tongues.  The 
radical,  which  precedes  all  other  syllables,  never 
undergoes  any  change  in  its  beginnlnR-  and 
middle.  The  theme  ia  originally  dissvUabio, 
and  often  corresponds  to  monosyllabio  Magyar 
roots;  thus:  hdii,  Uagyar  jtii,  hand;  iota, 
ltd*,  100;  ten,  ««,  water;  veri,  tir,  bk>od; 
tana,  »i,  word;  (^t,  to,  stem,  tic.  Tho 
various  relations  of  nouns  to  one  another, 
which  in  other  langnages  aro  expressed  both  by 
cases  and  prepositions,  are  indicated  by  post- 
positions or  suffixes,  forming  from  the  nomina- 
tive, which  is  sometimes  the  theme  with  a 
changed  final.  13  casea,  of  which  7  are  simple,  the 
others  more  lolL  The  object  isindicated  by  the 
genitive,  nominative,  or  partitivej  according  to 
the  shade  of  meaning.  Plurality  is  denoted  for 
the  nominative  by  suffixing  t,  and  for  the  other 
cases  by  inserting  i  before  their  endings.  la 
some  instances  a  eapbonic  t  is  inserted  before 
the  endings.  Vocal  harmony  Is  strictly  ob- 
served between  tiie  vovels  of  the  thema  Qa. 


610*  IINIiAXD 

nooiit  Mwdl  M  TerbtXand  for  thSi  pmrpoto  glimliif  c^thbooitQryyVWtallMtllicdlMAd 
tlia  Toweb  are  dktiogiiidied  into  8  groapi^  tIx.:  fy  Eliat LOnnrot and  pahliiliad  atHaUaglbfali 
a^  «,«;«,•;  and  4^  «,y;  tho  first  and  lait  18f6imdartliatit]eof  AlMafa^  vUbbwarkI 
ii6Ter  oocarniiff  In  one  woid  tocetb«>,  bat  both  now  rmcded  as  the  great  nalioiial  apieoCIlB 
beioff  oompatibie  with  the  middle  one.  Henoe  knd.  Alexander  toq  Homboldti  in  Ua  ^^Ooa 
the  fint  and  last  group  are  then  oonTerted  re-  moii*'  aajs :  ^  Among  the  Ilnaidi  tribaa  wk 
dprocally  in  the  snffixesi  in  order  to  soit  the  hare  aet&d  ihr  to  the  west  hi  the  lowiaadi  el 
▼owels  of  the  theme;  for  instanceifiuM-fa,  land-  £arope|£UaaL(tamrotha8colleetedfroBtheBp 
parti  bat />dd-td|  head-part  No  language  of  oftheKarriiana  and  the  coimtry  people  of  Ob 
this  fiunilj  has  arammatlc  genden^  bat  all  indi-  nets  a  large  mmiber  of  IlnalBh  aongSi  in  vUd 
oate  sexes  either  by  dli^ct  words  or  by  there  breathea,  aeoording  to  the  axpreashm  el 
epithets.  The  Magyar  alone  nses  an  article.  Jacob  Qrimm  (jMmrgJnJImmimkm  Ijtws  ^^m 
lliea4jectiTesia  8aomlcareimmatable,andare  'an  animated  joto  of  nature  rar^  to  bemsl 
rendered  oomparatlTO  by  soffixing  mpo,  mma^  with  in  aoj  poetry  hot  that  of  Iboil  An  s» 
and  soperlatiTo  by  inserting  i  bdbre  that  eient  epos  containing  nearly  8^000  f  weaa  tuali 
termination.  Koans  and  adrerba  recelYe  an  of  a  ilgbt  between  the  Flnna  and  the  Lapn^ 
intenser  meaning  by  inserting  fin>a  and  4mptL  the  fote  of  a  demi*god  named  VaiDOi.  It  ^fem 
Thenameralsare:  l^fM; %bun;  ^Mms;  an intereatfaig  acooont  of  Plnnfali eoontiy M^ 
4^  n^jd;  5,  em»;  0,  kutiH;  7.  9eit$emdn;  8^  especially  in  that  portion  of  the  work  wWreB 
hthdeban;  9,  yhdeh&n;  10,  ieymmoMn;  11,  marine,  the  wife  of  the  smith,  sends  her  iacfa 
^htirUUU^hywmemtA;  2Ci,  hM-iptimmM;  80^  into  the  woods  and  olfors  up  prayers  for  tiMi 
l»lmi'hvwM!iBnt& :  100,  sato;  1,000,  lnJliafMii,  safety."*  8o  great  was  itosaeeesathsiAefls< 
tukot.  The  personal  prononns  are :  eilad,  I;  nlsh  litvary  sodety  took  immedlaf  : 
tjad,  thoa ;  JUIa,  he,  she;  m^  we ;  U^  yoa ;  il^  for  a  more  oomprehenalTe  coDeetki^ 
htuU^  they.  Tbe  Tcrbs  haye  bat  two  ^onple  Sd  edition,  which  ^ipearsd  In  IMI^ 
tenses,  rik,  the  present  and  past,  the  others  60  sooga  with  aboot  88.000  veiM  whi 
being  periphrastia  Their  coijaaation  is  more  flist  edltlQn  contained  oo^  ahool  half  an 
complicated  than  in  any  other  mmily  of  Ian-  A  Swedish  translation  of  theposn  bgr  < 
coages,  expressing  by  certain  syllables  inserted  ^eUngfon^  1844)  was  speedlhr  foOowdl  If  s 
between  the  theme  uid  the  personal  saiBxea  an  FlrsnA  tranwaiion  InrLMOBanleDnDChBHS 
▼oioes,  modes, species, and  other  niceshadeaof  Toh.  Om,  1848X  and  by  a  Oemnn  InHhItai 
meaning.  The  infinitive  shares  more  than  in  by  A.  Scniefoer  (HeUngfors^  188S).  LSmnI 
any  other  langaage  in  the  natnre  of  a  noan:  has  farther  collected  aboot  800  ancient  ^yiiod 
it  comprehends  tfie  Latin  gerands.  sanines,  ana  songs  and  60  balbda  (JTafiirikter,  HiMiynr^ 
other  sliadcs  of  sense,  and  is  decIinaoK  The  1840) ;  aboat  7,000  proTerbs  (A^mmm  Imn 
Finnish  langaage  has  no  separable  particles,  mmalikuja^  1842);  and  abont  8^00  cband« 
and  even  amrmation  is  expressed  by  means  of  (JSuomen  iafuan  arwntuktia^  8d  ed.,  1851); 
the  aaxiliary  oUn^  I  am,  and  negation  by  means  while  Radbuk  lias  edited  a  collection  of  ligcedi 
of  the  verb  e.  By  connecting  several  such  sig^  and  tales  (Suonun  hanmtn  Botvja^  HeUndbn, 
nificant  syllables  into  one  word,  the  most  com-  18541  There  are  many  poeta  in  FInlaM  of 
plicated  ideas  may  be  very  precisely  expressed,  Swedish  descent,  and  Swedish  works  are  ota 
which  oden  require  many  separate  words  in  translated  into  Finnish,  The  most  popnlsr  cos- 
other  hmguaffcs.  Derived  wonls  may  be  form-  temporary  Finnish  poet  b  a  peasant  nunedPitfl 
ed  almost  indefinitely.  The  construction  is  ex-  Korhonen.  An  edition  of  nis  songs  was  peV 
trcmely  free,  as  in  Magyar,  without  endanger-  lished  at  Ilelsinfffors  In  1848,  onder  the  aa^sM 
ing  the  clearness  of  the  sense,  as  for  instance :  of  LOnnrot.    The  prose  fiteratnre  of  Fhilsad  a 

rat$t>    kphdsd    mumi    MfdiuUn,  >«    itv/MtaSMj  devotedahnostexcfosiTely  toreligloosandmBiil 

Lot        tower     w«nt       tow-to,     tad  aowiaf. white  snbjects.    A  Finnish  translation  of  the  K«v 

iamJt4^tai     muviamat     tun      oks^n,      ja  Umnmi  Testament  by  Michael  Agricola  appeared  ia 

fell        tome  (Medt)    imd^    •dfo^m.    and    birds  1648,  a  porUon  of  the  OM  Testament  In  WM; 

•it!!^  A'i  ...r?^-.  .r^  but  the  whole  BiWe  wm  not  translated  iats 


«^  .»d  pici«i.«p  th«a  Finnish  mita  1643.    A  BibUc^rmpkim 

The  best  grammar  of  the  langnage  is  that  of  Fenim  appeared  at  Abo  in  1846,  and  a  < 

Jac  Juden  in  Swedish  O'i^rfrX  1818.    Fm-  tion  in  1849.    A  catalogne  of  the  Finnlih 

nish  dictionaries  have  been  published  in  I^in  printed  in  Finland  was  pablished  at  HeU 

and  Swedish  by  D.  Jnstcnius  in  1746,  Ren  vail  in  1864.    The  total  number  of  aD  soru  of  pab* 

in  Latin,  Swedish,  and  German  (Abo,  1826),  O.  lications  issued  in  Finland  between  ISU  snl 

nelenius  in  Swedish  (Abo,  1838),  and  £.  LOnn-  1866  was  4,00a    The  Finnish  literary  sodKV 

rot  (llclsingfora,  1863).— The  national  songs  or  has  pablished  since  1841  an   annnal  nenm 

runes  of  Uio  Finns  may  be  divided  into  m^ho-  (Suomi).    The  number  of  newmapcte  and  pe- 

logical  and  lyrical  sobgs.    They  are  sung  by  riodicals  in  1868  wss  18,  of  which  8  woe  ia 

Ruwlainen  (song  men),  to  the  sound  of  the  fa-  Finnish  and  10  in  Swedish.     Tbe  latter  sp» 

▼orite  national  instrument,  the  hnnttlt^  a  species  pear  at  llelsingfors,  Viborg;  Abo^  Borga  snl 

of  haq>  with  6  wire  strings.    The  songs,  scat-  Vasa. — Finland  has  been  ontted  since  1888  Is 

tered  amon ;;  tlic  people  for  generations  past,  and  the  empire  of  Ruula.    Its  coostitatkin  was  ce^ 

some  of  which  had  been  pablished  dnce  the  be-  firmed  by  the  emperor  Alexander  L^llBitk  ST, 


FINLAND  GULF  OF  FINLAND  611 

;aiQ  by  the  emperor  Nicholas,  Deo.  24,  dent  kings  nntil  abont  the  middle  of  the  12th 

d  by  Alexander  11^  March  4, 1855.  The  century.    Their  piracies  at  this  period  so  much 

ent  is  administered  by  a  governor- gen-  harassed  the  Swedes,  that  St.  Eric,  king  of 

a  senate  consisting  of  14  members,  the  latter  people,  undertook  a  crnsade  against 

v'hom  are  noble,  and  who  are  presided  them,  and  introduced  Christianity,  and  dso 

the  governor-general  assisted  by  two  probably  planted  Swedish  colonists  upon  their 

identa  not  included  in  the  number  of  coasts.     The  Swedes   thus   acquirea  a  hold 

ibers.    The  senators  are  named  for  8  upon  the  country  which  they  retained  for  sev- 

the  emperor.    The  vice-presidents  are  eral  centuries.    From  this  period  down  to  1809 

the  departments  of  justice  and  finance,  the  history  of  Finland  is  included  in  that  of  the 

>erations  of  the  senate  are  held  at  Hel-  kings  of  Sweden,  during  which  the  country 

the  modem  capital.    High  courts  of  was  the  frequent  scene  of  Russian  and  Swedish 

it  at  Abo,  Yasa,  and  Viborg.    There  wars.    By  the  peace  of  Nystad  (1721),  8  years 

'eguhir  military  court.    Provincial  gov-  after  the  death  of  Oharles  XII.,  the  territory 

iside  at  Helsinsfors,  Abo,  Tavastehuua,  of  Yiborg,  the  eastern  division  of  Finland,  be- 

St.  Michael,  E^uopio,  Yasa,  and  Ulea-  came  definitively  Russian.    In  1T42  the  Swedes, 

ese  dignitaries  are  all,  by  the  terms  of  hoping  to  repair  their  losses,  declared  war,  ana 

itution,  Fmns,  and  a  secretary  of  state  in  a  few  months  the  whole  of  Finland  was  over- 

sh  afiEairs,  a  flnn,  resides  at  St.  Peters-  run  by  the  Russians.    In  the  following  year,  at 

1  is  a  member  of  the  imperial  council.  Abo,  Sweden  ratified  anew  all  her  former  oes- 

omposed  like  that  of  Sweden  of  the  4  sions,  yielding  additional  territory  also,  but  re- 

obility,  clergy,  burghers,  and  peasants,  covered  the  principal  duchy.    In  1787  Gustavus 

istitutional  privilege  of  Finland,  ac-  III.  began  his  great  attempt  to  recover  these 

to  the  imperial  recognition ;  but  it  is  losses  and  to  humble  his  antagonist ;  but  the 

ly  convoked,  and  is  unlikely  to  be  ex-  results  of  the  war  added  little  glory  to  the 

\n  its  concurrence  is  necessary  to  the  Swedish  arms.    In  1808  a  fresh  invasion  from 

»n  of  new  taxes.     The  army,  under  Russia  took  place,  and  Sweden  purchased  peace 

^iate  command  of  the  governor-gen-  by  the  cession  of  all  Finland  and  the  islimds  of 

iprises  an  effective  force  of  6,100  men  Aland,  Sept  17, 1809.    The  Swedish  language 

ns.    It  is  the  privilege  of  the  Finnish  and  customs  during  750  years  had  taken  such 

8  that  they  shall  not  be  incorporated  or  firm  root  that  Russian  dominion  has  been  unable 

gled  with  the  forces  of  the  empire,  to  modify  them.    Abo  remains  in  some  degree  a 

ii  force  also  forms  a  distinct  squadron  Swedish  dty,  and  the  removal  of  the  seat  of 

eir  own  national  flag.    The  revenue  and  government  to  its  rival  Helsingfors  (1812),  and 

nres  in  1857  were  as  follows :  of  the  university  (1826),  has  not  contributed  to 

BxTKiux.  Russianize  the  ancient  capital.    Indeed,  at  the 

.  .   .  *"I?«!SS**'  present  day  Stockholm  is  for  Abo  much  what 

?!?.!*^::::::::::::::::::::::::;::  m^  st.  Petersburg  is  for  Heisingfors.  Finland  suf- 

1  manuiciictures islooo  fered  greatly  during  the  war  of  1854-'5  from 

d»SrJ:SS.'u«8^.;i«::::::::::;:'' ItiiM  *^<'  Wockade  of  the  allled  fleets,  bnt  the  people 

manifested  a  patient  fidelity  to  the  cause  of  her 

*^ 2,108,215  present  government    Theemperor's  exertions 

iment       Expkic DmrKM.  ^^^  ^^  ^  relieve  the  privations  which  his  Finnish  sub- 

ment  of  justice  !!!.'!!!!'.*.*.'.'.*.!'.*.!!! '.    silew  jects  were  called  upon  to  undergo  are  believed 

T  •«««  (army  and  navy) T41 ,4S4  to  have  attached  them  strongly  to  him.    The 

I andpubVio iMtruction'. V.V.         ', '.  2781445  bombardment  of  the  Finnish  fortresses  and  the 

fltUnary  ezpenditores ^44,674  Unremitting  coast  blockade  during  two  seasons 

SfJl^liS^J^i^ri.*"'*  hospiuia. . . .  i|5,iM  conduced  in  like  manner  to  detach  the  Finnish 

luire  and  commerce l87,tos  ^.         *  *  *«  a  *  .i     >^ 

OS 181,204  sentiment  from  the  western  powers,  while  the 

itai  o^QQQa  maintenance  of  Swedish  neutrality  during  the 

^    *  war  tended  also  in  some  degree  to  alienate  the 

^j  part  of  the  troops,  and  various  civil  Finns  from  their  ancient  masters.  * 

uiee  receive  their  emoluments  and  pay       FINLAND,  Grur  of,  the  eastern  arm  of  the 

loorces  not  included  in  the  foregoing  Baltic  sea,  extending  from  the  Aland  and  Dago 

venne;  namely,  from  country  parishes,  islands  eastwardly  to  the  bay  of  Cronstadt  and 

government  lands  reserved  for  this  pur-  St.  Petersburg,  between  long.  22°  and  80°  £.,  and 

liese  expenditures  therefore  do  not  ap-  intersected  partly  by  the  59th  parallel  of  north 

the  general  budget.    The  debt  of  the  latitude.    Its  coasts  are  entirely  Russian  posses- 

1854  amounted  to  2,898,200  silver  ru-  sions;   namely.  Finland  and  Yiborg  on  the 

irhich  sum  1,850,000  grew  out  of  the  war  north,  and  Estnonia  on  the  south.    The  head 

'5.    A  loan  of  5,000,000  silver  rubles  of  the  gulf  terminates  in  the  bay  of  Cronstadt, 

ed  by  ilnland  in  1859  with  the  sane-  on  the  shores  of  which  is  the  province  or  gov- 

tie  Russian  ^vernment. — ^Less  is  known  ernment  of  St  Petersburg.    The  waters  of  the 

Finnish  history  than  of  that  of  any  great  lakes  Onega  and  Ladoga,  N.  £.  of  St. 

•oropean   country.      The   inhabitants,  Petersburg,  fiow  into  the  gulf  of  Finland,  the 

were  governed  by  their  own  indepen-  first  by  the  river  Svir  into  Lake  Ladoga,  and  the 


619  IIHIJlT 

latter  by  tlie  Kera  into  the  bay  o^  Cronftadt  and  traTeOer,  born  In  Tfaurto  aboaft  IVtOl,  dki 

The  bed  of  the  golf  is  of  cakareoui  rock,  in  on  the  paaiage  from  Bengal  to  fleotland  in  A^f. 

•ome  parts  compact  and  naked,  in  others  cover-  1828.    As  sorgeon  of  the  British  annr  he  was 

ad  and  filled  with  shells.    Occasional  points  of  present  at  the  battle  of  Waterloa    Ha  senred 

granite  are  intermingled  with  this  general  char*  also  aa  surgeon  in  Oeylon  and  In^  and  in  Ittl 

acter.    The  depth  of  water  is  nowhere  grMt^  aooompanied  Orawfnrd  in  his  misiioB  to  the 

and  is  least  along  the  soathem  ooasti  of  which  aovereigns  of  Siam  and  Hna  f Oochin  Chinal  of 

the  submerged  descent  is  gradoal.    The  north-  which  he  wrote  an  intersaang  Journal,  amsd 

em  idiore  is  mach  henunea  in  with  islands.  The  wad  published  after  his  death  bj  Sir  T.  8. 

water  is  venr  slightlr  salt^  and  is  readily  drunk  (London,  188S)« 

by  cattle.    The  harbors  of  the  gulf  of  Finland  FINLET,    Jaxmm  Biadut,  an    Aw— ,^ 

are  dosed  by  ice  every  year  from  early  in  dergyman  and  author,  bom  in  North  Caroliaai 

December  to  the  middle  or  end  of  April    It  has  July  1, 1781,  died  in  Eaton,  (Miio^  Sept  t,  1887. 

several  times  happened  that  the  waters  of  the  His  £mer  was  a  minister  In  the  PrasbytariaB 

gulf^  driven  by  westerly  galea,  have  reccnled  so  ohuroh,  and  removed  to  Kentacky^  WMra  hi 

violently  as  to  submerge  whole  streets  in  St.  opened  an  academy.    Tbason  entmd  thaOUa 

Petersburg;  even  up  to  the  first  floor  of  houses ;  an  M.  E.  conference  in  1809.    In  18S1  ba  waa  asal 

event  against  which  no  provision  for  the  fbture  as  a  missionary  to  the  Wyandot  Indiana^  anoiv 

has  appeared  possible.    The  Russian  survey  of  whom  he  remained  8  yeariL    In  1845  ba  was 

the  gulf  of  flnland  is  described  In  Struve'a  appointed  chiqilain  of  the  Ohio  psniianilarr. 

great  work  on  the  subject,  of  which  8  vols.  His  last  labors  ware  prindnally  ia 

had  been  published  up  to  1869,  the  8d  and  last  with  a  diurch  in  dndnnao,  CMik\  whieh 

ToL  being  so(m  expected  to  appear.  his  name,  thoa|^  he  served  temporarily  aaaon- 

FINLA Y,  GioBoa,  a  British  Philhdleidst  and  ftroice  missionary.    He  waa  ona  of  tba  bmsI 

historian,  bom  in  Scotland  about  1800,  enlisted  sncoessftil  of  western  authora.    HIa  *  Wjandsl 

ataneariyageinthecanseofGreekindepend-  UiadosL^   **Prison   LiftL"    '^Avtobiofn^,* 

anoe,  lived  much  with  Lord  Byron  before  his  **8keteliei  of  Western  iMhodiani,**  sad  *^Liib 

last  illness,  was  an  associate  of  Dr.  Howe  of  among  the  Indians,**  have  bean  aztanalvallyfaai 

Boston,  ana  since  the  war  has  resided  in  Athena.  eape(^dly  in  the  western  statea. 

The  appropriation  of  his  garden  by  the  €hredc  FINLeT,  R<»isr.  D J).,  an  Amatkan  aebelv 

government,  for  which  Mr.  Finlirr  claimed  a  and  philanthropist,  oom  hi  Prinoeton,  II.  J.,  la 

uurge  indenmity.  as  the  garden  affords  a  most  1778,  died  in  Athena,  €hL,  Oct  8,  1817.  Havsi 

bcMitiftil  viewer  the  Acropolis,  gave  rise  to  one  mduated  at  Princeton  ooDega  In  1T8T,  sad 

of  the  many  controversies  between  the  English  from  1798  to  1817  was  connected  wHh.  thai  is- 

and  Greek  governments.    Mr.  Finlay  remarked  stitution,  either  as  tutor  or  trustee,  and  dviif 

on  the  subject  of  his  claim  to  the  earl  of  Carlisle,  the  greater  part  of  that  period  was  also  psiccc 

who  visited  Athens  in  Nov.  1853,  that  *^the  of  Baskingridge.    He  may  be  regarded  ai  th« 

modem  Greeks  wholly  ignore  the  whole  period  founder  of  the  African  colonixation  aodecv,  Ibc 

from  Alexander  the  Great  to  Lord  Palmer-  plan  for  sending  emandpated  Uadu  to  Afrws 

ston  ;^^  **  which,*^  as  Ix>rd  Carlisle  wittily  adds.  Laving  originate  with  him,  and  the  coottitmina 

^  is  an  appropriate  complaint  from  a  historian  and  organization  of  the  society  having  bc«e 

of  medixDval  Greece/'    Mr.  Finlay  is  noted  for  chiefly  formed   through   his    instrumeotslitr. 

his  thorough  knowledge  of  Greek  topography,  In  1817  he  was  chosen  president  of  FruiU 

art,  and  antiqaitv,  and  is  the  author  of  a  series  college  at  Athens,  Ga.,  but  did  not  long  surrirt 

of  works  on  Greek  history,  comprising  "  His-  his  installation  in  that  office, 

tory  of  Greece  under  the  Komans"  (1st  ed.,  FINLEY,  Samtkl,  D.D^  prendeniof  theeol- 

London,  1843  ;  2d  ed.,  186TX  ''  History  of  Me-  lege  of  New  Jersey,  bom  in  Arma^  Irdaai  ia 

dia)val  Greece  and  Trebizood'' (1851),  '*  History  1715,  died  in  Philadelphia,  July  17.  17M.   A 

of  the  Byzantine  and  (i reek  Empires^  (2  vols,  sermon  that  he  heard  at  the  age  of  6  yean  ^ 

8vo.,  1853-*4),  and  ^*  History  of  Greece  under  termined  him  to  be  a  minister.    Arrivia^  ia 

Othoman  and  Venetian  Dominion**  0854).    He  America  in  1734,  he  spent  several  yemn  iaccB- 

Is  now  cngafTcd  in  a  work  which  will  bring  the  pleting  his  studies,  and  was  licensed  to  prssci 

history  of  Irreece  down  from  the  Turkish  con-  in  1740.    The  first  part  of  bis  minbtry  vsi 

quest  to  the  constitution  of  1 848.  much  occupied  with  itinerant  hJfon  in  pretDOticf 

FINLAY,  John,  a  Scottish  poet  and  biog-  the  revival  of  religion,  at  that  tioie  so  muui- 

rapher,  bom  in  (ilasgow  in  1783,  died  in  ^Moflat  able  throughout  the  country,  llis  seal  atoMtimt 

in  1810.    His  principal  poem,  *'  Wallace,*  or  the  brought  him  into  unpleasant  circumstaarci ;  Lt 

Vale  of  Ellcrsfic,"  was  published  when  he  was  preaching  in  Xew  Iiaven,  Conn.,  eontraiy  to  s 

only  19  years  old.    The  more  iini)ortant  of  his  law  of  the  colony  forbidding  itinerants  to  cater 

other  Works  are:  "  Soottiiih  Historical  and  Ro-  parishes  of  settled  mini^ten  without  th^ 


maniic  Ballads,  chiefly  Ancient,  wiili  Ezplana-  sent,  he  was  seixed  by  the  civil  aothoritv  sad 

torj   Notes,'*  &c.    (2   vols.    8vo.,  Edinbonrh,  carried  as  a  vagrant  bevond  its  hmtta.    la  1744 

1809X  and  a  "*  Life  of  Ccrvante.*/'    He  also  he  was  settled  at  Nottingham,  Md^  where  bs 

edited  HIair*s  ''  Grave,''  and  Smith's  *'  Wealth  remaine<1  for  7  vearn,  and  where,  in  ftJditioa  lo 

of  Nations.'"  his  ministerial  duties,  he  carried  on  an  acatSsny 

FINLAYSON,  Gbobqi,  a  Scottish  turgeon  which  acquired  a  high  repvtatioo.     Oa  tht 


FINHABK  FINNS                       613 

death  of  President  Davies  of  the  college  of  New  was  induced  to  alter  his  conrse  of  life,  and  la 
Jersej,  he  was  chosen  his  saccessor,  and  re-  1824  he  commenced  the  career  of  a  preacher. 
moved  to  Princeton  in  1761.  The  college  flour-  Jlaving  decided  not  to  enter  the  pastoral  office, 
ished  while  under  his  care,  which  was,  how-  he  labored  as  an  evangelist  with  great  sue- 
ever,  but  5  years.  He  published  a  number  of  cess  until  1835,  when  he  accepted  a  professor- 
eermons  and  discussions.  ship  in  Oberlin  college,  Ohio.    He  however 

FINMAKK,  a  province  of  Norway,  and  the  continued  to  preach  in  New  York  and  elsewhere 

northernmost  region  of  the  continent  of  Europe,  at  intervals,  and  in  1848  went  to  England,  wbere 

bounded  N.  and  N.  E.  by  the  arctic  ocean,  E.  by  he  remained  8  years.    In  1852  he  became  pres- 

Lapland,  and  S.  by  Lapland,  Sweden,  and  the  ident    of  Oberlin    college,  which  position  he 

province  of  Nordland,  with  the  last  of  which  still  holds.  His  principal  works  are :  "  Lectures 

and  with  Drontheim  it  forms  a  division  of  the  on  Revivals^'  (12mo.,  Boston,  1885),  *'  Lectures 

Norwegian  government;  area,  about  27,000  sq.  to  Professing  Christians*'  (8vo.,  Oberlin,  1836), 

m.;  pop.  in  1855,  54,665.  It  lies  wholly  within  "Sermons  on  Important  Subjects'*  (8vo.,  New 

the  arctic  circle.    Its  northernmost  point  is  the  York,  1836),  and    *'  Lectures  on    Systematic 

North  cape,  a  bold  promontory  900  feet  above  Theology**  (2  vob.  8vo.,  Oberlin,  1847),  all  of 

the  sea.  Its  coasts  are  thickly  indented  by  long  which  have  gone  through  several  editions  in  the 

winding  inlets,  and  are  bordered  by  a  vast  num-  United  States  and  in  England.    In  both  coun- 

ber  of  irregular  islands.    It  has  important  cod  tries  the  author  holds  a  high  position  among 

fisheries, which  give  employment  to  3,000  vessels  evangelical  Oongregationalists  as  an  eloquent 

and  between  15,000  and  16,000  men,  and  pro-  energetic,  and  effective  revival  preacher. 

dnee  yearly  about  16,000,000  fish,  21,500  barrels  FINNS,  a  race  of  men,  of  whom  the  vemao- 

of  ood  liver  oil,  and  6,000  barrels  of  roe.    The  nlar  name  is  Sttomilainen,  or  inhabitants  of  the 

principal  rivers  are  the  Alten  and  Tana,  the  val-  marshes,  and  whose  number  at  the  present 

leys  of  which  are  fertile  and  well  ciiltlvated.  day  is  estimated  at  nearly  3,000,000,  inhabiting 

The  dimate  of  the  coasts  is  so  mild  that  some  several  districts  of  northern  Europe.  TheFenni 

of  Uie  fiords  never  freeze.    Hanmierfest,  an  ac-  of  Tacitus,  whose  favorite  abode  was  the  woods 

tive  trading  place,  is  one  of  the  principal  towns,  and  morasses  of  the  north,  were  probably  not 

FINN,  Henbt  J.,  an  American  actor  and  au-  the  people  of  the  region  inhabited  by  the  modem 

thor,  bom  at  Sydney,  Gape  Breton,  about  1785,  Finns.    Strabo  and  Ptolemy  placed  the  *iwoi 

perished  in  the  conflagration  of  the  steamboat  vaguely  in  the  regions  that  afterward  formed 

Lexington  in  Long  Island  sound  on  the  night  the   provinces   of  Poland.     Some    centuries 

of  Jan.  13,  1840.    He  went  to  England  in  his  later  Jornandes  knew  various  tribes  of  Finns ; 

yonth,  on  the  invitation  of  a  rich  unde  residing  but  modem  ethnologists  have  found  it  difficult 

there,  and  on  the  voyage  was  for  many  days  ex-  to  place  them.    Probably  the  Esthes  of  Jornao- 

posed  in  an  open  boat  on  the  sea  in  consequence  des  and  the  Norwegians  of  Other  were  the  Fin- 

of  the  shipwreck  of  the  vessel  in  which  he  nish  race,  although  dwelling  even  south  of 

sailed.    He  was  finally  picked  up  by  a  ship  and  modern  Esthonia.    Other  found  a  people  in  the 

landed  in  Falmouth.    His  uncle  dying  without  Archangel  district  who  spoke  nearly  the  same 

maldng  any  provision  for  him,  he  was  obliged  language  as  the  Finns  of  more  southern  regions. 

to  resort  to  the  stage  for  a  support.    After  a  Alexander  von  Humboldt  in  his**  Cosmos**  says: 

few  years  he  returned  to  New  York,  subse-  **  On  passing  northward  from  the  Iranian  pla- 

qnently  revisited  England,  and  in  1822  made  teaux  trough  Turan  to  the  Uralian  mountains, 

his  first  appearance  at  the  Federal  street  thca-  which  separate  Europe  and  Asia,  we  arrive  at 

tre  in  Boston.   Until  his  death  he  was  one  of  the  the  primitive  seat  of  the  Finnish  race ;  for  the 

most  popiJar  actors  on  the  stage,  his  forte  being  Ural  is  as  much  a*  land  of  the  ancient  Finns 

broad  comedy.    He  accumulated  a  competency  as  the  Altai  is  of  the  ancient  Turks.^*     At 

by  hit  professional  labors,  and  was  travelling  the  period  of  the  first  Gothic  invasion  from 

to  his  residence  in  Newport,  K.  I.,  at  the  time  Asia,  it  is  alleged,  with  strong  histoncal  prob- 

of  his  death.    He  enjoyed  a  considerable  renu-  ability,  that  the  shores  of  the  Baltic  were  pos- 

tation  as  a  humorous  writer,  and  published  a  sessed  by  these  tribes,  from  whom  are  descended 

"Comic  Annual"  and  a  number  of  articles  in  the  modem  Finmarkers  and  Laplanders,  who, 

the  periodicals.    He  published  a  drama  entitled  according  to  Grotius  and  others,  occupied  a 

**  Montgomery,  or  the  Falls  of  Montmorenci,"  much  more  extensive  territory  than  that  within 

which  was  acted  with  success,  and  he  left  be-  which  they  are  now  circumscribed.    They  had 

fide  a  manuscript  tragedy.  spread  themselves  over  southern  Norway  and 

FINNEY,  Charles  G.,  an  American  preacher  Sweden,  whence  in  course  of  time  they  were 

mod  aathor,  born   in  Warren,  Litchfield  co.,  driven  away  by  more  powerful  intruders,  and 

Goon.,  Aug.  29, 1792.    He  studied  law  in  Jef-  forced  within  the  shelter  of  their  rocks  ond  mo- 

ftrson  00.,  N.  Y.,  and  in  early  manhood  gave  rasses.    It  is  impossible  to  ascertain  when  the 

•TideDoe  of  unusual  independence  of  character  first  Finns  entered  modem  Finland.     In  the 

and  dearaess  of  intellect.    During  this  period  10th,  11th,  and  12th  centuries,  3  tribes  were 

of  his  life  he  manifested  an  indifference  to  re-  known  there,  the  Quaines  in  the  north,  the  Ky- 

Sions  matters  which  caused  him  to  be  regard-  riales  in  the  southeast,  and  the  Ymes  in  the  south, 

as  a  dangerous  companion  for  young  men ;  but  A  popular  tradition  makes  the  Kyriales  (Eareli- 

mder  the  influence  of  the  revival  of  1821  ho  ans)  the  first  discoverers  of  the  Swedish  mines. 

VOL.  vn. — 33 


514  ilB 

The  religion  ormythology  of  the  Finns  of  Finland  forming  rast  forests  in  the  mountain*  of  Califcr- 

was  very  similar  to  that" of  the  Lapps  and  Finns  nia,  w  the  A.  nohilis  (Lambert),  discovixv!  \  r 

aboat  the  White  sea;  but  there  are  no  traditions  Douglas.     Its  timber  is  excellent.     A  h'.^-Mr 

of  it  earlier  tlian  the  missionary  accounts  of  St.  prized  ornamental    species  is  known   &<   the 

Eric.    Their  supreiuc  being  was  Ilawa,  sprung  Italsam  fir  (A.  halMmea^  Marsh.\  with  \ii  It-t- 

from  the  bosom  of  nature.    He  had  two  sons,  colored,  thin,  narrow  leaves,  erect,  rylindri'-il 

Wainamoinen  and  Ilmarainen,  inventors  of  va-  cones,  occurring   in  cold   springy  s[iot%  aci 

rious  arts  useful  to  man.  There  was  a  goddess  of  forming  small  trees,  rarely  of  ¥)  /eet  in  Leir^t. 

love,  Yiden  Ema,  and  a  god  of  war,  Turris,  a  From  little  crypts  sunken  beneath  the  smuuth 

Finnish  word  for  battle  or  combat.  There  were  green  bark,  a  clear  exudation  known  as  balsam 

many  gods  of  the  chase  among  this  migratory  exudes.     This  is  gathered  by  pnnctariog  tL« 

people;  but  there  were  gods  also  for  yegetablo  vesicles  foniied  by  the  swullen  fluid  in  the 

nature,   with  a  superior  divinity,  Kekri,  the  crypts,  and  collecting  it  in  some  hollow  Tes«<: ; 

errand  protector  of  agriculture.    Many  interest-  a  slow  process,  as  only  a  few  droM  can  be  col* 

ing  traditions  remain,  but  are  much  disfigured  lected  at  a  time.  The  fluid  thus  obtained  is  C*o 

by  modern  superstition.    The  old  Finnish  soncs  called  Canada  balsam,  and  is  an  admirable  kV 

are  charming,  and  the  people  are  still  naturally  stance  for  mounting  specimens  for  the  mirrn- 

and  universally  musical.  The  Finns  are  a  grave,  scope;  beside  which,  it  has  much  repcte  1: 

laborious,  industrious  race,  inured  to  hardship ;  treatment  for  pulmonary  complaints,  and  :< 

brave,  but  self-willed  and  obstinate ;  not  want-  used  as  a  valuable  varnish  fi>r  water  rulon. 

ing  in  intelligence,  kind,  and  hospitable.    Hum-  Another  similar  S{>ecifsis  A.  Profrrii^  or  doaV> 

b(9dt  says:  **  Few  races  exhibit  greater  or  more  balsam  fir,   discovered  by  Mr.  Fraser  on  tb* 

remarkable  diflerences  in  mental  cultivation,  liigh  mountains  of  Carolina,  and,  acoordiofr  v^ 

and  in  the  direction  of  their  feelings,  according  Pursh,  found  on  the  Broad  moantains  of  I'cl:* 

as  they  have  been  determined  by  the  degenera-  sylvania.    Mr.  G.  B.  Emerson  met  with  it  en  S*!- 

tion  of  servitude,  warlike  ferocity,  or  a  contin-  dleback  mountain,  Mass.     It  occurs  also  at  \:.< 

nal  striving  fur  political  freedom,   than  the  TVhito  mountains  in  New  Hampshire,  acd  :!■* 

Finns,  who  have  been  so  variously  subdivided.  Green  mountains  in  Vermont ;  and  prnbaS'*  : 

although  retaining  kindre<l  languages.    In  evi-  is  more  common  than  is  hUpp4»>o«l,  Wxt.^z  •'«  '- 

denco  of  this  we  need  only  refer  to  the  now  l(M>kcd  from  its  similarity  to  the  balsam  nr.  T- 

peaceful  p<^pulation  among  whom    the    epos  hemlock  snruce  (.-1.  CanndenitU^  Mx.)  i«  a  «t.. 

Kalerala  was  found,  to  the  Huns,  once  cele-  known  ami  elegant  tree,  comimtnly  calli-«l  Kir.- 

brated  for  conquests  that  disturbed  the  then  ex-  loik,  no  other  tree  viciii;:  '^'ith  it  in  rirhnr*?  <  i 

i>ting  order  of  things,  and  who  have  long  been  a  dark  frrevn  fnlia^re,  wliirh  r(intr.i^t.«  tict^«  :'. 

c»»nlouijJod  with  the  Mongols,  and  lastly,  to  a  the   early    siimiiiiT   with    its   d».'lira:»  !>    z'-' 

proat  and  nt»Me  iH>opU\  the  Magyars.'*  youn;;   hhotii'*   and   Kavc-J.      It**    l^r^.'.'-:.! "  -■ 

FIR  (tihic9^  l)on.),  the  Cv^mmon  name  of  a  hUiuKt  toward  tho  txtninitio*.  \\\\w\  :'•  :l 

larj:o  numluT  of  Coniferous  trees  of  a  i»yramidal  flat  and  hprrailiiiLT,  fltijiii:;;  ilnwriuard   *  ■  ' 

fnnii  and  elo^rant  pn>p«irtiuns,  sep.nratt.Hl  from  pnuiiid  ntnl  ^\v^«•|•in::  it,  it-  trunk  ri*::ij  t    ' 

tlie   jronu'*  ])iuuA   by  in<idorn    botani>t.s.     The  pcrpviidirular  luiu'ht  «'f  7"  ^r  **••  iVt!.   !•- »    • 

leaves  uf  t ho  tir  ari>e  sinjily  from  around  the  is  ii««t  at  nil  adapted  f.ir  tin.*.i'r.  a:.*!  i-  a  '    . 

stem,  unlike  th«»»'e  of  the  pines,  wln»so  loaves  iNiinlyfii  to  l-urn  in  rl**^'  stuxe-i.  !  •.:  ■.•-■..-»  • 

are  biindlod  up  in  twos  or  threes  and  enrlnstil  very  valuaMr  lor  tannin;:  jmrp* »**■*.    ^Vi  .  -  ..  _ 

at   the    ba-o    in   thin,   inenibranous,   withered  an«l   voun^  it  bt-ars  (lijijiin;:.  and   :ir.-^i"»'' 

siioatlis.     T!ie  species  of  lirs  are  numerous,  but  hedLV-*.  re'^t-nililii!;:  M>tiit\\lial  xhv   »i»   .:.  ' 

their  variati«»ns  ure  s«»  *li>tinct  and  marke<l  that  sliape  an«l  i-ili-r  uf  t!ie  li  uv^*.    11.  TJ.*- -I  .- 

t!iey    fonn  4  natural  tribes:   I.  Those   wliv»so  <»t'  li:-*  are  kn••^\n  i::i»!rr  the  nun:o  •  r'  *•."■ 

h'aves  jrrow  sin^rly  n»uml  the  branches,  all  turn-  w!m»m*  h  av«-<  ^rnw  >i:.^'ly  p'unil  the  ■  r*: 

ed  t«»ward  one  ^ide,  and  phiucous  «>r  wiiite  be-  nn«l  all  ^J■^^■a•l  iijually.  4)f  thv-^-  we  r.i-%  : 

Heath,  «if  whirh  the  iiiu-t  pmniinent  is  the  silver  tlie  .\nuTie;in  whitr  ^p^v.^•e  i.l.  ♦i.'*<.i,  Vl\  i  ■ 

fir  f  .1.  ;//'V.f,  Liiiij.),wliitli  inliabitseXpose«l,  dry,  rathrr  ■rla'.irfU-.hav.  «,  l-i  uriitrr*!  a::.!  r       * 

stouy  pla«AS  Mil  iii'Miiituiris  of  tho  niidillo  uu'l  a  ^niMl  trvi-  i»f  iiiNr!  r  !!r:'.l'tT.  :  .::  •••  x ..    ■  '  • 

South  of  Euroj.e,  and  rvaehes  to   the  heij^ht  of  it-*  small,  thriail-like,  t.ii^Ji  r- •>•!*.  i  :i  ;      .■-,  ' 

fn»in  13'»  t»  l.V»  iVi!.     At  fir>t   it-*  ;rrM\\tli   i"*  the  ('ana'liai.*  ar..l  l-.iliiii.*  !■•  <.•  *  t:;.  .-  *  • 

flow,  but  after  a  ft  \v   \iars  it  ra]>i«lly  drv»-]tips  rarn*.-^  himI   f^T  its  ri -in.  v !.■•  Ii   tlii    ■  -       • 

and  attains  a  irri-at  «l:aiue:*'r.      This  sj»i*«'i«;-i  is  |. ;:<•!;.     Th«*  \i»":i:j -.iplinj'''. -r-.rj"'.*.  \  j:' ' 

tiiip]>nsi-il  to  l»e  tlie  ii^'i'.ji  ]''t!i-htrrim-t  uf  Virpd  (I'lr.iMe.  are  ".i^r-l  ;'.«r  p"I'  -•  i::  litr'jr.:!'  .-«     " 

and  of  Ui'inan  autliur-*.     Aline  spceies  of  tho  Ma«  k  >p:-;jri'    j.l.   r.t\:r.i.   M\  ■    i*   a   :  a*  ^ 

Ainerieane«.)ntinent  i*»  the -1.  j/rii/j//*.'*  <  Ijiinb«Tt),  Nictli  Anurii-.i,  !■■  l-e  -  »  m  ;■"•■.*'!>    •.  .*• 

or  ^Teat  Calif*  >rn:an  fir,  of  t  lie  biiu'ht  t>f2ou  feet,  i-errVet   « ■■nliti«'ii  in    M.*:!.'-.  V  :i   %\'.     :j 

havin;r  vi  ry  hniL',  narrow  leave*.  oMon;:,  erect,  S'ew  l«»u:j'!]anil,  N-'\a  S<..!:;i.  u:,-:   y\.  '.       • 

sliirhtly  rurvin;:  riine«i.  which  are  froiu   :t  t*»  4  «!a*.    Ii- ln:iik  i*  ]»er:e«  rly  «T:i:i;\t,  a..    •  ■  ■    •- 

in4*he««  loll  j:.  the   bra'-t-*  or  .-call'- "f  the  cone?*  njuhirly  iVi^rii  ti.-i- ;:r.ti:Tjii  :..  !l;.  !..j\     1:» 

btin;:  Very  .-hurt,  j:i;:ji.d,  2-l«»!»eil,  with  a  shiirt  are  tlark  ^rrn-n.  •■!•:■.>«  !>  4  -i-le*!,  l..»\  ■■  r  :  . .    • 

intermediate  ^iiine  or  point.     The  \\»mk1  is  »iuft,  «»»i'»  re-in^is-  ib't-.     1  !.•■   r*"  :-   jir.*  r"-.:. 

white,  and  iuferiur.    AbiiU  more  noble  .-{Kcies,  below  the  ^urfaLe,  and  rvui  Lori2i.'L'.^l« 


*       k 


Fm  HRE  ANNIHILATOB           516 

stent.  This  flpecies  seldom  grows  to  a  many  forest  trees  of  value,  can  be  easily  raised 
:e.  Its  wood  is  light,  strong,  elastic,  from  seeds,  and  are  not  difficult  to  cultivate, 
ible.  The  young  shoots  are  employed  Some,  which  produce  abundance  of  cones  every 
g  beer.  The  Douglas  fir  (A,  Douglasii,  year,  can  be  sown  in  rows  in  open  ground,  but 
)  is  a  gigantic  species  found  in  im-  tliere  are  others  which  need  some  early  pro- 
crests  in  N.  W.  America,  from  lat.  43^  tection  in  frames  or  in  pots.  It  is  best  to  sow 
r.  Tlie  trunks  of  the  trees  are  from  the  seeds  as  soon  as  practicable  after  being  gath- 
80  feet  higli,  and  attain  a  diameter  of  ered,  as  they  spoil  by  keeping. 
The  timber  is  heavy,  firm,  with  few  FIRDnSI,FBRDn8i,orFsRi>ou8i,  AbulEasix 
id  not  at  all  liable  to  warp.  The  cones  Maksoor,  a  Persian  poet,  bom  near  Thus,  in 
irkable  for  their  long  tridentate  bracts,  Ehorassan,  about  A.  b.  940,  died  in  the  same 
*e  exserted  far  beyond  the  scales  them-  city  in  1020.  He  was  often  called  Iliousi  from 
The  Menzies  fir  (A,  Mengieni,  Lambert)  the  place  of  his  birth,  and  his  ordinary  name 
re  of  northern  California,  and  was  dis-  {firduB  meaning  both  garden  and  paradise)  was 
by  Douglas,  who  describes  the  wood  as  given  him  either  because  his  fietther  was  a  gar- 
excellent  quality ;  but  little  is  known  dener  or  fh)m  the  excellence  of  his  poems.  Early 
labits  of  the  tree.  Its  smaller  naked  occupying  himself  with  the  traditions  concem- 
)  are  covered  with  hard,  thin  tubercles,  ing  the  ancient  kings  of  Persia,  he  was  invited 
s  are  turned  in  every  direction,  resupi-  to  the  court  of  Mahmond  of  Ghaznee,  where  he 
m  being  twisted  at  the  base,  linear,  was  presented  to  the  most  distinguished  scholars 
Jate,  incurved,  silvery  beneath ;  cones  and  poets  of  the  time,  and  encouraged  by  the 
IS,  cylindrical,  8  inches  long ;  scales  siiltan  to  compose  his  great  historical  poem, 
obtuse,  loose,  somewhat  wavy,  cartila-  Shah  Nameh,  He  spent  85  years  upon  this 
ttd  scarious,  bright  brown,  ragged  when  work,  which  contains  60,000  verses,  and  re- 
>n  the  upper  margin,  persistent  after  lates  the  mythical  and  romantic  exploits  of  the 
s  have  dropped.  III.  The  8d  group  Persian  kings  from  the  foundation  of  the  world, 
e  known  as  larches,  whose  leaves  grow  that  is,  from  the  hero  Cayomers,  who  disputed 
ra,  and  fdl  off  in  the  autumn,  of  which  the  earth  with  genii,  to  the  invasion  of  the 
oatac  {A,  mierocarpa^  Lambert)  is  the  Mussulmans  in  A.  D.  636.  Its  most  interesting 
nmon  form.  It  is  only  in  deep  forests  portion  is  the  account  of  the  prowess  of  the 
s  tree  attains  any  considerable  size,  hero  Rustem.  Receiving  60,000  silver,  instead 
ising  to  about  80  feet  high.  Its  leaves  of  the  same  number  of  gold  dirhems  promised 
tie  tufts,  which  are  deciduous,  leaving  to  him  by  the  sultan,  he  is  said  to  have  dis- 
ches  entirely  bare,  excepting  the  small  tributed  the  whole  sum,  in  8  equal  parts,  to  the 
hich  are  for  a  long  time  persistent,  slave  who  brought  it  and  2  attendants  of  the 
^  of  the  species  is  from  the  mountains  bath  where  he  received  it,  and  then  in  revenge 
nia  to  Hudson^s  bay.  At  lat.  65°  K.  to  have  composed  against  the  sultan  the  best 
es  very  dwarf  and  stunted,  rising  only  satire  in  the  Persian  language.  Forced  to  fly 
feet.  Its  wood  is  compact  and  close-  from  court,  he  took  refuge  first  at  Mazanderan 
of  great  strength  and  durability,  supe-  and  then  at  Bagdad,  and  being  finally  permit- 
l  the  other  conifene,  and  only  surpassed  ted  to  return  to  his  native  city,  he  spent  there 
&k.  In  beauty,  however,  it  is  inferior  the  remainder  of  his  life.  The  Shah  Kameh  is 
European  larch  (A,  larix,  Lambert),  one  of  the  oldest  poetic  monuments  of  Persian 
ranches,  when  suffered  to  grow  freely,  literature,  and  is  regarded  by  the  orientals  as 
le  ground,  and  whose  outline  is  more  the  highest  authority  for  the  primitive  history 
ical,  and  hence  preferred  for  ornament-  of  western  Asia.  The  disciples  of  Zoroaster 
les.  The  European  larch  grows  much  adopted  it,  since  it  contained  no  other  mythol- 
io,  is  better  adapted  to  drier  soils,  and  ogy  than  their  own  demonology.  An  abridged 
used  for  artificial  plantings.  IV.  The  English  translation  of  it  in  prose  and  verse  by 
p  of  firs  embraces  those  whose  leaves,  Atkinson  was  published  in  London  in  1881. 
in  clusters,  are  persistent  and  ever-  The  best  Grerman  (abridged)  edition  is  by  Gdr- 
>nimonly  called  cedars,  magnificently  res  (Berlin,  1820),  and  translations  of  extracts 
ted  in  the  cedar  of  Lebanon  (A,  ee-  appeared  in  Berlin  in  1851  and  1858.  An  edi- 
nbert).  This  species  does  not  rise  to  tion  in  Persian  and  French,  by  Jules  Mold,  ap- 
lordinary  height,  but  spreads  laterally  peared  in  Paris  (4  vols.,  1888-'54). 
lense  branches,  affording  a  picturesque  FIRE.  See  Flams,  Heat,  Light. 
There  are  several  American  species  FIRE  ANNTHILATOR,  a  machine  designed 
lars,  as  the  arborvito)  {thuya)  and  the  for  extinguishing  fires  by  discharging  large 
cypress  or  white  cedar  (eupressus  quantities  of  gases  which  do  not  support  com- 
1^  Linn.),  but  they  do  not  belong  to  bustion.  That  ofMr.  Phillips  is  the  most  noted, 
mily.  So  the  gigantic  cedars  of  Call-  and  at  several  fires  prepared  to  exhibit  its  merits 
lown  as  the  "  big  tree  "  (sequoia  gigan-  has  proved  very  successful.  It  is  made  of  sev- 
ey),  on  the  Sierra  Nevada,  are  not  firs,  eral  sheet  iron  cylindrical  vessels,  set  one  within 
It  related  to  the  cypresses,  and  rcsem-  another.  Water  is  contained  between  the  two 
MNfo,  but  have  the  wood  of  the  juni-  outer  ones,  and  the  steam  ^nerated  firom  this 
Au  these  species  of  ahia  embracing  when  heated  is  discharged  into  an  inner  cylin- 


516  FIBS  ENGINE 

drical  receptacle.    Still  within  thiA  in  contained  tions  that  40  years  before  he  had  seen  a  similar 

the  ga9-^»nerating  mixture,  which  is  a  com-  engine  of  smaller  size  in  his  native  city,  KOQi|p»- 

pouml  of  charcoal,  nitre,  and  gypsum.    An  ap-  hofen.    The  one  at  Nuremberg  wa»  placed  uf^m 

paratus  is  furnished  for  igniting  it,  consisting  a  sledge  10  feet  long  and  4  feet  broad,  vhioh 

of  a  bottle  of  chlorate  of  potash  and  sugar  placed  was  drawn  by  2  horsies.    It  had  a  water  €isu^^l 

beneath  another  containing  sulphuric  acid,  so  8  feet  long,  4  feet  high,  and  2  wide.     It  wm 

arranged  that  the  latter  may  be  broken  by  a  moved  by  28  men,  and  forced  a  stream  of  water 

blow  from  without,  and  the  contents  of  the  two  an  inch  in  diameter  to  tlie  hei^t  of  80  feeC  The 

thus  be  made  to  mix  and  inflame.    Tlie  main  cylinders  are  described  as  lymg  in  a  horixontal 

charge  then  being  ignited,  the  gases  pass  in  an  position  in  a  box.  .  No  mention  is  made  of  an  air 

outward  direction  through  numerous  noles  per-  chamber,  nor  of  any  thing  more  than  asbort  flvxi- 

forated  for  their  passage,  and  so  soon  as  the  ble  discharge  pipe,  which  could  be  directed  lo 

water  is  sufliciently  heated,  its  steam  mixes  one  or  the  otoer  side.    Tlie  oldest  record  of 

with  them,  and  a  dense  cloud  of  vapor  is  pro-  fire  engines  in  Paris  is  in  the  work  of  Perranlu 

Jected  through  the  opening  in  the  top  of  the  published  in  1684.    From  this  it  appears  thss 

machine  made  for  this  T>uq>ose.    In  situations  there  was  one  in  the  king's  library,  wLtch, 

fkvorable  for  retaining  the  vapor  around  bodies  though  having  but  one  cylinder,  threw  out  the 

in  combustion,  the  fire  is  extinguished ;  but  water  in  a  continuous  Jet  to  a  great  height— 

when  currents  of  air  are  strongly  blowing,  as  is  a  result  attained  by  the  use  of  an  air  chamber, 

generally  the  case  about  burning  building  of  which,  aa  introduced  into  the  fire  engiiic, 

there  would  seem  to  be  little  opportunity  lor  this  is  the  earliest  notice.     Destnictire  fir«s 

its  action.     On  board  ships  fires  often  occur  were  of  frequent  occurrence  in  Paris  and  in 

below  deck,  which  no  doubt  could  be  con-  the  provinces  in  the  latter  part  of  the  17th  an- 

trolled  by  such  an  apparatus.    Whether  it  has  taxr,  the  work  of  incendiaries,  who  were  known 

ever  proved  of  service  in  case  of  burning  build-  as  ooutrfeux.  in  1 699  a  special  ofllcer  was  charie- 

ings  not  expressly  prepared  for  its  application,  ed' with  the  duty  of  constructing,  keeping  in  k^ 

we  are  not  informed.    It  has  been  proposed  to  pair,  and  using  at  fires  the  Al  pampes  parta:in» 

construct  them  both  in  a  portable  form  and  as  belonging  to  the  royal  service,  and  in  1722  tie 

stationary  engines  on  a  large  scale  for  the  pro-  number  of  these  had  increased  to  80.    TUre 

taction  of  important  buildings.  were  beside  many  others  not  inclodcd  in  xlk 

FIRE  ENGINEI,  a  machine  for  throwing  a  particular  service.    It  is  believed  that  none  wen 

stream  of  water  for  the  purpose  of  extinguish-  provided  with  air  chamben ;   for  in  1735  s 

ing  fires.    The  earliest  notices  of  machines  de-  paper  was  publuMhed  in  the  JfrmoiiYi  of  tike 

aigned  for  this  purpose  are  in  some  allusions  of  academy  of  sciences  at  Paris  describing  tli» 

ancient  Homun  writers  to  an  apparatus,  nowhere  improvement  as  adopted   in  tlie  enginv*   i* 

doscrilK'd,  whicli  they  called  a  nipho^  and  which  Strasbourg,  and  in  it  uo  iutiiuatii»n  is  cx;<rix^%l 

some  now  regard  rather  as  the  name  of  the  of  the  same  contrivance  ever  having  In.-vn  a.*r - 

aquciluot  pipes  for  supplying  water  to  houses  duced  in  Piu-is.  I^eathem  hose  was  invented  ul<  .: 

than  as  an  esiH?cial  tire-extingui.sliinj:  machine,  the  year  1670  in  Amsterdam  by  two  l>utvi.:;.;i 

That  they  were  very  inetVicieiit  may  be  inferred  named  Van  der  lleide,  and  the  apparatife  »  j* 

from  the  remark  of  Senecii,  that  owing  to  the  siniedily  intn>duced  into  all  tlie  iiiijin^  t^  :U 

height  of  the  houses  at  Kome  it  was  iniiH)SKil)lo  city.    They  alM>  invented  the  suction  i  i{^.'.   Ii 

to  have  them  when  they  tm»k  fire.     Apollodo-  1600  the  inventors  published  a  fulio   \*.'ijr.. 

ru8  the  areliiteet,  perliap.^  was  tlie  first  to  sug-  containing  engravings,  the  fir>t  7  re|.n.?*r/..  j 

gest  the  u>e  of  a  kind  of  hosts  in  re('<»inmending  dangerous  conflagrations  at  which  the  iuu  c:  - 

for  the  conveyance  of  water  to  high  ]>Iaces  ex-  gines  had  been  used  to  little  purfK^e  ;  tLc  IJ 

posed  to  fiery  darts  the  use  of  the  gut  t»f  un  ox  following  represent  fin»s  which  liad  be\n  n:.:;- 

imviiig  a  hag  fille«l  witli  water  affixed  to  it.    By  guished  by  the  new  engines,  and  the  uivUii^l  i :" 

compressing  the  hag  tlie  water  was  made  to  rL<e  working  the  machines.     Hy  the  e«tiniat«  :lx> 

in  the  tul>e.     In  early  neriixls  of  Engli>h  and  present  it  appears  that  by  10  fin»s  j  roj^rtT  Lti 

Fren<*h  lii-.tury  the  chief  protection  against  de-  iKJen  de»tn)yi'd  of  the  value  o(  l.u24,  loo  tirjL.* 

Btruotive  lires  apiH'ars  to  liave  con>isted  in  the  but  in  5  years  succeeding  tlio  intrudiicL^s  it 

care  with  whirli  tnoseuse<l  for  domestic  pur]>oses  the  new  marliim^the  laSM.**  by  4o  firvaaiui.  .lU'I 

were  managinl.   The  curfew  bell,  or  courrc/eu^  only  to  lb.'io5  flurins.     The  details  of  ei^astrjc- 

was  s^Minded  at  A  oVIoek  as  a  signal  for  the  fires  tion  are  not  givin.    The  title  of    the  «i:'»^ 

to  bo  extinguished,     (^^ee  Heli^)    In  Germany  which  is  regank-d  as  excei-dingly  valu^l  !c  .-- 

fires  were  oif  frequent  occurrence  in  the  16th  account  of  its  excellent  tngraviinfs  is  ScjrA-.- 

century  and  latter  part  of  the  15th;  and  ordi-  tin^  tUr  nuuirlijlM  uitfftrouthn  .Niun;; -i  --  -• 

nun(\^  Wire  establislied  regulating  the  manner  Spuittu, — It  was  long  bi-fori'  the  invei.u*.--  ■ : 

of  building  houses  and  the  methmU  to  Ik?  adopt-  the  I  hitch  were  iutroduci'd  into  Knglaiid.  At  C^- 

ed  in  pn-venting  fires.     At  Augsburg  fire  en-  close  of  the  16tli  century  the  utdy  iiigine»  il,r. 

gines,  called  **  iiistnnnents  for  fire>''  and  '*  water  known  were  **  hand  squirt>,"  or '^Trini^■*,  t-^ 

syringes  u>eful  at  fires,"  were  in  use  in  151H.  of  Irass,  and  holding  two  or  xhtx^  i^iun^  U 

The^  Jv.'^uit  Caspar  S<*liott  dej^rihes  t»ne  he  saw  water.     S»me  of  them  are  htill  prvscr\cd  ii.  \lt 

at  Nurvmbtrg  in  lCo7,  whit^h  much  resembled  ve>lry  rcxnn  of  St.  I>iouis  Backchurih  ii.  F*5- 

those  iu  UM»  at  the  present  time  *  and  he  uieu-  chuK'h  street,  London.    £adi  uoe  r«4tti;i<d  ux 


FIRE  ENGINE  617 

labor  of  8  men,  one  on  each  side  to  hold  the  stracted  expressly  for  the  purpose,  and  famished 

instrament  steady  with  one  hand,  and  with  the  with  varioos  implements  such  as  are  likely  to 

other  to  direct  the  nozzle,  while  the  third  man  be  wanted  in  conflagrations.    It  usually  has  a 

worked  the  plunger.    When  discharged,  the  reel  with  a  quantity  of  hose  wound  upon  it, 

Siston  was  taken  out  and  the  nozzle  was  dipped  but  the  great  supplies  of  this  are  carried  upon 
ito  water,  which  flowed  in  and  filled  the  boidy.  separate  carriages.  The  brakes  are  long  wooden 
They  were  afterward  fitted  into  a  portable  cis-  arms  extending  over  the  wheels  each  way  be- 
tern,  and  fhmished  with  levers  for  working  the  yond  the  extremities  of  the  engine,  or  some- 
pistons.  About  the  close  of  the  17th  century  times  transversely  to  the  carriage,  and  attached 
Kewsham^s  improved  engine  was  patented  in  at  right  angles  to  the  lever  beams,  which  are 
England.  This  was  a  strong  cbtem  of  oak,  arranged  along  the  horizontal  axis  placed  over 
placed  upon  wheels,  furnished  with  pumps,  air  the  centre  of  the  carriage.  They  are  moved 
ehambera,  and  a  suction  pipe  of  strong  leaUier,  up  and  down  by  men  standing  on  the  ground 
to  preyent  its  collapsing  when  the  air  began  to  each  side  of  the  engine,  working  with  others  who 
be  exhausted  from  it  by  the  action  of  the  pumps,  take  their  i>osition  on  the  top.  Sometimes  a 
through  which  was  run  a  spiral  piece  of  metal,  rope  is  made  fast  to  each  brake,  and  being  passed 
The  end  for  receiving  the  water  was  provided  through  a  block  at  the  bottom  of  the  carriage 
with  a  strainer.  In  case  the  suction  pipe  could  is  hauled  upon  by  a  number  of  men  with  each 
not  be  conveniently  used,  the  water  was  sup-  down  stroke.  In  some  engines  the  pumps  are 
plied  to  the  cistern  by  buckets  passed  by  hand  placed  horizontally,  and  seats  are  arranged  upon 
— a  method  still  practised  in  many  places  in  the  the  top  for  the  men  to  sit  and  work  as  in  rowing 
United  States.  This  engine  was  very  little  im-  a  boat.  In  most  of  the  American  cities  each  en- 
proved  until  the  early  part  of  the  present  cen-  gine  is  managed  by  an  organized  company  of 
tury,  when  some  changes  were  introduced  in  it  volunteer  firemen,  whose  chief  emolument  is 
Various  other  forms  have  been  contrived,  which  in  being  exempted  from  military  duty.  In  Bos- 
Ibr  the  most  part  are  only  modified  methods  of  ton  each  fireman  is  paid  $100  annually,  and  a 
applying  the  principle  of  the  force  pump.  En-  similar  system  has  been  introduced  in  Providence 
gmes  working  on  the  rotary  principle  have  and  some  other  cities.  All  act  under  the  con- 
proved  very  laborious  in  their  operation  and  trol  of  the  fire  commissioners  or  chief  officers  of 
troublesome  to  keep  in  order.  In  one  engine,  the  firo  department  of  the  city.  Some  compa- 
inrented  by  a  Mr.  White  of  Salford,  England,  nies,  instead  of  a  fire  engine,  have  charge  of  the 
12  force  pumps  were  arranged  around  a  central  heavy  utensils,  as  the  long  ladders,  the  great 
air  chamber,  into  which  they  all  discharged,  iron  hooks  and  ropes  used  for  pulling  down  the 
Any  number  of  these  could  be  worked  inde-  walls  of  buildings,  which  aro  carried  upon  sep- 
pei^ently;  and  one  man  only  being  required  arate  carriages.  These  are  called  hook  and 
for  each  pump,  the  working  of  the  engine  ladder  companies.  A  spirit  of  emulation  amouff 
might  be  commenced  without  the  necessity  of  die  different  companies,  and  the  interest  excited 
waiting  the  arrival  of  the  ftill  complement  of  in  the  machines  by  men  of  various  trades  and 
hands.  In  capacity  of  throwing  water  it  is  professions  who  are  engaged  in  attending  them, 
stated  to  have  surpassed  other  English  engines  have  led  to  the  introduction  of  every  possible 
worked  with  a  greater  number  of  men. — Mod-  improvement,  and  they  may  properly  be  re- 
ern  engines  consist  essentially  of  two  vertical  garded  as  the  most  perfect  specimens  of  the 
double-acting  force  pumps,  one  under  each  end  class  of  mechanism  to  which  they  belong.  The 
of  a  lever  beam  (or  sometimes  4  single-acting  following  is  a  description  of  a  first  class  side 
pumps),  to  which  are  attached  long  brakes  for  stroke  machine,  costing  $8,000,  sent  from  New 
many  men  to  take  hold  of  and  work  by  hand.  York  in  1859  to  NashvUle,  Tenn.  The  cylin- 
The  pumps  discharge  into  one  reservoir,  the  der  is  of  10  inch  diameter,  and  stroke  13 
upper  part  of  which  contains  air,  that  acts  as  inches ;  brakes  over  25  feet  in  length.  All 
a  ^ring  to  cause  the  water  alternately  intro-  the  iron  and  steel  work  is  elaborately  pol- 
dooed  by  each  pump  to  flow  in  a  uniform  cur-  ished,  and  the  discharge  and  receiving  pipes, 
rent  through  the  discharge  pipe.  This  pipe  gates,  suction  caps,  joints,  rests,  screw-heads, 
opens  in  the  reservoir  below  the  surface  of  the  and  lockers  are  silver-plated.  The  box  is  of 
water,  and  leads  without  to  any  required  distance  rosewood,  inlaid  with  oblong  squares  of  pearl; 
according  to  the  number  of  lengths  of  leath-  at  either  side  is  an  ornamental  scroll-work  of 
em  hoee  that  may  be  attached  together  by  the  gold,  from  which  appear  an  eagle,  lion,  serpent, 
brass  couplings  with  which  they  are  famished,  and  snake^s  head  branching  out.  Upon  the  air 
Tlie  water  is  discharged  tliroogh  a  tapering  chamber,  which  is  of  burnished  silver,  is  en- 
metaDio  pipe  upon  the  end  of  which  is  screwed  graved  the  word  "Deluge,^'  and  upon  the  re- 
a  tip  of  any  required  bore,  which  is  held  in  the  ceiving  pipe,  also  of  silver,  plated,  appears  the 
hand  to  direct  the  stream  upon  the  fire.  A  motto  of  the  company :  "  Our  aim  the  public 
■QOtkm  pipe  from  the  lower  end  of  the  force  good.^*  The  tips  of  the  brakes  aro  also  of 
pmnp  is  fdways  ready  to  be  used  when  neces-  plated  work.  Underneath  the  hind  axle  a  gong 
mrj ;  but  where  a  stream  of  water  with  suffi-  bell  is  set,  and  in  front  of  the  wheels  are  patent 
eient  bead,  as  from  the  aqueduct  hydrants,  can  brakes  to  check  the  machine  in  descending  hiUs. 
be  introduced,  the  suction  pi])e  is  not  required.  The  wheels  aro  pdnted  in  white  and  gold.  It 
The  machine  is  attached  to  a  carriage  con-  is  considered  good  performance  for  a  mrst  daat 


518  FQtE  ENGINE 

eDfrioe  to  tlirow  a  stream  through  100  feet  of  pistons  being  on  opposite  ends  d  the  same  piston 

ho80  to  the  vertical  hei);ht  of  130  feet.     One  rod,  the  former  being  7  inches  in  diameter  and 

bnilt  in  1857  at  Pawtiuket,  K.  I.,  is  stated  to  the  latter  C|  inches,  and  tlie  stroke  of  esch  16 

have  thrown  astrcain  184  feet  vertically  through  inches.     A  larger  engine  of  the  samu  gvocnl 

400  feet  of  hose,  drawing  also  its  supplies  of  construction  was  built  by  Dnithvaite  in  lSo2  {'.*7 

water. — Steam  fire  engines  have  recently  been  the  kin^  of  Prussia ;  but  though  iU  performanres 

successfully  introduced  in  several  American  were  highly  spoken  of,  this  attempt  to  ap{»Iy 

cities,  and  must  eventually  take  tlie  place  of  all  the  power  of  steam  for  fire-engine  purposes  can- 

the  hand  machines.    They  will  bo  notice<l  after  not  oe  said  to  have  been  succeasfuL    The  time 

presenting  tlto  statistics  and  distinguishing  fea-  re()uircd  for  raising  steam,  and  the  great  weight 

tures  of  the  fire  departments  of  a  few  of  tho  of  the  apparatus  when  adequate  boiler  power, 

principal  cities;  these  data,  however,  aro  con-  was  obtained,  were  undoublcdiy  the  prinn^-sl 

tinually  changing.      New  York  numbers  47  difficulties.    In  New  York,  alter  the  great  trr 

engine  companies,  58  hoso  companies,  14  liook  of  1835,  prcminms  were  ofTered  for  plans  of 

and  ladder  and  4  hydrant  companies.    It  has  steam  firo  engines,  and  in  tiie  year  1941  an  «:£- 

also  8  steam  firo  engines  in  use.     The  length  gine  was  built,  from  plans  by  li^.  Ilodpes,  nnda 

of  hoso  in  tho  service  is  about  70,000  feet,  a  contract  with  tho  asaociatcd  inaurance  cctn- 

£ach  first  class  engino  company  is  allowed  panics,  and  was  on  several  occasions  brocgtt 

to  men;  the  others,  and  tho  hook  and  ladder  into  service  at  fires  with  good  cflfect;  botthoq^ 

companies  also,  40  men  each ;  the  hose  25  men,  very  powerful,  its  ^at  weight  proved  to  be  ft 

and  the  hydrant  companies  10  men.    Each  com-  fatal  objection  to  its  use,  and  it  was  at  last 

pany  is  restricted  to  its  own  district  (of  which  sold  and  converted  to  other  uses.    To  the  ettr 

there  aro  8;,  except  in  cose  of  a  largo  fire,  of  Cincinnati  belongs  the  credit  of  giving  the 

Brooklyn  hon  22  engino  companies  of  t)0  men  first  practical  denioostration  of  the  feasibiUcy  U 

eacli,  3  hose  companies  of  40  men,  and  2  hook  this  application  of  steam,  and  of  making  steac 

and  ladder  companies  of  30  men.    Two  steam  firo  engines  the  basis  of  a  fire  department  of 

firo  engines  have  lately  been  intro<luced.    In  tmequslled  efficiency,  steam  having  » hoUv  so- 

Boston  there  are  13  engine  companies,  entitled  peneded  hand  engines,  except  in  a  fcw  cl  the 

to  40  men  each,  6  hoso  companies  of  20  men  outermost  districts  of  tho  city.     The  first  of 

each,  3  hook  and  ladder  companies  of  25  men  these  engines,  built  by  Mr.  A.  B.  Latta.  w:^ 

each,  and  1  steam  firo  engino  manned  by  IG  brought  out  early  in  1S53.     Tlib  waa  a  vary 

men.    Philadelphia  has  43  engine  companies,  large,  powerf\]l  engine,  weighing  npwanl  of  12 

37  hoso  Companies,  5  hook  and  ladder  compa-  tons,  and  requiring  4  strong  liurses  to  hanl  h. 

nies,  and  1  ^toam  firo  engine.     The  companies  even  with  tho  aid  of  the  steam  wliich  w.-i»  af- 

are  not  ro>tri(."te»l  in  the  number  of  nu-n,  M^mo  plied  to  the  wheels  to  assist  in  its  pnif  r.l-^ri.r. 

having  300  to  400  members.     The  total  nnni-  Two  others  of  the  same  cla»»s  were  built  la  l**"-*. 

her  of  men  engaged  in  tlie  servire  is  0,."i7(N  viz. :  but  since  that  time  tho  application  of  the  *!v-:.. 

2,100  active  nuinbers,  2,2»'i5  honorary  nnin-  to  the  wheels  for  the  purin^se  even  of   pirr;-i 

Urs,  and  2.*J1 1  contributing  members.     In  Hal-  propulsion,  has  been  abauuuneil,  suul  t!iO  «» ;.'.: 

tnn(»re  the  lire  dej)artment  lias  reiently  been  of  the  first  chuss  engines  brought  dow:;  te  ^  i^" 

reorganized,  and  the  paid  Kv^ti-in  aihiptcd  in  10  tons.     The  controlling  fealun:' of  the  i  .:»' .l- 

place  of  the  former  chartered  '*  l>:Utiniore  I'nit-  nati  engino  is  theboih-r,  whii.h  is  «»f  wry  ••-  .• 

e<l  Fire  I>ei»artnient.''     There  were  in  this  4  liar Ci'n>tructiun  and  proiK-rtie^.   IthasaHjiir 

engine  companies,  ♦»  hose  and  2  lnK»k  and  ladder  lire  bux  like  n  locomotive  l«oiler,  cxt*vi  I  tL^: :;. 

companies,  the  nunibv-r  of  men  in  ea<-h  unlim-  furnace  is  open  ul  the  top  wIktv  the  rhir.i^r  .• 

ited.     The  tiro  department  of  Cincinnati  is  a  set  «»n.     Theup{ier  |>ortion  of  the  fumx^e  >  cr 

very  efhcient  organization.      There  wero  re-  copied  by  u   continuous  coil   of  wu:<.r  t:iS' 

ccntly  7  ^team  lire  engine-s  7  hand  engines,  and  opening  aln^ve   inU>  the  bteani   ch.tmU-r.  t!  c 

1  hook  Kn«l  ladder  coninany,  all  manneil  by  4<.>0  lower  end  Wing  carried  thr\>ugh  the  fin  b  i 

members  who  ure  paid  $»">•>  a  year  each.     The  and  connected  with  a  fonx^  purnp  iiut-i.5-. '.' 

fire  department  of  St.  Louis  wliich  lately  nuni-  means  of  which  tho  water  is  drivi-n  tl»rt.»itf:.  •-• 

hired  Hfurcing  engines,  y^uct  ion  engines  and  14  whi»le  length  of  tho  coil,  niainLuhing  a  U-r  A 

ho>erurria;res,  ha>intnMliuvdalargennmlK'r  of  cin-ulation.     When  the  fire  Is  s4xtf't«.-«l  tV  tr 

steam  c-n;rin«s  empluying  ninre  than  any  other  b*»x  is  full  of  water,  but  the  tu!^^^  an?  tr.^T; 

city,  unle>s  it  be  Cincinnati. — Tho  great  modern  and  kept  so  till  they  get  but  enou^rli,  «h^:.  u  . 

im{)rovement  in  firo  engines  is  the  application  of  forcing  pump  is  wi>rki'd  by  han.l.  ani!  t**:. :  .:. 

steam  jMiwer  to  work  them.     Tliw  \v:ls  first  at-  jectcil,  which  U  almo.-.l  iniumlly  oori\ir:vi  ::.:. 

tempte<l  by  Mr.  Rrathwaite,  in  Li>nih>n,  in  ]S)0.  bteani.     TIjo   priH'er^s   U  coitiiuued    till    •:  -* . 

His  tirst  engino  was  of  barely  (i  hor*e  jK)wcr,  enoi:;:h  is  giner.ited  to  work    ihv    t  ir«  :.Lk!.  • 

Weighing:  u  little  over  5.0oo  11,.*.,  wiLS  farni>hed  puinji,  which  from  that  time  i*  kij  t  ro:-.<Ar.-. 

with  i»u  uprijht  builvr,  in  whicli  strain  was  gen-  m  motion  to  svipply  the  f.iU*».    l\\  :I.i*  Luii.  •- 

erate«l  t«>  a  m«Mhrato  working  j-rr-^ure  in  2o  nitv^ting  not  n.ure'the  inp  nuity  than  tl ».  r.  - 

minutes  and  was  ca{iabIo  of  f<»ri  in::  ah(»ut  l.-ii)  of  its  inventor*,  the  Cinc:iinali  b'-vldt-r^  ?-  *.• 

pdlons  of  wati-r  per  minnti*  from  >i»  t^i  t»U  iVet  in  the  probUiu  of  ruiMng  stearij  t.»  a  «ork:r.»-  \  -  - 

height.    It  hada>te-im  pMiMpiif  t!ie  >>amefoniias  burewiihiii  the  j-horie^t  t;:iic  r»\t*v*r\  '...r', 

those  now  in  commv^u  u:»e,  tho  dteam  and  water  an  cugiuc  to  a  fini  and  it6  allaichui«.i.Ll  sluc. 


FIRE  ENGINE  619 

the  time  ordinarily  taken  for  this  purpose  being  in  the  general  principles  of  oonstmction  and 
finnn  6  to  10  minutes.  These  engines,  though  arrangement.  Of  the  same  character  are  aer- 
Terj  heavy  and  somewhat  complicated,  are  eral  other  engines  by  different  builders  in  Phil- 
complete  in  all  their  arrangements,  of  great  adelphia,  Baltimore,  and  other  nlaces,  none, 
strength  of  constraction  and  power  of  action,  however,  showing  any  material  aavance  on  the 
and  in  their  practical  operation  have  been  tri-  resolts  obtained  with  the  Lawrence  and  Phila- 
umphantly  successful.  One  of  them  is  said  to  delphia.  Of  an  entirely  different  character  are 
have  thrown  a  1^  inch  stream  800  feet  horizon-  the  engines  built  at  Seneca  Falls,  N.  Y.,  by 
taQy,  and  a  distance  of  250  to  260  feet  for  a  Silsbee,  Mynderse,  and  co.,  4  of  which  are  in 
streun  of  that  size  is  a  very  common  achieve-  successful  use  in  Chicago  and  one  in  Boston, 
ment.  The  lightest  engine  of  this  construction  is  In  this  the  boiler  is  horizontal  and  rectangular, 
cme  intended  to  be  drawn  by  two  horses,  which  or  box-shaped,  and  forms  the  bed  for  the  ma- 
weigfas  about  10,000  lbs.,  and  when  exhibited  in  chinery,  which  is  placed  on  top  of  it,  and  con- 
New  York  in  Nov.  1858,  reached  a  distance  of  sists  of  a  rotary  engine  and  a  rotary  pump,  both 
237  feet  in  playing  through  a  li  inch  nozzle,  on  the  same  shaft.  Both  pump  and  engine  are 
takinff  its  supply  fix>m  a  hydrant,  and  discharge  of  the  form  known  as  the  elliptical  rotary,  con- 
ing about  875  gdlons  per  minute.  In  Cincin-  sisting  in  effect  of  a  pair  of  cog  wheels,  with 
nati,  the  same  engine  is  reported  to  have  played  longer  and  shorter  teeth  alternating,  working 
210  feet  through  1,000  feet  of  hose,  taking  its  into  one  another  inside  of  an  elliptical  case, 
water  from  a  cistern.  St.  Louis,  Louisville,  and  This  engine  illustrates  well  the  peculiar  adaptar 
some  c^er  cities  have  supplied  themselves  with  tion  of  the  rotary  movement  in  the  pump  to 
engines  built  in  Cincinnati ;  in  the  two  first  steam  fire  engine  purposes,  being  capable  of  a 
named  they  have  nearly  superseded  hand  engines,  very  high  speed,  and  consequently  of  dealing 
In  die  meantime  other  builders  have  essayed  with  mudi  larger  volumes  of  water  than  recipro- 
theirskill  in  the  samedirection,  with  varioussuc-  eating  pumps  of  the  same  capacity  of  chamber. 
oeaa,  and  a  considerable  number  of  engines  have  As  no  valves  are  used,  either  in  the  engine  or 
beenputin  operation  in  New  York,  Philadelphia,  pump,  all  valve  gear  is  dispensed  with,  and  a 
Beaton,  Chicago,  Baltimore,  and  other  cities.  In  remarkably  simple  and  compact  arrangement  of 
BoatooL  in  Aug.  1858,  tiiere  was  a  trial  between  machinery  secured ;  with  the  serious  drawback, 
aieam  nre  engines  for  a  premium  offered  by  the  however,  of  a  large  unbalanced  pressure  on  the 
city  authorities.  Four  engines  were  entered  journals,  and  of  the  sacrifice  of  all  the  benefit 
for  competition :  the  Philadelphia,  built  by  of  cut-off  and  expansion.  An  engine  of  this 
R^ney,  Neafie,  and  co.,  of  Philadelphia;  the  construction,  of  about  the  same  weight  as  the 
Lawrence,  by  the  Lawrence  machine  shop,  of  Lawrence  and  the  Philadelphia,  throws  a  H 
Lawrence,  Mass.;  theElisha  Smith,  by  Bird  and  inch  stream  nearly  200  feet,  and  raises  steam 
CO.,  East  Boston ;  and  the  New  Era,  by  Hinckley  to  a  working  pressure,  by  the  aid  of  a  fan-blow- 
and  Drury,  of  Boston.  The  weight  of  these  er,  in  from  6  to  8  minutes. — ^The  boldest,  and 
enginea,  exclusive  of  water,  taken  in  the  order  not  the  least  successful  movement  in  perfecting 
Just  named,  was  7,455,  7,800,  9,380,  and  9,415  the  application  of  steam  to  fire  engine  purposes, 
Iba ;  the  weight  including  water,  8,055,  7,870,  has  been  made  by  Messrs.  Lee  and  Lamed  of  the 
9,866,  and  9,915  lbs. ;  the  time  of  raising  steam  city  of  New  York,  who  seem  to  have  reached 
from  cold  water  to  60  lbs.  pressure,  11  minutes  the  furthest  point  at  present  attainable  in  the 
8  aeconda,  10  m.  29^  s.,  18  m.  51  s.,  and  18  m.  concentration  of  power  within  given  limits  of 
21  a ;  the  quantity  of  water  per  minute  thrown  weight.  An  engine  built  by  them  for  the  Man- 
bj  each,  in  the  same  order  as  above,  in  a  test  hattan  engine  company  of  the  city  of  New  York, 
experiment,  806,  8021,  809,  and  845  galls. ;  the  and  put  on  active  duty  with  great  success  in  June, 
hmixoaUd  distance  thrown,  in  playing  through  1859,  though  intended  as  a  hand  engine,  to  be 
a  li  inch  pipe,  168, 154^,  140,  and  185  feet;  run  by  the  company  without  aid  from  horses, 
the  vertical  throw,  110,  110,  125,  and  90  feet  and  weighing  but  little  over  5,000  lbs.,  has  sno- 
Dnring  these  experiments,  the  greatest  pressure  ceeded  in  throwing  a  1^  inch  stream  185  feet  in 
of  steiun  permitted,  under  the  regulations  adopt-  perpendicular  height,  equivalent  to  a  horizontal 
ed,  was  120  lbs. ;  an  arbitrary  restriction  which  throw  of  247  feet,  and  discharging  at  that  rate 
operated  unfavorably  to  the  Lawrence,  the  nearly  500  gallons  per  minute ;  a  performance, 
boiler  of  which  was  so  constructed  as  to  be  it  will  be  seen,  quite  equal  to  that  of  the  largest 
■afe,  and  to  be  capable  of  supplying  an  abund-  of  the  two  horse  engines  already  described, 
anoe  of  steam,  when  working  under  a  much  The  extraordinary  power  developed  by  this  en- 
hMernressure.  Under  the  conditions  prescrib-  gine  relatively  to  its  weight  depends  partly  on 
ed  the  Philadelphia  was  properly  declared  the  its  perfection  as  a  carriage,  the  suspension  being 
Tiolor,  her  actual  performance  being  slightly  in  bo  perfect  that  the  strain  on  the  bed  and  ma- 
adTanoe  of  that  of  the  Lawrence,  but  the  latter  chinery,  and  consequently  the  weight  of  fhim- 
was  really  the  successful  engine,  and  was  subse-  ing,  are  reduced  to  a  minimum ;  partly  on  the 
ooeiitly  purchased  by  the  city  and  placed  on  pump,  which  is  Cary^s  patent  rotary,  by  Gary 
ontT.  Each  of  these  engines  was  provided  and  Brainard  of  Brockport,  N.  Y.  (see  Pump, 
with  an  upright  tubular  boiler  and  with  recipro-  BotabtX  one  of  the  few  examples  of  a  rotary 
eating  at^m  pumps  of  the  usual  form,  the  pecu-  arrangement  which  has  stood  successfully  the 
fiaritMS  of  each  being  in  the  details  rather  than  test  of  years ;  but  most  of  all  on  the  remarka- 


SaO  HKB  XNOIRX  IDEHLT 

ble  prapertiM  of  Uie  boiler.  wUoli  ii  lee  and  wotldiigit|aBberaliDp|4]rofibil,aBldlMel* 

Lirned^  putent  emmUurbdler,  specnliArfonn  ftil  hose,  one  of  tbew  eof^Diele  afii«de|«rt- 

of  the  upn^t  tabular,  combiDing  in  the  highest  meat  oompleCe  in  ilaelit  and  In  gmo  of  a  eon- 

dwree  hitherto  attained  the  lightnesBjitreni^  flagration  among  the  m^^  dee^  and  ikhlj 

wmtj  from  exploeion,  and  great  eTmratiTO  stwed  warebooMa  which  aboand  m  the  d^  cf 

power  indi^Nouable  in  steam  fire  engine  boil-  Kew  Tork,  most  be  of  incaknlabla  acrikc 


era.     It  is  composed  almost  whoUy  of  tnbeSi    They  are  intended  to  be  kepi  wiUi  afessm  mf, 
boiler  plate  being  nsed  onlj  in  the  steam    reaa[|f  tostartatamoment^awandnf ;  eanrm 


dome,  which  is  bat  18  inches  in  depth,  and  in  at  anv  speed  which  the  state  of  the  alvsols  wiB 

the  tnbe  sheets.  The  fhmaoe  is  enclosed  br  water  permit;  and  on  arriTingat  the  fire,  by  &eoa- 

tnbes,  standinir  side  hj  side  Uke  palisades,  and  neoting  two  rods,  which  ia  the  wofk  m  of  si 

opening  into  the  steam  drom  aboTe  and  a  ring-  instant^  the  loeoiDotiTe  part  la  thunra  o«t  <f 

nipped  water  bottom  below,  on  which  the  grate  gear,  and  the  power  of  the  anipbMslsft  to  act 

bars  rest    This  arrangement  gires  a  very  high  <m  tiie  pomp  alone.    The  descrintion  of  ttii 

and  roomr  flame  chamber,  most  frivorwe  to  engine,  oonndered  as  a  fc>ooiDOOT%  wID  W 

perfect  and  eflfoctive  combnsUon,  in  the  middle  given  more  appropriatetj  dsewharai     (Set 

of  which  is  sospended  a  shallow  water  chamber  Btbam  Casbiaab.) — ^Tbe  amnber  of  alasBi  In 

perforated  by  nnmeroos  thimbles  or  short  air  engines  in  actnal  nse  ia  sow  (Jn|7i  1861)  abs« 

Inbes,  and  connected  with  the  steam  drom  by  (KCa^  ia  constantly  increasing, 
a  lane  nmnber  of  water  tnbes,  each  one  of       IIBE-FLT,  the  popolar  name  of  msay  ssni- 

which  is  penetrated  by  a  smaller  air  tube  mn-  corn  beetles,  bekmnng  to  the  tiibea  of  elaloidb 

idngfinom  the  lower  sheet  of  the  water  chamber  andtoiwwyriitsi^anatotheoldgcDaraslafirsai 

to  9)0  npper  sheet  of  the  steam  drom.    The  lompyns  of  linnsns ;  the  Imninoaa  spscisscC 

water  of  coarse  occnpies  only  the  annular  qiaoe  the  former  belong  to  the  new  world,  tbooeofdbt 

between  these  conoentrio  tabes,  and  this  thin  latter  toboth  hemispheres;  these inaiits  siishs 

atratnm  of  water  is  attacked  by  a  fierce  flame  called  fire  beetles.    The  elatera  have  a  firmed 

both  around  and  within  it,  the  whole  arrange-  solid  body,  of  an  oral  form ;  the  middle poitiaa 

ment  giving  the  greatest  amoantof  fire  sorftoe,  of  the  stemom  between  the  first  Mdr  of  kgiii 

of  the  most  eflbctire  kind,  and  acting  upon  the  polonged  into  a  short  spine  vanalhr  eoaeesM 

smallest  bodv  of  water  that  can  posnUy  be  in  a  cavity  behind  it;  the  antfnnss  in  the ssriti 

combined  within  given  limits  of  space  and  are  simply  serrated.    Th^are  eaOed  sprisg 

weight    "With  this  boiler,  steam  is  generated  beetles  from  the  faculty  possessed  hj  thmd 

to  working  pressure  in  from  6  to  8  minutes,  throwing  themselves  upward  with  a  sprinc  ly 

and  can  be  maintained  at  the  highest  speed  of  means  of  the  spine ;  as  tney  live  on  plaaia,  vhra 

the  engine  at  a  pressure  of  from  150  to  200  lbs.  they  drop  to  the  ground  thejr  often  fall  op  c 

per  inch,  a  pressure  far  within  its  limits  of  the  back,  whose  great  convexity  and  the  *hi«rt- 

strength.   The  results  obtained  with  this  engine  noss  of  the  legs  prevent  them  from  tonu::^ 

indicate  that  safScient  power  for  all  ordinary  over ;   the  spiue  having  been  utslivathed  t j 

purposes  can  be  securca  on  the  plan  pursued  bending  the  head  and  thorax  backwanL  it  -a 

Dy  Leo  and  Lamed,  with  engines  but  little  if  any  made  to  strike  with  such  force  afraimt  th« 

exceeding  in  weight  the  ordinary  hand  engine  sheath  by  the  su<lden  straightening  of  the  bmfr. 

worked  by  man  power.    The  same  boiler  and  that  it  projects  the  insect  into  the  air,  and  givt** 

Sump  have  however  been  applied  by  the  same  it  the  cnance  of  coming  down  on  the  fe«t ;  'i 

uilders  in  a  form  of  engine  wliich  promises  unsuccessful,  oilier  attempts  are  made  nntil  the 

still  more  important  resultA,  designed  especiallv  object  is  attaine<l.    Fire-fiies  of  thb  tribe  srr 

for  use  when  extraordinary  power  is  reouired.  numerous  in  tropical  America  and  the  Wc< 

In  Dec  1858,  they  finished  for  tlio  city  of  New  Indies.    One  of  the  largest  and  most  briSisxl 

York  two  large  first  class  engines,  weighing  is  the  night-shining  elater,  or  lightning  wfrxt 

each  about  5|  tons^  in  which  for  the  first  time  beetle,  the  cucvjo  of  the  West  Indies  {^mpl*- 

the  power  of  the  steam  was  successfully  applied  rus  noctilunUj  linn.);  this  b  more  thsn  m 

to  the  wheels  to  propel  the  engines  themselves,  inch  long,  of  a  dark  color,  and  gives  a  strucu: 

without  any  aid  from  horses.    The  auantitv  of  light  from  3  oval  tubercles  on  the  dorsal  fcr- 

water  tlirown  by  these  engines,  and  the  force  face  of  the  thorax,  and  from  tlie  under  snrfare 

with  which  it  b  projected,  are  beyond  all  prece-  of  the  segments  of  the  body.    Specimem  srr 

dent  in  the  history  of  hydraulic  apparatus  of  frequently  brought  alive  to  the  Cnit««l  SiiSc-^ 

a  portable  form.    A  1(  inch  stream  thrown  where  they  may  be  kept  for  some  time  if  M  na 

SIO  feet   in   perpendicular   height^  a  2  inch  sugar  cane ;  the  grub  is  said  to  be  very  icjan- 

stream  180  feet,  and  a  2|  inch  stream  from  an  ous  to  the  sugar  cane  by  devouring  the  tw<*  : 

open  butt  the  astonishing  distance  of  210  feet  one  of  theso  was  once  transported  to  Parb.  ifr! 

horizontally,  the  discharge  of  water  in  the  latter  escaping  into  the  streets,  after  ansumin^  it*  r«r- 

case  being  not  less  than  1,200  gallons  per  min*  feet  state,  very  much  astonbhed  the  inhabit- 

nte,  and  thb  not  in  a  momentary  spirt,  but  in  ants  of  that  city.    Thb  in  wet  b  cummivi  ja 

steady  and  sustained  work,  with  steam  to  spare,  summer,  both  in  the  lowlands  and  at  modcnt* 

are  among  the  well  attested  feats  of  tliese  power-  elevations ;  acconling  to  Mr.  Goeiie,  the  thorvic 

ftd  machines.    Requiring  not  only  no  aid  from  liglit  is  visible  even  in  bnuul  Uavlight ;  wUa 

horses,  but  carrying  with  it  the  men  needed  for  andisturbcd|  these  q>ota  are  dub  white,  tut 


FIBE-FLY  621 

ihej  gradnallj  become  bright  when  touched,  abdomen.    The  glow-worms  of  Europe,  Z.  910c- 

the  brilliancy  beginning  at  the  centre  and  ex-  tiluca,  L,  Italiea,  L.  Bplendidula^  and  L.  hemip- 

tending  nntil  the  whole  tabercle  shines  with  a  tera^  will  be  described  nnder  Glow-wobh.    In 

rich  yellowish  green.    The  light  is  so  intense  the  United  States  there  are  many  species,  of 

that  it  will  cast  a  shadow  of  any  object  on  the  which  the  Z.  BcintillanB  (Say)  and  L,  corusca 

opposite  wall  in  a  dark  room ;  the  nnder  side  (Linn.)  are  familiar  examples.    The  latter  is  4( 

of  the  thorax  seems  as  if  it  were  red-hot,  par-  lines  long ;  the  body  is  oblong  pubescent,  brown- 

ticnlarly  beneath  the  tubercles ;  when  left  to  ish  black ;  a  rose-colored  arched  streak,  dilated 

itself  the  insect  becomes  quiet,  and  the  light  and  yellower  anteriorly,  joins  the  elevated  tho- 

fades  to  a  mere  speck.    The  insect  when  held  racic  disk ;  the  elytra  are  obsoletely  carinated, 

in  the  hand  shows  only  a  green  light,  but  when  with  numerous  minute  dots ;  it  is  found  as  far 

flying  free  it  diffuses  a  rich  ruddy  glow  from  north  as  54^.    Both  sexes  are  luminous,  but  the 

the  ventral  surface;  it  may  show  the  green  light  is  strongest  in  the  female;  the  light  streams 

light  at  any  time,  but  the  red  light  only  when  from  the  ventral  surface  of  the  abdomen ;  even 

flying ;    the  former  is  seldom  shown  during  the  larvsd  of  many  species,  and  also  the  eggs, 

flight,  but  in  rare  instances  both  tints  are  seen,  are  luminous     Like  the  elaters,  they  conceal 

producing  an  exceedingly  beautiful  effect    The  themselves  by  day,  and  fly  about  in  warm  damp 

thoracic  light  is  subject  to  the  will  of  the  insect,  evenings;  the  males  fly  from  plant  to  plan^ 

bat  the  abdominal  is  by  some  considered  invol-  while  the  female  remains  still,  betraying  her- 

ontary ;  the  former  is  intermittent,  but  the  lat-  self  to  the  other  sex  by  her  brighter  light,  of  a 

ter  seems  to  be  a  constant  red  glare,  which  will  bluish  or  greenish  white  tint.    The  luminous 

illnminate  the  ground  for  the  space  of  a  yard  2ampyrt^of  tropical  America  are  very  ntmtier- 

sqnare.    There  are  more  than  a  dozen  other  ous  and  brilliant,  in  the  words  of  Humboldt, 

Inminons  elaters,  mentioned  by  Illiger,  found  in  repeating  on  the  earth  the  spectacle  of  the  starry 

Sooth  America,  where  they  fly  during  dusk  and  heavens ;  according  to  Gosse,  their  sparks,  of 

at  night,  generally  remaining  quiet  during  the  various  degrees  of  intensity,  in  proportion  to 

day.  These  insects  are  used  by  the  natives,  con-  the  size  of  the  species,  are  to  be  seen  gleaming 

flned  nnder  gauze,  as  ornaments  for  their  head  by  scores  about  the  margins  of  woods  and  in 

dresses  and  garments ;  they  have  been  usefully  open  places  in  the  island  of  Jamaica.     This 

employed  by  the  Indians  for  the  purposes  of  writer  describes  many  species,  ofwhich  the  most 

fllvnination  in  their  dwellings  and  in  their  remarkable  are  pygolampU  xanthophotu  and 

journeys ;  several,  confined  in  a  glass  vessel,  photurU  versicolor,    P.  xanthophotis  is  f  of  an 

give  light  enough  to  read  small  print  by.  Many  mch  long  and  ^  of  an  inch  wide ;  the  elytra  are 

b  the  traveller  whose  path  has  been  shown  to  smoke-black ;  the  thorax  drab,  dark  brown  in 

him  by  these  insects  in  the  forests  and  moun  the  centre ;  the  abdomen  pale,  with  the  last  8 

tains  of  the  West  Indies,  on  nights  when  even  or  4  segments  cream-white ;  the  light  is  yery 

the  lightniuff  was  insufficient  to  disclose  the  intense,  of  a  rich  orange  color  when  seen  abroad, 

Borronnding  dangers ;  in  the  words  of  Southey  •  but  yellow  when  examined  by  the  light  of  a 

Inntiincrous  tribes  Candle,  and  intermittent,  lighting  up  a  few  seg- 

From  the  ^pod-cover  swarmed  and  darkness  made  ^lents  or  the  whole  hinder  part  of  the  abdo- 

Their  beauties  Tlsiblo ;  awhile  they  streamed  -,           .     »      •       i           *       •           •*!.  j     u 

A  bright  blue  radiance  upon  flowers  that  closed  men.      F,  tCTBlCOlor  IS  a  large  SpCClCS,  With  drab- 

Their  gorgeous  colors  from  the  eye  of  day ;  colorcd  elytra,  less  brilliant  in  its  liglit  and  less 

2Sf:^hrdS'r»5ltti:^CrS5;  rapid  in  its  aight  than  the  former  species ;  the 

fioae  like  A  shower  of  fire.  light  is  of  a  bright  green  hue;  it  frequently 

This  is  one  of  many  instances  in  which  an  ac-  rests  on  a  twig,  gradually  increasing  the  inten- 

aoaintance  with  natural  history  has  dissipated  sity  of  its  light  to  the  brightest,  and  then  by 
[ie  fears  of  the  superstitious ;  the  deceitful  light  degrees  extinguishing  it,  remaining  dark  a  min- 
of  supposed  malignant  spirits  has  become  the  nte  or  two,  shining  and  fading  again  like  a  re- 
beantmd  radiation  of  an  insect  sporting  amid  its  volving  light.  Sometimes  one  species  is  at- 
inoffensive  companions.  These  insects  may  be  traoted  by  the  other,  when  the  intermingling 
kept  for  weeks,  if  fed  on  sugar  cane,  and  placed  of  the  green  and  orange  rays  presents  a  very 
in  damp  moss;  their  light  is  more  powerful  beautiful  appearance.  Other  smaller  species, 
tlian  that  of  the  glow-worm.  The  larva)  of  which  fly  in  at  the  windows  in  summer  in  con- 
many  elaters  are  also  more  or  less  luminous ;  in  siderable  numbers,  have  either  a  yellow  or  a 
the  adnlts  both  sexes  are  luminous. — The  genus  green  light  Mr.  Gosse  speaks  of  these  insects 
Umpyru  (Fab.)  includes  the  fire-flies  of  the  in  a  lonely  dark  dell,  where  "the  strange 
United  States  and  the  glow-worm  of  Europe ;  sounds,  snorings,  screeches,  and  ringings  of  noo- 
Ihey  are  characterized  by  soft  and  flexible  turnal  reptiles  and  insects,  sounds  unheard  by 
bodies,  straight  and  depressed ;  there  is  no  day,  were  coming  up  from  every  part  of  the 
monty  and  the  head  in  the  males  is  occupied  deep  forest  around,  giving  an  almost  unearthly 
timost  entirely  by  the  eyes,  and  is  much  con-  character  to  the  scene." — ^Two  species  of  he- 
eealed  by  the  thorax ;  tlie  antenna)  are  short,  mipterous  insects,  of  the  genus  fulgora,  are  said 
with  cylindrical  and  compressed  articulations ;  by  some  authors  to  be  luminous,  though  the 
tlie  abdomen  is  serrated  on  the  sides ;  the  elytra  greatest  weight  of  negative  evidence  is  against 
ire  coriaceous,  and  tlie  legs  simple ;  the  females  this  statement ;  the  muzzle  in  this  genus  is  lon^ 
tunre  only  rudiments  of  elytra  at  the  base  of  the  straight  or  curved  upward,  and  the  light  is  said 


622  FIRE-FLY  FIBE-FBOOFIirG 

to  emanate  from  its  eztremitj,  whence  their  combustion  and  a  combination  of  earoon  with 
common  name  of  lantern  flies.  The  South  ozyj^n;  this  may  be  owing  to  tlie  rodenM* 
American  species  (/!/<i^«r7iAri<i,  Linn.)  is  a  large  or  imperfection  of  our  instruments  or  to  tie 
and  handsome  insect,  with  wings  varied  with  slowness  or  peculiarity  of  the  combustion, 
black  and  yellow;  Madame  Merion  asserts  pos-  Tlie  phenomena  of  animal  heat,  elet-thcity,  and 
itirely  that  the  light  from  the  head  is  so  bril-  light  show  that  organisms  are  to  a  certain  cz- 
liant  tliat  it  is  easy  to  read  by  it ;  Count  HotT-  tent  chemical  laboratories,  in  which  the  Greater 
mansegg,  M.  Richard,  and  the  prince  of  Neu-  performs  his  wonderful  and  ever  successful  ez- 
mied  have  denied  the  truth  of  this  statement ;  periments  of  life,  and  that  tlie  great  forces  of 
but,  from  t!io  positive  assertion  of  the  above  nature  are  the  same  in  the  cztemnl  worid  and 
lady,  the  general  application  of  the  name  fire-  in  the  recesses  of  the  animal  system — the  laiad 
fly  to  this  species,  and  the  possibility  that  the  throughout  the  universo. 
emanation  of  light  may  bo  perceptible  only  at  FIKE-PROOFING,  a  term  applied  to  pro* 
certain  seasons  of  the  year,  it  may  well  be  that  cesses  by  which  fabrics  or  buildings  are  ren« 
the  insect  possesses  luminous  powers.  It  flics  dered  proof  agidnst  taking  fire.  Various  sola- 
high,  and  hovers  about  the  summits  of  trees,  tions  of  mineral  salts  applied  to  cloths  Mrve  to 
Another  species  (/*.  candelaria^  Fab.),  from  cover  the  fibres  with  an  uninflammable  coating; 
China,  of  a  greenish  color  varied  with  orange  protecting  them  from  access  of  ozygen  when 
and  black,  with  its  long  snout  curved  upward,  neated,  and  thus  preventing  their  combustioa. 
is  said  to  flit  among  tlie  branches  of  the  banyan  A  solution  of  alum  is  both  cheap  and  cifvctiial 
and  tamarind  trees,  illuminating  their  dark  re-  for  this  purpose.  A  process  has  been  patented  in 
cesses. — ^Tho  causes  which  prcnluce  this  light  England  of^preparing  starch  by  incorporating  i; 
have  been  the  subject  of  much  discussion  with  phosphate  of  ammonia,  to  which  for  coan« 
among  naturalists ;  some  lay  the  principal  stress  fabrics  a  little  muriate  of  ammonia  is  added,  to 
on  tlie  influence  of  the  nervous  system,  others  tliat  when  applied  to  clothes  they  should  b« 
upon  the  respiration,  others  upon  the  circula-  rendered  to  a  aegrce  incombustible.  According 
tion ;  chemists  have  asserted  tlio  presence  of  to  the  description  given  of  the  proce»A»  ftiine- 
phosphoruii  in  the  fatty  tissue  whence  the  light  times  more  of  the  phosphate  b  u^^-d  than  cf 
seems  to  issue,  but  there  is  no  proof  of  this  from  starch  in  making  the  mizture,  and  this  is  effect- 
analysis.  The  most  recent  writers  agree  that  ed  cither  by  mizing  the  solution  of  rarli,  <>r  l-y 
the  luminous  tissue  is  made  up  of  fat  globules  grinding  them  together  dr}*.  On  apply  tz^>  tbe 
permeated  by  numerous  trachea)  conveying  air,  mizture  when  treated  with  water  in  tho  c«i^ 
with  no  traces  of  nerves  or  blood  vessels,  ac-  way  of  using  starch,  the  fabric  only  partu'Jr 
cordin;?  to  I>r.  Burnett.  It  does  not  appear  dried  should  be  rolled  in  a  dry  cloth  a::i  V'\ 
8atisf:u:torily  determined  whetlier  tliere  may  for  a  tiiiie  beforeinmin;:;  ond  if  tln.ri->i.  -' I  S: 
not  )>e  ill  tliis  tissue  phosphorized  fats  which  liability  of  the  iron*s  sticking,  u  l.ttle  \:C  «  : 
give  forth  lij;lit  ou  contact  with  oxy^t-n,  hydro-  white  wax  may  advantn^euusly  bo  ad^li^'. :-  ::  . 
pen,  or  iiitrojren.  Matteucci  conchules  from  etarch. — S.»vcral  metlu»d«4  havc-liccn  dv'\  i^-i  *  r 
liis  oxperiiiKMiis  that  l!ie  lijrht  is  produced  by  rendering  wood  !ire-proi>f.  In  the  rtiut;>:j.%- 
the  union  of  carlx^n  of  tli»'  fat  with  the  oxygou  wooden  roofs  arc  partially  M.*cured  fn«i:i  l>*  :  ^ 
in  the  tracluip,  by  a  hlow  combustion,  and  covering  them  with  a  Coating  of  pnivi'..  *^'.-.-  ; 
witliout  any  iiicrcaso  of  teini»orature.  The  in-  by  mixture  with  coal  tar  or  a-^pha'.ti.rr.  .  -  . 
tennittenro  of  t!iO  liu'lit  is  iM-Iieveil  to  depend  particular  paints  reconimendiil  .1-  i«]>4  .. .  > 
on  tlie  movvnicnts  (-f  re-i»ir;itioii,  and  to  be  eii-  adapted  to  the  puqH>so  have  Ki-n  m-^'!.  '..*  ■ 
tircly  inilei'cndiiit  of  thi»>e  c»f  l!ie  circulation,  A  thick  coating  of  any  ochret»u-<'roih*T  :.:.:•  .-- 
thoudi  Cams  Kiys  that  the  li^'ht  r»f  the  plow-  paint  must  be  serviceable  acci.rding  :•»  il  1  .. 
Worm  prows  bri^'hter  with  each  fre:*h  wave  of  tity  laid  on.  The  following  i»  a  nioth<«l  t :  \.r 
blood  s^nt  to  the  neiphU)rluMKl  of  the  tissue.  Payne  of  England.  Ho  partially  exh3u»:»  t).<  a. r 
It  is  proli.-ible  also  that  the  nervoiw  systOFn  has  from  a  tight  vessel  containing  the  m'«H^i.  \:. .::  \ 
stmie  iiitl-.ieiice  t»n  the  light,  thou;rh  it  may  not  solution  of  ^ulphuret  of  bariumor  ofcalciur::.  \-  \ 
Ik?  essi'iitial  t«»  its  pro<lucti(>n ;  as  in  the  eK*<*trio  by  a  force  pump  drive*  in  more  up  t«»  a  i  r*  **  -r;- 
fiphes  We  t'lnd  tlie  ]»liysicul  arid  chemical  ele-  of  IHU  His,  or  more  on  the  »o,r.aro  iLrJi  :  i"  r 
ments  nece^sary  for  the  jiroduction  of  elect  ri-  remaininganhour.  ihex^lution  i-idrawa  -  !f  A*. 
city,  to  a  prt-at  «xtviit  inde|H:n(lent  of,  yet  ncid,  or  a  sulutiimof  a  salt  like  !*ulpl.a:c- 1  :* : — 
broUL^ht  into  harinoniniH  action  and  directed  by,  is  next  introduced,  and  a  chemical  c!.a::r«  ; ;%  -* 
the  inr>'ous  hvMem,  *io  in  the  luminous  insirts  jilaco,  ]>nNlucing  a  s.V.t  of  barytc-*  •  r  *f  !  r  . 
We  may  have  tJie  chimical  elemt-nts  iuces*:ary  which  becomes  tixed  in  the  j*«»re*  of  t\e  w  ••!. 
f«»r  >low  cnniliu>tion  and  tiie  pnKluction  of  light  The  Engli»h  war  def-artmont  has  !ar.  '.y  ii..-*  I 
indeiH  [icKnt  of  this  systiin,  yet  inlluenC4-d  and  exi»eriineiits  to  bo  m.ndo  to  \v<  the  l:.!.:;  ^■'  i" 
dircctvd  by  it;  the  li;rht  may  al-u  In-  directly  api'licition  of  one  of  the  choiip  s.'IlV\  alki.  :  * 
iniliu-nivd  by  the  action  of  the  nerves  on  the  hilicatt-s  xl<  the  silicate  of  p^h!.l  Sjx  •.?:•::.•  : 
ri-^piratory  funetion.  The  luniinu'is  sub>tanco  wimkI  were  .«o.iked  .h  few  hii-ir*  in  :^  w,.^i.  *.  ..• 
grow,  briL'li!ir  in  oiypen,  dulb  r  in  <arbtinio  tion  of  the  salt,  which  wa«.  fn:n  1  l.»  j'»:'"^\' 
aciil,  a!fl  -hin*^  i«vcn  in  tlie  d«.ad  ii.-<«'t  and  ub«>nt  i  inch,  and  t.>  rtn-Kr tin*  »'.H»-i  il  :'■■.■.  • 
underwater.  I:  it  ^aill  that  there  i-*  no  luat  burn.  Painting  the  \%«mn1  witl.  t-.t.  ^v.:  *  *' 
accompanying  this  light,  though  it  bo  a  true  equally  efloctuaL    But  the  U.s:  rvsul:s  wcrv «.  •- 


FIBE-FBOOFING  FmMAN                     62S8 

Utned  by  going  oyer  the  coating  of  the  silicate  of  Mr.  Hartlej,  introdaced  in  1776,  of  sheathing 

of  soda  with  another  of  lime  whitewash,  and  the  timbers  wiUi  thin  plates  of  iron,  the  ean 

aftor  this  had  stood  a  few  hours  coating  it  with  of  Stanhope^s  method  of  filling  in  and  coating 

■Dother  stronger  solution  of  the  soda.    The  first  withplaster,  &c. 

solotion,  it  is  directed,  should  be  prepared  by  FIBE  SE[IP,  a  vessel  occasionally  used  in 
xninog  with  one  measure  of  the  thick  sirup  of  naval  warfare  for  carrying  fire  among  tJ^e  en- 
silicate  of  soda  8  measures  of  water;  the  wood  emy's  fleet.  It  is  filled  with  very  in&mmable 
Bboald  be  brushed  over  with  this,  as  much  being  materials  so  arranged  as  to  be  rapidly  ignited^ 
laid  on  as  the  wood  can  be  made  to  absorb,  and  being  navigated  as  near  as  may  be  to  the 
IHiBQ  Dearly  dry,  the  lime  wash  of  creamy  vessels  toward  which  it  is  direct^,  these  ma* 
consirtence  is  applied,  and  after  this  has  b^  terials  are  set  on  fire,  and  the  ship  is  deserted 
oome  moderately  dry,  the  solution  prepared  by  the  crew.  Vessels  of  this  character  were 
with  2  parts  of  sirup  to  8  of  water  is  laid  effectively  used  by  the  Rhodians  in  their  war 
OB  with  the  brush.  The  covering  thus  pre-  with  the  Syrians,  190  B.  C,  as  stated  by  livy 
pared  adhered  very  well,  even  when  expos-  (lib.  zxxvii.  cap.  30).  The  English  also  em- 
ed  to  a  stream  of  water  and  to  rains;  the  ployed  them  in  their  engagements  wiUi  the 
Ibnner  when  striking  the  wood  in  the  shape  of  bpanish  armada  in  1588,  and  Englidi  works 
a  Jet  only  slightly  abraded  it,  and  it  was  not  give  the  most  detailed  descriptions  of  the  man- 
easily  removed  by  applying  heavy  blows  to  the  ner  in  which  they  ^ould  be  prepared ;  but  this 
wood.  It  was  found  that  when  the  silicate  was  necessarily  varies  greatly  in  actiud  practice,  ac- 
prapared  so  as  to  mix  readily  with  water,  one  cording  to  the  means  at  hand  and  the  ingenuity 
poond  was  sufficient  to  cover  10  square  feet,  of  the  actors.  The  chiet  object  to  be  attained 
and  at  the  rate  of  £20  per  ton  of  the  sirup,  the  is  that  the  ship  shall  be  in  complete  conflagra- 
eoat  of  the  silicate  for  this  amount  of  surface  is  tion  with  the  flames  pouring  through  the  port 
oaij  about  twonence.  By  this  application  to  holes  as  she  drifts  near  the  vessels  to  be  attack- 
tbe  timbers  and  other  woodwork  of  houses,  ed ;  and  in  some  large  quantities  of  powder  are 
thej  may  be  rendered  comparatively  safe  from  arranged  in  the  hold  to  be  ignited  and  cause  a 
fire;  bat  for  important  structures,  the  most  terrible  and  most  destructive  explosion  to  every 
ihoroogh  protection  is  in  the  use  of  wrought  object  near  by. — ^In  this  century  fire  ships  were 
iroHi  b«uns,  built  into  the  walls  of  brick  or  effeotu^ly  employed  by  the  Greeks  in  their  war 
ftone,  and  of  iron  or  other  incombustible  ma-  of  independence  against  the  Turks. 
terid  for  the  partition  walls,  floors,  rool^  and  FIRE  WORKS.  See  Ptbotechnt. 
•tdrs.  The  most  efficient  methods  in  use  in  the  FIRKIN  (Dan.  fire,  four),  the  fourth  part  of  a 
TJo^ed  States  are  described  in  the  article  Bbasi.  barrel,  an  old  English  measure  of  capacity,  va- 
Even  buildings  thus  constructed  in  the  most  riously  given  as  containing  from  7i  imperial 
perfect  manner  may  be  completely  ruined  if  gallons  to  10.987  standard  gallons.  For  ale  its 
flUed  with  combustible  goods  that  become  once  capacity  was  one  gallon  less  than  for  beer ;  as 
thoroughly  ignited ;  for  the  beams  when  heated  usually  reckoned,  it  was  8  gallons  for  the  for- 
nmst  expand,  and  with  a  force  against  the  walls  mor  and  9  for  the  latter.  In  the  United  States, 
that  cannot  be  resisted.  The  iron  rods  also  firkin  designates  a  tub,  usually  of  butter,  the 
wed  to  tie  the  low  arches  of  the  roof  fail  en-  weight  of  which  should  be  56  lbs.  In  some 
tirely  to  perform  their  office  as  their  length  in-  parts  of  Pennsylvania  it  is  110  lbs. 
creases  with  the  elevated  temperature,  and  an  FIRMAMENT  (Lat.  Jirmamentumy  support), 
additional  strain  is  brought  upon  the  walls  to  in  ancient  astronomy,  the  8th  sphere  or  heaven, 
throw  them  out  Cast  iron  beams  and  colunms  surrounding  the  7  spheres  of  the  planets.  Two 
have  been  shown  to  be  more  objectionable  even  motions  were  attributed  to  it :  the  diurnal  mo- 
than  wood ;  for  in  case  of  becoming  heated  they  tion  from  east  to  west,  given  by  the  pntnuin 
npidlj  lose  their  strength,  and  are  liable  to  mobile ;  and  another  motion  from  west  to  east» 
nve  way  suddenly,  and  much  sooner  than  tim-  completed,  according  to  Ptolemy,  in  36,000 
Mrs  even  when  consuming.  Mr.  Fairbum,  years,  when  the  fixed  starswereagain  in  precise* 
ezperimenting  in  England  upon  the  effect  of  ly  the  same  position  as  at  the  beginning.  This 
inenaae  of  temperature  in  weakening  cast  iron,  period  was  called  the  Platonic  or  great  year. 
fiNmd  that  in  cold  blast  iron  ^  the  strength  FIRMAN,  Fbbman,  or  Firmaun,  a  Persian 
waa  lost  in  heating  from  26°  to  190"^  F.,  and  in  word  signifying  an  order,  employed  especially  in 
boi  blast  iron  the  loss  was  15  per  cent,  in  raising  Turkey  to  designate  any  decree  issued  by  the 
tlie  temperature  from  21"^  to  160''  F.  Should  Porte,  and  authenticated  by  the  sultan's  own  ci- 
tfaii  eflfeot  continue  in  similar  ratio  with  higher  pher  or  signet.  Each  of  the  ministers  and  mem- 
temperatures,  the  cast  iron  supports  must  lose  bers  of  the  divan  has  the  right  of  signing  firmans 
dtbelr  useful  effect  much  below  the  point  at  relative  to  the  business  of  his  own  department, 
iriiioh  they  would  begin  to  melt.  The  effect  of  but  only  the  grand  vizier  is  authorized  to  place  at 
oold  water  thrown  upon  them  when  moderately  their  head  the  cipher  containing  the  interlaced 
boetod  must  be  to  miaterially  weaken,  and  pos-  letters  of  the  sultan's  name,  which  alone  gives 
Mtj  to  oaose  them  to  break.  Other  methods  them  force.  A  decree  sisncd  by  the  sultan's 
of  rendering  buildings  partially  fire-proof  have  own  hand  is  called  hatti-ikerif.  The  name  fir- 
been  practised  in  Europe,  but  are  either  now  man  is  also  applied  to  a  Turkish  passport,  wheth- 
gbeo  Qpor  are  little  ns(^.    Such  is  the  method  er  issued  by  the  Porte  or  by  a  pasha,  ei^oining 


524  FIRTH  FIBH  HOOBB 

the  fmbordinatc  anthoritics  to  arrant  the  traveHer  birdu  which  other  membert  of  lit  IkmO  jr  wodU 

bearing  it  protection  and  siwiHtance.     In  India,  cluu>e  or  doatroj ;  the  readiness  with  which  it 

a  written  i>ermission  to  trade  is  called  a  firman,  yields  its  prej  to  the  eagle  has  been  alloded  to 

FIRTII.    See  FRmr.  nnder  that  head.    It  nerer  porspes  iu  prr;  in 

FISC  (Lat  fi»cu9\  originally,  the  treasare  of  the  air ;  flying  at  a  moderate  heifrbt  above  the 

a  prince  or  sovereign  lord.    Under  the  Roman  water,  when  it  sees  a  fish  within  its  rearh  it 

empire ./Sfleus  designated  the  domain  or  treasure  closes  its  wings«  and  plunges  headlon|E.  fome- 

of  the  sovereign  as  distinguished  from  that  of  times  entirely  disappearing  below  the  smiace ; 

the  state,  or  (trarium  publicum.    Under  the  if  successful,  it  retires  to  its  nest  or  to  a  tree  to 

later  empert)rs  it  lost  its  distinctive  character,  eat  it  at  leisure ;  it  is  said  sometimes  to  Miike 

and  denoted  the  property  of  the  state,  asignifi-  a  fish  too  heavy  for  its  strength  to  raiM 

cation  which  it  still  retains  in  the  civil  law  of  unable  to  free  itself,  to  be  drawn  under 

Europe.    The  jfUeuM^  being  furnished   partly  and  drowned.    Though  a  heavy  flier  c< 

from  fines  and  the  property  of  condemned  per-  to  the  eagle,  its  flight  is  high  and  its 

sons,  has  given  rise  to  the  word  confiscation,  graceful ;    in  the  rare  instances  in  which  a 

by  which  is  meant  the  forfeiture  of  any  species  alights  on  the  ground,  it  walks  in  a  very  awk- 

of  property  to  the  state  or  a  Inxly  corporate,  ward  manner.    The  fish  hawk  appears  in  the 

The  fisc  had  a  legal  personal  existence,  similar  middle  states  from  the  south  abcwt  the  XttpLr- 

to  that  of  a  corporation,  and  various  officers,  as  ning  of  April,  and  is  welcomed  by  the  fiAbenws 

procuratorf^  adrocati,  patron^  and  prafeeti^  as  the  forerunner  of  various  kinds  offish:  it 

were  eniplove<l  in  its  administration.  goes  southward  again  as  winter  apfiroarhca. 

FISH  HAWK,  a  bird  of  prey,  of  the  family  The  moles  arrive  8  or  10  days  before  the  fr- 

j^/coniW<p,  sub- family  a^  11 174 IMF,  and  genus />an"  males;  during  the  love  season  both  sexes  9^ 

dion  (Savigny).    This  genus,  which  l>elongs  to  slst  in  making  new  nests  and  in  repairing  oU 

the  same  sub-family  with  the  eagles,  is  charac-  ones«  and  in  incubation ;  the  nest  is  pla(>M  ia 

terized  hy  a  short  hill,  curved  from  the  base  to  the  fork  of  a  high  tree  near  the  water,  and  n 

the  acute  hooked  tip,  compresse<l  laterally  with  composed  of  sticks,  gross,  and  sea  weeds,  flnnlv 

slightly  fest<>one<l  margins;  wings  extending  to  united,  S  or  4  feet  wide  and  as  many  deep.   Ai 

tip  uf  toil  the  2d  and  8d  quills  equal  and  long-  evidence  of  its  gentle  disposition,  Audnbco  mji 

est ;  toil  moderate  and  rather  even ;   general  that  he  has  seen  the  fisli  crow  and  pnrple  gra- 

fonn  heavier  and  less  adopted  for  rapid  and  kle  raising  their  families  in  ne^ts  baih  watmt 

vigorous  flight  than  that  of  the  eagles;  tarsi  the  outer  sticks  of  the  fish  hawk*s  nesc    Tbc 

short  and  strong,  covered  with  small  circular  eggs  ore  3  or  4  in  numlier,  br(»adly  oviL  ▼«:- 

scalo««:    toes  very   nmgli   l>cncfttli,   long,  and  lowish  white,  witli  numerous  large   im-rulir 

united  nt  the  has*;  claws  lon^r.  curved,   and  spots  of  rtMMi>h  l»ri>wn  ;  the  younc  are  «-ar.- 

sharp.     (irnydesiTihesonly  3  siiooics:  /*.  Caro-  fully  led  and  prote<te»l,  and  often  remitin  :r. :..-' 

Unfnsin  ((Jniel.)  in  America,  P,  A«////t7w*  (Linn.)  nest  until  they  are  as  lurjre  as  the  fiarvrii* .  .  r.  t 

in  the  oM  world,  an«l  P.  hurorephnlu*  ((iould)  one  hnnnl  i*  raixd  in  asea>«»n.      Wht-n  m. .■..:.;- 

in  Australia.     Tlie^i*  species  are  nearly  allied  to  ed,  they  defen<l  theni<elves  tv  ilh  bill  oii*:  lij*  • . 

each  <ither.  and  inhabit  the  teniiK.rate  rejri<»ns,  they  are  capahle  of  tlyinguff  with  a  li*l.  t*i  :.;:.• 

in  the  vicinity  of  lakes,  rivers,  a!Hlsliall<»w  arms  ing  5  Ihs.     The  li>h  hawk  <«f  Eun«iK:  rescs..*-* 

of  the  sea;  thev  have  been  s<'en  several  hun-  verv  much  the  American  bird, 
dretl  miles  fnun  land,  prnhahly  driven  olT  the         FISH  HOOKS.     The  manufacture  i-t*  t"^' 

coa^t  by  s^'Vvre  stnnu'j.     The  feiFiale  American  little  implements,  um**!  fur  capturii^j   t%J..  .• 

fish  hawk,  or  o^pn-y,  i«i  25  inrlus  long,  with  an  largely  carriitl  <»n,  t<»gether  with  the  k.r*iri'; 

extent  of  winirs  <if  about  5  feet:  tlie  male  is  pnHhutionofneeiUes.  at  the  village  of  Ro:.'  i 

somewhat  Mnaller.     In  the  adult  the  head  and  m  Wurresiershire,  England.     Mf\'l   » .rv  '' 


t 


under  parts  are  white;  a  strijK*  through  the  pare<l  from  the  Kiftest  and  U'«t  qualitu  •  t  f  r.c 

eye.  the  ttjpof  the  head  and  up|K*r  parts,  wings,  is  first  cut  into  suitable  length*,  and,  the  nnu^ 

and  tail,  deep  umlkT  brown,  the  latter  having  K'ing  sottenetl  by  heat,  3   wires  tfCttht."  trc 

about  N  ban<N  of  blackish  brown;    numerous  next  rut  by  a  knife  finuly  pu^luil  in  thr  iIl-**- 

spots  of  pale  yellowish   brown  t>n  the  brejist ;  ti<»n  tt>  nmko  the  slit  fn»m  whirh  the  l^-'- i* 

bill   and   claws   blui*-h   bhu*k  ;   tar-i  and   tiu-s  rais<'d.    The  end  i?*  thentiU-<lby  hontl  to  a  j^nr.v 

green i-h  yellow  ;  the  tibial  feathers  short,  and  the  wire  U-ing  held  with  pUen»  aciun«4  a  |  w^x- 

the  tarsus  feathered  <»ne  third  the  way  down  in  of  Ik>x  wo<k1.     The  bjirb  !•»  n*xl  rau«:iit  ir»!*-  » 

fn»nt :  the  young  have  the  upjuT  parts  wlged  n*»tch  at  one  eml  of  a  ^Up  4'f  brsL*"»  ^a::*!- «: 

with  white.     This  well-kiu»wn  s]H.'cie!*  inhabit.*)  e<lgewise  in  a  bK»ck  »»f  W4Hi»l  ami  i>l..i)«<t!  m  .'.-. 

the  continent  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  I*acitic ;  the  same  curve  ns  the  luN«k.  aivil  the  mcr^    ;-• 

its  i»owerful  anti  protrocted  tli^rht,  and  the  dex-  ouickly  Unt  around  thii*  hHi..     |:  thu*  r»x^  nt* 

terity  which  it  ^llsplays  in  catchini:  ti^ih,  render  the  hookitl  fonn,  and  the  obiiijatty  i*  ew^i  :.^ 

it  conspicuou*!  aiming  our  binls  of  prey.     It  is  the  curvi-  by  the  workman  rai*inc  tJw  «r.il  S»-i 

one  of  the  m<»st  s<KMable  of  the  hawk^  misrrat-  in  the  haml  ;is  the  turn  U  irivvn.     Nrarij  a  !»•.* 

ing  in  considerable  numlvrs  ah>nir  the  coa?«t  in  in  a  si*c«ind  can  thus  Iv  U-nt  by  a  •iTiirk-  w«irt 

8|irini:  and  autumn;  it  is  mild,  even  tiniomns  man.     The  end  for  ri^vixinc  t\w  f.ir-i«r.::.^  :« 

in  itH  disi)u*«ition,  rarely  quarrelling  with  its  next  flattemnl  by  a  Muart  Mow  »i:J:  a  ^r.^ 

mates^  anu  even  nesting  on  the  same  tree  with  hammer ;  and  the  hooks  are  tlivn  cvcx^uit«x:  :; 


USE  SEIK  FI8HEB                      625 

the  finishing  processes  of  tempering  at  a  sand  marten  are  the  only  two  species  of  the  genna 

bath  heat,  scouring  in  a  rotating  barrel  with  found  in  North  America.    The  fisher  (if.  Pen" 

emery  and  soap,  and  finally  blueing  at  the  proper  nantiij  Erxl.)  is  the  largest  known  species,  the 

beat  in  a  sand  bath. — Walton,  in  his  ^^  Complete  length  of  the  body  being  over  2  feet,  and  the 

Angler,"  presents  much  curious  information  con-  tail  1^  feet.    The  dental  formula  is:  incisors 

ceming  fish  hooka,  tracing  their  use  to  the  times  J:},  canines  i:},  premolars  ^:|,  molan  ^:|  =  ^, 

of  the  prophecies  of  Amos,  and  to  the  still  more  88  in  all ;  tne  lower  carmvorous  tooth  has  a 

remote  writing  of  the  book  of  Job,  in  both  of  rounded  lobe  on  the  inner  side,  indicating  a  less 

which  they  are  mentioned ;  and  he  cites  their  use  sanguinary  diq)osition  than  that  of  the  weasels. 

by  the  apostles,  which  was  expressly  approved  The  general  appearance  is  fox-like ;  the  head  is 

by  our  Saviour,  in  recommendc^ion  of  his  gentle  long  and  muzzle  rather  pointed ;  the  ears  short, 

art.     In  Bohn^s  late  edition  of  his  work  are  de-  rounded,  and  wide ;    the   eyes  larse ;    body 

scribed  the  nice  differences  of  form  and  qualities  slender ;  tail  long  and  bushy  at  the  base ;  feet 

of  the  Kirby,  Limerick.  Kendal,  and  Sneck-bend  short,  stout,  and  armed  with  strong  sharp  daws. 

hooks^  and  long  shanks  are  recommended  for  5  on  each  foot;  no  anal  pouch,  but  a  small 

hooka  that  are  to  be  dressed  with  long-bodied  gland  which  secretes  a  musky  fiuid.    The  fur  is 

fliea,  as  the  dragon  fiy,  the  stone  fly,  and  the  spi-  of  2  kinds,  the  outer  long  and  coarse,  the  inner 

derfly,  any  superfluity  in  length  being  easily  nip-  fine  and  soft.    The  general  color  is  blackish, 

ped  o£  The  plates  of  this  edition  present  a  great  with  a  grayish  tinge  on  the  head  and  shoulders ; 

Tariety  of  forms  for  various  fish,  some  double  some  specimens  are  brownish,  and  a  few  with 

hooks  being  contrived  by  binding  two  together  light  tints;  there  is  sometimes  a  white  spot  on 

back  to  back.   The  Kirby  hook  derived  its  name  the  throat.    Specimens  vary  so  much  m  size 

from  an  ancient  family,  who  had  become  famous  and  coloration  that  it  has  been  supposed  that  2 

in  their  manufacture.    Charles  Kirby,  who  lived  species  are  confounded  under  the  name.    A 

in  the  time  of  Charles  II.,  Walton  states  ac-  specimen  measuring  28  inches  in  leng^  of 

quired  from  Prince  Rupert  the  method  of  tern-  body,  with  the  ta^  14  inches,  would  weigh 

pering  which  remained  in  use  in  the  family  till  about  8}  lbs.    Occasionally  seen  in  Pennsyl- 

the  time  when  Walton  wrote  (in  1760).    A  vania  and  New  York,  and  even  as  far  south  as 

lineal  descendant  of  that   Charles  was  then  North  Carolina,  it  is  common  in  Canada  and  in 

malring  ncar  Aldersgate  street  in  London  the  the  Lake  Superior  mineral  region ;  it  is  found 

hooks   in  best  repute  for  shape  and  temper,  as  far  north  as  lat.  68°,  and  across  the  continent 

Among  recent  improvements  in  the  construe-  to  the  Pacific.    It  is  eminently  an  arboreal  spe- 

tion   of   fish    hooks  are — the    addition  of   a  cies,  very  agile,  though  less  so  than  the  squirrel, 

swivel  dose  to  the  shank,  which  admits  of.  the  which  it  is  fond  of  pursuing ;  it  is  generally 

hook  spinning  around,  and  thus  preventing  the  nocturnal  in  its  habits ;  it  preys  upon  hares, 

twisting  of  the  line ;  and  also  electro-plating  raccoons,  squirrels,  grouse,  mice,  and  any  small 

the  hooks,  which  serves  to  protect  them  from  bird  or  quadruped  which  it  can  seize.    Though 

rusting,  and  moreover  by  their  gilded  or  silver-  called  fisher,  there  is  no  certain  evidence  that 

ed  appearance  causes  them  to  be  more  attractive  it  catches  fish,  but  it  is  fond  of  the  fish  with 

to  the  fish.    For  the  same  reason  the  mackerd  which  the  hunter  baits  his  traps  for  the  pine 

fishennan  scrapes  and  brightens  the  leaden  plum-  marten;  in  this  respect  the  fisher  is  a  great 

met  in  which  the  shank  of  the  hook  is  buried  nuisance,  as  it  breaks  into  the  traps  from  be- 

for  the  purpose  of  causing  it  to  sink  quickly,  hind,  sometimes  robbing  every  one  in  a  line  of 

In  the  United  States  there  is  but  one  manu-  miles,  escaping  itself  and  preventing  the  capture 

factory  for  fish  hooks,  which  is  at  Brooklyn,  of  the  more  valuable  pine  marten.    They  have 

N.  Y.  been  often  kept  in  confinement,  where  they  be- 

nsn  SKIN,  in  the  mechanical  arts,  is  the  come  docile  if  taken  when  young ;  but  the  tem- 
skin  of  the  dog  fish  and  some  other  species  per  is  very  changeable,  and  they  quickly  be- 
which  possess  a  similar  hard  and  rasp-like  in-  come  angry  without  apparent  cause.  From 
tegnment,  with  scales  pointed  and  projecting  in  their  agility,  strength,  and  ferocity,  they  are 
ODe  direction.  It  is  used,  after  being  dried,  in  difficult  to  obtain  unless  severely  wounded. 
the  same  way  as  glass  or  sand  paper,  and  in  Like  the  other  fur-bearing  animals,  the  fisher^s 
pattern  making  is  especially  convenient  for  pelage  is  finest  in  winter  and  in  high  latitudes ; 
daaning  off  rounded  and  irregular  surfaces,  be-  a  skin  is  worth  about  $1  60,  while  that  of  the 
log  bent  round  the  finger  and  working  almost  smaUer  pine  marten  is  worth  $2  50;  their  fur  is 
like  8  file.  On  account  of  not  leaving  behind  not  much  used  in  the  United  States,  but  is  gen- 
it  any  sharp  particles,  it  is  sometimes  to  be  pre-  eraUy  sent  to  Europe,  where  it  is  used  for  linings 
inredto  sand  paper. — For  claritying  liquors,  of  more  costly  furs,  for  trimmings,  and  for  rob^ 
and  especially  coffee,  the  skin  of  the  dried  cod-  It  brings  forth  its  young  once  a  year  toward  the 
fish  is  an  excellent  material,  a  small  piece  thrown  end  of  spring,  from  2  to  4  at  a  birth,  depositing 
into  the  boiling  fiuid  collecting  and  carrying  them  in  hollows  in  trees  at  a  considerable  height 
down  in  a  few  minutes  all  the  sediment.  above  the  grouud.    This  animal  is  called  by 

FISHER,  a  carnivorous  digitigrade  mammal,  Schreber  if.  Canadensis, 

belonging  to  the  family  musUliddB^  and  the  genus  FISHER,  Alvax,  an  American  artist,  bom  in 

uniiCMii  (linn.) :  this  animal  (called  also  Pen-  Keedham,  Mass.,  Aug.  9, 1792.    He  was  intend- 

■aat^smarteDibuutk  cat,  and  pekan)  and  the  pine  ed  by  his  parents  for  a  mercantile  life,  bat  at 


the  age  of  18  maniteted  so  sfarong  a  tatte  fOt  braaoh  of  Indoitary.    BfwmiOmm  ffSbm 

paiBUDg  that  he  was  alloired  to  stndv  the  art  OonstantiiiopleX  end  Siiiope  cm  the  BlMk 

with  an  ornamental  painter  of  merit  named  were  flanona  for  their  hMfadTor^"*"     "" 

FtanTman.    In  1614 he eonunenoed  hisprofee-  Snetonios  we  learn  that  the  « 

alooal  career  as  a  portrait  painter,  ana  soon  prej.  tlie  ftrorite  IMi  of  the 

after  undertook  ham-jardsoenes,  winter  pieces,  eaaglit  in  the  greats  it  alain<laiii»  te  tlia  aaa 

ertraits  of  aoimals,  and  in  general,  scenes  be-  aroond  Sicily,  cod  in  the  OaiqpatldaB  aan  h^ 

iging  to  rond  lifb  in  which  cattle  are  promi-  tween  Crete  and  Rhodea.    In  the  td 

nentlj  introduced.    He  snbseqaently  retnmed  of  onr  en  the  fishermen  of  the  MeT 

to  pwtait  painting,  which  he  praotised  ibr  porsoed  thdr  prej  not  only  ob  tho 

maoT  years  in  Boston.  in  the  open  sea.  making  leng^ojaiaB^  a 

FfeH£R,  John,  an  Engliah  dlThie,  bishop  of  passing  the  pillars  of  HeraolssL    Ttm 

Boohester,  and  aaealoos  opponent  or  therefor-  of  Egypt  were  espedallj  odehratod  fi»  tfHir 

ination,borninBeTer)ey,yorinhire,inl469,be-  ptodnctiTeness,  but  ther  wero  aD  '  ~ 


headed  Jnne  28,  1585.     HsTing  become  the    lakea,  eanab,  and  the  rifirNila.    TW  l|yp» 


oonfassor  of  Margaret,  countess  of  Richmood.  tiana  regarded  the  aen  with 

he  induced  that  ladr  to  fbund  St  John^  ana  not  seem  to  have  iUied  in  Its  wtais;  Wt  «f 

Christ's coQem at Oambridge.    Inl501hebe-  fresh-water  fish  thej made  mtt  wa^ Hi  t 

came  chmcdlor  of  that  uniTcrdty,  and  in  1504  somptkm  being  eneomraged  Dj  lnw«    On 


bidiop  of  Rochester.    He  has  been  supposed  to    9th  d^  of  the  first  month  overr  psnoa  wv 
have  written  the  treatise  w<Ut0rft^«q9tMiiftierflK    ol^gedtoeatafirledfishbsiweMdDoroflii 


mmUarum^  for  which  Henry  YIIL  obtained  the  house,  except  the  priests,  who 

title  of  *"  Defender  of  the  Fsith.**    Thooghlong  of  eating  the  fish.    Thon^ofa  , 

IkTored  bjr  the  Ung,  Fisher  ftQ  under  his  dis-  and  b^M  compared  wlttiaan  fish,  thnlAef 

^easore  by  his  opposition  to  the  diTorce  of  Egypt  seems  to  nsTe  been  hig^y  pstoai.   The 

Oatharine  of  Aragon.    On  the  quesdon  of  the  Israditea  remembered  with  t^ini  **tt»  fiih 

kfaig*a  afriritoal  supremacy  being  broached  in  whidh  (they)  did  eat  In  E^qrpt  fires|y.*   The 

1581,  the  bishop  firmly  relbsed  to  acknowledge  revenues  arising  from  the  flshoriai 

It    He  farther  fell  into  disfiiTor,  and  was  ar-  Mfluis  were  giveii  to  the  qcssn  of 

ndgned  for  misprision  of  treason,  for  concealing  pin  mooqri  and  are  aald  to  here 

oertain  prophedea  of  Elizabeth  Barton,  cidled  9470,000  annuaHy.->The  ssrijsst  m 

the  holy  maid  of  Kent,  respecting  the  king's  herring  fishery  that  haa  rsaehed  na 

^death.    For  tlus  oflbnce  he  was  condemned  to  A.  D.  700.    The  cod  fidiery  benn  to  W 

imprisonment  during  the  king's  pleasure,  but  lated  by  legislation  in  westeni  Boropo  ti 

was  released  on  paying  a  fine  of  £300.    Refas-  the  end  of  the  9th  century.    From  as  or£- 

ing  to  take  the  oath  of  allegiance  in  1534,  he  nance  of  Charles  VI.  in  1415  it  aopeara  thaa  the 

was  committed  to  the  tower,  attainted,  and  his  madcerel  fishery  of  France  at  thiat  period  was 

bishopric  declared  vacant    Pope  Paul  III.  took  rery  extensive,  and  that  the  fish  were  sold  at 

the  opportunity  to  create  him  a  cardinal ;  but  an  extremely  low  rate  In  the  markets  of  An. 

Henry  having  sent  Cromwell  to  interrogate  him  The  development  of  the  fisheries  dnrlng  the 

with  regard  to  the  appointment,  and  ^ing  in-  middle  ages  wss  greatly  promoted  by  the  d»- 

ibrmed  that  he  would  accept  the  cardinal's  hat,  mand  for  fish  that  waa  created  by  the  fisrtsof 

exclaimed :  ''  Mother  of  God  I    he  shall  wear  the  church.    But  the  discovery,  at  the  sod  of 

it  on  his  shoulders  then,  for  I  will  leave  him  the  15th  century,  of  Kewfoondland  sod  In 

never  a  head  to  set  it  on  I"    The  aged  bishop  fisheries,  which  to  this  day  snrTiasa  all  otben  la 

waa  at  once  condemned  on  the  charge  of  deny-  magnitude  and  value,  gave  tne  j 

ing  the  king's  snprcmacy,  and  was  beheaded,  pulse  to  the  business.    The  eod,  i 

He  wrote  a  commentary  on  the  7  penitential  nerring  are  the  chief  objects  of 

psalms,  sermons,  and  controversial  and  devo-  their  range  Is  not  limited  to  tho  : 

tional  treatises.  Erasmus,  his  literary  opponent,  of  Newfoundland,  but  thev  are  eavshi  In 

describes  him  as  a  man  of  extensive  powers  of  numbers  on  the  coast  of  New  Fnrfand,  la  all 

mind,  and  for  integrity,  sweetness  of  temper,  Uie  bavs  and  inleta  of  the  Brithih  niJliins 

and  greatoess  of  soul,  superior  to  most  persons  possessions,  snd  on  the  coast  of  Labrador.    Ths 

of  his  age.    His  life  has  been  written  by  the  Rev.  IVench  were  the  first  Europeans  who 

J.  L«wis  (8  vols.  8va,  London,  1854).  in   the  American  cod  fishery.    Tbay 

FISHERIES,  the  business  of  catching  fish  Newfoundland  as  early  as  1504.    In  IfiOl 

upon  a  large  scale,  and  the  localities  fhK)Qented  Thomas  Anbert  made  a  fishing 

by  the  kinds  of  fish  that  are  the  chief  objects  of  Dieppe  to  the  gulf  of  Bt.  ~ 

pursuit  and  captore,  such  as  the  cod,  herring,  that  the  Newioundhmd  t 

mackerel,  and  salmon.    The  whale  fishery  and  rapidly  that  in  1517  they  gave 

the  seal  fishery  are  terms  employed  to  designate  50  vessels  from  diflerent  natSooai 

the  pursuit  of  the  whale  and  the  seal,  Uioug^  ever,  from  France.    In  1677  thtra 

those  animals  are  not   fishes.     (See  WniLi  French  veae^  engaged  in  fho  boain 

FisnKRT,    snd    Sxal  FtananT.) — Among   the  they  pumed  with  great  soeeeaa.    A  few 

ancients,  fislieries  were  carried  on  extensively  later  the  government  of  Henry  IV.  took  i 

from  a  veiy  early  period,  and  formed  a  valnahio  maasnraa  to  prolaol  nod  ooaoorago  thn 


FISHERIES  627 

fishery.  Early  in  the  17th  century,  however,  and  captnred  by  a  volunteer  force  from  New 
the  business  began  to  decline,  so  that  in  1645  England,  largely  composed  of  fishermen,  and 
the  number  of  French  vessels  employed  in  it  led  by  Sir  William  Pepperell,  the  son  of  a  fish- 
was  50  less  than  in  1577.  At  this  period  began  ennan  of  the  Isles  of  Shoals.  He  was  made  a 
those  angry  contests  between  the  French  and  baronet  for  this  exploit,  which  excited  the  great- 
English  about  the  sovereignty  of  the  fishing  est  enthusiasm  in  England,  where  it  was  con- 
grounds,  which  continued,  with  more  or  less  sidered  "  an  equivalent  for  all  the  successes  of 
violence,  for  upward  of  a  century.  After  the  the  French  upon  the  continent."  The  first  lord 
treaty  of  Ryswick  in  1697,  the  French  claimed  of  the  admiralty  declared  that  "  if  France  was 
the  exclusive  ownership  of  the  American  master  of  Portsmouth,  he  would  hang  the  man 
fisheries,  and  their  cruisers  seized  and  confis-  who  should  give  Cape  Breton  in  exchange." 
eated  all  British  fishing  vessels  found  anywhere  The  French  £heries  declined  rapidly  after  the 
east  of  the  Kennebec  river,  in  Maine,  except  on  fall  of  Louisburg,  so  that  of  500  vessels  that 
the  western  coast  of  Newfoundland,  where,  by  constituted  the  fishing  fieet  of  France  in  1745 
a  qMcific  stipulation  of  the  treaty  of  Ryswick,  only  100  remained  in  1746.  By  the  treaty  of 
Hbt  English  were  permitted  to  fisL  These  pre-  Paris  in  1763  it  was  agreed  that  the  French 
tensions  of  France  to  the  monopoly  of  the  should  have  the  liberty  of  fishing  and  drying 
&lilnff  grounds  were  among  the  causes  of  the  fish  on  a  part  of  the  coasts  of  Newfoundland, 
war  oeclared  b^  England  in  1702.  By  the  and  of  fishing  in  the  gulf  of  St  Lawrence  at  the 
treaty  <tf  peace  m  1718  the  French  fishermen  distance  of  8  leagues  and  upward  from  the  shore, 
were  prohibited  from  coming  within  80  leagues  and  on  the  coasts  of  Cape  Breton  at  the  distance 
of  the  coast  of  Nova  Scotia,  and  the  right  of  of  15  leagues  from  the  shore.  The  litUe  islands 
En^^d  to  the  whole  of  Newfoundland  was  of  St.  Pierre  and  Miquelon  near  the  S.  coast  of 
acknowledged,  though  it  was  conceded  that  Newfoundland  were  ceded  to  France  to  serve 
the  French  should  have  the  privilege  of  as  shelter  for  the  French  fishermen.  A  few 
fishing  on  the  eastern  coast  of  that  island,  years  later,  in  1768,  the  number  of  French  ves- 
from  Cape  Bonavista  to  the  northern  point,  sels  at  Newfoundland  had  increased  to  259.  By 
thence  ak>ng  the  western  shores  as  far  as  Point  the  treaty  of  peace  in  1788  the  right  of  the 
Biche.  The  concession  to  France  of  even  this  French  to  Miquelon  and  St  Pierre  was  oon- 
limlted  right  to  the  American  fisheries  was  firmed,  but,  as  was  alleged,  to  prevent  auarrels, 
vehemently  condemned  in  England.  The  ear*  France  renounced  her  right  to  fish  on  that  part 
of  Oxford,  one  of  Queen  Anne's  ministers,  was  of  the  coast  of  Newfoundland  which  stretches 
impeached  for  high  treason  in  1717,  and  among  from  Cape  Bonavista  to  Cape  St  John  or  Point 
the  charges  against  him  it  was  alleged  ^*  that  Riche.  The  French  revolution  was  disastrous 
in  defiance  of  an  express  act  of  parliament,  as  to  the  fisheries,  so  that  in  1792  the  number  of 
well  as  in  contempt  of  the  frequent  and  ear-  Frenchmen  engaged  in  them  in  the  North  Amer- 
nest  representations  of  the  merchants  of  Great  ican  seas  was  less  than  8,400.  During  the  reign 
Britain  and  of  the  commissioners  of  trade  and  of  Napoleon  they  continued  to  languish,  and  the 
plantations,'*  he  had  advised  his  sovereign  that  fishermen  met  with  severe  losses  from  the  Brit- 
''the  subjects  of  France  should  have  ^e  lib-  ish  cruisers.  After  the  peace  of  1815  the  busi- 
erty  ci  &hiDg  and  drying  fish  in  Newfound-  ness  rapidly  increased,  till  in  1852  the  cod 
land  J*  The  French,  however,  notwithstanding  fishery  alone  employed  450  ships  and  14,000  sea- 
their  exclusion  from  Nova  Scotia,  and  from  men.  In  1856  the  products  of  the  French  fish- 
most  of  the  coast  of  Newfoundland,  continued  eries  were  otficially  estimated  to  be  worth  16,- 
to  porsne  the  fisheries  with  energy  and  success.  100,000  francs.  The  protection  and  encourage- 
Tliey  settled  on  the  island  of  Cape  Breton,  ment  of  this  great  branch  of  national  industry 
where  tliey  built  the  famous  town  and  fortress  has  from  its  conmiencement  been  sedulously  at- 
of  Louisburg,  at  an  expense  of  80,000,000  li-  tended  toby  the  French  government.  Bounties 
vres,  to  protect  and  facilitate  the  fisheries.  In  to  a  large  amount  are  granted  to  the  fishermen. 
1781  theur  fleet  of  fishing  vessels  is  said  to  have  At  present,  under  a  law  passed  in  1851,  the 
increased  to  400  sail,  a  greater  number  than  at  bounties  to  the  cod  fisheries  are  as  follows :  for 
aoj  former  period.  A  quarter  of  a  century  later  each  man  of  the  crew  of  a  vessel  employed  on  the 
the  number  of  their  vessels  was  computed  at  600,  coast  of  Newfoundlimd  or  Iceland,  50  francs; 
manned  bv  27,000  men,  and  producing  fish  to  for  each  metric  quintal  (220}  lbs.)  of  dry  cod- 
the  annual  value  of  $4,500,000.  Louisburg  was  fish,  20, 16,  or  12  francs,  according  to  the  coun- 
tbegreatrendezvous  of  the  French  fishermen,and  try  to  which  it  is  shipped,  the  highest  bounty 
■OOQ  acquired  an  immense  importance  in  Amer-  being  given  on  codfish  shipped  to  the  French 
fein  affiurs.  '*  More  than  200  pieces  of  cannon  colonies  in  America,  India,  and  the  west  coast  of 
ware  mounted  to  defend  it,"  says  Sabine.  ^*  So  Africa. — Sebastian  Cabot  on  his  return  from  his 
mat  was  its  strength  that  it  was  called  the  Dun-  voyage  of  discovery  in  1497  first  called  the  at- 
ak  of  America.  It  had  nunneries  and  palaces,  tention  of  the  English  to  the  American  fisheries, 
terraces  and  gardens.  That  such  a  city  rose  upon  by  pointing  out  the  abundance  of  fish  in  the  seas 
a  looe,  desolate  isle,  in  the  infan<^of  American  around  Newfoundland  and  Labrador.  The  first 
eokwization,  appears  incredible.  Explanation  is  '  English  voyages  in  quest  of  fish,  however,  of 
fimnd  alone  in  the  fishing  enthusiasm  of  the  which  we  have  any  account,  were  in  1517.  la 
fiatiod.''    In  1745  this  stronghold  was  besieged  1522,40  (»:  50  houses  for  the  accommodation  of 


fidMrmen  were  built  in  KewfonndlaDd,  which  £orope  owing  to  the  growth  of 

^  maj  thnscljum  tobemoch  theoldestED^ishcol-  and  partlj  Iran  the  increoaeof  the  coMt  fUberj 

*  ony  in  America,  though  no  pennanent  settlement  bj  the  settlers  on  Newfoundland.    Charles  iC, 

was  effected  till  aboQt  a  oentorj  later.    Inl5i8  in  1660,  issned  a  proHamation  forthaartct  oh- 

parliament  to  enconrage  the  fisheries,  passed  an  aenranoe  of  Lent,  assigning  as  oom  reaaon  ^  the 

act  laying  heaTy  penalties  on  persons  convicted  good  it  prodncea  in  the  employment  of 


of  eating  flesh  on  fidi  days.    At  the  same  time    men.*'    In  the  same  year  paiwimeBt  paased  sn 

in  onriBK 


restrictions  preyiooslT  existing  were  removed,  act  remitting  the  dotr  on  aalt  need ^ 

and  the  Newfonndlandfisherymadefinee to  every  fish,  and  exempting  all  fishing  materials  frem 

English  soUect  In  1568  another  act  was  passed  customs  and  excise.    Still  the  nnnber  of  fiih-' 

providing  that  ''for  the  maintenance  of  ship-  inir  vessels  continued  to  dedina,  till  te  ItTO 

ping,  the  increase  of  fishermen  and  marines,  and  only  80  were  sent  ont.    To  revive  the  trads 

mtnespariDgof  thefireshviotoal  of  therttlm,  the  barbarous  expedient  waa  rforted  to  cf 

it  shall  not  be  lawful  for  any  one  toeatfieshon  breaking  np  the  aettlementa  in  KewiHnAMi 

Wednesdays  and  Satnrdays,  unless  under  the  flrom  whicn  boat  fishing  waa  carried  oa,  aai 

Ibrfeitnreof  £8  for  each  oronce.''   The  sick  and  the  fishermen  were  accordindr  driven  off  sad 

those  who  had  bought  q>ecial  licenses  were  ex-  their  dwellings  burned  by  Sir  John  B«ry, 

oepted  from  the  action  of  this  statute.    But  who  waa  aent  over  for  that  porpoat.     Ilii 

aa  under  these  laws  the  mass  of  the  people  were  harsh  measure  increased  the  number  of 

compelled  for  168  days  of  the  year  to  abstain  vessels,  which  in  1674  had  risen  to  STQ, 

from  meat,  the  demand  for  fish  was  of  course  ing  10,800  men.   Toward  the  end  of  the 

very  great  In  1683  Sir  Humphrey  Gilbert  took  seUlers  were  again  allowed  to  dwell  fai  X«w<- 

possession  of  Newfoundland  under  the  first  foundland,  and  in  1729  the  number  of  resideBt 

charter  granted  in  England  for  ooloi^xation  in  inhabitanta  waa  estimated  at  6,000.    The  boii 

America,  and  flrom  this  act  <tf  Sir  Humphrey  fishery  of  the  colonists  again  siqiplaBted  the 

and  flrom  the  discovery  by  Cabot  in  1497,  Eng-  fishery  in  vessdsof  hurgesise,  and  to  inrrinreia 

land  derives  her  right  to  Newfoundland  and  its  the  home  merchants  parliament  in  1775  aDovsd 

fishing  grounds.    At  the  beginning  of  the  17th  a  bounty  of  £40  to  each  of  the  first  fiS  Al|% 

oentuiy  it  KB  estimated  that  200  Eufflish  ships  £20  to  thenext  100,and£10  totbeaaeoBdlOt 

went  annually  to  Newfoundland,  and  that  they  that  should  make  fives  of  fiah  before  tliamiMs 

employed  in  catching  and  curing  the  fish  not  of  July  and  return  to  the  fishimi  groada  for  a 

less  than  10,000  men  and  boys.    In  1602  Bar-  second  lading.    At  this  time  t£e  whole  b^ 

thdomew  Gosnold  explored  the  coast  of  New  her  of  British  subjects  employed  in  the  Kew- 

England,  and,  catching  cod  near  the  southern  foundland  fisheries  was  28,662,  aU  of  whoa,  it 

cape  of  Mossachasctts,  gave  it  the  name  it  bears,  is  said,  became  sailors.    The  Engllih  foherics 

Capt  John  Smith  foUowod  in  1614,  and  on  the  were  exceedingly  prosperous  betm*een  1725  and 

coast  of  Maine  took  and  dried  or  pickled  47,000  1815.    In  1814, 1,200,000  quintals  of  fiAh  ««r« 

fiab,  the  profits  from  which,  and  from  the  flirs  produced,  worth  $12,000,000.    There  have  br«a 

he  bought  of  the  Indians,  amounted  to  $7,000.  great  fluctuations  since  then  both  in  the  nnmbcr 

From  this  time  the  fislierics  on  the  coast  of  New  of  fish  taken  and  in  their  price  in  the  marfcec 

England  began  to  be  prosecuted  with  vigor.   In  but  the  average  annual  catch  of  codfish  bj  th« 

1616  full  fares  were  taken  by  8  English  ships,  English  fishermen  is  compnted  at  a  miUtno  cf 

and  sold  at  high  prices  in  Spain  and  the  Canary  quintals  of  112  lbs.  each.    Tliey  are  sohl  chkij 

islands.    In  1G20  the  island  of  Monhegan  off  the  in  the  British  is]and^  in  British  America,  sad 

coast  of  Maine  had  become  a  noted  fishing  in  Portugal,  Italy,  Spain,  Brazil,  and  the  Wr4 

station,  and  in  1622  profitable  fishing  voyages  Indies.  The  home  fisheries  of  the  British  iflaadi 

to  Now  England  were  made  by  35  English  ships,  are  of  great  extent  and  importance,  the  kt- 

In  1621  an  angry  controversy  arose  in  England  rounding  seas  swarming  with  berring,  BMckereJ. 

in  consequence  of  a  claim  set  up  by  the  *^  council  cod,  and  other  species.    The  fonnatioii  of  rail* 

of  Plymouth, '^  a  company  chartered  by  James  roads  has  greatly  increased  the  consunpcm  of 

I.,  to  the  monopoly  of  fishing  in  the  American  fish  by  rendering  it  possible  for  the  inKahtfitm 

aeas  between  the  40th  and  48th  degrees  of  N.  of  the  most  interior  parts  of  the  kingdom  toub- 

latitude.    This  company  demanded  from  each  tain  sea  fish  in  a  fewhours  after  they  are  eao^t 

vessel  fishing  in  these  waters  a  tax  of  about  83  In  Birmingham,  for  example,  the  annnal  dt- 

cents  a  ton.    This  claim  was  stoutly  resisted,  mand  has  risen  since  the  opening  of  railvsn 

Tlie  house  of  commons  took  i»art  with  the  fisher-  from  400  to  4,000  tons.    A  very  pn)dDcttT«  m^ 

men,  and  the  contest  was  continued  into  the  mon  fishery  is  carried  on  in  tho  Scottish  aol 

reign  of  Charles  I.,  and  was  one  of  the  causes  Irish  rivers.    The  east  coast  of  Scotland  Is  tht 

of  the  quarrel  between  him  and  parliament,  chief  seat  of  the  herring  fishery,  the  annnal  pr> 

whicli  brought  on  the  civil  war.    In  1630  the  duct  of  which  b  computed  at  650,000  hamk 

pn»vince  of  Massachusetu  passed  an  act  for  the  worth,  at  Ids.  a  barrel,  £520,000.    The  tecsl 

encouragement  of  the  fisheries,  exempting  fish-  value  of  the  British  fisheries  is  wtims!«*1  st 

ing  ve>sels  from  all  duties  or  taxes  fur  7  years.  £4/>00,000.    The  coast  and  riwr  fishcrks  ef 

The  Englihh  fivot  at  Newfoundland  about  this  the  British  islands,  after  dedoctingall  t lyents^ 

time  had  dwin<lled  from  4U0  to  150  sail,  t>artly  yield  a  profit  of  £1,500,000.    Aflsooff  other  £»• 

from  the  diminiahcd  consumption  of  nsh  in  ropean  natiooi^  the  Dutch  te  MmH 


FISHERIES  529 

took  the  lead  in  tlie  fisheries,  and  the  herring  ton  fish  hegaa  to  he  exported  as  early  as  1688. 
fishery  was  long  a  chief  source  of  their  wealth.  In  1639  the  general  court  of  Ma^achnsetto 
It  haS|  however,  much  declined,  though  it  still  passed  an  act  to  encourage  the  ^heries  hy  ex- 
employs  about  1,600  vessels  and  8,000  men,  empting  fishing  vessels  and  all  property  con- 
aod  produces  an  average  annual  amount  of  nected  with  them  from  taxes  aAd  duties  for  7 
4,000.000  florins.  There  is  also  a  productive  years.  At  the  close  of  the  I'Tth  century  the 
cod  fishery  carried  on  upon  the  Dogger  bank,  merchants  of  Massachusetts  exported  annndly 
which  lies  between  Holland  and  England.  The  about  100,000  quintals  of.  codfish,  worth  $400,- 
Norwegian  cod  fisheries  are  extremely  valuable,  000,  to  Portugal,  Spain,  and  Italy. ,  In  1731  the 
and  are  carried  on  chiefly  from  the  province  of  fisheries  of  the  colony  employed  5,000  or  6,000 
Flnmark,  which  has  employed  in  them  8,000  men.  Ten  years  later  the  number  of  fishing 
▼easels  and  15,000  men.  Their  average  annual  vessels  belonging  to  Massachusetts  ^as  400,  be- 
product  is  stated  at  16,000,000  fish,  21,500  side  as  many  shdlops  and  undecked  boats.  The 
EMirrels  of  cod-liver  oil,  and  26,000  barrels  of  annual  produce  of  the  cod  fishery,  was  about 
roe,  the  total  value  of  which  is  estimated  at  230,000  quintals,  of  which  $700,000  worth  was 
$1,600,000.  There  is  also  a  salmon  fishery  of  exported.  At  the  outbreak  of  the  revolutionary 
sreat  value  carried  on  in  the  rivers  of  Norway,  contest  the  fishing  towns  were  rich  and  popa- 
Lobsters  to  the  number  of  100,000  annually  are  lous.  Marblehead  was  second  only  to  Boston 
sent  to  London,  and  in  some  years  shark  fishing  in  population  and  property.  In  1775,  in  the 
is  porsaed  with  much  success.  In  1846, 20,000  hope  of  starving  New  England  into  submission, 
diarks  were  taken  by  8  vessels  fitted  out  for  the  the  British  parliament  passed  the  act  to  deprive 
purpose.  The  inland  fisheries  of  Kussia  are  the  colonies  of  the  right  of  fishing  on  the  banks 
among  the  most  productive  in  the  world.  The  of  Newfoundland.  The  breaking  out  of  hos- 
Talne  of  the  sturgeon  annually  caught  in  the  tilities,  which  soon  followed,  nearly  destroyed 
waters  of  Astrakhan,  and  in  the  Kur  and  the  the  fisheries  for  a  time.  The  fishermen  of  New 
Emba,  is  $1,750,000.  The  total  value  of  the  England  turned  their  attention  to  privateering, 
Caqnmn  fisheries  is  estimated  at  $2,500,000.  and  of  the  200,000  tons  of  British  shipping  cap- 
The  waters  of  China  abound  in  fish,  and  it  is  es-  tured  during  the  war  it  is  computed  that  at 
t^w»ft»^  by  high  authority  that  one  tenth  of  the  least  one-half  was  taken  by.  them.  Marblehead 
people  of  that  empire  derive  their  food  from  sent  an  entire  regiment  of  men  to  Washington's 
the  water.  The  coasts  are  crowded  with  en-  army,  and  so  great  were  its  sacrifices  and  losses 
terprising  and  industrious  fishermen,  and  be-  that  at  the  end  of  the  war  the  town  reckoned 
8^  the  net  and  the  hook,  a  great  variety  of  600  widows  and  1,000  fatherless  children  in  a 
ingenioas  expedients  are  used  to  capture  the  population  of  less  than  4,000.  The  towns  of 
fish.  In  the  eastern  provinces,  cormorants  are  Salem  and  Beverly  fitted  out  against  the  enemy 
trained  in  great  numbers  to  catcli  fish,  which  in  the  course  of  the  contest  52  vessels  with  750 
they  bring  to  their  master,  who  sits  in  a  boat  guns  and  nearly  4,000  seamen.  The  capture  of 
fix>m  which  he  oversees  at  the  same  time  12  or  the  fishing  region  from  the  English  was  a  favor- 
15  of  the  birds. — ^The  great  sea  fisheries  of  the  ite  project  with  the  revolutionary  leaders,  and 
United  States  are  mostly  carried  on  from  New  much  negotiation  upon  the  subject  was  held 
England.  They  date  from  the  earliest  settlement  with  the  French  government,  which  was  offer- 
of  the  country,  it  being  probable  that  among  ed,  in  case  of  success,  possession  of  one  half  of 
the  motives  that  led  to  the  colonization  of  Mas-  Newfoundland  and  equal  rights  with  the  Ameri- 
sachosetts  was  the  hope  of  profit  from  the  fish-  cans  in  the  waters  of  the  fishing  grounds.  These 
eries  on  the  coast,  which  Smith,  Ai'cher,  Brere-  projects,  however,  resulted  in  nothing.  In  the 
ton,  and  other  writers  of  the  day  represented  as  negotiation  of  the  treaty  of  peace  at  the  end  of 
surpassing  even  those  of  Newfoundland.  Ed-  the  war,  the  right  of  the  Americans  to  a  share 
ward  Window,  in  his  "  Narrative  of  the  true  in  the  fisheries  was  secured  by  the  firmness  of 
Groonds  and  Causes  of  tlie  First  Planting  of  John  Adams,  who  made  the  concession  of  that 
New  England,"  relates  an  interview  between  right  an  ultimatum  in  the  discussions  with  the 
James  I.  and  the  agent  of  the  Puritans  who  British  commissioners.  By  the  treaty  it  was 
went  over  to  England  from  Leyden  in  1618  to  agreed  "  that  the  people  of  the  United  States 
solicit  his  consent  to  their  going  to  America,  shall  continue  to  ei\joy  unmolested  the  right  to 
The  king  asked  them :  *^  What  profit  might  take  fish  of  every  kind  on  the  Grand  bank,  and 
arise?"  They  answered:  "Fishing."  Upon  on  all  the  other  banks  of  Newfoundland ;  also 
which  James  replied :  *'  So  God  liavo  my  soul,  in  the  gulf  of  St.  Lawrence,  and  at  all  other 
*tis  an  honest  trade ;  ^twas  the  apostles*  own  places  in  the  sea  where  the  inhabitants  of  both 
calling."  Very  soon  after  their  arrival  at  Ply-  countries  used  at  any  time  heretofore  to  fish ; 
moath  the  pilgrims  engaged  in  the  fisheries,  and  also,  that  the  inhabitants  of  the  United 
In  1624  they  sent  to  England  a  ship  laden  with  States  shall  have  liberty  to  take  fish  of  every 
fish,  and  in  the  next  year  two  others  with  fish  kind  on  such  part  of  the  const  of  Newfound- 
and  furs.  In  1628  they  were  selling  fish  to  the  land  as  British  fishermen  shall  use,  and  also  on 
Datcb  at  New  Amsterdam.  About  1670  the  the  coasts,  bays,  and  creeks  of  all  other  of  his 
profits  of  the  mackerel,  bass,  and  herring  fish-  Britannic  majesty's  dominions  in  America." 
eries  at  Cape  Cod  were  granted  to  found  a  free  To  check  the  growth  of  the  United  States  fish- 
school,  which  was  opened  in  1671.    From  Bos-  eries  and  to  promote  those  of  their  own  colo- 

TOL.  Til, — 84 


580  FTflHTvRTEB 

niea,  tho  British  poyernment  issacd  an  order  in  of  Febmory  and  tho  last  daj  of  Korcmber ; 

oooncil,  July,  17H3,  i>rohibiting  American  fish  tho  master  and  f  of  the  crow  must  be  citii^ns 

from  bttin^  carried  to  tlio  Britisli  West  Indies,  of  tho  United  Statca,  and  very  stringent  protif 

which  had  been  before  the  war  one  of  tho  best  mnst  be  hud  before  the  collector  of  the  dbuict 

markets  fur  the  New  England  trade  in  fish,  to  which  the  vcescl  belongs,  that  all  the  rcqizi- 

The  federal  government  early  recognized  tho  aitious  have  been  comiilied  with.    The  boontiet 

importance  of  tho  fisheries  and  the  necessity  allowed  are :  to  vesseu  between  5  and  30  tuoi» 

of  encouraging  them  by  legislative  action.    In  $3  50  per  ton ;  moro  than  80  tons  84  per  ton ; 

1789  congress  passed  an  act  granting  a  bounty  no  vessel  to  receive  more  than  %3>G0.    The  av- 

of-  5  cents  per  quintal  on  dri^  and  pickled  fish  erage  annual  arooant  of  these  bonnticfl*  of  late 

exported  from  tlie  United  States,  and  imposing  years,  is  about  $350,000.    In  the  summer  of 

a  Guty  of  60  cents  per  Quintal  on  foreign  fish.  1852  serioufl  troubles  broke  oat  on  the  fikhicc 

In  1792  the  bounty  on  uried  and  pickled  fish  grounds  of  British  America  between  the  Amtr- 

was  aboliijhed,  and  a  specific  allowance  was  ican  fishermen  and  the  British  authorities,  who 

made  to  vessels  cmployea  in  the  cod  fishery :  to  claimed  tlio  rigljt  to  exclude  the  former  from 

boats  between  5  and  20  tons,  $1  per  ton  annually;  tho  bays  and  inlets  of  tho  British  posseasiooiL 

to  those  between  20  and  30  tons,  50  cents  per  ton  This  claim,  which  was  supported  by  an  armed 

additional ;  and  to  those  more  than  30  tons,  $2  50  naval  force,  was  regarded  by  the  United  Suiet 

per  ton ;  but  the  annual  allowance  to  any  oiio  as  illegal,  and  the  war  steamers  Princetuo  and 

vessel  was  limited  to  $170.    In  1707  these  rates  Fulton  were  sent  to  tho  coast  of  Nova  Scotia  to 

were  increas^ed.     Vessels  of  the  smallest  class  protect  the  rights  of  tho  fi^hermcn.     The  di»- 

were  allowed  $1  GO  per  ton  annually ;  vessels  pute  was  temi>orarily  settled  by  mutoal  coc- 

upward  of  20  tons,  $2  40  per  ton ;  and  the  cessions,  and  in  1854  a  reciprocity  treaty  wn 

maximum  was  fixed  at  $272.    During  tho  war  agreed  upon  by  tlio  twocountricji,  containing  the 

with  England  in  1812-15  tho  enemy's  cruisers  following  stipulations  concerning  the  fifhvhei: 

kept  the  fishermen  from   tho  distant   fishing  **  The  inhabitants  of  the  United  States  ^hall  Lave, 

grounds.     Many  of  them  entered  tho  navy,  and  in  common  with  the  subjecta  of  her  Britannic 

the  frigate  Constitution  was  chiefly  manned  by  m^jest}*,  the  liberty  to  take  fish  of  every  kind 

them.    They  fitted  outnrivuteers  in  great  num-  except  shell  fish  on  tho  sea  coasts  and  liicffvA. 

bers,  and  though  remarkably  successful  in  their  nnd  in  the  bays,  harlior?,  and  creeks  of  Canada 

new  pursuit,  so  great  was  tho  number  who  New  Brunswick,  Nova  Scotia,  Prince  Edwarxi'i 

were  exposed  to  the  chances  of  war  that  among  island,  and  of  the  several  blands  tlior^nnto  »J- 

the  prisoners  discharged  from  Dartmoor  on  the  lacent,  without  being  restricted  to  any  di^tuce 

conclusiun  of  i)eare  there  wore  500  men  from  from  tho  shore,  with  |>enniM^ion  to  land  cp^'a 

tho  little  town  of  Murblchoad  uluno.     In  the  tlio  coasts  and  shores  of  tho«ie  CviK'niv*.  an«i :?  ■? 

negotiations  for  pence  the  £ngli>h  commission-  islands  tlicrouf,  and  al>o  upun   tho  \!/.,rijI^:o 

crs  strove  earnestly  to  ])rocure  tho  consent  of  islands,  for  the  purpose  of  drying  tl«.:r  i.c:*  a:.: 

the  American  commissioners  to  a  relin•|ui^h-  curing   tlieir  fl^h.■'     It  wo.-  spvfitivij   :J.a:  :  o 

ment  of  the  right  of  tho  United  Statvs  to  tlio  liberty  thus  granted  should  aiiily  f*Avl\  W  *-  '. 

nso  of  the  fishing  grounds  hut  tho  latter  wore  fisheries,  and  not  to  isilmon.  fhud,  ur  t-il.ir  r.  ■  r 

instructed  to  break  off  the  negotiation  and  como  fisheries;  nnd    that  tho   t!.-hcrin%u  ^l  t.'i  :  : 

home,  rather  than  allow  tlio  iiue>tion  of  Hir-  interfere  with  the  ri|:hts  of  privult-  jr  j^r 

rendering   the   fisheries  to  ho  discussed.     Tho  or  trespass  on  }  arts  of  the  h!n»re  (■«  •  u;  i-^*!     ; 

British,  however,  maintained,  even  after  ]»eaco  British  lishennen.     Similar  rij:hl».  ulrh  •■...«• 

was  concluded,  that  the  state  of  hostilities  had  reservations,  wero  graiiti'*!  to  Hriti'.;.  fi-?:-.  rr  - 

abrogated  the  concession  of  rijrhLH  made  in  17S;J.  on  the  coa.*t  t»f  tho  I'luied  Ma!«.s  n.-rih  .:  !^: 

Dis<-usaions  eUMied   between  tho   two  pt»vern-  li^W     Tho  total  value  of  ihi*   lipiiu.  :>  <{  :;  ■ 

nientfS  Mhieh  resulted,  in  1818,  in  a  convention,  R-a   fisheries  of  thv    I'nittd    Statu   txj»  r- : 

by   wliii'h   it  was  agreed  that  tho  Americans  during   the  year  ending  Jijtio    .'.0.    l'»'-\  » -• 

sliould  have  the  liherly  of  taking   fish  on  tho  $3,5"»i»,*2i>5.  *Of  this  Mim  $2,^»"'r'.'*4T  w  .«  u- 

southern  <'oa.st  of  Newtoundland  hetweon  Capo  prodiut  of  the  whale  ti*her>.  aii»l  #G*^.*4-    : 

Kay  nnd  the   Uanienu  islands;  from  C 'ape  Kay  the  ctul,  maekere!,  nnd  lu-.-r.n*:  li^hir.^-^w     1' 

to  the  Qiiir|K»n  i-hmds;  <in  the  i«h(»res  of  tho  island  of  Hay li  tovk  iif  the  exi-irt-*  «.-f  tliV  li'.:.r 

Magdalene  i-laniN;    and  aNo  on  tho  southern  fisheries  the  amount  i-f  |*J3:». «'.';•'•.  i  r  mifx.'  ::x: 

co:ist  of  Labrador   from    Mount  J^ilv  to   nnd  one  third  of  the  who:i».     The  he \:  U^t  ci*:,  r.-r 

Uirough    the   strait-*   of    liellei>le,  nnd    thonco  was  C'uhn,  which  totik  to  the  \ah:e4  i  |:j  •/. 

northwardly  indefinitely  alting  the  ctnist.     Tho  — He>ido  the  K-a  ti*ln  ries,  iho  rivir  ar.i  .i** 

Tnited  States  <»n  their  jart  renounced  lormally  r:?heries  of  tho  Tniti-il  M:»tis  arv  «.-:  jr\j: 

the   right   <'f  fishing  on   or  A\ithin    3  marino  i»<jrtanco.     There  are  \a!uaMe  *!.*-!  :';-::» r.«  ; 

mik-i    of  the    nritisli    dominion-*  in  Ameri<'a  the  0»nnccticut,  Huds<*n.  lKla»;ire.  r^:  c.  j- 

iM.t    included    in   the   n!'»>ve   spiM-itivd    limits,  nnd  (»ther  rivers  falling  into  tho  Ati  i:.:.<' 

T!ie  ui.t  of  congre?s   now  in  fon\'  rospeeting  great  lake  ll?«heri».-s  are  ihoM.'  of  Kr.-..  IT-*  :. 

ti-i.ii.^r  bounties    wa^    pa<sod  in    1*»1'.».     It  n-  Micl!l^'an,  nnd  Suji-rior.     The  wl.iu- !:*:.:»  :. 

cjii!rei  that   ve-^'k'ls  claiming'  bounty  shall  have  princii>«d  ohjeel  of  pursuit,  though  ir\»--;  i' - 

been   I. \rlii>.ivfly  employed  in   the  eo«l  li-liery  jiiekerel  aro  caught   i:i  hirge  lyj^i'.Mitrw     *-  ■ 

at  K-a  a  .*>i>ecified  j»eriod  be  I  ween  tho  luat  day  amount  token  annually  is  otiiuaUxi  a;  iC,<.«-*- 


FISHES  5S1 

barrels^  which  are  worth  nearly  $500,000.  From  they  will  never  recognize  and  probably  never 

the  rivers  flowing  into  the  lakes,  about  10,000  see.    A  few  females,  as  the  stickleback,  deposit 

barrels  of  pickerel,  worth  $85,000,  are  annually  egg^s  in  nests  made  by  the  males ;  some  carry 

taken.    The  fisheries  of  the  Pacific  coast  of  the  their  eggs  and  even  Uieir  young  with  them  for 

United  States  are  yet  in  their  infancy,  but  the  a  short  period,  and  feed  and  protect  their  litde 

rivers  of  that  region  abound  in  salmon  of  the  ones  like  true  mothers ;  but,  as  a  general  rule, 

finest  quality,  of  which  a  great  amount  is  already  the  joys  of  maternity  are  unknown  among 

annually  caught. — See  **  Report  on  the  principal  fishes,  and  the  sexes  care  nothing  for  each  other 

Fisheries  of  the  American  Seas,"  by  Lorenzo  even  in  the  breeding  season.    With  all  this  ap- 

Sabine  (Washington,  1852) ;   **  Report  on  the  parent  lack  of  enjoyment,  and  low  position  in 

Sea  and  River  Fisheries  of  New  Brunswick,"  the  vertebrated  series,  the  class  of  fishes  dis- 

by  M.  H.  Perley  (Fredericton,  1852).  plays  as  much  and  perhaps  more  variety  and 

FISHES,  the  lowest  class  of  vertebrated  ani-  elegance  of  form  and  beauty  of  coloration  than 

mals,  red-blooded,  breathing  through  the  me-  the  more  psychically  favored  birds  and  mam- 

dinm  of  water  by  means  of  hranchia  or  giUs.  mals ;  there  is  not  a  color  of  the  rainbow,  nor 

like  other  vertclt)rates,  they  have  an  internal  a  metallic  reflection,  nor  the  hue  of  a  precious 

skeleton,  the  brain  and  spinal  cord  protected  stone,  which  may  not  be  seen  in  the  banos,  spots, 

by  a  bony  cavity  and  canal,  muscles  external  to  and  scales  of  fishes.    Tlieir  beauty,  therefore, 

the  bones,  never  more  than  4  extremities,  and  as  well  as  their  utility  as  food,  early  drew  at- 

the  organs  of  special  sense  in  the  cavities  of  the  tention  to  these  inhabitants  of  the  waters ; 

head ;  living  in  a  medium  heavier  than  air,  and  many  tribes  of  men,  both  savage  and  civilized, 

Tery  nearly  of  the  same  density  as  their  bodies,  obtain  their  principal  nourishment  from  the  sea; 

locomotion  is  comparatively  easy,  and  their  the  countless  numbers  of  cod,  mackerel,  her- 

ibrm,  fins,  and  smooth  surface  are  admirably  ring,  and  other  migrating  fishes,  give  employ- 

cakolatea  for  rapid  progression ;  breathing  by  ment  to  thousands  of  men,  and  prove  important 

means  of  air  contained  in  the  water,  their  blood  items  of  national  wealth ;  on  the  one  hand,  the 

IS  oold,  and  consequently  their  vital  energy  is  poorest  person  may  satisfy  his  hunger  in  the 

less  than  that  of  mammals  and  birds.    The  cheapest  manner  with  fish,  and  on  the  other, 

brain  is  very  small,  and  the  organs  of  sense  cal-  the  wealthy  epicure  may  tempt  his  palate  by 

cnlated  to  receive  only  the  simplest  impressions  the  most  expensive  luxuries  from  the  same  sea ; 

of  sight,  smell,  hearing,  taste,  and  touch ;  gen-  the  aristocratic  salmon  and  turbot  swim  side 

eraUy  nnable  to  make  any  sounds,  with  an  in-  by  side  with  the  plebeian  tribes.    The  habits  of 

flexiblebody,  simply  articulated  limbs,  fixed  and  fishes,  even  of  the  most  common  species,  are 

■taring  eyes,  living  in  comparative  darkness  and  comparatively  little  known  from  the  difficulty 

nlenoe,  there  is  no  change  in  their  countenance,  of  observing  them  in  their  native  haunts ;  we 

no  expression  of  feeling  or  emotion,  no  appar-  know  that  some  are  solitary,  and  others  grega- 

ent  motives  in  their  monotonous  existence  be-  rious ;  some  great  wanderers,  others  restricted 

yond  the  necessity  of  supplying  themselves  with  within  narrow  limits ;  some  surface  swimmers, 

food,  escaping  from  their  enemies,  and  providing  others  remaining  near  the  bottom  or  at  great 

for  the  continuance  of  their  species.     Their  depths ;  some  living  on  sandy  bottoms,  others 

chief  pleasure  is  that  of  eating,  and  their  only  in  rocky,  others  in  muddy  localities ;  some 

danger  is  from  the  superior  strength  and  quick-  found  only  in  salt  water,  others  only  in  fresh, 

ness  of  other  inhabitants  of  the  waters  or  from  others  in  both  or  in  brackish  waters ;  some  seen 

the  artifices  of  man ;  to  eat,  and  to  avoid  being  only  near  the  shore,  others  in  very  deep  water 

eaten,  are  the  great  occupations  of  their  lives,  far  from  land ;  some  sluggish  like  the  skates, 

and  the  varieties  of  their  forms,  their  instincts,  others  active  like  the  sharks  and  scomberoids ; 

and  their  favorite  haunts,  are  intimately  con-  some  perish  quickly  out  of  the  water,  as  those 

aected  with  these  objects ;  the  movable  fila-  with  widely  open  gills  like  the  herring,  others 

mentsof  the  lophius  or  goose  fish,  the  prolonged  live  a  long  time  after  being  caught  like  the  eel, 

moat  of  the  pipe  fish  and  chsetodon,  the  wing-  or  can  travel  over  land  or  climb  trees  like  the 

like  expansions  of  the  flying  fish,  and  the  elec-  anabas  scandens.  It  is  to  be  hoped  that  the  study 

trie  annature  of  the  torpedo  and  g^-mnotus,  are  of  fishes  in  aquaria  will  furnish  valuable  addi- 

iU  instruments  either  for  offence,  defence,  or  tions  to  our  knowledge  of  the  most  common  spe- 

eac^ie.    Cold-blooded,  they  are  little  sensitive  cies.    When  wo  consider  that  more  than  two 

to  changes  of  temperature,  and  their  migrations  thirds  of  the  surface  of  the  globe  is  covered  by 

and  seasons  of  propagation  are  less  influenced  the  sea,  and  that  a  large  part  of  the  continents  is 

by  thermometric  conditions  than  are  those  of  occupied  by  lakes,  rivers,  and  marshes,  we  may 

the  higher  vertebrates ;  many  fislies  spawn  in  understand  the  importance  of  this  class  of  ani- 

winter,  and  it  is  in  the  cold  northern  waters  mals  in  the  economy  of  nature. — The  external 

that  the  innumerable  individuals  of  the  cod  and  form  of  flshes  is  very  various,  but  the  head  is 

berring  species  are  pursued  by  man.    Even  the  not  separated  from  the  body  by  a  distinct  neck, 

lores  ^  fishes  are  marked  by  the  same  sang  ,and  the  trunk  generally  is  continued  gradually 

froid;  very  few  species  have  sexual  union ;  In  into  the  tail ;  in  the  skates  the  tail  is  long  and 

most,  the  males  pursue  the  eggs  rather  than  the  distinct  from  fhe  body.     The  body  may  be 

feouuea,  and  coldly  fecundate  the  spawn  of  un-  rounded  as  in  the  diodon,  cylindrical  as  in  the 

known  adults,  firom  which  arise  young  which  eel,  compressed  horizontally  as  in  the  rays,  or 


582  nSHES 

flattened  verticallr  as  in  most  fishos ;  the  head  lets  of  the  mnciporoos  ghrnds ;  this  line  extends 

miiy  be  hir^er  than  the  binly  as  in  the  goose  from  the  head  to  the  caudal  fin,  generallj  at  the 

fiiiih,  ooniprcssitl,  angular,  and  obtuse,  as  in  the  mid  heii^ht  of  the  body,  nearer  the  back  in  fr«nQO 

biillhoud,  prolonged  inU)  a  bouk  as  in  the  pipe  fiitbea  than  In  othcRi,  sometimes  ceasing  \or.^ 

fish,  or  the  up|H.r  jaw  may  prokct  over  the  before  the  region  of  tlie  tail,  and  occa^onallr 

muuth  as  in  the  sword  fisli  and  bharks ;  the  multiple ;  the  scales  along  this  line  ore  arrlMTl, 

mouth  may  ui>on  on  the  midor  or  upiKT  surface,  notched,  or  perforated  for  the  protection  c-f  iltt 

or,  as  is  utiual,  at  the  end  of  the  snout,  with  a  ducts;  they  are  sometimes  larger  or  bnialHT 

greater  or  less  extent  of  gape.    The  nostrils  than  the  rest,  and  may  bo  the  only  ones  p^rva*- 

may  be  single  as  in  the  nharks  and  rays,  or  ent ;  they  often  have  strange  forms  and  amu' 

double  as  in  most  fishes.    The  eyes  vary  greatly  tures.    In  varioos  parts  of  the  body,  but  vaip^ 

in  size  and  in  direction ;  generally  on  the  sides  cially  about  the  bead,  are  numerouH  ports  or 

of  the  head,  in  the  uranoKopuM  they  look  up-  water  tubes,  by  which  water  is  introduced  into 

word,  and  in  tlie  flounder  family  both  are  on  the  system,  even  into  the  circulation ;  ec*a>e  an* 

one  side.    In  the  cartilaginous  flshes  theexter-  situated  along  the  lateral  line.    The  ti»oe  of 

nal  bi>rders  of  the  gills  are  attached  to  the  skin,  the  tish  skeleton  is  either  cartilage,  fibro-o^rti- 

and  the  gill  o{)enings  correspond  in  number  to  lage,  or  bono;  theflrstis  found  in  the  sharks  and 

the  intervals  between  the  branohiw ;  but  in  the  rays,  tlio  second  in  the  sun-fish  {ortha^rur^M} 

osseous  fishes  there  is  a  single  large  gill  oiK-ning  and  goose  fish  {laphiui^  and  tlie  last  in  oommoa 

on  each  side,  just  bi'hind  the  hea<l,  serving  fur  fishes;  the  chemical  compositicm  is  that  ofotlier 

the  exit  of  the  water  atter  it  has  lM.>en  swallow-  vertebrates,  principallv  the  phosphate  ondcarS^- 

cd  and  made  to  pass  over  the  gills,  the  flapping  nateof  lime.  The  osteology  of  the  head,  branchial 

of  the  gill  covers  assisting  the  respiratory  pro-  apparatus,  trunk,  and  limb^  has  been  alnady 


line,  or  lateral  and  in  pairs.    The  lateral  fins  Valenciennes,  vol.  i^  and  Owen  oa  ^  FVheft."— 

are  the  pectorals  imd  the  ventrals,  correspond-  Most  &hes  are  quick  in  their  movements :  t2.o 

ing  to  the  anterior  and   posterior  limbs  of  salmon,  for  instance,  can  swim  at  the  rate  of  J T 

higher  animals ;  the  pectorals  are  attache<l  be-  feet  in  a  second,  and  can  with  ease  pass  orrr  t" 

hind  tlie  opening  of  the  gills;  tlie  ventrals  are  to  25  miles  in  an  hour;  progression  »  etfir:*  i 

generally  on  the  lower  surface  of  the  body,  by  lateral  strokes  of  the  water  by  the  alt«ruk:c 

and  may  be  variously  placed  from  under  the  flexions  of  the  toil  and  trunk;  the  manr.«r::: 

throat,  even   in  advance  of  the  pe<*t orals,  to  which  the  vertebra?  are  connecti'd  allt»w*  *a-; 

the    oriirin    of   tlie    tail.      The   virtual    1ms  motion  of  tlio  spine  from  side  to  s-itJe,  ^i.--:  ■ 

siTve  tlie  i»ur;M>ses  of  keel  and  rudder,  and  are  nni!»eles  destined  to  move  it  are  !h»  lar^i  iy  .!.  -. 

tlie  dorsal  on  the  back,  the  anal  under  the  tail,  oiHi-*!  as  to  form  tho  lirimipal  bulk  i-l"  :.'.*.  S-:. 

and   tlie  caudal  at  the  end  of  the  bo<ly.     All  while  the  vertical  nus  imna-'e  the  a::.>  -l:  .: 

then*  this  vary  in  si/o  and  in  the  nu!nlK.T  of  rays  oar-like  surfare  for  i»urjKtM.'3  i»f  b-ooTii-  ::■:.. :' 

wliirh  sustain  them,  being  sometimes    spiny,  j)eot orals ainl  ventrals  keep  the  Ii-h  iii  a." '-;  r:  ' 

sometimes  soft,   branrhed,   and  coniposi*d  of  ]NiMtion,  and  assUt  in  direr: ing  ita  r«  tir*^  .  : 

many  small  ji»ints.    In  the  old  system  of  nonien-  movements  of  the  gill  covers,  ly  f.T*.i:.j  \  .>■ 


Chrtilri/in«»us  fi-^he^;    the-^e  ila-.-es   ha\'e   beeii  hteam  pro|>elIer,  and,  with  a>iii;i:ar  a  T. 

variim-Iy  Mibdividvil,  ami  tho  readier  is  referred  tail,  causes  a  forwanl  orb.ii:kwanl  i..-  :.  :.  v 

to  llie  ar:iile   h  nniYtnoi.Y  for  iho  numerous  out  any  apparent  movenuLti  f  the  !  -1.^  :  :i. 

clas-i:l»:it!un.-^  from  Artedi  to  Ai::L->iz.  The  anus  adjuAtuieut  of  the  movenivnis  if  t.\v  :".:>*    :  :. 

may  (Jkm  far  behind  the  ventrals,  int»ve  for-  pickerel,  so  that  while  e%i-ry  ray  ^cin.-ir. -, 

wanl  with  tliern,  and  in  their  al-senec  be  situ-  the  f^h  is  perfectly  stationary, *ii/>:  !.u^-  '• 

ated  even  un«h  r  the  throat,  as  in  nterwirrhm  ;  noticed  by  evtry  angler.   Then.ii\im*.:.'-*    ' '  * 

the  ia\v>  may  be  armed  with  dillerent  kinds  of  in  a  veriieal  din.i'tiou  are  gri.k:iy  a**^-'*  " 

teetli,  which  often  exi-'t  also  on  tho  tongue  and  tho   swiniining  «»r  air  bladder.   *iJ.:I..  :;    .- 

vari«»us  parts  of  the  mouth  and  thri»at :  the  lips  anatumirally   a  ruihiiuntan    l:::.j.    \\  V 

may  1m*  jimviiK-d  with  M-n-itivo  barbels  as  in  wl.ioh  it  M.entesenal'U-»  llie  iNl.^-*  ::.  /  ! 
the  hiirii  |M.iit,  it  \*i:h  Ik'^hy  a]>]ieuda^'rs  as  in^  to  ri^«  or  full  in  tlie  wali."  \\  i*.  !.:;  r-  -•. 

the  M.i  ra\i:i  • /t<mitrij>ttr'iAi.     The  bkin  may  extehMon  tXerri-^-d  ly  tho  ri^  -».  i:   >  5  ^ .  ■  - 

be  lit  nriy  ii.kid.  or  eoverotl  \*ith  \ery  Mnall  the  abilnnien,  uniKr  the  -'i-ii.e,  a:.!  c  :  :. 

m-ale^;    !|j,-  M.il.s  may  bo  ruiiirli  grains  as  in  cattsuAen  with  the (ps««|i.a*::>  ^r  ^:  r..-::  .' 


..^  k 


the  r^iark".  t}.i«  k  plates  as  in  t!ie  hturi;ii>n,  a    air  is  a  pri^lucl  of  M-cn  ti-.'::.  a:.-! 
ftiiiiMtth  « !i:tiiiiiiiMl  enat  uf  mail  as  in  the /' j'f-/'Mi-     revTVuir   Is   N>metii!iis  a   *l.i:*.  ^^' .   :'. 
Uu.*,  •■rnii..ih  .1"  in  tho  herriui:,  nr  M-rrated  as  in     wanting  in  Mime  ^|1^•ie'•  *'f  a  gii.'.i» 


1 


the  jt  r«'h.     AIoii^  the  side  of  the  biiU  is  the     ]*o>m>!>  it,  and  L<  geiUTolly  \%:T}  ^\\\^\  •  r  *.-* 
lateral  line,  formed  by  a  scries  of  j^ores,  the  out-    iu  ground  fish,  such  as  fekaSi;s  and  I:^U:j.  -^ 


FISHES  6S8 

some  cases  it  is  cotisiderablyyascTilar,resembliDff  idly  performed,  and  their  increase  in  size  la 
rery  much  a  pnlmonary  sac.  The  muscles  of  remarkably  affected  by  tiie  nature  and  abnn- 
fish  are  generally  pale  and  comparatiyely  soft,  dance  of  their  food ;  their  limit  as  to  size  and 
diyided  into  parallel  layers  by  aponeurotic  lami*  the  natural  duration  of  life  are  yery  little  known 
n» ;  the  flayor  and  odor  are  yery  different  from  in  the  great  majority  of  species. — The  blood  of 
thoee  of  flesh,  and  the  gases  of  decomposition  fishes  is  red,  and  the  globules  are  elliptical  and 
are  much  more  fetid.  Som^  fish  haye  a  singular  of  considerable  size.  The  heart  is  placed  nnder 
apparatus  by  which  they  adhere  to  other  the  throat  in  a  cayity  separated  from  the  abdo* 
bodies,  animate  or  inanimate ;  in  the  remora,  men  by  a  kind  of  diaphragm,  protected  by  Uie 
of  the  genus  ecAtfTi^,  there  is  a  flattened  disk  on  pharyngeal  bones  aboye,  the  branchial  itfchea 
the  top  of  the  head,  composed  of  moyable  carti-  on  the  sides,  and  generally  by  the  scapular  ardi 
lagoons  plates,  by  which  it  fixes  itself  to  stones  or  behind ;  it  consists  of  a  yenous  sinus,  auricle,yezi» 
the  bodies  of  other  fishes ;  in  the  lump  fish  and  tricle,  and  bulb ;  all  these  cayities  circdate  ye* 
other  diicoboli,  the  yentrals  are  arranged  to  act  nous  blood,  and  therefore  physiologically  corre- 
as  Bockers  for  attaching  them  to  yarious  sub^  spond  to  the  right  side  of  the  man^mfdian  hearty 
stances ;  the  lamprey  eel  (petromyzan)  also  at-  though  Owen  says  that  the  heart  of  fishes  with 
tachea  itself  by  the  mouth  to  stones  and  fishes,  the  muscular  branchial  artery  is  the  true  homo- 
Beferring  the  reader  to  Oompab  ATiys  Anatomy  logue  of  the  left  auricle,  yentricle,  and  aorta  of 
for  details  on  the  neryous  system,  the  organs  higher  yertebrates,  tracing  the  complication  of 
of  sense,  the  scales,  and  the  digestiye  apparatus,  the  organ  synthetically ;  the  auricle  and  yentri- 
only  ffeneral  points  of  interest  need  bo  men^  de,  howeyer,  are  alone  proper  to  the  heart  it- 
tioned  here.  The  cayity  of  the  skull  is  yery  self^  the  sinus  being  the  termination  of  the 
small  compared  to  the  size  of  the  body,  and  the  yenous  system,  and  the  bulb  an  addition  to  the 
brain  is  far  from  filling  it,  a  considerable  space  pulmonary  artery ;  these  4  compartments,  there- 
being  occupied  by  a  spongy  fatty  substance ;  the  fore,  are  not  like  the  4  diyisions  of  the  human 
lobes  are  placed  one  behind  the  other  in  the  fol-  heart,  but  succeed  each  other  in  a  linear  series, 
lowing  order  from  before  backward :  olfactory  The  circulation  is  double,  that  of  the  system  at 
or  lobes  of  smell,  the  cerebral  hemispheres,  the  large  and  that  of  the  branchiso  being  complete 
optic  or  lobes  of  yision,  and  the  cerebellum,  and  distinct,  and  there  is  also  an  abdominal 
From  the  scaly  coyering  of  their  skin,  the  sense  circulation  terminating  at  the  liyer ;  the  peculiar 
of  tonch  must  be  obtuse,  and  the  lips  are  their  character  is  that  the  branchial  circulation  alone 
only  prehensile  and  principal  tactile  organs,  with  is  provided  with  a  propelling  cayity  or  heart, 
the  exception  of  the  barbels  and  other  append-  the  branchial  veins  changing  into  arteries  with- 
ages  above  alluded  to.  The  corneous,  slightly  out  any  intermediate  left  auricle  and  ventricle. 
movable,  and  often  tooth-armed  tongue  receives  The  venous  sinus  receives  the  blood  from  the 
bat  few  nerves,  and  cannot  be  the  seat  of  any  general  system,  after  ihe  manner  of  veno)  cay» ; 
sense  worthy  oif  the  name  of  taste ;  and  more-  it  is  not  usually  situated  within  the  pericardium, 
over, the  food  does  not  remain  long  enough  in  the  The  auricle,  when  distended,  is  larger  in  propor- 
month  for  any  exercise  of  this  sense.  The  olfac-  tion  to  the  ventricle  than  in  Uie  higher  verte- 
tory  apparatus  is  more  complicated,  but  it  is  trav-  bratea;  its  walls  are  membranous,  with  thin 
ersed  neither  by  ^r  nor  the  water  used  in  res-  muscular  fasciculi,  and  its  simple  cavity  com- 
piration ;  the  nasal  cavities  do  not  communicate  municates  with  the  ventricle  by  a  single  open- 
with  the  mouth.  The  ear,  almost  always  en  ing  guarded  by  free  semilunar  valves,  2  to  4  in 
tirely  within  the  cranium,  on  the  sides  of  the  number.  The  ventricle,  usually  a  4-sided  pyra- 
bridn,  consists  essentially  of  a  vestibule  and  8  mid,  is  very  muscular,  and  its  fibres  are  redder 
semicircular  canals,  which  receive  the  vibra-  than  those  of  any  other  part  of  the  system ;  its 
tions  of  the  integuments  and  cranial  walls ;  there  cavity  is  simple,  the  auricular  valve  generally  free 
is  rarely  any  thing  that  can  be  called  external  ear,  and  without  chord®  tendinesB,  and  its  opening 
dram,  or  tympanic  cavity ;  loud,  sudden,  and  into  the  bulb  provided  with  2  or  4  semilunar 
strange  sounds  frighten  fish,  as  the  experience  of  vidves.  The  contractile  hulbus  arteriosus  is  pro- 
erery  fisherman  tells  him ;  in  ancient,  and  even  vided  in  the  ganoids  and  plagiostomes  with  sev- 
in  modern  times,  they  have  been  taught  to  come  eral  rows  of  valves,  and  its  muscular  walls  are  dis- 
and  receive  food  at  the  tinkle  of  a  bell,  or  the  tinctfrom  those  of  the  ventricle.  The  immediate 
pronunciation  of  pet  names.  The  eyes  have  nei-  force  of  the  heart's  action  is  applied  through 
tber  trae  lids  nor  lachrymal  apparatus;  the  pupil  the  continuation  of  the  bulb  into  the  branchial 
is  large  and  permanently  open,  the  lens  is  spheri-  artery,  which  is  generally  short,  and  is  divided 
call  and  the  flat  cornea  is  covered  by  the  skin,  into  lateral  branches  going  to  the  gills ;  the 
Hiui  are  very  voracious,  most  of  them  living  blood,  which  has  become  arteriolized  by  its  sub- 
on  animal  food,  and  swallowing  indiscriminately  jcction  to  the  air  contained  in  the  respired 
MDJ  thing  of  this  kind  which  comes  in  their  water,  is  carried  along  the  returning  vessela 
way;  some  genera,  like  the  lamprey  eels,  live  into  the  branchial  veins,  the  analogues  of  the 
upon  the  Juices  of  other  fish,  and  the  mouth  is  pulmonary  veins  of  roan ;  the  4  on  each  side 
provided  with  circular  cartilages,  fieshy  disks,  form  the  aortic  circle  fropi  which  the  pure 
tec^  and  a  pbton-like  tongue,  which  enable  blood  is  sent  over  the  system  through  the 
them  to  adhere  to  any  surface.  The  intestinal  carotids  and  the  aorta  and  its  branches ;  the 
eaaal  is  abort  and  simple,  and  digestion  is  rap-  blood  of  the  chylopoietio  viscera  passes  throng 


584  FI8HSS 

the   liver   before   entering   the   grcnt   sinns.  the  nterine  walk,  the  fish  is  called  OTOvivipi- 

Though  all  the  blood  passes  through  the  bran-  rous,  and  in  such  the  embryo  escapes  from  the  e^ 

chial  apparatus,  it  traverses  the  heart  but  once,  before  it  <^uits  the  parent,  while  in  the  ovijiara 

— ^Respiration  is  effected  by  means  of  the  innu-  the  ovum  is  expelled  while  the  embrro  i^  Ci>L- 

merable  vascular  lamellco  and  tufls  attached  to  tained  in  it ;  when  adhesion  takes  place  bv  va»- 

the  extcrnid  edge  of  the  branchial  arches;  these  cular  interlacements,  the  species  u  said  to  l>e 

are  generally  4  on  each  side,  each  composed  of  viviparous;  the  great  difference  between  vivi- 

2  rows  of  fringes;  in  most  cartilaginous  fishes  parous  fishes  and  mammals  is,  that  in  the  former 

there  are  6,  and  in  the  lamprey  7 ;  in  the  last  the  rupture  of  the  membranes  takes  place  lor.^ 

fish  there  is  a  canal  from  the  mouth  to  the  re-  before  birth,  while  in  the  latter  tliis  ocri:rs  &c 

spiratory  cavity,  resembling  a  trachea.    Fish  the  moment  of  exclusion.  The  sudden  and  grii: 

consume  but  a  small  amount  of  oxygen,  but  increase  of  the  milt  and  roe  is  not  compatiMe 

Bome,  not  content  with  that  contained  in  the  with  a  firm  bony  cavity  such  as  would  bo  furm^ 

water,  come   to  the   surface  occasionally  to  b^  ribs  and  sternum ;  this  explains  the  phy  >:ilu- 

swallow  air;  they  perish  soon  out  of  water  in  gical  reason  for  their  free  or  floating  ribL  At  the 

Proportion  to  the  quickness  with  which  the  gills  approach  of  the  breeding  season  the  colors  l>v- 

ecome  dry,  asphyxia  being  produced  not  by  come  brilliant,  as  b  familiar] v  seen  in  the  Iri^: 

the  want  of  oxygen  directly,  but  because  the  red  throat  of  the  male  stic^eback  ;  tlie  fcrn^t 

blood  cannot  circulate  in  them  properly  unless  seeks  to  deposit  her  eggs  in  shoal  water,  where 

sustained  and  kept  soft  by  water.    Though  fish  the  heat  and  liglit  of  the  sun  mav  bring  th-  vj. 

produce  little  heat,  some  possess  the  singular  to  maturity,  anu  the  male  follows  close  to  dlffit^c 

faculty  of  generating  and  discharging  electricity,  the  fecundating  milt  over  them.     It   is  wtl 

as  has  been  described  in  the  articles  Ekl,  anu  known  that  some  fishes  deposit  their  eg^  iz 

Elkotbio  Fisnis. — Fish  reproduce  by  means  of  species  of  nests,  as  the  stickleback,  bream  'j^^ 

eggs,  the  number  of  which  in  some  species  m0tU\  and  lamprey ;  Aristotle  mentions  a  &-]i 

amounts  to  hundreds  of  thousands ;  these  have  of  the  Mediterranean,  a  species  of  p^'-iuj,  i? 

generally  only  a  mucilaginous  envelope,  and  are  making  a  iicst  of  sea  weeds  and  depo^itinf  :Le 

fecundated  after  being  laid ;  a  few  eigoy  sexual  spawn  in  it,  the  male  keening  guard  over  ti.- 

eongress,  and  are  ovoviviparous  and  viviparous,  female  and  her  young ;  tne  hassars,  sUsr.  i.I 

but  the  young  are  almost  always  left  to  them-  fishes  of  Demerara  {MUichthy$)^  make  dc^u  •  f 

selves  as  soon  as  born.    It  is  owing  to  the  grass  and  leaves,  and  both  sexes  iru^ird  tlio  <^^ 

simultaneous  development  of   great  numbers  and  young;  the  toad  fish  {htitmchuMf  U^.^  l«i:: 

of  eggs  deposited  in  the  same  locality,  and  to  observed  on  tlio  south  shore  of  I>ung  i.-^-i 

tlie  instinct  possessed  by  some  species  to  keep  lying  concealed  in  deep  holes   prutc<-tir^  :*j 

in  company,  that  fish  occur  in  what  are  called  young,  wliioh  attach  the!U:k.'lvo^  to  >:.•:•-  ^j 

banks  :md  schools;  these  scliools,  comnosed  of  moann  of  the  yolk  sac.     AmitlK-r  ki:;I  «  f  i     ,• 

individuals  kept  together  only  by  Mmilurity  of  bation  h  found  in  tlie  pijM;  fi.'-h  (9yyi'jt,t!\'.> . 

food  and  habits,  and  in  wliich  each  one  looks  which  the  ova  are  transfcrrotl  I'mni  tl.o  f^.  . 

out  for  himself  without  rc:;ard  to  the  wants  of  to  a  kind  of  marsupial  i>ouch  under  tho  u  ! 

the  rest,  make  long  mij^ations  from  the  sea  to  the  male,  being  fecundated  during  thi*  j-r.*  •*•. 

the  rivers  and  back  again,  and  from  one  favorite  and  the  cavity  ch^ing  over  t!iem  ;  wf.tL  : 

ltK*ality  to  nnotlicr.     At  the  time  of  layini;  the  young  are  hatched  they  foUow  the  i:i:Ji-.  i. 

eg^  the  mi;:niting  species  generally  apiiroach  return  into  thei>ouch  at  thoapproni^!*  of  (Ll*.-  * 

the  nliores,  and   ascend   rivers,   oflen   coming  the  male   hipjHK'impu9  has   a  similar   »l'.  .'* 

tliousimds  of  miles;  year  after  year,  at  the  sjujio  dominol  mar>ui>ial  jK)Uoh.     In  some  ^j-^-:**    : 

seojion,  the  fish  nppi'ar  in  inmienso  numlKTs.  ba^re, a  siluroid  fish  fn>m  the  rivers  i-f."^::-;. .' 

The  migrations  of  the  herriii^s  salmon,  shad,  the  females  carry  their  eir^**  in  the  m-«:::\.  *:    ;■ 

smelt, mackerel,  &c.,at^ordwell-knownin^tances  ing  the  young  in  variiUM  ^t.<^^'S  of  (k-V(.!>  *  *-..  ' : 

of  th('*H)  phenomena.     All  fislic^^  are  of  distinct  even  to  the  lish  recently  hatched:    e^j*-  vf  - 

sex.  The  testes  vary  much  in  fonn  in  the  osseous  distinct  species  have  been  found  in  iJ.e  r:  . 

fishes,  and  are  remarkable  for  tlieir  enonnous  of   a  single  individual.     In   t!io  &«;  r^!  -.     - 

devehtpment  in  the  breeding  season,  when  they  trompcttU^  the  eggs  are  attarh«sl  ly  j-^-     "  - 

are  calle<l  milt  or  wit\  roo.    Tho  ovaries  in  most  surmounteil  by  cui»s  ti>  the  un<Iir  •itJv  if:' 

osseous  fishes  are  2  elon^cateil  s:ics,  closed  an-  abdomen  as  far  forward  a-*  ih-^  m  ii!?:.  i-"  : 

teriorly,  and  prinluced  jiosteriorly  into  short,  sides  to  the  jK'Ctoral  and  vmtri!  fin-k  a*  '  *• :.' 

straight,   and   wide  oviducts,    which    coalesce  as  the  middle  of  the  tail;  afli-r  thi^  t.v«  ir 

before  reaching  the  cU»aca;  the  greatly  de%'el-  hatchetl  the  |»edicKH  are  al*^ .rbe*l,     V.v.^v.-    • 

oped  ova  luv  calle*!  tho  rue.     There  are  sewral  fishes  may  l»e  divido<l  into  3  gn^D|-«     t:.^  £'•: 

interesting  jKiints  in  connection  with  the  devel-  includes  those  in  which  the  gt-<a:i^>ri  >  iJr  *•: 

opment  of  fishes,  which  will  be  K'tter  intro-  wholly  ovarian,  as  in  emhioU^ti^  ar.  i/..V't.  K.  . 

duccd  here  than  in  siH^cial  articles.     In  nioit  r*i»/ji,  &c.;  the  second  those  in  w?.ih  tS     z: 

fishes  it  h:iri  been  alrea^ly  stated  that  the  exclu-  enters  the  oviduct  bi'fitre  the  devi'l<ij'r::*r.:    : 

sion  of  the  ova  or  roe  precedes  fee undatic Ml,  and  tlie  embryo   l>egin\   a*i   in   the    r-lv'-'''"- ""  "■ 

tliat  in  a  few  (the  sharks  and  raysesi>vciiilly)  the  I*n»f.  J.  Wynian  ("  ProcetiHngH  of  si >•   !l  ■••  - 

ova  are  fecundated  before  exclusion  ;  when  the  Society  i>f  Natural  History,"  \t.l«  v.  ^-.J  \ .    *  a» 

embryonic  membranes  contract  no  adhvoion  to  described  the  devcIopmcuU>fd»a^i«;pi  o'n»-uv... 


FISHES  586 

in  which  he  found  the  ovarian  eggs  free  in  a  dis-  animal ;  he  has  raised  ammoeeUi  from  the  ^;g 
tinct  closed  sac,  as  the  mammalian  ovnm  is  in  of  petramyzon^  and  watched  the  change  of  the 
the  Graafian  vesicle ;  the  embryos  varied  in  former  into  the  latter  genas. — ^The  usnal  mode 
length  from  7  to  2^  inches ;  in  the  former  the  of  impregnation  in  osseous  fishes,  so  analogous 
yolk  bag  was  attached,  in  the  latter  it  had  dis-  to  the  manner  in  which  the  fertilizing  pollen  is 
appeared,  and  the  foetuses  had  escaped  into  the  brought  in  contact  with  the  stigmata  of  flowers, 
oviduct ;  here  the  gestation  is  carried  on  nearly  naturally  suggested  the  idea  of  artificial  impreg- 
to  its  completion  in  the  ovisac,  which  becomes  nation ;  and  this  has  been  successfally  practised 
vascular,  and  by  its  apposition  with  the  papilla)  in  Europe  both  by  naturalists  for  purposes  of 
of  the  yolk  sac  carries  on  the  functions  of  res-  the  study  of  embryology,  and  by  fish  breeders 
piration  and  nutrition ;  though  the  most  recent  on  a  large  scale  as  a  profitable  branch  of  in- 
reeearches  go  to  prove  that  the  fecundating  dustry.  The  operation  for  obtaining  the  ova 
fluid  comes  in  direct  contact  with  the  ovum,  and  milt  consists  simply  in  pressing  the  body  of 
and  perhaps  enters  its  substance,  the  surround-  the  fish  from  the  head  toward  the  tail,  and  in 
ing  membrane  in  anablepa  would  tend  to  pre-  collecting  the  excluded  particles  in  a  common 
vent  any  snch  entrance.  In  the  emhiotoeoida  vessel ;  the  contents  are  occasionally  put  in  mo- 
of  California  the  mode  of  development  is  similar;  tion  in  order  to  prevent  the  growth  of  parasites 
in  E.  lineata  Mr.  Girard  found  young  8  inches  upon  the  eggs,  which  are  very  sure  to  destroy 
long  and  1  inch  deep ;  in  another  genus  of  the  them ;  a  low  temperature  and  even  desiccation 
group  (holconottui)  he  detected  as  many  as  is  not  necessarily  fatal,  so  that  many  kinds  in  a 
16  young  about  an  inch  long,  which  had  nearly  mature  state  may  be  transported  for  con- 
evidently  recently  escaped  from  the  q^^  shell ;  siderable  distances ;  it  has  been  estimated  that 
the  ovarian  gestation  here  is  somewhat  different  a  million  of  trout  may  be  rused  in  this  way  at 
from  that  in  anableps^  as  the  young  ova  are  seen  a  cost  of  less  than  $200.  The  disappearance  of 
between  the  dividing  membranes  of  the  ovary  salmon  from  many  localities,  and  the  scarcity 
while  the  foetuses  are  in  course  of  development  of  trout,  both  of  which  are  in  demand  at  high 
in  the  general  cavity  of  the  organ ;  it  is  not  de-  prices,  should  lead  pisciculturists  to  propagate 
termined  whether  their  ova  leave  the  ovisac  artificially  these  and  other  valuable  fish ;  it  has 
before  or  after  impregnation.  Many  species  of  been  practised  extensively  in  France  and  Scot- 
gadid<B^  as  the  cod,  haddock,  whiting,  and  land,  and  the  shad  and  alewife  have  been  ex- 
American  hake,  have  been  found  to  have  a  vi-  pcrimcntally  raised  in  the  United  States  on  a 
Tiparous  reprodnction,  the  embryos  being  devel-  small  scale.  Fish  readily  adapt  themselves  to 
oped  within  the  ovary,  thus  confirming  the  sup-  new  localities,  both  marine  and  fresh- water 
position  of  many  intelligent  fishermen.  In  the  species ;  pickerel  were  easily  introduced  into 
olenny  (zoarees  anguillaris)  the  ovarian  bag  of  the  ponds  of  Berkshire  co.,  Mass^  and  the  great 
the  mature  eggs  has  been  found  to  bo  a  double  pike  of  the  northern  lakes  has  been  transplanted 
aac,  having,  however,  a  disk  of  considerable  to  the  Connecticut ;  the  salt-water  smelt  lives 
size  uncovered  at  the  upper  part,  where  the  in  Jamaica  and  other  ponds  in  Massachusetts; 
spermatozoa  may  come  in  contact  with  the  yolk  and  the  tautog  has  found  a  new  home  in  Kassa- 
membrane ;  this  condition  has  been  also  found  chusetts  bay,  north  of  Cape  Cod.  The  expense 
in  skates  and  tortoises,  and  probably  exists  in  is  trifling,  the  knowledge  required  small,  and  the 
all  vertebrates.  Internal  impregnation  is  very  labor  slight,  of  raising  and  introducing  new 
general  in  the  plagiostomes,  and,  as  this  is  more  species  of  flsh ;  but  the  advantages  in  a  pecn- 
certain  than  the  indiscriminate  spawning  of  niary  and  sanitary  point  of  view  are  very  great, 
common  fishes,  the  eggs  are  much  fewer  in  num-  It  is  to  be  hoped  that,  with  the  prevailing  high 
ber  and  of  larger  size,  as  in  birds ;  the  egg  in  its  prices  of  meat,  legislatures  and  individuals  will 
passage  through  the  oviduct  receives  a  dense  soon  see  the  importance  of  giving  special  atten- 
corneous  covering,  so  that  the  cases  resemble  tion  to  this  new  industrial  pursuit,  and  place 
oblong  flattened  pillows,  often  with  long  ten-  pisciculture  by  the  side  of  agriculture  and  hor- 
drils  at  the  comers,  in  which  the  embryo  is  ticulture  as  an  element  of  national  prosperity, 
snugly  coiled  up ;  they  become  attached  to  To  say  nothing  of  foreign  fish,  such  as  the  turbot 
objects  floating  near  the  surface,  and  are  there  and  the  sole,  which  might  be  advantageously 
developed  by  the  infioence  of  solar  light  and  introduced,  there  are  many  native  species  of 
heat;  from  the  researches  of  Prof.  J.  Wyman  great  value  which  are  not  appreciated  here; 
it  appears  that  in  the  skates  the  eggs  are  fecun-  nsh  highly  prized  in  Europe  are  not  thought 
datea  in  the  ovary,  and  that  the  egg  case  is  edible  in  New  England ;  even  our  despised 
Ibormed  in  advance  to  receive  it  as  it  descends,  skates  would  be  considered  worth  attention  in 
From  these  and  other  structural  peculiarities  the  old  world.  Massachusetts  is  annually  a 
Ptol  Agassiz  has  separated  the  chimsdrse,  loser  by  many  thousands  of  dollars  through 
aharka,  and  rays  from  fishes  proper,  and  ele-  unfoimded  prejudices  against  such  flsh  as  the 
rated  them  into  a  class,  the  selachians.  Many  pollock  and  whiting;  it  is  only  within  a  few 
fiKta  go  to  show  that  fishes  undergo  a  kind  of  years  that  the  blue  fish,  long  considered  a 
metamorphosis  as  well  as  insects.  August  delicacy  in  New  York,  has  been  offered  for  sale 
M&ller  has  proved  that  the  2  genera  hitherto  in  Uie  Boston  market ;  in  like  manner,  the 
ooDsidered  characteristic  of  the  cyclostome  pollock,  which  along  the  shore  of  Conneoticat 
flabea  are  really  different  stages  of  the  aame  aeUs  for  5  or  6  cents  a  pound,  in  Masaaohiifletts 


536  FISHES  FISK 

is  considered  fit  only  for  mftntiring  land  or  for  ore  fonnd  from  the  Kilurian  to  the  torlLiry  for- 

grinding  up  into  uorkercl   bait.     In   various  iuatii>n<if  and  arc   of  ^rvul  aid  in  dc!«.rmi:.:r.^ 

parts  of  tlic  Union  similar  prejudices  deprivo  the  changes  of  tho  sr.riWe  of  our  planet  dnr::.  * 

the  people  of  abundant  and  'wholesomo  articles  successive  and  long  geulo;;ical   piTf  n1^.     T:.v 

of  food. — In  niof*t  iitdies  tho  voung  when  batch*  first  grvat  gt*ological  division,  tlie  primary  aj  ■. 

ed  are  left  to  shifl  for  themselves,  and  of  course  compn!«es  tlie  U)\rer  and  up[>er  hilurian  and  i:.o 

tJio  greater  number  are  devoured  by  larger  fish,  devonian ;  dorinK  this  there  wcrv'  n«>  air  Lnia::.- 

aquatic  bird?,  and  reptiles;  many  species  devour  ing  animals,  and  fishes  wvro  the  lords  of  crt-A- 

cach  other ;  small  mackerel  are  often  found  in  tion ;  it  has  therefore,  Ih;vu  v<.  ry  pr<  •(k-rly  lal'.- 

tbo  stomachs  of  largvr  individuals,  when  they  cd  tho  ^'rei^'n  of  fishes/*    IVof.  A}:a.v>;z.  in  h.i 

arc  abundant;  so  that  with  all  their  feeu ml ity  Becfurehts  iur  la  poisAon*  /"^ftiU*  O^'^-'*^". 

tho  class  of  fishes  doos  not  multiply  beyond  (he  laid  the  foundation  of  fo^il  icht]iyt»l«r^y ;  1.>«-j 

limits  set  by  nature.    ThonLrh  fi-^h  are  cold-  specios  are  (kriKTiitLtl  in  the  m«ist  coznplotc  :inl 

blooded,  and  the  watery  element  is  less  nfiTectod  scientific  manner,  with  su{»erb  illustratinuj.  lit 

by  suddou  changes  of  temperature  than  the  air,  divides  fossil  li>hci,  a*  ho  afterward  did  liio  r^- 

there  are  external  circnmstances  wliich  limit  cent  oncis  into  4  orders,  according  ti>  the  iorzz 

their  distribution  both  in  depth  and  extent  of  and  structure  of  their  scales*,  thcv  orU-rs.  ^- 

surface.     The  differouoe  in  density  and  chom-  noids^  placoids,  ctenoids  and    lyrli^iJ-i^  !];.■.« 

ical  const  it  ution  of  sidt  and  fresh  water  draws  tho  been  suflScicntly  deMTiboU  in  the  nrtirlo  C*  v- 

line  bet  Ween  the  marine  and  the  fluviatile  faunae;  parative   Anatomy   tvol.  v.  p.   TiG-;.     Tl.rixr 

below  a  certain  depth,  probably  not  far  from  fourths  of  all  known  fo^sil  fi-hes  U  K*::^  :•<  lit 

120  fathom^  the  absence  of  light  and  the  in-  ctenoids  and  rydoitK  whicli  iKvur  in  all  f-rca- 

creaso  of  pressure  would  prove  an  insurmount-  tioas  from  the  chalk  npwzird ;    the  nm&.L.:.j 

ablobarrier  tomost  oftheclasH.  Though  fish  are  fonrth  l»elong  ohieily  to  the  paioiiU  <  u  nU  vr.- 

able  to  resist  extreme  cold,  and  to  regain  vital-  amelled  K'ales  like  the  gnrpike  and  sturjei  :> 

ity  after  having  been  apparently   fmzen,  tho  and  tlie  pla4.'oids  dike  >hark»  zmd  ray*.),  axi'i  <-x- 

avcrage  of  cold  has  an  important  intluence  on  tend  through  all  the  fiv^-ilifenms  straiAp  bit  a:: 

their  geogrnphicid   distribution;    the    average  most  numerous  in  the  i-ual,  .lur:^-!>.iii\  oh^k.  a::! 

tem]>erature  of  the  water  for  the  year  has  been  tertiary  iormatiouri ;  no  fi>h  with  ci^i«o:d  «i.il  -« 

osnully  taken  as  the  regulator  of  this  dibtribu-  (like   the  ]>ereh)   or  cycloid  dike   tlie  ct^ii  .• 

tion,  but  Dana  has  shown  that  tho  lino  of  tem-  found  below  the  chalk.     The  fi>rm<  K*i  :l.e  r.-- 

perature  establishe<l  by  the  average  of  the  30  lier  li'^hes  were  many  i)f  ihciii   v«.ry  i»:ra:.j' 

coldest  days  in  the  year  gives  the  cine  to  tho  the  pectorals  were  Mnall  an<lalHav-«  in  ^c\^.-i 

limits  of  the  marine  faume.     A  few  anlii'  sj»e-  of  the  veninds:  uU^w  tin-  rh:u»:.  t:.*-  -.i  :.::-!• 

cies  are  the  >ame  in  Ajiierica  anil  Knntpe.  mi-  be^'in  to  .ippri»ai-Ii  iii.irer  iJie  l.»..i:.  ::  ■  v  •    - 

grating  southward  frnni  the  same  northiTii  ren-  nut  t,,  r.;'.ly  di.vi'l4.pi  d  a-*  k*'.,t  :'.-!.».-.■   .:    • 

trc  ;  but  beluw  tliis  ngion  ttio  marine  fauna  of  tn  liuvc  1'vi.n.  like  the  tti;ri:vi':i.  ar.-i  -i*:  . 

America  i**  *.ssriiti:il!y  tri»pic:il,  and  iLat  of  Eu-  devilnpniiTit.     Ihiriijji  thi*  »r.«.  ■:  '...•   ^  . 

n.>pe  es,-i'ntially  temperate.     In  tho  All.inlic  tlie  ered  the  \\lu»*e  -i'-irlaee  of  ll:t   -'.'•'."■,  ;*    :  i .  .  ■ 

z«wes  of  ten. perature  .'ire   ri-niarkjilly  nuMJitied  iniaU  wliose  rviiKiiri*'  have  !«\v:i  j  ri  -*  r*.*-:  ■ 

by  the    areti<\  <Juif  stn-n?n.  ahd   African  eur-  witimui   e\«e;'!ii'n  aijii.itii-.  l-re.*::.  i  j     ;.  j    • 

rents  :  on  l!ie  Aiiierii'aii.-ide  the  ti  n.pi-rate  Zone  the  «*liinato  i:.u-t   have   h*.-.n   t::..:'  ::  .  .   :;. 

extelhK  ti::ly  fr.>::i  Cape  C'i"I  to  Cap*-  llatl^nts  land  liad  !.'»;  aj  piaivd  al-ovt-  '.:,-   \\ .»'..  :*.  ;.;   . 

about  10  «le::n'o-.  of  lAtitui'.i-.  while  on  the  i-a'-t-  creation    wu'i  a-i  s;lint  :is  ir.  :..;\  ■-•..         ;    * 

ern  it  ext«.iK'.«»  In.»m  thr  >\vedi"h  oia^t  to  t).e  the  sy-tenuiiie  ehi^itiiMii-  :i  i-:"  :.-!.  -.  a:..;  : 

Cape  N'eril  i-'l.inils.  nearly  o  linifs  a-*  many  d""*-  hi-t«»ry  of  l!ie  >tienee,  -^v  li  -iniY-'i-  ■.^. 
grees  ;  wliile  tlivtropii.il  /.oin-,  whii  h  in  Anieri-         riSlIKlI.l..  alown'^hipi-:'  !»■:•«  :.■  ^-t     .  N  V 

ca  e.vlii.i!^  froiM  Cape  llaitvra-i  til -."> '  ."^  .  <»r  t-o  <»]']H'siiv   Nrwlmr^'.   on   li.r   ii  ;•;-  ::   :.*^r.    -   . 

defrrois.  <>v.  tin-  otlier  >i"le  iiii!»raeii  unlv  al.nut  inlvr>' eivd  !iv  tin-  lI>:iiM.>:i  liiMr  r.4;.r.  aJ  .   : 

20  dei^i\i>  <'\\  till'  Afrii-an  (iiiii;ra  rtia>:.      Asa  in    l*^-"*,    ''.T'.'L      II   li.i*  a   vill.io-  •  !   :.  .   -^-u 

few  iij>tuniH-*of  li.Kal  di-triltutiiin.  in  ei>fitradl>-  nanu-  >:t'iatiil  a:»i."Ut  ."»  :jj.  jri::»  :!:i-  li  i.*-  ::  .     i 

tinction  to  t!ie   ^■o^l:illp^l'.■tan   "••'•iinlMruiil'*  Mid  sniall  strvani  •'a;l«il  ri-hkiil  «  .-i  •  ».  .,:  .:    >  :  *-.  ■  ■ 

cyprinoids,   may  l-v   nuiilionid   thi-   Anuriean  in^' -t  "f  "•  ehuri  in -.  an  a*-.i-i"  :,.y.  j   :.*  •*  •      -: 

cottoid?    aiid    pMiiiHlii',:^.    tin-    Meditirrauran  iillict  *.  and  a  l-.iiik.    -Ki^hkmi   ;\n::n-.-». 

sparoids,    thu     tr'»]iirai     '•i  ia  noid^.     ^y'.*i //*»/</-  attd  «•:»  thi'  ll'jd^'ii  rivvr,  ;»t  :';.•  :   ■■■.•....!  :  ■.- 

penn.r,  and   l:!iillrl«j;    the  }•!«  \ri'!nrfi,i.r   «if  thn  kill  «Tn:k,  al.d  «.!i  ;he  i;i:.*  oT  l;i.    ii  .''.-  :.  1..     : 

ttmiH  rate    nyitMi-i  :    thf    !r».;.i.-,il    tr.  >.l.-wattT  railr.'aii;   pop.  i-i  l*»''i.  l,j"'\      ir  i.i    .:  ..■-  -. 

c/uirtirini  nf    Ainerira  aiii!   Alrii-a;    the  iru»«  eral  eliurriii -.  l'» -ir  IJ -t*>ri -.  .kii  :      .  :■   . 

Mh:iii::.i    iif    arrtii*  a;.«l   ruM    n^'ifri-.:  ar.d  tlii-  a  T::aihine  >Iii»j'.  asjd  AK^-'  i-v  '.vr:^-       A  .  ". 

inarijsi'     Li'Tnids    and    fri"«};-^\uii  r     rlirniuiiN.  eonni-i:.- it  \^  itii  Nev\  !.;;r^'. 
K>tiniatjiu'   t!ie  numl"  r  of  ViTtri'ra!i  •;  at    *2'K-         V\>\\.  ruNV.  :.ti  An-.  ri«-.ui  :•".-«.■    ."/      ■  "■ 

^".H.i.  tin-  i.ju'ii  r  III'  li\inf;  ^I-^•  :i'»  i-f  iWii   niiiv  in  Sin  liiurni-.  M.i-*-.  Jt»'  -I,  IT.-J.  .;..-.  .-..• 

Ihl*  Set  isi.wn  a:    Iimn  •),  of  wi.iili  i.'.nr.-    tiian  rNit.  S_\r!;k  ( >- :.  ..i.  l^-'l'*.     ili    v  ^-  ^■-.. 

6.C»0  )  ar«' ih-Mii).,.!. — <  >f  n-l  l).r  v.-rN-Lraift.  I'.-Ji-  at  Ml•lliie^ur^  t.'ii.-.v;;i  1^11.  <  ..   ■  \  \  .  -     . 

ei  are    liv   :".ir  tin-  ::iii*t  numerou-*  and  wid-ly  .it  Andover,  and  s.»:!"  d  a-  a  :»..-»:  ■    .■>  •  r  .  -  ■ 

distributed  in  tlit-  cartlt'.i  slrat:i:  their  remains  Csliue.  N\'V.  3.  l?ly.     Oa  rvai.i.*::-:  ?L.»::^a  >■ 


nSK                              •  FISTULA                       687 

engaged  in  the  stndy  of  the  eastern  langnages,  serionsly  impaired  his  health,  and  he  conse- 
anu  soon  went  to  Scio  to  stady  modem  Greek ;  qaently  made  a  voyage  to  Europe  in  1 835-^6, 
but  as  that  island  was  desolated  by  the  Turks  and  embodied  the  result  of  his  observations  in 
in  1821,  he  went  to  Egypt,  and  thence  across  a  volume  of  "  Travels  in  Europe."  During  Ids 
the  desert  to  Jndasa,  visiting  various  places,  per-  absence  the  general  conference  elected  him  to 
fecting  himself  in  his  studies,  and  preaching,  till  the  ofSce  of  bishop  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal 
the  time  of  his  death.  When  overtaken  by  his  church,  which  after  deliberation  he  declined, 
last  illness  he  was  just  completing  an  English  FISTULA,  an  ulcer  in  the  form  of  a  narrow 
and  Arabic  dictionary.  canal,  more  or  less  deep  and  sinuous,  lined  by 
FISK,  Wilbur,  D.D.,  an  American  clercy-  a  pale  false  mucous  membrane,  indolent  and  in- 
man  and  educator,  born  in  Brattloborough,  Y  t..  disposed  to  heal,  kept  up  by  some  locsd  patho- 
Ang.  81,  1792,  died  Feb.  22, 1889.  He  passed  logical  condition  of  the  soft  parts  or  bones,  or 
bis  early  youth  in  desultory  reading,  and  it  by  the  presence  of  some  foreign  irritating  body, 
was  not  until  he  was  in  his  17th  year  that  the  and  leading  or  not  to  a  suppurating  cavity, 
advantages  of  a  school  were  opened  to  him.  There  may  be  a  single  external  or  internal 
In  1809  he  went  to  a  grammar  scliool  at  Peach-  opening,  or  there  may  be  a  communication  be- 
am, where  he  made  rapid  progress  in  his  stud-  tween  the  skin  and  the  mucous,  serous,  or 
ies,  and  in  1812  he  entered  the  sophomore  class  synovial  cavity.  Some  writers  restrict  the 
in  the  university  of  Vermont,  at  Burlington,  term  fistula  to  such  of  the  above  lesions  as  take 
The  war  with  England  interrupting  the  ex-,  their  origin  from  some  natural  cavity  or  ex- 
ercises of  the  institution,  and  finally  resulting  *  cretory  duct,  while  those  communicating  with 
in  tlie  occupancy  of  the  college  building  by  the  abscesses  and  caused  by  foreign  bodies  or 
U.  S.  troops,  ho  entered  Brown  university  at  disease  of  the  bones  are  called  fistulous  ulcers 
Providence,  R.  I.,  where  he  was  graduated  in  or  sinuses ;  but  the  distinction  is  of  little  im- 
1815.  Soon  afterward  he  entered  the  office  portance,  as  the  pathological  conditions  and 
c^  the  Hon.  Isaac  Fletcher  of  Lyndon,  and  com-  the  principles  of  treatment  are  the  same.  Fis- 
menoed  the  study  of  law,  which,  however,  he  tula)  arise  when  abscesses  are  not  thoroughly 
did  not  long  pursue.  It  being  necessarv  for  healed  from  the  bottom,  when  any  irritating 
him  in  consequence  of  the  expense  which  his  substance  (as  a  ligature  or  a  piece  of  dead  bone) 
collegiate  course  had  involved  to  seek  at  once  remains  in  the  tissues,  or  after  wounds  of  ex- 
some  profitable  employment,  on  the  recom-  cretory  ducts.  If  superficial  and  of  recent 
mendation  of  the  president  of  Brown  university  origin,  fistulas  may  heal  of  themselves ;  but  if 
he  became  a  private  tutor  in  the  family  of  Col.  deep-seated  or  chronic,  they  generally  require 
Ridgely,  near  Baltimore,  Md.  While  thus  en-  surgical  interference.  They  are  usually  rather 
gaged  he  resolved  upon  entering  the  ministry  tedious  and  annoying  than  dangerous ;  but 
of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  church.  His  first  when  large,  deep,  with  several  openings  and 
appointment  was  Craftsbury  circuit,  where  he  profuse  discharge,  they  may  produce  hectic 
labored  2  years.  In  1819  he  was  appointed  to  fever  and  fatal  exhaustion.  The  principles  of 
Charlestown,  Mass.  His  labors  in  this  field  treatment  are,  to  remove  any  irritating  cause, 
were  too  great  for  his  feeble  constitution,  and  as  a  piece  of  dead  bone  or  foreign  body;  to 
he  sunk  under  them  during  the  second  year,  prevent  the  accumulation  of  matter,  by  counter 
and  was  placed  on  the  superannuated  list.  In  openings,  if  necessary,  and  by  properly  direct- 
1824  he  was  a  delegate  to  the  general  confer-  ed  compression ;  and  to  excite  adhesive  inflam- 
ence,  and  was  chosen  to  write  the  address  mation  by  pressure,  stimulating  injections  and 
to  the  British  conference.  At  the  ensuing  applications,  setons,  caustic,  and,  as  a  last  re- 
Besnon  of  the  annual  conference  he  was  recog-  sort,  incision  of  the  fistula,  that  the  soft  parts 
nized  as  the  principal  of  the  Wesleyan  academy  may  have  an  opportunity  of  healing  from  the 
at  Wilbraham,  an  institution  which  had  already  very  bottom  of  the  wound ;  the  constitution 
under  his  auspices  risen  to  considerable  emi-  should  also  be  strengthened  by  nourishing  diet 
nance.  He  was  a  delegate  to  the  general  con-  and  tonic  medicines.  The  most  common  varie- 
ftrenoe  of  1828,  and  was  by  that  body  elected  ties  are  the  anal,  lachrymal,  salivary,  and  uri- 
Inahop  of  the  Canada  conference,  which  he  de-  nary  fistulro. — Anal  fistula  is  situated  by  the 
c^Ded.  In  1829  he  received  the  degree  of  D.D.,  side  of  the  sphincter  ant  muscle,  and  is  difficult 
and  was  elected  president  of  Lagrange  college,  to  heal  both  on  account  of  the  constant  muscn- 
and  also  professor  in  the  university  of  Alabama,  lar  contractions  and  the  passage  of  fsBcal  matter 
These  with  other  and  more  lucrative  offices  were  into  it.  There  may  be  an  opening  into  the  bowel 
tendered  him,  but  such  was  his  desire  to  advance  internally  and  externally,  either  or  both;  ao- 
the  cause  of  education  in  the  Methodist  church,  cording  to  Brodie,  this  affection  always  begins  bv 
particolarly  in  New  England,  that  ho  declined  an  ulceration  on  the  side  ofthe  rectum  into  which 
them  all  and  continued  at  his  post  until  1880,  the  faocal  matter  escapes,  causing  abscess  and 
when  he  was  elected  president  of  the  Wesleyan  consequent  fistula ;  but  in  some  cases  there  is 
milvernty  at  Middletown,  Conn.,  which  under  no  opening  into  the  bowel,  the  sinus  reaching 
hia  charge  became  exceedingly  popular.  At  the  only  to  its  outer  coat ;  tliis  affection  is  frequent- 
genaral  conference  of  1832  his  appeals  in  behalf  ly  a  painful  complication  of  consumption.  The 
of  Indian  missions  resulted  in  the  organization  simple  and  efficient  remedy  for  this  fistula  is 
ai  the  Oregon  mission.    But  his  labors  had  now  division  of  the  walls  from  the  internal  opening 


538  FITCn 

to  the  skin,  so  as  to  prevent  mnscnlar  contrac-  under  very  unhappy  inflnonrcA.  till  the  are  of  1" 

tions;  iilter  this  operation  the  intro<lurtion  of  years,  when  he  was  einpluyc<i  ft»r  s«'!i:c  iiii.v  •  : 

lint  alli»ws  tlie  wound  lo  lieal  hy  granulation  coasting  vessels,  and  then  l»ecanio  :i[>j'reii:.- •■  :• 

from  the  bottom.     This  affeclion  is  ocmsidera-  a  clock  maker.     lIisma*terH»  utterly  iivjU' t'v 

bly  more  conn  mm  in  males  tiian  in  females. —  his  instruction  in  the  art  that  he  wa-  Lr.a'r '.%.  t. 

Lachrymal  fistula  is  Bituated  at  the  inner  corner  pursue  it,  and  on  reachini!  m.inli'HKi  hv  c:. 

of  tho  eye,  and  comnmnicatcs  with  the  lachry-  menced  business  as  a  bravs  fouiidi-r  in  a  «r;.^.; 

mal  sac ;  it  bopins  by  an  ol>struction  of  tho  nasal  way,  faileil  in  an  attempt  Xo  maiiuiacture  ]-  ■:«-? . 

duct,  followed   by  inflammation,  abscess,  and  married  unhap]>ily,  separat til  frmn  hi.'*  «i:-:.:  : 

fistulous  openin;?.     Ik'side  the  usual  remedies  for  two  children  (toward  tlie  latter  i>f  whom  )ic  •  ':.?.:- 

acute  and  clironic  inthumnation,  tho  obstructed  ished  the  stron^rest  affection.  an>I  in  ut'ttrl.:'-. 

duct  may  be  re>tored  by  tho  intnxluction  of  a  made  persistent  but  inetlVetual  etVort*  fi^r  a  :-.- 

metallic  or  clastic  St  vie.     In  a  similar  manner  conciliatiun  with  them),  and  H.-ttlL-il  in  Nen  Jt.'- 

tlie  duct  of  Steno  may  be  obstructed,  so  that  eey  ha  a  button  maker  and  MlverMuitli      AV...i 

tho  saliva  dribbles  out  on  tho  cheek  instead  of  tlierevolutiomiry  war  broke  out,  he  wa>v*ti  *i  :.■ 

f>assin;;  into  the  month ;  the  renunly  is  to  estab-  lieutenant  in  the  New  Jcrx-y  line,  but  ••:!  i:  ■-  •- 

ish  tlie  pas.sa^o  from  the  fistula  to  the  mouth  inpwith  Mime  real  orsup|iii>ed  injii-'tii-e  !.v  '.■.?: 

by  puncture  and  the  intro<luction  of  t>i Ik  or  flex-  the  service,  and  was  empU>\e4l  by  Neu  ,Itr-^; 

ible  wire,  and  then  parinp  and  uniting  the  edges  as  armorer  of  tlie  trtn^ps.     hrivi  n  n\\  ;iv  ': »  :  •> 

of  the  external  (►penin^\ — In  urinary  tistula  there  invmling  army,  he  enj;a::e4l  in  hi>  trade  1 1  «:i  •  <  :- 

is  an  opening  from  the  perineum  into  tho  ure-  smith  in  Bucks  co.,  Tenn.,  till  the  appr><A< :.    : 

thra,  through  which  the  urine  dribbles  wholly  the  enemy  again  maile  it  neces^urv  fur  h  ::. : 

or  in  part ;  it  is  generally  caused  by  urinary  ab-  shift  his  quarters,     lie  next  Mij'pli^d  thi  A:..-.  . 

8ce<s  and  extrav;u«ation  into  the  soft  parts.  For  can  tnK»ps  at  Valley  F«.»rge  w  i:h  lubiui".  N-: 

its  relief  all  strictures  should  be  dilated,  tho  and  other  artirles,  in  which  he  dm vi- a  j  :•-»:•  : 

urethra  brought  to  a  healthy  condition,  and  tho  ous  business,  resulting  in  a  coIl^id«.  ral  ^-  a    . 

fistula  St imulat(.-<l  to  contract  and  granulate  by  mulation   of   depreeiuti.-d   cuntiiieLial   l.  :.•;■ 

external   applications.     Sometimes  there   is   a  With  this  he  purchasetl  Virdnia  lan'l  WArri:.'» 

communication  between  tho  urethra  and  tho  and  renunxd  to  Kentucky,  where  lie  wi*  -;- 

rectum.     Hut  tho  most  disgusting  and  difficult  pointed  deputy  surveyor;  wjls  eai'iuri^I  \}  '.. 

to  remedy  are  the  vesico- vaginal  and  rccto-%'a-  Indians  aiul  was  marched  thro;ijh  lUv  w,.-! 

gin  al  list  II  hr.  in  the  former  of  which  the  bladder,  iiess  to  the  Driti-h  i**t>t  at   l»itr..iit.     ib 

and  in  tho  latter  the  rectum  communicated  with  detaiiied  si»me  time  as  a  pris««nir.  !-i:  i^  ^-  _• 

the  vagina  :  both  of  the^eatrect ions  are  the  con-  length  exchanLTod,  and  timlin:;  hi*  Vkixy  aj^  ;  : 

se<]iieiice<  of  the  hiceralion^iid  slo'.ighing  after  Ihu'k"*  m^  for  mid  .i  c««iii;':ii.\    !■■•■  t:..    - 

tediou>   labiir:   the  iii«Nt  succe'*stnl  method   of  and  piin-haM*  I'f  l.in«!««  in    Kt  :.:■.;■  k>  ;..   ;■ 

treat!iieiit  is  by  jiaring  tljc  ed^iv^  i>f  tho  fistula  On  lii**  riliirn  !r«im  tluM-  *iir\*;. -.  *  ;   •■ 

and  unitiiiiT  them  by  s:iturrs  b'lt  thi>»  succeeds  ac^juired    MVvral    hi;i.i!ri«l    :ii:>"    •■:    !^;   . 

only  un«lrr  the  mo-.t  favoralilo  cin'um>tanc*s ;  j)etilioiu«d  ei-n^rv^^  for  an  aj-j  *■!:  :i   * :.:   .-• 

the  unt'ortuiiates  thu»i  nfteetv«l  art-  geucrally  '\j\-  vvvur,  and  while  uwaili:.^:  tin.-  t;i.-  •■  ■  •«■• 

%"aliilsfur  li:'i'.     A  li^tula may  communicate  with  suit  of  hi-i  ajipliratit-n   pivi.iit  \    ,',  :....; 

any  of  thi-  alwloiiiinal  vi«*<-i.ra,  or  witli  any  jiart  N.  M*.  country.     Tiiis  In-   t:  i:r.k\.  ■'.  •      ..  • 

of  tho  b<».ly.  on  tho  siirfaie  or  deop-H'aled,  which  (if  copper  anil  priiii».«l  •■::  a  ;  ri --  i-:   '  :- 

may  be  di-^a^.^'d  fn)m  al'-cr^^s  d^ad  bune,  or  tho  manufacture.     In  the  iin'i/ii  «>:    A;:  ..    !"•" 

proM-nco  of  a  foreign  fub-itar.ce.  tin.-  idea  <K*rnrrii!  t-i   liiui  >■!"  j  rij  ■  ..  ;  ,- 

FlTrU,  Khe.sk/ki:,  I >.!>.,  an  American  clergy-  ria;:e  alouj  an  oriliiian  r.  ..l   V;  t!-    :  - 

man.  the  lir^t  pn-idi  nt  i.»f  Willi.imscuIli'LTe.  born  Meam.     Atier  a  wii  k'^  r-l..''.^  h«*  :.    .:.  '   " 

in  Norwii-h.  ('.»nn..  Srpt.  2G,  lTri»»,  died  in  Wc^t  a**  impraitiiable.  ainl  d.  \":i«I   i  .::  -•   :'  '. 

JJKMimtU'Iil.    N.   v.,  Mar»h  il.   1^:;M.     He  was  application  of  Mraui  t>  ilie  !■'■  J- •  ■    ■'.     " 

gra-luatnl  .it  Yale  cnlK-ge  in  1777,  when-  in  I7s0  s«l-«.     IK.  iriimi<li.itily  •»  -.ij'.:  :..  .i.:.  •   -i  :  . 

he  wa-  api«»ir.tvd  tutMr.  ai>il  Ci-ntinued  In  art  as  ing  mru   in   rtnii->l\a:i  .i    .:.   :'.e   j  - 

such  for  !-i-\t  ral  vear-*.     In  17'.'0  ho  wa*i  rhosi-n  AujU'^t  follow  iu;:    he  a-l-lr 1   a  ;    *: 

preceptor   of  th*'   ai-aiKniy    in     Willijim>li»wn,  C4»ii.:ri—»  in  n  L'anl  t*«  s!.  :■»:.•!.:»>•;:. :.'    *  ;  " 

3tfa.-s.,  anil  win.ii  in  17'.*:i  it  grew  iiito  ami  was  Siiitnl  a  drawing  if  tl.-.-  Ni .:.  :  -il-  !-.    .■  •.  • 

incorjKirated  as  WMliains  roIli';:e.  he  wasflcctt-d  boihr  tt>  the  Anuriiaii  j '.  ".   -|:      -   »- - 

its  tirvt  pre-;itient,  whii-h   c-fliie  he  filled  with  Ilr  luxt  pt  liiii'Urd  ti.e  !<  ^•.•' .:.;:.    .:  '.     . 

abili:y  and  sure*  «<  till  1*^1">.  whi.n.  rc-igning,  lie  fi»r  aid.     Jaiiii-*  M.i«li-':i  J  ■•-  ■  '■'  '■  '    •  " 

wa*  cho-rn  pa-tr)r  of  thi-  iVi  *b\i*rian  church  rial,  and  Palriik  Ibnr\.  ;];■  -.i  »•  ■■..  :•    -   :  •  * 

in  Wr-t  UliMiiiitivld,  N.  Y.     Tlii^  rliaru'-' he  held  int«r«>t  in  the  plaii.     I';!  t:  «■  \^  j  -  .-'    ■ 

till  1*»J7.  anil  uflrr  his  rv-igratioij  miit.nued  to  .Mow,  ainl   Kit'  !i  c-'im  i\'!   t!  i    :  '  .■. 

pre.m  li  *»«ia-iii!ially  idT'iont  till  hi«.  di-.ith.  the  nriv-ary  f.ii;il-  ^y  il...  *.,..   .::--..       '. 

FI I  ('If,  .luiis.  an  Anirrican  iii\t  !i!<ir.  ainl  tlie  aiTnnlihj'iy   tintitid   a   !■-:   i   '.•■   «•    • 

pioii.  *Tin  -t-ain  navi^'atii'M.  l.iiMi  in  Win-l-Hir,  in   t!ie  sum  *•(   i.-. ■"'■*.    !•:  ".'.   :     I    '      :     ' 

Oir.ti..  Jan.  iM.  17»;l.  «I.id  in  !*ar.l-i..wi,.  Ky.  in  bh«»ul.l  mU  l.o-tu  i-pii-i!  ?..-  ::   .;     .:  •  •    - 

Jiii.i'  t-r  .1  i!\,  17'."*.     lb'  work«"li'n  Ir-^  l.ithi.T*^  would  in  *J  iiidi.iIo  t:M  -^.i!:*:  ii"       •   i  -• 

farm,  with  .siprhl  uppMrtuuitie.ifureducali«»u  and  U-al  in  the  wnlors  vi  \  iT^iui^     N\  i: — :    ^ 


FITCH  689 

of  it.  Tho  assembly  of  Pennsylvania  was  next  and  that  some  one  to  come  after  him  woold 
applied  to,  and  encouraged  him  to  the  extent  reap  fame  and  fortune  from  his  invention.  Ho 
of  a  favorable  report  df  a  committee.  The  as-  now  sought  some  smaU  office  under  the  govern- 
sembly  of  Maryland  did  tho  same ;  but  there  ment  of  Pennsylvania  and  that  of  the  United 
were  no  funds  in  her  exchequer.  The  legisla-  States,  but  was  disappointed.  Failing  to  inter- 
ture  of  New  Jersey  rejected  a  proposition  to  est  new  parties  in  his  project,  and  the  company 
grant  £1,000,  but  gave  Fitch  an  exclusive  priv-  absolutely  declining  to  make  further  advances, 
uege  for  14  years  for  the  use  of  boats  propelled  Fitch  abandoned  his  boat,  and  for  some  months 
by  fire  or  steam.  Disappointed  in  these  efforts,  wandered  about  the  streets  of  Philadelphia,  a 
Iltch  formed  a  private  company,  and  in  April,  ruined  man,  with  the  reputation  of  a  crazy  pro- 
1786,  the  workmg  model  of  a  steam  engine  jector.  On  Oct.  4,  1792,  he  presented  a  sealed 
with  a  one-inch  cylinder  was  the  humble  com-  envelope  containing  manuscripts  to  the  library 
mencement  of  his  enterprise.  In  8  months'  company  of  Philadelphia,  with  a  request  that  it 
time  he  moved  a  skiff  on  the  Delaware  by  his  might  be  kept  unopened  till  1823.  In  1798 
new  contrivance  at  a  speed  satisfactory  to  the  he  went  to  France  in  pursuance  of  a  contract 
associates.  In  March,  1787,  a  bill  vesting  in  with  Aaron  Vail,  contemplating  the  European 
John  Fitch  exclusive  rights  in  the  steamboat  introduction  of  his  invention;  but  the  times 
IMuased  the  legislature  of  Pennsylvania,  and  sim-  were  not  propitious  for  such  matters,  and  'the 
liar  laws  were  enacted  in  Delaware  and  in  New  means  and  patience  of  Fitch  were  easily  ex- 
York.  In  August  of  that  year  a  new  steam-  hausted.  On  his  return  he  remained  a  while 
boat  was  tried  on  the  Delaware,  with  an  engine  in  London  on  a  visit  to  an  old  friend,  Mr.  Leslie, 
of  12-inch  cylinder.  The  convention  to  frame  whose  daughter,  the  authoress,  retained  a  very 
a  federal  constitution  was  then  sitting  in  Phila-  vivid  impression  of  the  eccentric  projector,  and 
delphia,  and  most  of  its  members  were  present  had  intended  to  write  his  biograpny.  In  1794 
at  tae  experiment.  Though  the  boat  did  not  at-  he  worked  his  passage  to  the  United  States 
tain  sufficient  speed  to  answer  the  purpose  of  a  as  a  common  sailor,  landed  at  Boston,  and 
pocket,  the  trial  >  proved  conclusively  the  effi-  spent  nearly  2  voars  with  his  friends  at  East 
ciency  of  steam  as  a  motive  power  for  vessels.  Windsor.  In  the  summer  of  1796  he  was  in 
To  increase  this  efficiency  it  was  only  necessary  New  York,  and  2)laced  a  small  boat  on  tho  Col- 
to  enlarge  the  machinery.  Soon  after  this  sue-  lect,  worked  by  a  submerged  wheel  at  the  stem, 
cess  the  company  learned  for  the  first  time  that  which  has  been  described  as  a  screw  propeller. 
James  Rumsey  of  Vir^nia  claimed  to  be  the  Soon  after  he  visited  Oliver  Evans  in  Philadel- 
first  inventor  of  the  steamboat,  and  to  have  phia,  and  expressed  his  intention  of  forming  a 
made  a  prior  successful  trial.  A  war  of  pam-  company  to  introduce  steamboats  on  the  west- 
phlets  followed.  An  examination  of  the  evi-  ern  waters.  With  this  view,  and  to  ascertain 
dence  leaves  no  reason  to  doubt  that  the  first  the  condition  of  his  western  property,  he  went 
practical  success  in  steam  navigation  was  made  to  Kentucky,  where  he  found  his  land  overrun 
Dj  John  Fitch.  It  is  probable  enough  that  with  squatters,  and  no  encouragement  for  his 
Bomsev  had  entertained  the  idea  of  propelling  steam  projects.  Mortified  by  his  inability  to 
a  boat  by  steam  before  it  occurred  to  Fitch.  It  carry  out  his  great  project,  and  wearied  by  the 
had  previously  occurred  to  others  In  1788  lawsuits  in  which  he  had  engaged  for  the  re- 
Htch  built  a  second  boat  for  the  old  machinery,  covery  of  his  lands.  Fitch  became  despondent 
which  made  several  passages  between  Philadel-  and  desperate,  and  terminated  his  life  by  swal- 
phia  and  Burlington  at  the  rate  of  4  miles  an  hour,  lowing  a  dozen  opium  pills  which  had  been  left 
More  power  was  requisite  for  commercial  sue-  with  him  from  time  to  time  by  his  physician  to 
oess.  A  boat  built  for  an  engine  of  18-inch  nse  as  anodynes.  The  sealed  envelope  was 
cylinder  was  ready  for  trial  in  Aug.  1789.  After  formally  opened  by  the  directors  of  the  library 
several  failures  and  changes  in  the  machinery,  company  in  1823,  and  was  found  to  contain  a 
this  boat  was  successfally  tried  in  the  spring  of  detailed  history  of  his  adventures  in  the  steam- 
1790^  and  was  run  as  a  passenger  boat  on  the  boat  enterprise,  which  is  inscribed :  "  To  my 
Delaware,  making  during  the  season  more  than  children  and  to  future  generations,"  with  a 
iyOOO  miles  at  an  average  speed  of  7i  miles  an  journal  and  other  papers,  from  which  an  inter- 
hour.  But  more  money  was  wanted  to  intro-  esting  biography  was  prepared  by  Thompson 
doee  the  invention,  and  the  numerous  stock-  Westcott  and  published  in  Philadelphia  in 
liolderB  in  the  enterprise  could  not  be  brought  1857.  A  memoir  of  Fitch  by  Mr.  0.  Whittle- 
to  req>ond  to  further  assessments.  The  faith  sey  is  also  to  be  found  in  Sparks^s  *^  American 
and  enthusiasm  of  the  inventor  must  be  shared  Biography." 

1^  the  d^italist  who  undertakes  the  execution  FITCH,  Kalph,  one  of  the  earliest  English 

off  his  soheme ;  and  faith  and  enthusiasm  are  voyagers  to  India,  lived  in  the  latter  part  of  the 

not  to  be  predicated  of  a  joint  stock  associa-  16th  century.  He  was  a  London  merchant  who 

tioQ.    Time  ran  on,  and  Fitch  was  cramped  for  dealt  in  eastern  goods,  and,  excited  by  the  nar- 

tiie  necessaries  of  life.    He  felt  and  repeatedly  ratives  of  Drake  and  other  voyagers,  persuaded 

MMirtftd  that  the  passenger  traffic  of  the  great  John  Newbery  and  others  to  join  him  in  an 

western  rivers  would  one  day  be  carried  on  ex-  expedition  to  the  East  by  way  of  tho  Mediter- 

oliisiTely  by  steam ;  that  ships  of  war  and  packet  ranean.    The  adventurers  set  sail  in  Jan.  1588, 

ifa^  would  navigate  the  Atlantic  by  steam;  bearing  letters  of  friendship  from  Queen  Eliza- 


f40  mOHBUBO  ri'lTIIMITB 

bflfth  to  tbe  emperor  of  Ghinft  cad  the  Gf«it  |UI1,000  eaiiUal,  emplofte  Mi 

Mogul  Akbar.  Tb^koded  at  Tripoli  in  Oyriti  prodiioliu(|^a,aS6iractti€rioodi;  1 

wbenoe  th^went  to  Alepoo,  and  travening  ttill^  wtt£|M^000e«iMieM|diijiMfgOk»i^ 

IfMopotamia reabhed Bagdad.    IVom thai citj  andpiodnoinglTS^Owwiortiiofeoaitaawe^aBi 

tiiey  tailed  down  the  Tlgria  and  throogb  the  5  ihotoriei orouMlttneiy  and  boOair^ wilih fHy* 

Fman  golf  to  Ormna.  where  thej  began  a  600  eqiital,  employing  140  hnad^  mi,  pmn^ 

ptofitable  traiBa    Bot  their  aooeem  rooaed  the  Ing  tU6,400  worth  of  mmiliiffj,  mu   Ihi 

JeaUxny  of  other  Eoropean  morohanta  in  thoae  town  hai  niuneiow  other  HMteta  of  ^Htna 

parte,  one  of  whom,  an  Italian,  denooneed  them  aort%andlnl868oontiined8ciimehaifl  Bi^ 

«  heretios  to  the  Fortnga«oe  inqttiMoo.    The  tilt,  4  Oongregatiooal,  1  ItethedK  1»mmi 

Xoi^men  were  thrown  into  prieon,  die-  Oatholifl^andl  UnfrenaitatXS^niBbl 

pomeand  of  their  goodii  and  afterward  aeot  to  han]c,Snewiptteroaoc8h  anattMH 

Goai  where  the  goremor  kepi  them  in  wiMQ  hidi  aehooL    Tne  town  mm  la  a 

ftv  a  month,  paraj  on  aooonnt  of  an  ailMed  him^ng  100  fMi  long  aal  06  tei 

offmee  committed  at  Makeoa  1^  Sir  F.  Drake,  prindpd  TiDege  la  UMed  wi&  gHi 
They  were  finally  rdeamd  on  nroftmfa^  the       FITZ  (old  tern  of  Fr./ii^  aonX  liiiJwl  ti 

Boman  Oilholio  Ikith,  paying  a  neaTjraaaom,  proper  nameoi  eermpoBM  to  the  IhMa  Jb% 

and  giving  hood  in  i,000  padaoa  not  to  qoit  tfaelridi  Cf.  the  Hebrew  Ahi  aaid  tto  Anmrii 

the  town  withoQt  leoTO.    Their  bodnem  proa-  JBkr»  midfaidieatoa  deaoent  (aaiiaMly  amJiMtii 

peredfbnt  impatient  of  oontinnedtazea andean  ftom  the  ancneJialnaaa  iilbwingik.    Tkaalie 

ttgreatonto«pprehendfiirtherii4iiatiee,tlMyie-  Ilts-01aroneeaweretheehlldrMofthaliila4 

eretfyohanged  their  goods  forpoMiandeeoived  of  Olareaee  (afterward  WQkm  IW^  l|r 

ftom  Goa,  April  6, 1686.  They  Tiaited  Belganm,  aetreia  Mm  Jordan. 
andweottoB<dapoor,ofwhoeeidolaFitflhiayB:       FTTZOEBAU);  Xdwahi^  krt«  aft  MA 

'*8omebeli]ceaoow,eomeBkeamonkey,eome  dierandpolitiolan,6thaoaof  the  ftnlMmef 

Uke  peaeooki,  and  tome  like  the  doTiL**  ThenoiL  Lrtoater,  bom  near  Dnblln,  Oet  11^  IM^ 

after  pambg  throng  Goloooda,  th^  traTeUed  Jnne  4^  1Y96L    Svfaiofaig  an  eei^  ] 

north  through  the  I)eoQan,  and  Timed  aoeoea-  ftr-n^litafy  ailkirai  he  entered  ttn 

tMij  Boriiampoor.  the  capital  of  Oandeiih;  diatii^tnlihedhfaMelfyhiUouyHy 

Mandoo,oneetheehi«f  eitrof  Malwah;  Agrai  camptoLordBawdon,inthekttarpartif  Ae 

wliere  one  ofthe  party,  WUliam  Leader,  aiew-  Amerieen  re? olntlonaiy  wm;  aaid  wna  awir 

eOer,  remdned  in  the  oenrtoe  of  Akbar;  Alia-  woonded  hi  the  battle  of  Entanr  BpiMk  J» 

habad,  Benarea,  Patna.  Tanda  hi  Bennl,  and  tf  teraittfaig  Ibreome  time  hi  the  UkfiHoaet 

ooontry  called  by  Fitch  Oooche,  whicK  appears  eommona,  and  traTeOing  on  the  ooorttesa^  he 

to  be  at  the  foot  of  the  mountains  of  Bootan.  r^oed  his  regiment  in  Canada,  where  ks 

They  travelled  S.  to  Hoogly  and  throagk  Orissa,  befriended  the  celebrated  .William  Cobbett»  a 

passing  by  a  port  called  Angeli,  which  they  sergeant-midor  under  him,  by  inoof  ing  Ui 

described  as  the  seat  of  a  great  trade.  It  cannot  discharge.    Betnming  in  1790,  be  waa  agria 

now  be  identified.    Hetoming  to  the  Ganges,  elected  to  parhament,  and  in  I79t  Tislled  IM% 

they  saw  Sersmpore  and  other  towns  on  its  wheire  he  became  issoHsted  with  ooaa  of  ths 

lower  branches,  made  an  excursion  into  Uppe-  leading  rcTolatiooists.    At  a  banqnet  gl^ran  bf 


rah,  and  took  passage  in  a  vessel  to  Negrais,  in  Englishmen  in  Fari8»  he  pablidy  renownned  kh 

Pega.    They  visited  Malacca,  went  back  to  noWity,  and  propoeed  a  toast  to  the  aneoMef 

Bengal  shipped  for  Ceylon,  and  thence  doubling  the  repnblican  anns,  and  waa  com 

Cape  Comorin  sailed  to  Cochin  and  €k>a,  and  missed  from  the  British  army.  He 

returned  to  England  in  1591,  by  the  same  route  to  Dublin,  joined  the  society  of  united 

they  had  come,  after  havinff  peribrmed  the  most  encouraged  other  political  and  militvy 

extensive  Journey  that  had  yet  been  made  by  xationi^  defending  them  in  the  Irish  p«l 

any  Europeans  in  India.    Fitches  narrative  of  and  negotiated  with  the  Frtnth  diiaotej,  tB  a 

his  travels,  which  mav  be  found  in  Hakluyt  and  warrant  was  issued  by  goTemwant  iw  his  a^ 

in  Purchases  ^*  Pilgnms,"  is  exceedingly  inter-  prehoirion.    He  remed  to  abanden  Ma  am^ 

esting  not  less  for  its  quaint  style  than  for  the  ciatea  by  escaping,  but  aecrsdy  diracasd  tke 


mass  of  information  which  it  contains.  revolutionists  fitxn  a  pboe  of  ooneaioMnl  ia 

FTTCHBURG,  a  township  of  Worcester  co.,    DubUn,  after  the  other  principal  '    ' 


Masa.^n  a  branch  of  Nashua  river,  60  m.  N.  W.  been  arrested,  and  waa  at  length  diaeoswsd 

from  Boston ;  pop.  in  1956,  6,486.    It  is  a  ter-  captured  after  a  desperate  slrqg^    fie  wm 

minus  of  8  railroads :  the  Fitchburg,  to  Boston ;  aeverely  wounded,  and   died  in  wta^    Ha 

the  Fitchburg  and  Worcester,  to  Worcester;  biography  was  written  by  Thomas  MbereiL^" 

and  the  Vermont  and  MassachuseUs,  to  BraUle-  don,  1881).--PA]fBLA,  lady«  wilb  of  the  pteeed 

borough.    It  is  fbmished  with  abundant  water  ing,  reputed  daa^diter  of  Mme.  da  Oeadb  mi 

power,  and  is  a  flourishhig  manufacturing  pUu^e,  Philippe  duke  of  Orieana  (Egalil^),  died  ki  VWs 

the  principal  branches  of  industry  being  the  hi  Nov.  1881.    Bhe  was  edaeaaod  wUh  iha 

making  of  cotton  goods  and  paper.    In  1866  it  children  of  the  duke  of  Orieans^  being  rapoMsi 

eoDtsined  8  im\ter  mills,  with  $187,500  capital,  an  English  orphan.    Bhe  waa  mnirM  to  Lap! 

employing  121  hands,  and  producing  $287,688  Fituerald  at  Tonmay  in  171^  and  aftar  kk 

worth  of  paper  yearly;  4  cotton  miUii  with  death  waa  i^idnnmnladtoMfc, 


FTTZHERBEBT  FITZWILLIAM                 641 

lean  coDsal  at  Hamburg.    A  separation  ensued,  attorney,  and  held  that  office  until  1829.    On 

and  ahe  resumed  the  name  of  Fitzgerald,  and  account  of  declining  health  he  then  abandoned 

lived  in  retirement  at  Montauban  till  1830,  his  profession,  and  settled  on  a  farm  in  Autauga 

when,  the  associate  of  her  childhood  being  called  co.,  devoting  his  time  to  the  improvement  of  his 

to  the  throne  of  France,  she  went  to  Paris,  estate  and  quiet  study  until  1840.    In  that  year 

Bat  Louis  Phil  ippe  refused  to  receive  her,  and  she  he  served  as  a  democratic  candidate  for  presiden- 

died  in  indigence.  tial  elector  for  the  state  at  large.    In  1841  he 

FITZH£RB£RT,  Sib  Antbont,   a  learned  was  nominated  for  governor,  and  after  a  warm 

lawyer  of  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.,  born  in  contest  was  elected  by  a  m^jo^ity  of  over  10,- 

Korbary,  Derbyshire,  died  in  1638.  After  a  dis-  000.    In  1843  he  was  reelected  without  oppo- 

tingQiahed  career  at  the  bar,  he  was  appointed  sition.    At  the  close  of  his  second  term,  in  Nov. 

in  1628  a  justice  of  the  court  of  common  pleas.  1845,  he  was  complimented  by  the  legislature 

He  had  the  courage  to  oppose  the  alienation  of  with  a  unanimous  vote  of  thanks  for  the  man- 

ohnrch  lands  by   Cardinal  Wolsey,  when  that  ner  in  which  he  had  administered  the  affairs  o( 

•ectoriastio  was  at  the  height  of  his  power.    He  the  state.    In  Nov.  1848,  he  received  from  the 

was  the  author  of  the  *^  Grand  Abridgment  of  governor  the  appointment  of  U.  8.  senator  to 

the  Law^*  (15 14),  and  was  the  first  Enghsh  writer  nil  the  vacancy  occasioned  by  the  death  of 

fM  practical  agriculture.     His  ^^^  New  Treatyse  Dixon  H.  Lewis.    He  served  during  the  short 

for  all  Husbandmen"  (4to.,  London,  1523)  has  session  of  1848-^9,  and  the  special  executive 

pasted  through  more  than  20  editions. — Thomas,  session  of  the  senate  which  was  called  at  the 

a  learned  English  Jesuit,  grandson  of  the  pre*  beginning  of  President  Taylor's  administration. 

ceding,  bom  in  Swinnerton,   Staffordshire,  .in  A^in,  in  Jan.  1853,  he  was  appointed  senator 

1552,  died  in  Rome  in  1640.  After  various  fruit-  in  the  place  of  William  R.  King,  who  had  been 

leas  attempts  to  induce  the  Roman  Catholic  elected  vice-president '  At  the  meeting  of  the 

powers  of  Europe  to  aid  the  Roman  Catholics  legislature  in  Nov.  1858,  Gov.  Fitzpatrick  was 

of  England,  he  entered  the  society  of  the  Jesuits,  elected  for  the  remainder  of  Mr.  King^s  term, 

and  for  the  last  22  years  of  his  life  presided  over  which  expired  March  3,  1855.    In  November 

the  English  college  at  Rome.   He  wrote  anum-  of  that  year  he*was  reelected  for  a  full  term  of 

ber  <^  treatises  of  a  religious  and  controversial  6  years.    He  seldom  engages  in  the  debates  of 

character.  the  senate.    He  is  a  plain,  practical  working 

FITZHERBERT,  Maria,  wife  of  Geoi^  IV.  member,  a  man  of  cool  judgment  and  agreeable 

of  England,  born  in  July,  1756,  died  in  Brigh-  manners.    His  personal  popularity  is  shown  by 

ton,    March    29,    1837.    Her   father,    Waller  the  uniformity  with  which  he  is  called  to  the 

8mythe  of  Brambridge,  Hampshire,  was  of  an  chair  of  the  senate  as  president  pro  tern, 

old  CaUiolio  family,  and  she  was  married  sncces-  FIT2^0T,  Robebt,  rear  admiral  in  the  Brit- 

fively  to  Edward  Weld  of  Dorset  and  Thomas  ish  navy,  second  son  of  Gren.  Lord  Charles  Fitz- 

Fitzherbert  of  Stafford,  being  left  a  widow  a  roy,  born  in  June,  1805.    He  entered  the  navy 

second  time  in  1781.    In  1785  the  prince  of  in  1819,  and  obtained  his  first  commission  Sept. 

Wales,  afterward  George  IV.,  first  saw  her,  and  7, 1824.    After  serving  on  the  Mediterranean 

in  December  of  that  year  they  were  privately  and  South  American  stations,  he  was  appointed 

married  by  a  clergyman  of  the  established  church,  to  the  command  of  one  of  the  vessels  which 

in  the  presence  of  witnesses.    The  prince  found  had  been  sent  by  the  Briti^  government  to  ez- 

no  difficulty  a  few  years  later  in  disregarding  plore  and  survey  the  coasts  of  Patagonia,  Chili, 

this  alliance,  which,  as  to  its  civil  effects,  was  and  Peru.    In  1831  Gapt.  Fitzroy^s  vessel  was 

contrary  to  law ;  but  after  his  quarrel  with  fitted  out  for  another  surveying  expedition,  and 

Qneen  Caroline  he  returned  to  Mrs.  Fitzherbert,  sailed  from  Plymouth  in  November  of  that  year. 

who  was  advised  by  the  Roman  see  to  live  with  Having  accomplished,  as  far  as  practicable,  the 

him.    His  excesses  subsequently  compelled  her  objects  of  the  expedition,  he  returned  to  Eng- 

to  leave  him,   and  she  retired  to  Brighton,  land  in  Oct.  1836.    In  1841  he  represented  the 

where  she  passed  the  remainder  of  her  life,  city  of  Durham  in  parliament,  and  in  the  fol- 

Binch  respected  by  all  classes  of  society. — See  lowing  year  was  appointed  acting  conservator 

**  Memoirs  of  Mrs.  Fitzherbert,"  by  the  Hon.  of  the  river  Mersey.  In  1843  he  became  governor 

Oharles  I^ngdalo  (London,  1856).  and  commander-in-chief  of  the  colony  of  New 

FITZPATRICK,   Benjamin,  U.    S.  senator  Zealand,  which  oflSces  he  held  for  3  years,  when 

from  Alabama,  bom  in  Green  co.,  Ga.,  June  20,  he  was  superseded  by  Sir  George  Grey.  lie  was 

1802.  He  was  left  an  orphan  when  very  young,  made  rear  admiral  in  1857.    He  is  the  author 

and  in  1816  removed  with  an  elder  brother  of  several  works,  the  most  important  of  which 

to  the  Mississippi  territory.    They  settled  in  the  is  a  "  Narrative  of  the  Surveying  Voyages  of 

Talley  of  the  Alabama  river,  near  where  the  H.  M.  S.  Adventure  and  Beagle,  between  the 

tStj  of  Montgomery,  Ala.,  now  stands.    The  years  1826  and  1836 "  (2  vols.  8vo.,  London, 

•dncadonal  advantages  of  that  region  were  then  1839),  the  1st  vol.  being  by  Capt.  King,  and  the 

▼ery  limited,  and  Benjamin  had  to  rely  mainly  2d  by  Fitzroy. 

Vpon  himself,  and  by  diligent  application  he  ac-  FiTZWILLIAM,  Wilua^c  "Wentworth  Fttz- 

qnired  a  good  practical  education.    He  then  wiluam,  4th  earl  of  that  name  in  the  peerage 

•tndied  law,  and  in  1821  obtained  license  to  oflreland,  and  2d  in  that  of  England,  an  English 

pnM^ise»  He  was  soon  afterward  elected  staters  statesman,  born  May  30, 1748,  died  Feb.  8, 1833. 


He  moeed  the  minittiy  of  Lord  North  in  ti^    tikoHiiiraj.    WeapmhandlkfltllM^ 

American  war  of  independenoe,  bat  did  no!  meeninc  of  tiie  wora  M|  a  thiag  eo  iaed  to  dM 
tike  offioe  when  hto  uncle,  the  miurmiie  of  Boek-  realty  tott  it  cannot  be  takes  swi^.  TWil^ 
Ingham,  formed  anew  cabinet  in  17^  Althoo^  anoniament^oraUHi8il,oradffitioaofanrkiBd| 
Apolitical  friend  of  Foz,  he  abandoned  him  npon  ii  eommonlj  called  a  llztnre,  if  ao  nmad  te 
bearinc  hia  eulogiea  of  French  reTolntioiiarj  tiie  land  (orto  the  honae) thaJtiw  ommm  oCtiba 
prindplea,  and  took  office  aa  preaidflnt  of  the  land  neceeearily  owna  the  thinfc  aad_ftt 
oooncil,  Joly  11, 1794,  when  the  doke  of  Port-  beremored  withoot  hiapermimoa. 
land  became  the  nominal  head  of  the  eabinet  the  wofd  in  both  aenaea,  but  ratber 
In  1795  be  waa  lord  nontenant  of  Irdandy  in  the  the  common  meaning;  and  ftr  coi 
hei^t  of  the  dlatorbancea  which  then  agitated  throng  thia  artide,  we  ahaU  mean  1^ 
that  portion  of  tiie  kingdom ;  bat  waa  reoaUed  thinfli  ao  fiMtened  to  the  land  (or  to  a 
after  a  few  monthi,  agunat  the  dedded  wiaheai  whien  ia  fiMt«tied  to  the  land)  thattfa^i 
it  is  idd,  of  the  Irian  people,  iat  baring  aap-  be  remored  againat  the  will  of  tlM 
norted  a  bill  preaented  by  Grattan  in  £tvor  of  the  land.— The  fint  remark  to  be  ma  , 
Oatholic  emancipation.  Hewaspreaidentof  the  the  whole  modem  law,  whidi  petBlta  a  amft 
oonndlforaabiNrttimehil8(NLonthedeathof  nnmber  of  things  to  be  attaehed  to  the  b1 
Hr.  Pitt,  bat  his  liberal  Tiewa  kept  him  oot  of  and  thence  remored  1^  the  uuuapiai  wMmiI 
office  daring  the  greater  part  of  hb  career*  reference  to  the  wiD  of  the  owner  of  the  bm^ 

FIUME  (Olyrian,  Beia;  Lat  Amaa  BmM  ia  in  deregatkm  of  the  eomaoa  law.  Thai 
ViUadFlumm;  QmxL  Si.  VM  amFknm\  originally  regarded  tend  aa  afanost  evaijr  M*^ 
imnwlT  the  capital  of  the  Hnngarian  littorale  and  peraonab  aa  of  little  Talne;  and  bwwa 
(Adriatic  coastX  now  the  capital  of  a  drde  (pop  nemy  inTariable  role,  that  avytUag  whisk  was 
96,800)  of  the  Anstrian  crownland  of  Croatia,  once  attaehed  or  annexed  to  the  lamd,  armada 
aitnated  in  a  val^y  on  the  golf  of  Qoamero^  at  a  component  part  of  any  thiag  ao  anMiai,  b^ 
the  month  of  the  Fiomara,  88  m.  8.  &  of  came  at  once  the  property  of  the  avaar  of  tiba 
Irieete;  pop.  16,000.  The  old  part  of  the  toira,  Und.  Thia  ia  certainly  not  the  law  saw  ia 
on  the  tfope  of  the  hill,  is  ix>or  loddng  and  Sni^bnd  or  the  United  Btatea.  limavbaarii 
(doomy;  the  new  part,  whicn  stretches  along  that  we  haTo  gone  ftirthar  from  the  aaeMliila 
the  ooast  is  well  baik  cheerfbl,  and  neatly  thanhaTo  the  EngUsh,  and  are  mora  ttenl  ia 
pated.  It  has  a  provhiaal  and  district  oonrt^  a  permitting  remorala  of  thia  kind;  ba>lha' 
chamber  of  commerce  and  indastry,  scTeral  ia  ranch  the  aame  in  both  cooatriea. 
schools,  gardena,  promenades,  and  ma^y  re-  athingwasafiztoreornot,wasfai 
markable  buildings,  indodingchnrches,  the  gOT-  to  depend  almost  entirely  npon  the 
emment  house,  the  city  hall,  a  market  hall  with  with  which  it  was  pot  op  or  annexed ;  aad  this 
colonnades,  a  nonnery,  a  hospital,  and  the  casino^  was  gathered  from  slisitit  indlcationa.  Tbak 
which  contains  concert  and  ball  rooms,  and  a  the  same  thing  was  a  nztnre  if  nmlcd  on  thai 
theatre.  In  the  vicinity  is  an  ancient  castle.  The  remained  persond  property  if  screwed  eo.  b^ 
harbor  admits  only  snudl  vessels,  larger  ones  an-  canse  the  nse  of  screws,  which  can  be  aastitv- 
ehoring  in  the  gulf  at  a  distance  of  8  miles.  The  ed,  indicated  the  intention  of  remoring  it.  la- 
products  of  Fiume  consist  chiefly  of  linen,  wool-  tention  still  remdns  a  rtrj  important  test ;  Use 
lens,  leather,  earthenware,  sugar,  wax,  beer,  and  another  has  come  to  be  of  afanost  eqaal  valai^ 
rosoglio;  its  exports,  mostly  the  produce  of  Hun-  viz.,  the  capability  of  removd  withoat  i4v7 
gary,  are  wheat^  wine,  tobacco,  hemp,  timber,  to  the  premises ;  or  the  posdbility  of  takisf 
rags,  Ac,  Tlie  imports  and  exports  comprise  the  thing  away  and  restoring  the  prtwiMS  to 
about  160,000  tons  annually.  Its  refineries,  the  same  order  and  condition  in  which  Ihsy 
mills,  tanneries,  and  paper  manufactories  are  were  before  it  was  annexed. — The  earliest  le* 
extensive,  one  of  the  latter  producing  paper  lazations  from  the  andent  role  were  mads  ■ 
▼dued  at  $250,000  annudlv.  The  construction  favor  of  what  are  sometimes  called  trade  is- 
of  a  nulroad,  to  connect  Fiume  with  the  lower  tnres ;  by  which  is  meant  all  those  additwas 
Danube,  was  long  the  favorite  plan  of  Kossuth  which  the  tenant  of  a  hoose  or  land  makes  frr 
and  other  Hungarian  patriots,  in  the  years  pre-  tlie  purpose  of  carrying  on  his  trade  or ' — '- 
Tioos  to  the  revolution,  and  a  matter  of  lively  ness.  It  cannot  now  be  denied  that  a  t< 
agitation.  Fiume  became  a  free  port  in  1723,  and  power  of  removal  has  been  allowed  to 
is  now  one  of  the  principal  seaports  of  Austria,  in  cases  of  this  kind.  To  illostrate  thia  by  ia- 
Entrances  in  1855,  6,116  Austrian  vessels,  ton-  stances  :  it  has  been  a^Jodged  that  a  U 
nage 84,643;  557  foreign  vessels,  tonnage  S0,106.  might  take  away  (having  pot  them  on  the 
Clearances,  6,310  Anstrian  vessels,  tonnage  99,-  for  purposes  of  trade  or  uianniaetQre)  ' 
091 ;  550  foreign  vessels,  tonnage  30,810.  iron  backs  to  chimneys,  patca,  pa 

FIXTURE,  a  word  of  frequent  use,  and  in  cisterns,  coppers,  tubs,  blinds,  veraadaik  if« 
regard  to  which  some  little  confbsion  exists,  engines,  steam  and  gaa  machinery,  or  even 
because  the  exact  legal  definition  is  precisely  sheds,  shops,  and  other  bQiklinga*  and  tWMa^ 
opposed  to  the  meaning  commonly  given  to  the  even  when  these  things  are  baih  iato  bst^ 
word.  A  fixture,  in  law,  is  a  personal  chattel  walls  or  rooms,  or  set  on  stone  or  brkk  fcaa- 
in  some  way  annexed  to  the  realty,  but  such,  dations.  Indeed,  we  doobt  whether  tha  aovrts 
or  so  annexed,  that  he  who  pnt  it  there  may   of  the  United  8latsa  wonki  now  atap  ahost  of 


FIXTURE  FLAG                       648 

sajing  that  any  implements  or  instruments  of  dent,  to  provide  in  leases  for  the  removal  of 
trade  may  be  taken  away  by  an  outgoing  ten-  things  which  the  tenant  expects  to  put  up  and 
ant,  if  he  can  remove  them  and  restore  the  take  away ;  for  although  the  law  is  liberal  on 
premises  substantially  to  their  original  condi-  some  points,  it  is  rather  strict,  and  perhaps  un- 
tion.  Not  long  after  the  relaxation  in  favor  of  certain,  as  to  others.  Thus  it  is  very  clear  that 
trade,  it  was  i^mitted  by  the  courts  that  many  a  tenant  has  the  same  rights  of  removal,  and  no 
things  might  be  taken  away  by  an  outgoing  more,  whether  he  be  a  tenant  at  will,  or  for  a 
tenant  which  he  had  put  up  and  fastened  to  the  short  term  of  years,  or  a  longer.  But  on  one 
house,  ei^er  for  mere  ornament  or  for  domestic  point  the  law  is  not  certain.  The  general  rule 
convenience.  Under  this  head  are  now  included  laid  down  in  the  books  is,  that  a  tenant  who 
a  great  variety  of  things,  such  as  mirrors,  marble  has  the  right  of  removing  any  chattels  must  car- 
slabs  and  chimney  pieces,  window  blinds,  doors,  ry  them  all  away  during  his  term ;  and  if  after 
windows,  baths,  gas  pipes  and  lights,  stoves,  his  lease  expires  he  enters  upon  the  land  to  re« 
fire  grat^  and  ranges.  It  is  difficult  to  draw  an  move  them,  he  is  a  mere  trespasser,  having  no 
exact  line  here,  but  it  must  be  said  that  the  law  more  right  there  than  any  other  person.  This 
is  not  so  liberal  in  permitting  things  of  orna-  rule  would  probably  be  adhered  to  and  applied 
ment  or  convenience  to  be  removed,  as  things  of  by  our  own  courts,  with  perhaps  two  excep- 
trade ;  and  the  rule  is  more  strictly  applied,  that  tions.  One  might  be,  where  the  tenant  was 
the  premises  are  not  to  be  disfigured  or  injured  prevented  by  unavoidable  hindrances,  or  by 
by  the  removal.  There  are  certain  things  about  great  obstructions,  from  removing  the  chattels 
which  the  adjudication  is  as  yet  conflicting,  duriog  his  lease,  aud  his  delay  could  not  there- 
such  as  trees  planted  out,  conservatories,  hot-  fore  be  attributed  to  his  default.  If  the  court 
houses,  and  other  structures  for  gardening,  could  not  on  this  ground  give  him  a  legal  right 
Here  we  should  say  that  a  nurseryman  who  to  enter  on  the  lands  (and  we  doubt  whether 
pot  these  things  up  for  trade  might  certainly  they  could),  they  might  at  least  make  the  dam- 
remove  them,  on  the  same  conditions  of  putting  ages  recoverable  from  him  as  trespasser  only 
the  premises  in  good  order  as  before.  But  a  nominal.  The  other  exception  is  where  a  ten- 
mere  tenant  for  occupation,  who  had  put  them  ant  has  his  lease  determined  by  the  will  of  the 
on  the  land  for  his  own  enjoyment,  might  be  landlord,  or  some  other  event,  unexpectedly. 
oblised  to  leave  them,  although  we  incline  to  We  should  say,  as  matter  of  law,  that  an  out- 
thimc  that  he  would  be  permitted  to  take  goiug  tenant  was  entitled  to  sufficient  notice  to 
them  away,  leaving,  of  course,  the  premises  exercise  all  his  rights  with  reasonable  conve- 
wholly  unimpaired  by  the  removal. — ^The  same  nience ;  and  among  them,  that  of  removing 
thing  will  be  a  fixture  as  to  some  persons,  whatever  he  had  a  right  to  take  down  and 
but  not  as  to  others.    Thus  a  man  who  sells  a  carry  with  him. 

house  meet  certainly  sells  with  it,  and  therefore  FLACIUS,  Matthias,  sumamed  Illyricus, 

cannot  take  away  from  the  buyer,  very  many  a  German  Protestant  theologian,  born  in  Al- 

things  which  an  outgoing  tenant  who  put  them  bona,  Istria,  in  1520,  died  in  Frankfort-on-the- 

there  might  remove  when  he  goes.    Here  the  Main  in  1575.    He  was  induced  to  abandon  his 

law,  instead  of  being  liberal,  professes  to  be  first  purpose  of  entering  a  convent,  and  to  visit 

strict;   and  the  seller  would  be  permitted  to  the  German  universities.    At  Wittenberg   he 

daim  and  sever  from  the  land  only  those  things  heard  Luther  and  Mclanchthon,  adopted  their 

which  were  evidently  as  free  from  all  attach-  opinions,    and    was    appointed    professor   of 

ment  to  it  as  mere  articles  of  furniture.    And  Hebrew.    After  the  death  of  Luther  he  resisted 

if  he  had  fastened  any  things  down,  so  as  to  with  great  energy  the  formulary  known  as  the 

S've  them  the  appearance  of  being  a  part  of  the  Interim^  opposed  the  conciliatory  measures  of 
>Q8e,  it  might  be  doubted  whether  he  would  Melanchthon,  and  established  himself  at  Magde- 
be  permitted  to  remove  them.  The  same  strict  burg  at  the  head  of  a  party  of  rigid  Lutherans. 
role  would  be  applied  as  between  the  heir  who  In  1557  he  was  appointed  professor  of  theology 
takes  the  land  and  the  executor  or  administra-  in  the  newly  founded  university  of  Jena,  and 
tor  who  takes  the  personals ;  and  so  it  would  engaged  in  a  violent  dispute  with  Strigel  con- 
be  between  lessor  and  lessee  or  mortgageor  and  cerning  hereditary  sin  and  the  synergctic  power 
mortgagee.  Indeed,  it  may  be  said,  in  general,  of  the  human  will,  which  resulted  in  his  being 
that  m  the  matter  of  fixtures  the  law  is  ex-  deposed.  He  retired  to  Ratisbon,  and  afterward 
tremely  liberal  as  to  the  right  of  outgoing  ten  preached  in  several  German  cities.  He  was  one 
tats  to  remove  things  of  trade,  and  nearly  as  of  the  most  prominent  of  the  reformers,  and 
much  80  as  to  the  same  persons  in  respect  to  beside  producing  numerous  polemical  writings, 
things  of  convenience  or  ornament;  but  very  distinguished  for  their  severity,  was  the  oriffi- 
strict  as  to  any  disposition  made  of  the  land  by  nator  and  one  of  the  principal  authors  of  the 
the  owner  of  it.  A  building,  if  placed  on  blocks  famous  *^  Centuries  of  Magdeburg." 
or  other  movable  foundations,  is  in  almost  nO  FLAG,  the  common  name  of  a  large  family 
ease  a  fixture,  and  it  may  be  doubted  whether  of  the  lowest  order  of  plants,  known  as  aXg<B. 
even  one  who  sells  the  land  might  not  have  the  These  algsd  have  all  flagging  habits,  like  the  corn- 
right  of  removal ;  but  this  question  would  prob-  mon  sea  weeds,  which  are  usually  fixed  to  rocks 
ably  be  determined  in  each  case  by  its  peculiar  by  their  roots,  and  their  branches  are  borne  up 
drcamstances. — It  is  common,  and  always  pro-  by  the  tides^  falling  again  and  lying  in  confused 


M4  ILAjGOniiABTB 


one  upoa  anoUier  at  Us  zeotm.   The   TImqt  wice  Indtad  to  flMM  pfaaHaii  mMj 

pmskij  of  tLis  hoDie^  term  is  better  leen  in    1^  the  wwn  of  the  Gne^^  and  Qhtbentai>» 


OeidTaorUTer^of  which«loa  ZcUiitMK^veijr    wUcb  the  people  hoped  to  aiiealhy 


OommoaonibeAiiiericaiiooastihaTiiigabroadi  nary  penanoei^  partlj  Iqr  the  Mai 

ante  or  obtonig,  undulated,  bright  green  jirond,  elermienwhoreeoinmeBdediatheooaftHioMl 

maj  be  teen  IjiDg  on  the  ioft  oom  at  low  Ude^  and  m  their  aennona  aitf'ltigellarion  mmmmm 

and  fioiUJng  near  the  bottom  at  high  water*  of  appeaiinff  the  wrath  or  God.    YImj  took 

JBiUsr9marph4L  with  tobolar,  membranaeeoo%  fheir  rite  at  Perugia  in  lt60L    AtfatlMpape 


green,  netted  noodi^  is  itUl  more  fiaodd,  and  ia  nlaoed  no  obataeka  in  their  w»,  beeaaaa 'ttej 
ea^jr  coQected  from  rocks  and  beaohei^  when  Monged  to  tlie  partj  of  the  CftlplML  aaid  m 
thro wn  iq[>  ^  the  winda.    Arkhydarkjmrple   gJTtog  ahn%  rNyiicilInf  thaaaalvaa  wMi  tkm 

eDemuiL 


Und  ( j^e^iJlym  of^^oHa^  Agardh)  maj  be  fre-  enenne^  and  other  worn  of  charts,  aaamed  to 

oaenti7notioedonthepileiaodpo«taofwharTei^  eiereiae  a  aalntaiy  inflnencei   Bat  aooa  both  the 

hanging  kwadydown^Iike  broad  abredai  grow-  snnlnalaitinal  and  fha  aimilir  anthnrlf to  flafJMid 

Sng  alao  on  rooks  between  hi^  and  low  water  themselTea  agafaist  the  hrge  iirnciiMiw  of 

atfk.  St^  in  fresh  water,  in  ronningatreamib  Hagellants  (pSmUi^fiikrt^  whfch  m  IMl  ^ytsi 

the  flags  are  to  be  met  witn,  sndi  as  oolradU-  Anstria|FDiland»andHQnfBij,tfaeflMBbeesf( 

apsnitMi«iefiil{^!^ftn0(Both.XwithTei7deUoate|  whidi  whined  themailTesiorttdsy%la 

Brandling  filamentsi  composed  of  Yiolet-oolored  memoiatioa  of  the  anmbsr  of 

bead%  and  haying  a^tm^f  flagging  ameot    So  Ohrist  iTod  npoo  earth.    The 

"  "     "  and  tai *  *   "" 


the  omi/Stml  resembling  ocmftised  and  tan|^  agaimt  thsm  oanaad  their  AsappenaBoa  in  the 

dDeinaof  riUfhaTethe  aame  appearanoe;  and  aameyear.    The  flagellants  were  most  n— r- 

eiveninthemorehiidiljdeTslopedbridktorim-  oos  in  the  14th  osirtorx,  eipeeisnif  aftar  IM^ 

aooandred  kindly  orln  the  ftasoooa  and  melegant  when  the  **  blaek  death**  hadawipt  Offer  SanM 

Jk§d^  and  in  the  largsr  Ibnnsi  eqnallfaig  in  siae  and  had  oarrisdoffin  Oennaajf  aloaa  IjMJM 

veesandahrabs,thenameof  flagiisnotanin-  perMna.    When  the  flrat  Mooamkna  SMde  fa 

ant  one.    Bedde  these  lower  plants^  the  name  ypsaraneetollagdeborg^anrinflliewaeki  ^ 

tf  flag  is  given  to  the  fris  ftmflj,  which  beer  Biter  In  that  year,  thy  spread  wilfc 

oonqpIoQoiis  flowers,  smne  of  greet  s^endor.  n^ityorerall  Germany, and  eif«i  to! 


(jSee  Ibis.)    The  sword  flaas  are  stifl^  ereoti  andDenmack.    Woman  were  iBad  la  the  jr^ 

Tory  lonff'leaTed  plants,  with  spikes  of  ez-  oesrioos;  and  in  one  case  eien  100  bsy^  aCaat 

tromely  abowy  purple,  aoarlet,  rosy,  or  white  ISyearac^d,  went  ahoot  aaflegellanlB.  Aiinl 

Uoesoms,  and  with  large  flat  tnoers  (cprmtl  the  lynmathy  with  those  proossiioaa  was  pn> 

requiring  beat,  moistare,  and  sonshine  wUle  oral  ana  enthusiastic.    Tlwasaada  of  pasfli 

growini^  bat  entire  rest  and  dryness  when  dor-  were  present  and  shed  tears  at  the  bloodr  ecr^ 

mant.    Natives  of  the  Capo  of  Good  Ilope,  few  moniea.    At  Spiree  they  were  entertained  at  ti»t 

gardon  flowers  exceed  them  in  gorgoousoess  or  pnblic  expense,  and  the  coronation  of  Charics 

beauty,  and  few  require  so  liUle  care.    The  iV.  had  to  be  translSerred  from  Aiz  la  ChapeOt 

Belgian  florists  have  succeeded  in  raising  many  to  Bonn  in  consequence  of  tlie  preeenee  of  a 

q>lendid  hybrids  and  varieties,  of  every  hue ;  large  number  of  fagellanta.    In  aerenl  plaoM 

and  the  flower  catalogues  afibrd  the  names  of  they  excited  a  persecution  sgainatthe  Jew%  whe 

the  choicest  of  these,  which  command  high  wereregardedoy  the  people  as  the  caoaa  of  Ibt 

prices.     Gladiolut  annmunii  is  hardy  enough  black  death.    Gradually  a  stricter  oigaDtaSua 

to  sunive  our  winters ;  it  is  a  slender-growing  waseflbcted.  Every  membtf  of  a  procession  wss 

species,  with  pretty  purplish  or  crimson  bios-  obliged  to  confess  his  sins,  to  be  recoflMciled  widk 

soms,  and  this  and  one  or  two  others  found  in  hb  enemies,  to  get  the  consent  of  his  wift^  and  to 

the  south  of  Europe  are  exceptional ;  the  rest  be  provided  with  money  for  ahoot  30  dicnk 

are  natives  of  the  hot  regions,  particularly  of  This  increased,  however,  the  avcrskNi  whack 

the  Cape.    The  ixias  are  smaller,  dwarf  irids  or  the  ecdesiastioid  authoritieo  had  alrsady  eoo- 

flacn,  with  open,  showy  blossoms  upon  spikes,  cdved  against  tlMm.    The  people^  on  tbo  olhsr 

aiMi  variously  colored.    Thev  are  nnely  suited  hand,  began  to  condder  the  extraordinafy  wim- 

iar  winter  flowering  in  greenhouses ;  their  bulbs  hers  psasing  through  tlM  towns,  and  Mrtlty  sft 

or  eormi  are  planted  early  in  the  autumn ;  the  least  entertoined  by  them,  a  groat  boracn.    la 

plants^  on  rising  from  the  soil,  are  exposed  to  France  the  king  and  the  university  coai 

the  air  and  light,  and  on  approach  of  frost  them,  and  Pope  Clement  VI.  issoed  a  boB 

|4aced  Just  beneath  the  sashes  or  the  roof^  where  them,  when,  in  1949,  a  proessiioo  am 

they  blossom  toward  spring.   These  also  require  his  reddenoe  at  Avignon.    GrsgoryAL 

extremes  of  treatment,  being  kept  perfectly  nated  them  in  1879  as  heretios,  becaasa  thsr 

dryand  warm  when  in  a  state  of  repose.  were  said  to  deny  tlie  sserameata.    Bcocefau 

FI^VGELLANTS,  also  called  whipi)ers  (ter-  they  generally  disappeared  in  Octna^v.    At 

heranUi$\  brethren  of  the  cross  (cruei/ratre$\  the  beginning  of  the  lOthcentorrnconMenhis 

croos-bearcrs  (cnic\feni^  penitents  vha  in  the  number  of  crypto-flageHanta  couactod  in  The- 

18th,  14th,  and  15th  centuries,  went  about  in  ringia,  but  were  at  once  suppieseuL    Sosae  of 

procession  day  and  night,  naked  to  the  waist,  them  were  even  burned.  TbeprocesMoas  whkk 

with  heads  covered,  singing  pen:tential  psalms,  toward  the  doee  of  the  14th  cenlary,  took  pbee 

and  whipping  themselves  until  the  bloodnowed^  in  Italy  and  Spatoi  wm  also  of  short  * ~ 


PLAGEOLET  FLAME                       545 

The  DomiDican  friar  Yincent  Ferrerins,  who  marquis  Jos6  Maria  de  Sonza  Botelho  (bom  in 

took  part  in  new  processions  in  the  15th  cen-  Oporto,  March  9,  1758,  died  in  Paris,  June  1, 

lory,  and  for  some  time  protected  them  by  his  1825),  who  was  for  some  time  Portngnese  am- 

repntaiion,  was  prevailed  upon  bv  the  council  bassador  in  Pans,  and  who  prepared  the  best 

of  Constance  to  withdraw  from  them. — See  J.  edition  of  Camoens'  "  Lusiaa."    Her  first  and 

Boileau,  Hutoria  FlageUantium  (Paris,  1700^ ;  best  work,  Ad^le  de  Senanges,  ou  lettres  de  Lard 

Fdrstemann,    Die   ChrUtliehen   Geisslergesell-  Sydenham^  appeared  in  London  in  1794,  with  a 

$eAt{ften  (Halle,  1828),  the  l>est  work  on  the  preface  by  the  marquis  of  Montesquiou.    It  was 

sabject,  based  on  a  Uiorough  study  of  all  the  followed  in  1799  by  6milie  et  Alphonse,  and  by 

docnments  relating  to  it  The  documents  which  a  series  of  other  works,  a  complete  edition  of 

have  since  been  discovered  have  been  carefully  which  appeared  in  Paris  in  1821-^2.    As  a 

consulted  by  Dr.  Zacher  in  his  article  on  the  sub-  charming  and  pure  writer  she  holds  about  the 

Jeot  in  the  encyclopedia  of  Ersch  and  Gruber.  same  position  in  French  literature  as  Madame 

FLAGEOLET,  a  small  wind  instrument  of  de  Lambert  and  Madame  de  Lafayette. 

tlie  flute  or  pipe  species,  emitting  a  shrill,  FLAIL,  an  inn>lement  for  threshing  grain 

dear  sound.    It  is  played  with  a  mouthpiece,  from  the  straw.    It  consists  of  a  hand  stan  about 

and  the  holes  and  keys  are  stopped  with  the  li  or  2  inches  in  diameter,  and  from  4  to  5  feet 

fingers.  long,  to  which  is  coupled  a  shorter  staff  called  a 

fLAHAUT  DE  LA  BILLARDERIE,  Atj*  swingel,  by  the  striking  of  which  upon  the 

ausn  Ohablbs  Joseph,  count,  a  French  gen-  sheaves  the  com  is  threshed.    Flails  are  very 

era!  and  diplomatist,  bom  in  Paris,  April  21,  ancient  implements,  and  are  divided  into  two 

1785.    His  father  succeeded  Buffon  as  director  classes  according  to  the  kind  of  the  coupling  be- 

of  the  jardin  du  roi^  now  jardin  dee  planteSy  tween  the  hand  staff  and  swingel.    In  one  class 

and  was  executed  by  the  revolutionists.    The  the  caplins  or  untanned  leather  thongs  of  this 

property  of  his  widow  was  confiscated ;  she  re-  coupling  are  fastened  on  the  hand  staff  in  such 

tnrea  to  England  with  her  only  son,  supporting  a  way  Uiat  it  remains  stationary  in  the  hands 

herself  by  literary  labor,  and  afterward  repaired  while  these    caplins  revolve  around  it  with 

to  Germany.   Flahaut  enlisted  in  1800  in  a  regi-  each  revolution  and  &11  of  the  swingel ;  and  in 

ment  of  volunteers.  Joining  Napoleon^s  army  in  the  other  class  these  thongs  pass  through  a 

Italy,  became  successively  aide-de-camp  of  Mu-  hole  in  the  hand  stafi^  which  consequently  turns 

rat,  Berthier,  and  Napoleon,  fought  in  Portugal,  in  the  hands  with  each  stroke  upon  the  sheaves. 

Bossia,  and  Germany,  and  gained  particular  dis-  The  middle  bands  of  the  coupling,  being  the 

tinction  at  the  battle  of  Leipsic,  on  which  occa-  part  which  connects  the  thongs  of  the  hand 

sion  he  was  promoted  to  the  rank  of  general  of  staff  with  the  caplins    on   the    swingel,  are 

division,  with  the  title  of  count.    Subsequently  generally  mad^  of  eel  skin.    The  use  of  flails 

hewasmadeapeerof  France,  advocated  the  sue-  in  the  United  States  and  Great  Britain  is  now 

cession  of  Napoleon  II.  to  the  throne,  and  was  for  the  most  part  supplanted  by  the  introduction 

reinstated  in  his  position  after  the  revolution  of  the  modem  threshing  machines. 

of  1830.    For  a  short  time  ambassador  in  Ber-  FLAMBOROUGH  HEAD,  a  promontory  on 

lin  in  1831,  he  officiated  in  the  same  capacity  the  coast  of  Yorkshire,  England ;  lat.  64°  7  N., 

in  Vienna  from  1841  to  1848,  when  he  was  re-  long.  0**  6'  W.    It  consists  of  a  range  of  steep, 

called  by  the  provisional  government  by  decree  and  in  some  places  perpendicular  chidk  dins, 

of  April  17,  which  in  1849  however  was  re-  some  of  which  rise  to  a  height  of  450  feet.    On 

Toked  by  the  legislative  assembly ;  but  he  did  the  headland  stands  a  lighthouse  214  feet  above 

not  resume  public  life  until  after  the  coup  d'etat  the  seiL  with  a  revolving  light  visible  at  a  dis- 

of  Bee  2, 1851.    He  then  became  a  member  of  ance  of  30  m.    The  cliffs  are  perforated  by  nu- 

the  consultative  commission,  senator  in  1853,  merous  caverns,  which  during  the  summer  are 

and  in  1854  a  member  of  the  commission  resorted  to  by  immense  numbers  of  sea  fowL 

appointed  to  collect   the  correspondence   of  The  ruins  of  an  ancient  tower  and  a  Danish 

Napoleon  I.,  which  has  since  been  published,  intrenchment  are  to  be  seen  on  the  summit,  and 

While  in  England  ho  married  (July  28,  1817)  the  village  of  Flamborough  stands  near  the  cen- 

ICtrsaret  Mercer  Elphinstone,  who  succeeded  tre  of thepromontory. 

to  tJrie  peerages  of  the  United  Kingdom  and  FLAME,  the  luminous  appearance  commonly 

Ireland  as  Baroness  Keith  in  1823,  and  to  the  accompanying  the  rapid  combustion  of  bodies 

Soottish  barony  of  Nairne  in  1838.    The  saloon  in  a  state  of  vapor.    All  ordinary  flames  are 

of  Madame  de  Flahaut  was  for  a  long  time  a  produced  by  the  combustion  of  hydrogen  and 

fiiTorite  and  fashionable  resort  of  eminent  poli-  carbon ;  yet  these  may  be  made  to  combine 

tidans.    The  count  was  one  of  the  intimate  with  the  oxygen  of  the  air  without  the  appear- 

friends  of  Louis  Napoleon^s  mother.  Queen  Ilor-  ance  of  flame,  as  when  a  coil  of  platinum  wire 

tense,  who  is  said  to  have  composed  for  him  heated  to  redness  is  suspended  over  alcohol,  or 

her  popular  air  Partant  pour  la  Syrie;  and  over  a  mixture  of  alcohol  and  ether.  The  vapors 

he  is  believed   to   be  the  father  of  M.  de  arising  slowly  consume,  generating  sufficient 

Momy. — ^Ad^ls  Filleul,  a  French  authoress,  heat  to  keep  the  wire  red^ot,  but  not  enough 

mother  of  the  preceding,  born  in  the  chateau  to  burst  into  flame.    A  more  rapid  combustion 

of  Longpr6  in  iNormandy  inl7C0,  died  in  Paris,  is  required  for  the  production  of  flame;  and 

J^ril  16, 1836.    Her  second  husband  was  the  this  even  when  so  little  luminous  that  it  is 
VOL.  Tn. — 35 


546  FLAME  TLAMEL 

Bcarcclj'  visible  bjr  daylight,  as  "when  pare  hj-  sUck  across  a  saucer  in  which  alcohol  is  bom- 
drogen  is  ijmited.  This  flame  is  nevertheless  log;  the  wood  will  be  blackened  bj  barnii.j 
accompanied  with  so  much  heat,  that  in>n  wire  only  at  the  two  points  which  were  again»(  t).^ 
is  made  red-hot  and  plainly  luminous  by  it  If  outer  edges  of  the  flame.  The  wick  of  a  canti\- 
the  hent  be  abstracted,  as  oy  encircling  a  small  in  this  position  does  not  consume.  GnnpowJrr 
flame  with  a  coil  of  wire,  the  flame  will  expire,  may  bo  introduced  on  a  small  metallic  sarficc 
Solid  bodies  heated  in  it,  as  carbon  in  fine  par-  into  the  centre  of  the  flame  wit  boat  ignitiiJi:. 
ticles,  increase  its  luminousness.  The  hydro-  By  introducing  a  small  tube  Into  this  portion, 
gen  is  coDwrted  into  aqueous  vapor  by  uniting  the  gas  may  be  made  to  pass  up  any  wtan<  v. 
with  tlic  oxygen  of  the  air,  and  the  carbon,  and  be  ignited  at  the  top,  like  the  gas  mcetirj 
heated  to  such  a  degree  that  it  too  is  disposed  the  air  at  the  top  of  a  chimney  stack.  Tbc 
to  unite  with  the  same  atmospheric  element,  presence  of  the  aqueous  vapor  may  be  shows 
also  disappears  in  invisible  vapor.  Combustible  by  the  dew  deposited  upon  a  piece  of  cold  glaM 
bodies  commonly  furnish  the  two  elements  of  held  a  little  way  above  the  fUtme ;  and  the  tolvi 
luminous  flame  combined  or  intimately  mixed,  carbon  may  be  caught  before  its  conrenion  iaro 
BO  that  they  assume  the  gaseous  state  together,  invisible  gas,  by  placing  a  piece  of  white  porce- 
as  they  unite  in  the  air  with  its  oxygen.  An-  lain  across  the  flame,  and  thus  chilling  the  par- 
thracite  and  charcoal,  however,  by  their  defi-  tides,  so  that  their  further  chemical  change  is 
cicncy  in  hydrogen,  lack  one  of  the  materials  preventc<l.  A  piece  of  wire  gauze  beinx  sub- 
of  ordinary  flame,  and  the  carbon  alone  of  stitutod  for  the  porcelain,  the  inflammable  va- 
which  they  consist  unites  slowly  with  oxy-  pors  pass  through  this,  but  not  the  flame.  Tbev 
gen.  An  imperfect  combustion  first  ensues,  and  mav,  however,  be  ignited  above  the  gauze  as  «t!l 
carbonic  oxide  is  generated.  This  gas  plays  as  below,  and  two  independent  flMet  be  tbu» 
overtlic  surface  of  the  ignited  coal,  and  receiv-  obtained ;  or  in  case  of  a  Jet  of  gas  being  it< 
ing  from  the  air  with  which  it  comes  in  contact  combustible  material,  this  may  be  ignited  oair 
another  atom  of  oxygen,  it  gives  forth  the  pale  above  the  gauze. — As  flame  is  limiti^  in  iu  ex- 
blue  flame  which  is  seen  proceeding  fn>m  the  tent  by  the  amount  of  surface  of  gaseous  matxcn 
surface  of  this  fuel  in  ignition.  Thus  the  com-  exposed  to  the  action  of  oxygen,  it  may  be  ic- 
bustion  is  completed  by  the  production  of  car-  creased  by  directing  a  current  of  air  through  il* 
bonic  acid.  The  flame  of  carbonic  oxide  in  interior  part,  thus  producing  combustioii  witila 
combustion  is  often  seen  by  night  hovering  as  well  as  without.  Argand  burners  are  dr- 
over the  mouths  of  lime  kilns,  too  pale  to  be  signed  to  produce  this  effecL  The  b1o«pif<f 
visible  by  djiy.  When  the  gases  are  poured  out  also  serves  the  same  purpose,  concentrating  %z 
from  the  tall  flues  of  steam  engines  or  other  the  same  time  that  it  increases  the  hcaL  la  :  < 
furnare^  Imrning  anthracite,  the  carbonic  uxide  Imninons  jots  which  it  makes  the  ditferort  *\:j^' 
bur>td  into  a  vuluino  of  flickering,  unsteady  itios  of  tlic  ditferent  portions  of  the  flanic  i:« 
flume,  AS  it  meets  the  atmospheric  oxygen  .it  tlio  plainly  exIiihito<l,  the  greatest  heat  l-^'ir-;:  ;r 
top  of  tlie  flues,  sending  out  a  strange  glare  into  duco<l  ju>t  without  the  point  of  the  yel!u*»  t^s:  . 
the  darkness  around.  It  is  this  flatne  which  is  whore  is  the  in(»t  intense  coml»u>tiiin.  O  >:.«  .. 
economically  produced  under  tlie  boiU-rH  of  en-  of  this  parti<'Ies  suliiiiittcd  to  the  atii.-n  ^  f  : 
gines  cciiMucted  with  bla^^t  furnaces  for  snul ting  blowpipe  tlaine  are  oxidized  bycuntac:  »i:.h  '..* 
iron  ons,  the  unconsume<l  pases  beinj:  pa»ed  atmosphcric(>xy;ren;  within  it, at  the  |«>:n:  i-::  • 
fntm  tlie  mouths  of  the  furnaces  into  a  larco  interior  flame,  tluy  aru  deoxoillz^ti,  uA  i.i  ..- 
chaiulM-r,  wliero  they  meet  the  air  required  for  of  in.iny  m<'tals  are  reduced  lu  a  luvt&liiK*  *u 
their  ciiinplete  comhusti<tn.  In  the  jin.Mlnction  (Sec  ni.owpiri;.)  The  f»»nii  of  the  «  hiiiit^v.  *.  •• 
of  illn!:ii:iating  pase-*,  whether  f)rnie<l  from  oil?*,  roundinpthe  tlanie  is  al>4.>  de>ijnol  to  ciilm?  V  - 
bituniinoim  coal,  or  other  substanci*s  ^  P'Ttiun  air  ri.«»in;:  thruuirli  it  to  be  turned  \\  ^tr.^.:. 
of  carUin  is  dissolved  in  the  hydro;ren,  and  car-  ajrain-^t  its  shoulder  and  iuipinpTo  up<in  t:i<  t.:Ti: 
ried  ulnrip  with  it  to  the  point  where  it  is  ex-  portion  of  tlie  flame,  Utiis  iu»  rct-ing  i:«  i:.ti.-.- 
po-ktl  tn  atmosplieric  air  and  tlie  heat  re«piiretl  hity.  Tliis  effect  is  tho  more  d(.vi>hd  fr.  m  :i-j 
to  decoin[>4»se  the  comj>ound.  Tlie  hydniL'en  at  hi^li  temperature  <»f  the  asce inline  c.rrir.* 
once  ln-irins  to  enter  into  the  new  combination  Various suh-^tances  impart  characteri*:!-:  tar*:- 
witli  oxrp'n.  In  so  doing  heat  is  developed,  flame;  Mdphato  of  ^tro^tian  pivts  a  1^'^^::.' .. 
by  whicli  l!ie  particles  of  carlxm  it  leaves  and  ]»urple,  copper  till npt  and  k\\  a!:iir.on:jr  ac?'.-  --• 
which  at  <»nce  assume  the  solid  fonn  of  this  i*h  tint,  zinc  a  fine  hhie,  itc.  jS«.*o  Ptbotii  ^^•. 
clement  wlien  uncombined,  are  rendered  incin-  The  ai>])earance  of  >ueli  colors  iu  the  u*<  %:  :.  : 
de-i*vnt,  and  i>roduce  tho  yellow  lipht  of  iho  l»lowpi|»os<'rvos  as  an  indication  of  iho  j  rr-»  r  * 
flanit'.  Thoy  arc  swept  upwanl  by  the  a-^end-  <»f  t!ie  Mib-^tances  that  commonly  pn»d  j->.-  :...  . 
in^r  hcMtt'd  current,  and,  as  they  come  in  contact  (See  I>mif.  Luiiir,  and  I)urM)i<>NC»  I  u-nr 
with  the  air  on  tho  margin  of  tlie  flame,  tlu-y  FI.AMEI.,  Niou  as  a  French  -*t;Iv  a.v.  r« 
di-^appenr  in  the  funn  of  carbonic  ncid  pa**.  Tho  puted  alcluini^r,  l»oni  in  the  I'.r*:  ha'f  *:  :> 
internal  part  «»f  i!ie  flame  is  a  cone  of  uncon-  14th  century,  died  iu  Taris  Monh  £2.  Ill* 
sumed  p:is  which,  though  tran*p.arent,  appears  He  ci»nil»intd  the  occupations  t»f  i-tn-\.«:  i^  . 
dark;  it  i'.pruieeted  bv  the  outer  [lortion^  from  lM>'»k^dler,  inarrioil  IVrnLllo,  a  ui*!o>»  vf  i^  t.  ■ 
conLiict  with  the  air.  N o  combustion  takes  jdace  property,  and  al;^  roceivid  p"! '>  i'  -• 
witliin  it,  as  may  be  shown  by  placing  a  white  iiousi',  to  whom  he  taught  writing  and  th^i  r. 


FLAHESr  FLAIOKGO                   MY 

diments  of  letters.  The  meaiu  which  he  thus  FLAMINCrO,  a  wadinff  hird  of  the  order  m- 
acquired  were  profitably  invested,  and  the  pro-  seres^  family  anatidm^  sub-family  phoMteopteri" 
daots  of  his  industry  and  rents  enabled  him  to  na,  and  genxiB  phomieoptertu  (llnn.).  The  bill 
build  hospitals,  found  chapels,  and  endow  is  longer  than  the  head,  high  at  the  base,  com- 
churcbes,  which  he  often  adorned  with  paint-  press^  suddenly  bent  at  a  right  angle  in  the 
ings  and  sculptures,  especiallx  with  bass-reliefs  of  middle,  the  sides  growing  narrower,  and  rather 
himself  and  wife.  One  of  his  free  lodging  houses  obtuse  at  the  tip;  the  lateral  margins  are  in- 
was  still  standing  in  1856,  in  the  rue  de  Mont-  curved  and  finely  laminated ;  the  base  to  around 
moreocy,  in  Paris,  with  the  original  inscription,  and  behind  the  eye  is  covert  with  a  soft  and 
He  seems  to  have  been  a  sagacious  citizen,  skilful  delicate  skin,  finer  than  the  finest  kid,  the  end 
in  making  money,  ambitious  of  renown,  andimi-  being  corneous;  the  nostrils  are  near  the  base, 
tating  the  devout  and  ostentatious  benevolence  linear,  1^  inches  long ;  length  about  5  inches ; 
of  the  princes  of  his  time.  His  fame  increased  beyond  the  curve  the  color  is  black,  the  base 
after  his  death,  and  the  attempt  to  account  for  a  being  orange  and  yellow.  The  wings  are  mod- 
fbrtone  which  had  perpetuated  itself  in  many  erate,  with  the  1st  and  2d  quills  nearly  equal 
monuments,  and  been  magnified  by  popular  and  longest;  the  tail  is  6  inches  long ;  the  tibia 
credulity,  resulted  in  attributing  to  him  the  is  lengthened  and  naked,  and  the  tarsi  very  long 
pOMension  of  the  philosopher's  stone,  and  the  and  slender,  and  both  covered  by  transverse 
secret  of  making  gold.  In  1561  the  Sommaire  scales  ;  the  toes  are  short,  the  anterior  ones 
pkHmophiquey  a  metrical  treatise  on  alchemy,  united  by  a  membranous  web ;  the  hind  toe 
was  published  probably  by  Gohorry,  under  the  is  very  short,  almost  touching  the  ground,  and 
name  of  Flamel ;  and  it  completely  established  free ;  the  claws  are  short  and  flat  There  are 
bk  reputation  as  an  alchemist  till  Vilain  criti-  5  or  6  species,  inhabiting  the  warmer  parts  of 
cally  investigated  his  history  (1761).  It  has  the  globe,  frequenting  the  sea-shore  and  marsh- 
been  supposed  that  the  Jews,  who  were  then  es  in  considerable  flocks;  one  acts  as  sentinel 
much  persecuted  in  France,  made  him  the  de-  while  Uie  rest  are  feeding  or  resting,  and  on  the 
poaita^  of  their  wealth ;  and  others  have  sup  approach  of  danger  gives  the  alarm  by  a  trum- 
poaed  that  the  cabalistic  book  of  Hahraham  pet-like  noise,  and  starts  off  leading  all  the  rest; 
Ju^f,  which  he  is  said  to  have  studied,  con-  they  fly  either  in  triangular  lines  like  tiie  wild 
tained  emblematic  »gns  of  the  various  places  goose,  or  in  Indian  file  when  they  are  about  to 
where  the  Jews,  expelled  from  the  kingdom,  alight ;  they  can  run  quickly,  but  when  walk- 
had  buried  their  treiusures.  ing  are  said  to  assist  themselves  by  placing  the 
FLAMEN,  in  Roman  antiquity,  a  member  of  upper  mandible  on  the  ground ;  though  web- 
an  ancient  college  of  priests,  established  by  footed,  they  do  not  swim,  the  webs  serving  to 
Kama,  each  of  whom  was  confined  to  the  ser-  support  them  in  wading  over  soft  mud.  The  food 
Tice  of  a  particular  deity.  The  original  8,  the  consists  of  mollusks,  crustaceans,  fish  spawn, 
dMU,  martialii^  and  quirirudis,  consecrated  marine  insects,  and  small  fish ;  the  singular  form 
to  Jupiter,  Mars,  and  the  deified  liomulus,  were  of  their  bill  enables  them,  by  turning  it  toward 
afterward  distinguished  as  majores^  and  chosen  the  body,  to  place  the  upper  mandible  down- 
from  a  select  class  of  the  patrician  order  (see  ward,  and  thus  to  collect  their  food  as  in  the 
OoSFASBiATio);  while  the  later  12,  called  mintf-  bowl  of  a  spoon.  The  small  head,  angular- 
rsi^  were  elected  from  the  plebeians.  Their  dig-  shaped  bill,  long  and  slender  neck,  stilt-like 
nl^  was  for  life,  but  could  be  forfeited  by  n^Iect  legs,  comparatively  small  body,  and  brilliant 
of  duty,  or  lost  in  consequence  of  an  ill-omened  colors,  render  the  flamingo  one  of  the  most  ez- 
erent  disturbing  any  of  their  sacred  perform-  traordinary  forms  among  birds. — ^The  American 
anoea.  Their  official  dress  was  the  apex^  a  cap,  flamingo  (P.  ruher^  Dnn.)  is  about  4  feet  long 
either  conical  or  close-fitting,  having  at  the  top  a  from  bill  to  end  of  tail,  and  5^^  feet  to  end  of 

Cted  piece  of  olive  wood,  surrounded  at  its  claws ;  the  extent  of  wings  is  5^  feet,  each  wing 

by  a  lock  of  wool  (^Zum,  whence,  accord-  being  16i  inches;  the  tarsus  12^  inches;  biU 

ing  to  some,  their  name,  while  Plutarch  derives  alonff  gape  5  inches,  along  the  curve  6  inches ; 

it  mfOkpiUum^  hat),  the  Icbtm^  or  mantle,  and  the  midme  toe  Z\  inches ;  the  circumference  of  the 

linrd  wreath.  The  most  distinguished  member  body  is  only  24  inches,  and  the  weight  about  7i 

of  tliM  college  of  priests  was  the  dialiB^  honored  lbs. :  the  female  is  considerably  smaller.    The 

with  the  privileges  of  a  seat  in  the  senate,  the  space  between  the  bill  and  eye  is  bare,  but  the 

UgafrmtextOy  a  lictor,  and  the  higher  preroga-  plumage  generally  is  compact  and  the  feathers 

ttreof  procuring  pardon  or  respite  for  criminals  rounded,  those  on  the  neck  being  short;  the 

who  came  to  him  for  refuge ;  but  he  was  also  color  is  a  bright  scarlet,  deepest  on  the  wings ; 

hardened  by  several  restrictions,  being  forbid-  the  quills  are  black,  the  legs  red,  the  feet  lake 

den,  font  instance,  to  leave  the  city  even  for  a  color,  and  the  iris  blue.    The  habits  of  the  fla- 

aini^  ni^t,  to  swear  an  oath,  to  wear  a  ring,  to  mingo  are  more  nocturnal  than  those  of  the 

rida  or  touch  a  horse,  and  to  remarry  after  the  herons;  over  the  water  they  fly  low,  but  over 

death  of  hia  wife,  who  assisted  him  in  the  per-  the  land  very  high,  with  neck  and  legs  extend- 

tflsee  of  some  of  his  sacred  functions,  and  ed,  alternately  flapping  their  wings  and  sailing; 

called ./fonifniea.    In  later  times  the  deified  before  alighting  they  generally  sail  around  the 

.  eron  of  Rome  had  particular  flamens  ap-  place,  and  come  down  in  the  shallow  water, 

j^tff^  to  their  wordiip.  often  wading  to  the  shore ;  they  are  very  ahy 


M8  FLAMOOAir  W AT 


KilC^  -^l 


and  difBcolt  to  approach.  The  nest  is  made  on  great  importance  for  eommerrial  ttid  military 
a  hiUock  of  mud  about  S  feet  hi^h,  in  the  hoi-  pnrpoeesi  and  still  retains  many  of  the  bridpis 
low  top  of  which  the  egos  are  laid  on  the  bare  and  other  works  erected  by  the  Rooian  em- 
earth  ;  they  are  S  or  Sin  number,  of  a  white  perors. 

eolor,  and  about  the  size  of  a  goose  egg;  the  FLAMTNUTCS,  Trrra  Qtumua,  a  Bemaa 

bird  covers  the  eggs  standing,  with  one  foot  in  general,  bom  abo||t  280  B.  C^  died  about  175. 

the  water,  and  the  young  are  hatched  about  He  was  elected  coitfol  in  1M»  and  imdettook  the 


'  the  end  of  May ;  as  soon  as  bom  they  are  said  conductof  the  war  aaainst  Philip  IL«  king  of  Ma* 

to  take  to  the  water,  and  cannot  fly  till  they  are  cedon.    By  pretending  that  his  object  was  to 

8  months  old;  they  do  not  attain  their  foil  scar-  remove  from  Greeoe  the  ¥af»donian  yoke«bs 

let  plumage  until  the  2d  year,  beinff  rose-color-  detached  many  of  the  Greek  states  from  PhOip, 

ed  auring  the  first    On  account  of  its  shvness  and  defeated  him  at  C^ynosoephalas  0*^  n 

the  flamingo  is  rarely  hunted,  and  then  only  for  Thessaly,  where  the  Roman  kgkNi  dcannstfia- 

its  handsome  feathers.    It  is  eadly  tamed,  and  ed  its  superiority  over  the  ftmoos  ManrdnBiaa 

In  captivity  feeds  on  rice,  maixe,  and  similar  phalanx.    By  the  treaty  whidi  waa  aooD  aUtf 

■nbstances.    It  inhabits  the  warmer  parts  of  concluded  PhiUp  surrendered  aD  the  Greek 

America,  eepecially  the  West  Indies ;  it  is  not  towns  which  he  possessed  in  Enrope  and  Asia, 

uicommon  m  West  Florida  and  northern  Ala-  and  paid  a  heavy  cootributioii  to  the  Riwwmi 

bama,  and  is.rare  to  the  north  and  west  of  these  At  the  Isthmian  games  in  196  Fhmninhina  pr» 

points.     The  European  bird  (P.  arUip^Mrum^  didmed,  to  the  gr^Joy  of  the  assembled  GrRki^ 

Temm.)  is  smaller  and  less  brilliant.    It  is  a  the  freedomof  those  states  which  had  been  sab- 

'  regular  visitant  to  the  shores  of  the  Mediterra-  dued  by  Ifaoedon.    In  195  he  dimiiiUied  the 

nean,  and  sometimes  wanders  to  France  and  power  ofthe  tyrant  Nabis  of  Sparta*  after  whkJh 

Germany  ;  it  is  extensively  spread  over  the  ne  occupied  himself  in  restortng  internal  peace 

warmer  parts  of  Asia,  and  is  very  common  along  and  prosperity  to  Greeoe.    The  next  anrag  bs 

the  shores  of  northem  Africa.    Its  ^>pearance  returned  to  Rome,  where  his  triumph  lasted  9 

and  habits  are  the  same  as  in  the  Amencan  spe-  days.    In  188  he  was  sent  as  amnassadnr  to 

des.    Accordiuff  to  Gould,  this  species  requires  Prusias,  king  of  Bithynia«  to  seek  the  snrreadcr 

4  years  to  resdi  maturity,  during  which  the  to  the  Romans  of  Hannibal,  who  had  nNaiiii 

plumage  changes  greatly ;  before  the  first  moult  an  asylum  there. 

the  color  is  uniform  gray,  with  black  tail  and  FLAIUNIUS,  CAira,  a  Roman  general,  kiDcd 

secondaries ;  in  the  male,  the  head,  neck,  upper  June  28,  217  B.  C    He  was  tribune  of  the  pco> 

and  under  surfaces,  are  a  delicate  rosy  white,  pie  in  282,  consul  in  228  and  217,  and  eeneor 

the  centre  <^  the  wing  bright  scarlet,  the  prima-  m  220.  As  tribune  he  carried  aaainst  the  oppon- 

ries  black,  the  bill  reddish  at  the  base  ana  block  tion  of  the  senate  an  agrarian  Jaw.     In  hi*  tr< 

at  the  tip,  the  tarsii  aud  toes  rosy  red ;  the  scar-  consnlship  he  with  his  colleague  attacked  tlK 

let  color  is  not  assumed  until  the  8d  or  4th  year,  Gauls  beyond  the  Po,  and  wa«  defr«te<l.    TU 

and  is  brightest  during  spring  and  summer.  0th-  senate  tlien  recalled  the  consuls,  but  FUminiL^ 

er  species  are  the  I\  ChUetaU  (MoL),  ignipalr  resisted  the  order  by  refusing  to  opvn  the  Wtur. 

Iiatu9  (D'Orb.)f  and  partus  (VieilL).    The  flesh  and  obtained  a  victory  over  the  In^obrian*.    A 

of  the  flamtugo  is  savory,  and  its  fatty  tongue  is  triumph  was  refiised  him  on  his  rvtum,  bet  u- 

considered  a  delicious  morsel;  they  were  esi)e-  was  rewarded  with  demonstrations  of  pt|tH:Ur 

cially  esteemed  by  the  ancient  Romans,  and  favor.    The^irrut  FlaminiuM  and  rid  /mm- 

many  allubions  to  this  dish  are  found  in  tlieir  nia  were  the  monuments  of  his  centor^Lip.    li 

writings. — Tlic  position  of  the  flamingo  among  his  second  consulship  he  marched  agnini4  IIi£- 

birds  has  been  and  is  a  subject  of  dispute ;  some  nibal,  and  rashly  giving  battle,  was  frUic  v:r:. 

authors  place  it  among  the  waders  or  grallcf^  tlio  greater  part  of  his  army,  on  the  burdi.r  w 

from  its  long  neck  and  legs,  and  conscijuent  hab-  Lake  Thrasymenus. 

its ;  while  others,  aud  the  best  authorities,  rank  FLAMSTEEl),  Jom,  the  first  English  si- 
lt among  the  an«fr«f,  or  web-footed  swinmiers,  tronomer  royal,  bora  in  Denby,  near  I>vrij. 
on  account  of  its  lamellar  duck-like  bill.  Webbed  Derbyshire,  Aug.  19,  1646,  died  in  Gfvr£- 
feet,  and  muscular  gizzard ;  if  it  be  true  that  the  wich,  Dec.  81,  1719.  He  was  educmtcd  at  tb« 
young  run  to  the  water  as  soon  ^  they  are  born,  free  school  of  Derby,  where  his  fisther  hv«d, 
this  of  itself  would  seem  to  establish  their  rank  and  at  a  very  early  age  manifested  a  strong  ia- 
among  the  ansertt,  dination  for  astronomical  studies.  His  htau'± 
FLAMINIAN  WAY(Lat.tiVx/'2ffminta),tho  was  so  delicate  that  he  was  not  sent  to  s 
principal  road  leading  from  ancient  Rome  to  the  univerhity,  but  continued  ibr  several  ycar«  u 
northern  provinces,  constructed  in  220  R.  C,  in  prosecute  his  astronomical  researrhes  a:  bc»«' 
the  censorship  of  C.  Fluuiinius,  from  whom  it  with  great  success.  In  1667  he  demoiKrBiol 
was  named.  It  extended  to  Ariminum.  now  Rt-  the  true  principles  of  the  equation  of  time,  il  a 
mini,  on  the  Adriatic,  a  distant^  of  about  220  tract  which  Dr.  Wallis  sub#eoii«ntly  app^bO^C 
m.,  where  it  joined  the  iEmiliaii  way.  It  di-  to  his  etlition  of  the  works  of  liorrvcks.  F^sc- 
vi<li'<l  into  2  branches  at  Narnia,  now  Nanii,  in  steed  ap|iears  to  have  been  the  fint  a»tri«4  cskt 
I'mbriii,  which  iiK't  at  Fulginium  (F(»ligno),  who  bn^ught  into  common  use  the  m«rti\«i  «f 
again  dividing  at  Nuceria  (Nucera),  and  meeting  simultaueously  observing  the  right  a»crn«KC  U 
at  Fauum  Furtumn  (Fanu).    It  was  a  road  of  the  sun  and  stars,  a  mode  by  whkh  the  trot 


FLA2fSTEED  FLANDXBS  64t 

place  of  any  star  is  determinable  by  means  of  of  a  committee  composed  of  Sir  Isaac  Newton, 

meridional  altitudes  and  transits.    In  1669  he  Sir  Christopher  Wren,  and  others.     The  Ist 

communicated  to  the  royal  society  his  calcnla-  volnme  contains  his  observations  on  the  fixed 

tion  of  a  solar  eclipse  that  had  been  omitted  in  stars,  planets,  comets,  &c. ;  the  2d,  the  transits 

the  ephemerides  for  tiie  following  year,  together  of  stars  and  planets  over  the  meridian,  with 

with  several  other  astronomic^  observations,  their  places ;  the  3d,  an  account  of  the  methods 

This  communication  was  submitted  to  a  com-  and  instruments  used  by  Tycho  Brahe  and  him* 

mittee  of  that  body,  who  sent  him  a  letter  of  self^  and  various  catalogues  of  fixed  stars,  in- 

thanka.    In  1670  he  visited  London  in  company  eluding  his  own  catalogue  of  2,934  stars.    He 

with  his  father,  and  was  introduced  to  the  sa-  also  prepared  an  Atku  Calestis,  as  an  accom- 

vants  of  the  metropolis.    When  returning  to  paniment  to  the  above  work,  which  appeared 

Derby,  he  passed  through  Cambridge,  where  he  in  1729. 

entered  hunself  a  student  of  Jesus  college,  and  FLANDERS  (Fr.  Flandre,  Flemish  Flan- 
made  ike  acquaintance  of  Wroe,  Barrow,  and  dem.  Dutch  VlaancUren},  formerly  a  part  of 
Kewton.  In  1678  he  composed  his  treatise  on  the  the  Netherlands  or  Low  Countries  of  western 
^  True  and  Apparent  Places  of  the  Planets  when  Europe,  now  included  in  Belgium,  Holland,  and 
at  their  Greatest  and  Least  Distance  from  our  France.  Stretching  along  the  German  ocean 
Earth,'*  a  work  of  which  Newton  availed  him-  from  the  W.  inlet  or  the  Scheldt  to  the  entrance 
self  in  his  first  edition  of  the  Prineipia,  In  of  the  straits  of  Dover,  it  was  bounded  N.  and 
1674  appeared  his  EphtmerUj  which,  with  2  E.  by  that  river  and  its  branch  the  Dender, 
barometers  previously  constructed  by  him,  was  while  on  the  S.  it  joined  the  province  of  Ar- 
piresented  by  his  friend  Sir  Jonas  Moore  to  tois,  the  old  country  of  the  Atrebates.  The 
Oharies  II.,  and  his  brother,  the  duke  of  York,  name  occurs  for  the  first  time  in  the  7th  cen- 
In  1675,  having  long  before  decided  on  entering  tury,  when  Eligius,  bishop  of  Noyon  and  treas- 
the  church,  he  was  admitted  to  holy  orders,  urer  of  King  Dagobert  I.,  visited  northern 
Soon  after  this  period,  the  king^s  attention  hav-  Neustria.  By  the  treaty  of  Verdun,  843,  Plan- 
ing been  called  to  the  enormous  errors  of  the  ders  was  included  in  the  kingdom  of  France, 
ae&onomical  tables  then  in  use,  he  resolved  to  and  in  868  it  was  erected  into  a  county  under 
found  an  observatory,  of  which  Flamsteed,  the  rule  of  Baldwin  of  the  Iron  Arm,  son-in-law 
through  the  mediation  of  Moore,  was  appointed  of  King  Charles  the  Bald.  Baldwin^s  succes- 
the  first  director.  The  erection  of  the  observa-  sors  took  rank  among  the  6  lay  peers  of  France, 
lory  was  completed  in  1676,  but  the  astronomer  and  figured  conspicuously  in  French  history. 
had  already  entered  on  the  discharge  of  his  du-  His  family  having  become  extinct  in  1119,  the 
ties,  having  established  himself  in  Greenwich,  county  was  held  until  1127  by  Charles  I.  the 
The  new  observatory  received  the  name  of  Good,  son  of  Canute,  king  of  Denmark ;  then 
Flamsteed  house.  It  was  so  inadequately  sup-  for  a  year  by  William  Cliton,  the  nephew  of 
plied  with  astronomical  apparatus  that  its  prin-  Henry  I.  of  England ;  and  finally  by  Thierry, 
eipal,  out  of  his  scanty  salary  of  £100  a  year,  son  of  the  duke  of  Lorraine,  whose  dynasty, 
often  not  regularly  paid,  and  his  other  limit-  known  as  the  Alsatian,  reigned  until  1280.  A 
ed  resources,  had  to  provide  most  of  those  in-  last  family  of  counts  was  inaugurated  by  Guy  de 
atraments  which  were  indispensable  to  the  sue-  Dampierre,  and  lasted  until  1884,  when  Flan- 
ceasfhl  prosecution  of  his  researches.  Here,  ders  was  united  to  the  states  of  Philip  the  Bold 
liowever,  notwithstanding  every  disadvantage,  of  Burgundy,  who  had  married  the  heiress  of  the 
Flamsteed  composed  his  great  work,  HUtoria  last  count.  At  the  death  of  Charles  the  Bold 
CcelatU,  the  period  of  whose  publication  forms  in  1477,  hisdaughter  Mary,  by  marrying  the  arch- 
an  epoch  in  the  annals  of  modern  astronomy,  duke  Maximilian,  brought  Flanders  to  the  house 
In  1684  he  was  presented  by  the  lord  keeper  of  Austria.  It  was  incorporated  by  the  em- 
North  to  the  small  living  of  Burslow  in  Surrey,  peror  Charles  V.  among  the  17  provinces  which 
the  only  ecclesiastical  preferment  he  ever  ob-  formed  the  circle  of  Burgundy.  On  his  abdica- 
tained.  Mr.  Francis  Baily^s  discovery  of  his  tion  it  became  one  of  the  dependencies  of  Spain, 
papers  and  correspondence,  in  1832,  has  thrown  which  lost  a  portion  of  it  by  its  northernmost 
nnichlightonthehistory  of  his  differences  with  section  being  annexed  to  Seeland  when  the  7 
Kewton  and  Halley.  These  documents  give  us  United  Provinces  declared  their  independence. 
Flamsteed^s  version  ofthose  unseemly  squabbles.  Afterward  a  portion  of  its  southern  territory 
and  it  is  not  at  all  favorable  to  the  reputation  of  was  conquered  by  Louis  XIV.,  and  received  the 
those  great  masters  of  science;  but  there  is  an-  name  of  French  Flanders.  In  1713  the  peace 
other  account  of  these  matters  in  Sir  David  of  Utrecht  transferred  Flanders  from  Snain  to 
Brewster's  *^  Memoirs  of  the  Life,  &c.,  of  Sir  Austria.  In  1792  it  was  invaded  by  the  French, 
IiHUM3  ifewton,*'  which  makes  their  conduct  who  held  it.until  1814,  during  which  period  it 
toward  him  appear  less  culpable,  though  neither  formed  the  departments  of  Lys  and  Scheldt. 
|iHt  nor  generous,  than  Flamsteed  would  lead  On  the  fall  of  the  French  empire,  it  was  given 
OS  to  suppose.  His  Historia  Caleatia  BriUvn-  to  the  king  of  the  Netherlands^ho  divided  it 
niM  ^  vols.  foL,  London,  1725)  was  not  pub-  into  2  provinces.  East  and  West  Fhmders, 
lisbea  complete  till  after  his  death,  though  which  since  1831  have  constituted  an  important 
•  partial  ^ition  had  been  issued  in  1712,  part  of  the  kingdom  of  Belgium.  In  spite  of  so 
hia  protest,  by  HaUey,  under  authority  many  revolutions,  Flanders  has  idways  been 


650  lULKDERS  FLATHEAD  INDIAKS 

distiDgnished  for  its  indostrial,  commercifll,  and  \>j  which  it  is  watered  on  the  8^  it  bas  onir 

agricultural  prosperitj.    As  early  as  the  12th  small  streams  empty ioff  into  the  tea.     Its  nr- 

century  its  cities  had  acquired  considerable  im-  face  is  generally  flat ;  and  although  moat  of  its 

portanco  through  their  manuiactures,  and  had  soil  is  sandy  and  poor,  it  lias  been,  throogh  ud- 

secured  a  certain  degree  of  freedom.    Tho  dem-  tiring  industry,  so  much  improred  that  it  jMiis 

ocratic  spirit  kept  even  pace  with  tho  pro-  abundant  cropsof  wheat, oleaginonaplantiL  flax, 

grcss  of  trade  ana  industry ;  and  in  the  follow-  and  tobacco.    Cattle  and  hones  are  abnndaLt. 

ing  centuries  the  Flemish  cities  were  so  many  The  manufacture  of  linen  and  damask  b  the 

republican  communities,  governing  themselves,  principal  branch  of  industry.     Capital,  Braces; 

and  paying  little  more  than  a  nominal  obedience  other  chief  towns,  Ostend,  ^mes,  Ypn:%  Cih?- 

to  their  counts.    They  more  than  once  took  the  tray,  and  Dixmude. 

management  of  afiairs  into  their  own  hands,  and        FLANNEL,  the  plainest  fahne  of  wooT.fn 

sacce»fully  resisted  their  lord  paramount,  the  yams,  commonly  slightly  woven.    It  b  wdl 

king  of  France.    Such  was  the  case  in  1337,  adapted  for  under  clothing  where  the  tempers' 

when  Jacques  van  Artevclde,  tho  brewer  of  ture  is  changeable,  the  material  being  a  pocr 

Ghent,  expelled  Count  Louis  I.  from  tlie  conn-  conductor  of  heat,  and  readily  absorbiDg  prr- 

try,   CAU^  his  countrymen  to  acknowlod)?o  spiration,  which  slowly  evaporates   fn>ra  iti 

Edward  III.  of  England  as  king  of  France,  and  surface  without  chilling  the  body.     Flanncli 

held  for  a  while  tho  balance  between  tho  two  are  also  made  of  yama  into  which  cotton  b  in- 

sreat  contending  nations.    Even  when  the  cit-  troduced  in  various  proportions;  and  again  of  a 

les  of  Flanders  consented  to  submit  to  their  warp  of  cottou  thread  crossed  by  woof  of  vou- 

sovereigns,  they  protected  their  liberties  and  len  yarns.    A  most  delicate  flannel  fur  the  wear 

privileges   against   any  encroachment,   which  of  infants  consbts  of  silk  and  wool.    Cotton  or 

uct  is  clearly  evideoc^  by  their  repeate<l  re-  Canton  flannel  b  a  twilled  fabric,  wholly  coca- 

Tolts  during  ttie  14th  and  15th  centuries.    Tho  posed  of  cotton,  a  nap  being  raised  on  one  Mt 

interest  of  their  lords,  however,  was  to  dcid  of  tlio  stuff. 

mildly  with  subjects  from  whom  they  could  ob-  FLAT,  in  music,  tlie  character  b  used  to  de- 
tain immense  sums  of  money  by  voluntary  tax-  note  that  the  note  beforo  which  it  b  pUc«d  u 
ation.  It  was  through  them  indeed  that  tho  to  be  depressed  a  chromatic  seniitune  below  i!« 
house  of  Burgundy  became  the  wealthiest  in  natural  pitch.  Thus  Dbsignifiva  a  semitone  be- 
Europe,  for  they  had  then  reached  the  height  low  D  natural  (e). 

of  tlieir  prosperity;  many  burgesses  of  Ghent,        FLATBUSII,  a  post  village  and  township  cf 

Ypres,  and  Bruges  had  princely  fortunes,  and  Kings  co.,  N.  Y.,  memorable  for  a  Briti*ii  v;c- 

plenty  was  apparent  everywhere.     Charles  V.,  tory  over  the  Americans  in  ITTfi ;  pop.  in  1*»^'0. 

by  furbcanince  uml  iikiltul  iimnn^oment,  c<incili-  3,280.      It  is  the  K\'it  uf  an  aradcmy  rul.-.-i 

ated  tho  Flemings,  ami  even  tho  despotism  of  £ra«(mn:4  Hall,  and  o«>ntains  6cvenil  churrK'e^ 
Philip  II.  could  not  entirely  alienate  tliem  from         FLATIIEAI)  INDIANS,  a  term  apphi-ii  t- 

Spain.     Flanders  is  still  a  well  cultivated  cotin-  some  of  tho  al»original  triU-s  inhaMiing  Vrys  :. 

try,  famous  for  it.s  industry  and  coniinerco,  and  near  the  month  of  thoColumbi.i  rivrr.  and  k!*  -  j 

forming;  the  richest  part  of  Belgium;  hut  tho  the  N.  W.  c<>a>tof  AnK-rica  fn>m  Saiii-<«fi  r  .*: 

indomit.'ihlo  spirit  of  ohl  times  has  Ijeen  tamed  in  lot.  53 '  30'  N.  to  Umqua  river  in  4*i     >  — 

into  a  inmlerate  love  of  ]M>litii'al  liberty.     (Sec  the  Nootka  Columhiann  of  r)r.  SronUr.     T 

FLEMitfri  LANGi'Ar.E  AXi>  LiTEiJATUMK.)  namo  is  derived  fn»iii  the  practice  t^l  fiait.r  ■  j 

FLANDKKS,  Fast,  a  provinoo  of  Belgium,  tho  skulls  of  their  infants  bv  v&riot:^  tm-Ll  . 

bounded   N.   by  Ilulhmd,  E.   by   the   Seheldt  cal  contrivances ;  tho  model  of  the  dflMfr.    ; 

(jk'paratin;;   it   nl<)^tly  from   tho  jirovlnre   of  is  the  same  in  all  the  tril^es  and  much  hkf  :r .: 

Antwerp)  and  by  South  Brabant,  S.  by  Ilai-  ol>ser^'od  in  the  ancient  renivi.in  enin;a.     ~\- 

nault,  and  W.  by  West  Flanders;  area,  l.ir»4s4i.  forehead  is  depresMul  and  indento«l;  th**  c::«- 

m. ;  pop.  in  lS5r>,  77C,lM»o.    Itformsanexteiisivo  and  middle  {larts  of  tho  face  aro  pushed  :  i.  ^ 

plain,  drained  by  tho  S*heldt  and  its  tributaries,  suthat  tho  orbits  are  dire«*t(*d  a  little  C7>«£r. . 

whirh,   iK'in^  united   by  canals,  atlurd   aniplo  tho  head  is  m>  elon;;ated  that  in  extniuc  ia^  - 

water  romiininicat ion.     Its  soil  is  not  of  supe-  the  top  becomes  nearly  a  horia in t:il  pi Ai.t* :  :   . 

rior  quality,  but  is  industriously  cultivated,  and  parietalsaro  lK>nt  .so  a.t  to  form  an  arctc  tr  j  • 

it  gives  excellent  cnips  of  tlax,  hemp,  wheat,  and  instead  of  the  occiput  ct>n»ti tut e  iIm^  f^««: 

rye,  colewort,  hops,  K-etn,  jxitatooN  and  otlier  rior  portion  of  the  head:  tl»e  breadth  U  i: 

vepet;ible.M.     Great  numbers  uf  cattle  are  raiseil.  hkull  and  face  is  much  incrcasrd.  arrtl  il*c  t»  . 

Idanufacturos  are  in  a  prosperous  condition,  and  Fides  are  in  most  cvm^  un«Tii-.iiH'tr;c;ftI      T 

comprise  linen,  woollen,  and  cnttmi  fuhrics,  and  l»est  known  tribes  which  flatten  the   b«^*  ^; 

bi-et-root  pui::ir.     Capital,  (Jluiit;  other  chief  thoir   children  are  the  CliimHils    0*Ia; -iti*. 

town^   Oudenarde,  Tvrmonde,   FeeliMi,   Alost,  Clickitats  Clatsop?*,  C«»wa;it*k.  mxA  0*:<1:  . 

and  St.  Nirliolas.  Amonf?  the  Chin«M)ks  tho  child  w  plsc^i  r.  i 

FLANIjFKS,  West,  a  province  «»f  Helirium,  WiMnlen  cradle,  and  a  pad  of  pruK*  ••  i.-*.: 

l>onnded  N.  W.  by  tho  (iorman  ocean,  S.  Sv.  by  band:u:e<l  over  the  fonhvad  anil  *><-^  ••■  ti  - 

France,  and  E.  by  tho  Ikl^rian  provinres  of  Ilai-  it  is  iniiH>sMble   for  him  ti»  s^v  vf  n.^Mi  .  n  . 

nault  and  E:ist  Manders;  urea,  1,200  S4|.m.;  iH>p.  when  baiid;i;red  and   MJi^iii-ndM    in    lir    ^*>  • 

inlb56,C2VJl2.  Ikiadc  tho  Lys  and  tho  Scheldt,  way,  the  head  is  actoally  lower  tUx.  tL«  Uxi. 


FLATHEAD  INDIANS  FLAX                         65t 

A  more  ernel  way  is  practised  ia  other  tribes  vertical  direction  (as  in  the  Natchez)  or  a  lonri- 
by  binding  a  flat  board  obliquely  on  the  fore-  tndinal  one  fas  in  the  ancient  Pemvians).  "Hie 
head.  These  processes  continued  for  several  flattened  skml  must  be  classed  among  the  strange 
months  produce  the  coveted  deformity,  which,  whims  of  nations,  with  the  small  feet  of  the 
however,  according  to  Dr.  Pickering,  disappears  Chinese,  the  perforated  ears  and  lips  of  savages, 
with  age,  so  that  most  adults  present  no  trace  and  the  tapering  waists  of  Europeans, 
of  it  This  shape  of  the  head  is  so  highly  prized  FLAYEL,  Jony,  an  English  clergyman  an^ 
among  the  Chinooks  that  their  slaves  are  not  author,  bom  in  Broomsgrove,  Worcestershire, 
allowed  to  practise  artificial  flattening.  The  about  1627,  died  in  Exeter,  June  26, 1691.  He 
internal  capacity  of  the  skull  is  not  diminished  was  educiU^  at  ^Oxford,  and  became  a  curate 
by  the  flatness,  and  the  intellect  is  not  aflected,  at  Diptford,  from  which  place  he  was  cidled 
as  all  travellers  affree  that  these  nations  are  re-  in  1656  to  Dartmouth.  He  was  one  of  the 
markably  shrewd  and  intelligent;  it  is  said,  2,000  clergymen  who  refused  to  subscribe  to 
however,  that  they  are  particularly  subject  to  the  '^  Act  of  Conformity,"  passed  in  1662,  and 
aponlexy.  The  Chinooks  are  the  best  known  was  therefore  expelled  from  his  benefice.  He 
of  the  Flatheads ;  they  inhabit  the  S.  shore  of  continued,  however,  to  preach  as  opportunity 
the  straits  of  Fuca,  and  the  deeply  indented  offered,  in  private  dwellings,  obscure  neighbor- 
territory  as  far  as  and  including  the  tide  waters  hoods,  or  forests,  till  1687,  when  the  royal  11- 
of  the  Columbia  river.  They  are  commonly  of  cense  being  granted  to  worship  without  molesta- 
diminntive  stature,  with  ill-shaped  limbs  and  nn-  tion,  he  resumed  his  public  labors  in  a  new 
prepossessing  features ;  the  oblique  eye  and  the  church  erected  by  his  people.  Most  of  his 
arched  noee  are  occasionally  seen  among  them ;  works,  which  ore  held  in  high  esteem  and  have 
their  eomplexion  is  darker  than  that  of  the  more  been  many  times  reprint^  were  composed 
northern  tribes  who  do  not  flatten  the  head  during  the  period  of  his  persecution.  *^  Hu»- 
They  have  the  filthy  habits  and  the  usual  vices  band^^  Spiritualized"  is  one  of  the  most  popu- 
of  toe  N.  W.  Indians,  but  are  said  to  be  supe-  lar;  among  his  other  chief  works  are:  "A  Trea- 
rior  to  the  hunting  tribes  of  America  in  the  tise  of  the  Soul  of  Man,"  ^'  The  Fountain  of 
naeftil  and  ornamental  arts ;  their  climate  is  Life,"  "  The  Method  of  Grace,"  "  A  Token  for 
oomparatively  mild  and  moist  from  the  preva-  Mourners,"  &c  An  edition  in  6  vols.  8vo.  ap- 
lence  of  westerly  winds,  and  they  are  a  fishing  peered  in  London  in  1820.  ^ 
and  maritime  people.  They  difier  from  the  FLAX,  the  common  name  of  tne  plant  linum 
northern  tribes  in  language  as  well  as  in  phys-  usitatimmum,  and  also  of  its  most  important 
icai  characters ;  they  speak  in  a  quiet,  deliber-  product,  the  filaments  obtained  from  the  fibrous 
ate  manner,  and  their  words  can  hardly  be  rep-  covering  of  its  hollow  stems,  used  from  the  re- 
resented  by  any  combinations  of  known  letters,  motest  times  in  the  manufacture  of  linen  thread. 
Dr.  Pickering  says  they  have  no  method  of  The  coverings  of  the  Egyptian  mummies  testify 
aalataUon  or  of  expressing  approbation.  They  that  the  linen  mentioned  by  the  most  ancient 
are  regarded  as  a  dangerous  race  by  travellers,  writers  was  the  product  of  the  flax  plant,  still 
Dr.  Morton,  in  plates  42  to  50  of  the  Crania  cultivated  for  its  valuable  fibre.  This,  however, 
Americana^  gives  descriptive  illustrations  of  sev-  .a  not  the  only  useftd  product  of  the  plant.  Its 
end  skulls  of  the  Columbia  river  tribes.  They  seeds  furnish  the  important  oil  called  linseed 
are  rapidly  diminishing  in  numbers  from  dis-  oil ;  and  of  the  residue,  after  this  is  express* 
eaaea  and  vices  introduced  by  the  whites ;  there  ed,  b  made  the  oil  cake  which  is  extensively 
is  probably  not  a  tribe  that  can  number  500  in-  used  for  feeding  and  fattening  cattle.  On  ao- 
dividuals,  and  many  in  Mr.  Schoolcraft^s  tables  count  of  its  mucilaginous  character,  flax  seed  is 
are  placed  below  100 ;  the  whole  Indian  popu-  also  emploved  in  medicine,  its  inftision  in  boil- 
lation  of  Oregon  is  not  much  above  20,000.  Ihe  ing  water  having  a  soothing  effect  in  cases  of 
Flatheads  S.  of  the  Columbia  river,  or  the  inflammation  of  the  lungs,  intestines,  &c. ;  and 
Salish,  are  only  about  800  souls ;  they  are  said  when  ground  to  meal  and  mixed  with  hot  water, 
to  oocupy  60  lodges  on  St.  Mary^s  river,  in  it  forms  an  excellent  emollient  poultice.  The 
Wasnington  territory,  E.  of  the  Cascade  moun-  flax  plant  is  a  slender  annual,  growing  from  2 
tains.  The  custom  of  flattening  the  head  is  to  8  feet  in  height,  bearing  small  lanceolate  leaves 
Y€gj  ancient,  but  the  modern  Indians,  except  distributed  alternately  over  the  stalks.  These 
thoee  of  the  N.  W.  coast,  do  not  generally  prac-  terminate  in  delicate  blue  flowers,  which  are 
tise  it;  it  was  a  custom  in  Peru  before  the  ar-  succeeded  by  globular  seed  vessels  of  the  size  of 
tivtl  of  the  Incas,  and  was  practised  also  by  the  small  peas,  containing  each  10  seeds.  These  are 
Inca  Peruvians  to  a  comparatively  recent  date,  oval  and  flat,  of  brown  color^nd  remarkably 
It  aeeroa  to  have  been  principally  employed  by  bright,  smooth,  and  slippery.  The  outer  portion 
the  Toltecan  branch  of  the  American  nations,  or  husk  is  mucilaginous,  yielding  52.7  per  cent, 
iadndingthesemi-civilized  race  of  Mexico,  Peru,  of  a  pure  gum  soluble  in  cold  water;  and  the 
and  Central  America,  and  the  ancient  mound  interior  portion  yields  tiie  peculiar  oil  already 
bailden  of  tiie  Ohio  and  Mississippi  valleys ;  referred  to.  The  plant,  now  cultivated  in  ai- 
tbe  Natchez  tribe  of  Florida  and  the  south-  most  all  parts  of  the  world,  is  supposed  by 
em  states,  the  Clioctaws,  and  the  Caribs  Tboth  many  to  have  been  flrst  known  in  Egypt,  or 
iniolar  and  continental)  flattened  the  skulls  of  possibly  in  the  elevated  plains  of  centrd  Asia; 
their  children  by  various  devices  either  in  a  ont  though  no  doubt  a  naUve  of  warm  dimateSi 


6&8 

flie  fibre  attiintHsg^reatertfliieneaB  and  perfeo>  idJMtnreof  floia0hto|KimtncirrandTaggii4> 
tloaiiitempenitdlre^kMM.  The  seed,  however,  is  The  ftmoant  of  flex  seed  eiportodmni  Phikdtl- 
rieher  in  the  tropics.  Near  the  northern  limits  ]^ia  increased  from  70,000  boriieb  in  17BI  to 
of  its  onltivation  the  product  of  the  flax  is  110,413  in  1771.  The  prodoelkm  oTIUz  in  the 
•bondant,  bat  the  qnalily  is  inferior.  The  flax  United  States  aooording  to  the  lMtMii8iis(lttO) 
of  Holland  and  Belgium  is  rated  as  worth  from  was  7,709,676  Ibs^  of  whieh  3,100^116  lbs.  were 
^50  to  $900  per  ton,  while  that  of  Busria,  raised  hi  Kentnckj.  1,000,460  in  Yiiflnia.  and 
whose  export  is  from  40,000  to  60,000  tons  an-  940,677  in  New  York;  and  of  flax  seed  603,307 
nnaDjr,  brings  only  about  $240  per  ton.  This  bushels,  of  which  76«801  bmheb  were  miicd  in 
dif&rence  is,  however,  to  be  attributed  in  part  Kentud^*  62,818  in  Viiginla,  and67,969  la  New 
to  the  extreme  care  given  bj  the  HoUanders  and  York.  The  amount  of  flax  raised  in  tiiaUBkai  in 
Belgians  to  its  preparatkn.  The  Irish,  who  1868  was  estimated  at  8,000^000  Iba.  The  pto> 
have  cultivated  tue  crop  from  the  earij  period  ductk>n  has  hitlierto  been  entiielj  for  bone  eon- 
whtti  the  plant  was  introduced  into  thdr  conn-  sumptkxi,  but  eflbrts  have  hMj  beeo  made  to 
trj,  and  who  would  seem  to  possess  ss  great  increase  it  The  imports  of  ummiiiflMlnrsd 
nataral  advantairas  for  its  successful  culture  ss  flax  during  the  year  en^flns  June  30, 1863|  wen 
any  people,  rarely  furnish  so  valuable  an  artid^  valued  at  $197,984^— The  flax  crop  tiirives  upon 
as  the  Belgians.  The  reason  is  thus  given  in  n  almost  any  good  soQ  thorou|^i(y  pidvcriMd  oad 
document  published  by  the  Belgian  government  wdl  draine^butmoreespedaDy  iipott  rkb  sagady 
in  1841:  ^  The  flax  of  Ireland,  when  first  pulled^  loams  regulariy  snppliea  with  mufatm^  daariH 
is  ss  good  ss  ours,  but  the  Irish  are  negligent,  the  spring  months.  In  Ohioi,  3  pe^s  of  and 
Our  flax  is  immediately  put  in  water;  theirs  is  are  sown  to  the  acre,  which  yiddalhmi  610 13 
left  to  get  heated  in  the  air,  while  they  go  away  bushels  of  seed  and  from  1  to  3  tooa  of  atosw, 
to  drink  and  ei\}oy  themselves.  Our  pessants  which  is  manufectured  into  tow  for  ropa  wifta 
are  watchful,  and  take  the  flax  at  the  end  oi  6  and  paper  mills.  It  mav  be  sown  Twy  eariy 
or  8  days,  according  to  the  condition  they  find  in  the  4^ring,  and  to  good  advantage  aneosaifav 
it  in ;  the  Irish  do  it  just  when  they  ^ease.  a  crop  of  grain.  As  it  is  gathered  la  Ji 
Our  flax,  when  covered  with  mud,  is  spraidout  early  in  August,  another  crop  mi|y  bo  ob 
earefhlly  in  a  fine  meadow,  when  the  first  flrom  the  ssme  land  durinr  the  seaaon.  A 
ahowerdeanses  it;  in  Ireland  it  ia  thrown  down  mon  practtoe  with  the  Bdgiaas  iaio  « 
almost  anywhere.  The  women  with  us  crften  white  carrot  toMdcast  with  the  flax,  and 
take  the  preparati<m  of  the  fiax  upon  themselves;  ihe  latter  is  gathered,  which  ia  done  by 
but  in  Ireland  the  flax  is  prepared  In  mills.'^  Jie  plants  by  the  roots,  the  soU  ia  1 
The  product  of  Ireland  is  estimated  at  flrom  around  the  young  carrots,  and  beiw  then  to^ 
86,000  to  80,000  tons  per  annum ;  and  with  dressed  with  liquid  manure,  they  tnrive  lur:* 
what  is  grown  in  Yorksniro,  Somersetshire,  and  riantly.  Grass  or  clover  seed  b  aim  often 
the  south  of  Scotland,  the  whole  produce  of  the  sown  immediately  upon  the  flax  seed.  The  bet- 
British  isles  is  rated  at  about  85,000  tons,  while  tor  soils  take  8  bushels  of  seed  to  the  am,  the 
the  consamption  varies  from  80,000  to  105,000  poorer  2  bushels.  The  finest  fibre  b  obcaioed 
tons.  The  greater  part  of  the  importation  is  by  a  thick  growth  of  slender  stalks.  The  I>Qt<h 
firom  Russia,  and  the  countries  bordering  on  the  take  great  pains  to  weed  the  crop  by  hand, 
Baltic  About  5,000,000  lbs.  are  obtmned  from  when  the  plants  are  S  or  8  inches  high.  In 
Belgium,  which  is  about }  of  its  whole  product,  Juno  the  plants  are  in  bloom,  and  tht  fiekb 
the  total  value  of  which  is  calculated  at  $12,«  present  a  beautiful  appearance,  covered  with 
600,000.  The  rich  soil  ofthe  valley  of  the  Kile  is  the  delicate  blue  flowers.  The  time  for  gather- 
well  adapted  for  its  cultivation,  and  the  product  ing  is  indicated  by  tlie  leaves  besinnioc  to 
of  Egypt  U  increasing  under  the  encoaragement  drop  off,  and  by  the  bottom  of  the  stjuks  becocn- 

S'ven  by  the  English,  who  find  it  more  cconom-  ing  yellow  ;  also  by  the  condition  of  the  seed 

bJ  to  procure  their  supplies  fh>m  foreign  conn-  bolls,  which  should  be  exsmined  almoM  dsLj 

tries  than  from  their  own.  Flax  appears  to  have  about  the  time  of  maturity  of  the  crop.     yh<a 

been  cultivated  in  New  Netherlands  as  early  as  the  ripest  on  being  cut  open  with  a  sharp  xuife 

1826.  The  seed  of  flax  was  ordered  to  bo  intro-  do  not   appear  within  whitish  and  wstcrr. 

duced  into  the  colony  of  Massachusetts  in  1629,  but  firm  and  dark  green,  the  flax  b  fit  lur  pel!- 

and  flax  was  cultivated  in  that  state  soon  after  ing.    Soon  after  this  the  seeds  woakl  begin  Xo 

the  war  of  independence,  particularly  at  a  dis-  fall,  and  the  flbre  would  loie  its  salktnes*  and 

tanoe  from  the  coast    Manufactories  for  mak-  elasticity.    But  if  it  be  desired  to  obtain  serj 

ing  sail  cloth  were  establtslied  at  Salem  and  for  sowing,  the  plants  must  be  allowni  to  fi:!^^ 

Springfield  in  1790.    In  Virainia  flax  was  an-  ripen  at  the  cost  of  the  deteriorBtkm  of  th« 

nuaUv  cultivated,  spun,  and  woven  by  Capt.  fibre.    As  the  flax  b  pulled,  it  b  cathend  la 

Matthews  prior  to  1648.    Ikmnties  for 'its  pro-  bundles  to  dry ;  and  then  if  the  seeds  are  thc«r- 

ductiou  in  that  colony  were  offered  in  1657.  onglily  ripened,  they  may  be  separated  bv  tht 

Flax  was  among  the  products  for  tlie  encourage-  threshing  mill.    The  ordinary  coarse.  bowrr«r. 

ment  of  whose  cultivation  the  Hritinh  parlia-  b  to  strip  the  seeds  by  the  process  called  ripfUiS^ 

ment  made  considerable  grants  to  the  patentees  which  is  drawing  the  stalks,  a  handfnl  at  a  Um^ 

{ji  Georgia  in  1733,  1743,  and  1749.    Early  through  a  si*t  of  iron  teeth  standing  Id  a  rev. 

attention  was  given  to  the  cultivation  and  man*  ^    inch  apart  at  top  and  ^  Inch  al  boc» 


ELAX  558 

Four  men  \nth  two  rippling  combs  will  separate  is  found  to  separate  by  the  fingers  from  the 

the  seeds,  it  is  estimated,  from  more  than  an  boon,  and  this  breaks  without  bending.    At 

acre  of  flax  in  a  day.    The  seed  bolls  should  be  this  stage  also  several  stalks  knotted  together 

well  dried,  and  then  stored  away  in  bags  in  sink  in  the  water.    The  duration  of  the  process 

an  airy  place.    At  conyenient  times  they  are  is  from  6  to  20  days.    The  riper  the  plant, 

threshed  and  winnowed  to  separate  the  seed  the  longer  is  the  time  required ;  hence  the  ne- 

firom  the  capsules,  preparatory  to  obtaining  by  cessity  of  sorting  the  stalks  into  bundles  of 

expression  the  oil  and  the  oil  cake.    The  culture  similar  qualities.    The  bundles,  being  lifted  out 

of  flax  and  its  preparation  for  market  involve  of  the  water  by  hand,  are  set  on  end  to  drain 

more  labor  than  almost  any  other  crop.    The  for  24  hours,  and  the  stalks  are  then  spread 

seeds  are  preferred  which  are  brought  from  Ri-  upon  grass,  and  occasiondly  turned,  to  be  soft- 

ga,  and  next  to  these  the  Dutch ;  the  American  ened  and  ripened  by  exposure  for  several  days. 

produce  a  coarser  stem.    The  soil  should  be  When  again  gathered  and  made  into  sheaves, 

tboroQffhly  prepared  by  repeated  harrowing  these  may  be  kept  for  years  in  stacks,  the  qual- 

after  ^p  ploughing.    The  weeding  requires  ity  of  the  fibre  continuing  to  improve  for  some 

peculiar  care,  that  it  may  be  sufficient  without  seasons.    Though  the  fermenting  process  is  not 

iigary  to  the  young  plants.    The  soil  should  be  intended  to  pass  to  the  putrefying  stage,  a  dis- 

kept  rich  by  judicious  manuring ;   for  fiax  is  agreeable  odor  is  given  out  from  the  fiax,  which 

commonly  regfurded  as  an  exhausting  crop.  The  even  contaminates  the  air  of  the  district,  and 

plan  of  returning  to  the  soil  the  water  in  which  the  waters  are  so  affected  that  the  fish  are  poi- 

the  stalks  are  steeped,  by  which  it  is  estimated  soned.    A  more  expeditious  and  agreeable  pro- 

1^  of  the  nutritious  matter  taken  away  are  re-  cess  was  therefore  highly  desirable,  and  such 

stored,  is  highly  recommended.    The  pure  fibre  was  devised  by  the  late  Mr.  R.  B.  8chenck  of 

yields  no  ashes,  so  that  it  takes  nothing  from  New  York,  and  successfully  introduced  into  the 

the  soil,  and  the  manure  of  the  cattle  fed  upon  fiax  districts  of  Ireland  in  1847.    This  consisted 

the  oil  cake  will  restore  much  of  the  solid  con-  in  steeping  the  stalks  in  water  heated  by  steam 

atitnents  of  the  seeds.    Dr.  lire  gives  the  fol-  pipes  to  a  temperature  of  about  90*^  F.    The 

lowing  mixture  of  salts,  "  which  it  has  been  said  gummy  matter  is  thus  rapidly  decomposed,  so 

wlU  replace  chemically  the  constituents  of  the  that  in  about  60  hours  the  operation  is  com- 

plants  produced  from  an  acre  of  land.  viz. :  pleted  without  the  escape  of  any  disagreeable 

moriate  of  potash,  80  lbs. ;  common  salt,  28 ;  odors.    The  mucilaginous  water  is  then  drawn 

burned  gypsum,  powdered,  84 ;  bone  dust,  54 ;  of^  and  the  fiax  is  set  to  dry  upon  frames,  the 

solphate  of  magnesia,  56."    The  preparation  of  waste  steam  of  the  engine  being  used,  if  neces- 

the  flax  for  market  finds  occupation  for  the  cul-  sary,  to  heat  the  air  for  hastening  the  drying.  By 

tivators  in  the  winter  season ;  but  this  can  be  this  process  time  is  economized,  a  serious  nui- 

eoonomically  conducted  only  where  many  are  sauce  is  abated,  and  the  fibre  of  the  fiax  is  rather 

engaged  in  the  culture,  and  mills  are  provided  improved  in  strength  and  color,  if  care  has  been 

with  the  requisite  machinery.    In  the  fiax  dis-  taken  that  the  water  be  not  over-heated  or  the 

^ricts  of  Belgium  it  is  stated  there  are  no  pan-  operation  too  long  continued.    Other  improve^ 

pera,  as  the  whole  population  find  employment  ments  have  also  been  introduced,  as  that  of  Mr. 

during  the  winter. — ^The  first  process  in  the  pre-  Bower  of  Leeds,  which  consists  in  rolling  the 

paration  of  the  fibre  is  to  steep  the  stalks  in  stalks  after  they  have  been  steeped  in  cold  or 

water,  until  fermentation  takes  place.  This  cans-  warm  water,  again  steeping,  and  again  rolling. 

es  the  glutinous  matter,  which  binds  the  harl  or  The  glutinous  matter  is  thus  more  thoroughly 

the  fibrous  portion  to  the  woodv  core,  called  the  removed.    The  addition  of  a  pound  of  caustio 

boon,  to  be  decomposed,  and  the  fibres  are  ammonia  or  of  common  salt  or  Glauber  salt  to 

thus  set  free.     The  water  most  suitable  for  every  150  pounds  of  nun  water  is  recommend- 

thw  purpose  is  soft  river  water.    The  fiax  is  ed ;  and  the  temperature  being  kept  at  from  90° 

led  more  free  from  color  by  a  stream  of  water  to  120°,  the  operation  may  be  completed  in  80 

flowins  over  the  bundles  than  if  these  are  hours.    The  most  rapid  process,  however,  is  to 

steeped  as  is  often  done,  in  a  pool,  the  water  steep  the  fiax  for  a  short  time,  and  then  exhaust 

ik  whidi  is  kept  to  be  applied  to  the  soiL    This  the  air  from  its  fibres  by  the  action  of  an  air 

process  is  called  water-retting  or  rotting.    The  pump.    Twice  steeping  and  twice  exhausting 

recnlt  is  sometimes  obtained  by  exposing  the  the  ur  serve  to  remove  the  glutinous  matter  in 

flax  on  grass  plots  to  the  dew  and  rain,  when  a  few  hours.     Attempts  have  been  made  to 

the  operation  is  called  dew-retting.    This  re-  substitute  for  the  retting  mechanical  methods 

qiiirea  much  longer  time,  and  also  the  control  of  separating  the  fibre  from  the  boon,  but  they 

of  extensive  grass  fields.     It  is  an  excellent  have  not  been  successful,  owing  to  the  inferior 

method  to  combine  the  two  processes,  com-  quality  ofthe  filaments  thus  prepared.  Theintro- 

taeocing  with  the  water-retting,  and  when  the  auction  of  chemical  matters  to  hasten  the  fermen- 

boon  is  partially  rotted  and  the  gummy  matter  tation  has  been  greatiy  objected  to  from  their 

looaeoeo,  to  complete  the  operation  upon  the  liability  to  weaken  the  fibres.    The  reducing  of 

craas;  the  risk  of  carrying  the  fermentation  too  the  fibre  to  the  condition  of  cotton  by  the  pro- 

fiir  and  injuring  the  fibre  is  thus  avoided.   When  cess  of  the  chevalier  Claussen  has  excited  strong 

tlie  eteepmg  process  alone  is  employed,  the  fiax  opposition  on  this  account.    He  had  observed 

is  remoyed  from  tiie  water  as  soon  as  the  harl  that  the  fiax  caught  in  the  branches  overhang* 


654  HJLX 

log  a  stream  in  Brazil,  which  ran  through  his  ahoat  24  lbs.  of  flax  are  obt^nod  and  9  or  10 
flax  fields,  WAS  by  repeated  wetting  and  expo-  lbs.  of  tow.  The  breaking  of  100  Ib^.  i«f  itrav 
snre  converted  intoasabstancc  exactly  like  cot-  by  the  machine  described  requires  the  labor  of 
ton.  Ho  then  contrived  a  way  of  attaining  the  17  to  18  hours ;  and  the  cleaning  of  lCK)lbi.  of 
sanio  result  by  exposing  the  flax  to  the  action  broken  flax  by  the  swinging  knife  requirt's  abo::: 
of  a  weak  alkaline  solution,  and  afterward  re-  130  hours.  Flax  is  broken  also  u{>on  a  UrgiT 
moving  the  alkali  by  boiling  in  water  to  which  scale  by  machines  consisting  of  Anted  rollers  ts- 
liv  ^^  ilv  of  snlphunc  acid  is  added.  The  rious^ly  contrived ;  and  other  labor-saving  ma- 
straw  is  next  steeped  in  a  strong  solution  of  bi-  chines  with  rotating  blades  have  been  applied  to 
carbonate  of  soda ;  and  when  the  fibres  are  filled  the  process  of  scutching.  The  next  prooeM  ii 
with  this  salt,  it  is  transferred  to  a  solution  of  hatchelling  or  canling.  As  performed  by  hand,  a 
sulphuric  acid,  weak  like  the  former.  Carbonic  wisp  of  fiax,  held  in  the  middle  and  well  tprvad 
acid  gas  is  generated  throughout  the  substance,  out,  is  thrown  so  as  to  draw  one  end  of  it  over  s 
and  this  bursts  and  splits  tlie  fibre  in  a  remark-  set  of  sharp  steel  teeth  which  are  set  upright  and 
able  manner,  giving  it  the  appearance  of  cotton,  serve  the  purpose  of  a  comb.  One  end  of  the 
Samples  of  various  fabrics  of  this  material,  both  bundle  bemg  natchelled,  it  is  tnrned  roand,  asd 
alone  and  mixed  with  cotton,  and  otliers  with  the  other  is  treated  in  the  same  wav  ;  and  tLe 
wool,  and  also  with  silk,  were  placc<l  by  Clans-  process  is  repeated  on  finer  hatcheU.  By  tLx* 
sen  in  the  London  exhibition,  and  attracted  means  about  50  per  cent,  of  tow  and  dosl  sad 
much  attention.  The  same  article,  however,  woody  particles  are  separated  from  the  IfC; 
appears  to  have  been  made  in  Eni^Lmd  and  Gor-  fibre,  now  called  line,  x his  is  fit  for  ^pinnic; 
many  during  the  last  century,  and  a  factory  was  into  linen  threads,  and  the  tow  may  be  oscd  U-r 
established  near  Vienna  in  1780  for  its  manufac-  the  same  purpose  for  coarser  fabrics.  Machine 
ture.  Berthollet,  Gay- Lussac,  and  Giobert  have  hatchelling,  however,  has  for  the  most  port 
experimentally  investigated  the  subject,  and  taken  the  place  of  hand  labor,  and  is  c«)udor:rd 
Derthollct  states  that  as  fine  cotton  Tnay  bo  ob-  upon  a  lai^  scale  and  with  many  niodificatiou 
tained  from  the  commonest  refuse  tow  as  from  in  the  extensive  linen  mills.  The  flax,  being  cat 
tlie  best  flax.  For  some  reason,  however,  pos-  in  lengths  of  10  or  12  inches,  is  arrangetl  io  t»i 
sibly  the  expense  of  the  process  or  tlie  inferior  layers  called  stricks,  ttie  fibres  parallel  aid 
quality  of  tlio  fibre,  the  operation  does  not  seem  ending  together.  Each  of  these  is  hvld  ty 
to  have  prospered.  A  favorable  account  of  it  two  strips  of  wood  clamfted  together  amw 
is  given  in  Tomlinson^s  "  Cyclo]>aMlia  of  Useful  its  middle,  or  sometimes  ocross  one  voU.  T^nj 
Art4.**  Dr.  U re  treats  it  as  uncertain  of  success,  are  placed  sround  a  revolving  drum,  mliLis 
— After  tlie  flax  has  been  retted  and  dried,  it  which  another  drum  armed  with  tcvih  rx;/.!- 
is  subniittcHl  to  the  process  cillcd  breaking:,  by  ly  revolves  in  a  conlrarv  direct io!\  an]  c-u."  * 

th      " 


!tx 


whirh  the  straws  are  cracked  repeatedly  across,  the   flax   as  the   ends   fall   anioi.g   tlio 

the  cllVrt  of  which  is  to  produce  the  bcparation  AVheu  hatchelled  on  one  side,  the  *tri*.k  >  :  rr.- 

of  the  brittle  Wi>ody  iK»rtiou,  which  falls  away  ed  over  and  the   pn»ces!j  is  roptatcd  •  .'.  !l. 

in  pieces  from  the  filaments,  as  these  are  after-  other.     The  outer  drum  revi>l\e*  fclou'.;.  ir  1 

ward  bcati-n  by  a  broad  flat  blade  of  wood  in  dis«.-harges  the  stricks  when   thv\    }.^vi:    Ux.: 

the  operatii>n  called  scutchinj^.     A  variety  of  carried  over  the  top  of  the  inner  dn;M.  ':■*  v  ■ 

machined  arc  used  ft>r  cracking  the  bcHui.     The  the  point  where  the  tibre*  could  n»  K»r.^. .- :. . 

most  >iii]plc  of  them  is  made  with  a  largo  wood-  among  the  teeth.     Mueh  ini*t.-nuity  \<*  d.'-j-!^:  ^  - 

en  blade  worked  bv  a  handle  ut  one  end,  and  in   the  moditieations  i»f  this   mae!.i^t-r^.  ^  i 

fastened  by  a  pivot  at  the  other  into  a  bK»ck  also  of  a  preparatory  machine  ft*r  dittu::ij  '.. 

with  a  cleft  into  which  it  fits;  aero&s  this  block  fibres  into  eqn.il  lenj^hs  and  M»rtin;r  t}i..*  ".  ■«  .: 

the  tlax  is  lai'l,  a  handful  tojjether,  bn»ken  by  ends,  the  middles,  and  the  upj-^r  viidv  t^'\ 

the  M.ule,  and  moved  along,  as  Klraw  or  hay  is  themselves.     The  stricks  when  hatehillv!  . '• 

chopped  in  a  rominon  cutter.     Other  brakes  are  R>rtetl  occording  to  the  fineness  i.f  ihc  r.:-  •. 

Worked  by  iho  font — a  grooved    bK»ck  being  those  made   uj>  of  the  lower  ends  l^-lrj  *    * 

broujrht  dnwn  by  ea<'h   in)pu!>e  u|M»n  the  flax,  coarsi*>t;    the  diviMuns,   however.    a.-e   n^  '. 

which  is  held  .1o^o^.•»  a  fixed  block  with  corre-  more  minute  than  thl>^e  of  c.v*h  HX-rt  vt 

apondin:;  grooves;    a   rude    hprin.;  jerks   the  Ieni;ths.      In  making  this  soiarat'.on  the  !.:> 

movable  bknk  up  again  as  the  f*.M»t  rvlecbics  it.  m>rter,  as  the  operator  i*  calle^J,  i*  ^l;»1h1  ii- 

In  the  winnowing  <»r  tn^utching  tlie  Germans  tirely  by  the  sense  (►f  fi'cUnp,  thi*  indii-::-xj  :.  . 

make  much  use  of  a  thin  >abre-shape<l  wiMMK-n  quality  of  the  fibres  mure  de!ieaic!v  i^.^n  :   ■ 

knife,  with  which  they  btrike  the  llax  as  a  hand-  sight.     The  next  <»iH»nition  preiLiniti  ry  :*»  » 

ful  of  it  is  held  in  a  horizi»ntal  gro«)ve  in  an  ning  is  to  by  the  tilTi-s  u^K^n  a  foni;:..:  c. 

upri^'ht  board.     Tho  coarsi.*   tow    and  wiNnly  each  huece-^iiive  \ii>p  ovcrUpp:np  i.Alf  wai  :   ■• 

partjrlcs  are  thus  removed,  thi»-o  which  adhere  one  precetling  it.     The  feeilimj  «-!t«:i.  c  iii.;  • 

ino-t  l^rnily  Ixing  scraped  orrtil>bed  t»tr  by  lay-  them  to  rollers  lictween  which  the y  a.-vl'i::^:  . 

ing  t!ie  tl.ix  upon  the  leather  worn  for  this  pur-  and  held  back  as  a  second  r>air  more  r^^Md^;  r.  • 

|M>s.'  tj|Min  the  jeirof  the  o|»erator.  It  i.«« e'^tiniated  vt»lving  seizes  the  |»art  in  njvanoi'  a;.-!  il-an  •    -*. 

that   lno  l!i,.  of  dried  retted  fl  ix  sli-mld  \ielcl  the  tlax.     A  ta|»eor  rild»««n  of  iLu  :*  ti.-»  f  r-- 

45  tt»  4^  lb-,  of  broken  flax;  and  from  ihi-iwlK-ri  cd,  whieh  is  dbich.vgi.il  into  a  tin  ci!.i-  Iir.  x 

the  boon  wa»te  is  further  removed  by  scutching  row  of  which  stands  upim  the  flot^  in  f:v>^i  . ' 


FLAXMAK  FLEETWOOD                   US 

the  machines.  The  tapes  or  slivers  are  after-  ful  language  and  polished  manners,  and  was  ad- 
ward  joined  several  together,  and  at  the  rovin?  mitted  into  the  society  of  the  hotel  de  Ram- 
frame  are  slightly  twisted,  when  thej  are  womid  bouillet.  Devoting  himself  to  preaching,  many 
apon  bobbins,  which  is  the  last  process  before  of  his  sermons  were  highly  esteemed,  but  his 
spinning.  (See  Linen.) — The  pnncipal  treatise  funeral  oration  on  the  duchess  of  Montausier  in 
upon  this  subject  is  the  prize  essay  of  James  1672  was  his  first  great  triumph.  His  funeral 
MacAdam,  jr.,  secretary  to  the  society  for  the  oration  on  Turenne,  delivered  in  Paris  in  1676, 
promotion  and  improvement  of  the  growth  of  was  a  masterpiece  of  art,  and  placed  him,  in  the 
flax  in  Ireland.  The  prize  was  awarded  to  it  opinion  of  many  of  his  contemporaries,  by  the 
by  the  royal  agricultural  society  of  England,  side  even  of  Bossuet  Among  his  other  funeral 
and  the  essay  was  published  in  vol.  viiL  of  orations,  those  on  the  first  president  Lamoignon, 
thcJr  *'  JoumaL''  It  has  furnished  a  great  part  on  Queen  Maria  Theresa,  and  on  the  chancellor 
of  the  data  of  many  of  the  valuable  papers  pub-  Le  Tellier,  were  most  admired.  From  the  time 
liahed  in  the  English  scientific  dictionaries  al-  when  he  was  recognized  as  an  honor  to  the 
ready  referred  to.  chnrch  and  to  letters  he  was  rewarded  by  Louis 
FLAXMAN,  John,  an  English  sculptor,  bom  XIV.,  first  with  the  abbey  of  Saint  Severin, 
in  York,  July  6,  1765,  died  in  London,  Dec.  7,  then  with  the  position  of  reader  to  the  dauphin, 
1826b  In  the  workshop  of  his  father,  a  moulder  with  the  bishopric  of  Lavaur  in  1685,  and  with 
of  fifforea,  who  had  established  himself  in  Lon-  that  of  Nimes  m  1687.  He  had  been  admitted 
don,  be  acquired  his  first  ideas  of  form.  Being  into  the  French  academy  in  1678  at  the  same 
a  boy  of  delicate  health,  he  was  allowed  to  fol-  time  with  Racine.  The  edict  of  Nantes  having 
low  his  own  tastes,  and  showing  a  strong  in-  been  revoked  just  before  the  appointment  of 
dinatioQ  for  modelling,  he  was  placed  at  the  F16chier  to  his  last  diocese,  which  contained 
royal  academy.  After  many  years  of  severe  numerous  Protestants,  he  found  great  difiiculty 
■tody,  during  which  he  supported  himself  by  in  the  ecclesiastical  government  of  it.  His  con- 
detigiiiDe  for  the  Wedgwooos  and  others,  and  duct,  however^made  him  equally  dear  to  the 
proOToed  some  meritorious  works,  including  a  Catholics  and  rrotestants  of  the  province,  who 
monament  to  the  poet  Collins,  he  went  in  1787  united  in  mourning  his  death.  Beside  his  fu- 
to  Borne.  He  had  previously  read  the  Greek  neral  orations,  he  left  Pan«^yricrti«»  <^  Mints,  in 
poets  in  the  original,  and  soon  testified  his  sense  8  volumes ;  Vie  de  Theodoee  le  Grand^  composed 
of  tbeir  beauty  and  of  the  purity  of  antique  art  for  tbe  education  of  the  dauphin  ;  and  L*hiS' 
hr  his  two  series  of  outline  illustrations  of  toire  du  cardinal  Ximerut,  in  which  the  minis- 
Homer  and  .£schylus,  by  which  he  is  perhaps  ter  and  politician  are  for^tten  in  the  portrait 
more  widely  known  than  by  any  of  his  other  of  the  saint  The  chanty  and  amiability  of 
works.  A  series  of  illustrations  of  Dante,  al-  F16chier  appear  especially  in  his  letters,  which 
moct  equally  celebrated,  was  subsequently  ex^  are  composed  with  the  same  care  as  his  other 
ecated  for  Mr.  Thomas  Hope.    After  7  years^  productions. 

•ojoom  in  Rome  he  returned  to  England,  and  FLECKNOE,  Riohasd,  a  British  poet,  con- 

oommenced  a  series  of  scriptural  compositions,  temporary  with  Dryden,  died  about  1678.    Lit- 

remarkable  for  religious  fervor  and  pathos.   Of  tie  is  known  of  his  life,  and  he  is  remembered 

the  numerous  statues  which  he  executed,  those  only  because  his  name  furnished  Dryden  the 

oC  Nelson,  Howe,  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds,  Mans-  title  of  his  satirical  poem  against  Shadwell, 

field,  and  Kimble  are  the  best  known.     His  ^  MacFIecknoe.''    He  is  believed  to  have  been 

*'  Shidd  of  Achilles^*  is  one  of  the  finest  achieve-  an   Irish   Catholic  priest,  and  wrote  several 

ments  of  modem  art    Flazman  was  a  member  comic  plays,  among  which  are  ^^  Damoiselles  ^  la 

ef  the  royal  academv,  in  which  he  also  filled  the  Mode,"  **  Lovers  Dominion,"  and  ^*  Ermina,  or 

chair  of  professor  of  sculpture,  to  which  he  was  the  Chaste  Lady."    He  wrote  also  a  volume  of 

appointed  in  1810.  *'  Epigrams  and  Enigmatic  Characters."     His 

FLEA^    See  Epizoa.  poems  are  of  little  value,  though  some  of  them 

FLfiCHIER,  Espsrr,  a  French  pulpit  orator  have  been  praised  by  Southey. 

and  prelate,  who  was  called  the  Isocrates  of  FLEETWOOD,  Chaklss,  an  English  repub- 

FhaM)e,  bom  in  Femes,  June  10,  1632,  died  in  lican,  son  of  Sir  William  Fleetwood,  died  in 

Montpellier,  Feb.  16, 1710.    Of  a  poor  family,  he  1692.    At  the  commencement  of  the  civil  war 

was  edneated  at  Avignon,  in  tne  college  of  he  enlisted  as  a  trooper  in  the  parliamentary 

tile  "  Fathers  of  the  Christian  Doctrine,"  of  army,  and  in  1645  rose  to  the  rank  of  colonel, 

which  hia  maternal  uncle  was  superior.  He  gave  and  was  appointed  governor  of  BristoL    In  the 

ipecial  attention  to  the  culture  of  eloquence,  was  same  year  he  was  returned  to  parliament  for 

noted  lor  the  elegance  of  his  language,  taught  Buckinghamshire,  and  in  1647  he  was  named 

xiieloric  for  a  time  at  Narbonne,  and  in  1661  re-  one  of  the  commissioners  to  treat  with  the 

Mired  to  Paris,  where  without  fortune  or  friends  king.     Aftier  the  establishment  of  the  com- 

lie  became  catechist  in  a  parish.    A  Latin  poem  monwealth  he  was  appointed  lieutenant-gen- 

whieh  he  wrote  describing  the  famous  touma-  eral,  distinsnished  himself  at  the  battle  of  Wor- 

nieot  oelebrated  by  Louis  XIV.  in  1662  was  cester,  and,  in  consequence  of  his  great  in- 

mneh  admired,  and  he  soon  after  became  pre-  fluence  with  the  army,  after  the  death  of  his 

Mplor  in  the  house  of  Caumartin,  a  councillor  first  wife,  Cromwell  gave  him  his  eldest  daugh- 

dmte,  made  diatinguished  friends  by  his  grace-  ter,  the  widow  of  Ireton,  in  marriage.    In  1652 


;^^ii:rt 


be  was  tppointed  oommiiider>in-chief  ofthe  edtheageofSOhit  rejmttlioii  ••  a  wotAo^ 

foroes  in  Ireland,  and  afterward  lord  depnty :  waa  aecmid  to  thai  of  no  otlicr  natarattia  ia 

but  hU  opposition  to  the  ambitions  projects  ox  Scotland.    In  182S,  harina  mriooslj  fluniabed 

bis  father-in-law  soon  oansed  him  to  be  recalled  the  article  *' Ichthyology'' rar  the  **£Dcycio|WB 

to  England.    He  waa  however  anbeeqaentl j  ap-  dia  Britannica,"  and  those  on  **  HdmlatDoloQr" 

pointed  one  of  Uie  mi(}or-genera]s  to  whom  the  and  ^  Inseota"  for  the  ^  Edinbor]^  EBcjclopa 

uitemal  government  of  the  oonntrj  was  com-  diMj^  bedde  nnmeroos  papers  for  the  **  IVoeeed* 

mitted  daring  the  lifter  dajs  of  tiie  protector*  ings**  of  the  Wemerian  aodetr  and  the  royal 

ate.    On  the  deadk  of  the  protector  he  endeay-  aociety  of  Edinbnrsb,  and  tbe  "^EfBabargh 

ored  by  his  influence  with  the  troops  to  snpplant  PhiloeophicalJoamaI,''be  pabUabedhiafintiiii- 

Richard  CromweU,  but  in  the  midst  <tf  hb  in-  portent  work  the  '^Philosophy  of  Zoolocy" 

trignes  the  Stoarta  were  restored,  and  he  nar-  (2  vda^  Edinmiri^X  ^  whico  were  ctabo&d 

rowly  escaped  being  executed  ss  a  rebel    He  the  matared  thoughts  of  many  years.    Ia  tiks 

retired  to  8toke-Newingt<m.  and  paswd  the  rest  8d  Tolume  he  enunciated  a  system  of  dassilBi- 

of  his  life  in  obscurity.    He  is  described  as  a  tion  at  Tarianoe  with  thoae  of  Tinnwas  aid 

man  of  slender  capacity,  cunning,  timid,  and  ir-  Cnvier,  and  known  aa  the  binary  or  &boi»> 

resolute,  with  but  little  mUitaxy  skill  mous  qrstem,  the  leading  foators  of  wbieh  esa- 

FLEMING,  a  K.  £.  CO.  of  Ky.,  bounded  8.  sists  hi  arranging  aidmala  aeoor^g  to  tWr 

W.  by  Licking  rirer,  and  intersected  by  the  positiTO  and  neg^TO  duvactem    ThevaMkii^ 

Lexington  and  Kaysirille  railroad;  area  esti-  tkm  of  his  ""HiitoiT  of  British  AaiaiakrCBdb- 

mated  at  500  sq.  m.;  pop.  in  I860, 18,916,  of  burgh,  ia28X  in  which  the  first  decided  afttaHaS 

whom  2,189  were  slares.    It  has  a  diversifled  was  made  hi  a  Britiih  natoralist  to  exhilii  tte 

aurfoce,  the  E.  part  being  hilly  and  the  W.  un-  .palnontokmcal  histoiy  of  animala,  br  iSbm  side 

dulating.    The  soil  is  generally  good,  and  auit-  of  those  belonging  to  our  epoch,  addsd  ta  his 

able  for  grain  and  hemp.    In  1850  the  county  scientifio  fome.    The  sul({ect  had  nuaiirf  ths 

produced  928,708  bosheb  of  Indian  com,  105,-  author's  attention  ainee  boyhood,  and  tke  aon* 

854  of  oata,  52,288  of  wheat,  and  4,600  lbs.  of  tifie  Tsloe  of  hia  work  ia  ezenvpttUd  by  ths 

wool  There  were  88  churehea,  and  1.088  pupik  frequent  referencea  to  it  in  treatiaea  la  wtai 

attending  pyblic  schools.    Near  Licking  river  is  departmcntaof  soologyaDdpalaoatobKy.  lbs 

found  a  remarkable  deposit  of  iron  fuffuritea  great  principle  laid  down  bf  hiai,  and  ooa  hem 

the  oxide  being  formed  into  regular  tubes  of  which  he  never  receded,  ia  that  Uie  laiiilathai 

various  diameters,  from  that  of  a  pistol  barrel  which  have  taken  place  in  the  aaloial  kiaadoBi 

to  several  inches.    The  county  wss  organized  in  have  been  produced  by  tbe  dumaea  aHUca  s^' 

1798,  and  named  in  honor  of  ColJohnlleminff,  companied  the  taceessive  depo&ioas  of  tbt 

one  of  the  pioneer  settlers  of  the  state.   Capitfd,  strata.    Altbouch  a  rearrangement  of  tome  ;«?- 

FleminfTsburg.  tions  of  the  work  is  necessary  in  order  to  l>nci 

FLEMING,  Jonx,  a  Scottish  natnralist,  bom  it  up  to  the  present  scientific  point  of  vWv.  tLe 
at  Kirkroads,  near  Bathgate,  Linlithj^owshire,  late  Prot  Forbes  of  Edinburgh  aawrted  to  re- 
in 1785, died  in  Edinburgh,  Nov.  18, 1857.  Al-  cently  as  1848  that  it  had  been  «' bis  text  bo^k 
thoagh  possessing  in  his  youth  on  aDQsnsl  taste  and  constant  companion,  and  upon  it  a!l  L^ 
for  the  natural  sciences,  ho  yielded  to  tlie  deriro  knowledge  of  British  animals  had  be«i  b^K." 
of  his  mother  tliat  he  should  look  to  the  minis-  In  1882  he  wss  presented  to  the  parish  of  CIkX- 
try  as  a  profession,  and  al>out  1807  was  licensed  mannan,  bat  had  scarcely  entered  upon  Lis  ocv 
as  a  preacher  in  connection  with  the  church  of  sphere  of  labor  when  he  received  an  offer  to  £11 
Scotland.  Ho  did  not,  however,  neprlect  the  in-  tne  cluiir  of  natural  philosophy  at  Kind's  cvr 
tercsts  of  science,  and  in  IHOS,  while  engaged  lege,  Aberdeen,  which  he  accepted,  nuCvi!h- 
in  a  survey  of  the  economical  mineralogy  of  the  standing  the  male  communicants  of  hui  fmr»^ 
western  iides,  so  won  the  regards  of  the  mem-  to  the  number  of  418  united  in  mving  Iud  to 
hers  of  tlie  presbytery  of  Lerwick  that  ho  re-  remain  with  them.  He  discharged  the  dctif« 
ceivcd  the  offer  of  the  living  of  BreMay  in  Shet-  of  this  office  with  much  acceptance  until  1<4\ 
land,  over  which  congregation  he  was  ordained  when,  having  identified  himself  with  tbe  Frt« 
in  tbe  same  year.  About  the  some  time  ap-  church,  he  found  himself  obliged  to  retirv  frrc 
peered  his  **  Economical  Mineralogy  of  tlio  Ork-  his  professorship.  Two  years  Uter  he  was  mkri 
ney  and  S^tUnd  Islands,^*  considered  in  many  to  take  the  chair  of  natural  science  in  the  Ntv 
respects  a  remarkable  performance  for  a  young  (Free  church)  college,  Edinburgtu  with  vb^-h 
man  of  28 ;  and  thenceforth  for  nearly  30  years  he  remained  connected  imtil  hb  death.  In  ai- 
hisattention  was  pretty  equally  divideii  between  dition  to  tlio  works  enumerated,  I>r.  FWfciac 
the  duties  appertaining  to  his  office  and  his  published  ^*  Molluscous  Animals,  indoding  >bcn 
edentific  pursoitsL  In  1810  he  exchanged  the  Fish'*  (Edinburgh,  1887).  ^  Tbe  Tempcntiirv  d 
remote  living  of  Bressay  for  that  of  Flisk,  in  the  Seasons**  (1851X  "^The  Litholofy  </  Edx- 
Flfefthtre,  contiguous  to  which  was  the  parish  btirgh**  (1858),  and  considerably  more  thas  i 
of  Kilmaiiy,  owr  which  Dr.  Chalmers  was  set-  hnndred  papers,  principally  on  aoc^of^,  pelavc- 
tied,  between  whom  and  himself  a  lasting  tolog^,  and  geology,  neariy  every  one  of  mlueh 
friendship  was  soon  eeitablUbcd.  His  contribu-  contains  a  record  of  some  origioud  ohecrraxih«, 
tions  to  public  Journals  and  to  learned  societies  his  aim  through  life  having  been  t«*  inter;  <^i 
now  became  frequent,  and  before  he  had  attain-  nature  strictly  and  to  trM  hypotheses    Hi* 


FLEMISH  LANGUAGE  FLETOHEB  667 

eontemporaries,  the  most  eminent  of  whom  oon-  deep),  20  m.  N.  N.  W.  of  Schleswig ;  lat  54^  W 

Bolted  him  in  varions  branches  of  zoology  and  N.,  long.  9°  26'  E. ;  pop.  16,500.    After  Gopen* 

geology,  bear  testimony  to  the  comprehensive-  hagen,  it  is  the  chief  commercial  mart  of  the 

ness  and  precbion  of  his  information.    Prof.  Danish  dominions.    It  manufactures  sugar,  to* 

Agassiz  says  *'  that  he  should  have  been  abun-  bacco,  paper,  soap,  and  iron,  has  brewenes  and 

diuitly  recompensed  for  his  visit  to  England  distilleries,  and  builds  ships  for  the  West  India 

had  he  gained  no  more  by  it  than  what  he  saw  trade.    A  railway  connects  it  with  Tonning, 

and  learned  during  his  few  hours*  vi^t  to  Dr.  and  another  witkAltona,  Rendsborg,  andSchles- 

ileming.'*  wig.    The  harbor  is  deep  enough  for  large  crafL 

FLEMISH  LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATURE,  but  is  difficult  of  entrance.  Between  200  and 
The  Vldtni$eh  or  DuyUc\  one  of  the  many  800  vessels,  many  of  which  are  employed  in 
Teutonic  dialects,  is  the  vernacular  of  the  the  Greenland  whale  fishery,  are  owned  here. 
Ylamingen  (about  2,200,000)  in  the  Belgian  pro-  Flensborg  was  a  wealthy  town  as  early  as  tiie 
Tinoes  of  E.  and  W.  Ilanaers,  Antwerp,  and  12th  century,  but  it  afterward  suffered  much 
Limburg,  in  North  Brabant,  Holland,  as  well  as  from  wars  and  conflagrations.  In  1848  it  was 
in  some  parts  of  the  French  department  of  Nord,  occupied  by  the  Germans,  in  1 849  by  the  Swedes, 
and  also  scattered  in  the  Wallonic  (Gallo-Ro-  and  restored  to  Denmark  in  1850. 
manic)  provinces  of  Belgium ;  French  also  being  FLETCHER,  Andrew  (commonly  called  Flet- 
qwkenin  the  large  cities  and  used  in  official  docu-  oher  of  Saltoun\  a  Scottish  statesman  and  au- 
ments.  It  is  akin  to  the  Frisian  and  to  the  Hoi-  thor,  bom  in  Saltoun,  Ei^  Lo^ian,  in  1668,  died 
landish  or  Dutch,  which  is  its  younger  branch,  in  London  in  1716.  He  was  educated  under  the 
Qoropus  Becanus  (1569)  said  that  Adam  spoke  care  of  Gilbert  Burnet,  tlien  minister  of  the  par« 
Flemish  in  paradise.  It  is  more  palatal  and.  ish  of  Saltoun,  and  spent  sevenJ  years  ui  travels 
nasal  than  tne  language  of  Holland,  which  is  on  the  continent.  In  1681  he  obtained  a  seat 
more  guttural ;  but  the  differences  are  not  essen-  in  the  Scottish  parliament  for  his  native  county, 
tiaL  The  first  monument  of  Flemish  literature  and  distinguished  himself  by  his  inflexible  oppo- 
is  an  ordinance  of  the  dukes  Henry  I.  and  H.  sition  to  the  tyrannical  tendencies  of  the  Eng- 
of  Brabant  (1229).  The  Rymhyld  (Bible  in  lish  government.  He  soon  found  it  necessary 
rhymes)  and  the  Spiegel  historical  (Historic  to  withdraw  to  Holland,  was  then  summoned 
KuTor)  of  Jacob  van  Maerlant  (bom  in  1285),  before  the  privy  council  at  Edinburgh,  and  £^- 
the  dvio  laws  of  Antwerp  (1800),  the  chronicle  ing  to  appear,  was  outlawed,  and  his  estate  con- 
of  J.  van  Clere  and  many  others,  a  trans-  fiscated.  He  accompanied  the  unfortunate  ex- 
lation  of  Boethius  by  Jacob  Velt  of  Bmges  of  the  pedition  of  the  duke  of  Monmouth  to  England 
15th  century,  and  the  ^^  Hive  of  the  Catholic  m  1685,  but  went  immediately  abroad  a^n  in 
Church"  by  Philip  van  Marnix  (1569),  are  the  consequence  of  shooting  the  mayor  of  Lyme- 
most  remarkable  among  the  earlier  Flemish  Regis  in  a  scuffle.  In  Spain  he  was  imprisoned, 
works.  Many  French  forms  of  speech  were  in-  but  escaped  by  the  aid  of  an  unknown  friend, 
troduced  during  the  Burgundian  reign,  and  also  and  in  Hungary  he  gained  distinction  as  a  vol- 
many  Hollandish  during  the  sway  of  the  Haps*  unteer  in  the  army  against  the  Turks.  At  the 
burgs.  Since  the  independence  of  Belgium  Hague  he  was  prominent  in  forwarding  the 
(1880)  great  efforts  have  oeen  made  to  promote  scheme  of  the  revolution  of  1688,  which  re- 
Flemish  literature.  Among  the  most  prominent  stored  him  to  his  country.  He  soon  recovered 
writers  are :  Van  Ryswyck,  Ledeganck,  Reuse,  his  estate  and  resumed  his  seat  in  the  Scottish 
Van  Duyse,  F.  Blieck,  Serrure,  the  abb6  David,  parliament,  but  became  as  vehement  an  oppo- 
Bormans,  Snellaert,  Lebrocquy,  and  Conscience,  nent  of  the  government  of  William  as  he  had 
■  See  Yandenbossche,  Nauvelle  grammaire  rai-  been  of  that  of  his  two  predecessors.  He  ex- 
mmiUe  ptmr  apprendre  le  flamand  et  U  hoU  erted  himself  to  the  last  against  the  union  of 
landai$  (Lille,  1825) ;  J.  Desroches,  Grammaire  the  two  kingdoms,  and  because  the  12  ^^  limita- 
^amande  (Antwerp,  1826);  the  grammars  of  tions"  which  he  proposed  failed  to  be  adopted, 
Van  Beers  and  Van  Heremans;  Noel  de  Berle-  he  retired  from  publio  life.  Though  the  most 
mont,  VoedbulaireJ^anfoys  etflameng  (Antwerp,  honest,  fearless,  and  uncompromising  republican 
1511);  Plautin,  Thesaurue  Teutonieas  Lingua^  of  his  time,  he  yet,  says  Maoaulay,  hated  both 
perfected  by  0.  Eilian  (Antwerp,  1573) ;  Oor-  democracy  and  monarchy.  Proud  of  his  descent 
Mva,  TriBor  de  la  languejlamande  (Amsterdam,  from  an  ancient  Norman  house,  his  favorite  pro- 
1741);  Halma,  Grand  dictionnaire  frangoie  et  lect  was  to  make  Scotland  an  oligarchical  repub- 
JUtmand  (Leyden,  1778) ;  Desroches,  Nouf^edu  lie,  in  which  the  king  was  to  be  a  mere  pageant, 
d/kUonrMtrefra^^ie-flamand  et  flamand-frar^  and  the  lowest  class  of  the  people  bondsmen. 
pau  (Ghent,  1805) ;  Olinger,  Nowoeau  dietioiv-  He  possessed  fine  scholarly  accomplishments, 
ntrire/ranfaii'Jkmiand  (Malines,  1884).  Sleecx  and  his  writings  sometimes  display  a  high  de- 
on  the  *^  History  and  Relations  of  the  Flemi^  to  gree  of  literary  excellence.  The  principal  of 
dber  Langu^es*'  may  also  be  consulted.  them  are :  a  *^  Discourse  of  Government  with 

IXENSBORG,  or  Flensbubo  (Lat  Flenopo-  Relation  to  Militias"  (Edinburgh,  1698);  two 

lU^  %  seaport  and  market  town  of  Denmark,  in  "  Discourses  Concerning  the  Affairs  of  Scotland" 

the  dnchy  of  Schleswig,  at  the  head  of  Flens-  (Edmburgh,  1698) ;  Ducoreo  delle  cose  di  Spah 

b(»g  fiord  (an  inlet  of  the  Baltic,  20  m.  long,  ^na(Naples.  1698)  ;'^Speeches,"&c. (Edinburgh, 

lirom  2  to  10  m.  broad,  and  from  5  to  12  fathoms  1708) ;  and  an  ^^  Account  of  a  Conversation 


558  FLETCHER 

concerning  a  Ri(rbt  Rcpilation  of  Governments  and  one  of  the  best  of  Fletcher's  pUriu  the 

forthc  Common  Good  of  Mankind'^Edinbiir^rb,  *'Two  Noble  Kinsmen/*  which  acmrdins  to 

1704).     His  collected  writings  were  published  the  title  page  of  the  earliest  edition  (16:>4)  was 

at  Ix)ndon  in  1  vol.  8vo.  in  1737.  and  an  essiy  *' written  bj  the  memorable  worthies  <>f  tb«ir 

on  bis  life  and  writings,  bj  the  earl  of  Bacbun,  times,   Mr.  John  Fletcher   and    Mr.   William 

in  1797.  Shakespeare/*  has  long  exercised  the  ing^nuitj 

FLETCHER,  Giles,  an  English  poet,  consin  of  critics,  and  it  is  not  agreed  tliat  Shake!^pcBn» 

ofFletcher  the  dramatist,  born  about  1580,  died  had  any  share  in  it,  though  Dyce  a!<nU-«  to 

in   Aldcrton,   Suflfolkshire,   in  1623.    He  was  him  the  whole  of  the  1st  and '{»art«  of  the  od 

educated  at  Trinity  college,  Cambridge,  and  be-  and  5th  acts.    The  first  complete  ctillection  if 

came  rector  of  Alderton,  where  bis  life  passed  lieaumont  and   Fletcher's  works  appeartsl  m 

with  little  variety  of  incident.  The  single  poem  1C79.    An  edition  bj  Weber  was  i»ubli»Led 

which  he  left,  entitled  *' Christ's  Victor}*  and  in  1812  (14  vols.  8vo.,  liondon).  and  itDv  \*j 

Triumph'*  (Cambridge,  1610),  possesses  peculiar  Dyce  in  1S43  (11  vols.  8vo).     An  editiiA  vm 

and  original  beauties,  with  many  of  Spenser  s  published  in  Boston  in  1854  (2  vols,  royal  8vi>i. 

characteristica. — Pihneas,  brotlier  of  the  pre-  A  judicions  selection,  by  Leigh  Ilont,  furms  a 

ceding,   a  iK>et   and    clergvmnn,  bom    about  volume  of  Bohn's  **  Standard  Librarv.'* 
1584,  died  in  Uilgay,  Norfolk,  in  1650.    After        FLETCHER,   John    Wiluam,    an    En^Elish 

being  educated  at  Eton  and  Cambridge,  he  was  clergyman  and  anthor,  born  in  Xvon,  Switxer- 

E resented  in  1621  to  the  living  of  Ililgay,  which  land,  8ept.  13,  1729,  died  in  Madeiey,  England, 

e  retained  till  his  death.  He  wrote  *' Piscatory  Aug.  14,  1785.    His  original  name  was  I»e  It 

Eclocues,'*  and  a  drama  called  *'  Sicelides,'*  but  Flecbere,  which  was  Anglicized   to  Fletcher, 

his  chief  work  is  a  poem  entitled  the  **  Puq)le  He  studied  at  the  university  of  (teoeva,  and 

Island,'*  an  anatomical  and  allegorical  descrip-  afterward,  contrary  to  the  wishes  of  his  parenu 

lion  of  the  human  body  and  mind.    Both  of  who  designed  him  for  the  ministry,  went  to 

these  brothers  were  disciples  of  Spenser,  and  Lisbon,  and  entered  the  Portngoese  army.  Bat 

influenced  the  style  of  Milton.    **  Tliey  were  en-  a  few  days  before  embarking  for  a  distant  i>>^x 

dowed,^*  says  Hallam,  *^  with  minds  eminently  whither  he  had  been  detailed,   he  was  d:^ 

poetical^  and  not  inferior  in  imagination  to  any  abled  by  an  accident,  and  the  ship  sailvd  wi:::- 

of  their  contemporaries.     But  an  injudicious  out  him.    The  vessel  was  never  heard  of  alter* 

taste,  and  an  excessive  fondness  for  a  style  ward,  and  was  sunposetl  to  have  perished  at  tti. 

which  the  public  was  rapidly  abandoning,  that  Fletcher  retumeu  to  Geneva,  acocpted  a  o-rc- 

of  allegorical  personification,   prevented  their  mis:iion  in  the  Dutch  armv,  and  immedisSc  > 

powers  fn>m  l>eing  effectively  displayed.**  set  ont  for  Flanders;  Imt  before  reachic*  t.'  .<♦ 

FLETCHEli,  John,  nn  En^rlish  dramatic  poet,  po«t  the  war  was  clof»e<l  by  the  |>eace  of  A  \  :•. 

the  as»i(H'iatc  of  Francis  IWuiimont  in  niithor-  Chnj»elle.     Ho  then  dirx»oted  his  !iti:}"»  :••  L:  •' 

ship,  bt»rn  in  ir)7t>.  died  by  the  j»l!i:rnt'  in  1025.  land,  where  be  comtnenovd  the  ^:u^!y    •■?  \t 

His   father,   I)r.   liirhard    Fletchor,   was    jsnr-  English   langiiago.  and  was  M)*»n  al'.i-  Tr  s^^ 

ces-iwly    liishop  of   Bristol,    Wnrofsti-r,    and  and  write  it  with  remarkahle  purity.  InlT'T'** 

London.     He  wjla  ednrated  at  CanibridL'e,  and  w:i.s  inducted  into  the  niinijitry,  Winff  "roi.:.* : 

may  have  first  met  Ix'auinoiit,  who  was  lo  yt-ars  de;icon,  and  soon  after  a  pre^byur  <»f  ihc  - 1.  ..r  . 

bis  junior  and  whom  lie  survived  about  10  voars,  of  England    by  the  bishop  of   Han^-T.   in  :t 

at  tlic  famous  MtTinaid  elub,  the  members  of  oba|K*l  n»yal  at  St.  Jameas.     Hisi  fir^:  rr'  j-    i 

which  "u*^Ml  to  k-ave  an  air  brhind  thi-ni  sutli-  exercise  at^iT  ordination  was  to  a— i*t  ^Vl-».•/ 

cii-nt  to  make  the  tw<»  next  romjianivs  witty.'*  in  administering  the  .sacrament  at  W^^i  •::■-.: 

Their  connection  wa'*<inirnlarly  clo^-.  an«l  they  cha|>el.     Having  Wen  ft»r  ik'Vcral  year*  a  :.:*.  : 

are  said  to  have  lived  in  the  same  Immim.*  and  to  in  the  family  of  Mr.  Hill  <»f  SbntiTHhire.  1  *  » ;.*. 

liave  had  many  <if  their  pit*«s,.-s.sinns  in  common,  as  a  testimony   of  ro<|K"Ot,  pn-M-n:e«i  It   i.i: 

Of  the  ^2  i>layn  puMi-lie<l   under  their  ji»int  gentleman  with  the  livir.g  of  Mndt-i«:y.     11..  i^: 

names,  it  is  probable  that   Iteaumont  shared  in  olVere<l  him  the  living  of  Hunham.  :\  jar-:.  = 

the  writing'  <>f  <'nly  17;    but   tho>e  whi<'h  are  which,  aeconlinir  to  Mr.   Hill's  *n.at.  ri «.:  •.  '..c 

&Hsii:ned  wliolly  to  Fletcher  are  fully  etjual  to  "duty  was  liuht  and  the  incnnic  c*»»*\:"  .■••'■    ^ 

their  Common  pHHlurtion**.      It    lias   however  dt'clined  to  accept  it,  remarking  that    ■  !t  ».  i 

been   gi'nerally  lieli»ved    tliat    iWaumont    fur-  not  suit  him,  a*  there  wa-*  X*»*^  much  m.'n..y  *.  : 

niched  the  ]»h>ts,  and  by  his  jrraver  ju<lirment  t«H»  little  lah<»r."    In  bis i»l»<eure  p.ir;«:i  }*!•:.   : 

and  more  correct    ta*te    CMntr4»IIed    the   exu-  lalKtrvnl  with   untiring  zeal  niA  div.*;.'      :-.; 

berant  vivacity  and  wit  of  Fletdirr,  who  atUr  bis  laUirs  were  attended  with  tin-  t:^  a:*<  '..•• 

the  lormer***  death  is  said  tti  have   con^^ultt-d  coura^rernent.  fiT  ne\er,  iK*rh.i|  *.  )..A  •  i*:  r  x 

Shirley  MM  thoM.'  point*.     Tin  ir  plays.  thou;;h  more  dissolute  and  inlractahle  !?•■**.     1*..  • 

prai'ieil  tor  their  <'ha*'teness  by  contemporary  ijuently  <'orre»i|H»ntli'<l  with  .1-0. n    ar.  i  *  .  i"  =* 

cririeH.    freijuently   contain,    in    the    mitl-^l   <»f  ^Vl->!ey,  andal»«o  wit!i  Wiiit^t'tvM.  f-oj:.  « !    .  .    . 

pa*siu'»<  of  i:r«-al  U-auty,  others  of  a  coar^?-  received  greater  pynif'athy  th.i'j  fr-T.  ?.•  »  ■  ■■ 

ne--  and  ohM-enity  hi;;hly  ot!en*.ive  ti*  inMihrn  ^rymen  of  the  estahlishment.     In  177"  ! «  ^i*.'<  i 

ta-te.     I)r\ilen  was  of  opinion  tiiat  thi-v  nn-  Italv.  and   on    hi*   nfirn  he  T-riAc^t-i  a:   :  ? 

der*>tofMiaiMi  imitated  thcconvrr^alitiii  of  ;:enile-  ]«Iace  of  his  hirth  to  va*t  cro»  d*.     ir.  IT*'.*    * 

men  much  Urtter  than  •5hakvs]>eare.    The  laift  nas  chosen  by  Lady  lliuiiiugUua  presAli^;  «.' 


FLEURUS  FLINDERS  659 

a  theological  institation  which  she  had  founded  tration  the  same  frugality  which  he  practised  ia 

at  Treveca  la  Wales.    His  connection  with  this  hb  own  household ;  and  with  all  his  opportuni* 

institation  involved  him  in  a  defence  of  Armin-  ties  for  self-emolumeift,  he  died  poor.     In  a  less 

ianism,  which  resolted  in  an  elaborate  work  exalted  station  Cardinal  Fleury  would  have  left 

oa   the  subject.    All  the    time  he  was  con-  a  greater  name.    lie  loved  peace  more  than 

neoted  with  this  school  of  theology  he  sus-  power,  and,  without  the  broad  views  and  active 

tained  his  pastoral  relation  to  Madeley,  and  spirit  of  a  great  statesman,  looked  with  an  un- 

hence  he  was  enabled  to  serve  the  former  gra-  easiness  akin  to  apprehension  upon  those  bolder 

taitously.    He  visited  Italy  again  for  the  benefit  characters  who  might  have  supplied  his  own 

of  bis  health,  and  before  returning  to  England  deficiencies. 

spent  3  years  in  Switzerland.    An  edition  of  his        FLEURY,  Claude,  abb6,  a  French  ecclesiasti- 

works,  in  8  vols.  12mo.,  appeared  in  London  in  cal  writer,  bom  in  Paris,  Dec.  6,  1640,  died 

180$.    His  writings  have  been  often  reprinted.  July  14, 1728.    He  was  at  first  an  attorney,'Vmd 

FLEURUS,  a  town  of  Belgium,  near   the  for  9  years  followed  the  legal  profession,  giving 

left  bank  of  the  Sambre,  7  m.  N.  E.  of  Charle-  meanwhile  great  attention  to  literary  and  his* 

loi ;   pop.  8,297.    It  has  been  the  scene  of  4  torical  pursuits.    His  acquaintance  with  Bos* 

great  battles ;   the  first  took  place  Aug.  80,  suet,  Bourdaloue,  and  several  other  clergymen 

1683,  between  the  Spaniards  under  Gonzides  of  of  high  character,  probably  turned  his  mind  to- 

Cordova  and  the  army  of  the  Protestant  union,  ward  the  church.    In  1672,  having  received 

under  Mansfield,  the  victory  being  claimed  by  orders,  he  became,  on  the  recommendation  of 

both ;  the  2d,  July  1,  1690,  between  the  French  Bossuet,  preceptor  to  the  sons  of  the  prince  de 

under  Marshal  Luxembourg,  and  the  Grermans  Conti.     In  1674  he  published  Lhistoire  du 

under  the  prince  of  Waldeck,  the  latter  being  droit  Franfais ;  in  1677,  LHrittitution  au  droit 

defeated;  the  8d  was  fought  June  26,  179<^  eceleiiasHqtie ;  in  1678,  a  Latin  translation  of 

when  the  republican  French  general  Jourdan  BoasxxeVs  BxpoHtion  de  lafoi  Catkolique;  and 

defeated  the  imperialists  under  the  prince  of  from  1681  to  1688,  Le$  mcmrM  de$  Imraelitee^  le$ 

Oobufg;  and  the  4th,  generally  known  as  the  nuxun  de$  Chretiens^  and  Le  grand  catechinM 

battle  of  Ligny,  in  which  BlQcher  was  worsted  hiatorique^  8  excellent  little  books  which  he 

by  Napoleon,  occurred  June  16,  1816,  2  days  had  carefully  prepared  for  the  use  of  his  pupils. 

before  the  battle  of  Waterloo.  In  1685  he  accompanied  F^n^on  in  his  mission 

FLEURY,  AKDRfi  Hbroule,  cardinal  de,  a  to  Saintonge,  and  evinced  here  trne  Christian 
French  prelate  and  statesman,  bom  in  Loddve,  charity,  hi  1689  F^n^lon  procured  his  ap» 
June  22,  1658,  died  in  Paris,  Jan.  29, 1748.  He  pointment  as  his  assistant  in  the  education  of 
was  educated  at  a  Jesuit  college  in  Paris,  and  by  the  dauphin^s  son,  which  task  he  fulfilled  with 
the  aid  of  infiuential  friends  secured  the  appoint-  the  utmost  zeal  and  devotioti.  In  this  employ- 
ment of  almoner  to  the  queen  Marie  Th^r^se,  ment  he  remained  16  years,  during  whidi  ho 
then  to  Louis  XIV.,  who  unwillingly  promoted  was  also  engaged  in  preparing  his  great  Hia- 
bim  to  the  bbhopric  of  Fr^jus  in  1698,  at  the  toire  eeelenastiquey  the  first  volume  of  whidi 
request  of  the  archbishop  of  Paris.  On  the  king^s  appeared  in  1691.  He  spent  no  less  than  80  years 
^»th  the  regent  appointed  him  preceptor  to  Louis  in  bringing  this  woHc  down  to  the  beginning 
XV.,  then  about  5  5^ears  of  age.  On  the  death  of  the  16th  century.  In  1684  Fleury  received 
of  the  regent  in  1728  he  advised  the  young  king  the  abbacy  of  Loc-Dien,  which  in  1706  he  re- 
to  take  the  duke  of  Bourbon  as  first  minister,  signed  on  receiving  a  priory  at  Argenteuil.  In 
reserving  for  himself  a  seat  in  the  privy  council,  1696  he  was  elected  to  the  French  academy  to 
and  the  dispensation  of  ecclesiastical  prefer-  succeed  La  Bruy^re.  He  always  lived  with  evan- 
menta.  In  1726  he  caused  the  duke  of  Bourbon  gelical  simplicity.  He  was  a  fluent  writer  and 
to  be  dismissed,  and,  notwithstanding  he  was  a  faithful  historian.  His  Histoire  eceUHoBtique^ 
hinudif  in  his  73d  year,  assumed  supreme  power,  ranks  among  the  best  and  most  candid  historie^ 
with  the  title  of  minister  of  state,  and  superin-  of  Christianity. 

tendent  of  the  general  post  office.    In  the  same        FLINDERS,  Matthew,  an  English  navigator. 

Tear  the  pope  made  him  a  cardinal.    Under  bom  in  Donington,  Lincolnshire,  in  1760,  died 

Ak  administration    France    was  generally  at  in  July,  1814.    In  1795  he  was  midshipman  on 

peace,  the  disorders  of  the  past  reign  disap-  board  the  vessel  which  conveyed  Capt.  Hunter, 

peared,  reforms  were  made  in  the  government,  the  governor  of  Botany  Bay,  to  Aus^ia.  Soon 

arte  and  sciences  were  fostered,  and  the  conn-  after  arriving  in  Port  Jackson  he  embarked  with 

trj  enjoyed  comparative  nrosperity  at  home,  the  surgeon  of  the  ship,  Qeorge  A.  Bass,  in  a 

Bot  abroad  she  lost  the  hign  place  she  had  held  small  boat,  not  more  than  8  feet  long,  in  which 

iatbeoooncilsofEurope,  her  armv  degenerated,  they  explored  the  estuary  of  George^s  river. 

her  navy  decayed,  and  toward  the  close  of  his  The  discoveries  made  by  Uiem  on  this  occasion 

liAi  the  cardinal  had  the  chagrin  of  hearing  determined  them  to  explore  the  whole  Ana- 

lUmaelf  charged  with  involving  France  in  the  tralian    coast     They   embarked   in  a  large 

war   of  the  Austrian  succession,   which  had  decked  boat  with  only  6  men,  and  sailing  B. 

been  begun  against   his  wishes,  and  up  to  through   a  passage  afterward  named   Bass's 

the   time  of  his  death  had  been  little  more  straits,  first  discovered  that  Van  Diemen's  Land 

than  a  series  of  disasters  for  his  country.    He  was  a  separate  island.    In  July,  1801,  FlinderSi 

aon^i  to  Introduce  into  the  publio  adminia-  now  a  captain,  again  sailed  from  England,  aor- 


SeO  FLINT 

TBTed  the  wbole  Anstnlian  ooatt  as  far  as  the  each  other,  the  nodnlee  not  beiDf  in  eoBtael 

eastern  eztremitj  of  Bass's  stndta,  then  phn  either  to  the  horiaontal  or  Tsrtieal  ai  rangiiini  lit 

eeeded  to  Port  Jackson,  where  he  refitted,  and  Th^  oommonlj  oontato  a  melens  of  parts  of 

In  the  sammer  of  1802,  steering  N.,  explored  marine  ibssUs,  mch  as  are  abondaot  bi  the 

Korthmnberland  and  Onmberland  islanai,  and  ohalk,  as  sbeUs,  nonges,  eohtoi,  te.;  and  th^ 

anrreyed  Uie  Great  Barrier  reef  of  coral  rooks,  abo  present  the  ninns  of  hoUov  aeodea,  thev 

While  attempting  to  make  his  way  hack  to  oaTiues  lined  with  onartscrystala,  irai  pjritasi 

England  he  was  sdzed  hj  the  govenior  of  the  oarbooate  of  iron,  enalcedony,  Ac. — ^ilinft  Is  a 

Isleof  Frajioe,  in  q^te  of  a  iVench  passport  and  common  mineral   |»odnetioo   to  the  United 

detained  a  prisoner  for  6  years ;  aftsrwMch  his  8tates,hiititiscooTertedtonoiise.    liaboonds 

health  was  so  impsired,  and  his  spirit  so  broken,  to  the  tertiary  formatiooa  of  the    aootlMn 

that  he  expired  in  London  on  the  day  when  the  states,  and  is  met  with  to  the  older  roeksi  •rm 

narratire  of  his  discoveries  and  adventores  was  to  the  metamoqJiio  qnarts  assoriated  with  tiks 

pnblished  C  Voyage  to  Terra  Aostralis,  fto^  to  lowest   stratified  rocks.     Upon    the   LeU^ 

the  years  1801,  %  and  '8,''StqIs.  4to.,Lon-  mottntatotoPenn^lTania,atLeiber^Oaip^isei- 

don,  1814).  posed toloosefiragmentatotheaoO avast  ■niwii 

FLI^TL   a  Tariety  of  the  mineral  mdea  of  fitot  rook,  associated  with  eberty  quits  to- 

qpartx,  of  dnll  coiiMra.  fireqnently  black,  of  con-  cmsted  with  chalcedony  and  mananutory  aid 

choidal  firactore,  easily  Imken  toto  spltotenr  botrroidal  crystaUixattoDH    In  iStm  woods  wwt 

firagments,  which  firom  the  sharpness  and  hard-  of  the  road  some  80  acres  of  aorfiwe  bavs  k 

nesactf  their  edges  are  well  adapted  fbr  striking  ancient  times  been  dog  orer  by  tiie  lofisai^ 

fire  with  steeL    Beside  silica,  fitot  contains  their  oltfect  being  to  obtato  the  fltot  for  anew 

ahont  one  per  cent  of  water,  and  one  per  cent  and  wpmt  heads.    Files  of  broken  fitot  adll  Bs 

divided  among  lime,  oxide  of  iron,  and  alumina,  nnoofored  hj  the  sides  of  the  exosvvfai^ 

Benelias  also  detected  potash  to  its  oompod-  wldch  remato  nnfflled.  The  stone  was  evUfli- 

tion.    Its  hardness  slightly  exceeds  that  <tf  pore  )y  highW' priaed  by  them,  and  they  oartafa^ 

qnartx.    It  is  remarkable  fbr  the  fiudlitr  with  poesemed  great  skill  to  fMhkmlng  it  tote  the 

which,  when  flreshly  qoarried,  it  is  broken  by  forma  they  recndred. 

the  hammer  to  any  direction.    By  this  proper-       FLINT,  a  Tillage  and  township  on  Fill  lir- 

tythethto  gon  flints  are  iaddoned  with  great  er,  and  the  capital  of  Genaese  oo^  IBck ;  m 

rapidity,  the  workmen  breaking  np  the  rough  to  1808,  aboot  9,000.    It  la  anrroonded  (j  a 

noooles  as  they  are  extracted  from  their  repoe^  fiBrtile  coontry,  possesses  abondanee  of  waMr 

itories  to  the  dialk  beds,  and  chipping  off  with  power,  and  has  an  active  trade.    It  is  the  smI 

a  pototed  hammer  fixmi  the  rongh  lamps  scales  of  the  Michigan  asylum  for  the  deal^  dnmK  t^ 

wnich,  being  skilfallj  applied  upon  the  edse  of  blind,  and  contains  a  U.  S.  land  office  and  S 

a  chisel  sot  upright  in  a  block  of  wood  and  newspaper  establishments, 
struck,  are  converted  with  wonderfol  precision        FLINT,  Tisionrr,  an  American  clerRrmeo  ^ 

toto  their  peculiar  form.    After  the  flints  have  author,  bom  m  North  Readings  Mmou,  to  Jzlj, 

been  long  quarried,  their  facility  of  being  thus  1780,  aied  in  6alem,  Aus.  16,  1A40.    He  wu 

accurately  worked  is  lost    8o  great  skill  was  padoated  at  Harvard  coliese  in  1800,  and  bav- 

attained  in  the  manufacture  of  gun  flints  before  mg  entered  the  miniitry  o«  the  Congrcj^atkcil 

the  introduction  of  percussion  caps,   that   a  church, wassettledatLonenbnrg.!i£aeib, ml »«.^ 

workman  could  with  his  hammer  and  chisel  He  was  a  diligent  student  of  the  muoralscieacdk 

produce  1,000  well  formed  flints  in  8  days.  But  a»d  his  chemical  experiments  led  some  ignanct 

the  flint  must  be  of  good  quality,  of  uniform  persons  to  charge  him  with  coanterfeiting  cocl 

grain  and  color,  and  so  translucent  that  letters  lie  prosecuted  Uiem  for  slander ;  an  01  Miag 

may  be  read  through  a  slice  j\  of  an  inch  thiclc  increased  by  political  diflTerences  sprang  up  b^ 

The  colors  preferred  are  from  a  honey  yellow  tween  bim  and  his  pari^thionersi  and  he  cuom- 

to  blackish  brown.    Flint  is  found  so  abundant-  quently  resigned  his  charge  to  1814.    Qe  tbca 

ly  iu  the  chalk  formation  in  England,  that  it  has  preached  in  various  parts  of  New  EngUalssJ 

been  applied  to  puriKMcs  which  are   ser>'ed  in  Sept  1815,  set  out  fortbe  Wcat  as  a  Bunioc- 

here  by  better  materials.     It  was   formerlr  ary.    lie  passed  T  or  8  years  in  this  eapacitv  ia 

thought  an  e>*tMcntia]  article  in  the  production  of  the  Ohio  and  Mississippt  valleyai  but  loato^ka 

fiint  glass,  but  is  now  superseded  by  pure  gran-  health  tried  to  unite  the  avocatioQe  of  tuna 

nhir  quartz  or  sand.    It  still  continues  to  be  and  schoolteacher,  at  first  near  New  OrWaf 

used  in  tl»e  manufacture  of  porcelain ;  and  the  and  afterward  on  Red  river.     In  lfiS&  he  rt- 

rough  nodules  are  found  to  be  well  adapted  for  turned  to  Massachusetts,  broken  to  h^^th  sod 

the  construction  of  sub^ttontial  walls  of  mason-  fortune ;  but  the  change  of  climate  soon  rMaortd 

rv,  as  may  be  seen  in  the  counties  of  Kent,  the  former,  and  he  turned  to  literary  por<c::i 

Suffolk,  and  Norfolk,  England.    Those  nodules  to  repair  the  latt^.    Ilia  fint  work  wm  *-  B«c* 

constituto  a  peculiar  feature  in  the  chalk  difls  oUoctions  of  Ten  Tears  passed  fa  the  VaDcy  of 

of  the  coast  of  England.    They  occur  in  hori-  the  Mississippi*'  (8Ta,  Boston,  1886),  whkh'was 

sontal  layers  scattered  through  Uie  upi>er  portion  favorably  receired  to  Amcripoa  and  rw^— ^^  r^. 

of  the  chalk  formation,  and  in  a  few  instances^  printed  in  London,  and  translattd  into  FWfich. 

as  noticed  bv  Lyell,  have  been  seen  in  vertical  In  the  same  year  he  brought  oat  a  ooveL^  Frao- 

rows  like  pillars,  at  irregular  distances  firom  da  Berriani  or  the  Mexioan  FMitoC"   IDa  asit 


FLINT  RIVER  FLODDEN  FIELD               661 

publication  was  a  '^  Condensed  Geography  and  Asapb,  Uoljwell,  Rhyddlan,  Hawarden.  and 

History  of  the  Western  States  in  the  Mississippi  Bogillt    One  member  is  returned  to  the  noose 

Valley  "  (2  vola  8vo.,  Cincinnati,  1828),  form-  of  commons  for  the  county,  and  one  for  the 

ing,  with  the  *'  Recollections,*^  one  of  the  best  town  of  Flint. 

acconnts  of  that  region  ever  written.  In  1828  FLOATING  ISLANDS.  An  early  notice 
he  removed  to  Cincinnati,  where  he  edited  for  of  this  phenomenon  is  recorded  in  an  interest- 
8  years  the  "  Western  Review."  In  1833  he  ing  letter  of  the  younger  Pliny  to  Gallus.  io 
went  to  New  York  and  conducted  a  few  num-  which  he  describes  the  appearance  of  a  number 
bers  of  the  **  Knickerbocker  Magazine."  He  of  them  he  had  observed  ,in  the  lake  Vadimon, 
afterward  took  up  his  residence  in  Alexandria,  now  Laghetto  di  Bassano,  near  Rome.  They 
Va.^  q)endin^  most  of  his  summers  in  New  were  covered  with  reeds  and  rushes,  and  were 
Eng^d.  His  writings  are  spirited  and  power-  of  such  consistence,  that  the  sheep  grazing  upon 
fol,  but  somewhat  wanting  in  polish.  Hb  prin-  the  borders  of  the  lake  passed  upon  them  to 
*  cipal  works,  beside  those  mentioned  above,  are :  feed,  and  were  often  floatea  away  from  the  shore. 
^  Arthur  Clenning,"  a  novel  (2  vols.  12mo.,  Upon  the  lake  Gerdau,  in  Prussia,  the  extent 
Philadelphia,  1828);  *^  George  Mason,  or  the  of  such  islands  is  said  to  be  sufficient  for  the  pas- 
Backwoodsman ;"  ^Shoshonee  Valley"  (2  vols,  turage  of  100  head  of  cattle;  and  on  one  in  the  lake 
12mo.,  Cincinnati,  1830) ;  a  translation  of  Droz,  Kolk,  in  Osnabrtlck,  fine  elms  ore  said  to  grow. 
&9ai  $ur  Fart  cTetre  heureux  (Boston,  1832) ;  These  islands  ore  produced  by  accumulations 
^  Indian  Wars  in  the  West"  Yl2mo.,  1833) ;  of  drift  wood,  among  which  drifting  sands  and 
"  Lectures  on  Natural  History,  Geology,  Chem-  earth  collect  and  form  a  soil,  in  which  plants 
istnr,  and  the  Arts"  (12mo.,  Boston,  1833);  take  root  and  flourish,  sometimes  becoming 
**3ierooir  of  Daniel  Boone"  (18mo.,  Cincin-  trees.  The  great  *'n^"  of  some  of  the  western 
natl,  1834).  He  also  contributed  to  the  London  rivers  are  of  this  nature,  though  for  the  most  part 
**Athena)um"  in  1835  a  series  of  papers  on  these  do  not  float  from  place  to  place.  Masses  are 
American  literature.  occasionally  detached,  however,  and  drifted  out 

FLINT  RIVER  ^ndian  name,  Thronateealca\  from  the  mouth  of  the  Mississippi,  carryinsr 

a  river  of  Creorgia,  rising  in  the  W.  part  of  the  with  them  into  the  gulf  the  birds,  serpents,  ana 

state,  near  Fayetteville,  flowing  S.,  and  uniting  alligators  that  had  taken  refuge  upon  thenu 

with  the  Chattahoochee  at  the  S.  W.  extrem-  Such  islands  have  been  seen  floating  100  milea 

ity  of  the  state,  to  form  the  Appolachicola.    It  off  from  the  mouth  of  the  Ganges,  from  whidi 

is  about  300  m.  long,  and  is  navigable  as  for  as  they  had  been  discharged.    Upon   the  great 

Albany,  a  distance  of  250  m.  from  the  gulf  of  rivers  of  South  America  tiiey  ore  very  often 

Mexico.    Principal  towns  on  its  banks^  Lanier,  met  with,  carrying  with  them  the  prolific  pro- 

Oglethorpe,  and  Albany.  ductions  of  the  vegetable  and  animal  life  of  the 

FLINTSHIRE,  a  N.  £.  co.  of  Wales,  con-  tropics,  to  deposit  them  in  new  localities.  Thus 
risting  of  2  separate  portions,  lying  at  a  distance  they  may  have  been  the  means  of  distributing 
of  8  miles  from  each  other,  with  a  port  of  Den-  species  of  the  larger  animals  among  the  islandi 
bij^shire  between  them,  the  larger  portion  of  the  South  Pac^c,  upon  many  of  which  their 
bordering  on  the  Irish  sea  and  the  estuary  of  introduction  by  any  other  mode  is  difficult  to 
the  Dee ;  aggregate  area,  289  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  account  for.  Prescott  describes  the  floating 
1851,  68,156.  It  is  the  smallest  but  most  pop-  gardens  or  ehinampa$  of  Mexico  as  an  archi- 
nkxis  county  in  Wales.  The  surface  near  the  pelogo  of  wandering  islands.  The  primitive 
coast  is  low,  and  elsewhere  is  diversified,  though  Aztecs  adopted  the  plan  suggested  by  these  nat- 
tbere  are  no  great  elevations.  A  range  of  hills  urol  objects,  and  attaching  the  reeds  and  rushes 
mna  alongside  the  S.  W.  boundary,  and  sends  together,  they  covered  the  rafb  thus  formed  with 
off  a  branch  which  traverses  the  county  in  a  the  fertile  sediment  drawn  up  from  the  lake. 
N.  EL  direction.  Between  these  ridges  are  fer-  Upon  these  gardens,  gradually  extended  to  200 
tito  yaUeys,  including  the  wcU  known  vale  of  or  300  feet  in  length,  the  Indians  cultivated 
Glwrd,  watered  by  several  rivers,  which  flow  flowers  and  vegetables  for  tbe  market  of  To- 
on the  one  side  into  the  Clwyd  and  Alyn,  and  nochtitkn.  Some  of  the  chinampa$  were  even 
00  the  other  into  the  Dee,  which  forms  the  firm  enough  to  sustain  small  trees  and  a  hut, 
N.  £.  boundary.  The  greater  part  of  the  county  and  could  then  be  moved  about  with  a  polo  or 
retto  upon  the  coal  measures,  which  exist  chiefiy  remain  anchored  by  the  same. 
on  Uie  coast  of  the  estuary  of  the  Dee.  Lead  FLODDEN  FIELD,  Battue  of,  fought  Sept. 
mines,  the  ore  from  which  also  yields  a  little  9,  1513,  between  the  Scots  under  King  James 
silTer,  are  worked  near  Holywell  and  Bogillt,  IV.  and  the  English  under  the  earl  of  Surrey. 
and  are  esteemed  the  richest  in  the  kingdom.  Henry  YIII.  was  on  the  continent  engaged  in 
The  other  minerals  are  copper,  hron,  zinc,  and  his  expedition  against  France  when  the  border 
calamine.  Agriculture  employs  about  8  per  feuds  between  Ji^gland  and  Scotland  broke  into 
ceoL  of  the  popiUation.  The  shipping  trade  is  open  war,  and,  according  to  Scott,  "  prudence, 
not  extensive,  as  the  ports  are  accessible  only  policy,  the  prodigies  of  superstition,  and  the  ad* 
by  small  crm.  The  Chester  and  Holyhead  vice  of  his  most  experienced  counsellor,  were 
rwwaj  traverses  the  county,  and  the  Chester  alike  unable  to  subdue  in  James  the  blazing  zeal 
and  Mold  railway  penetrates  to  its  centre.  The  of  romantic  chivalry .^^  He  crossed  the  Tweed, 
chief  towns  are  Mold,  the  capital,  Flint,  SU  Aug.  22.  at  the  head  of  the  feudal  array  of  his 

VOL.  VII.— 86 


UngdoRL  Mptarad  4  bofte*  ftitKMMi  tad  «-    fioMtelli»giiniim>grt,tofWfw;«yM»HJ» 


MBped^Septe^oiiFloddeiiythelMtoftheClie-    totbechigecf  1moiwfalwny.  B»" 
Tfothilkia  the  eoniily  of  KorthimiberiiiKl»  S -  to  pttiWunent  in  ITSl,  ndwwand»«  privy 


flrfktS.  £.ofGoldstraiiii.    The  mtI  of  Somy,  eoancOloriM'UMtkiBgdoai^niTlw- 

towhom  wMinlmited  the  defence  of  the  Endifh  (^  IrelaDd  in  ITTL  hm  mwed  In  ITSl.    In 

lKMder,fiimnioDedthegetttleoienofthenoctAem  178S  he  held  the eeWhntdl&enHioa  with  Xr. 

eoDntieetoloinhimatKeweeft]e,wherehetet  Grattnn  fai  the  hooM  of 

m  hie  •tenoAid,  end  reedied  Alnwiek  8^  8,  eenied  to  m  degree  ef 

with  90,000  men.  where»eeoording  to  the  prao-  eSeM.  and  heeeme  lo 

tiee  of  eblTalry,  he  offived  hetOe  to  Jemee  in  m  that  Flood  wee  iatempted  hy  the 

miMain  aent  t^  a  paiioiTant*at-anne.    Bj  a  the  eune  year  he  wee  letuiued  In  the 

ddHu  eoontermardi  he  placed  himedl  on  the  pariianMnt  §0€  the  citj  of  WindMiler,  and  ia 

Borningof  8^  9,  hetween  Jamee  and  Us  own  1786  he  reprateated  the  horo^gh  of  SerfM. 

eoontrr,  to  that  Hie  ipeechM  wera  kgioaL  pare  la  aityH  mi 

TWBHfcfcB»g.itmihiiMHttdwm^  rieh  in  figwee and dairieal  alhHiaHL    HeUI 

ri^iS&TSMlSSXI^^  aFindarie«'Odetofkm^**andnpaeMMlhi 

aSISS^^^SISIS^I^  deathorfMerie.priaeeenrda%«ahetaid 

ThehatUebecanbetween4aDd6o*cIodcP.lL,  In  the  OsflDrd  eoDeelkML    Hlajnpar^vaif- 

aod  waf  decided  in  little  more  than  an  hoor.  ai^  beeneathed  to  THal^  MMfi^  NMik 
The  Scottiih  ann j,  aetting  lire  to  ita  tenti^  de-       IIXXlB  CLOTH,  alroaf  eavrae  anie  tf 

teeoded  the  ridge  of  Flodden  to  aecore  the  em-  flax,  withmore  erleaih«npia>ei  mlMai,  oiiiMii 

lneiioeofBranlutooe,andwafmetbTtbe£ng-  on^MAhMeawlthaheaTjreoaliqf  of  palaLMi 

lldianny,  wUdi  adTanced  in  4  divisioos  nnder  printed  on  one  aide  after  the  anaBar  arihe 

the  command  of  Sorrej,  hie  t  toiMy  Thomaa  calico  hloelc  printing;    It  b  a»eh 

and  fiir£dmnndHowara,and  Sir  Edward  Stan-  eoTering  of  floors  of  halls  and 

kj.    Earis  Hnntlejr  and  Hooml  who  led  the  whidi  tt  SsweQ  adapted  Wita 

Scottish  left  wine,  charaed  the  Howards  so  ioo^  deeaUness.    lfadewilhpi^cdlawlBBi.kiia 

eessftiU J  with  a  Do^y  of  yearmen  that  Sir  Ed-  cood  oMterial  §»  eoreraig  the 

amnd  was  unhorsed  and  his  dtririon  pot  to  dshs  and  VAt  stractnresi    The 

fight    The  battle  wai  restored  in  this  qnarter  pered  of  au  widths^  firoia  a  jard  to  t 

bgrthesdranceofLordDacre  with  the  resenre  thatanextenslTeapsrtmealmay'bat 

oicaTslrj.    On  the  right  wing  the  highlanders  a  sio|^  oiece  of  it    The  loona  ftr 

were  nn^le  to  stand  against  uie  severe  ezeea-  ^eoes  of  great  width  remiire  two  ai 

tion  of  the  Laneaahlre  archers.     Jsmes,  snr-  each  side  for  throwing  toe  shuttle  fata  awl  saJ 

rotmded  bj  some  thoosands  of  chosen  warriors,  back.    The  length  of  the  pieeee  eomctimts  f  i- 

charged  upon  Sarrey  in  the  centre  of  his  army  ceeds  100  yards.    From  these  large  pkcts  lait- 

with  SQch  resolution  as  to  penetrate  within  a  able  lengths  of  60  to  100  feet  are  cut  off  at  tht 

few  yards  of  the  royal  standard,  when  he  was  painting   establishments,   and  then   strrtdbni 

attacked  in  the  flank  and  rear  by  Stanley,  al-  tightly  upon  sabetantial  upright  wc 

ready  victorious  over  the  Scottish  right  J^es  a  row  of  which  b  built  up  in  the 

fell  by  an  unknown  hand  within  a  lancets  len^  each  one  separated  from  the  next  by  a 

of  Surrey,  and  all  of  his  ^yision  perished  with  of  a  few  feet.    Ladders  and  platlbrms  are  cos- 

their  kinf^,  not  one  of  them  being  made  pris-  veniently  arranged  to  aflTurd  aecces  to  etvf? 

oner.    Before  dawn  the  Scots  abandoned  the  part  of  the  surfiice  of  the  doth.    Being  ttnia* 

fleld  in  disorder.    Their  loss  was  about  10,000  ed  and  well  secured  in  the  firame^  the  sorte  a 

men,  which  included  the  prime  of  their  nobili-  tight  like  a  drumhead,  and  an  Increeae  of  dM^ 

ty,  gentry,  and  even  cler^.    *^  Scarce  a  family  ness  may  even  cause  the  cloth  to  spCt.    TW 

of  eminence,**  says  Scott,  **  but  had  an  ances-  first  application,  which  b  made  to  the  hetk  cf 

tor  killed  at  Flodden,  and  there  b  no  province  the  canvas,  b  of  a  solution  of  |^ne  sias,  Isides 

of  Scotland,  even  at  thb  day,  where  the  battle  with  brushes.    Thb  enters  VSt  pores  of  tht 

b  mentioned  without  a  sensation  of  terror  and  doth,  and  b  rubbed  smooth,  whue  stOI  dsMf^ 

sorrow.*'  The  English  lost  about  7,000  men,  but  with  pumice  stoocs.    When  thb  b  dry,  a  rest- 

of  inferior  note.    Scott*s  '^Marmion,  a  Tale  of  ing  of  paint  of  linseed  oU  and  ochre,  or  «▼ 

Flodden  Field,**  contains,  in  the  last  canto,  an  cheap  coloring  matter,  made  with  lisik  er  *> 

accurate  and  most  animated  description  of  the  turpentine,  and  so  thick  that  it  cannot  be  mnmX 

battle  of  Flodden.  with  a  bnuh,  b  laid  on  with  asted  troweL  ssd 

FLOOD,  IIbxbt,  an  Irish  orator  and  poll-  well  worked  into  the  doth.    In  the  eoans  ff 

tician,  bom  in  1783,  died  Dec.  2,   1791.    lie  two  weeks  thb  becomes  dry,  so  as  to  W  <: 

was  a  Mm  of  the  chief  Justice  of  the  court  of  for  receiving  a  second  coat ;  aiid  Ott  thii»  a  Wa 

kinff^s  )>ench  in  Ireland,  and  was  educated  first  dry,  the  private  marlu  of  the  mannfSMCafer  arr 

at  Trinity  college,  Dublin,  and  aAerward  at  made.    During  thb  time  similar  opccaliaai  hare 

Oxford.    In  1759  he  became  a  member  of  the  been  going  on  upon  the  fhre  of  the  cksh,  ao  Wm 

Irifth  house  of  commons,  where  his  eloquence  than  8  coats  of  paint  being  apptted  with  tW 

made  a  remarkable  Impression,  and  hb  activity  trowel,  and  finally  a  4th  eoai  is  kid  en  with 

In   support  of  all  measures  benefidal  to  his  the  broiJb,  whidi  Is  intended  totem  the  gi  una  A 

country  won  hhn  great  popolarity.    Ub  reU-  of  the  design  to  ha  aftarwaai  pclaiadL    EMh 


FIX)BA  fLORENCE  668 

coat  of  trowel  color  on  this  side  is  carefally  ccedingly  prosperoDs  and  has  an  extensive  bnsi- 

pnmiced,  when  dry,  before  the  next  is  laid  on.  ness,  being  the  chief  shipping  point  for  the  pro- 

For  the  best  cloth  2  or  8  months  are  required  dnctions  not  only  oftheconnty  but  ofalArge  part 

to  complete  these  operations,  and  the  materials  of  Tennessee.  It  is  near  the  line  of  a  railroad  con- 

lidd  on  amount  to  nearly  8  times  the  weight  of  nectingit  with  Arkansas,  Tennessee,  Mississippi, 

the  canvas.    The  heavy  pieces  are  received  from  Georgia,  South  Carolina,  and  the  northern  and 

the  frames  upon  rollers  set  upright,  the  face  middle  states.    The  river  is  here  crossed  by  a 

being  protected  by  a  covering  of  paper,  and  are  handsome  bridge,  about  i  m.  long,  which  coat 

then  conveyed  to  the  printing  room,  where  they  $150,000.    Immediately  above  it  are  the  Muscle 

are  drawn  upon  a  long  table  as  fast  as  the  print-  Shoals.    Steamboats  ascend  to  this  point  from 

ing  upon  the  portions  in  advance  progresses,  the  mouth  of  the  Tennessee,  a  distance  of  800 

This  is  accomplished  by  blocks  of  pine,  faced  m.    In  1850  the  village  contained  8  large  brick 

with  some  dose  wood,  as  that  of  the  pear  tree,  churches,  the  Wesleyan  university,  a  female  semi- 

and  engraved,  each  one  to  print  all  those  parts  inary,  1  newspaper  office,  and  2  large  cotton  fao- 

of  the  pattern  which  are  in  one  color,  the  por-  tories,  each  having  a  capital  of  $45,000. 
tioDS  corresponding  to  the  other  colors  being  cut       FLORENCE  (ItaL  I\renae\  a  celebrated  city 

mway.    As  many  blocks  are  applied  in  8ucces<»  of  Italy,  the  capital  of  Tuscany,  in  lat  48^  46'* 

■ton,  therefore,  as  there  are  colors  to  be  printed,  K.,  long.  IV  16'  E.,  182  m.  from  Genoa,  293 

the  operation  being  nearly  the  same  as  that  de*  from  Turin,  244  from  Milan,  186  from  Venicei 

■cribed  in  Calico  Printing.    The  blocks  are  190  from  Rome,  and  865  from  Naples;  pop.  in 

for  the  most  part  heavy,  18  inches  square,  and  1858,   114,081.    The  city  lies  in  a  beauUfuL 

when  applied  are  struck  several  blows  with  a  well  wooded,  well  cultivated  valley,  surroundea 

heavy  hammer.   When  designed  to  print  a  broad  by  the  Apennines.    It  is  encircled  by  an  old 

unifonn  surface,  their  face  is  made  by  indented  wall  5  or  6  m.  long,  with  8  gates.    The  river 

Unes  crossing  each  other;  the  paint  is  taken  up  Amo  flows  through  it,  dividing  it  into  two 

more  uniformly  and  is  more  evenly  spread  than  parts  of  unequal  size,  the  larger  of  which  ia 

it  would  be  with  a  plain  sur&ce.    As  in  calico  on  the  right  or  N.  bank.    The  river  within  the 

printing,  the  stock  of  blocks  required  to  be  kept  city  is  crossed  by  4  fine  stone  bridges,  of  whidi 

on  hand  inyolves  the  outlay  of  a  large  capitaL  the  most  noted  is  the  ponte  di  Santa  IHnita^ 

Before  applying  theti  to  the  cloth,  tlie  surface  which  was  built  in  1566-'9.    It  is  adorned  with 

of  this  is  roughened  with  a  steel  scraper  and  statues,  is  828  feet  long,  and  the  centre  arch 

hard  scrubbing  brush,  that  it  may  better  take  has  a  span  of  96  feet    This  bridge  is  a  favorite 

the  color.    As  fast  as  the  pattern  is  completed  evening  walk  of  the  people.    The  ponte  Vee^ 

the  doth  is  moved  on,  and  in  some  establish-  ehio  is  75  feet  wide,  and  the  carriage  way  in 

menta  passes  through  tlie  floor  into  the  drying  the  middle  is  lined  on  each  side  by  a  row 

room,  where  it  is  kept  for  months  to  thoroughly  of  shops  occupied  chiefly  by  goldsmiths  and 

dry«    If  drving  oils  are  used,  the  cloth  is  likely  jewellers.    In  the  older  parts  of  the  city  the 

to  be  brittle  and  of  inferior  quality. — During  streets  are  narrow  and  irregular,  and  the  hoosea 

the  present  year  (1859)  a  patent  has  been  se-  for  the  most  part  meanly  built ;  but  the  newer 

eorea  in  England  for  the  following  method  of  and  larger  portions  are  verv  handsome  and 

making  ornamental  floor  cloth.  On  cloth  which  stately,  and  the  streets  wider  than  is  common  in 

Las  been  first  printed  upon  or  dyed  like  calico  a  the  cities  of  southern  Europe,  and  solidly  paved 

transparent  ground  or  coating  is  put  by  apply-  with  blocks  of  stone.    The  churches  of  Florence 

ing  several  coats  of  clarified  linseed  oil,  render-  are  170  in  number,  and  many  of  them  of  great 

ed  ^ drying^  in  the  usual  way  with  sulphate  of  size,  but  few  are  completely  finished,  and  their 

sine  or  acetate  of  lead.    When  this  transparent  general  appearance  is  neither  elegant  nor  pio- 

eoating  is  dry,  it  is  rubbed  smooth  with  pumice  turesque.    The  principal  church  is  the  Duomo, 

atone,  and  a  hard  varnish  put  on  the  top,  copal  or  cathedral,  a  vast  and  superb  structure,  which 

▼amish  being  employed  for  light  colors  and  as-  is  surpassed  in  architectural  grandeur  only  by 

phalt  varnish  for  black  glazed  cloth.  St  Peter's  at  Rome.    Its  foundations  were  laid 

FLORA,  the  Roman  goddess  of  flowers  and  in  1298 ;  the  great  dome  was  erected  by  Bm- 

nring.    6he  was  worshipped  in  Rome  from  nelleschi  in  the  15th  century,  but  the  facade 

tne  Teiy  earliest  times.    Her  temple  stood  near  was  not  completed  till  the  middle  of  the  17th« 

ih^  cireuM  maximus ;  and  her  festival  was  cele-  The  length  of  the  building  is  454  feet;   its 

brated  annually  on  the  8  last  days  of  ApriL  greatest  breadth  is  834  feet;  its  height  from  the 

FLORA,  a  term  corresponding  to  fauna,  in-  pavement  to  the  summit  of  the  cross  is  889 

dieating  the  plants  belonging  to  any  country,  feet;  the  height  of  the  nave  is  153  feet,  and  of 

••  that  does  toe  animals.    Its  application  is  ez'  the  side  aisles  97  feet    The  exterior  of  the 

tended  to  the  groups  of  plants,  the  fossil  re-  church  is  covered  throughout  with  red,  white, 

imdiis  of  which  are  found  belonging  to  any  and  black  marble,  disposed  in  panels  and  varie- 

CBologi<^  formation  or  period.  gated  figures;   and  the  pavement  is  also  of  ^ 

FLOIUSNCE,  a  post  village  and  the  capital  many-colored  marble,  much  of  which  was  laid  ** 

«f  Landerdale  co.,  Alabama,  situated  at  the  head  under  the  direction  of  Michel  Angelo.    The 

ofnATigationon  the  Tennessee  river,  nearly  op-  dome  of  this  cathedral  is  the  largest  in  the 

«te  Toscmnbia;  pop.  in  1853,  about  1,500.  world,  its  circumference  being  greater  than  that 

0^  not  a  place  of  iarge  population,  it  is  ex-  of  the  dome  of  Bt  Peter^s^  and  its  comparative 


(M  FLOBKNOE 

beif^t  greater.  thoQC^  its  biie  is  not  plooed  at  ao  Is  CntMO,  (oxauMfalfi8%  wbost  bl|)set  Is  Hm 

]d(P  an  devation  alwTe  tha  ground.    It  excited  improyement  of  tbe  Italian  hngnaga.    Thcra 

the  emidi^on  of  Michel  Angdo,  who  cndeaYored  are  agricultural  and  fine-art  acadCmiaai  a  sae^ 

to  sorpasB  it  in  tbe  dome  of  8t  Peter^a.    This  oal  college,  and  an  athenawim.    Charteablo  in* 

ehnrch  is  richly  adorned  by  statues  and  pictures,  atitutions  are  nnmooas^  indndlac  asjlsms  fcr 

aioet  of  which  are  by  eminent  masters.  Among  the  Uind,  for  the  deaf  and  dnmb^  and  fiir  ov^ 

the  statues  is  an  unfinished  group  by  Michel  phanS|  and  an  ancient  aasodatioB  «f  tba  Bobica 

Angelo,  representing  the  entombment  of  Christ,  and  gentry  for  tbe  rdief  of  tha  aide  aod  aaftr* 

Among  the  paintings  is  a  portrait  of  Dante,  ez-  ing  poor. — ^The  trade  of  Fkmnoa  at  thapreaaot 

aented  in  14<t6.    Kear  tibe  cathedral  stands  the  di^laddefly  intbeprodooaof  tbaanmafiaf 

mii^paniU  or  belfry,  which  was  deigned  by  country,  oil,  wine,  and  raw  silk,  and  in  bar  own 

Giotto,  and  begun  in  1884.    It  is  a  squaretower,  manufactures,  of  whidi  the  prindpal  ara  sQk 

976  feet  hi^ light  and  elef^t,  in  the  Italian-  stufEs,  straw  nata,  artifioial  flowM  osoaieal  and 


Gothic  ^te,  and  divided  into  4  lofty  stories,  scientific  instrmnants^JeirdrT,  a 

Charles  Y.  i»ed  to  ai^that  it  deserved  to  be  Thedimata  iamildand  baaJtbT.   TbacaTiraH 

kept  in  a  glass  case.    The  lower  story  contains  are  like  beautilhl  gardens^  and  siboaadfaidaHi^t' 

•t  ranges  of  tableta.dedgned byOiotto  and  eze*  Itdplaceafor  ezcnrsiona.  Tba M0|ila ara fir^y, 

anted  by  him  and  by  Andrea  risano  and  Luca  pohte,  and  intelligent,  with  a  rennaaaaBtaf —^^ 

dellaRobbia.  Opposite  the  prindpal  flront  of  the  ner  and  language  which  eztaoda  arsa  lotka 

cathedral  stands  the  baptistry,  whose  8  great  lowest  classes,  whose  style  of  spaaah  ia  siMi> 

bronae  portals  adOTued  with  bass-reliefs  by  An«  larly  graceful,  ddicate,  and  azprassiTa.    fta 

drea  and  Qhiberti  Pisano  were  declared  by  dimate.  the  cheapneaa  m  living^  tbagaJlarissaf 

Mlchd  Angdo  worthy  to  be  the  gates  of  Para-  art,  and  tha  refinement  of  tbe  paopla^  nadv 

diss.    The  churdi  of  San  Lorenzo  has  attached  FkHrenoe  a  partksnla^  pleasant  plana  «f  rci^ 

to  it  a  sacristy  which  eontaina  T  statues  by  denoe,*and  nave  attracted  to  it  great  miWn 

Midid  Angdo.    A^ii^g  the  same  church  is  of  for^gnera,  eq>edalljr£nglidi  and  AnarieasiL 

tba  costly  Medioean  chapd,  bttnm  in  1804  by  Florence  ia  remaikablc  m  tba  mnabar  cf  fci 

Ferdinand  L,  mnd  duke  of  Tuscany,  aa  the  distinguished  dtiiens,  among  wboa  baiva  bsea 

manaoleum  of  his  Dunily^  on  which,  it  is  sdd,  Dant^  Petrareh,  Boccaodo^  MaeebfaiTaQi,  )& 

$17,000,000  have  been  expended.    It  is  an  oo-  did  Anffdo,  Leonardo  da  Yfaid.  Dsniswii 

»D  94  feet  in  diameter  and  200  feet  high,  CdUni,  Galileo^  Gnicdaranl,   Ainsriras  Ta^ 

b  lined  throughout  with  lapis-lasuli,  Jasj^,  |^cius,  Cosmo  and  Lorenao  da*  Mafid,  and 

onyx,  and  other  predous  stones.    The  church  Illicit  the  diitff  of  tbe  Jbrrio  poata  cfltaly. 

of  Santa  Croce,  a  nuge  e^ce  480  feet  long  and  Benjamin  Diaradi  saya  of  IkrcDoe:  **  Yoaen- 

184  feet  wide,  whose  foundation  stone  was  laid  not  stroll  60  yards,  you  cannot  enter  a  chnth 

in  1294,  is  the  Pantheon  or  Westminster  abbey  or  a  palace,  without  bdng  favorably  rvmindcd 

of  Florence.    It  contains  the  tombs  of  Michd  of  the  power  of  human  thought.    In  Florcace, 

Angelo^  Macchiavelli,  Gdileo,  Leonardo  Aretina  the  monuments  are  not  only  of  great  men.  bet 

the  historian  GaicciardiDi,  the  poet  Aliicri,  and  of  the  greatest.    You  do  not  gaze  upon  tU 

of  many  other  illustrious  men.  Florence  abounds  tomb  of  an  author  who  is  merely  a  mat  mai- 

in  palaces  of  a  singularly  solid,  heavy  stylo  of  ter  of  composition,  but  of  one  who  forsscd  th* 

architecture,  resembliug  prisons  or  fortresses,  language.   The  illustrious  astrunomer  is  ooC  ti-s 

Thev  were  built  in  ases  of  turbulence  and  dvil  discoverer  of  a  planet,  but  the  revealer  of  tbe 

atriie,  for  defence  and  security  rather  than  for  whole  cdestial  machinery.    The  artist  and  tb« 

dbpli^  or  luxury.    Their  great  size  and  height,  politician  are  not  merely  tbe  first  scnlpton  sci 

the  rouffh  rosstuveness  of  their  lower  stories,  statesmen  of  thdr  time,  but  the  Inventon  of 

and  the  huge  cornices  frowning  over  their  fronts,  the  very  art  and  the  very  craft  in  which  th^r 

give  them  a  very  impressive  appearance.    The  excelled.^ — Florence  by  the  Romana  was  cs23(i 

two  principal  pdaces,  the  Pal&zzo  Vecchio  and  Florentia.    It  is  supposed  to  have  been  fooadcd 

the  Palaxzo  Pitti,  contain  celebrated  collections  by  the  dictator  SyUa,  about  80  Bw  C. ;  but  i: 

of  works  of  art.    The  Medicean  gallery,  built  in  seems  to  have  been  of  little  importance  tiH  the 

16C4,  contains  a  number  of  masterpieces  of  later  ages  of  the  Roman  empire.    In405itwss 

painting  and  sculpture,  among  them  the  Venus  a  considerable  city,  and  was  bedcged  bv  Raia> 

de^  Medici,  the  ''  Knife-Griuder,''  the  group  of  gaisus,  king  of  the  Goths,  at  the  bettd  of  a  gnest 

**  Kiobe  and  her  Children,^*  and  various  paint-  army.    It  was  delivered  by  StiHcbo^  who  raised 

ings  by  Raphael^  Titian,  Michel  Augelo,  and  Uie  siege  and  captured  and  pot  to  death  tbe 

others  of  tlio  bluest  eminence.    Beside  these  barbarian  monarcn.    In  543  it  was  laid  iandm 

fiunous  cdlectiona,  the  city  abounds  in  galle-  by  the  army  of  TotHa,  king  of  tbe  Ostn^gocLi 

ries,  museums,  and  choice  works  of  art.    There  Charlemagne  rebuilt  it  at  the  end  of  the  9ih 

are  several  large  libraries,  the  Magliabecchian  century,  and  during  tbe  next  9  centorics  it  gnki- 

witb  150,000  volumes,  the  I«aurentian  with  ually  srew  in  importance^  till  in  tba  lOdi  cce- 

120,000   printed  volumes  and  6,(X)0  valuable  turv  the  people  acquired  the  right  of  dirriTir 

M8S.,  tbe  library  of  the  Pitti  paloro  with  70,-  theur  own  magistrates.    Tbe  dtv  waa  govcnM 

000  volumes,  and  the  Mamcellian  library  with  by  a  senate  of  100  perMoa,  with  an  cxccstiTW 

fiO.000  volumes.    There  are  many  literary  insti*  of  4,  and  afterward  of  8  **>»fqlfc    la  ISO?  tbe 

» the  chief  of  which  is  the  academy  Dtt-  chief  cxecotiva  fimotiona 


FLORES  FLORIDA                    US 

mngle  magistrate  called  the  podesta.  In  1215  is  exported  to  Celebes  to  be  mannfactnred. 
the  Floreutines  began  to  take  part  in  the  civil  The  other  principal  articles  of  trade  are  benzoin, 
war  between  the  Gnelphs  and  Ghibellines  ambergris,  beeswax,  slaves,  and  ship^s  provis- 
which  convulsed  Italy.  After  a  contest  which  ions,  payment  for  which  is  made  in  cutlery, 
lasted  for  88  years,  the  Guelph  or  papal  party  gunpowder,  glassware,  and  linen.  The  natives 
was  beaten  and  expelled  from  the  city.  In  are  divided  into  a  number  of  distinct  nations, 
1250  the  citizens  took  arms  against  the  nobles,  all  speaking  different  languages.  The  prinoi- 
defeated  them,  demolished  their  fortified  pal-  pal  towns  are  Ende,  with  about  200  houses, 
ftces,  and  established  a  democratic  government,  Mangariu  on  the  N.  coast,  Pota  on  the  same  side, 
with  a  chief  ma^trate  styled  *^  the  captain  of  the  site  of  a  Dutch  fort  and  trading  post,  and 
the  people  **  at  its  head,  and  various  councils  Larantuka  on  the  S.  £.,  where  the  Portuguese 
chosen  from  all  classes  of  the  population.  In  1282  have  a  small  settlement.  The  Portuguese  visit- 
the  republic  adopted  a  new  system  of  govern-  ed  the  island  at  an  early  period,  and  gave  it  the 
ment,  which  continued  unchanged  for  several  name  of  Flores.  It  was  subordinate  for  a  time 
eenturies.  A  long  series  of  civil  wars  between  the  to  the  Dutch  presidency  on  Timor  island,  but  in 
Actions  of  the  Bianchi  and  Neri  ensued,  in  spite  1812  the  Bugis  expelled  all  the  European  settlers. 
of  which,  however,  the  city  grew  very  rich  and  Christianity  has  obtained  a  footliold  by  the  la- 
powerful.  It  became  the  financial  capital  of  bors  of  Portuguese  missionaries,  and  the  native 
£arope,  and  its  merchants  carried  on  an  im«  traders  gener^ly  sail  under  tne  Portuguese  flag, 
meose  trade  with  foreign  countries.  The  popu-  FLORIAN,  Jban  Pierre  Claris  de,  a  Frendi 
lation  amounted  to  150,000,  and  the  armed  miscellaneous  author,  bom  at  the  chateau  de 
militia,  who  could  be  called  together  by  the  toll*  florian  in  Langucdoc,  March  6,  1755,  died  in 
ing  of  a  bell,  were  reckoned  at  26,000.  In  1342,  Sceaux,  Sept.  18, 1794.  His  uncle,  the  marauis 
GaoltierdeBricnne,  an  adventurer  who  bore  the  de  Florian,  who  had  married  a  niece  of  Yol- 
titXe  of  duke  of  Athens,  became  lord  of  Flor-  taire,  placed  him  when  13  years  old  at  Femej 
enoe  by  a  coup  d^etat^  but  after  a  year  of  cruel  with  the  philosopher,  where  he  remained  8 
despotism  he  was  deposed  and  driven  from  the  years,  when  he  became  page  to  the  duke  de 
city  by  a  sudden  insurrection  of  the  people.  Penthi^vre,  who  subsequently  procured  him  a 
The  anniversary  of  this  revolution,  July  26,  commission  in  a  regiment  of  cavalry.  He  left 
1348,  is  still  celebrated  at  Florence.  The  repub*  his  troop  to  attach  himself  as  a  gentilhomme  de 
lie  was  restored,  and  continued  to  flourish  in  eour  to  the  duke,  at  whose  residence  he  pur- 
spite  of  factions,  insurrections,  and  civil  and  sued  his  literary  avocations.  Several  of  his 
foreign  wars,  till  the  15th  century,  when  the  dramatic  writings  were  performed  at  the  thea- 
family  of  the  Medici  obtained  a'  controlling  tre  of  D^Argental,  whose  house  in  Paris  was 
influence  in  its  afiTairs,  which  resulted  in  the  then  the  centre  of  attraction  for  men  of  science 
final  overthrow  of  republican  institutions  in  the  and  letters,  and  on  these  occasions  Florian  often 
16tb  century.  (See  Medici,  and  Tuscany.) — A  played  the  part  of  Harlequin.  Though  not  the 
**  Florentine  History,"  by  II.  E,  Napi€^  (6  vols,  best  of  his  works,  some  of  his  plays,  as  Zes 
12mo.),  was  published  in  London  in  1846-^7.  deux  billets,  Le  ben  ph-e,  La  bonne  tnire,  &c, 
For  descriptions  of  Florence  see  ^^  European  have  considerable  merit,  and  the  first  still  holds 
Capitals,"  by  William  Ware  (12rao.,  Boston,  its  place  on  the  French  stage.  In  1783  he  pro- 
1851),  and  **Six  Months  in  Italy,"  by  George  duced  his  Galatee,  a  novel  in  imitation  of  the 
6.  Hillard  (12mo.,  €th  ed.,  Boston,  1858).  "Galatea"  of  Cervantes;  and  in  1786,  his  Nu- 

FLORES,  the  westernmost  of  the  Azores  ma  Pompilius^  a  classic  romance  in  the  style 

islands  in  the  N.  Atlantic  ocean ;  lat.  89^  25'  of  F^n4lon*s  TeUmaque,    After  these  appeared 

K.,  long.  31*  12'  W. ;  length  30  m.,  breadth  9  successively  Estelle,  a  pastoral  tale,  Oomalve  de 

m. ;  pop.  9,000.    Its  name  was  given  it  by  the  Cordoue,  with  a  preliminary  sketch  of  Moorish 

Portuguese  in  allusion  to  the  multitude  of  flow-  history,  and  a  collection  of  "  Fables,"  which  are 

ers  with  which  it  appeared  to  be  adorned,  deemed  the  best  that  have  been  produced  in 

Chief  towns,  Lagena  and  Santa  Cruz.  France  since  the  publication  of  those  of  La  Fon- 

FIX)RES,  Flokis,   Ende,  or  Maxoarai,  an  taine.    He  wrote  also  several  poems.    On  the 

island  of  the  Malay  archipelago,  E.  of  Java,  be-  outbreak  of  the  revolution  he  retired  to  Sceaux ; 

tween  lat  7^  and  9°  S.,  long.  120^  and  123"  but  he  was  soon  dragged  from  his  retreat,  ana 

E. ;  length  E.  and  W.  about  200  m.,  average  consigned  to  a  dungeon.    Here  he  finished  his 

breadth  45  m.    The  strait  of  Flores  on  the  £.  poem  of  Ephraim,  and  wrote  his  romance  of 

separates  it  from  the  islands  of  Solor  and  Ade-  Guillaume  Tell,    He  was  liberated  after  the  9tli 

nar.    It  has  a  hilly  surface^  and  like  all  the  isl-  Thermidor,  when  he  returned  to  Sceaux,  where 

ands  of  the  same  chain  is  of  volcanic  formation,  he  presently  fell  a  victim  to  grief  and  anxiety. 

There  are  2  active  craters,  one  of  which  has  an  After  his  death  appeared  his  translation  of 

elcTBtion  of  7,000  feet,  and  the  other  of  1,500.  "  Don  Quixote,"  which  is  perhaps  the  least  es- 

Tbe  island  produces  copper,  according  to  na-  teemed  of  all  his  works.   The  b^  uniform  edi- 

tiye  accounts,  and  also  small  quantities  of  gold  tion  of  his  works  is  that  of  Paris  in  1820, 16  vols. 

and  iron,  not  in  sufficient  amount  to  be  profit-  FLORIDA,  the  southernmost  state  of  the 

ftbljT  worked.    The  forests  yield  sapan  wood  American  Union,  and  the  14th  admitted  under 

and  dye  wood ;  rice,  maize,  edible  roots,  and  a  the  federal  constitution,  situated  between  lat 

good  spedes  of  ootton,  are  cultivated.    Cotton  24**  BO'  and  ZV  N^  and  long.  W*  and  87^  45' 


ILOBmA 


If. ;  booodcd  K.  bj  Alnhaim  and  Georgia,  £. 
Inr  the  AUaDtio  ooean,  8.  and  W.  by  the  gulf 
Qi  Mexico  and  the  PerdSdo  rirer,  the  latter  di- 
yMng  W.  Florida  from  the  golf  aeetion  of  Ala* 
bama;  area,  59^268  aq.  bl,  or  87,981/^20  aerea. 
The  state  is  divided  into  88  ooontiea,  yii. :  Ala* 
«il1U^  Benton,  Brerard  (formeriy  8t  LooieX 
OalhoQo,  Ck>lomUa,  Dade,  DttTal,  Eioambiii, 
l^rankUn,  Gadiden,  Hamiltoii,  Henundo^  Hilb- 
boffo,  Holmea^  Jadnon,  Jeflfonoo,  LeooL  LeTj, 
liberty,  Madiaon,  Manatee,  MarioD,  IConroe 
^hieh  indodes  the  Florida  hajai  KaHan, 
Onaige,  Putnam,  St  JofanX  Santa  tfoaa,  Som- 
tir,  Vohiaia,  Waknlla,  Walton,  Waihbigton. 
Xij  Waal  (called  by  the  Spaniarda  Cby»  JSTiMoa 
or  Bone  Key)  la  the  krgeat  town  in  Rorldai 
atad  la  a  place  of  great  eommerolal  and  military 
Importanee.  Tal^^aaMe  is  the  aeat<tf  the  state 
foremment  Pensaeola,  AppalaehieoU,  and 
It  Markka  are  porta  of  w.  Florida.  Cedar 
bya,  Tampa,  and  Charlotte  Harbor  are  the 
prmeipal  oatkts  on  the  W.  side  of  peninsolor 
FloriaL  St  Angnstlne,  on  the  Atlantic  coast| 
Is  the  ddsat  town  in  the  state,  and  Is  mneh  re* 
■arted  to  by  inTaUda  on  aeooont  of  the  eqoabil- 
1^  of  its  dimatew  JacksonTiUe  la  a  thriting 
eowmerdal  town  on  St  John^  riter.  Feman- 
dfaMi  Is  a  new  town  at  the  K.  end  of  Amdia 
kbnd,  and  the  Atlantlo  termlmia  of  the  rail- 
load  whidi  has  ita  golf  tenninaa  at  Cedar  E^a. 
The  popolation  of  the  atata  at  4  periods  waa  as 
IdUows: 


of  50  and  nndarlOQ,  IM;  cflOO  Mid  laiar  10% 
29;  of  800  and  under  600^  cm.  Faapass  In 
1849-'5dr8;oostliMrtheyear||Mr.  GrlmlBala 
conTlctea,  89;  in  prison,  JoneljlOM^lL  Fed-i 
erd  popdatlon  (ab  the  free  and  }  of  thaalaTeX 
71,721,  wlddi  entitles  Florida  to  ena 
tative  In  eongrsaa^— Florida  eoosista 
narrow  strip  of  territory  eitendlng  8u  froaa 
Georgiaand  Alabama  from  80  to  80  BL.  and  froea 

~  "  ^  nwwr 


the  Atlantic  ooean  to  the  Ferdid0 
860  m. ;  and  of  a  peninsula  aitending  fr«NB  the 
mdnland  &  throogh  6*  of  lattode  batwatn  the 
Atlantlo  and gnlf  of  Meidco.  ItaeoaaifiMis 
of  much  greaiiBr  extent  than  that  ef  aur  oihar 
state,  havug  a  length  of  47S  a.on  Ihe  Atklls 
and  674  nuonthegnlf;  batthblmiinns 
of  aea  front  la  alm^tt  inaeeasdbia  eo 
of  shaDow  aoQDdings,  and  haa  inr  good 
bors.  8.  from  the  mainland  a  «iwlB  of 
rodnr  idandsi  eaDed  cays  or  keya^  i 
the  w^  ending  In  a  doster  of  roclu  aad 
banks  called  the  Tortogaa.  &oft]ieb«ik 
which  these  h^ya  riss^  and  aeparated  f 
by  a  narigahle  diannel,  ia  a  long  nas 
leaf  known  as  the  Florida  fee(  whkh 
atitotes  the  left  bank  of  the  Gulf  alraaat  Tba 
moat  fanpcctant  of  the  km  is  K^  Wei^eslid 


O.S.CMM. 

Wkll^ 

WtmCttmU. 

ito*—. 

Tm^ 

1880 
1^40 
1860 

18U 

18,885 
f7.M8 
47,S0S 

8Mt8 

8U 
817 
88S 

804 

KkSOl 
t5,TlT 
88,810 

48.086 

8i,T80 
54.4n 
87,4ia 

110388 

Of  the  white  population  in  1850  there  were 
86,705  males  and  21,498  females;  of  the  firee 
colored  (blacks  829,  and  mulattoea  703),  418 
mdes  and  514  females;  and  of  the  alare  (black 
86,288,  and  mnlattoes  8,022X  19,804  males  and 
19,606  females.  Density  of  population,  1.48  to 
a  aq.  m. ;  proportion  of  population  to  that  of  the 
whole  Union,  0.88  per  cent  Families  (white 
and  free  colored)  9,107,  and  dwellings  9,022. 
Of  the  total  population,  47,883  were  under  20 
Tears  of  age,  88,690  between  20  and  70,  770 
between  70  and  100,  86  over  100,  and  45  un- 
known ;  of  those  orer  100,  6  were  free  colored 
and  29  slares.  White  and  free  colored  (total 
48,186)  bom  in  Florida,  20,668 ;  in  other  sUtes, 
i4,766 ;  in  foreign  countries,  2,757 ;  unknown, 
68.  Of  18,185  males  (white  and  free  colored) 
OTer  16  years  of  age,  2,880  were  engaged  in 
commerce,  trade,  manufiicturet,  mecbiuilc  arts, 
and  mining;  6,977  in  agricalture;  2,666  in 
labor  not  sgriculturd ;  428  in  the  anny ;  708  in 
sea  and  river  narigatlon ;  357  in  law,  medicine, 
and  divinity ;  802  In  other  pursoiu  requiring 
education;  268  in  government  civil  service; 
li  in  domeivtic  service ;  42  not  specified.  6Uve- 
boldcTR,  8,520,  viz. :  holderB  of  1  slave,  699 ;  of 
1  and  under  5, 991 ;  of  6  and  under  10,  759;  of 
under  20, 688 ;  of  SO  and  under  60, 849 ; 


haunt  of  amngdera  and  pirates^  it  la 
atatlon  of  grsat  fanportanca,  tad  the 
a  band  of  wreckers  whoaa  bnalaaaa  it  la  to 
Teasels  in  astrsaa.  Tbia  k«r  la  abo«t  •  m.  ia 
lancth  and  9  In  breadth,  with  n  largaL  wdl- 
shdtered  harbor.  The  eztensiTe  ponds  tMeoo 
yield  annually  a  large  amount  of  adt.  The 
Tortngas  derive  their  name  fhrni  the  vast  num- 
ber of  turtles  found  in  the  nei^boring  waSerL 
Ihe  most  important  harbors  are:  on  the  gulf 
coast,  Pensaeola,  Appalachicola,  St.  llark\  CV 
dar  Keys.  Tampa,  Chariotte,  and  Key  Yert; 
and  on  the  Atlantic  coast,  8t.  Augustine  sad 
Femandina.  Jacksonville  on  6L  John's  rivrr 
has  also  a  good  harbor. — ^The  rivers  of  Florida 
are  numerous,  and  many  of  then  afford  gnat 
iSicilities  for  Intemd  navigation,  fit.  Joha't 
river  rises  in  the  great  southern  nttnh,  sad 
reaches  the  ocean  alter  a  N.  course  of  800  BBL  ia 
lat  80*"  20' X. ;  for  nearly  100  m.  from  lu  saouth 
it  is  a  wide  sluggish  sheet  of  watar«  mora  lescB- 
bling  a  lagoon  than  a  river.  It  is  navigaUt  to 
Lake  George,  a  little  higher  up.  fisr  vsassTi  draw- 
ing 8  feet  of  water,  and  nearly  to  iu  iMad  iic 
smaller  craft.  Indian  river  la  a  lofig  Isgooo 
having  much  the  same  character,  and  coaaBO- 
nicates  with  the  ocean  by  an  outlet  te  laL  ST' 
30'.  It  ia  now  proposed  to  connect  theat  two 
waters  by  a  short  canal,  and  by  this  awaai 
secure  an  inland  navigation  fi^om  the  moeth  U 
the  8t.  John*s  to  Jupiter  inlet,  a  diatanee  U 
about  260  m.  CharioUe  and  Amanra  art  the 
principd  rivers  on  the  W.  ddc^  the  whois  ef 
which  8.  of  the  Suwannee  containa  onlr  amaS 
streams.  The  Suwannee  la  Ibnoed  by  the 
'V^'ithlacoochee  and  Allapaha  from  Geaivia>  and 
reaches  the  gulf  at  WacMasa  bar.  The  Ock- 
kwonee  also  rlasa  in  Geoiilak  Xne 


FLORIDA  607 

colli,  formed  on  the  K.  frontier  hy  the  jnnc-  principal  fffest  trees  are  red,  live,  and  water 

tloQ  of  the  Chattahoochee  and  Flint,  falls  into  oaks,  mahogany,  palmetto,  magnolia,  dogwood, 

the  baj  of  the  same  name  after  a  navigable  and  in  the  swamps  pines,  cedars,  and  cypresses. 

course  of  80  m.    The  Choctawhatchce,  Escam-  The  fruits  produced  are  of  the  most  delicate 

bia,  and  Perdido  rise  in  Alabama  and  flow  S.,  descriptions ;  among  them  are  oranges,  lemons 

the  first  into  Choctawhatchee  bay,  the  second  limes,  pineapples,  olives,  grapes,   &c^  all  ox 

into  Pensaoola  bay,  and  the  last  into  Perdido  which  nourish  luxuriantly ;  and  garden  vegeta- 

bay,  severally  arms  of  the  gulf  of  Mexico.    The  bles  are  produced  in  the  greatest  abundance. 

Perdido  forms  the  boundary  between  W.  Florida  The  driest  seasons  are  relieved  by  heavy  dewsi| 

and  Alabama.    The  St.  Mary^s  in  the  N.  £.  is  and  the  sun  that  would  bake  the  earth  in  other 

common  also  to  Greorgia;  it  flows  into  the  At-  parts,  and  wither  vegetation,  is  here  so  tempered 

lactic  in  about  lat.  80^  40'  K.,  and  is  naviga-  by  the  pervading  moisture  as  to  cover  the  surface 

ble  for  steamers  to  the  town  of  St  Mary,  and  with  perennial  verdure.  The  prairies  afford  ex* 

much  further  for  sloops. — The  S.  portion  of  cellent  pasture.    Here  cattle  require  little  care 

p^nsular  Florida  from  about  lat.  28°  is  mostly  from  their  owners,  and  no  housing  in  winter;  and 

an  extensive  swamp  or  marsh,  cdled  the  Ever-  in  most  parts  of  the  state  hogs  fatten  without 

glades,  which  during  the  rainy  season  between  any  other  support  than  that  which  they  derive 

Jane  and  October  is  impassable.    N.  of  this  from  the  roots  and  mast  of  the  forests.    Deer  of 

tract  to  Georgia  the  surface  is  generally  a  dead  various  kinds  abound,  and  smaller  game  is  found 

level,  but  in  some  parts  it  is  undulating,  and  even  in  all  parts  of  the  country.  The  coast  waters  are 

presents  eminences  worthy  the  designation  of  productive  of  the  flnest  fish,  including  the  sheeps- 

Lilla.    W.  of  the  neck  of  the  peninsula  the  Lead,  grouper,  redfish,  mullet,  green  turtle,  and 

ground  is  more  uneven  and  rugged ;  but  still  oysters,  and  the  numerous  lakes  and  rivers  of 

the  elevations  are  inconsiderable,  and,  where  the  interior  teem  with  fresh  water  species.    On 

occurring,  of  very  limited  extent.   The  substra-  many  parts  of  the  coast  sponges  are  found,  and 

turn  of  the  £.  part  of  the  peninsula  is  clay  mixed  in  this  product  the  trade  is  constantly  increaang. 

with  sand,  and  that  of  the  W.  a  kind  of  rotten  Among  the  mineral  productions  are  amethysts^ 

limestone,  which  in  many  places  is  undermined  turquoises,  lapis-lazuli,  ochre,  pit  coal,  and  rich 

bjr  subterranean  streams.    The  central  district  iron  ore. — Among  the  most  remarkable  of  the 

is  the  most  productive,  but  even  here  a  large  natural  curiosities  of  Florida  are  the  hoUows 

portion  is  composed  of  poor  pine  barrens;  yet  called  **  sinks,**  worn  in  the  soft  limestone  by 

m  the  midst  of  these  are  found  gentle  eminences  subterranean  streams^  and  varying  in  size  from 

(here  called  hummocks)  of  fertile  land  support-  a  few  yards  to  several  acres.  The  great  sink  of 

ing  a  vigorous  growth  of  oaks  and  hickories,  Alachua  county,  by  which  the  waters  of  the 

while  numerous  rivulets  of  pure  water  flow  Alachua  savanna  are  supposed  to  flow  into 

through  the  country  or  expand  into  beautiful  Orange  lake,  is  a  large  basin  almost  surrounded 

lakes.    Further  W.  the  land  is  more  generally  by  hills,  into  which  the  drainage  of  the  savanna 

poor.    Thus  it  appears  that  a  small  portion  only  is  conveyed  by  several  conduits,  uniting  before 

of  the  state  can  be  said  to  be  available  for  cul-  they  reach  the  basin  in  a  single  stream.    From 

tivation ;  yet  the  warmth  and  humidity  of  the  the  basin  the  waters  descend  slowly  by  3  creat 

climate  compensate  in  a  great  measure  for  the  vent  holes  into  the  bowels  of  the  earth,  and  are 

inferior  character  of  the  soil,  and  give  it  a  vege-  carried  by  underground  channels  to  other  basins, 

tation  of  great  variety  and  luxuriance.     The  Numerous  springs,  bursting  from  great  depths, 

climate  of  Florida  has  been  extolled  as  one  of  some  of  them  with  suflScient  force  to  turn  a  milL 

the  finest  in  the  worhL    In  the  S.  the  temper-  are  found  in  diflferent  parts  of  the  state,  and 

atnre  scarcely  changes  the  year  round,  and  sum-  have  led  to  the  supposition  that  the  parts  of  the 

mer  is  only  distinguished  by  the  copiousness  of  country  in  which  they  exist  may  be  undermined 

its  showers.  The  average  mean  temperature  of  by  vast  caverns  through  whose  roofs  the  springs 

the  state  is  about  73^^  F.,  and  in  no  part  does  the  well  up  with  violence  wherever  an  opening  can 

diflTerence  between  summer  and  winter  exceed  be  found.  About  12  miles  from  Tallahassee  there 

25%  while  at  Key  West  it  is  not  more  than  11^.  is  a  lake  of  icy  cold  transparent  water  which 

The  averase  rain  fall  is  33  inches. — ^Tbe  produo-  is  fed  by  a  subterranean  source  of  this  kind. — 

lions  of  Florida  are  chieflv  tliose  which  require  In  1850  Florida  contained  4,304  farms  and  plan- 

A  tropical  sun  to  mature  them.  It  is  now  ascer-  tations,  which  covered  1,545,289  acres  of  land, 

tained  that  the  sea  island  cotton  (the  produc-  and  of  this  349,049  acres  were  improved.  Cash 

lion  of  which  was  formerly  confined  to  a  few  value  of  farms  $6,323,109,  and  of  farming  im- 

small  islands  off  the  coasts  of  S.  Carolina  and  plements  and  machinery  $658,795.  The  number 

Georgia)  will  grow  luxuriantly  even  in  the  cen-  of  cotton  plantations  was  990,  and  of  sugar 

ire  of  the  peninsula,  and  a  fine  quality  of  this  planters  958.    (The  census  of  1855  returned 

fltaple  has  also  been  produced  on  the  Suwannee.  2,265,503  acres  of  land,  valued  at  $13,910,981.) 

The  aoils  are  also  adapted  to  the  successful  The  live  stock  in  1850  consisted  of  horses  10,- 

coltivatlon  of  the  coffee  plant,  the  cocoa  palm,  848,  asses  and  mules  5,002,  milch  cows  72,876, 

the  togar  cane,  cottons  generally,  Cuba  and  other  working  oxen  5,794,  other  cattle  182,415,  sheen 

tobaccos,  rioe,  indigo,  arrow  root,  Sisal  hemp,  23,311,  and  swine  209,453 ;  which  were  valuea 

Xew  Zealand  flax,  &c  ;  and  the  climate  is  suit-  at  $2,830,058.    Value  of  animals  slaughtered 

able  for  the  cochineal  insect  and  silkworm.  The  in  Uie  year,  $514,685.    The  products  of  agri* 


568  FLOBIDA 

culture  for  the  year  ending  Jono  1, 1850,  were  a  branch  to  Tampa,  150  m. ;  the  Tlorida 

as  follows:  vhoat  1,027  baslicis,  rjo  1,152,  Alabama  railroad,  45  m.,  from  Pea»a(X>lA  to 

oats  6G,5S6,  Indian  corn  1,990,809,  and  back-  tlio  Alabama  line,  ichere  it  will  Join  the  Ala- 

whcat  56;   potatoes,  Irish,  7,828,  and  sweet,  bama  and  Florida  railroad,  extending:   thoc^'e 

757,226  bushels ;  hay  2,510  tons;  hops  14  lbs.,  to  Montgomery,  116  m.  further;  the  Flttriiix 

butter  87K498,  and  cheese  18,015;   peas  and  Atlantic,  and  Gulf  central  railroad,  59  i:)..  aui! 

beans  l.'^o,359bus]iel8;  products  of  market  gar-  the  Pensocola  and  Geurgia  railroad.  2o*J  q^ 

dens  $8,721,  and  of  orchards  $1,280;  beeswax  which  to;;ether  will  fonn  a  line  from  Jark- 

and  honey  18,971  lbs. ;  home-made  manufac*  sonville  on  the  St.  John*s,  ria  .Vlliintor  oli] 

tures  $75^582 ;  flax  50  lbs. ;  cane  sugar  2,750,-  Tallahassee,  to  Pensaci>la ;  and  the  TaIUhA«.<«>e 

000  ll)s. ;  molasses  252.893  galls. ;  ginned  cot-  railroad,  from  Tallahassee  to  St.  Mark\  on  A;>- 

ton  45,131  bales  of  400  Ibtfs. ;  rough  rice  1,075,-  palocheo  bay,  21  m.    The  whole  hVAtm  wil! 

090  lbs. ;    tobacco  998,614  lbs. ;   wool  23,247  comprise  about  C88  m.,  of  which  on  June  Z>\ 

lbs. ;  silk  cocoons  6  lbs. ;  wine  10  galls.    The  1859,  there  was  completed  216  m.«  and  thi^  k- 

total  value  of  agricultural  products  in  1840  was  maining  portions  will  all  be  in  oiK-ration  wi;Kia 

$1,817,718,  and  in  1850  $3,865,059.     Average  the  next  3  years.    Tliese  works  are  of  the  Li^- 

crops  to  the  acre :  wheat  15  bushels;  Irish  i>o-  est  importance  to  the  dome^^tic  industry  of  iL^* 

tatoes  175  bushels;  rice  1,850  lbs. ;  seed  cotton  state,  and  will  give  a  beneficial  imimlse  to  i!! 

250  lbs. ;  cane  sugar  750  lbs.     But  little  prog-  its  interests.    The  Florida  railroad  will  als) 

ress  has  been  made  in  manufactures  and  the  facilitate  and  shorten  the  duration  of  travil  bv- 

mechanic  arts.    In  1850  there  were  onl}'  103  tween  the  Atlahtic  sealKtard  and  the  pilf  f^irt-. 

establishments  in  all  the  state,  and  the  capital  and  avoid  the  necessity  of  a  dangerous  nAvi;^- 

invested  therein  amounted  only  to  $547,070 ;  tion  round  the  s«mthern  point  of  the  ]«vbin4L!i. 

value  of  raw  material  used  $220,011;  hands  Ultimately  the  Florida  sy&tcm  of  n»ad<«  will  U: 

employed  991,  viz.,  males  876,  mid  females  115;  connected  with  that  of  Go«)rgia  by  nioans  of  i 

cost  of  labor  $190,452;  products  of  the  year  branch  of  the  main  trunk  lino  uf  tlie  U::^: 

$668,335.     Under  this  head  are  included  15  state,  which  has  its  eastern  terminus  a:  r».-u: - 

fisheries,  capital  $13,975,  and  one  saltery,  capl-  wick  and  Savannah,  and  with  Mobile  ao'l  N<:t 

tal  $19,000.    Including  domestic  manufactures,  Orleans  by  extensions  westward  from  Pcn!*a..vlA. 

the  value  of  products  in  1840  was  $587,167,  The  average  cost  of  the  Florida  roads  vill  \». 

and  in  1850  $924,495.    The  exports  (all  domes-  about  $20,000  per  mile,  and  the  several  comp:- 

tic  products)  from  Florida  for  the  year  ending  nies  owning  them  arc  aided  to  the  extiiii  u: 

June  30,  1S58,  were  valued  at  $1,87*7,552,  viz. :  $10,000  ikt  mile  from  the  state  intirna!  iv.- 

in  Amcricjm  vessels  $1,330,960,  and  in  foreign  provement  fund — a  fund  based  on  conprv^wi-  r^ 

vessels  $.'>4(i,r)l»2 ;  and  the  iiniwrts  from  foreign  grants  of  land  and  the  v:i>t  swamp  liiinl-  w! 

countries  at  iJl'VI.O.'iO,  viz. :  in  American  vessels  have  In^on  ceded  t«"»  thv.-  ^t;lte.    ( ^n  .Ti:::i  V:\ '.*'". 

$151. ^'iO,  an»l  in  foreipn  Vi»s>«.ls  $13j»lil.    The  the  mail  roiiti's  in  Fl««ritla  had  a  K:.«"*i  *  :  ^  " ;' 

anion  lit  of  tliipping  enii»h)yed  in  thi«*  trade  wa-s  m.,  of  whieli  l'2i.»  in.  w:ls  r.ilri  •;*•!.  l.V-Tl  -'■  .    • 

128,snl  tons,  viz.:  outward  5><.rt33  tons  (Anier-  boat   navipiti.»n,    7*^4   each   r«.ail.    i-  1    '..•' 

ican  5«».S^7,  forei;m  7.74*;).  and  inward  7<».l''S  other   roa«l.— In    !**■'»';   FI«».'"]da   e..r.*..i.:.-  I    1" 

tons  (Anuriran   02,4.'><»,  forvi^'ii  7,718;.     The  churches  of  wl.irli  .'0  l'tl»::j«d  t»  lli«-  i'»..;  •  ■■. 

chief  nrtiolis   txporled   were   hoard-s,    ])lanks,  10  to  the  Kpi^C'-palians  ^7  ti»  l!n.»  M»'     ■    -• 

scanllinu',    luniUr,    cotton,    tohaen^    and   li'»h.  10  to  the  Pre^hU^riaiis  "•  to  tin.  K.  •:;...■   <".'.-   - 

Tlie   fc'.iij'piii;^  owned    in   the   t.tato    (intluding  lie*,  and  il  tu  othiT  iliinMr.Iii.iii'.'t.i ;   :'•'«.■  :.:'- 

I,5:i4  >te..:r.)  ainoiiii:e<l  to  2«».0o*.»  tons,  of  whii'h  forded  acroniniodatii»n  f<«r  44.1*'""'  ;■«  r^  :.-    •. 

13,714   was  ri-k'i'^tered  an<l  7. ll«5  enrolled  and  .is   jiroiterty    wi-re   valui-il   ut   |I»Vi.4  ■■  .      T. 

licen-ed.   There  were  hiiil:  in  the  yrar  5  vessels,  tducational  in«.titnTions  in  the  vrate  a:  :..•■  -i- 

agjrreirate  hurden  54'J  ton«i.     The  c« Kitting  trade  jK-riod  ct>n«-iste«l  i-f  34  jn  aiir:.!]*.-*  ai.-l   ; '  •  i' 

is  al>4)   Very    extensive,   emi'l«'unj»   numerous  N'houl.s,  wit !i  4 i»  teae!:i-rs  arid  1. -."!;■:•.-.  -    '. 

steanivrs  >\hi<*h  with  otluT  craft  earry  iinnu-n^o  .in  annual   income  vf  *I'U">".».  a:.!  •  •  jr.  ■ 

frelL'ht-i  to   Savannali,   Charleston,    rialti!ni)re,  nn<l  puhlie  -ch'»ols  witli  T^i  tc;.  Lvr^ar  I  1  **- 

Phihi'lelj  Ilia,  antl  N\w  York.  It  must  he  renieni-  w-lirilars,  arnl  an  inei»nii.-  k>{  |iI*J.o*»  *,     1 .      ■ 

bereil,  huwrvi-r.  that  a  hir^'O  jiortiim  of  the  mate-  Wr  of  ehlMrvn  « w!i';tc  and  iV.  e  «•■!  r.-  j  .." 

rial  ox  I  tor  trd  fp-ni  IVnsnulaand  Appalarhimla  iujx  srhn.i]  tiurin^'  ilicVvar  1*»4 '.•-'."'«',  :.-*  r.:  r      1 

originates  in  suuihern  Al:il<ania  and  soutliwest-  by  faniiiies  was  4.^1-  ;  ui\\  th«'  Ti'.:::.^-^.r    :  ;•  "- 

erndeor;;;;!.    The  t:reat  hulk  of  fnrei;:n  nurdian-  s«'n'«  «'f  the  .-aiiio  r'..i-s^T.  ovi  r 'J'«  w.*.-*     :     . 

diso  consuiuitl  in  llie  .sL:itr  is  nUo  eritered  ci>ast-  vim  wi-re  unaMe  !■•  rf.4«l  ami  vilt^,  \%    •  4  " . 

wise,  chii-tly  tVoni  the   n«»r:hirn  ]"»rt*. — There  There  are  no  oi'IaV'  s  in  the  <.\U\     <  •  .  ' 

are  no  h;i:iU«  if  i-.^uo  in  Florida.  < 'f  internal  im-  l^."iG,   there   were  *Jo/ji;.i    iMMr.  :-.    I  •■  .  ■.     .   * 

provcni-.iits  Florida  has  until  witliin  a  frw  vrars  uinl   1*^  }ears  of  u^v.   ai.t!    \:i   i'.,,.-  -..*..     •    -. 

been  n-iuarkaMy  di'Stitute,  hut  rnriilly  >.he  has  $»*.o.*i'.i  w;.s   appr'j'ri:.tvt!   :•>   t,  •;•.•■..   :;    .  '       • 

taken  r!»:ivo  measures  to  reine-ly  t!a-  «h!'..  t  hy  Tlie  n  turn  doi-  v.* :  state  i:.t-  i.  .r:.  -  r  :    . 

the   e«»Ti'tr'irtiini  nf  railroads.      1  h*.-   pririiij-al  s^hiM.l.     Th»'   n\i!iiltrvf  :>  w^-.j*.^  r-   ■" 

linrs  an :  the  Florida  railroad.  r.-T'-s  tl.»- n»ek  l^.'.o  was   li».  i-f  whi-li   '.*    vv:e\\iiV.';.  «    '.    '. 

of  thf  jK-r/.M-ula  from    Fernamlina  on   t!.e   A:-  tri-wii  kl\.  and  7  Wv.-e  j..  !■•;.. i!  :.:..!  ..  r       -     .. 

laiitio  lu  Cedar  Ke>s  uu  the  gulf,  1"»4  in.,  vilh  TliO  total    eircululiou   was   :..7'-  .  *.:    a..:.    -. 


FLORIDA  669 

810,800  copies. — ^The  constitution  of  Florida  se-  bj  Verazzani,  a  Florentine ;  and  in  1524  by  Do 
cores  the  right  of  voting  to  every  free  white  Geray,  a  Spaniard.  Two  years  later  Pamphilo 
male  citizen  of  the  United  States  who  has  re-  de  Narvaez  obtained  a  grant  from  Charles  V. 
sided  in  the  state  2  years  and  in  the  county  6  ofall  the  landsfrom  Cape  Florida  to  Rio  Panuco. 
months  next  preceding  an  election,  and  whose  In  1528  he  landed  with  a  numerous  army  at 
name  is  on  the  electoral  register.  The  general  Appalachee,  but  met  with  a  formidable  resist- 
election  is  held  on  the  1st  Monday  in  October,  hi-  ance  from  the  Indians,  and  at  last  perished  on 
ennially.  The  legislature  consists  of  a  senate  of  19  the  coast  near  the  Panuco  by  shipwreck,  only 
members,  elected  for  4  years  (one-half  biennial-  10  of  his  followers  returning  to  Spain.  In  1539 
ly),  and  a  house  of  representatives  of  40  mem-  Fernando  de  Soto  explored  Florida,  and  after 
bers,  elected  for  2  years.  Senators  must  be  80  visiting  many  remote  regions,  and  having  passed 
and  representatives  21  years  of  age,  and  are  through  a  series  of  romantic  adventures,  ap- 
paid  $3  per  diem.  Sessions  are  biennud,  com-  pears  to  have  died  on  the  banks  of  the  Mis- 
mencing  on  the  4th  Monday  in  November  (even  sissippi  in  1542.  About  the  middle  of  the  16th 
years).  The  governor  is  chosen  for  4  years,  century  many  Protestants  of  France  sought 
and  has  a  salary  of  $1,500  and  $500  for  a  resi-  refuge  in  Florida,  but  only  to  experience  greater 
dence.  He  must  be  30  years  of  age,  have  been  evils  than  they  had  endured  at  nome.  In  1564 
a  citizen  of  the  United  States  10  years,  and  a  they  were  attacked  by  the  Spaniards,  and  many 
rendent  of  the  state  5  years.  In  case  of  dis.  were  hung  on  the  trees  with  an  inscription  pur- 
ability  or  deatli,  he  is  succeeded  by  the  presi-  porting  that  they  were  destroyed  "  not  as 
dent  of  the  senate  or  sxieaker  of  the  house.  Frenchmen,  but  as  heretics.^*  This  barbarity 
The  secretary  of  state  (salary  $500  and  fees),  was  soon,  afterward  avenged  by  a  party  of 
comptroller  (salary  $1,100),  and  state  treasurer  Frenchmen,  who  attacked  the  Spanish  fort,  and 
(salary  $800)  are  elected  by  joint  vote  of  the  hung  up  the  garrison  on  the  same  trees  that 
assembly,  the  first  for  4  years,  and  the  last  2  sustained  the  mouldering  bones  of  their  coun- 
for  2  years.  The  judiciary  consists  of  a  su-  trymen,  inscribing  over  them  that  they  were 
preme  court,  circuit  courts,  and  justices  of  the  executed  ^^  not  as  Spaniards,  but  as  cut-throata 
peace.  The  supreme  court  is  composed  of  a  and  murderers."  The  Spaniards,  however,  per- 
chief  and  2  associate  justices,  and  holds  4  ses-  severing  in  their  attempts  to  obtain  a  foothold 
sions  annually,  viz.,  at  Tallahassee,  Tampa,  in  Florida,,  established  a  fort  at  St.  Augustine 
Jacksonville,  and  Marianna.  The  jurisdiction  in  1565,  which  they  held  until  1586,  when  it 
of  this  court  is  entirely  appellate.  For  circuit  was  captured  by  Sir  Francis  Drake.  Two 
court  purposes  the  state  is  divided  into  the  years  earlier  Captains  Barlow  and  Amidas  had 
western,  middle,  eastern,  and  southern  circuits,  taken  nominal  possession  in  right  of  England 
esuch  of  which  has  a  judge  who  is  president  of  of  the  country  on  the  N.  coast  of  Florida.  From 
the  court.  These  courts  have  original  jurisdic-  this  period  for  nearly  a  century,  history  is  silent 
tion  in  all  matters,  civil  as  well  as  crimimd.  in  relation  to  this  country.  In  1682  La  Salle 
All  judges  are  elected  by  the  people,  and  have  visited  W.  Florida  or  Louisiana.  In  1696  Pen- 
each  a  sdary  of  $2,000.  The  receipts  into  the  sacola  was  settled  by  the  French.  The  Spanish 
treasury,  mostly  from  taxes  and  sides  of  land,  settlements  on  the  £.  coast  suffered  greatly  from 
during  the  year  ending  Oct,  81, 1856,  amounted  the  buccaneering  inroads  of  the  English.  In 
to  $94,022,  and  the  expenditures  to  $76,430,  1702  the  Carolinians  made  an  unsuccessful  at- 
of  which  sum  $20,408  was  on  account  of  the  tack  on  St.  Augustine,  but  in  1704  captured 
judiciary,  $7,482  of  the  executive,  $10,862  of  Fort  St.  Mark.  The  subsequent  expedition  of 
criminal  prosecutions,  $15,057  of  jurors  and  Oglethorpe  against  the  Spanish  settlements  will 
witnesses,  $2,592  of  Indian  hostilities,  $10,826  be  spoken  of  in  the  article  Georgia.  In  1763 
of  the  legislature,  &c.  The  public  debt  (not  in-  the  whole  province  of  Florida  was  ceded  to 
doding  Uie  repudiated  territorial  debt)  amount-  Great  Britain  in  exchange  for  Cuba,  which  the 
ed  in  the  same  year  to  $193,000 ;  in  Oct.  1858,  English  had  then  recently  taken.  Soon  after 
it  was  stated  at  $380,000.  The  resources  of  the  the  cession  the  British  divided  the  territory 
ftate  are  ample,  consisting  of  va<it  tracts  of  rail-  into  two  provinces,  the  river  Appalachicola 
road  lands,  swamp  lands,  and  other  property,  being  the  boundary  between  them,  and  by  a 
The  valuation  of  taxable  property  in  the  state  in  proclamation  invited  settlers.  Many  Carolini- 
1850  was  $23,198,734,  and  in  1856,  $49,461,461.  ans  emigrated  in  consequence  thereof;  and 
— The  name  of  Florida  (which  signifies  the  about  1500  Greeks,  Italians,  and  Minorcans 
florid  or  flowery,  and  was  given  by  the  Span-  were  brought  from  the  Mediterranean  and  set- 
larda  in  allusion  to  the  aspect  of  the  country,  tied  at  a  spot  about  60  m.  S.  of  St.  Augustine, 
and  partly  also  because  it  was  first  visited  by  where  they  began  the  cultivation  of  indigo  and 
them  on  Fascua  Florida,  or  Easter  Sunday)  the  sugar  cane.  During  the  revolutionary  war 
was  originally  not  confined  to  the  state  now  privateers  were  fitted  out  at  the  ports  of  Florida, 
known  by  that  appellation,  but  extended  over  by  which  the  trade  of  the  southern  provinces 
an  indefinite  region  northward  and  to  the  Mis-  was  severely  harassed,  and  the  Indians  were  en- 
Mflstppi.  The  first  visitant  to  the  actual  terri-  coura^  to  a  barbarous  hostility  against  the 
tary  of  Florida  was  Ponce  de  Leon,  who  landed  Amencans.  In  1778  Gen.  Prevost  marched 
near  St.  Augustine  in  1512.  It  was  subsequently  from  Florida  into  Georgia  and  captured  Savan- 
Tunted  in  1520  by  Yasquez,  a  Spaniard ;  in  1523  nah  and  other  towns.    TVliile  engaged  on  this 


IX0BOI  XLOVODBt 

MEpaditkm,  liowerer,  be  kit  lib  prorinee  open  peiktloii  both  of  gold  aod  rfhcr  «ofa0  fai  b* 

to  ineonuNis  firom  Lo<iisi«ii«»    In  17T9  tbo  lopOiWbkbTiryiiiYabMlBdi&rMtooaBtriM, 

ItooniiirdB  inTeited  tbo  garrison  and  Mttlemont  (Seo  ConrO 

of  Baton  Ronge,  and  oompellod  than  to  lor-  H^BUS^  Loom  Ammmol  a  Boona  biil»> 

nnder,  and  inllaj,  1781«  JPensacda  waf  cap-  rian,  probably  of  ^Nodih  birth,  Brtdnndcr  the 

tared.    Bjr  the  treatj  of  1788  Florida  waf  re-  emperoraTnyanandHaMaa.    Hebdieaathor 

trooeded  to  Spain,  ana  the  greater  part  of  the  of  an  miitoine  of  Boaan  hiflory,  fai  4  book^ 

InhabitanU  deserted  the  eoontry  and  settled  in  eztenduig  from  the  JbimdaHoii  «f  die  city  la 

the  United  States.    When  Looislana  was  oeded  the  time  when  Angostns  doaed  the  tempk  of 

to  the  United  States  by  France  in  1808,  it  was  Janus.    The  work  toeoaceiredhiapMlesnpM* 

declared  to  be  oeded  with  the  same  extent  that  oal  spirit,  and  eharacteriaea  the  tfancn  atad  tbs 

it  had  in  the  hands  of  Spain,  and  as  it  had  been  men  with  justness  and  precisioa;  botthestyls 

ceded  bj  Spain  to  France.    The  terms  of  this  is  diylsmatoty,  abonndnig  fai  e»lf  aiagaat 

eesilon  gave  rise  to  a  daim  on  the  part  of  the  celts  and  metaphora.    Tb%  FurwifiUmm  Vk 

United  States  to  the  conntrj  west  of  the  Perdido  and  8  other  short  poems  are  with  Bttla 

liTcr;  and  to  prevent  the  occupation  of  this  ter-  ity  ascribed  to  this  writer, 

ritory  by  any  other  power,  the  government  of  FLOTOW,  IkunmKni  TOfa;  a  Qennaa  esm- 

the  tjfnion  took  possession  in  1811  of  the  prind-  poeer,  bom  in  Teutendort;  Meckkabaig  Ahws* 

pal  posts.    The  rest  of  Florida,  however,  re-  rin,  in  1811.    He  was  desthMd  lor  fflilf— y, 

nuuned  unmolested  until  the  second  war  between  but  a  ibndness  formusleledhlm  iacany  7«n 

the  United  States  and  Great  Britain.    Inl8Ua  toPtofaLwherehewaiinstroctedincoiH|iualiw 

British  expedition  having  been  fitted  oot  from  byBeiduL    Dnring  the  revofaitioa  of  1816^  he 

Pensaoola,  Gen.  Jackson  mardied  against  that  returned  to  Gennany,  hot  sooa  after  fraad 

€own  and  captured  it  In  1818  it  was  again  taken  his  wn*  back  to  Peris  with  several  opctns  esm- 

byJackson^aodalsoFortStllarkJbottheywere  posed  in  hiaabeenee.    He  tried  la  vma  to  hife 

subsequently  restored  to  Spain.   Finally  in  1819  these  produced  at  one  of  the  thsatrsa  ef  IWi^ 

Spein  ceded  the  whole  province  to  the  United  and  it  was  only  after  their  psrformaaes  ia  it^ 

States,  and  posses^n  was  surrendered  to  that  vate  had  excited  the  attention  ef  aaateanitM 

government  m  July,  1821.  Immigration  now  set  he  received  a  ooomiisBioa  la  1888  to  teaballa 

la  to  the  territory,  but  the  nnsurveyed  state  of  music  for  the  ^Shipwreck  ef  the 


the  lands,  the  uncertainty  of  titles,  Ao.,  militated  Tim  minis  jiiiii  ml  lil^iilj  Hiimesflil.liailMbMa 

agahist  its  rapid  settlement;  and  the  Seminolei^  peifonned  54  nij^U  at  the  lUiCrvA  Is  f«» 

a  fierce  and  warlike  Indian  race,  occupied  the  aaasNHwe.    I^nce  that  time  he  haa  omdi  ia> 

best  lands,  rendering  it  impossible  to  obtain  creased  his  reputation  by  the  /bresfarr,  £*«> 

them  for  cultivation.    Yet  in  spite  of  these  ob-  elate  da  Caimoi/Uj  Atbin^  Attmandro  Sirmdtl^ 

staclei,  a  considerable  population  planted  thenn  L'dme  en  peine^  and  Martha  ;  the  left,  wfakh 

selves  in  the  coontrj.     In  1835,  however,  a  has  been  reproduced  in  several  modern  lia- 

deadly  war  between  the  Indians  and  settlers  guagea,  being  one  of  the  most  popular  opcrm 

broke  out,  and  suspended  what  progress  had  now  on  the  stage. 

hitherto  been  efiected.    A  long  contest  ensued  FLOTSAM,  an  old  word,  used  in  connectke 

between  the  savages  and  tho  U.  S.  troops,  witli  others  equally  barbarooSi  as  Jetsam  sad 

which  is  known  as  the  Seminole  war,  and  re-  legan  (or  liganX  to  dculgnate  diiBerrnt  kinds  of 

aultcd  in  1842  in  a  treaty  by  which  the  greater  wrecked  gcKMls.    Whether  lawyers  made  ihcaL 

number  of  the  Indians  were  removed  to  the  or  adopts  them  from  seamen,  is  aol  certaialy 

west  of  the  MidsissippL   Tho  few  remaining  In-  known ;  bot  the  latter  b  supposed  to  he  the  caw. 

dians  con  tinned  to  bo  a  great  trouble  to  the  Goods  flotsam  are  guods  which  fioaScd  aws? 

country,  and  on  several  occasions  committed  when  a  ship  was  wrecked.    Goods  Jetsam  vcft 

great  depredations  on  the  settlers ;  bat  on  May  those  cost  over  from  a  ship  in  periL  Goods  kpa 

4,  1858,  the  whole  body  was  removed,  and  on  were  goods  which  were  cast  out,  but,  brcwt 

the  8th  of  the  some  month  Gen.  Loouiis,  then  they  would  sink  and  be  lost,  were  tied  to  vwd 

commanding  in  Florida,  issued  a  proclamation  or  a  cask  or  some  other  substance  whkh  woeU 

declaring  the  war  closed.    It  is  sup|)oscd  that  float.     These  words  are  now  seldom  if  ever 

these  Indian  wars  have  cost  the  nation  not  less  used ;  but  the  word  Jettison,  formed  pTDbabh 

than  $80,000,000,  beside  thousands  of  lives.  fh>m^et«am,  is  often  used  in  insurance  Isw  sad 

Florida  was  erected  into  a  t^^rritoriol  govern-  practice.    It  means  propcriy  the  act  of  caii- 

ment  by  act  of  congress,  March  3,  1819,  and  ing  goods  over  board;  thus  goods  are  said  to 

was  admitted  into  the  Union,  March  3,  1845.  beji'ttisoned,  and  a  loss  Is  smd  to  be  by  JcctNre ; 

FLORI N  (It.  JU>riiu>\  in  the  1 1th  cvntiirr,  in  and  more  rarely  and  inaccurately,  tlic  goi«d*  < 


Florence,  a  gold  coin  of  about  tlio  value  of  a  over  are  called  the  Jettison ;  as,  **  the  Jcttasoa 

duoat,  bearing  an  impression  on  tho  obverse  of  con^iiitod  of  such  and  such  goods.** 

a  lily,  and  on  the  reverse  of  John  tho  lUiptist.  FLOUNDER,  a  flat  flsh  of  the  foaiay  al^i^ 

It  was  soon  imitated  in  other  citiost  of  Italy  and  neetidm  or  planidm^  which  also  taclades  the  Km* 

in  France  and  Spain,  and  in  German v  gave  ori-  ibut,  sole,  and  turbot.    Thia  fiunily,  eonTaiiritg 

gin  to  the  medieval  Goldguldcn  and  the  later  about  IGO  specie^  is  found  geoeraltv  ia  eom- 

OmlUn^  which  are  still  distinguished  by  the  paratively  shallow  water,  whm  the  bottom  is 

abbreviation  (R).    The  florin  is  now  the  ap-  aandy ;  but  the  halibut  and  taihoi  art 


FLOUNDER  FLOURENS                   671 

in  deep  water.  The  body  is  flat,  compressed  surface  of  the  head  allows  an  extensive  range 
Tertically,  so  that  the  dorsal  and  ventral  sur-  of  vision ;  having  no  means  of  defence,  the 
fteesaremcrefin-bearingedgcs,  the  sides  form-  coloration  of  one  side,  resembling  the  bot- 
ing  ovate  disks  variously  colored,  the  darkest  torn  on  which  they  swim,  ser^'es  as  a  protec- 
being  popularly  called  the  back  and  the  white  tion  against  enemies.  The  food  consists  of 
ride  the  belly,  while  in  reality  these  surfaces  are  minnows  and  other  small  fry,  young  Ush,  sofl- 
the  sides.  The  most  remarkable  character  of  bodied  marine  animals,  and  aquatic  insects, 
the  family  is  the  want  of  symmetry  in  the  There  are  as  many  as  16  species  in  the  British 
month  and  head,  both  eyes  being  turned  to  that  islands,  which  are  gradually  reduced  to  13  in 
aide  which  is  uppermost  when  the  animal  swims,  the  Baltic,  10  on  the  coast  of  Norway,  5  at  Ice- 
and  which  is  always  the  darkest ;  the  bones  of  land,  and  8  in  Greenland.  The  English  plaice 
the  head,  especially  the  prcsphenoid  and  the  (P.  vulgaris,  Flem.),  called  also  fluke  in  Scot- 
middle  frontal,  are  distorted  to  allow  this  ar-  land,  is  a  much  esteemed  fish ;  the  spawning 
rangement  of  the  parts ;  behind  the  scapular  time  is  in  February  or  March,  and  it  is  in  the 
arch  there  is  no  want  of  symmetry  in  the  ver-  best  condition  for  the  table  at  the  end  of  May. 
tebral  column.  The  dorsal  fin  fringes  the  whole  The  English  flounder  is  tho  P.Jlems  (Flem.), 
back,  from  near  the  tail  to  as  far  forward  as  the  and  may  be  distinguished  from  the  plaice  by 
nostrils,  the  anal  fringing  the  lower  edge  in  a  the  rough  lateral  line.  The  common  dab  (P. 
similar  manner ;  the  jaws  and  the  ventrals  are  limanda,  Flem.)  derives  the  specific  name  from 
generally  unsymmctrical,the  latter  being  smaller  the  roughness  of  its  scaly  surface,  and,  with 
on  the  pale  side.  The  branchiostegal  rays  are  other  species,  is  considered  an  excellent  fish ; 
6 ;  the  air  bladder  is  absent,  and  the  vent  is  they  are  taken  both  by  hook,  spear,  and  in  nets. 
Tery  far  forward.  The  flounder  belongs  to  the  FLOURENS,  Mabuc  Jbast  Pierbe,  a  French 
genus  piat€s$a  (Cuv.) ;  in  this  the  eyes  are  gen-  physiologist,  bom  in  Maureilhan,  IlC^rault,  in 
arally  on  the  right  side,  one  above  the  other;  1794.  He  was  graduated  as  M.D.  when  only 
the  teeth  are  broad  and  cutting,  and  in  a  single  19  years  old,  repaired  to  Paris,  where  he  be- 
•eries  in  the  jaws,  but  generally  pavement-like  came  acquainted  with  Chaptal,  the  Cuviers,  and 
on  the  pharyngeals ;  the  dorsal  commences  over  Geoffroy  St  Hilaire,  and  in  1821  delivered 
tbo  upper  eye,  and  neither  it  nor  the  anal  ex-  a  course  of  public  lectures  upon  the  pliysio- 
tenda  to  the  caudal ;  there  are  8  pancreatic  logical  theory  of  sensation,  and  presented  to 
ca^ca.  The  common  flounder  of  Massachusetts  the  academy  of  sciences  a  series  of  papers 
(P.  plana,  Mitch.)  varies  in  length  from  10  to  upon  the  organization  of  men  and  anunals.  He 
S2  inches,  and  in  color  (on  the  right  side)  from  was  already  a  contributor  to  the  Jiectte  tneyclo* 
doll  slate  to  rusty  and  blackish  brown;  the  pidiqve,  and  to  the  Dietionnaire  clamqne 
scales  are  small,  and  the  surface  smooth.  This  tThistotrenatureUe.  In  1822  his  essay  upon  the 
species  is  considered  excellent  for  the  table  in  Diiermination  des  proprUtes  du  tysieme  tier- 
the  summer  and  autumn,  and  is  caught  in  con-  veux,  ou  reehercheB  physiques  sur  V irritdbilite 
siderable  numbers  from  wharves  and  bridges,  et  la  sensihilite,  was  highly  praised  by  Cuvier 
Another  species  is  the  rusty  dab  (P.  ferru-  for  accuracy  and  originality.  His  reputation 
fineOj  Storer),  from  12  to  20  inches  long,  of  a  was  further  enhanced  by  his  Recherches  sur  lu 
reddish  slate  color,  with  rusty  spots,  and  the  eanditians/ondamentales  de  Vaudition  et  sur  let 
lower  surface  tinged  with  yellow.  The  New  diverses  causes  de  surdite  (1824),  and  by  his  j^e- 
Tork  flounder  is  the  P.  deniata  (Mitch.),  of  ehercha  experimeniales  sur  les  proprietes  et  Us 
about  the  same  size,  but  considered  inferior  for  Jbnctions  du  systeme  nertetm  dans  les  animaux 
the  table;  the  color  is  reddish  brown.  Among  vertehres,  which  ho  completed  in  1825  by  his 
qMcies  with  eyes  on  the  left  side  are  the  P.  oh-  Experiences  sur  le  systhne  nerveux.  The  two 
wnaa  (Mitch.),  growing  to  a  length  of  30  inches ;  last  papers  present  a  veiy  ingenious  and  thor- 
and  the  P.  stellata  (Pallas),  an  arctic  flounder,  ough  methoa  of  determining  the  relations  of  the 
ofa  liver-brown  color  and  about  a  foot  in  length,  individual  organs  to  the  various  phenomena 
Tliese  species  are  said  to  be  ^^ reversed^'  when  of  intellect,  sensation,  and  motion.  In  1828 
the  eyes  are  on  the  left  side  in  the  first  series,  he  was  admitted  to  the  academy  of  sciences, 
and  on  the  right  in  the  second ;  they  are  said  and  was  at  the  same  time  appointed  assist- 
to  be  ^^doubW^^  when  both  sides  are  colored ;  ant  professor  of  natural  history  in  the  college 
aecording  to  Dekay,  the  P.  melanogaster  of  France.  Two  years  later  he  became  assist- 
(Hitch.)  is  a  doubled  variety  of  the  P.  dentata  ant  lecturer  on  comparative  anatomy  at  the 
(Mitch.).  Flounders  extend,  though  in  dimin-  jardin  du  roi,  and  in  1882  ho  was  made  titular 
ished  numbers  and  of  smaller  size,  into  high  professor  at  the  museum.  The  next  year  he 
northern  latitudes  *  they  are  very  abundant  on  succeeded  Dulong  as  perpetual  secretary  of  the 
tlie  coasts  of  New  liruns wick  and  Nova  Scotia  academy  of  sciences,  and  in  1840  the  French 
in  the  summer  season.  Like  all  the  family,  academy  elected  him  a  member.  From  1841 
floonders  are  very  tenacious  of  life,  may  be  to  1854  he  published  a  scries  of  small  works, 
transportecl  considerable  distances,  and  may  be  giving  in  a  condensed  form  and  perspicuous 
natoralized  in  brackish  and  even  in  fresh  water,  style  the  history  and  philosophy  of  several 
The  distortion  of  the  flounder  family  admirably  branches  of  science,  which  he  thus  made  acces- 
adi^tts  them  for  swimming  upon  the  bottom,  sible  to  the  general  reader.  These  popular 
wbffira  the  situation  of  botli  eyes  on  the  upper  publications  did  not  interfere  with  his  special 


672  TLOWER 

rescarchoff.  lectnre*,  wid  reports  to  the  acadomj  can  descend  to  others  where  the  hnrti  ire  » 
of  soiencofl.  *\jnoiijr  tlie  la»it  may  W  cited  the  meagre  that  ther  reaemhle  mere  chail^  like  the 
)aper  which  he  read  in  1847  on  chloroform,    glaroes  and  palea*  of  the  gntets.    The  mode  is 


and  hi!t  Covr*  de  phytiiologU  comjmrie:  de  Von-  when  a  single  flower  hud  unfolds  in  the  axil  c^ 

tolo^U,  oa  itude  des  elrri,  arc  eiiunllT  remark-  a  leaf  and  its  stem  lengthens:  but  if  there  ii  do 

ahle  for  jiorspicuity  and  tulnes«.   His  Anatomie  lengthening  of  the  stem  beyond  the  derel^^ 

generale  d^  lapeau  et  den  membranes  muqueuae$  mcnt  of  the  flower  bud,  the  flower  is  teimioi!. 

(4to.,  Paris,  1843),   intende<l  to  demonstrate  TThen  all  the  buds  on  a  newly  formed  brani-h 

anatomically  the  physical  unity  of  mankind,  develop  as  fiowern,  we  hare  the  spike ;    st'i 

and  hi:*  Thiorie  erperimentale  de  la  formation  when  beside  this  each  flower  has  a  flower  §talk. 

<2ei  o«  (Paris,  1847),  which  contains  a  demonstra-  we  have  a  raceme.     When  the   flowers  sre 

tion  of  the  principle  that  '*  matter  chatiiires  and  closely  packed  together  upon  a  succulent  l»noch, 

renovates  inccssantlv,  while  form  and  force  per-  we  have  the  spadix.    When  there  are  nnmcmcs 

sist,^'  greatly  adde<i  to  his  reputation  in  tho  flower  buds  upon  the  same  branch,  sometlBws 

scientitic  wo'rUL    But  his  most  popular  l)ook  is  the  uppermost  first  expands,  and  the  idAors- 

that  entitled  IM  la  longeriU  humaine  et  de  la  cence  is  centrifugal ;  but  if  the  lower  ones  optn 

quantite  de  tie  $Hr  le  globe^  which  appeared  in  first  in  order,  the  inflorescence  is  centripetaL 

1854,  and  parsed  through  3  editions  within  a  few  Other  variations  of   form    have   apprx'pniu 

months.     Fluurens  was  a  deputy  of  the  depart-  terms.    There  arc  portions  of  the  flower  n!Vd 

ment  of  Ilerault  in  1838,  and  was  made  a  i>eer  floral  envelopes ;  they  are  found  to  be  in  whorls 

of  France  by  Ijomxs  Philippe  in  1S46,  without  and  though  really  only  modified  leaver  jet 

however  taking  much  part  in  politics.  they  ditfer  in  size,  color,  and  uses.     Whrn  a 

FLOWEU,  in  botany,  that  portion  of  the  plant  single  whorl  is  present,  it  is  termed  the  ralTx*. 

whore  the  organs  of  reproduction  are  found,  but  when  there  are  two  or  more,  the  inner  2s 

These  maybe  present  in  the  simplest  condition,  the  corolla.     In  some  plants  the  calyx  and 

or  with  all  the  accompanying  modifications,  as  corolla  look  alike,  and  structurally  there  is  eo 

style  or  pistil,  stamens,  petals,  sepals,  &c.    The  diflerence  in  any  case.    Tliese  envelopes  msv 

flower  seems  to  bo  the  portion  of  the  vegetable  be  highly  developed  and  i>ossess  sigrnal  bt^a^tr, 

on  which  nature  has  bestowed  the  most  pains,  as  in  tho  lily  and  talip,  or  become  almo<  uU 

Tho  least  conspicuous  flowers  reveal  under  tho  literated  like  the  aigrette  of  the  composite  2l>v- 

microscope  an  exquisite  beauty.    Tho  origin  ers,  where  the  calyx  is  a  mere  rim.     lti**«o^ 

and   development  uf  tho  flt>wc-r  mny  bo  tims  times ahmvst  iiniKw^iMo  to  di>tin^:i-h  *.\  <   -'  i 

stated.     In  tlio  anpric  fonnod  by  the  leaf  and  and  corolla,  in  which  ci-ii*  the  fi;\  i  !i'j*  -  i-.* 

stem,  calltMl  the  axil,  small  a^r^rrcL'at ions  appear  called  perianth  or  perijrnnium.     Thi_\  ii..^  '•' 

called  buds:  these  are  of  two  kind<,  leaf  buds  entirely  waniin;:,  whi-n  tlie  lli»wcr>  otv  .  i.  -i 

and  flower  InwN.    (See  Bri>  J   As  allliud'Jorigi-  achlainydeous  or  nnkv-il.     (iroal  vjiri^v-:.*    : 

nato  in  the  axils  of  proviuiis  lea ve«s  t»n  llio  stem,  tho  growth,   ni»|K.*aramv,   and   >ha;v  I'f  ::   -• 

it  follows  that  the  Moral  organs  issuing  from  tho  envihn»es  may  to'ur,  wliioh  give   ri»o  :•  ■!  •■ 

flower  hinls  mnst  oh>ervo  the  siuno  law.     Tho  tinetivo  names.     Immediatelv  within  :'.■  r  * 

m 

floral  leaf,  from  who«ie  axil  the  llower  bu«l  is-  of  petals  is  a  whorl  of  or^raiis,  colli «1  -?-■  ^   -, 

sues,  is  mlliMl  tlie  bract,  and  all  the  rudinientary  considered  essentiid  in  the  prtM*t»'.<  of  :"i    .■  '.-• 

leaves  of  similar  character  which  are  borne  be-  tion.     These  al-H)  vary  e^'*on!ial!y  in   ri::  *-"*. 

twecn  the  bract  and   ujKm   the   stem  of  tho  size,  form,  ^c,  in  supprtssi«*n  if  th*  ir  : -j-.*. 

flower,    are   hrncteoUr^   or   small   braets     Tho  and  in  their  mode  of  connection  »  ith  tl  v  :*  r^ 

color  does  not  fonn  any  criteriim  of  tho  floral  enveloi»es.     Next  in   onler,  the  dlA   i-  \     :•' 

orirans    lK*<'auso  even    these   bracts   aro  often  noticed,  which  con>i*ts  ff  whatever  C'.:rr- ':- • 

mt»rehighlycoh)red  than  the  tloweritst^lf.  Thn-*,  tween  the  stainent  .ind  the  central  pi*:-.     I; 

inthe/irt/r/i,  the  bract,  wliich  is  greatly  expanded,  bomo  plants  ii  would  appear  thai  the  »!.•*  ''i^ 

is  deeply  colored  and  wrappe^lanmnd  the  base  of  only  an  a)M)rtion  pri>luced  1-y  tho  ^  ilpr.  **.  *: 

thoclu'»ter(»f  llowersas  if  toalVonl  S4iiiie  kindof  of  an  inner  row  of  htamen<.     Tl:o  iavu-v  >  :* 

Protection  ;  and  in  the  ealhi  tl»e  bract  is  similar,  the  Linna^an  lH>tani'5t"*  i-*  the  *ame  a^.  i*.i-  .:*•.. 

ut  of  asnowy  wliiie.  In  such  instance**  the  bract  The  pi>til  U  the  fruit-l)carir.i;  orjran  i-:' !':.  !*.■«• 

is  called  tho  spathe.     Sometimes  st'ver.d  bracts  er,  and  is  situated  in  it*  centn*.  a:;-l  w  i:*..r.  i'  ■* 

are  fonne<l  in  the  shape  of  tlio  hiK)kes  of  a  wheel  circle  or  whorl  of  stamen*,  and  ii*:-!'^  \\.*  »!  -Ik .:' 

around  the  elu'»ler  of  tlowers,  which  arran;:e-  there  bo  any  present,     llie  pi«i?;I  i*t!iv;«K,!  .:.: » 

ment  is  called  the  involucre.     It  otten  !i:tppens  hti^na  or  summit,  stylo  ^^t  tilanun".  •:.!  *  .r 

that  such  bracts,  whatever  their  M/e.  shai»o.  or  support,  and  ov.irium,  u  hollow  ca.-M>  f««t;:.v'  -^ 

arrant^'ment,  are  the  most  Miowy  portions  of  tho  the  ovuhu     The  ]»istil.  liki*  l?io   ?.t.iT:v:.*,  :*  ^ 

plant,  and,  being  in  the  vicinity  of  the  flowers,  m«Mli])ed  leaf,  which  isronvorte.l  in!-*  t*-v  .  -.—- ' 

are  nii«tak<-n  for  parts  of  them.     In  P'finuffia  Snnetiines  many  carj^oU  are  pr\vi**nt,  av  \   t.  • «" 

pul^hrrriywi  the  bracts  aro  large,  numeri»a«*,  and  are  subject  to  an  nlmi>^:  in*';niio  vanvty  ,  •  f  rr-* 

o/".*!  .••■/•lendid  M-arlet,  while  the  tlowers  ari' small  and  sha|K»s  wliich  at  length  f««rm  the  ir-..\     .V 

And  of  a  greenish  huo.    From  «uv:\x  \nslaaxc<»  ^  ^  \aix^<^  w\av\Wt  viC  \^lant4  have  hiUicrt o  Imv  a  cv  i  • 


FL0WER3  FLOYD  678 

sidered  for  the  most  part  flowerless  or  crypto-  works  of  the  Rev.  Dr.  Olin,  an    was  one  of  the 

gamic ;  but  later  researches  have  demonstrated  members  of  the  committee  on  versions  of  the 

that  they  are  not  so,  the  extreme  deviations  from  American   Bible   society  which    prepared  its 

the  nsual  forms  of  flowers,  and  the  peculiarity  standard  edition  of  the  Bible, 
of  their  fecundation,  allying  them  to  the  animal        FLOTD,  the  name  of  counties  in  several  of 

economy,  having  been  overlooked.  the    United  States.    I.  A  S.  W.  co.  of  Va., 

FLOWERS,  Abtificial.  The  manufacture  lying  on  the  N.  W.  slope  of  the  Blue  Ridge; 
of  artificial  flowers  has  of  late  years  reached  a  area,  279  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1850,  C,458,  of  whom 
high  degree  of  perfection.  The  Italians,  nn-  443  were  slaves.  Almost  the  entire  surfsice  ia 
equalled  for  a  longtime  for  their  skill  in  this  art,  elevated,  rough,  and  mountainous,  some  of  the 
have  now  found  successful  competitors  among  land  being  unfit  for  cultivation,  though  much 
the  French  and  English.  Even  the  most  rare  of  it  is  well  adapted  to  pasturage.  The  mineral 
and  delicate  plants  are  imitated  with  wonderfid  productions  are  chiefly  copper  and  iron.  Water 
mcooracy,  and  from  the  opening  bud  to  the  fading  power  is  abundant,  and  there  are  numerous 
flower  and  decaying  leaf^  all  the  changes  of  na-  mills  in  operation.  In  1850  the  county  yielded 
tore  are  faithfully  represented.  The  first  artifi-  104,630  bushels  of  Indian  com,  28.992  of  wheat, 
cial  flowers  manufactured  among  civilized  na-  92,654  of  oats,  and  8,226  tons  of  hay.  There 
tions  were  from  ribbons  of  various  colors  twisted  were  9  churches,  and  832  pupils  attending  pub- 
together  and  fastened  to  wire  stems.  These,  lie  schools.  Organized  in  1831,  and  named  in 
though  they  bore  some  remote  resemblance  to  honor  of  the  Hon.  John  Floyd,  then  governor 
BAtnnd  flowers,  must  have  been  but  indifferent  of  Virginia.  Capital,  Jacksonville.  Value  of 
ecmles,  and  in  time  feathers  were  substituted,  real  estate  in  1856,  $1,615,068.  II.  A  N.  W. 
being  more  elegant,  though  there  was  more  dif-  co.  of  Ga.,  bordering  on  Alabama ;  area,  540 
ficolty  in  getting  them  to  take  the  required  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1852,  12,079,  of  whom  4,259 
colors.  The  natural  plumage  of  the  gayly-  were  slaves.  It  has  a  beautifully  diversified 
colored  South  American  birds  is  peculiarly  and  well  watered  surface,  rising  in  some  parts 
adapted  for  this  purpose,  always  retaining  its  into  mountains,  the  highest  of  which  is  Taylor's 
brilliant  hues.  The  savages  of  that  country  ridge.  The  Etowah  and  Oostenaula  rivers  unite 
have  long  been  familiar  with  the  art  of  manu-  at  the  county  seat  to  form  the  Coosa.  The  land 
factnring  flowers  from  such  plumage.  The  deli-  along  their  banks  is  of  excellent  quality,  and 
cate  feathers  found  under  the  wings  of  young  yields  large  crops  of  cotton,  grain,  an^potatoes. 
pigeons  are  among  the  most  esteemed  in  flower  In  1850  the  productions  amounted  to  1,976  bales 
making.  Beautiful  flowers  made  from  the  of  cotton,  254,722  bushels  of  Indian  com,  15,870 
feathers  of  humming  birds  may  be  seen  in  the  of  oats,  and  36,818  of  sweet  potatoes.  There 
zoologicd  gardens  in  Regents  park,  London,  were  2  newspaper  offices,  and  409  pupils  attend- 
In  Italy  the  cocoons  of  silkworms  are  frequent-  ing  public  schools.  Iron,  plumbago,  galena, 
ly  nsed,  taking  a  brilliant  color,  and  having  a  slate,  satin  spar,  and  agate  are  found  in  the 
soft  velvety  appearance.  The  French  make  county,  and  in  the  S.  W.  part  there  is  a  valu- 
great  nse  of  cambric,  and,  in  the  manufacture  able  mineral  spring.  Orj^ized  about  1838,  np 
of  certain  kinds  of  flowers,  of  gauze,  muslin,  to  which  time  the  land  had  been  occupied  by 
and  crape,  while  sometimes  the  thicker  mate-  the  Cherokee  Indians.  Capital,  Rome.  Value 
rials  of  satin  and  velvet  are  necessary.  Whale-  of  real  estate  in  1856,  $2,056,096.  III.  An  E. 
bone  in  very  thin  leaves,  bleached  and  dyed  of  co.  of  Ky. ;  area,  about  750  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1850, 
various  hues,  has  been  successfully  employed  by  6,714,  of  whom  149  were  slaves.  It  has  a  hilly 
M.  de  Bemardiere.  The  coloring  matters  used  in  surface,  and  a  soil  suitable  for  pasturage.  It  is 
flower-dveing  are  as  follows :  for  red,  carmine  rich  in  mines  of  hard  coal,  and  its  staple  pro- 
dissolved  in  a  solution  of  carbonate  of  potash ;  ductions  are  Indian  corn  and  pork.  In  1850  it 
for  blue,  indigo  dissolved  in  sulphuric  acid,  di-  yielded  208.325  bushels  of  corn,  17,521  of  oats, 
lated  and  neutralized  in  part  by  Spanish  whit-  and  18,541  lbs.  of  flax.  There  were  4  churches. 
ing;  for  bright  yellow,  a  solution  of  turmerio  and  302  pupils  attending  public  schools.  Formed 
ia  n>irits  of  wine ;  for  violet,  archil  and  a  blue  in  1799,  and  named  in  honor  of  Col.  John  Floyd, 
hath ;  for  lUac,  archil.  Cream  of  tartar  bright-  an  officer  in  the  revolution.  Capital,  Preston- 
cos  the  red,  blue,  and  yellow  colors.  burg.    IV.  A  S.  E.  co.  of  Ind.,  bordering  on 

FLOT,  Jambs,  D.D.,  an  American  clergyman  the  Ohio  river,  which  separates  it  from  Ken- 
of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  church,  bom  in  New  tucky;  area,  148  sq.  m.;  pop.  in  1850,  14,875. 
York,  Aug.  20,  1806.  He  was  graduated  at  Both  surface  and  soil  are  much  diversified.  A 
Colombia  college,  and  afterward  spent  8  years  range  of  steep  hills,  called  the  **£nobs,^^  about 
in  Europe  perfecting  his  education.  lie  had  500  feet  in  height,  traverses  the  country  from  N. 
been  of  a  sceptical  turn  of  mind,  but  after  his  to  S.,  and  yields  much  valuable  timber.  There 
ntum  Joined  the  Methodist  church,  and  at  once  are  extensive  beds  of  iron  ore,  limestone,  sand- 
entered  npon  a  course  of  study  preparatory  to  stone,  and  slate.  The  staple  productions  are 
the  ministry.  He  was  admitted  into  the  New  grain  and  pork,  and  in  1850  the  county  yielded 
York  conference  in  1835,  and  has  filled  several  131,261  bushels  of  Indian  corn,  80,706  of  wheat, 
important  offices  in  the  church,  beside  conduct-  61,154  of  oats,  and  3,241  tons  of  hay.  Organ- 
ing  the  '^  National  Magazine^^  and  a  paper  called  ized  in  1819.  Capital,  New  Albany.  Y.  ^"^^ 
the  **  Good  News,"    Heedited  the  posthumona  E.  oo«  of  Iowa)\xtt^«t«i^\>l'^^^^^^9si^^'^\ 


574  7L0YD  FLUOR  SPAB 

area,  aboot  650  aq.  m.;  pop.  in  1856,  2,444.  the  same  time  his  seat  in  coogrenL    Ileviii 

It  produces  grain  and  pAsturage.    In  1856  the  member  of  the  first  congreet  under  the  ooDsiita- 

borvest  amounted  to  3,842  tons  of  hay.  5,^9  tion,  which  met  in  New  York  in  1789,  and  it 

busliels  of  wheat,  7,759  of  oats,  64,097  of  Indian  the  close  of  bin  term  declined  a  revlection.    He 

corn,  and  10,G6G  of  potatoes.     Capital,  Webster,  was  one  of  the  presidential  Sectors  in  1801, 

FLOYD.  GE2f.  John,  an  American  statesman  giving  his  vote  to  Mr.  Jefferson.    In  the  %am§ 

and  soldier,  bom  in  Virginia,  Oct.  3, 1769,  died  year  be  was  chosen  a  member  of  the  conventioo 

in  Camden  co.,  Ga.,  June  24, 1839.    ilis  father,  to  revise  the  constitution  of  his  native  lUte,  ud 

baving  suffered  severe  pecuniary  losses  during  the  was  afterward  twice  presidential  elector. 
revolutionary  war,  brought  up  his  son  to  the  trade        FLCGEL,  Gusta  v  LKSBEcnr,  a  German  ori- 

of  a  carpenter,  and  about  1791  emigrated  with  entalist,  bom  in  Bantxen,  Feb.  18,  18ui.    Ui 

bim  to  Georgia,  where  young  Floyd  was  engaged  devoted  himself  to  philological,  and  eft{«ciiilj 

for  many  years  in  building  boats  near  the  mouth  to  oriental  studies  at  Leipsae,  Vienna,  and  Psri^ 

of  the  Santilla  river.    Retiring  with  a  com-  and  in  1882  obtained  a  profestonbip  at  Metaa, 

petency,  he  served  in  the  state  legislature,  was  which  he  held  till  1850,  when  he  resigned  it 

chosen  representative  from  Georgia  in  the  gen-  on  account  of  bis  feeble  health.    Uis  nic«t  i» 

end  congress  in  1826,  served  there  2  years,  and  portant  work  is  an  edition  of  na4Ji  Khalli'i 

was  afterward  appointed  a  major-general  of  Arabic  bibliographic  and  encydopsdic  lexieoai 

militia.    During  the  war  of  1812  ho  rendered  with  a  Latin  translMioo  and  commeatarr.  pa^ 

efficient  service  in  protecting  the  state,  and  also  lished  at  Leipsic  and  London,  at  the  expense  of 

dnring  the  Indian  wars  which  followed.  the  oriental  translation  taod  ( 1835-*54>,  in  7  tdI- 

FLOYD,  John  Bfoiiastax,  U.  S.  secretary  umes.    lie  has  made  other  translations  from  tbs 

of  war,  bom  in  Montgomery  (now  Pulaski)  co.,  Arabic,  and  published  works  on  the  Kocaa  a^ 

Va.,  in  1805.    He  was  graduated  at  Sooth  Car-  on  Arabic  authors.— Jonxxsr  Gormin^  aGcr 

olina  college  in  1826,  studied  law,  was  admitted  man  lexicographer,  bom  at  Barby,  near  Xifd^ 

to  the  bar  in  1828,  and  in  1836  removed  to  lie-  burg,  Nov.  22,  1788,  died  in  Leipsic,  Jane  Si. 

lena,  Arkansas,  where  be  practised  his  profes-  1855.    He  was  employed  as  a  merchint's  dak 

non  for  2  or  8  years.    In  1839  ho  retumed  to  until  1810,  when  he'  repaired  to  the  Uaiiid 

Virginia,  and  settled  in  Washington  co.     In  States,  returned  to  Germany  in  1819,  and  oOd- 

1847  he  was  elected  to  the  lower  branch  of  the  ated  as  professor  of  the  English  langoaiee  at  tht 

Vircinia^gislature,  and  was  reelected  in  1849.  university  of  Leipsic  from  1824  to  18S6L  wbca 

In  December  of  that  year  the  general  assembly  he  was  appointe«]  U.  8.  conitul  in  Leipaic    H« 

chose  him  governor  of  the  state  for  the  term  is  the  author  of  Tri^lotU^  oder  kn^fmAMUkitAn 
expiring  Jan.  1, 1853.    In  1855  he  was  again     WorUrhuch  in  drei  Sprachfn  (German,  Ea^ 

elected   to  the  lepslature.     In   1856  he  was  lish,  and   French,  2il  e«l.,   lRr»4>,  Pnikt^teKn 

choson  a  presidential   elector,  and   voted  fur  Ilahdhufh    dtr   eh(fli*^hen     I/ithdrl^rvrrrtf^^^- 

Jamesi  Bncliaimn,  for  who:*e  nomination  he  had  drm  (Gth  ed.,  ls53i,  and  other  writi!:r*-    il- 

exerted  him!«elf  at  the  democratic  national  ct>n-  most  popular  work  i-*  hi*  ''('oniplotc  Ih*  t:"nr7 

vention  at  Cincinnati,  and  in  whoM)  favor  diir-  of  tlio  English  nnd  (tcmian.  :ind  irvrrvin  i'- 1 

ing  the  contest  precedinrr  the  election  lie  had  £ngU'«h  I^intruarri-i."  >vhioIi  has  |iA>s^-d  ii.rt»- „•. 

made  many  «i>ecrlK'«j.  In  Marcli,  1^57,  he  wasajn  several  6<liti«»ns  and  i*  exti'r.>ivily  um.-J  ia  '  i-"* 

pointed  by  I'rt'>idorit  liuchanim  secretary  of  war.  manv,  Enirland.  and  t!ie  I'Tiii^il  States. 

Fl-OVf),  William,  an  AnK-ricanpenend,  and        FLUUK  SP.MU  tlui>n«Ic  ofc^kU-ium.  a  rr.  '•— - 

one  of  the  siirnors  of  t!ie  declaration   of  inde-  species  ctmsistiujr  <»f  t1ii«»rinc  4"i.7,  ari!  •*!■..- 

pcndenoe,  born  in  Siiffnlk  co.,  N.  Y.,  I>ec.  17,  61.3  per  cent.,  nanu-d  from  the   I^tir;  ''.  .  - 

17"i4,  die*!  in  AVostcrn,  Oneida  co.,  Aul'.  4.  l'^21.  reference  to  its  pn»jH.Tty  «if  !!..■.%  ir.i:  n  •.. :.  •^^'i 

lie  \yx<  the  s<»n  of  an  njiuK-nt  land  owikt,  who^o  as  a  tlux.     It  is  mvt  with  in  ory^!..S  «f  r, 

anct-ritors    had    iiimiiL'rat«*d   fnmi    Wales    and  form,  which  i-asily  oKmvo  iuti*  o.!u!jtiIr\»r  •  i~  i 

settled  on  LtmiT  i>land.     <  )n  the  outbreak  of  the  tvlraheilron'*  by  rtin-'V.il  iif  the  r^rni  a.n.-.v 

ditK-rcni-es    between    (iroat    Britain    and   her  These  crystals  colhvtcd  in  proij;i«,  tin  .r  !.  '■* 

American  colonies  Floyd  ardently  e!:j>on<id  the  preM^ntinjif  a  tine  j^plendint  lu-tri.   ar.  1  *  .:  • 

cause  o(  the  latter,  and  wils  apjK)inted  to  the  brilliant  pha<le  of  rc»l,  blue,   gre<-n.  i-r  »■  :r ' -. 

command  of  SaiVoIk  c< unity,  and  a  deleirate  to  constitute  some  t»f  the  m^**t  U-auiif.:*.  tiur-n-s- 

tho  lirst  c*»ntinent:d  cnnfrn'^-*  in  Philadelphia,  lopcal  s|»ecitnens.     They  art*  Mimttimt-^  ;ri-- 

I>urin;r  his  ab«»i'iice   the    Hriti-h   a*semble<l   a  pan'nt,  but  commonly  lraR>l'.icvn!.     IJ  <v  ,.•• 

naval  force  in  (Jardiner's  bay,  \\ith  the  inton-  of  brittle  tixture,  breakini:  int*»  «}!:r:. r»  iz\ 

tion    of    invading    Lon;;    inland    and  levvin;?  Ciinchoidid   fnunncnt*.      The   harit  t-^   i-:   v  ■ 

Contribution'*;    but  just   a-*   they  wore  oiKiut  mineral  is  4;  it*  pjivifio  trravity  :M  I  :••      ;• 

to  carry  out  their  object,  (ten.  Fi»»yd  retunu*<l,  i.'«iar!<-ly  pulverize*!  and  heated,  i:  *•:  ir*  j:** 

a-i-ietiiMed  tlie  SnlTulk  niiliti^i,  nti<l  displaynl  so  phnre>cont  lijrht  of  viirious  c^-J.-rs  ^^;  -;  a" 

mih'h  I  Tieriry  nnd  daring  tliai  the  enemy  nban-  l>e>t  exhibited   in    a  dark  n^i-m.     iWf- r..*  •.  r 

d«»ned  llieir  enterjirisi'.     In  177."i  he  was  a^ain  blowpi[io  it  decri-pitalo*  and  fu***^  tJ  .\n  «r.i:  . 

appointed  a  dvleu'ato  to  the  general  t*i>IoniiLl  CI tn-  It  is  met  with   in  veir^*  in  the  nutAja.  r- 

pTe<%  and  oaitinued  a  member  by  succe>Mve  roiks  and  in  the  lime^tonis  of  faruiA'..  '  •  x* 

cler:i.iij-*  for  s  \^  ir*.     In  1777  he  \va<  cho<i.'n  a  recent  as  the  coal.    In  the  north  €»f  LnjiA:  !  .: 

■-^ator  i*f  the  »utu  of  New  York,  retaining  at  is  a  oonunon  gangno  of  the  lead  v«in»  vhacii 


FLUORESGENGE  675 

are  found  in  the  strata  of  the  coal  formation ;  the  color  of  the  medinm.    The  phenomena  now 
and  it  is  there  most  conveniently  applied  as  a  to  be  detailed  furnish  a  marked  exception  to 
flux  for  the  reduction  of  these  ores,  for  which  the  principle  just  stated ;  and  tliey  are  among 
it  is  peculiarly  adapted.    The  coal  beds  aleo  the  most  si^ificant  of  modem  optical  discoY- 
associated  with  them  furnish  the  fuel  for  this  eries.— Sir  David  Brewster,  in  1883,  having 
process.    The  most  famous  locality  of  fluor  spar  thrown  a  beam  of  sunli^^ht,  concentrated  by  a 
is  at  Castleton,  in  Derbyshire,  England,  whence  lens,  through  an  alcoholic  solution  of  chloro- 
the  name  of  Derbyshire  spar  has  been  given  to  phyl  contained  in  a  transparent  vessel,  found 
the  mineral.    It  is  there  found  in  the  fissures  that  while  the  emergent  beam  was,  as  shonld 
of  the  limestone  of  deep  blue  and  purple  colors,  be  expected,  of  the  color  of  the  solution — a  fine 
in  specimens  so  large  and  beautiful,  that  they  emerald  green — the  path  of  the  beam  through 
are  wrought  into  vases,  inkstands,  cups,  tables,  the  liquid  was  marked  to  a  certain  depth  by  a 
Ac,  whicli  present  fine  colors  and  polish,  but  bright  blood-red  light,  which  was  emitted  in  all 
which,  from  the  softness  of  the  stone,  are  liable  directions.    Supposing  this  effect  due  to  a  re- 
to  be  soon  defaced  by  scratches.    The  blue  flection  of  part  of  the  admitted  light  by  minute 
oolor  is  often  so  intense  that  the  articles  cannot  solid  particles  suspended  in  the  liquid,  he  term- 
be  worked  thin  enough  to  exhibit  the  shade ;  ed  the  phenomenon  one  of  internal  dispersion. 
bat  by  heating  the  stone  nearly  red  hot,  the  in-  He  discovered  similar  results  in  fluor  spar  and 
tensity  diminishes,  and  the  blue  changes  to  some  otlier  media;  the  new  colors,  however, 
amethystine.    By  continuing  the  heat  the  col-  not  being  always  the  same.    In  1845  Sir  John 
or  disappears.     The  workmen  call  the  stone  Herschel  found  that  a  weak  solution  of  bisul- 
bloe  John.    They  chip  the  rough  block  into  a  phate  of  quinine,  about  1  part  of  the  salt  to  200 
rode  shape  with  a  steel  point  and  mallet,  and  of  water,  acidulated  by  addition  of  a  little  sol- 
then  beat  it,  so  that  on  applying  rosin  over  its  phurio  acid,  when  viewed  by  transmitted  solar 
aorlaoe,  this  will  fuse  ana  penetrate  slightlv  fight,  appeared  colorless ;  but  that,  at  the  same 
into  the  mass,  the  object  of  which  is  to  dkeck  time,  it  emitted  from  a  thin  stratum  at  the  sur- 
the  tendency  to  cleave  as  the  stone  b  afterward  face   at  which  the  beam  entered  a  beautifnl 
worked  in  the  lathe;  and  as  the  particles  are  sky-blue  light,  which  in  various  other  directions 
removed  in  this  operation,  the  rosining  is  oo-  was  seen  as  if  emanating  from  the  liquid.    Be- 
casionally  repeatea.    The  mannfactnre  is  de-  vond  the  thin  stratum  thus  seen,  the  peculiar 
scribed  as  a  difficult  one,  from  the  crystalline  blue  rays  no  longer  marked  the  course  of  the 
stmctare  with  its  fourfold  cleavage  causing  the  beam,  nor  did  they  appear  in  a  second  or  third 
laminiD  to  split  up  in  unexpected  places.    The  medium  of  the  same  kind  into  which  the  beam 
best  workmen  often  fcul  in  turning  very  thin  was  successively  passed ;  whence  it  was  evident 
hollow  articles.    Fluor  spar  is  found  at  many  that  at  a  certain  depth  the  beam  had  lost  the 
localities  in  the  United  States,  but  has  been  very  power  of  exciting  them.    Herschel,  Uierefore, 
little  used  for  practical  purposes.    Fme  crys-  proposed  for  the  phenomenon  the  name  of  epi- 
tals,  commonly  of  green  color  and  very  large  polic  (surface)  dispersion.    The  character  of  Uie 
size,  are  found  in  different  places  in  Jefferson  change  occurring  was  not  understood  until,  in 
and  St  Lawrence  counties,  N.  T.,  and  at  Ros-  1852,  Prof.  Stokes  submitted  the  subject  to  a 
me  they  have  been  nsed  as  a  flux  in  smelting  more  careful  investigation.    Ho  reasoned  that 
the  lead  ores  found  there.    In  Illinois,  below  the  facts  observed  by  Brewster  and  Herschel 
8hawnectown  on  the  Ohio,  it  is  found  in  large  were  the  same,  the  rays  which  produced  the 
pnrple  crystals,  with  the  same  associations  of  red  dispersed  light  possessing  tlie  power  of 
leaa  ores  and  coal  that  accompany  it  in  the  penetrating  to  a  greater  depth  before  being  ex* 
north  of  England.    The  lead  veins  of  the  meta-  Iiausted  than  did  those  producing  the  blue. 
iDorphic  rocks  of  New  England  often  contain  The  latter  he  found  to  be  exhausted  within  a 
it  as  one  of  the  gangues.    From  fluor  spar  is  film  about  ^V  of  an  inch  thick,  but  the  blue 
obtained  fluorine,  whio)),  combined  with  hydro-  light  to  which  they  gave  rise  traversed  the  li- 
gen  in  the  form  of  hydrofluoric  acid,  is  nsed  to  quid  with  perfect  freedom ;  hence  there  must 
etch  glass.  be  a  difference  of  nature  between  the  producing 
FLUORESCENCE,  an  appearance  of  emitted  and  the  produced  rays.    Such  differences  could, 
li^t  from  certain  bodies,  solid  or  liquid,  due  to  probably,  only  be  explained  by  polarization  or 
impingement  on  such  bodies  of  differently  col-  change  of  refrangibility ;   but  the  supposition 
ored  light,  or  of  chemical  rays.    The  solar  beam  of  polarization  was  found  untenable,  and  the 
ii  a  sheaf  of  rays  of  8  kinds :  1,  thermal  rays,  case  was  not  one  of  phosphorescence.    In  order 
inTisible ;  2,  luminous  rays,  visible ;  8,  actinic  to  test  the  remaining  hypothesis,  Stokes  obtain- 
or  chemical  rays,  invisible ;   and  of  these  8  ed  a  pure  luminous  spectrum  by  means  of  an 
kiDds  the  degree   of  refrangibility  is  in  the  achromatic  lens  and  two  or  more  flint-glass 
order  in  which  they  are  here  named.    The  flrst  prisms,  and  in  place  of  receiving  the  colors  on 
and  third  of  these  also  overlap  and  mingle  with  a  screen,  held  the  quinine  solution  in  these  sno- 
the  Inminons.    Again,  a  beam  of  light  trans-  oessively.    In  the  less  refrangible  colors  no  ef- 
mitted  through  a  meaium  is  seen  only  in  the  feet  was  observed ;  but  at  about  the  middle  of 
line  of  emergence;  or  if  the  medium  bo  color-  the  violet  space  the  blue  diffused  light  made  its 
•d,  and  the  illuminated  portion  give  out  light  appearance  at  the  entering  surface,  as  if  the  li- 
in  all  directioDs.  this  has  in  all  ordinary  cases  qmd  medium  had  there  become  self-laminoiis* 


576              FLUORESCENCE  FLUORCHS 

This  rcsolt  appeared  in  all  parts  of  the  upper  iura  $tramoniumy  tincture  of  turmeric;  &o.  Gm 

violet,  and  until  Uie  tube  had  been  carried  to  and  candle  light  excite  little  or  no  visible  tluor- 

some  distance  into  the  ordinarily  dark  space  escence;  hence  these  are  poor  in  actinic  rart, 

beyond,  occupied  by  the  chemical  ray 8.    The  The  flames  of  hydro^sen  and  of  sulphur  burning 

depth  of  the  stratum  thus  luminous  at  first  ex-  in  alcohol  give  very  distinct  results;  honoe  tlMMd 

ceeded  the  tiiickness  of  tlie  vessel  used,  but  it  abound  in  those  rays.    But  so  rich  in  this  rv- 

rapidly  dimiui!«hed  in  the  upper  parts  of  the  spect  is  the  lip^ht  of  the  voltaic  arc  fn»m  tuvlal- 

space  to  a  minute  fraction  of  an  inch.    The  lie  points,  that  it  produces  fluore^ocnce  thruasb 

blue  li};ht,  turned  aside  and  again  dispersed  by  a  space  6  or  8  times  tlie  lenirth  of  the  luminimi 

a  prism  held  obli(iucly  in  its  course,  yielded  in  spectrum.    It  is  worthy  of  remark,  hovorer, 

some  degree  rays  having  various  refrangibil-  that  the  fluorescent  space  can  be  detectvd  to 

itiea,   with    color   corresponding,    the    higher  any  considerable  distance  above  the  viuUri,  on)j 

colors  being  most  abunuant.     By  other  ex-  when  the  prisms  employed  are  of  quarts ;  (tIui 

periments,  also,  the  blue  dispersed  light  was  at  once  cuts  down  the  effect  within  narrov 

separated  from  the  inducing  violet  rays ;  and  limits,  proving  that  it  is  highly  opaque  to  tia 

it  was  found  that  the  former  always  correspond-  chemical  rays,  for  which  quartz  ser\'c*  as  the 

^  to  a  band  of  colors  below  the  place  of  the  true  glass.    In  1858  Mr.  Robinson  of  Armiifh 

latter.    The  light  tlius  acted  on,  tlien,  had  its  found  the  light  of  the  aurora  borealis  to  pn>- 

refrangibility  always  lowere<l.    Thus  the  re-  duce,  for  its  intensity,  ver}*  marked  fluorescence 

markable  conclusion  was  arrived  at,  tliat,  by  — another  fact  favoring  the  electrical  origin  of 

passing  light  through  particular  media,  certain  that   phenomenon. — 31.  Niepce,  the  younm. 

rays  Ix^longing  to  the  violet  space  have  their  claims  (1859)  that  he  has  preserved  durinj  < 

refrangibility,  and  of  course  their  color,  let  months  the  photogenic  power  of  light,  in  ctfd 

down  in  the  scale,  while  portions  of  the  in  vis-  paper  impregnated  with  tartaric  acid  or  nitnu 

ible  chemical  rays  in  like  manner  become  let  of  nranium,  exposed  for  half  an  boar  U>  sil- 

down  so  as  to  fall  witliin  the  range  of  visibility,  light,  and  tlien  at  once  sealed  up  in  a  tin  imU. 

and  to  appear  as  colored  light.     In  the  undula-  It  is  certain  that,  at  the  end  of  this  time.  iLk 

tory  theory,  these  results  are  explicable  only  bv  card  remo^'ed  in  the  dark,  place<!  over  ttn*i- 

an  increase  of  the  wave-length  and  time  of  vi-  tized  or  photographio  paper,  with  a  partiillr 

bration,  with  a  consequent  diminution  of  the  translncent  drawing  or  printed  sheet  int«rqio«c<L 

velocity  of  the  rays  thus  affected.    The  case  is  and  left  so  for  many  noun,  gives  a  T«;ry  gv«<i 

one  of  degradation  of  light ;  in  the  chlorophyl  negative  picture  on  the  sensitized  pai^r,  -^-^ 

solution  there  is  a  fall  from  higher  colors  to  latter  being  darkened  throngh  the  lights  icJ 

red;  in  the  quinine  solution,  from  invisible  or  protected  by  the  shades  of  the  intA-rpck^iltijcn. 

violet  tea  mixture  whose  predominant  hue  is  It   is  yet,  howe^-vr,  a  <iue<tion    wlKtSi«.p  :':..» 

blue;  ill  cairnry  glass,  colored  yellow  by  oxide  effect  is  <luo  to  iire?<-rvo<l  light,  or  raihcr  a. :  :- 

or  salts  of  urniiiuiii,  from  invisible  or  violet  to  ism,  or  to  the  ollW't  of  hydrop-ii  ftk*  ;*■:  f.-i* 

green.     The  striking  feature  in  these  results  is  from  componmls  in  the  prepari-<l  rani,  a:^!  &•  :• 

the  conversion  of  the  unseen  ray-iK)wer,  which  ing  chemically  on  the  phot4)^'r.<kphir  Im:«  r.     !  • 

ordinarily  induces  chemisni  only,  as  in  the  do-  visible  dr.iwinjrs  in  fluore>r^'nt  M;ti-Lk«.Ci>..  vi- 

coinposition  of  carbonic  acid  and  tixation  of  poM»d  to  the  sun  and  imineiliatily  or -..••::  a:V  r 

carlion  within  the  green  leaves  of  plant?*,  and  applied   in  the  d:irk,  Aited  nMro  p^'Wir..-: 

in  the  bhiekenin::^  of  tlie  photoirrapliir  plate,  but   interpo<ic<l   lluore^vut    iHHlii-*,  a.-.  1*1.1  _* 

into  coinni'm  li::ht,  thus  provin;;  the  intimate  glass,  arretted  the  .iciion. 

relation,  if  n^it  tlie  identity,  of  the  two.     Stnkes  FLl'^  >K1NK,  a  eolorje-w  or  yiUtiwi-^  ^-i-^.  .• 

haM  given  to  the  plieiioiiunjm  the  name  nfthior-  b<Mly  fk.'paratiMl  t'rttin  lluur  sp:ir  <<r  fl:.'r.  ii  •  i" 

cs4-cniv,  as  having  Ijeen  seen  in  ilimr  sprir;  and  calcium  by  the  actinn  of  sulpliuri-:  ai.d.     I:   • 

thin  name,  eonveyinir  no  tlu-Dry  «»f  the  casi',  is  rejpirded  as  an  elementary  Mib<.n.e\.  :i;.l  .:• 

l)referred.     It  is  eonvoniently  olisi-rved  by  jK*n-  chemical  cquivaU-nt,  cdeulatcd  fr<:u  ilio  •    - 

cilling  ovor,  l»y  candle  li^ht,  a  sheet  of  white  i»osed  simple  cond'ination  of  tme  a:*'!:]  li- ".    f 

paper  with  the  quinine  N»lution.  i>r  by  tracing  calcium  and  tluorine  in  thi<»r  spar,  i-  ^-iw :.  u* '.  '. 

with  it  letters  on  the  pajKT;  nothin;:  unusual  is  It  is  found  in  the  teeth  antl  b<>iu-^  i-f  a:.i:::.L-.   .. 

observed  *)n  the  paper,  which  is  ;«  white  i\A  Ik?-  sea  and  some  mineral  waters,  Jin-l  in  r:.a:.»  ;  1.  • 

fore,  until  it  is  brouixht  into  sonic  light  well  phati's  and  other  niinemU.     f  »n  .ve"  :l:  i-:  :  • 

supplied  with  cheinieal  rays,  and  not  t<H)liri;^ht-  great   dillieulty   of  prexentiup:   llu.r.:.. .    v.  ■ 

ly  luniintius  for  witnes>in;^  the  elleet  (ha  into  a  driven  from  itj»  roniliinati»n  with «  :je  >  :'~:j'    ■ 

beam  in  an  otherwise  dark  roo!n),  when  tluor-  from  iinnuMliutely  roriii-ini::^  wi:!*    a:.;    ■  •.  .  - 

ts<ence  ap|>i'ars;  and  wheu  in  sueh  a  rtxun  tiio  with  which  it  comes  in  ri.nta.-!,  .:  1-as  U    ■. 

byam  is  decomiM>s<.'d,   the   luminous  HK'rtrum  possiMoto  inve«.ti.:aie  it- '|Ua].:i.  •  ii.  i:*  :- ,,*    ! 

hidden  from  the  view,  and  tho  paper  lin)nght  Htate,  and  hence  the  hiiirht  uncvr!-k.:  ':•-•' 

into  the  ultra-violet  hp:ico  ( whii'h  is  of  it>elf,  o(  elementary  nature.     Louyel  «hTa.'.-  l  .';  .  ,^      - 

cmirso,  d.irk),  its  sudden  lighting'  up  witli  a  iialo  comp<»sing  dry  tluorido  of  Kiv^r  bv  '...vJ,^  •  :' 

blue  nulianro  is  an  cllVct  apparently  little  hhort  chlorine  g:ks  in  vcSM-Uof  tlu-r  -j  .i.-      l{e  :  •::  : 

of  the  MqKTnatural.     Other  tlnoreM-cijt  innlia  tho  dry  g:L<  iKt-v-^'^sod  a!lii..:ii-!*    a:iil  .:.  ;*   :• 

are  infuMoii  of  hor>e-rhe^tnut  bark,  or  its  active  those  of  oxygen  and  Milphur;    i:  a^u-i  •-:•  s 

principle,  ivaculiue,  tho  iufu:iiuu  of  seeds  of  da-  almost  all  iiielolji,  but  attacked  gUuA  iUL-^i  cr 


FLUSHING  FLUTE                      677 

not  at  all.  Combined  with  hydrogen  in  the  dockyards,  a  town  hall,  and  an  exchange,  near 
form  of  hydroflaorio  acid,  however,  its  most  re-  which  is  a  statue  of  Admiral  de  Rnyter,  who 
markable  property  is  its  rapidly  corroding  this  was  a  native  of  this  place.  The  principal  man- 
snhstance ;  and  for  this  reason  it  is  the  agent  Ti£fictares  are  beer,  soap,  and  oil ;  bnt  the  inhab- 
employed  for  etching  glass,  as  in  marking  ther-  itants  are  chiefly  engaged  in  commerce,  and 
mometer  and  other  graduated  tubes,  the  bottles  branches  of  industry  subsidiary  thereto.  The 
of  chemists  and  apothecaries,  &c.  Its  pres-  port  of  Flushing  is  formed  by  2  moles  which 
ence  is  detected  in  any  body  supposed  to  con-  break  the  force  of  the  sea.  The  town  is  con- 
tain it,  by  submitting  this  in  a  vessel  of  platinum  nected  with  the  river  by  2  large  and  deep  canals, 
or  lead,  which  are  but  slightly  aflected  by  the  .  one  of  them  being  navigable  for  first-class  mer- 
acid,  to  the  action  of  concentrated  sulphuric  chant  ships.  The  French  took  possession  of  tiie 
add,  and  placing  a  plate  of  glass  across  the  town  in  1795,  and  made  it  a  principal  station, 
month  of  the  vessel  to  receive  the  vapors  evolved  for  their  fleets.  In  1809  it  was  bombarded  and 
on  the  application  of  a  gentle  heat.  This  is  the  taken  by  the  British  under  Lord  Chatham,  but 
process  by  which  hydrofluoric  or  fluohydric  acid  was  soon  after  evacuated.  It  is  the  aeat  of  an 
M  obtained  from  fluor  spar,  the  metallic  vessel  admiralty  board. 

being  a  retort,  furnished  with  a  crooked  neck  FLUTE,  a  wind  instrument,  which  under  dif- 
of  lead,  in  which  the  vapor  condenses  in  the  ferent  forms  and  names  has  been  in  use  for  more 
water  placed  in  the  bend  to  receive  it,  and  which  than  4,000  years.  It  was  familiar  to  the  £gyp- 
is  kept  cool  by  being  surrounded  with  ice.  It  tians  from  a  remote  period  of  their  history,  and 
may  also  be  obtained  by  condensing  the  vapors  among  the  Greeks  and  Romans  was  a  favorite 
without  the  use  of  water  in  the  lead  tube ;  in  this  pastoral  instrument,  employed  also  on  sacred 
state  it  is  called  anhydrous  fluohydric  acid.  It  and  festive  occasions,  in  military  bands,  and  at 
is  a  colorless  fluid,  of  specific  gravity  1.06,  boils  funerals.  Its  present  name  is  derived  from  the 
at  86^,  and  cannot  be  made  to  congeal  at  any  Latin  Jluta^  meaning  a  lamprey,  an  eel  caught 
temperature.  It  has  a  strong  affinity  for  water,  in  the  Sicilian  waters,  whose  side  is  perforated 
its  vapor  rising  and  forming  thick  white  fumes  with  7  holes  like  the  flute.  The  Egyptian  flute 
as  it  combines  with  the  moisture  in  the  air,  until  was  from  2  to  8  feet  long,  and  was  generally 
by  dilution  this  action  at  last  ceases.  Dropped  played  by  the  performer  sitting  on  the  ground ; 
into  water,  a  sound  is  produced  with  the  fall  of  while  that  of  the  Greeks  probably  did  not  ex- 
each  drop,  as  if  it  had  been  red-hot  iron.  When  ceed,  if  it  equalled,  a  foot  in  length.  At  Ath- 
dilnted  with  water  it  is  highly  corrosive,  and  ens  it  was  once  in  great  repute,  but  was  final- 
aooording  to  its  strength  may  produce  injury  by  ly  superseded  by  the  lyre,  the  use  of  which  did 
tonching  the  skin.  A  single  drop  of  the  anhy-  not  aistort  the  face,  while  it  allowed  the  ao- 
drous  acid  may  produce  acute  inflammation  ac-  companiment  of  the  voice.  In  Thebes,  Sparta, 
companied  with  fever.  The  marks  made  by  the  and  other  places,  however,  it  continued  a  favor- 
gaseous  acid  when  used  for  etching  are  fine  and  ite.  Tlie  Spartan  flutists  were  a  hereditary  or- 
Tisible  on  account  of  their  opacity,  while  those  der,  and  the  Spartan  soldiers  are  said  to  have 
produced  by  the  liquid  are  transparent,  and  must  marched  to  battle  to  the  sound  '^  of  Dorian 
consequently  be  deeply  etched.  The  product  of  flutes  and  soft  recorders."  The  Egyptians  ap- 
thifl  action  of  the  hyarofluoric  acid  upon  silicious  pear,  from  their  ancient  pictures  and  sculptures, 
substances  is  the  gaseous  compound  known  as  to  have  blown  the  instrument  through  a  lateral 
flnosilicio  acid  or  fluoride  of  silicium ;  and  thus  opening  near  one  end,  and  to  have  produced  the 
Is  a  means  aflbrded  of  volatilizing  silica  and  re-  necessary  modulations  of  sound  by  means  of 
moving  it  f^om  some  of  its  combinations,  ij  holes  on  the  side ;  hence  their  instrument  prob- 
which  their  analysis  is  facilitated.  ably  differed  little  from  the  modem  fife.    The 

FLUSHING,  a  post  village  and  township  of  flute  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans  was  probably 

Qaeens  co.,  N.  Y. ;  pop.  in  1855,  7,970 ;  dis-  more  in  the  nature  of  the  pipe,  and  was  double 

tance  from  N.  Y.  city  about  8  miles.    It  is  as  well  as  single,  being  often  composed  of  2 

attnated  at  the  head  of  a  bay  of  the  same  name  tubes  of  reed  or  wood,  perforated  with  holes 

opening  into  Long  Island  sound,  and  has  daily  and  played  together.    Until  the  early  part  of 

communication  with  New  York  by  railroad  and  the  18th  century  it  retained  the  form  of  the 

steamboat.    In  1855  it  contained  1 0  churches  (1  pipe,  and  was  called  the  English  or  conunon  flute, 

Ckmffregational,  2  Friends^  8  Methodist,  2  Epi»-  and  sometimes  iheMte  d  hec,  from  the  resem- 

oopu,  1  Reformed  Dutch,  and  1  Roman  Catho-  blanee  of  the  mouthpiece  to  the  beak  of  a  bird. 

liA  several  schools  and  seminaries,  2  newspaper  It  was  played  in  the  manner  of  the  darinet^ 

offices,  and  a  number  of  extensive  nurseries  and  and  had  7  finger  holes,  but  no  keys.    This  gave 

gardens,  which  are  visited  by  multitudes  of  per-  place  somewhat  more  than  a  century  ago  to  the 

SODS  fh>m  the  neighboring  cities.  Crerman  flute,  which  in  its  most  perfect  form 

FLUSHING  putch,  Vliemngen\  a  fortified  consists  of  a  tube  of  hard  wood  or  ivory  about 

town  and  seaport  of  Holland,  in  the  island  of  27  inches  in  length,  separable  into  4  joints,  and 

Walcheren,  province  of  Seeland,  on  the  N.  shore  having  from  6  to  12  finger  keys  for  semitones. 

of  the  estuary  of  the  W.  Scheldt,  60  m.  S.  W.  of  It  is  blown  through  a  latera)  hole  at  one  end, 

Botterdam ;  pop.  about  8,000.    It  is  well  built|  and  has  a  compass  of  nearly  8  octaves,  firom  0 

and  contains  several  churches,  schools,  and  char-  below  the  treble  staff  to  0  in  altissimo.    The 

jtubla  institutions,  5  market  placeS|  extensive  modem  flute  \»  highly  effective  in  an  orchestral 
Touvn. — 37 


678  FLUVAHKA  ILT 

Irat  hM  fidlen  into  some  disrqmte  for  the  per-  if  inftuible  if  tlie  coiupoondf  tliej  ore  bron^ 
fuTDiiioe  of  solos,  in  oooseqaenoe  of  the  fllmnj  in  oootaet  with^  present  ingredifntf  whidi  pos- 
and  ttstelefls  character  of  the  mnslo  too  £re-  sess  aflioitief  m  some  of  those  in  the  body  to 
ooentiT  written  for  it,  and  which  serves  to  ex-  be  acted  upon,  and  forioa  then  takes  place  with 
hiMt  the  skfll  of  the  pl^er  rather  than  the  ca-  mntual  deoompontioQ  and  rseomfainatiOB  of 
paoitT  <tf  the  instmment^ — ^The  Octats  Fluti,  elements.  Thnsintrsatingtheeoaimoaaflicioai 
called  also  the  pieeoh,  is  a  small  shrill  instm-  ores  of  iron,  whkh  are  extremelj  AAeok  to 
ment  of  the  Ante  species,  an  octave  higher  than  melt,  limestone,  still  more  inlbsihie,  is  employed, 
the  common  Ante.  Its  piercing  sounds  are  only  and  the  lime  nnitiur  with  the  sifiea  eottn  at 
effectiye  in  a  large  orchestra  or  in  mUitary  bands,  once  into  fnsion,  whue  the  oxide  of  iroB,  httd 
— Fiun  Stop,  on  the  orffan,  a  range  of  pipes  from  its  original  oombinatioii,  is  at  the  ssas 
tnned  in  nnison  with  the  diapason,  udintenoed  time  decomposed  hj  the  caiboo  of  the  Ibd  encs- 
lo  Imitate  the  soands  of  the  flate. — One  of  the  bining  with  its  oxygen,  and  the  IroB  flow*  frsa. 
bast  German  flotists  of  the  18th  century  was  The  carbon  itadf  may  be  regarded  also  as  a 
Qoantz,  the  flutist  of  Frederic  II.  of  Pmssia.  flnx,  its  action  being  to  ilMifitala  this  proecsi  ia 
Sevienne  (died  in  180S)  and  Berbignier  acquhred  the  same  manner  as  the  Hmestone  does.  Shooli 
a  high  reputation  in  France ;  and  among  the  the  iron  orea  be  calcareoos,  the  inlaw  al  inx  to 
great  flotists  of  the  present  contnry  in  Germ*-  aid  their  decompoifttioa  most  be  aQlekmSft  that 
ny  were  Farstensn  and  his  sun  (died  respect-  the  same  fnslbie  sHloatea  may  be  praAwsd. 
ItcIv  in  1819  and  1852),  and  in  England  Ghitflee  Borax  is  a  flnx  of  Terr  general  applieatioa,  Cram 
mcholson,  whose  Cither  had  also  been  celebrated  the  readiness  with  which  it  fiwms  fJaaUde  com- 
in  the  preceding  centnry.  Among  celebrated  ponnds  with  siUca  and  other  baass.  Tbe  sab> 
llTing  flntisU  are  the  following :  Theobald  Bohm,  Ject  wiU  be  consldersd,  if  to  the  sppHnatWi  of 
flntist  of  the  king  of  Bavaria,  bom  abont  1802,  particular  fluxes,  in  deseribhig  the 
who  iuTented  about  1888  a  new  flute  known  as  treatment  of  the  ores  of  the  Tari 
the  Bohm  flute,  which  is  said  to  combine  im-  (Bee  also  Bulge  Fujil  and  Bokax.) 
proTements  in  nearly  every  part  of  the  instm-  FLUXIONS.  Bee  Qjjjowutmf  and 
ment^  and  wrote  In  1847  a  treatise  on  recent  im-  tial  CALOULua. 
proTements  in  tiie  manufacture  of  flutes,  which  FLY,  the  popnlar  name  of  the  iMwm^ot  two- 
was  translated  into  French  (2>f  la/aMcaUamet  winged  insects,  of  which  a  fluninar  axaapis  ii 
ie»  dsmien  peifeetumnemenU  dst  .MtM,  Peris,  the  common  boose  fly.  They  have  a  snckiag 
1848).  His  new  flute,  at  first  neglected,  is  now  proboscis,  2  reined  and  membraaooa  wi^gs^  ui 
almost  generally  adopted.  Jean  Louis  Tulou,  2  poisers  behind  the  wings;  they  mdergo  a 
bom  in  Paris  in  1786^  and  professor  of  the  con-  complete  transformation.  The  chararten  of 
senratory  there.  Louis  Drouet,  bom  in  Amster-  the  order  bate  been  soffldently  detailed  in  th^ 
dam  in  1793,  for  some  time  Tnlou^s  rival  in  Par-  article  Diftxra,  and  therefore  only  some  <»f  the 
is,  has  resided  since  1831  in  Belgium  onf^aged  in  most  common  flies  of  the  fiunily  mtueadm  w-.l 
manufacturing  musical  instraments.  The  prin-  be  noticed  here.  The  house  fly  (aiicjra  dAma- 
cipal  flute  manufacturers  of  the  present  day  tiea^  Linn.)  of  Europe  is  considered  dtdtiod 
are  Koch  and  Ziegler,  Vienna ;  Clair  Godfroy,  from  the  American  species  by  Dr.  Ilarria,  who 
Paris ;  and  Rudall,  Rose,  Oarte,  and  co.,  Loudon,  calls  the  latter  If.  harpyia  ;  it  begins  to  apMsr 

FLUVANNA,  a  central  ca  of  Va.,  bounded  S.  in  houses  in  July,  sometimes  a  little  earli«r, 

by  James  river,  and  intersected  by  the  Rivanna;  becomes  very  abundant  toward  the  end  cf 

area,  170  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1850,  9,487,  of  whom  Auf^ist,  and  does  not  disappear  until  kilM  br 

4,787  were  slavea.    Between  the  rivers  there  cold  weather ;  the  ens  are  deposited  in  dnng.  ia 

are  some  level  tracts,  but  elsewhere  the  surface  which  the  larrao  undergo  their  tranaformatiixu: 

ia  generaUy  rough.    The  soil  of  the  river  bot-  consequently  this  species  is  most  nnmenEMis  x 

toms  is  fertile;  in  many  other  parts  it  is  sterile,  the  vicinity  of  stables  and  unclean  places.    The 

Gold  is  found  in  the  vicinity  of  Palmyra,  the  swarms  of  summer  are  doubtless  the  progtev 

capital.  The  productions  iu  1850  were  1,054,974  of  a  few  individuab  which  have  sorrivcd  th* 

lbs.  of  tobacco,  200,174  busheU  of  Indian  com,  winter  in  some  protected  nook,  and  are  aoc 

and  92,657  of  wheat    There  were  a  number  of  produced  from  e^s  laid  the  preceding  seaeoa ; 

mills  and  fsctoriess  14  churches,  and  855  pupils  it  is  possible  that  a  few  mar  pass  the  winter  ic 

attending  public  sc^hools;  value  of  real  estate  the  pn|)a  state,  and  be  developed  by  the  warmth 

in  1856,  $2,106,489.    The  James  river  canal  of  spring.    Among  the  thoosands  of  di>mm;c 

passes  along  the  border  of  the  county.    Fluvan-  flies,  all  are  of  tbe  same  sixe,  those  lariprr  « 

na  was  formed  fVom  Albemarle  co.  in  1777.  smaller  being  of  different  ipccica,  and  a«tthrr 

FLUX  (Lat.  Jluo^  to  flow),  a  substance  nsed  very  old  nor  very  young  inmndnals  of  the  Jf. 

to  facilitate  the  fusion  of  minerals,  and  fre-  €2am«i/u» ;  the  house  fly  b  such  a  constant  com- 

qnently  their  decomposition.    A  great  variety  panion  of  man,  that  its  presence  in  a  coral  or 

of  materials  serve  this  purpose,  and  one  or  an-  other  island  is  sufficient  eTidence  that  hamaa 

other  is  used  according  to  the  nature  of  Uie  bodr  inhabitants  are  not  or  hare  not  hetn  tar  diitaat 

to  be  treated,  and  the  chemical  action  desired.  This  common  and  despised  CTDatore  offers  to  the 

Some  by  their  rcadv  fusibility  induce  the  same  microscopist  and  naturalbt  aone  of  the 

condition  in  bodies  in  contact  with  them,  which  striking  proolii  of  creatiTe  design.    The  S 

are  difficult  to  melt;  othan^  though  they  may  be  pound  syea  oootaia  aa  mta^  m  AfiOO 


FLY  679 

each  the  cornea  of  a  separate  oeellus;  the  eatables  beyond  tbdr  reach,  a  dish  of  strong 
q)iracies  through  which  air  enters  the  trache®  green  tea,  well  sweetened,  will  be  eagerly  tast- 
are  provided  with  a  kind  of  sieve  formed  by  ed  by  them,  and  prove  a  certain  poison ;  ao- 
minote  interlaced  fibres,  whicli  prevents  the  in-  cording  to  Mr.  Spence,  a  netting  of  large  roeehea 
trodnction  of  dust  and  foreign  substances ;  the  stretched  across  a  window  of  a  room  lighted 
ligulOf  or  prolongation  of  the  anterior  portion  only  on  one  side  will  not  be  paraed  by  flies^ 
of  the  lower  lip,  commonly  but  improperly  — The  blue-bottle  or  blow  fly  (M,  {calliphara) 
caDed  the  tongue,  forms  the  chief  part  of  the  tomitcriOf  Linn.)  is  a  large,  buzzing  species,  of 
proboscis,  which  receives  as  its  upper  portion  a  blue-black  color,  with  a  broad,  steel-blue, 
the  lancet-like  organs  formed  by  the  pieces  of  hairy  hind  body ;  it  is  found  in  summer  aboat 
the  upper  jaw;  by  this  proboscis  the  fly  sucks  slaughter  houses  and  all  places  where  meats  are 
up  fluias,  and  substances  like  sugars,  which  it  kep^  which  it  frequents  for  the  purpose  of  de- 
dissolvesby  means  of  a  kind  of  saliva  poured  positing  its  eggs  on  animal  suostances.  The 
through  its  channel.  It  is  well  known  that  flies,  eggs,  usually  ^ed  fly  blows,  are  hatched  in  2 
and  many  other  insects,  have  the  power  of  or  8  hours  after  they  are  liud ;  tlie  larvte  in- 
creeping  up  smooth  perpendicular  surfaces,  and  crease  so  rapidly  in  8  or  4  days,  and  are  so 
of  walking  on  ceilings  with  their  backs  down-  voracious,  that  Linn»us  did  not  greaUy  ezag- 
ward.  The  last  joint  of  the  tarsus  is  provided  gerate  when  he  said  that  the  larvs  of  8  females 
with  2  strong  hooks,  and  a  pair  of  membranous  of  this  species  will  devour  the  carcass  of  a 
expansions  (pulvilli)^  beset  with  numerous  hairs,  horse  as  quickly  as  would  a  lion ;  they  pass  the 
each  having  a  minute  disk  at  the  extremity,  pupa  state  in  the  ground  or  in  some  crevice,  the 
There  has  been  considerable  diflerence  of  lanral  skin  not  being  cast  ofi^,  but  changed  into 
opinion  as  to  the  precise  mode  in  which  this  an  egg-shaped  case ;  from  this  they  emerge  as 
apparatus  enables  the  fly  to  walk  in  opposition  flies  in  a  few  days,  or,  if  hatched  late  in  the 
to  the  force  of  gravity.  Derham,  Home,  Eirby,  season,  remain  unchanged  through  the  winter, 
and  Spence  l^elieved  that  the  pulvilli  act  as  A  smaller,  brilliant,  blue-green  fly,  with  black 
anckera,  a  vacuum  being  formed  beneath,  and  the  legs,  much  resembling  the  M,  {lucilia)  Coior 
insect  is  held  up  by  the  pressure  of  the  atmos-  of  Europe,  lays  its  e^  on  meat  and  the  car- 
I^ere  against  their  upper  surface ;  others  have  casses  of  animals.— ^he  flesh  fly  (sarcophofa 
maintained  that  the  adhesion  is  due  to  a  viscid  eamaria^  Meig.),  somewhat  longer  than  the 
liquid  secreted  from  the  bottom  of  the  foot  blow  fly,  is  ovo-viviparous.  that  is,  it  drops  the 
Dr.  Hooke  and  Mr.  Blackwall  assert  that  the  living  larvso  on  dead  and  decaying  animal  mat- 
aoles  of  the  feet  are  so  closely  beset  with  minute  ter,  a  wise  provision  which  enables  these  active 
bristles  that  they  cannot  be  brought  in  contact  little  seavengers  to  commence  at  once  their 
with  any  surface  so  as  to  produce  a  vacuum,  work  of  purification.  A  single  female  will 
and  believe  that  the  support  is  owing  to  the  produce  about  20,000  young,  which  have  been 
strictly  mechanical  action  of  these  hooks.  Mr.  ascertained  by  Redi  to  increase  in  weight  near- 
Hepworth  ("Journal  of  Microscopical  Science,'*  ly  200  fold  in  24  hours;  R^umur  found  the 
Tola.  iL  and  iii.)  reconciles  these  apparently  con-  assemblage  of  embryo  flies  in  this  insect  to  be 
tradictory  opinions  by  the  conclusion  that  the  coiled  like  a  watch  spring  or  a  roll  of  ribbon, 
minute  disks  at  the  end  of  the  individual  hairs  when  unrolled  about  2^  inches  long ;  the  larv» 
act  as  suckers,  each  of  them  secreting  a  non-  arrive  at  maturity  in  succession,  and  the  mother 
Tiscid  liquid,  which  renders  the  adhesion  perfect  as  usual  dies  soon  after  the  brood  is  hatched. 
— e  structure  which  exists  on  a  larger  scale  in  The  color  of  this  European  species  is  black, 
the  feet  of  dytwnis  and  other  beetles.  Mr.  with  lighter  stripes  on  tlie  shoulders,  and  gray- 
White,  in  his  **  Natural  History  of  Selborne,"  ish  black  abdomen  checkered  with  lighter 
observes,  in  confirmation  of  the  views  of  Der-  squares.  Another  species  of  Europe  is  the  S, 
ham,  that,  toward  the  close  of  the  year  when  mortuorum  (Linn.),  5  or  6  lines  long,  with  a 
flies  crowd  the  windows  in  a  sluggish  and  golden  head,  grayish  black  thorax,  steel-blue 
torpid  condition,  they  are  hardly  able  to  lift  abdomen,  and  white  wing  scales.  Both  of  these 
their  legs,  and  many  are  actually  glued  to  the  sometimes  deposit  their  young  on  wounds  and 
glass,  and  there  die  from  inability  to  over-  ill-conditioned  ulcers  of  the  living  human  body, 
oome  the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere.  It  is  as  most  surgeons  have  had  occasion  to  witness. 
well  known  tliat  some  lizards  possess  a  sim-  The  largest  American  species  is  the  S.  Otorgima 
iltf  faculty,  and  a  similar  apparatus  to  account  (Wiedemann),  the  females  of  which  are  about  i 
iat  it  Though  bred  in  filth,  and  living  in  an  inch  long ;  the  face  is  silvery  white,  with  a 
imdean  places,  the  fly  delights  to  brush  oflT  black  spot  between  the  copper-colored  eyes; 
the  dust  by  rubbing  its  feet  together,  and  to  the  thorax  light  gray,  with  7  black  stripes;  tiie 
dkeoa  its  eyes,  hea^  corslet,  and  wings  by  its  hind  body,  conical  and  satiny,  is  checkered  with 
Ibre  and  hind  legs ;  this  process,  which  resem-  black  and  white ;  they  appear  about  the  end  of 
lilea  that  adopted  by  cats  for  a  similar  purpose,  June,  and  continue  tiU  after  the  middle  of  Au- 
viMj  be  seen  m  sunny  places  on  any  summer's  gust  Li  this  genus  the  bristles  on  theantenn» 
day.  Untidy  housekeepers  are  generally  trou-  are  plimiose. — ^The  dung  fly  Ueatophaga  ttereO' 
Ued  with  swarms  of  flies,  which  cover  every  raria^  Meig-X  of  a  yellowisn  olive  color,  de- 
.aiiiele  of  food  by  day  and  the  walls  by  night;  posits  its  eggs  in  soft  dung;  at  the  upper  end 
ia  addition  to  keeping  rooms  dark  and  putting  th^  have  2  diyergent  prooeesea  which  preyeot 


tgO  FLY  ILYGAI 


U'^: 


auh  rinking  too  ftr  into  the  nidos.    The  S.  hmnaa  bodr,  hATing  prolMbl j  boe&  fwallofwid 

^areata  f Harris^  of  the  United  States  has  the  with  yegetablesin  which  deoajr  had  oomineiieed; 

same  habits,  and  has  been  erroneoosly  charged  as  the  eggs  in  many  instaneea  bdong  to  species 

with  prodacing  the  potato  rot,  simply  becaose  depositing  in  the  ordnre  of  pri^i^  ^^  larra 

the  lame  are  fonna  npon  the  stalks  of  this  might  remain  aliTe  for  a  oooaraerabb  period  in 

^ant, developed firom eggs  laid  in  the  sorroond-  the  intestines  of  man;  eggs  of  other  mu§mdm 

uig  manure.    The  males  are  yellow,  with  hairy  ought  be  introdnced  on  meal%  fimita,  aalad^ 

body  and  1^  and  loDg  narrow  winn,  and  are  TCffetablesL   and  in  impore  water.     In   the 

aboot  i  as  laxge  as  a  noney  bee ;  the  females  ^^Transaotions^  of  the  entomological  soeisty  of 

are  smaller,  less  hidry,  and  olive- colored ;  both  London  (voL  ii.,  1937X  Mr.  Hope  givea  a  tabn- 

yomig  and  adnlt  insects  live  npon  dnng,  and  do  lar  account  of  87  cases  in  which  maggotaof  the 

not  ii^ore  plants. — ^The  stable  4y  (ftamixifi  col-  mtcsoodlsinteted the hnman body,  uanyof  wUch 

eHraiM,  Meig.)  is  a  well-known  tormentor  of  were  recogniaed  aa  belonging  to  M,  atmmium. 

animals  and  man,  whose  skin  it  perforates  by  a  C*  9amUana^  and  3,  earn/aria;  and  many 

ptinfol  bito  in  snltry  weather  and  jost  before  have  since  been  reoorded  in  medical  JonnialiL 
TtinB ;  it  resembles  very  closely  the  honse  fly,       FLTOATOHER,  the  popolar  naoia  of  ttaay 

eoKcept  that  the  |ntenn»  are  feathered,  the  denthrostral  or  to<wi-biliea  birdsi  of  the  order 

probosoiB  very  long  and  slender,  and  the  mxe  pomirei  and  family  mmteieapidm.    They  bars 

smaller;  it  attacks  the  legs,  piercing  through  oills  of  varions  lengths,  generaQr  broad  and 

thick  stoddngs  and  the  thickest  hair,  retnm-  flattened  at  the  base,  with  the  eumeii  carted 

ing  to  the  attack  as  soon  as  driven  away ;  and  the  sides  comprsssed  to  the  eman^aaled 


it  is  solitary,  not  social  like  the  honse  fly,  tip;  the  gape  is  fbmished  with  kwg  aoasCnog 

and  seldom  enters  honses  unless  driven  in  by  bristlea,  for  the  easier  securing  of  tlieir  ttjwg 

bad  weather;  it  is  most  abundant  in  August  fttj ;  the  wings  are  usually  kiog,  as  alao  is  ths 

and  September,  when  it  is  a  great  pest  to  horses  tafl;  the  tarsi  abort  and  weak;  tha  loeskM^ 

and  ci^e;  it  is  about  i  of  an  inch  long,  and  the  outer  generally  united  at  tht  base.    The 

1i^  ito  eggs  in  dung,  in  which  the  young  are  fiunily.  according  to  Gray,  cootsdna  the  IdHow- 

habohed  and  undergo  their  tranafonnations  ;*  ing  sub-fiuniUes :  fumiMnm^  or  oioiimei%  of 

The   cheese   fly  (piophila  ea$eiy   Fallen.)   is  tr^icd  America  ;aiselriirtna^peoiiUar  to  8oaUi 
</y  of  an  inch  long^  of  a  shining  black 


only  -ff  of  an  inch  long^  of  a  shining  black  America;  fyrrmnina^  nrtjTsnfs,  ftmnrk—  and 

color,  with  transparent  wings  and  y^owiah  principallv  tropical;  tityrimmf  or  becard%  of 

hind   less.    By   its   long  ovipositor  it  pene-  tropical  America;  laasstcaatiui^  or  flycatdisn^ 

trates    tne   cracks    of   cheese,   and  deposits  found  the  world  over :  and  the  wirmmimm^  cr 

about  250  eggs,  which  are  developed  In  a  few  greenlets,  American.    The  sub-family  museum- 

days  into  magsots  or  skippers  ;  tbeso  larvo  pina  includes  the  following  genera :  e^n^pMa^ 

have  2  homy  liookod  mandibles,  which  thoy  (VieilLX  with  7  species,  found  in  the  thick  vch^ 

use  for  digging  into  the  cheese,  and  for  loco-  of  tropical  America;  platyrhynekfu  (Dem-X 

motion  instead  of  feet;  tlioir  proportions  are  with  about  20  species,  in  the  brushwood  and 

considered  so  elegant  and  so  cbaractcristio  of  treesof  tropical  America  ;/>l^/ys/Wra(Janl.aLU 

design  tlmt  Swammerdam    lays   stress  npon  Selby),  African,  with  a  dozen  species ;  todirvi^ 

them  OS  proofe  of  creative  power  and  wisdom,  trum  (Less.),  with  15  species.  South  AmericAO ; 

The  cheese  skipper  leaps  20  or  80  times  its  muteitora  (Cuv.),  8  species,  8outh  Amerioan; 

own  length,  first  erecting  itself  on  the  tail,  rhividura  (Vig.  and  lioraf.),  40  species,  found 

then  bending  into  a  circle  and  seizing  the  skin  in  India  and  its  archipelago,  New  Zealand,  and 

near  the  teil  with  its  hooked  jaws,  and  finally  Australia;  tchitrea  (Less.),  20  species,  in  AincSi 

E rejecting  itself  forward  by  suddenly  throw-  India,  and  ite  archipelago ;  tn^iuireAa  (Vig.  and 
ig  itself  into  a  straiglit  lino.  The  droppings  Iloref.),  10  species,  in  Australia  and  the  islandi 
and  decay  caused  by  these  larva)  give  a  flavor  of  the  Indian  ocean;  sfifvra  (Vig.  and  HonlV, 
to  old  cheese  which  is  mnch  relislied  by  epicures.  8  Australian  species ;  myiagra  (V ig.  and  Ilonf.  V, 
— ^There  are  several  si>ecies  of  flower  flies,  of  the  14  species,  in  Au«bidia  and  India ;  kemickelid^^ 
genus  anthomyia,  of  small  size  and  feeble  (Ilodgs.),  2  species,  in  the  hills  of  Xepaul ;  •in- 
flight, which  sport  in  the  air  in  swarms  like  taea(lIodg8.),  20  species,  in  India  ancl  its  archi- 
gnats,  and  which  in  the  larva  state  are  very  in-  pclago ;  mtueitapa  (Linn.),  with  70  speci«ik  ia 
Jurious  to  vegetation;  some  of  these  maggots  roost  parts  of  the  old  continent;  and  mtopk^^ 
are  like  those  of  common  flies,  others  are  fringed  (Swains.),  nearly  20  species,  in  North  and  S>Qih 
on  the  sides  with  hair.  The  A.  ceparum  (Meig.),  America.  The  last  is  a  very  active  gena^i  ptir* 
of  an  ash-gray  color,  with  black  dorsal  stripes,  suing  swarms  of  flies  from  the  top  to  the  boCU«a 
and  about  i  the  size  of  the  house  fly,  lays  its  of  a  tree  in  a  ligzag  but  neariv  perpendJcoUr 
eggs  on  the  leaves  of  the  onion  close  to  the  direction,  the  clicking  of  the  LiUs  being  di*- 
•arth ;  its  smooth  white  larva)  bore  into  the  bulb,  tinctly  heard  as  they  sni4>  up  the  iiMectsiii  th« 
and  entirely  destroy  it.  The  A,  brauiecs  and  A,  course  of  a  few  seconds ;  the  American  r«<l»tart« 
hetuearum  are  equally  destruct i ve  to  the  cabbage  (5.  rutieiUoy  8wains.X  placed  in  the  fhrni!  r  «)  l- 
and  lettuce;  the  A.  ra;»Aani  (Harris)  attacks  in  ^ieolidm  by  Prof.  Haird  On  his  Pacific  rallrusd 
the  same  way  the  radish.  The  A.  aealarU  and  report),  is  a  good  example  of  the  genok— Tb«f« 
'^-'nicularii  give  rise  to  iringed  magsots,  which  is  probably  no  family  of  bii^  about  which  »t». 
been  not  unflrequently  ^eotod  from  the  tematio  writen  oo  ornithology  diflbr  aaofa  thiaa 


FLY  WHEEL  FLYDrG  MSH  6dX 

on  that  of  the  flycatchers ;  and  to  attempt  here       FLYING  FISH  (exoeatm^  Linn.),  a  ^nna  of 

to  follow  the  subject  to  anjtbing  like  a  satisfac-  fishes  Vonging  to  the  order  pharyngognaiki 

toTj  result  would  be  alike  tedious  and  unprofit-  and  the  family  sconibere^oeidm  (MQller),  contain- 

able,  and  would  after  all  be  little  else  than  a  ing,  according    to  Valenciennes,  88  species, 

question  of  authority  in  the  science.    As  far  as  This  genus  is  at  once  recognizable  by  its  large 

the  American  flycatchers  are  concerned,  it  will  pectoral  fins,  capable  of  being  used  as  para* 

be  sufficient  to  give  Prof.  Baird^s  classification  chutes,  and  to  a  certain  extent  as  wings ;  other 

in  the  report  above  cited.  He  follows  Burmeis-  fish  have  the  faculty  of  leaping  out  of  the  water 

terin  adopting  the  order  insessores^  and  Cabanis  and  of  sustaining  themselves  in  the  air  for  a 

in  placing  most  of  them  in  the  sub-order  clamo'  short  time,  but  the  exoeati  far  excel  these,  and 

tcrei  ;  he  calls  the  whole  family  coleopteridcB^  of  approach  much  nearer  in  this  act  the  true  flight 

which  the  sub-fiEunily  tyranninm  is  what  chiefly  of  birds  than  does  the  flying  dragon  or  the  fly mg 

interests  us  here.  The  fork-tailed  and  swallow*  squirrel.    Navigators  in  all  tropical  seas  are 

tailed  flycatchers  belong  to  the  genus  milvulug  jGamiliar  with  these  sprightly  fishes,  which  ro- 

(Swiuns.)  ;  the  Arkansas,  Cassin's,  and  Couch's  lieve  the  monotony  of  ocean  life  as  birds  do  the 

flycatchers  to  the  genus  tyranma  (Cuv.) ;  the  silence  of  the  woods.    The  characters  of  the 

greatcrested,Mexican,Oooper's,  and  Lawrence's,  long  pectoris,  the  strength  of  the  muscles 

to  the  genus  myiarchus  (Cab.)  ;   the  black,  which  move  them,  and  the  size  of  the  bony 

pewee,  and  Say's,  to  the  genus  MyomU  (Bo-  arch  to  which  they  are  attached,  are  the  essen- 

nap.) ;  the  olive-sided  to  the  genus  eontoput  tial  conditions  of  their  flight,  which  is  not  al- 

(Cab.);  Traill's,  the  least,  the  small  green-crested,  ways  to  escape  their  enemies,  as  has  been  gen- 

and  the  yellow-bellied,  to  the  genus  empidonax  erally  believed,  but  also  to  fulfil  the  end  of 

(Cab.) ;  the  last  4  genera  are  included  in  the  their  curious  organization ;  though  undoubtedly 

gnns   myiobiuM  of   Gray.    The  Canada  and  intended  in  part  as  a  means  of  safety,  numerous 

>naparte's  flycatchers  are  warblers,  belonging  observations  prove  that  these  shining  bands 

to  the  genus  myiodioeUi  (And.)  or  $etophaga  pursue  their  flights  when  no  danger  threatens, 

(Swains.);  the  solitary,  white-eyed,  warbling,  m  the  full  enjoyment  of  happiness  and  security, 

yellow-throated,  red-eyed,   Hutton's,  and  the  for  mere  sport,"  and  probably  as  a  necessity  of 

black-headed  flycatchers  arevireos;  the  blue-  their  structure.    Their  lot  indeed  would  be  far 

gny  flycatcher  belongs  to  the  family  of  titmice,  from  enviable,  were  their  flights  the  frantic  at- 

Bjoa  to  the  gewaa  polioptila  (Scooter,),    The  fly-  tempts  to  escape  from  pursuing  bonitos  and 

catchers  are  active  and  fearless  birds,  and  tyran-  dolphins  (eoryphcma\  for  in  the  air  their  dui- 

nize  over  the  insect  world  as  the  hawks  do  over  ger  is  quite  as  great  from  the  albatross,  frigate 

weaker  and  smaller  birds;  they  are  very  bene-  pelicans,  petreU,  and  other  ocean  birds;  but  it 

ficial  to  man  by  destroying  flies,  moths,  and  cannot  be  that  this  beautifnl  provision  is  wholly 

Tarious  insects  and  grubs  injurious  to  vegetation,  devoted  to  avoiding  such  dangers;  this  habit 

and  annoying  to  animals.  belongs  to  the  same  class  of  phenomena  as  the 

FLY  WHEEL,  a  large  heavy  wheel  attached  flying  of  the  dragon  and  squirrel,  the  climbing 

to  machinery  and  running  with  it  for  the  pur-  of  trees  by  the  anabas,  and  the  travelling  across 

pose  of  equalizing  the  power  and  the  resistance,  the  land  by  the  common  eeL    Humboldt,  60 

and  producing  uniformity  of  motion  when  the  years  ago,  arew  attention  to  the  great  muscular 

power  is  unevenly  applied,  or  when  the  resist-  force  necessary  for  the  flight  of  these  fish ;  he 

ance  is  greater  at  intervals.  If  power  be  applied  recognized  that  the  nerves  supplying  the  peo- 

to  cause  a  heavy  wheel  to  revolve,  this  power,  torals  are  8  times  as  large  as  those  going  to  the 

slowly  accumulated,  is  slowly  expended  in  the  vcntrols ;  the  muscular  power  is  sufficient  to 

continued  revolution  of  the  body.    The  momen-  raise  them  15  or  20  feet  above  the  surface,  and 

tnm  of  the  wheel  carries  it  on  when  the  power  to  sustain  them  with  a  velocity  greater  than 

ceases  to  be  applied,  maintaining  uniformity  of  that  of  the  fastest  ship  for  a  distance  of  several 

motion  if  the  application  be  by  impulses,  and  hundred  feet  The  pectorals  strike  the  bit  with 

carries  it  also  without  apparent  retardation  rapid  impulses,  scarcely  more  perceptible  than 

past  the  dead  points  of  the  machinery,  over-  the  quick  vibrations  of  the  humming  bird's 

coming  any  sudden  increase  of  resistance.  Thus  wing.    Humboldt  states  that  they  move  in  a 

the  fly  wheel  distributes  the  power  uniformly,  right  line,  in  a  direction  opposite  to  that  of  the 

and  is  of  great  importance  as  a  regulator  in  all  waves,  but  other  observers  assert  positively 

works  where  the  demands  upon  the  machinery  that  they  can  turn  nearly  to  a  right  angle  from 

are  very  irregular,  or  where  the  power  applied  this  course  before  settling  into  the  water  again ; 

is  not  uniform.  In  large  engines  it  is  commonly  though  they  generally  come  out  on  the  top  of 

made  to  run  separate  from  the  rest  of  the  ma-  a  wave,  they  can  pass  over  several  of  their 

chinery,  though  connected  with  it.    In  smaller  summits  before  descending.    The  size  of  the 

engines  it  is  often  the  main  driving  wheel,  the  swimming   bladder   is   enormous,    occupying 

power  being  communicated  direcUy  either  by  more  than  half  the  length  of  the  body ;  though 

gearing  or  by  a  belt    If  the  power  is  variable,  this,  not  communicating  with  the  intestine,  is 

the  fly  wheel  should  be  as  near  as  possible  to  the  of  no  advantage  in  making  the  exit  from  the 

prime  mover;  if  the  resistance  is  variable.  It  water,  it  contributes  to  prolong  the  flight  by 

should  be  near  where  this  is  met,  thus  avoiding  rendering  the  body  more  buoyant.    The  flyintf 

tho  a(rain  on  intermediate  shafts.  &culty  of  these  fish,  the  pleasing  spectacle  of 


68S  ILTIKQ  fISH  ILYHO 


tiMfar  troops  QMMrtiiigiroiiiid  the  bon^  w-  wytnial^UMdonilndaMiiMloaf  aiilov; 

Mk,  the  jittering  of  their  beantiliil  W^on  in  tlie  peetorab  extending  to  the  cwdaC  the  Ten- 

thetropkel  son,  the  delictte  flavor  of  their  fleshy  tnls  rerj  short  and  sttnehed  to  the  Mterior 

end  the  ftct  of  their  fieoneDtly  lesping  on  tlurdof  tliebody;  theeokiroothebocklsrieh 

hoard  diipa,  have  sttrectea  the  attention  of  nltnonarine  Use.  and  sQveiy  on  the  ahdooMn; 

nariners  from  early  times;  hot  nntil  a  eom-  theflnsareof  aaarkerhhM^tibepeelorabhciBg 

parativeljr  recent  ]>eriod  onl j  2  spedes  were  unspotted.    There  are  5  tpeciss  on  the 


admitted  hj  nataralists,  who  gSTo  them  a  ^a-  of  North  Ameriea,  whioh  have  reesntlj 

trihntion  as  wide  as  the  tropical  and  temperate  divided  into  $  genera  hy  Dr.  Weinland.    The 

seas.  The  order  to  which  the  fljing  fish  belongs  common  qieoies  (R  t9iiitm$,  GmeLX  lonnd 

is  eharaeterizedbj  having  thetowerjnharjngeal  flrom  the  gnlf  of  llezieo  to  the  coast  of  Hew 

hones  nnitedtoform  a  single  bone.  The  aenerio  Jersey,  is  from  18  to  16  indies  ko^  with  dnskjr 

characters  of  exoemius  sre :  a  hMd  and  bodr  peetorala  and  Tentrals,  handed  with  brown  hi 

cofered  with  scales,  with  a scalj  ked  <m  tBeh.  yonng  mdmens;  the  ventrab  are  kngtr  than 

flank;  the  nectoral  fins  nearij  as  long  as  the  the  anal,  and  nearer  the  vent;  the  dorsal  and 

body ;  the  oorsd  over  the  and ;  the  head  flat-  kwer  k>be  of  the  candd  are  ipottcd  with  brown 

tsned,  with  Urge  eves;  both  jaws  with  small  and  black.    The  New  York  flyincflshfJl  iVess- 

pointed  teeth,  and  the  pharyngesls  with  nomer-  ftsraewim,  M itch.X  shoot  a  foot  Ions;  has  ~ 

ooa  compressed  ones;  upper  lobe  of  the  tail  found  from  the  middle  states  to  N4 

■nailer  than  the  lower;  the  flns  without  spines;  the  color  above  is  daric  green,  the  pectonla 

the  intestine  strd^t  without  pyloric  cc»ca. —  brown  with  the  end  bordered  with  white;  the 

The  common  flying  fish  of  the  Mediterranean  ventrals  are  very  hMig,  nearest  to  the  vent^ssii 

(£  woUtans^  linn.)  Is  recognized  by  its  long  the  wingsresch  to  the  taiL— Some ipeeiea have 

white  ventral  fins ;  the  body  is  generally  short  the  lower  lip  mndi  developed,  with  one  or  two 

and  tiiick,  robust  in  the  pectord  region,  round-  tough  appendagea  hanging  from  the  chin;  thsse 

ed  above,  fiattened  on  tne  sides;  the  head  is  have  been  ssparated  as  the  genus  fjfs<ih»Bi^ 

large,  the  muzde  obtuse,  the  lower  jaw  the  and  Indnde  8  species  of  our  coast.    Tne  ۥ  es- 

longer,  the  mouth  smslL  the  teeth  in  the  sn-  wMhu  (Mitch.)  has  a  blade  dnhua  on  the  chin 

tsffwr  part  of  the  J|aw,  the  palate  smooth,  the  eztendinff  half  the  length  of  the  body,  which  is 

tongue  free,  the  ^-openings  large,  and  the  about  6  inches;  the  pectorals  do  not  eatend 

brsnchid  rays  10  to  18 ;  the  humeral  bones  are  to  the  end  of  the  ventrals,  the  latter  tonchiag 

large  and  firmly  ailicukted  to  the  head,  and  the  candd;  it  has  been  found  from  New  York 

the  pectorals,  which  are  attached  to  them,  are  to  the  southern  states.  The  Cyirrvalvs  (Mitch.) 

so  arranged  that  when  the  fiexora  contract  the  baa  8  appendagea  fttmi  the  lower  Jaw :  it  is  S 

fins  are  spread  horizontdly,  and  are  applied  to  6  incnes  long,  and  extends  from  New  York 

dong  the  sides  when  the  wings  are  shut ;  the  to  the  gulf  of  Mexico ;  tho  pertorde  are  lanre, 

movements  do  not  differ  from  those  of  other  and  the  ventrds  very  long.    The  middling  fif- 

fishes  except  in  the  freedom  permitted  by  tho  ing  fish  Dr.  Weinland  has  made  the  type  of's 

articulation ;  the  fin  rays  are  very  long,  and  new  genus  halocypseltu  ;  this  species  (if.  wuw^ 

not  deeply  divided ;  the  ventrdis  inserted  in  ffotUr^  Weinland)  is  found  in  the  West  Indies 

front  of  the  middle  of  the  body,  are  completely  varying  in  length  from  4  to  7  inches ;  the  tttk- 

sbdomind  and  well  developed ;  the  dorsd  is  trals  are  very  short,  about  i  as  long  an  the  pre- 

smdl,  low,  and  triangular ;  the  and  very  short,  tords,  situated  anterior  to  tlie  middle  of  the 

and  the  caudd  deeply  forked ;  the  swimming  body,  between  the  anus  and  the  pectord* ;  the 

bladder  extends  dong  the  spine  even  under  the  lower  Jaw  is    angular. — ^The  flying   gurnard 

last  caudd  vertebno,  protected  by  their  lower  (daetyUpttrtu  t^litans^  Cur.X  a'  spiny  fi»b  cf 

bony  arches,  a  dis]Mwition  found  in  no  other  the  family  triglidm  or  MeUro^enidr^  has  d«o 

fish.    The  generd  color  is  a  leaden  gray,  with  been  called  flying  fish  by  navigators.    The  rpe- 

greenish  tints  on  tho  upper  hdf  of  tho  body,  cies  has  been  described  ss  occurring  in  the 

and  silvery  white  below ;  the  pectorals  have  a  Mediterranean,  in  the  tropicd  seas,  in  thc^W^K 

wide  whitisli  border;  the  dorsd  is  gray,  tho  Indies  and  the  gulf  of  Mexico,  and  dong  the 

eandd  brown,  the  ansl  bluish,  and  tho  ventrals  American  coast  from  Newfoundland  soothwani; 

whitish.      The  largest  specimens  are  rarely  probably  more  than  one  species  will  be  ^jcd 

more  than  16  inches  long,  and  they  are  found  over  such  an  extended  range.    These  t}irx 

in  all  psrts  of  the  Mediterranean.    The  B,  ero-  fish  or  sea  swdlows  behave  Tvry  much  like  the 

lam$  ^Linn.)  is  found  in  so  many  parts  of  the  exoeati,  swimming  in  immense  shoals,  leaping 

worlu,  that  it  may  be  called  cosmopolitan ;  spe-  out  of  the  water  for  sport  and  l«>r  safety,  P^vy- 

cimens  have  been  obtdned  from  tho  Mediter-  ed  upon  by  marine  and  arrid  eneroieik  ami  fdl- 

ranean,  tho  coast  of  France  and  England,  tho  ing  in  consequence  into  eqndly  cruel  bands  co 

Gdf  stream  in  the  neighborhood  of  Newfound-  IxMrd  vessels  which  come  within  Iheir  raag<e. 

land,  the  West  Indies,  the  cant  coAHt  of  South  From  tho  rapid  drying  of  their  pectorals  and 

America,  the  Cape  Verd  islands,  the  tropicd  their  less  muscular  power,  they  fiUI  into  the 

parts  of  the  Atlantic,  Pacific,  and  Indian  oceans,  water  agdn  sooner  than  do  the  ime  flying  fi«h ; 

Anstrdia,  New  Zealand,  and  the  PoIyncHian  their  pectorab  serve  nk*rely  as    paraditttML 

islands.    The  average  length  is  between  8  and  They  vary  from  6  to  8  inches  in  length, 

f  faiches ;  the  eye  U  of  moderate  size,  the  teeth  FLTING  SQUIRREL  (f  l€r«ai|i^  Cav. ;  Gr. 


FLTIKG  SQUIRREL  FOG 

«TtfMv,  '^ing^  and  jxvr,  moiMe),  a  gemis  of  the  Inn,  coming  out  at  idght  in  qnert  of  food,  and 
funU7«etur»<2ce,difreriDg  from  commoo  squirrels  sometime!  committing  sad  navoc  among  the 
principailj  in  the  expansion  of  the  skin  between  miner's  scanty  stores.  Other  American  mciea 
the  fore  and  hind  feet,  hj  means  of  which  the  are  the  P.  or  S,  alpinus  (Ridi.)>  f^m  the  Roclry 
aninud  sails  in  a  descending  line  from  one  tree  mountains,  resembling  the  last,  but  a  UttM 
to  another,  snpported  as  by  a  parachute.  There  larger,  and  the  membrane  with  a  straight  bor* 
are  2  subdivisions  of  the  genus :  pteramys^  with  der ;  and  the  P.  or  S.  Oregonermi  (Bach.X  in 
rounded  tail  and  complicated  molar  teeth ;  and  Oregon  and  California,  about  the  size  of  the 
9ciuropteru$  (F.  Cut.),  with  flattened  tail  and  northern  species,  with  a  very  broad  membrane, 
molars  simple  as  in  other  squirrels.  The  species  — ^The  European  species  (P.  or  8.  volaru,  linn.)^ 
of  the  United  States  and  the  single  one  found  found  in  Siberia,  Poland,  and  Russia  proper,  is  a 
in  Europe  belong  to  the  last  subgenus.  The  little  larger  than  the  ^.vo/tic^ZZo,  whitish  gray  or 
dentition  and  general  appearance  are  like  those  cinereous  above,  and  white  below ;  itlives  whoQy 
of  squirrels;  uie  head  and  ears  are  round,  and  on  trees,  eatingthe  tender  shoots  of  resinous  aiia 
the  eyes  large ;  there  are  4  elongated  toes  with  other  trees.  The  species  of  pteromy  inhabit- 
sharp  claws,  and  the  rudiment  of  a  thumb,  on  ing  India  and  its  arcnipelago  attain  a  larger  sise 
the  fore  feet ;  5  long  toes,  fitted  for  climbing,  than  any  of  the  preceding.  The  taguan  (P.  p6' 
on  the  hind  feet;  the  sailing  membrane  is  at-  tottritto.  Pall.)  is  as  large  as  a  half-grown  cat; 
tached  in  front  to  a  slender  movable  bone  about  the  male  is  bright  chestnut  above,  and  red  be- 
an inch  long,  extending  at  a  right  angle  from  nea^ ;  the  female  brown  above,  whitish  below, 
the  hand ;  the  membrane  is  hairy  on  both  sides.  There  are  several  species  in  Java,  of  which  the 
The  common  flying  squirrel  (P.  or  8.  tolucella^  best  known  are  the  P.  genibarhu  (Horsf.)  and 
Pallas)  is  about  10  inches  long,  of  which  i  is  P.  tagitta  (Penn.).  The  former  is  remarkable 
the  tail;  the  color  above  is  light  yellowish  for  the  radiated  disposition  <^  long  slender 
brown,  the  tail  being  rather  smoke-colored,  and  bristles  on  the  sides  of  the  head ;  though  living 
white  beneath ;  the  fur,  as  in  all  the  species,  is  in  a  hot  climate,  the  fur  is  thick  and  downy; 
Tery  soft  and  fine.  It  is  a  nocturnal  animal,  the  general  color  is  gray  above,  with  a  tawny 
rarely  appearing  until  sunset,  at  which  time  its  tint  on  the  back,  and  white  beneath ;  it  is  abont 
l^ambols  and  graceful  flights  may  be  often  seen  as  large  as  the  common  red  squirrel.  The  see* 
m  places  frequented  by  it ;  the  large  eyes  indi-  ond  species,  like  the  first,  is  rare,  and  lives  prin- 
cate  its  habits,  which  make  it  rather  an  unin-  cipally  on  fruits ;  the  color  is  brown  above,  and 
teresting  pet,  as  it  is  lively  only  at  night ;  it  is  wnite  below.  Several  other  species  are  de- 
harmless  and  gentle,  and  soon  becomes  tame,  scribed. 
eating  the  usual  food  of  squirrels.  There  is  FOSTUS.  See  Embbtologt. 
nothing  resembling  the  act  of  flying  in  its  move-  FOG,  a  body  of  aqueous  vapor  in  the  atmo- 
raenta,  as  we  see  in  the  flying  fish ;  it  sails  from  sphere,  like  the  clouds  seen  in  the  sky  above, 
a  high  to  a  lower  point,  a  distance  of  40  or  50  and  distinguished  from  them  only  by  its  position 
yards,  and  when  it  wishes  to  alight  the  impetus  near  the  earth.  It  forms  when  the  conditions 
of  its  course  enables  it  to  ascend  in  a  curved  are  &vorable  for  rapid  evaporation,  and  the 
line  to  about  }  of  the  height  from  which  it  de-  atmosphere,  already  at  its  dew  point,  can  oon- 
scended ;  running  quickly  to  the  top  of  tlie  tree,  tain  no  more  vapor  in  an  invisible  state.  If  the 
it  redescends  in  a  similar  manner,  and  will  thus  quantity  of  vapor  thus  added  is  too  great  to  be 
travel  a  quarter  of  a  mile  in  the  woods  in  a  few  buoyed  up  in  the  atmosphere,  the  fog  passes  into 
minutes  without  touching  the  earth.  Flying  rain.  The  formation  of  fog  over  bodies  of 
squirrels  are  gregarious,  6  or  7  being  found  in  a  water  during  cool  nights,  and  especially  toward 
nest,  and  considerable  numbers  in  the  same  hoi-  morning,  is  expUiined  by  the  air  beccmmg  ohiU- 
low  or  artificial  cavity,  associating  with  bats  ed  more  rapidly  than  the  water,  when  the 
and  other  nocturnal  animals ;  the  food  consists  stratum  lying  upon  the  surface  of  the  water 
of  nuts  and  seeds,  buds,  and  even  meat  and  receives  from  it  heat  and  moisture,  and  beoom- 
young  birds.  They  produce  from  8  to  6  young  ing  specifically  lighter,  rises  and  mixes  with  the 
at  a  time,  and  have  2  litters  in  the  southern  colder  air  above.  The  temperature  is  then  re- 
states, in  May  and  September.  This  species  ex-  duced,  and  its  moisture  is  precipitated  in  visible 
tends  from  Upper  Canada  and  northern  New  vapor.  As  masses  of  air  of  oifierent  temperatures 
York  to  the  extreme  southern  limits  of  the  are  brought  together  by  any  cause  and  inter- 
United  States,  east  of  the  Mississippi.  The  mix,  the  formation  of  fog  is  a  common  result 
northern  flying  squirrel  (P.  or  8.  Eudmmitu^  from  the  temperature  of  the  warmer  portions 
Gmel.),  found  firom  Maine  to  Minnesota  and  to  being  reduced  below  the  dew  point.  IM*  g^n* 
the  north,  is  considerably  larger ;  the  length  of  erally  understood  that  the  formation  of  fog  over 
the  bead  and  body  is  8  inches  and  the  tail  5i ;  any  moist  surface  is  dependent  upon  its  tempcr- 
tbe  color  above  is  yellowish  brown,  mixed  with  ature  being  somewhat  warmer  than  that  of  the 
ciDereous,  the  hair  lead-colored  at  the  root,  be-  superincumbent  atmosphere,  as  also  upon  the 
Death  white.  It  is  common  in  Lower  Canada ;  atmosphere  itself  being  nearly  saturated  with 
in  the  Lake  Superior  copper  region,  at  any  rate  moisture.  Whether  this  is  a  law  of  universal 
in  the  new  and  remote  mining  locations,  where  application  appears  to  be  rendered  qnestiooable 
rats  and  mice  have  not  yet  penetrated,  this  spe-  by  observaUons  of  Dr.  W.  M.  Carpenter  npoo 
eies  lives  funiliarly  in  the  walls  of  the  log  cab-  the  occorrenoe  of  fogs  upon  our  southern  riTei% 


684  lOO 

MthAlOfaUppt,  daring  tlMi|»iiiffiiioiitht«^  «toltiia,irliMitooiMriMrtivlflillikaittotte 

Mrljr  part  of  tlie  summer*    At  this  Beaaon  the  eoolbreeaee.    Thevbeoonenorepcvrtleiitfer- 

water  lias  the  temperature  of  a  more  northern  ther  eastward,  and  at  last  attha  banks  of  Nev- 

latltnde,  often  many  degrees  below  that  of  the  toondland  the  most  fitvorableocMi&ttoosaffs  found 

atmosphere  immediately  over  it,  and  below  that  for  their  production,  in  the  warm  waters  of  the 

OTer  the  land;  yet  fogs  orighiating  daring  the  Gulf  stream  swept  around  ftxxn  the  trofrfos,  and 

day  under  these  oiroumstanoes  are  of  frequent  meeting  the  dr  ehilled  l^  the  leebem  which 

ocourrenoe  from  February  to  Kay,  and  none  the  p<Mr  current  here  dischargea.    The  fifting 

are  observed  at  this  season  when  the  water  is  of  the  oolderwsters  also  from  the  depthaof  the 

not  cooler  than  the  air.    These  fop  rarely  ex-  ocean  upon  the  shoals  rednces  the  temperatm 

tend  over  the  land,  being  almost  wholly  limited  <^  the  air,  oansing  coodenaatioa  of  the  Tapon 

totheairoTertheriTer.    Tbev  commence  near  which  rise  from  the  warmer  waters  anMsd. 

the  surfiuM  of  the  water,  and  increase  in  depth  Fogs  are  also  rery  proTalent  in  some  portioas 

by  additbns  frohi  above.  Dr.  Carpenter  attrib*  of  the  equinoctial  regions,  partionlarly  aloiig  the 

ntes  the  production  of  the  fog  in  these  instances  western  coast  of  South  America,  where  they 

to  the  rmgeration  of  theahr  in  consequence  of  make  op  to  some  extent  the  wnnt  of  iml 

oommuniciMng  its  heat  to  the  water;  this  chill-  I^ma,  aa  stated  by  Humboldt,  la  enveloped  in 

Ing  gradually  extends  upward,  notwithstand-  fog  the  greater  part  of  the  ame  for  •  OMNiths 

ing  tne  low  conducting  power  of  atmospheric  together,  particularly  in  the  morning  and  even- 

idr,  and  moisture  is  precipitated  in  consequence.  ing^-A  theory  haa  been  advanced  h>r  IL  Pskisr 

These  observations  of  Dr.  Carpenter  are  con-  that  the  electric  eonditioQ  of  the  air  has 


tained  in  a  paper  published  in  the  **  American  todo  withtheproductioaofaclaasof  fogiithe 
Joamal  of  Sotence"  (voL  xliv.  p.  40, 1848).— The  <nigin  of  which  cannot  be  aceonated  for  by  adif- 
production  of  fog  is  a  phenomenon  of  slmost  ference  between  the  temperatare  of  tha  air  and 
daily  occurrence  durinff  the  warm  season  in  that  of  the  moist  surfoce  of  the  earth*  TWep- 
Borthem  mountainous  forests;  nnd  in  the  cool  posite  electrical  conditiooa  of  the  earth  and  at- 
etriy  morning  succeeding  a  warm  day,  the  phe-  mo^>here  he  regards  as  fovoring  the  traasfor  of 
nomenon  may  be  observed  to  great  advantage  aaoeous  particles  fhim  one  to  the  other;  and 
from  an  elevated  point  overlooking  the  woodS|  when  the  different  electrical  statea  are  veiy  d^ 
lakes^  and  water  courses.  As  the  day  dawns^  dded,  the  vapors  rising  from  the  aorfoea  mHt 
the  vapors  are  seen  to  he  gathered  over  all  be  hurried  upward  with  increased  fotoe.  Thns 
the  low  places,  and  covering  ^e  moist  lands  vapors  may  be  raised  into  the  hif^ier  regioBsof 
and  the  surface  of  the  water  wiUi  an  impene*  the  atmosphere,  and  be  brought  down  to  the 
trable  mist  Out  of  this  rise  like  isUnds  the  aurfoceof  other  parts  of  the  world,  where  their 
more  elevated  portions,  some  trees  here  and  appearance  cannot  be  accounted  for  by  the 
there  taller  than  the  rest  spreading  their  branch-  usual  cause  of  fogs.  M.  Peltier  distioiniMhei 
ee  and  foliage  above  the  fog,  and  resembling  fogs  which  have  been  produced  by  negativfi, 
ships  lying  idly  upon  the  still  water,  their  can-  and  those  by  positive  electricitv ;  the  earth  t:- 
vas  hanging  loosely  about  the  masts.  As  Uie  self  being  negative,  the  vapors  that  arise  ajmrne 
sun  rises,  the  tops  of  the  mists  melt  away  in  the  the  same  condition;  but  the  particles  charired 
warmth  of  its  rays ;  but  in  the  deep  vsllevs  and  with  this  electricity  are  repellcKl,  and  the  strsu 
under  the  shelter  of  the  high  mountains  the  fog  near  the  surface  are  pontive  by  induction.  The 
long  continues,  defining  by  its  presence  the  views  of  M.  Peltier  have  been  reoei ved  as  pmp- 
coarse  of  the  streams  it  covers  along  their  er  subjects  of  speculation,  without  the  cooclo- 
meanderings  through  the  dense  woods  and  nons  he  draws  being  regarded  as  estabUskbed. — 
among  the  distant  hills.  Gradually  disappear-  Fogs  which  appear  suddenlv  without  any  ap- 
ing, it  prevents  the  rays  of  the  son  from  striking  parent  cause  of  difference  of  temperature  or  of 
too  suddenly  upon  the  moist  vegetation^  thns  being  swept  in  by  winds,  and  extend  at  ooce  to 
producing  a  rapid  evaporation  that  would  en-  great  heignts,  are  referred  by  Sir  John  IlemclMl 
sender  frosts.  :(See  Evaporation,  and  Frost.)  to  a  fall  of  temperature  of  a  mass  of  air,  not  by 
The  warmth  finally  reaches  the  cool  air  tliat  has  radiation,  contact  of  a  cold  bodv,  or  mixturs 
eoUected  in  the  lowest  places,  and  the  mists  with  colder  air,  ^  but  by  the  simple  effect  of  its 
whoUy  disappear.  But  in  very  moist  places,  own  expansion.  This  may  take  place  in  two 
particularly  over  large  surfaces  of  water,  or  wars,  viz. :  1,  by  a  rapid  and  couideraUe  re- 
when  the  day  is  cool  and  the  air  filled  with  lief  of  barometric  pressure  from  above ;  or.  t, 
moisture,  the  fog  does  not  so  readily  disperse,  by  its  own  ascent  into  a  higher  region  of  the 
It  con^ds  successfully  with  tlie  sun,  appearing  atmosphere.'*  Such  fogs,  which  disappear  whea 
and  dissppearing ;  swept  away  fur  a  time  by  the  the  atmospheric  equilibrium  is  restored,  anr  of 
wind,  and  again  shrouding  tlio  surface  with  its  the  same  nature  as  the  cloud  produced  in  the 
dense  curtain.  Aa  it  lifts  for  a  few  moments,  receiver  of  an  air  pump  by  a  rapi<i  partial  cs- 
the  vessels  enveloped  in  it  seize  tlie  opportunity  pansion  of  the  air.  For  thete  Sir  John  Uervcbel 
to  secure  the  beanngs  of  prominent  points  be-  proposes  the  name  of  barometric  fogs.— It  u  a 
fore  it  again  shuts  down  upon  them.  The  question  with  meteorologists  whether  the  per- 
eastern  American  coast  in  the  summer  months  tides  of  fog  vapor  are  hollow  or  solid  git»hiti«a» 
is  particulariy  subject  to  fogs,  the  waters  of  the  or  a  mixture  of  both.  De  Saossare  thiMtght  be 
ooean  continuing  at  a  higher  temperature  than  had  detected  the  hollow  vesicles  in  the  doada 


FOq^JlASST  POIZ                        085 

tipon  the  Al[)s ;  and  Kratzenstein  affirms  that  by  mined  by  eapaciooa  Tanlts  called  y^M^,  in  vhich 
examioing  with  a  microscope  the  vapor  rising  quantities  of  grain  are  stored  from  year  to  year, 
in  the  sunlight  from  the  surface  of  hot  water,  There  are  many  schools,  including  one  of  agri- 
be  could  recognize  the  beautiful  colored  rays,  culture  and  a  seminary  for  girls.  The  city  is 
sachasaredevelopedat  the  highest  point  of  the  surrounded  by  fine  plantations  and  vineyards, 
common  soap  bubble,  as  it  floats  in  the  rays  of  but  the  climate  is  unhealthy.  Foggia  is  sup- 
the  sun,  and  which  would  not  appear  if  the  posed  to  have  been  founded  about  the  9th  oen- 
spheres  were  drops.  Ho  argues,  moreover,  that  tury,  and  peopled  firom  the  ancient  Arpi  or 
if  the  globules  were  solid  drops,  rainbows  would  Arsyrippa,  4  m.  distant,  the  ruins  of  which  are 
occasionally  be  seen  when  the  sun  and  cload  still  visible.  It  was  one  of  the  favorite  resi- 
were  in  favorable  positions  relatively  to  the  ob*  deuces  of  the  emperor  Frederic  11. 
server  for  their  aevelopment;  but  this  never  FOIL  (Lat.^^»t/m.  a  leaOi  the  bright,  highly 
occnrs.  On  the  other  hand.  Sir  John  Herschel  colored  metallic  leaf,  used  by  jewellers  for  in- 
states, that  on  descending  under  a  ftdl  moon  a  creasing  the  brilliancy  of  pastes  and  inferior 
few  yards  below  the  surface  of  the  mist  collected  stones.  It  is  made  of  sheet  copper  covered 
in  a  valley,  a  lunar  rainbow  is  frequently  seen ;  with  another  of  silver,  and  rolled  or  hammered 
that  the  finest  he  ever  saw,  which  was  on  Nov.  thin.  The  silver  side  is  then  burnished  or  var- 
IS,  1848,  **  was  formed  in  a  dense  fog,  evidently  nished ;  and  it  is  cither  so  used  or  is  coated  with 
dose  at  hand,  and  when  not  a  drop  of  actual  transparent  colors  mixed  with  isinglass  size, 
rain  was  falling.  On  this  occasion  the  exterior  Thin  sheet  copper  may  also  be  prepared  by 
or  secondary  bow  was  seen." — A  thick  state  of  heating  it  between  two  iron  plates  and  then  boil- 
the  atmosphere  resembling  fog,  except  that  it  is  ine  it  in  a  solution  of  equal  parts  of  tartar  and 
not  accompanied  with  aqueous  vapors,  is  often  salt.  By  proper  care  in  the  duration  of  the 
seen,  sometimes  obscuring  the  heavens  for  heating  and  boiling,  the  copper  may  be  made 
weeks  together,  to  which  the  name  of  dry  fog  to  assume  a  white  appearance,  which  may  be 
has  been  given.  In  north  Grermany  it  was  long  rendered  very  brilliant  by  polishing  with  whit- 
observed  to  recur  periodically  before  its  course  ing  upon  a  very  smooth  copper  plate.  (For  tin 
was  traced  to  the  great  burnings  of  peat  liedSi  foil,  see  Tin.) 

which  for  agricultural  purposes  are  carried  on  FOIX,  the  capital  of  the  French  department 

over  a  l&rff^  extent  of  country,  filling  the  atmo-  of  Ari^ge,  and  of  an  arrondissement  of  its  own 

sphere  of  distant  regions,  in  the  direction  toward  name,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  river  Ari^ge  at 

which  the   prevauing  winds   blow,  with  the  its  junction  with  the  Arget,  in  a  narrow  valley 

smoky  haze.    The  greater  portion  of  New  £ng-  at  Uie  foot  of  the  Pyrdn^s,  404  m.  from  Paris; 

land  has  many  times  been  covered  with  the  pop.  of  the  arrondissement  in  1856,  84,733,  ana 

same  haze,  the  cause  of  which  has  been  attrib-  of  the  town  4,612.    It  has  considerable  trade  and 

nted  to  extensive  fires  spreading  through  the  various  manufactures,  the  principal  of  which  is 

forests  of  Maine  or  of  the  provinces  to  the  east-  iron.    It  was  founded  probably  about  the  2d  cen- 

ward.    An  extraordinary  dry  fog  is  recorded  to  tury,  and  in  the  11th  century  became  the  capital 

have  covered  the  whole  of  Europe  in  1788  for  of  a  county  of  the  same  name,  and  was  a  strong- 

nearly  two  months,  which  was  remarkable  for  hold  of  importance. 

its  acrid  odor,  and  the  blue  color  it  imparted  to  FOIX,  Coums  de,  a  French  family  who  rank* 

objects.    This  was  a  season  of  terrible  volcanic  ed  among  the  most  powerful  in  southern  France, 

eroptions  and  earthquake  convulsions  in  south-  and  figured  conspicuously  in  history  from  the 

em  Italy  and  other  parts  of  Europe,  and  the  fog  11th  to  the  15th  century. — Raymond  Rookr 

was  no  doubt  the  fine  volcanic  ashes  with  which  reigned  from  1188  to  1223.    He  engaged  in  the 

the  whole  atmosphere  was  filled.  8d  crusade  among  the  followers  of  Philip  Au« 

F06ARASSY,  Janos,  a  Hungarian  jurist,  gustns,  and  distinguished  himself  by  his  brave- 
grammarian,  and  lexicographer,  bom  in  K&s-  ry  at  the  taking  of  Acre.  After  his  return  to 
mark  in  1801.  He  studied  at  Sdros-Patak,  was  France,  he  sided  with  the  count  of  Toulouse 
admitted  to  the  bar  in  1829,  and  held  several  and  the  Albigenses  against  the  crusading  forces 
offices  before,  during,  and  after  the  revolution  led  by  Simon  de  Montfort,  and  contributed 
of  1848-*9.  He  wrote  a  number  of  valuable  to  the  raising  of  the  siege  of  Toulouse,  during 
lodicial  manuals,  but  is  distinguished  chiefly  for  which  Montfort  was  killed. — His  son,  Roobb 
nb  linguistic  contributions  to  Hungarian  litera-  Bbbnard  II.,  styled  the  Great,  who  succeed- 
tnre,  of  which  his  A  magyar  nyeh  mUeme  ed  him  in  1228,  followed  his  example,  but  in 
('^Spirit  of  the  Hungarian  Language,"  Pesth,  1229  was  forced  into  submission  to  the  king 
184ff)  is  the  most  important.  and  the  pope. — Roqeb  Bernard  111.^1265^ 

FOGGIA,   a  city  of  Naples,  capital  of  the  1302)  gained  considerable  reputation  as  a  tron- 

province  of  Gapitanata,  in  the  plain  of  Apulia  badour,  but  was  unsuccessful  in  his  wars  with 

(Lft  Puglia),  76  m.  N.  E.  of  Naples ;  pop.  24,058.  the  kings  of  France  and  Aragon ;  he  was  sev* 

It  ii  well  built,  with  wide  clean  streets,  hand-  eral  times  imprisoned. — Gaston  II.  (1829-1343) 

some  houses  and  gateways,  but  no  walls.    It  did  good  service  to  Philip  VI.  of  France  in 

has  about  20  churches,  and  a  cathedral  original-  his  war  with  the  English,  and  assisted  Alfonso 

ly  Gothic,  but  rebuilt  in  a  different  style  after  XI.  of  Castile  against  the  Moors. — Gaston  III., 

its  partial  destruction  by  an  earthquake  in  1731  •  son  of  the  preceding,  succeeded  his  father  in 

^nie  main  streets  and  public  squares  are  under*  1843,  when  only  12  years  old.    He  was  called 


68ft  lOXBHART  IOIU||r 


Fh^toi  cm  aooomit  eltfaar  of  his  ligltt  liair  or  1811^*1  H  wm  umAj  tolrpydty  ( 

of  a  son  he  bore  on  his  etentdieoih    He  df-  Tbecetebrntedpietopeof  Replael,!^. 

nalixed  himself  against  the  English  in  Gnienne  H  ^^^^^^9J!£i}S^  ^^  name  mat  tliis  pbea. 

and  Langnedoc,  and  in  18M  was  imprisoned  for  FOLX£STONE|  a  mariui  lowa^seaport^ 

a  while  at  Paris,  for  oomplieitj  in  the  intrignea  parish  of  Kngiand,  oow  of  Ktoti  bollt  partlj  oa 

of  Charles  the  Bad  of  Navarre,  his  brothtf-in-  the  lerd  shore  and  paithr  oo  a  diff  on  the 

kw.    On  his  release  he  fonght  hrayelr  in  the  straits  of  Dover.  T  m.  8w  W.  of  Donr,  and  8t 

ranks  <^  the  Teatonie  knighu  against  the  Pms-  m.  8.  £.  of^  lAndon  by  the  8.  E.  raflw^r ;  pepL 

lOfiflH 


Bians.1  Retnminff  to  France  in  1868,  he  con-    in  1861,  8,786.    It  waa  aneisotlTa  plaoe»«  wmr- 
tribotkd  to  the  defeat  and  destmotloii  of  the    portanoe,  and  still  haa  traov  of  Uniaan  worka 


rebellions  Jaeqnerie,  who  were  besieging  the  of  defenoe.    In  the  18th  oeotflrT  ii  waa  the 

roTid  chateau  at  Meanx.  In  1868,  bj  his  victory  seat   of  extensive   Hsfaerlca^  aold    drew  sdl 

at  Lannae  over  the  connt  d'Armagnac,  he  secured  greater  wealth  from  varloaa  bfanabai  of  tibe 

for  himself  possession  of  Bten;  and  the  mag-  smnggUntr  trade^  on  the  sopprsaioo  of  whleh il 

nifioenoe  of  his  court  at  Orthes  and  afterward  foil  into  decaj.    Since  the  opening  of  the  rriik 

at  Pan  was  greatly  admired  by  the  chronider  way,  however,  which  coonacts  at  this  past 

Fn^ssart    In  1880  he  was  appointed  govmnor  with  a  line  of  ateam  padeaca  for  Boafcifa,  il 

of  Langoedoc  by  Charles  V^  but  his  dignity  has  recovered  its  prosperity.    Tba  harbor  has 

was  contested  by  the  duke  of  Berry,  whom  he  been  Improved,  a  fine  pisr  has  baea  b«ill»  a 

defeated  at  Revd.    In  1888,  suspecting  his  son  custom  house  estabHsheo,  new  warahoosi,a  m4 

of  an  attempt  to  poison  him,  he  had  him  cast  hotels  have  been  erected,  and  stiasli  OMMd. 

into  prison,  where  the  boy  is  said  to  have  died  It  is  said  that  the  town  fonneriy  ooalaiMd  f 

of  starvation.    Oaston  Ph^bus  was  a  fomoua  chnrdiesi  4  of  which  were  swept  away  by  the 

huntsman,  and  as  an  evidence  of  his  knowle^  sea.    There  are  now  8,  one  of  whldi  waa  baOt 

left  a  book  entitled  Miroirde  Pk»v»,  dsid^  In  I860,  while  the  other  is  a  eradforaslrveCvv 

duiett  d$  laehame  dm  beiU§  mtuvaigetet  dsiof*  of  eariv  date.    An  M  castle^  fonnded  by  the 

teaux  <l0i»m0  (Paris,  foL,  1607).  Saxon  kinga  <^  Kent  and  reboUt  by  tha  Her- 

FOKSHANY,  a  frontier  town  of  Moldavia  maii^  haa  been  abnoat  totally  deaUojad,  •»- 

and  Wallachia,  European  Turkey,  98  m.  N.  £.  aether  with  tha  height  on  which  ilwasarssled, 

of  Bucharest,  dividea  by  the  river  ICilkov  into  oj  the  gradual  encroachment  of  tha  se^    Bar- 

8  paru;  pop.  variously  estimated  from  6,000  to  t^,  tm  disooverer  of  Jbe  droolatios  of  the 
Th 


80,000.    The  smaller  part  belongs  to  Moldavia,  blood,  was  bom  here.    Folkeatoiia  la  a 

The  best  Moldavian  wine  is  produced  in  its  vi-  of  the  cinoue  port  of  Dover, 

cinity.    A  congress  bet  ween  Russian  and  Turk-  FOLLEK,  Auouar,  afterward  Anoi^  Ix^ 

ish  diplomatists  was  h^ld  there  in  1772.    The  wio,  a  German  poet,  bom  in  Oiessen.  IIcMe- 

larger  part  belongs  to  Wollacliia.      Here  the  Cassel,  Jan.  21, 1794,  died  in  Bern,  Svitwrisnil 

Greek  iletairists  were  defeated  by  the  Turks,  Dec  26,  1855.    After  studying  philolngr  sod 

June  1, 1821.  theology  in  his  native  town,  he  served  in  tit 

FOLDVAR  DUN  A,  a  cit  v  of  Hangarv,  in  the  campaign  of  1814  against  France.  On  his  re- 
county  of  Tolna,  on  the  rifi^bt  bank  of  the  Dan-  turn  he  studied  law  for  2  years  at  Ileidelberi^.  ia 
ube;  pop.  about  12,000.  Commanding  the  com-  1817begantoedittheA/^m«iN#Zrtf«ii^at  & 
munication  between  the  upper  and  lower  Dan-  berfeld,  in  1819  waa  involved  in  political  s:- 
ube,  it  is  a  place  of  strategetical  importance.  The  tempts  for  which  he  was  imprisoned  9  ;<«»  ia 
surrounding  district  is  fertile,  producing  grains  Berlin,  and  went  thence  to  SwitaerlaocL  whcft 
and  wine.  The  chief  occupation  of  the  inhabi-  he  taught  the  German  langnaipe  and  literatarv 
tants  is  ofrriculturc.  at  Aarau,  and  subsequently  became  a  cittaca 

FOLEY,  Jonx  Hexrt,  A.  R.  A.,  an  Irish  of  Zurich  and  member  of  the  chief  council.   Is 

sculptor,  born  in  Dublin,  May  24,  1818.     At  on  1847  he  purchased  the  castle  .of  Licbenlels  ia 

early  age  ho  entered  the  drawing  and  modelling  Thurgau,  whence  in  1854  he  removed  to  Bera. 

schools  of  the  royal  Dublin  society,  and  in  1884  He  translated  the  Iloroerio  hymns  On  coQaee>- 

went  to  I^ndon  and  became  a  student  at  the  tion  with  K.  8chwenck«  Giessen,  1814  11  and  s 

royal  academy.     In  1839  he  first  appeared  as  volume  of  old  Lstin  eccleeiastical  hymns  (Bber- 

an  exhibitor  there,  and  his  models  of  ''Inno-  feld,  1819).     His  other  principal  prudocdoassrs 

cence"  and  the  ''Death  of  Aber'  were  admired,  a  n^mance  of  eliivolry  and  magic;  Jfaliyys  vmi 

The  most  popular  of   his  imaginative  works  Vitian ;  adaptations  of  DrUUtm  Mmd  ItMt^  sad 

are:   "^Ino  and  the    Infant   Bacchus'*  (1840X  of  the  first  part  of  the  Kihtiun^rntiM :  /VW 

*'I^ar  and  Cordelia"  and  the  ''  Death  of  Lear'*  Stimmen/rUehrr  Jm^end  (Jena«  1819) :  BiUrr 

(1841),  **  Venus  rescuing  -Eneas'*  (1842),  "  Pros-  Saal  deuUeker  IHcAtvng  (Winterthur«  ISST) :  « 

pero  relating  his  Adventures  to  Miranda**  (1843),  sonnets  entitled  An  die  gittlmen  XiekU-  WmHu- 

d:c.     His  statue  of  8elden  was  placed  in  the  riehe  (Heidelberg,  1846),  directed  against  the 

new  palace  of  Westminster  in  1H55  near  that  critical  tendencies  of  Rnge;  and  a  romantic  epic, 

of  Hampden,  considered  his  masterpiece.  Trutant  ElUm  (Giessen,  1814). 

folk; NO  (one  Fulginia  or  Fulginium),  a  FOLLEN,  CnABLBs,  an  American  deryyviaa, 

walled  citv  of  the  Papal  States,  in  a  beautiful  brother  of  the  preceding,  bom  at  Rucnrvd  ia 

valley  of  the  Apennines,  20  m.  S.E.  of  Perugia;  Hesse-Darmstadt,    Sent  4,    I79f,  periiM  fai 

pop.  15,400.    It  is  Urge,  but  poorly  built.    In  the  eooilai^atkNi  of  the  ateamsr  Lexiaftott  la 


FO^LEN  FONBLAKQUE  587 

Long  Island  sound,  Jan.  13, 1840.  He  was  ed-  tnetaphysios.  While  at  Chm*  and  Basel  a  de« 
ncaled  at  Giessen.  In  the  war  against  France  mana  was  made  by  the  allied  powers  for  his 
he  enlisted  in  a  corps  of  riflemen,  bat  was  pre-  surrender  as  a  revolutionist.  It  was  twice  re- 
rented  by  illness  from  seeing  much  active  ser-  fused,  but  on  its  renewal  a  third  time,  with  a 
Tioe.  After  the  campaign  he  returned  to  the  declaration  that  the  good  understanding  between 
vniTersity  at  Giessen,  where  he  soon  became  the  governments  would  be  destroyed  if  it  were 
distinguished  for  his  liberal  sentiments,  and  at-  not  complied  with.  Basel  yielded,  and  a  res- 
tached  himself  to  a  union,  or  BunchenaehafL  olution  was  passed  for  the  arrest  of  Follen. 
which  fell  under  suspicion  as  aiming  at  political  He  escaped  from  the  city,  concealed  by  a  frien^ 
revolution,  and  Follen  was  especially  obnoxious  in  the  boot  of  a  chaise,  and  soon  after  sailed 
for  his  zeal  and  activity  both  in  public  and  pri-  from  Havre  to  the  United  States.  In  Jan. 
rate.  He  wrote  a  defence  of  the  J9ur«;A«n«eAq/^  1826,  he  arrived  at  New  York,  and  in  the 
and  many  patriotic  songs,  which,  with  others  by  autumn  of  that  year  received  the  appointment 
hia  brother  August,  were  published  at  Jena  in  of  teacher  of  the  German  language  at  Harvard 
1819;  and  he  was  one  of  the  authors,  though  college.  In  1828  he  was  appointed  teacher  of 
it  waa  not  known  at  the  time,  of  the  celebrated  ecclesiastical  history  and  ethics  in  the  divinity 
^  Great  Song,'*  which  was  considered  seditious,  school,  having  in  the  mean  time  been  admitted 
In  1818  he  received  his  degree  as  doctor  of  civil  as  a  candidate  for  the  ministry.  In  1880  he 
and  ecclesiastical  law  from  the  university  at  was  appointed  to  the  professorship  of  German 
Giessen,  where  he  remained  as  a  lecturer  on  literature  at  Harvard,  which  position  he  held 
juri^radence.  Though  at  this  time  only  22  for  5  years.  He  was  afterward  the  pastor  of  a 
years  of  age,  he  was  applied  to  by  the  com*  Unitarian  society  in  New  York,  and  in  East 
monities  of  towns  and  villages  of  the  province  Lexington,  Mass.,  and  was  settled  over  the  lat- 
of  Hesae  to  act  as  their  counsellor  against  the  ter,  when  on  Jan.  18, 1840,  he  was  a  passen- 
govemment,  which  had  passed  a  law  establish-  ger  in  the  steamboat  Lexington  which  was  burnt 
uig  a  commission  to  collect  the  debts  of  the  in  Long  Island  sound,  and  was  one  of  the  vie* 
eommonities  incurred  during  the  late  war.  A  tims  of  that  terrible  catastrophe.  While  in 
xemonatranoe  had  been  made  against  this  op*  Cambridge  Dr.  Follen  published  a  German 
pretsive  law,  but  the  government  declared  the  gramnuur  and  reader ;  he  was  a  frequent  con- 
nnioD  seditious,  and  threatened  to  deprive  any  tributor  to  the  reviews,  and  occasionally  gave 
eoonaellor  of  his  ofSce  who  should  appear  on  its  courses  of  lectures  upon  various  subjects.  His 
behalt  Follen,  nevertheless,  readily  undertook  sermons  and  lectures,  and  a  sketch  of  a  work 
the  cause,  and  drew  up  a  petition  in  which  the  on  psychology  which  he  never  finished,  with  a 
l%ht8  of  the  communities  were  set  forth  with  memoir  of  his  life  by  Mrs.  Follen,  have  been 
great  skill  and  ability.  This  was  immediately  published  in  6  vols.  (Boston,  1841).  During  his 
presented  to  the  grand  duke,  and  also  distrib-  life  in  the  United  States  he  was  an  earnest  ad- 
vted  among  the  people.  The  law  was  eventu-  herent  of  the  anti-slavery  movement. — ^Euza 
ally  repealed,  but  Follen^s  prospects  for  the  Las,  wife  of  the  preceding,  daughter  of  Samuel 
fiitare  in  his  own  province  were  utterly  ruined,  and  Sarah  Cabot,  bom  in  Boston,  Aug.  15, 1787, 
He  then  went  to  Jena  to  lecture  at  the  univer«  was  married  to  Dr.  Follen  in  1828.  In  the  win- 
sity.  A  few  months  after  his  arrival,  Eotzebue,  ter  of  1827-^8  she  published  ^^  Selections  from 
who  was  an  object  of  the  hatred  and  the  con-  F^n^lon,"  and  the  *^  Well  Spent  Hour."  In 
tempt  of  the  liberal  party,  was  assassinated  by  1829  she  edited  the  ^^  Christian  Teacher's  Man- 
ayoonff  enthusiast  named  Sand.  Follen  was  uaL"  During  the  next  6  years  she  published  sev- 
SMOsed  of  being  an  accomplice,  and  twice  ar-  eral  little  books  for  children.  In  1885  she 
rested,  but  after  a  rigid  examination  was  honor-  wrote  ^  The  Sceptic  "  for  the  '^  Sunday  Library." 
ably  acquitted.  About  the  same  time  he  was  In  the  winter  of  1888-^9  she  pubhshed  ^^  Mar- 
anesied  on  a  charge  of  being  the  author  of  the  ried  life,"  '^  Little  Songs,"  and  a  volume  of 
** Great  Song,"  but  no  evidence  was   found  poems;  and  in  1841  the  memoir  of  Dr.  Follen, 

t  him.    He  continued  however  to  be  an  as  the  first  volume  of   his  collected  works. 

of  suspicion  to  government,  and  was  for-  From  1848  to  1850  she  was  the  editor  of  the 

to  continue  his  lectures  at  Jena.    He  ^Child's  Friend,"  and  in  1857 published  *^Twi- 

to  Giessen,  but  learning  that  he  was  light  Stories."    She  has  now  (1859)  in  press  a 


again  to  be  put  under  arrest,  he  fled  to  Paris.  ^'  Second  Series  of  Little  Songs,"  and  a  compi* 

wtfMEL  Paris  he  went  to  Switzerland,  and  was  lation  of  ^^  Home  Dramas." 

appointed  professor  of  Latin  and  history  in  the  FONBLANQUE,  Albakt  W.,  an  English 

cantonal  school  of  the  Grisons,  at  Chur.    His  author  and  journalist,  son  of  John  de  Grenier 

leotores  gave  offence,  for  their  Unitarian  tend-  Fonblanque,  an  eminent  equity  lawyer,  born  in 

enej.  to  some  of  the  Calvinistic  ministers  of  1797.    He  studied  for  some  time  in  the  cham- 

tiM  oistriet;  and  after  seeking  in  vain  for  the  hers  of  Chitty,  the  famous  special  pleader,  with 

privikm  of  defending  the  principles  he  had  ad-  the  design  of  being  called  to  the  Englbh  bar ; 

Taneed  before  the  evangelical  synod  of  the  can-  but  finding  that  literature,  especially  political 

ton,  lie  asked  a  dismissal  from  the  professorship,  literature,  was  more  suited  to  his  taste  than  the 

It  was  mnted,  but  a  testimony  given  to  his  dry  study  of  the  law,  he  became  a  ^nmalisti 

^iffitj.  Teaming,  and  worth.    The  university  at  and  as  ^e  successor  of  Leigh  Hunt  m  the  edi- 

~  then  appointed  him  lecturer  upon  law  and  torial  chair  of  the  ^*  London  Examiner,"  soon 


688  WSD  DU  LAO  FOl 

aoqidred  distiaotfcm  as  one  of  the  ibleit  poUti«  the  tDODth  of  Foz  liTer,  thw  |ihdaf  k  in 

Oil  writers  of  his  time.    Himt  in  his  Aiitobio9«  uonioetion  with  the  grsiubostelMuinelbeii 

npb  J,  aUoding  to  his  retirement  from  the  **  £x«  Lake  lOohigmn  and  the  MlwJMirpl  river.  Sinse 

aminer'*  in  1820,  says:  ''I  had  an  editorial  sno*  theeomplettonof  the  **Fozriver ' 


oeasor,  Mr.  Fonblanqoe,  who  had  all  the  wit  for  Teasels  are  enabled  to  pma  frcm  Lake  lOeliipa 

which  I  tolled,  without  making  anj  pretensions  np  Ckeenbaj  and  Fox  riTer  fwhkh  flown  Ihro^ 

to  it    He  was,  indeed,  the  genuine  socoessor,  Lake  Winnebago)  to  a  oanal  11  n.  lea 

not  of  me,  bnt  of  the  Swifts  and  Addisons  them-  ing^at  stream  with  the  VlsBisiijul 

aelres;  proftise  of  wit  even  berond  them,  and  TONE,  Pmn  Abtoh,  a  Godme 

superior  in  political  knowledge.*^    Inthe^Koo-  bom  at  Gooh,  near  Glereai  in  ITol,  Aed 

tes  Ambrosiann**  for  Oct  1882,  Lotd  Jeffitrf  Ana.  9. 1882.    He  was  inTolred  in  a 

is  msde  tosaj  of  Fonblanqne:  **I  admit  he  u  trial  which  created  at  the  time  araeh  i 

a  Terjr  able  fellow,  and  much  regret  I  cUd  not  in  G«rmany.    He  was  assodated  in  the  hamh 

-—J 


find  him  oat  a  few  years  ago,  to  nail  him  to  the    and  liqnor  bnslneas  with   an  _^ .   „ 

*  Edinburgh  Review,'  where  he  would  haye  Crefeld,who  sent  an  agent  to  Cobgne  ftir  Iks 

been  more  useful  than  cTen  Tom  Macanlay,  I  purpose  of  inrestigating  the  aciciouBtB  ef  Mi 

suspect    He  too  is  a  gentleman,  and,  therefore,  partner.    This  agent»  named  OOoaa,  irtw  asi»> 

however  he  may  foam  away  just  now,  I  don't  ed  to  have  disoovwed  eondderahle  ftvods  ii 

despair  of  seeing  him  wear  round  on  a  seat  at  Fonk's  transaotiona,  Middenly  and  myslcrioirir 

the  board  of  control,  or  the  like,  some  pret^  disappeared  on  the  ni^tof  Kor.t,  Ifllf.  Fi 

morning.''     In  1887  Fonblanqne  published  in  was  indicted  for  having  mnrdered  Urn, 

S  volsL  ''England  under  Seven  Administra*  by  his  eooper,  Hamaeher.    Thelattar 

tions,"  a  sel^^n  of  his  editorial  articles  in  the  gidlt»  but  afterward  withdrew  kla 

the  '^Examiner."    In  1862  he  was  appohited  The  trial  was  transferred  to  Trevoi^  ia 

director  of  the  statisticsl  department  of  the  avoid  the  influence  wbidi  was  broi^diil  to 

lioard  of  trade,  which  office  he  still  holds,  hav*  upon  it  in  Cologne,  where  Fook^  meais 

ing  in  1846  resigned  the  editonhip  of  the  '*£z-  a  high  porition«    Hamadier  wm  asBftaMal  Is 

aminer"  to  Mr.  John  Forster.  18  yean'  hard  hOxNr  (Oct.  SI,  18W).  aad  Fed^ 

FOND  DU  LAO,  an  E.  co.  of  lUsconrin,  after  baring  eanpedoooviotioii  in  aovwiltiUi 

rituated  at  the  S.  end  of  Lake  Winnebago;  which  took  place  in  connection  with  tfte  cbh^ 

area,  75i  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1866, 24^784.    It  is  was  at lenoth  foond  gidlty of  ttvder  bjTJay- 

drained  by  Fond  du  Lao  river,  and  by  the  menontof  12  (June  9, 1822laDdaaBliane8d8i 

sources  of  Ked  and  Milwaukee  rivers.    A  steep  death.    His  appeal  against  the  verdict  was  ie> 

ledge  of  limestone,  running  from  N.  £.  to  sL  jected  by  the  supreme  eoort  of  Berlin,  bat  hs 

W.,  divides  the  county  into  two  unequal  por-  was  pardoned  by  the  king  (Aug.  20, 18I7>;  sad 

tions,  the    easternmost  of  which  is  heavily  by  a  royal  order,  dated  Oct  0,  he  was  even  r«- 

timbered,  while  the  other  contains  extensive  leased  from  the  paymeot  of  costs,  which  exceed- 

prairies.     Tiie  soil  is  calcsreous  and  generally  ed  $80,000.      The  pardon  was  mated  oo  tLe 

fertile.    Orain,  pork,  and  butter  are  the  staples,  ground  that  the  act  of  murder  had  not  bc«a 

and  the  producuoos  in  1850  amounted  to  166,-  clearly  established. — ^The  name  of  Peter  Funk, 

718  bushels  of  wheat,  74,861  of  Indian  corn,  applied  to  fraudulcut  traders  in  AnMNries.  Ut 

101,825  of  oats,  and  1,847,479  lbs.  of  butter,  been  supposed  to  be  derived  from  this  mcr- 

There  were  2  newspaper  offices,  17  churches,  chant 

and  2,844  pupils  attending  public  schools.    The  FONT,  or  Fonrr  (Fr.  fimU^  from  /amdrt^  to 

county  was  nrst  settled  in  1885,  since  which  melt  or  cast),  in  printing,  an  assortment  of  tjfvs 

time  its  growth  has  been  exceedingly  rapid.— «  of  one  size,  in  which  there  is  a  doe  propoftwi^ 

FoxD  DU  Lac,  the  capital  of  the  above  ooun-  of  all  the  requisite  letters  and  charactcn.    Tht 

ty,  a  township  and  city,  at  tbe  S.  end  of  quantity  of  a  font  is  indefinite ;  it  mav  oixttiA  U 

Winnebago  lake,  72  m.  K.  K.  W.  from  Mil-  but  a  few  sets  of  characteii,  aa  of  large  wood 

waukec,  and  90  m.  N.  £.  from  Madison ;  pop.  ^rpe  or  fancy  type  seldom  used,  or  of  maay 

of  the  township  in  1855,  5,083 ;  of  the  city  thousand  pounds  for  the  printing  of  books  or 

proper,  4,280;  in  1859,  about  8,000.    It  haa  newspapers. 

grown  up  almost  wholly  since  1845,  although  FONTAINE,  Jcast  ni  uu    See  La  Foarr ais^ 

there  was  a  trading  post  here  at  an  earlv  date.  FONTAIKEBLEAU,  a  town  of  France.  d*> 

The  town  occupies  a  pleasantly  wooded  slope  partment  of  Seine-et-Mame,  83  m.  S.  8.  E.  frv«i 

reaching  towara  the   lake,    and   contains   8  Paris,  on  the  S.  E.  r^way,  in  the  midst  of  iU 

churches,  2  newspaper  and  one  Job  printing  forest  to  which  it  gives  its  name ;    nop.   la 

office,  10  steam  ssw  mills,  2  steam  flouring  mills  1856,  8,272.    It  has  a  college,  a  pubtic  libnrr, 

and  5  water  mills  in  tiie  immediate  vicinity,  1  8  handsome  barracks  for  cavalry  uid  iafaatx?, 

steam  wodlen  iiMtory,  and  70  or  80  stores,  a  hospital  founded  bv  Anne   of  Aostris^  aa 

It  has  a   great  number  of   Artesian  wells,  asylum  for  girls  established  by  Mme.  de  M^w- 

4     hs  ▼nryiog  from  80  to  100  feet    The  tespan,  an  obelisk  erected    on  the  marriace 

6t  rwoL  and  Fond  du  Lac,  and  the  of  Louis  XVI.  with  Marie  Antmaette.  and  the 

»«.^ee  and  Fond  dn  Lso  air  line  railroads  old  residence  of  Gabrielle  d*£stn&es^    lu  aiaa»> 

ot  it  with  the  principal  cities  and  towns  factures  of  porcehun  and  earthenware  hart 

B^  and  steamboats  p^  between  it  and  some   reputation;   and  tiie  driinona 


F0NTANE8  FONTENELLE                 689 

gathered  in  the  vicinity,  especially  at  Tomery,  the  bloody  tyranny  of  Collot  d'Herbois.  This 
•nd  celebrated  under  the  name  of  ehoMeUu  de  becoming  known,  he  was  obliged  to  conceid  him* 
Fontairuhleau^  are  in  the  season  the  object  of  self,  and  did  not  reappear  in  public  until  the  9th 
A  brisk  and  profitable  trade.  But  the  town  Thermidor.  He  now  became  one  of  the  contrib* 
owes  its  celebrity  to  its  chateau,  a  magnificent  utors  to  the  Menumdl,  a  newspaper  in  the  roy- 
pile  of  varioDs  kinds  of  architecture,  which  has  alist  interest.  On  the  18th  Fructidor  he  took  re^ 
Men  the  residence  of  several  monarchs,  and  is  a  uge  in  England,  where  he  met  Ch&teaubriand, 
fitTorite  summer  resort  of  Napoleon  III.  This  then  a  penniless  and  unknown  exile,  and  a  last- 
ohateAO,  originally  founded  by  Kobert  the  Pious  ing  friendship  grew  up  between  them.  Being 
toward  the  end  of  the  10th  century,  was  re-  allowed  to  return  to  France  after  the  18th  Bru- 
bcdltbyLouisVII.  in  the  12th,  and  embellished  maire  (Nov.  1799),  he  was  appointed  by  the 
by  Philip  Augustus,  Louis  IX.,  and  others,  first  consul  to  deliver  a  panegyric  on  Washing- 
Irancis  i.  had  it  entirely  renovated  and  en  ton.  He  became  a  member  of  the  legislative 
Isj^^  by  artists  brought  from  Italy,  Rosso,  body  in  1802,  and  was  chosen  its  president  in 
Primaticcio,  Niccolo  dell'  Abbate,  Leonardo  da  1804.  On  the  reSstablishment  of  tlie  French 
Yind,  Andrea  del  Sarto,  and  Benvenuto  Gel-  university  in  1808,  Napoleon  placed  him  at  its 
Unlf  who  ornamented  it  with  their  works,  im-  head  with  the  title  oi  grand  master,  and  em- 
portant  remains  of  which  may  still  be  seen.  It  ployed  him  as  his  spokesman  on  many  public 
was  subsequently  improved  by  Henry  IV.  and  occasions.  In  1810  he  appointed  him  senator 
iU  his  successors  to  Napoleon  L,  who  spent  hero  and  showed  him  many  favors.  Fontanes,  how- 
no  less  than  6,000,000  francs  in  1812  and  1818.  ever,  who  had  always  been  a  royalist  at  heart, 
Louis  Philippe  in  his  turn  put  it  in  splendid  order  deserted  his  protector  in  1814,  voted  against  him 
from  1887  to  1840,  and  Napoleon  III.  has  not  in  the  senate,  and  joined  the  new  king.  He  thus 
n^ected  it.  Although  there  is  little  harmony  secured  the  tenure  of  his  offices  and  dignities, 
tmong  its  parts,  being  in  fact  rather  a  collection  and  was  promoted  to  the  peerage  by  Louis 
of  palaces  of  different  epochs  and  styles  than  XYIII.  During  his  later  years  he  devoted  his 
%  ringle  edifice,  it  has  a  striking  air  of  grandeur  leisure  hours  to  an  epic  poem,  La  Orice  delivree^ 
and  mi^ty,  while  its  ornaments,  pictures,  and  which  he  did  not  complete.  The  sudden  death 
•tatoary  are  of  the  highest  excellence.  Its  ina  duel  of  hisadoptedson,  M.  deSt.  Maroellin, 
fibnry  is  invaluable,  al^ongh  not  very  large,  so  preyed  upon  his  mind  that  he  died  broken- 
Its  parks  and  gardens  are  worthy  of  the  build-  hearted,  at  the  age  of  64.  His  finished  style 
ing.  This  chateau  has  been  the  scene  of  many  of  oratory  and  the  purity  and  terse  elegance  of 
h&orical  events.  Philip  IV.,  Henry  III.,  and  his  poetry  have  given  him  the  title  of  ^^  Racine*s 
Loois  XIII.  were  bom  in  it.  Christina  of  last  descendant"  A  collection  of  his  speeches 
Sweden  inhabited  it  during  her  sojourn  in  was  published  in  1821,  and  his  works  were  edit* 
IVance;  and  it  was  here,  in  the  galerie  de%  ed  by  Ste.  Beuve  in  1889,  with  a  biography. 
etrj^  that  in  1657  her  favorite  Monaldeschi  FONT  ARABIA.  See  Fuente  Rabia. 
was  put  to  death  by  Santinelli.  Here  an  alliance  FONTENAT,  or  Fontanet,  a  village  of 
wiUi  Sweden  was  signed  in  1661,  and  in  1685  France,  department  of  Tonne,  noted  for  a  battle 
Louis  XIY.  signed  the  revocation  of  the  edict  of  which  the  sons  of  Louis  le  D^bonnaire  fought 
Kantes.  Pope  Pius  YH.  was  confined  within  its  there,  June  25, 841,  and  in  which  Lothaire,  then 
walls  for  18  months  (1812-^8) ;  and  Napoleon,  emperor,  was  defeated  with  great  slanffhter  by 
who  had  signed  here  his  abdication,  April  11.  LouisofBavariaand  Charles  the  Bald.  Thisbat- 
1814,  bade  farewell  on  the  20th  to  his  old  guara  tie  was  soon  followed  by  the  treaty  of  Verdun 
■t  the  principal  entrance  of  the  palace  known  (848).  which  terminated  the  war  of  the  brothers 
If  la  eaur  du  eheval  hlane, — The  forest  of  Fon-  and  divided  the  empire  of  Charlemagne. 
tainebleau  (area  84,200  acres),  which  was  ori^-  FONTENAY-LE-COMTE,  a  town  of  Franco, 
mdly  called  forest  of  Bidre  or  Bi^vre  {Syha  formerly  the  capital  of  a  department  in  Poitou, 
BUria\  is  as  fine  as  any  in  France.  Its  varied  now  that  of  an  arrondissement  in  the  depart- 
ftod  picturesque  scenery  is  highly  appreciated  ment  of  Yend^ ;  pop.  in  1856,  7,815.  It  has 
hj  tntvellers  and  landscape  painters,  while  its  several  remarkable  churches,  a  college,  and  8 
aonries  supply  the  capital  with  most  of  its  pav-  jrearly  fairs,  and  carries  on  a  considerable  trade 
Uigrtones.  in  wine  and  timber.  During  the  French  revo- 
^fONTANES,  Louis,  marquis  de,  a  French  lution  its  name  was  changed  to  Fontenay-lo- 
writer  and  politician,  oorn  in  Niort,  March  6,  Peuple^ 

1TS7,  died  in  ParisL  March  17, 1821.    Repairing  FONTENELLE,  Bsbnasd  lb  Bovixb  or  lb 

to  Paris  when  still  very  young,  he  contributed  Bouteb  de,  a  French  writer,  bom  in  Rouen, 

•omo  poetical  pieces  to  the  Mercure  de  France  Feb.  11, 1657,  died  in  Paris,  Jan.  9, 1757*    He 

and  the  Almanack  dc$  muusy  but  his  reputation  was  the  nephew  of  Comeiile  by  his  mother 

began  with  his  translation  of  Pope^s  <^  Essay  on  Marthe  Comeiile,  who  had  married  a  lawyer  of 

Bho,^  published  in  1788.    This  was  followed  by  Rouen,  and  according  to  his  father's  desire  he 

bilious  short  poems,  which  evinced  taste,  feel-  studied  the  law,  but  not  succeeding  in  his  first 

iD^  and  noetioal  skill    On  the  breaking  out  of  suit  he  devoted  himself  to  literature.    His  first 

tiie  reyolution  he  joined  the  moderate  party,  performances  were  light  poems,  pastorals,  and 

md  bk  1798  wrote  the  petition  which  the  citizens  plays ;  his  tragedy  of  Atpar,  which  appeared  in 

af  IjTOos  presented  to  the  oonvention  against  1680,  was  hissed  by  the  public  and  ridiicoled  by 


SM                   FONTEKOT  lOO-ODOW 

Badne  ftnd  Boileaii.    In  1688  he  published  the  PONT&VRAULT,  Onn  or,  a  ,    ,.  ■  ,■■ 

lMUgue$  ds$  «i^fte,  which  was  the  beginning  order  in  the  Bonum  GtlhoBe  ^OM,  fDoadad  la 

of  his  repotatioD.    In  16S6  hh  BiUretien»  mr  lOM  at  La  Boe,  in  the  Ibceit  of  Gnoa,  bj  Ro> 

lapluraUUde$mandm,MnillalWrhiMEkiair€  bert  of  Arbriael,  who  called  his  IbDofwenr 

ilM^roc/M,  an  abridgment  of  a  Tolnrainool  book  jMrwi  (Tftritlt  (the  poor  of  ChriatV    ^^W. 

of  Van  Dale  in  Dotoh^  rendered  him  popnhur  transplanted  in  lOM  to  tfao  disaft  of  F< 

among  those  who  were  fond  of  sdentifio  matr  Tranlt   As  the  mle  of  8t  Baaediet  waa  aisa^ 

ters  expounded  in  an  elegant  and  somewhat  ed,  the  order  may  be  considered  sa  oaa  ef  the 

affected  stTle.    His  EUUnre  d$  VoioadimU  ds$  snmeitNia  branches  of  the  BiamJiUhias,    Ths 

9cienem  and  £!logmdmaeaditniekn$Bn  still  ad-  fiwader  estaUisbed  at  FootArraall  4 

mired  for  their  clearness,  persptooi^,  and  do-  one  for  800  nuMi  one  for  ItO  sIcIl  oat 

ganoe.    D^Alembert  wrote  a  eiuogj,  and  Vlllfr-  tent  femalea,  and  one  Jgrmcaksi  with  oae 

main  has  a  yivid  sketch  of  him  in  his  IMmu  lor  them  all  in  ooomKML    The  mosi  tan 

de  la  litUrature  am  W  nid^  feature  in  this  order  is  Ha  ooastitatioa.   la 

FONTENOY,  a  Tillage  of  Bdginm,  proTince  of  the  Hdj  Virgia  aad  the  aatboritif 

of  Hainanlt,  5  m.  8.£.m)mToom^,notedfor  JesosgaretoherorerJohnwheakaaiMlalka 

a  victory  of  the  French  oTcr  the  English.  Dntoh,  latter,  ^Bdiold  thy  mother,**  tha  gnssiamsBl 

andAustriaofl^  K^  11, 1746.  fonght  by  the  latter  of  the  whde  order  was  oootersdapoatfteaBB 

for  the  relief  of  Toomay,  then  besieged  by  the  with  an  abbess  at  theb  head.    TW  nMahs  ii» 

French.  The  Firench,  76,000  strong,  led  by  ICar-  dered  the  senrioe  of  obedient  aoaa.   Ikafssaiv 

shal  Base  and  animated  by  the  presence  of  the  placed  himself  ander  the  aatliori^  of  tin  tat 

king  and  the  danphin,  were  posted  on  a  hill  with  abbess.    The  order  waa  ratiflodbv  tka  psps 

Fontenoy  before  them,  tboTilla^  of  8t  Antoine  in  1106,  and  exempted  Ihmi  tha  JaiMietfaa  sf 

and  the  river  Scheldt  on  the  n^t,  and  a  small  bishopsi   Itsooa  spread  over  Fmoa,  8nsia,aal 

woodontheleft  Their  natnrally  strong  positioa  England,  and  connted  at  the  death  of  tbefcaad> 

was  so  fortified  by  art  as  to  be  deemed  sunostim-  er  8^000  nnnSb     The  idatioa  of  tha  ann  ts 

pregnable.    The  allies,  nnmberinff  60,000,  more  each  other  led  to  many  Asorder%  tiba  BBals 

than  half  of  whom  were  Eng^ira,  were  nnder  making  repeated  attempts  to  aaiaaci^aie  tksm- 

the  duke  of  Camberland.    Tbey  attacked  the  aelvca.    when,  ia  1469,  the  ahbeaa  Maria  di 

French  outposts  on  the  10th,  paned  the  whde  Bretagne  saw  nerself  OMble,  avaa  widk  dwas* 

night  nnder  arms,  and  eariy  the  next  mondng  sistanoe  of  the  pope^  to  overeonia  the  miparfrts^ 

b^San  the  engagement  by  a  fierce  cannonade,  she  retired  w&h  some  sisters  to  Orlsaas  aal 

The  Dutch  undertook  to  carry  8t  Antoine  there  restored  Uie  old  disoiidine.    TUsiifocaai 

and  Fontenoy  by  assault,  but  were  driven  back  branch  was  confirmed  in  1476,  aad  soon  eoaaul 

in  disorder.    Gen.  Ingoldsby,  who  had  been  or-  28  convents,  while  the  rest  of  the  older  vn 

dered  to  pierce  the  wood  with  a  British  division,  divided  into  several  congregations.    The  eon- 

retired  with  dislionor,  while  the  duke  of  Gum-  tinued  differences  existing  in  the  order  induced 

berbind,  with  14,000  Britisli  and  Uanoverian  the  king  of  France  in  1520  to  decree  that  tbt 

infantry  marching  in  columns  of  30  or  40  front,  abbess  should  be  elected  for  life,  tmt  tlial  rht 

led  the  assault  upon  the  main  body.    With  bay-  visitation  of  all  the  convents  shoold  be  tramlir- 

oncts  fixed  they  plunsed  down  a  ravine  which  red  to  a  member  of  another  order,  to  be  daai- 

separated  them  from  the  French  line,  and  while  nated  bv  the  pope.    The  reformation  pot  m 

artillery  mowed  down  their  ranks  fW>m  right  end  to  the  convents  in  England,  and  the  mad 

and  left,  marched  steadily  forward  with  rapidly  revolution  to  the  rest  of  the  order.    Tbe  Itft 

diminishing  numbers  but  unflinching  courage,  abbess  died  at  Paris  in  1799.    The  extearive  ih> 

They  gained  the  hill  in  a  solid  mass,  cut  down  bey  buildings  of  Foot^vranlt  are  now  ased  it  ft 

evcrv  thing  before  them,  and  had  nearly  won  maiton  de  dittntion  by  the  French  goveraaMSl 

the  day  by  intercepting  the  French  retreat  to  The  church  is  famous  for  pnsssesing  the  moee- 

the  Scheldt,  when  Saxe,  having  in  vain  urged  mental  efSgies  of  two  English  kings.  Ilcnffy  IL 

the  king  to  fly,  collected  his  force  for  a  last  and  Btcha^  Ccenr  de  Lion,  uA  ot  Eleaaor  d 

effort    By  the  advice  of  the  duke  of  Richelieu,  Gnienne,  queen  of  the  former,  aad  EhaabHk. 

4  pieces  of  cannon  were  brought  to  bear  upon  consort  of  John  Lackland,  who  weM  htawi 

the  British  front,  while  the  household  troops,  here. 

the  reserve,  and  foremost  of  all  the  brigade  of  FOO-CHOW,  Foo-cnoo,  or  Foo-caaw«fM\ 

Irish  exiles,  charged  on  either  flank.    Exhausted  Fu-cnu,  or  Fc-ciir-rc  (*' happy  dty*^  a  pojO' 

and  unsupported,  the  English  fell  back,  but  their  lous  city  of  China,  capital  oi  the  proviaee  of  Fo> 

retreat  was  as  firm  as  their  advance.    Their  kien,  and  one  of  the  6  porta  thrown  open  to  the 

cavalry  now  came  to  the  rescue,  and  they  reach-  British  by  treaty  in  1842 ;  poet  aboat  000,00a 

ed  the  allied  position  with  unbroken  ranks,  It  stands  on  a  plain  on  the  left  Vaak  ot  ihe  Mia, 

having  twice  cut  through  more  than  6  times  25  m.  from  its  mouth,  snrroonded  by  an  amphi 

their  number  of  the  enemy.  The  allies  retreated  theatre  of  hills  aboat  4  m.  distant,  and  defended 

to  Ath,  leaving  7,400  killed,  wounded,  and  pris-  by  a  wall  the  circnit  of  whidi  cannot  bo 

oners,  while  the  French  acknowledged  about  an  than  10  miles.    Thb  wall  b  SO  focC  high*  12 

e^nal  loss.    The  youoff  dnke  de  (rrammont  was  thick,  and  oveivrown  with  grass.   It  has  tm 

one  of  those  who  ielL     Tonmay  «unenA«c«i  atshortinterviuiin  which  a  hw  pieoosof 
JttM2L 


FOO-CHOW  FOOL  691 

The  entrance  to  the  city  is  by  7  gates,  eacl  cargoes  is  supposed  to  amount  to  $7,000,000 
commanded  by  lofty  towers,  and  the  defences  per  annum,  in  addition  to  which  an  extensive 
are  still  further  strengthened  by  fortifications  trade  is  carried  on  by  land. — ^There  is  another 
on  2  hills,  one  within  the  city,  and  the  other  city  in  China  of  the  same  name,  240  m.  N.  W. 
rising  from  the  plain  outside  the  walls.  The  of  this,  in  the  province  of  Eiang'si. 
suburbs,  whic^  are  equal  in  extent  to  the  city  FOOD.  See  Aument,  and  Dibtetios. 
itself,  stretch  along  both  banks  of  the  river,  and  FOO-SHAN,  or  Fu-shan,  a  largo  city  on 
eommunicate  with  each  other  by  means  of  a  the  island  of  See-kiang,  province  of  Quang-tung, 
stone  bridge  420  paces  long,  resting  on  a  small  China.  It  is  said  to  contain  upward  of  200,000 
island  in  the  stream,  supported  also  by  49  stout  inhabitants,  many  of  whom  live  in  boats, 
piers,  and  lined  with  shops.  One  small  suburb  FOOL,  or  Jbstbb,  a  character  in  medisval 
near  the  Tang-mun,  or  Bath  gate,  contains  a  courts  and  noble  families,  whose  business  it  was 
number  of  public  hot  baths.  The  city  proper  is  to  entertain  the  household  by  amusing  sallies, 
regularly  built,  with  low  tile-roofed  houses,  vast  Somewhat  similar  were  the  parasites  of  anti- 
granaries,  and  some  handsome  buildings,  among  quity,  who  were  wont  to  pay  for  their  dinners  by 
which  are  the  residences  of  the  civil  and  mill-  lests  and  flatteries.  Court  fools  do  not  appear 
tary  officers  of  the  province.  The  temples  are  distinctly  and  officially  till  after  the  crusi^es, 
numerous,  the  largest  being  that  known  as  the  and  may  have  been  introduced  into  Europe 
Ching-hwang-miau ;  the  most  popular  deities  from  the  East.  They  were  at  first  either  mis- 
are  the  god  of  war  and  the  goddess  of  mercy,  shapen,  half  imbecile  dwarfii,  who  were  them- 
The  shops,  of  which  there  are  very  many,  are  selves  ridiculous  objects,  and  whose  senseless  re- 
stocked with  a  profusion  of  goods  of  rather  plies  were  welcomed  with  laughter ;  or  quick- 
poor  Quality.  They  are  quite  open,  and  with  witted,  hidf-madT  fellows,  such  as  are  not  unfre- 
the  foil  display  of  their  contents,  the  Jostling  quently  found  amonff  the  deformed ;  or  poor  and 
and  noise  of  Uie  hucksters,  and  the  crowded  merry  poets,  who  devoted  themselves  to  this 
state  of  the  streets,  give  the  thoroughfares  part  for  the  income  which  it  obtained.  Among 
moch  the  appearance  of  a  market  place.  One  the  insignia  of  the  office  were  the  fooPs  cap, 
of  the  most  singular  features  of  Foo-chow  is  the  party-colored,  adorned  with  8  asses*  ears  and  a 
great  number  of  watch  towers  erected  in  all  cock^s  comb,  and  worn  on  a  shorn  head ;  the  va- 
parts  of  the  city— on  the  walls,  over  the  streets,  riously  shaped  fooPs  sceptre  or  bauble ;  the  bells, 
and  even  on  the  house-tops — some  of  them  which  decorated  the  cap  and  most  other  parts  of 
covered  with  grotesque  ornaments,  and  one  in  the  costume ;  and  a  wide  collar.  One  of  the  most 
particular  attracting  the  notice  of  strangers  by  celebrated  of  fools  was  Triboulet,  a  favorite  of 
its  great  height  and  its  clock  dial  with  Roman  Francis  L  of  France,  who  amused  his  master 
letters.  The  streets  are  planted  with  trees,  and  often  by  giving  him  most  imperUnent  counsels, 
regularly  laid  out,  but  there  is  little  else  to  be  He  carri^  tablets  with  him  on  which  he  in- 
said  in  their  praise ;  the  most  abominable  filth  scribed  the  names  of  those  courtiers  who  had 
accumulates  in  them  without  seeming  to  cause  committed  any  act  of  folly.  His  successor  was 
the  inhabitants  the  slightest  inconvenience,  be-  Brusquet,  who  combined  other  offices  with  that 
side  which  they  are  infested  with  beggars,  of  fool,  who  suffered  much  from  the  tncks  of 
whose  squalid  and  loathsome  appearance  is  be-  the  courtiers  whom  he  mystified,  and  whose 
yond  description.  Fully  one-hflJf  the  popula*  bon-mots  have  been  often  repeated.  Earlier 
tion  Is  said  to  be  addicted  to  opium-smoking,  French  fools  of  renown  were  Caillette,  lliony, 
the  annual  expenditure  for  which  amounts  to  Sibilot,  Chicot,  and  the  female  Mathurine,  and 
$2,000,000.  In  the  city  and  vicinity  there  are  the  annals  of  Uie  office  in  France  tenninate  with 
500  furnaces  for  making  porcelain,  in  addition  Angely,  who  was  the  titular  fool  of  Louis  XIII., 
to  fiMStories  of  blue  cloth,  cotton  goods,  screens,  and  who  became  by  his  refined  and  cynical  pleas- 
oombs,  kc  There  are  lead  mines  near  by,  and  antry  one  of  the  most  formidable  personages  at 
A  great  tea-growing  district  lies  within  70  miles,  court.  Jodel  der  Karr,  who  was  taken  by  the 
•o  that  blade  tea  can  be  purchased  here  25  per  emperor  Ferdinand  IL  to  the  diet  in  1622,  and 
oeot.  cheaper  than  at  Canton.  The  commerce  Klaus  Narr  of  Saxony,  are  fiunous  among  6er- 
cf  the  city  is  chiefly  with  Japan,  the  Loo-choo  man  fooK  The  office  ceased  in  most  European 
Islands,  and  the  maritime  provinces  of  China,  countries  about  the  close  of  the  17th  century, 
Timber,  tea,  paper,  bamboo,  fruits,  spices,  com,  but  continued  longer  in  Russia,  where  Peter  the 
wppetj  and  lead  are  the  principal  exports;  the  Great  often  had  12  fools,  and  tne  empress  Anne 
fanports  are  salt,  European  manufactures,  sugar,  6,  among  whom  were  the  Portuguese  Da  Costa 
ana  a  great  variety  of  other  goods.  The  ap-  and  the  Italian  Pedrillo.  In  England  the  fools 
proaeh  to  the  harbor  from  the  sea  is  difficult,  were  long  distinguished  by  a  calf-skin  coat,  which 
out  there  is  good  anchorage  at  Pagoda  ishmd,  9  had  the  buttons  down  the  back,  and  which  pro^ 
miles  below  the  city.  The  port  is  much  fre-  tected  them  from  the  anger  of  Uiose  whom  they 
-  qnented,  the  channel  of  the  nver  and  a  sheet  provoked  by  their  Jests.  By  the  illuminators  of 
M  water  called  Li-hu,  or  West  lake,  on  the  W.  the  13th  century  they  are  represented  as  squalid 
aide  of  the  city,  being  crowded  with  fishing  and  idiots,  wrapped  in  a  blanket,  and  holding  a  stick 
-trading  vesseb,  ferry  boats,  and  floating  habi-  with  an  innated  bladder  attached  to  it,  which 
"tatiooa.  The  merchant  shipping  is  estimated  at  served  as  a  bauble.  It  '<97^l^.Q\.^^>^^^>^*0[^ ^^s^- 
•MfiOOtoDBf  and  the  value  of  import  and  return  tory  thattbsy^«tQC$u^aiin«^^^^^^\^^^^'^ 


TOOLAHB  rOOLB 

ai  appears  firom  Shakespeare  and  other  drama-  lUtkm  thai  their  anoeatortwimwhitaai  aod 

tbti^  the  entertainment  that  they  afforded  con-  tain  trihea  call  tbemeelTea  whita  men.    Boom 

aiited  in  witty  retorts  and  sarcastic  reflections,  of  thnn  relate  that  tbev  eana  ham  tha  eonHy 

Thon«^  their  license  was  yeiy  extensive,  ther  aroond  Timlmetoo,  and  the  prnvaOing  opfaiioa 

were  liable  to  correction  or  discharge  mm  of*  has  been  that  their  coarse  of  cooqnesi  wasfrom 

fice.  Thns  Archibald  Armstrong  (pslled  Arohy),  oentral  or  £.  Africa  westward;  hot  Dr.  Bartk, 

Je^r  to  Charles  I^  was  ordered  for  "certain  while  aomeing  the  cradle  of  the  race  lo  Imn 

acandalons  words,  of  a  high  natore,  qpoken  hj  beeoE.  of  the  territory  which  thmr now ooeapf; 

him  against  the  lord  archbbhop  <^  Oanterbnrj,  agreea  with  OappertOQ  in  thInMiMr  that  thiif 

to  haTc  his  coat  pnlled  over  nis  head,  and  be  made  a  second  numtioii  from  tbo  nanigsl  t^ 

discharged  the  king's  service,  and  banished  the  ward  their  birthplace,  in  tbo  eonrsa  of  whidk 

oonrf  theyahaorbedorcooqaeredthatribaawhieiiVf 

FOOLAHS,  FuLBX  (sing.  Pullo),  Fhxahi,  intheirmaroh*  Thnnntlnnhiiilmn  rntiiililaii 

or  FiLLATAii,  a  people  of  W.  and  central  Africa,  that  they  are  dascendanta  and  derived  thsir 

oomprinnff  many  tribes  scattered  over  the  re-  namefranPhnti  mndsooof  Noah;  aad  Bom 

f^n  which  liea  between  Bondoo  and  Senegam-  identiflea  them  vith  the  ancient  F^yflU  or  M^ 

bia,  and  the  great  desert  and  Oninea.  Originally  Xo^  who  once  attempted  to  inimt*  aorosa  tha 

ihnir  were  a  nomadic  race,  whose  chief  occn-  deaert  from  the  aontL    ]L  d'Qdithali  Mghf 

pation  was  caUle-breeding^  bat  abont  the  mid-  from  cert^  Ungnistio  •«*W«^  «»^i-***—  thai 

die  of  the  18th  centnry.  most  of  them  becoming  the  Fooiahs  are  an  oflbet  of  Uio  ]fa]aj%l»ttys 

converts  to  Mamism,  they  began  to  fonnd  inde-  opinion  has  been  vigorously  oppoaed,  and  &^ 

pendent  states,  and  to  prosecnte  a  coarse  oi  pearatorestoninsnflfciantibonaatiott,  FHshad 

oonqnest  whidi  they  are  still  porsoing.    Abont  considera  them  agennine  Afrioaiime^  |auba% 

1808  one  of  their  chiefr,  called  Othman  or  diflhring  leas  than  is  commonly  aapiiaasd  ^ 

Danfodio,  began  to  emolate  the  career  of  ICo-  the  blade  Boodanian  nations.    Tlisir  lpi 

hammed,  and,  aided  by  a  reljgioas  enthusiasm  is  peeoliar,  being  neither  African  nof 

which  he  excited  among  his  mllowera,  laid  the  llttiy  of  the  tribes  which  hava  baoon 

foandation  of  an  empire  at  Sackatoa  between  idated  with  them  have  aofiurloat  tMr 

Bomoa  and  the  river  Niger.    He  died  in  a  sort  alitjr  as  to  be  looked  npon  aa  aboriglBalFosU^ 

of  fanatical  ecstasy  in  1818.    According  to  Dr.  and  in  aome  caaes  Ibnn  tba  arlitoacMj.  whia 

Berth,  the  revenne  of  the  provinces  sabject  to  others  have   become  degraded.    FoqIms  at 

his  successors  is  aboot  $50,000  in  shell  mon^,  found  in  the  anbnrba  of  moat  of  the  towas  of 

and  as  much  more  in  slaves  and  ^oods,  which  Boodan,  porsning  the  avoertion  of  dalij  men  and 

is  less  than  it  was  at  a  more  flounshing  period  cattle  breeders.  Most  of  them  are  MoharooMdaaa 

of  the  empire.    The  military  force  coDsists  of  The  usual  dress  of  the  men  is  a  red  cap  with  a 

about  2I>,000  cavalry,  bat  on  account  of  the  re-  white  turban,  a  short  white  shirt,  a  large  while 

bellious  spirit  of  some  of  the  provinces,  all  these  robe,  white  trousers  trinmied  with  red  or  graea 

troops  could  not  be  concentrated  in  the  field,  silk,  and  a  pair  of  sandale  or  boots.    Tba  wtaasa 

Gando,  80  or  40  miles  from  Sackatoo,  is  the  seat  wear  a  striped  ffarment  falling  aa  low  ss  the 

of  a  Fooloh  prince  of  equal  power  with  the  ankles,  are  fond  of  ear  rings,  bracvlcCs,  aai 

above ;  aud  at  Timbo,  the  capital  of  Foota  Jal-  '  trinkets,  and  take  great  paina  in  dr^eMing  ths 

Ion,  resides  a  third.    It  is  the  opinion  of  mod-  hair.    The  diildren  of  both  sexes  of  the  htvur 

em  travellors  that  the  Foolahs  are  destined  to  classes  are  taught  to  read  and  write  Armbk,  &i 

become  tlie  dominant  people  of  Kegroland,  which  language  the  Mohammedan  Foolahs  mf 

and  they  have  excited  more  interest  and  scien-  their  pravers.    The  men  wear  swords  aft  w 

tific  research  than  almost  any  other  African  times,  and  even  go  armed  with  bowa  and  arrovs 

race.     In  language,  appearance,  and  history,  on  horseback.    The  sovereign  of  each  Fodsh 

they  present  striking  dinerences  from  the  neigh-  state  appoints  governors  of  the  provinees  M 

boring  tribes,  to  whom  they  are  superior  in  in-  pleasure,  and  on  their  death  socceccu  lo  all  thdr 

telligeni*e,  but  inferior,  according  to  Barth,  in  effects.    The  Foolahs  are  in  continoal  bostiliij 

physical  development.    Mr.  Golb^ry  describ-  with  the  Arabs,  and  in  ffeneral  have  aoawtbii^ 

ed  them  as  robust  and  courageous,  of  a  red-  of  a  republican  spirit,  with  all  the  air  and  mai^ 

dish  black  color,  with  regular  features,  hair  ner  of  free-bom  men.— iSee,btfidetlieMmiiT«s 

longer  and  less  woolly  than  that  of  the  common  of  the  travellers  above  mentioned,  and  the  cch- 

negroes,  and  high  mental  capacity.     Lander,  nological  works  of  Prichard  andLalham,  Ei^ 

who  saw  them  near  Borgoo,  was  struck  by  their  to  ire  et  origins  dts  PoulkoM  #«  FmUmmm^  by 

resemblance  to  the  Caffre.%  and  says  that  they  Gustavo  d'Eichthal  (Svo,  Parb,  1S42). 

differ  little  in  feature  or  color  from  the  negroes ;  FOOLS,  FiAffr  of.  a  medieval  grocesqoe  t^ 

otlier  travellers  speak  of  them  as  having  tawny  ligious  cereuKwy,  c^brated  for  several  crcta- 

complexions  and  soft  hair.     Dr.  Harth  found  ries,  chieflv  in  Franco,  at  the  feetivals  of  the 

great  local  differences  in  their  physical  character-  Nativity,  the  Circumcision,  the  Epiphany,  the 

istica^  and  Ik)wen  describes  the  Foolahs  of  Yoru«  Murder  of  the  Innocents,  and    eifMciaDy  st 

ba  as  being  some  black,  some  almost  white,  and  Christmas  and  Easter.   The  costams  and  annBK 

many  of  a  mulatto  color  varying  from  dark  to  meuts  usuaDy  coonecUid  with  the  p^ren  sSeSar* 

rery  bright    Their  features  and  skulU  were  nalia  had  continoed  in  spite  of  prohibitioM  ta 

caat  in  ti^  European  mouUL  TbA|\ii.itek\iv  \^^XMrt^«Bm%ChrikiaBaMliinth« 


FOOSEE  FOOTA  &98 

and  West,  and  graclually  attached  themselves  to  pendalam  beating  seconds,  in  London.  The  foot 

the  Christian  festivals  occurring  in  December  is  12  inches,  and  the  seconds  pendulum  in  that 

and  January,  which  had  been  the  months  of  the  latitude  is  89.18842  inches.    The  United  States 

pagan  celebrations.     Though  encouraged  and  standard  is  a  brass  rule  made  for  the  coast  snr- 

participated  in  by  the  clergy,  tho  festum  fatuo-  vey  by  Trough  ton  of  London,  from  the  English 

rum  or  foUorum  was  a  mixture  of  farce  and  standard.    Tne  following  are  a  few  of  the  prin- 

piety,  and  a  sportive  travesty  of  the  offices  and  cipal  feet,  with  their  value  in  decimals  of  the 

rites  of  the  church.    The  priests  and  clerks  English  foot :  the  French  old  pUd  du  toy  equals 

elected  a  pope,  archbishop,  or  bishop,  and  con-  1.07,  the  modern  pied  vsuel^  1.093 ;  Amsteraam 

ducted  him  in  great  pomp  to  the  church,  which  old  foot,  0.93 — since  1820,  if  used,  1.093 ;  Den- 

they  entered  dancing,  masked,   disguised    as  mark  Rhineland  foot,  1.04 ;   Hamburg,  .941 ; 

women,  animals,  and  merry-andrews;  they  sung  Stockholm,  .97;   St.  Petersburg,  1.145;  Riga, 

infamous  songs,  converted  the  altar  into  a  buffet,  .89;  Canton,  1.05;  Lisbon,  .927,  or  according 

where  the V  ate  and  drank  during  the  celebration  to  others,  .72;  Turkey,  1.16;  Constantinople, 

of  the  holy  mysteries,  played  with  cards  and  1.23.    As  used  by  surveyors  and  engineers,  the 

dice,  burned  old  sandals  instead  of  incense,  ran  foot  is  decimally  divided.    Architects  and  arU- 

about  leaping,  and  amused  tiie  populace  by  in-  ficcrs  employ  it  with  these  divisions,  and  their 

decent  sallies  and  postures.    The  feast  of  fools  scales  are  also  made  with  inch  divisions,  and  *' 

was  prohibited  by  the  papal  legato  Peter  of  these  subdivided  into  eighths  and  sixteenths  of 

Capua  in  the  diocese  of  raris  in  1198,  but  was  an  inch. 

celebrated  until  its  condemnation  by  the  Sor-        FOOT,  Solomox,  an  American  statesman, 

bonne  in  1444,  and  did  not  entirely  disappear  bom  in  Cornwall,  Addison  co.,  Yt.,  Nov.  19, 

till  toward  the  end  of  the  16th  century.    It  was  1802.    He  was  graduated  at  Middlebury  colle^ 

known  in  Germany  only  in  the  cities  on  the  in  1826,  was  principal  of  Castleton  seminary  in 

Rhine.     It  hardly  equalled  the  feast  of  asses  in  1826  and  1828,  ana  in  1827  was  tutor  in  tho 

fantastic  disorder,  but  was  more  uncouth  than  nniversity  of  Vermont.    From  1828  to  1831  he 

the  festival  of  the  boy-bishop  which  was  ob-  was  professor  of   natural  philosophy  in  tho 

served  in  England  on  St.  Nicholas's  day.  Vermont  academy  of  medicine  at  Castleton. 

FOOSEE,  Focsi,  or  Fusi,  a  volcano  of  Japan,  In  1831  he  was  admitted  to  the  bar,  and  settled 

commonly  coiled  by  the  natives  Fooseeyama.    It  in  Rutland,  where  he  has  resided  ever  since.    In 

stands  in  an  isolated  position  on  the  island  of  Ni-  1886,  '7,  and  '8,  and  in  1847,  he  represented  the 

phon,  and  is  the  loftiest  mountain  in  the  empire,  town  of  Rutland  in  the  Vermont  legislature. 

Its  height,  according  to  Siebold,  being  12,440  and  in  the  last  8  years  of  his  service  was  speaker 

feet    It  is  covered  with  perpetual  snow.    It  was  of  the  house.    In  1835  he  was  a  delegate  from 

formerly  the  most  active  volcano  in  Japan,  but  Rutland  to  the  constitutional  convention,  and 

no  eruption  has  taken  place  since  1707.    Native  made  an  elaborate  speech  in  favor  of  creating 

historians  assert  that  in  the  year  283  B.  C.  an  a  senate  as  a  coordinate  branch  of  the  le^la- 

extraordinary  natural  revolution  produced  in  ture.    The  measure  was  adopted  by  a  close  voto 

a  single  night  both  the  mountain  of  Fcosee  and  after  an  able  and  protracted  debate.    In  1842 

the  basin  of  the  great  lake  Oits  Mitsoo;  tho  and  again  in  1844  he  was  elected  a  representa- 

devation  of  surface  caused  by  tho  former,  as  it  tive  in  congress.    In  1846  he  declined  a  reSleo- 

rose  from  the  bosom  of  the  earth,  being  exactly  tion,  and  resumed  the  practice  of  his  profesdon. 

coanterbalanced  by  the  depression  which  con-  In  1850  and  again  in  1856  he  was  elected  to  the 

stitntes  the  latter.  The  Japanese  hold  this  moun-  U.  S.  senate.    He  has  made  many  elaborate 

tain  in  reHgious  veneration.    Some  of  its  ravines  speeches  in  the  senate,  and  bore  a  conspicuous 

are  consecrated  to  the  worship  of  Buddha,  and  part  in  the  great  Lecompton  debate  of  1858. 

every  August  crowds  of  devotees  make  pilgrim-  In  1854-'5  Mr.  Foot  was  chosen  president  of  the 

ages  to  the  idols  in  these  spots.  Brunswick  and  Florida  railroad  company  ia 

FOOT,  a  measure  of  length  indicating  its  Georgia,  and  during  tho  recess  of  congress  vis- 
origin  by  its  name,  in  general  use  in  all  civilized  ited  England,  negotiated  the  bonds  of  the  com- 
coantries,  and  supposed  to  bo  adopted  from  tho  pany,  and  purchased  the  iron  for  the  railroad, 
length  of  the  human  foot,  possibly  at  first  of  after  which  he  resigned  his  post  as  president. 
some  reigning  sovereign.  The  length  is  very  FOOTA,  a  territory  of  Senegambia,  W. 
Tariable  WHthin  moderate  limits  in  different  Africa,  extending  from  Dagana  on  the  N.  W. 
eonntries.  The  Roman  pes  has  been  calculated  to  North  Guererr  on  the  8.  E.,  between  lat.  15* 
from  several  sources,  as  ancient  measures,  meas-  and  16**  26'  N.,  long.  12**  86'  and  16**  36'  W.  It  is 
vrements  of  recorded  distances  along  roads,  and  a  fertile,  well  watered  country,  producing  rice, 
measurements  of  buildings  of  recorded  dimen-  cotton,  tobacco,  and  various  kinds  of  grain. 
■Sons.  From  the  first  source  their  foot  appears  Large  forests  are  spread  over  the  surface,  pas- 
te have  been  .9718  of  tho  English  foot,  from  tho  ture  lands  support  sheep  and  cattle,  and  there 
Sd  .»7082,  and  from  tho  3d  .96994;  tho  aver-  are  several  mines  of  iron.  The  inhabitants  are 
age  of  which  would  be  11.6496  inches.  The  mostly  negroes,  active  and  industrious,  but,  like 
Greek  irovf  as  used  at  Athens  is  believed  to  most  of  their  race,  extravagantly  superstitions. 
have  been  to  the  Roman  foot  as  25  is  to  24,  They  profess  Mohammedanism,  and  are  firm 
making  it  12.135  English  inches.  The  English  believers  in  witchcraft.  They  cuIUvcAa  iVi^ 
•tftidard  is  now  reh^rred  to  tho  length  of  a  ground  with  coii&\ii^icX>\^  iSis2^  «x^^  «x^  ^rS^^^ 
VOL.  vn. — 38 


•  • 


Mitoo  doth  ud  MrtliMiware.    The  eomilry  if  kt  nobaiiied  idhots  iHfli  J,  f •  H.  Okibofa% 

iMded  into  S  piirtt  or  iira?iiie6%  Til. :  FooU  whan  MltMr  ptftj  wm  Imt. 

XonoQtlieKn'OOlaproperinUiemiddla^A^  VOOTE;  fiAMUBin  Xd^A  amnitirf  fluA 

VooU  D«Bi0ft  on  tlie  &    Saoh  of  Umm  Ium  its  Mlor,bonia1^nira^OoniiiULI»lTM^  Adlli 


ditetia^oottotlioahiowyorioTereigaoftho   Dorii^  Oet  il,  IfH:    Hb  Mmt  vis  *  anrii- 
irhdb  territocy.    Tho  Utter  b  dbosen  Ihmi  a    Imte  aad  a  uinlMr  of  m^kmmiL  aad  ait 


Ibw  priTllegtd  HhdUm  bj  a  oonneU  of  ft.    Hk   SMillMrwaiaiirtirof  8b  JohaDyMlif  Qoid> 
aotboritj  b  botfi  aeoabr  and  saoerdotal,  bnt   oi%  wboto  onvder  hj  lib  liiotfcw,  Onl.  OooJ 


tho  oooBoQ  bas  tba  r^t  of  reprimanding,  da*  0t%  oamad  a  pratand  aanaafioa  la  iba.  aaifr 

podng,  or  in  aoma  oaaaa  pofcling  hfan  to  daatb.  part  of  tba  Ifth  ontnix.    IbotovaaonlM 

roOTA  JALLON,  or  Fdtajixxoh^  a  brga  at  Woreaatar  ooDan  Ozftwdi  bal  kb  powan 

taritocT  of  Saoagambiai  W.  Africa,  aitoatod  of  mtatoy  fawdfid  bba  fai  IndbttaHuna  wlkUk 

pboBlthoaoiireeaoftbaQainbia,Rio6randaor  kd  to  tba  aafiranoa  of  Ua  aoaaaoHaa  vlA 

Jaba,  and  Niger  or  Jottboi  and  interaaetad  bj  tba  vdranitj  h^mii  be  waa  M  jena  of  i^^ 

lallS* K. and loQg. la*  w.    It b moontainooa  Ha  aoon  aftarwiard  became  a  ahideMt  at  hm 

«4rocl^»biitaboatiofiibeztraoietjriiirtlla^  latiie  Tempb^  aadL  pfaingiag  into  aoanaraf 

9»j||codnolng  rice,  Inidn^  ^^'^"^n  ^Muianaii  dataai  ylaawia^  in  iaaa  tnan  4  jana  dbripmi^  al 

^Hne»  and  oil,  wbib  bm  flociEa  of  ahaep  paa-  tba  gaimng  table  and  bj  wdrtaaa  eitaEfn* 

tare  on  tbe  bigfabndi.   Iron  ore  b  wrooi^t  and  ganee  of  di  kindi^  two  fatnaewblabbabai 

jBannbotored  into  a  rmj  uaUaable  apaolaa  of  anceaadfohr  Jnharitad  from  bb  UHto  and  lb 


inataL    The  inbabitanti  are  Ifdhammadana  of    fttiiar.    Obliged  to  ttfo  by  bb  vibL  be 


^ibed  of  aU  infidda  ezoapt  tbe  wbitcci  from  bbd«bQt«ttbeHmnarka*tbaelreiBtbe 

arbom  tb^  cbam  deacant    Tbeir  booaaa  are  aetor  of  OtbaOa    HeatUamed  Bttta 

aaatandvallbailt;tiieprincipaltowna  contain  iatragedhrorinoomedj,wbMibei 

manntbctorieaof  articba  of  dram,  of  iron,rilver,  attampled,  and  it  waa  notmrtflba 


wood,  and  laatbar.  TMe  b  oarriad  on  with  political  and  aodal  noCabttitim  of  tbe  dy  »m 
Tiwbiwtwi,  Oamina,  and  other  placai^  and  tbe  OieatagebjbbwondeifrdgiftofmiBrfeiyMI 
mmtihinra  fr^oantlY  make  long  commeroial  be  diaoofarad  tbe  trie  road  to  aaeaam*  la 
Jommqra  Thabo,  the  cental,  eontaioa  7,000  tbe  apring  of  ITiT  be  opeaed  tba  B^^miriHl 
mbabitenti,  and  there  are  mToral  other  towna  theatre  with  a  piece  called  **lbeDtimiiuaaaf 
with  a  popnbtion  of  between  8,000  and  5,000.  tbeMora^R^ifattanbybhaaaW;  aadhiirtbbbi 
Xbegoremmeat b clectiTe.  wmtlieprmdpalaotor,  Tlierapatatkabebal 
FOOTE,  HavBT  Stuabt,  an  American  statea-  alreadj  aoqaired  for  brilliant  and  rtm^  boear 
man,  bora  in  Faoqaier  oo.,  Ya.,  8ept  20, 1800.  drew  a  crowded  bonaa,  and  tlie  piece  was  mc> 
He  was  graduated  at  WmbiDgton  college,  Lazinfl-  cessfol  almost  beyond  precedent  The  lloenBac 
ton,  Va^  in  1818.  After  leaving  ooll^  he  stud-  act  having  been  applied  againat  bim  hj  than 
led  law,  and  obtamed  license  to  practise  in  1822.  whoaa  foiblea  he  had  thoa  pnbBdj  puctmyaJL 
In  1824  he  removed  to  Alabama  and  settled  at  lie  made  hb  piece  a  morning  entertainment,  aal 
Tuscombia.  He  reuded  there  two  years,  praotis*  nnder  the  title  <tf  **  Mr.  Fpote  taking  Tea  wilb 
log  law  and  editing  a  democratic  newspaper.  In  hb  Frienda,"  it  wm  repeeted  for  50  ancteaava 
1826  lie  removed  to  Mississippi  and  established  mominflL  A  similar  piece,  entitled  **  Tbe  Aee- 
bimself  at  Jaclwoii.  In  1847  he  was  elected  to  Uon  of  rictnrea,'*  proved  eqoaDy  inociawftii,  aal 
tbe  U.  8.  senate,  took  hb  seat  in  December  of  the  anthor  wm  complimented  with  tbe  title  of 
tliat  year,  and  was  placed  at  the  bead  of  the  com-  the  English  Ariatophanaa.  He  leapt  tbe  Qajma^ 
mittee  on  foreign  relatiooa  In  1850  he  took  an  ket  theatre  open  withovt  a  licenae  for  10  jiert 
active  part  in  favor  of  the  *'  compromise  meas-  (daring  wUch  he  foond  time  to  dJadpala  aid 
ares.^  In  1851  he  became  the  candidate  of  tbe  fortnneX  fomishing  a  constant  aapply  of  new 
anion  party  for  governor  of  Mississippi,  and  after  playa  to  repUce  tbe  old  onea,  and  oecnaae  the 
a  very  exciting  canvass  be  was  elected  by  about  admiration  and  the  terror  alaoof  tbe  town«  m  ae 
1,000  minority  over  hb  competitor,  Jefferson  person  whose  character  pomemtd  aaj  rnlmffa 
Ilavia.  lie  resigned  bb  seat  in  Uie  senate  and  ole  points  was  safe  from  nb  mimicry.  In  1  TfT 
entered  npon  his  dntiea  aa  governor  in  Jon.  a  fafi  from  hb  horse  occasioned  the  ampatafiae 
1862.  In  1854  he  removed  to  California,  and  of  one  o(  hb  lega;  and  tlie  dnke  of  Ton,  wbe 
in  1856  aapported  Mr.  FUlmore  for  tbe  pres-  witnessed  the  accident,  proemed  bim  aragniar 
idency.  In  the  spring  of  1858  he  returned  to  patent  to  open  a  theatre.  He  aciU  wrola  and 
Mississippi  and  settled  at  Vicksburg.  In  May,  acted,  but  lem  frequently  than  before,  and  m 
1850,  he  attended  the  aoutbcm  convention  at  1777,  with  a  coostitotion  nndermincd  by  ill 
Knoxville,Tenn.,  and  made  speeches  against  dis-  healtb  and  mental  anfTering,  be  anderteek  a 
anion  which  attracted  much  attention  through-  journey  to  IVance,  and  died  oa  tbe  wi^  et 
oot  the  country.  Mr.  Foote  has  been  engaged  Dover.  By  a  aort  of  poetical  Jnatfce  bb  la- 
in three  *'  affairs  of  hooor.**  In  hb  first  duel,  sparing  ridicnb  of  prDmineat  psrsnnaam  at  bat 
with  Mr.  Winston  of  Tosenmbia,  Ala.,  ho  was  recoiM  upon  bb  own  heed,  and  bb  daatb  waa 


dightir  wonnded  in  tbe  left ahookler.    Heaflcr-    undoubtedly  hastened  by  tbemoMCmoacbaiaii^ 
MrdioQgbt  hi  MiaridipilwWb  &«&¥i«ik\b^  mbaacviemlf  dbprave^  i^iak  tbe  mB^&dfm 


A 


FORBES  SeS 

dnchc^  of  Kingston,  whom  he  had  threatened  the  captured  rebc^  but  it  does  not  appear  that 
to  satirize,  caused  to  be  preferred  against  him.  he  acted  in  the  office,  and  he  was  prominent  in 
As  a  humorist  Foote  has  had  few  equals  in  any  aiding  the  Scotch  prisoners  in  England.  In  1716 
age  or  country,  but  cannot  justly  be  compared  he  was  appointed  advocate  depute,  or  inferior 
to  Aristophanes,  as  ho  possessed  neither  the  prosecutor  for  the  crown,  in  1722  was  returned 
imagination  nor  the  poetic  genius  of  the  Athe-  to  the  British  house  of  commons  for  the  Inver- 
nian  satirist.  His  wit  was  as  ready  and  univer-  ness  district  of  burghs,  and  in  1725  became  lo^ 
sal  as  it  was  unsparing.  He  was  not  merely  a  advocate.  The  office  of  secretary  of  state  for 
great  mimic,  but  he  combined  with  his  mimicry  Scotland  being  at  this  time  discontinued,  its  dn- 
a  comic  genius  and  invention  peculiar  to  him-  ties  devolved  on  the  lord  advocate,  who  was 
self.  Withal,  notwithstanding  the  dislike  with  thus  temporarily  at  the  head  of  the  government, 
which  man^  regarded  him,  he  was  probably  not  The  same  year  the  malt  tax  was  first  introduced 
wilfully  satirical  or  unfeeling,  but  was  mastered  Into  Scotland,  giving  rise  to  a  serious  riot  at 
by  his  strong  propensity  to  mimicry.  His  plays,  Glasgow,  fomented  by  the  local  magistrateii  In 
consisting  principally  of  light  comedies  and  whicn  9  persons  were  killed.  Forb^  repressed 
farces,  are  seldom  performed  now,  for  the  reason  the  disoraers  with  a  high  hand,  causing  the  ma- 
that  they  refer  to  contemporaneous  characters  gistrates  to  be  imprisoned  for  a  time  in  th^ 
whose  peculiarities  have  Ions  been  forgotten,  own  gaol.  The  office  of  lord  president  of  the 
They  are  often  hastily  and  carelessly  constructed,  court  of  session  was  conferred  on  him  in  1787'. 
but  the  flow  of  dialogue  is  so  easy  and  natural.  He  still  paid  regard  to  political  i^airs,  and 
and  the  movement  so  full  of  li&,  that  one  is  formed  a  plan  which  Lord  Chatham  afterward 
led  to  regret  that  they  dealt  with  subjects  so  adopted,  and  which  has  been  considered  one  of 
transitory.  The  traditions  of  Footers  conversa-  that  eminent  man^s  chief  claims  to  renown.  He 
tional  powers  and  ready  wit  are  imperfectly  sus-  proposed  that  government  should  nuse  several 
tained  by  the  specimens  which  his  biographers  regiments  of  highlanders,  to  be  employed  in  the 
Lave  preserved.  His  humor  was  so  irresist-  threatened  Spanish  war.  Every  officer  under 
ible  that  even  his  enemies  were  obliged  to  sue-  the  grade  of  colonel  was  to  be  named  from  a 
cumb  to  it  Dr.  Johnson,  who  disliked  Foote,  list  that  he  had  formed,  which  comprehended 
relates  that  having  met  him  at  a  dinner  party,  all  the  chiefs  and  leaders  of  the  disaffected 
he  made  up  his  mind  not  to  be  pleased,  but  was  dans,  who  were  the  very  persons  whom  France 
finally  obliged  to  "  laugh  it  out  with  the  rest.'*  and  Spain  would  call  upon,  in  case  of  a  war,  to 
He  was  open-handed  in  his  charities,  and  not-  aid  the  pretender.  Several  leading  men,  in- 
withstanding  the  unpardonable  use  of  his  satir-  eluding  Wolpole,  approved  the  plan,  but  notiiing 
ical  powers,  possessed  many  warm  friends.  Of  was  done.  When  the  second  rebellion  broke  oat, 
his  plays,  each  of  which  had  some  peculiar  in  1745,  he  exerted  himself  strenuously  to  pr»- 
object  of  satire,  those  which  have  kept  the  stage  vent  the  spread  of  it,  withheld  several  highland 
longest  are  the  *^  Minor,*'  in  which  the  Method-  chiefs  from  joining  the  pretender,  and  was  more 
ists  are  satirized,  the  "  Englishman  returned  efficient  than  any  other  man  in  restraining  the 
from  Paris,*'  the  *^  Bankrupt,*'  which  attacks  rebels  till  the  government  was  prepared  to  take 
the  newspapers,  the  *^  Orators,"  the  "  Lame  the  field.  He  succeeded  partly  in  keeping  Lord 
Lover,"  the  ^^  Liar,"  and  the  ^^  Major  of  Garratt.*'  Lovat  quiet,  and  had  him  arrested.  After  the 
His  dramatic  works  have  frequently  been  pub-  battle  of  Gulloden,  which  took  its  name  firom 
lisbed,  though  never  in  a  complete  edition.  Wil-  Forbes's  family  estate,  he  sought  to  moderate 
liam  Cooke  published  his  memoirs  in  1 805.  An  the  ferocity  of  the  victors,  but  his  remonstrances 
essay  on  his  life  and  genius  by  John  Forster  was  were  treated  with  *Hhe  utmost  scorn  and  con- 
published  in  itio  *^  Quarterly  Review,"  Ko.  0X0.  tempt"  He  was  insulted  by  Cumberland,  who 
FORBES,  Duncan,  a  Scottish  statesman,  bom  called  him  *'  that  old  woman  who  talked  to  me 
near  Inverness,  Nov.  10, 1685,  died  DeclO,  1747.  about  humanity."  The  government  used  him 
Though  living  within  the  highland  line,  tlie  with  baseness.  He  had  advanced  large  sums  oi 
Forba  family  were  of  lowland  origin,  and  were  money  in  aid  of  it^  and  had  borrowed  firom 
Presbyterians,  and  strongly  attached  to  the  prin*  others ;  and  it  is  believed  that  none  of  his  ad« 
ciples  of  the  revolution  of  1688.  After  being  vances  were  returned,  and  that  the  money  he 
caucated  at  Inverness  and  Edinburgh,  young  borrowed,  both  principal  and  interest,  was  re- 
Forb^  in  conformity  with  the  then  prevailing  paid  from  his  estate,  after  his  death,  by  hb  ton. 
cnstom  of  Scotland,  was  sent  to  the  continent  to  f orbes  saw  the  changes  that  were  forced  upon 
Btndy  the  Roman  law,  and  entered  the  university  Scotland  after  the  rebellion  with  regret,  and  hia 
of  Leyden.  In  1708,  soon  after  bis  return  to  Scot-  death,  which  happened  20  months  after  the  bat- 
Ittid,  he  married  Mary  Rose,  daughter  of  the  tie  of  Gulloden,  is  supposed  to  have  been  caused 
laird  of  Eilravock,  who  had  an  estate  near  Cul-  by  *'  heartbreak,"  the  consequence  of  the  hu- 
loden,  and  in  1709  Forbes  became  a  member  of  miliation  of  himself  and  his  countiy.  He  waa 
the  fiicnlty  of  advocates.  At  an  early  period  he  an  author  in  a  small  way,  and  bemg  himself 
won  the  friendship  of  the  famous  John,  duke  of  a  Hebrew  scholar,  wrote  in  illustration  of 
Argyle;  and  in  1715  he  took  an  active  part  in  the  works  of  John  Hutchinson,  and  other 
•oppressing  that  rebellion  of  which  Mar  was  religious  books.  Few  names  stand  so  high 
ilia  head,  and  which  Argyle  crushed  at  Sheriff-  in  Scotland  as  that  of  Duncan  Forbea.  CUft 
nmir.    He  was  appoint^  to  aid  in  prosecuting  biography  baa  \>e«a  -vftXXMQi  Vj'^.'^^&^^SS^ 


*•" 


M 


t.M, 


JMritott,  aa  emiiiMit  Bootfiili  Urtoriaa  mi  ImJagMwrmAmtUbi^  IkmikmidVkm^ 

Smr,  damlo  MNW  to  dtvoto  UoMir  to  Ite  flBajr  of 

TOBBESy  SmriJtt^  nEngUah  Bttnraliit  botMiy  and  iooiogy,  jartJealMfyoif  lh>  wbi 

lrtwlnI>ooglM|!iithekleoriCa^  tina  ld^lfta^^  apdof  thdiiat«ilaciww»f«K 

ill  WaidSa  iiMrSdin1niKh,NoT.  18, 1864  hm  mU/Tlii  1841  ba  ynbttdied  Ma  •'HIrtoiy  of 

ta^ydilldhoodliaiiiaafiMedaftroiiglaalaftir  BrJt&h  Btorfaha^**  a  woik  aoi  1—  i  — rialili 

At  ato^J  of  natural  hliUNy,  and  at  tlMaga  off  Ibr  tiM  nan 7  new  apaoUa  wUeb  H  BaaaHaaadL 

Ml  aoDaeted  a  MmJl  mnaenm,  tbo  oootentaof  fhanlsrftiMiialitgrlaaBithaiBMntioMaM 

vUcb  be  iifD^d  aaoordlnf  to  tfaa'  t^jatam  of  tirfl  piaaai^  ISO  in  Bambar.  dBafanaJ  barUnarit 

Ummn.    Allt yaan of  aga  ba bad  read tba  Ilia graoa and  bniiorwbieb  mImUM  Iba 

'  wofka  of  BncUand,  Firidnaony  and  btfttardiowad  tbaltba  antbar  ■Ml  bavaal- 

..^..d:  and  about  tba  aama  tima  ba  oom-  tainad  amfaiaDea  aa  an  artb^  bad  m  dwaan  ta 

A  « ItanQal  of  Britldi  Natnral  Hfatorr."  oonfinablmaalftolbaapNiMta.  latbaiVrtv 

b,  altiioQ^  Barer  pnbUibad,  waa  made  tba  cf  1841  ba  ambarikad  bi  tba  i<|iartl||  aC aalBni> 

ngdeltofyof  adantlflo  noteadnHny  btowhdb  ieton  tba  ann^ji^  abtpiyeaeeB,  deeHyad  fcrjba 


and  waa  fIreoiMotily  aonaoltad  bj  btan  wHli  aoartof  Arfa]Daor,wben^ 

jgfhraatifla.    In  nia  ITtb  year  ba  went  to  Lon-  aba  waa  tb  reeaiva  flia  Xan Abai  BMiUa^  iba 

wi  whn  aoma  idea  <tf  baooming  a  jMuntar,  and  azlataoeaof  wUab  badtbaBreeaa^fbaaBBMda 

lb  tba  aUidIo  of  Mr..  8aa  acquired  a  fJuOity  in  knownl^tba  aiploralioBaor  Or  GMmM- 

'imwiqg  Wbiob  afterward  proTed  of  mat  aa*  fowa.    Dvrfais  tba  18  BMBtba  tbailfe 

JUaiiin  In  bin  inlrntifin  nTplnretlnnB     fiotfind*  ramabiad  on  board  tba  raaeal  ba  aataAT 

lif  tbat  tba  pnraalt  of  tlua  art  woold  not  giro  innoniacabla  Atdgteg  oparattaiia  in 

abapa  to  bia  Io?a  for  tba  natural  adanoei^  ba  ra>  daptba  ai  water  tba  hnpurtant  lanr  tbaft  Iba 

j(tfM  in  1881  to  Edinbnri^  wbara  ba  atndlad  tritmtkm  <tf  marina  fii^  Bba  tbaft  af 


Ibadidne^  and  waa  for  aarand  yeara  nndar  tba    fDbndaandT^ateblM^kdalannteaitoii 


Inalniotion  of  Profoeiora  Jainaeon  and  (Irabam    fiiad  law%  and  tbat  tiia  aonaa  wbbii 
lb  bia  fororita  branchea.    At  tbia  period,  and    aptapaetea  bibabitara  aa  dhttoai^y 


ladead  tbroojdioiit  bia  wbdla  lifo.bawaa  not  tba  oiia  caea  I17  tba  dfanata  and  Iba  tajft  1 

laai  remarkaSla for  Ua aiioee»  hi  ini^ng  bia  oompodtioa  of  tba  water,  aa  in  thaallHr  If 

iOow  itodanta  witb  a  taata  for  natnral  bbiory.  tamparatnrai  altitad%   and  af~ 

Aan  for  tbe  energy  witb  wbicb  be  organbM  Tba  raaidta  of  tbeaa  raaaarebaa 

and  coBdnoted  exoondona  on  land  and  water  in  paper  antltlad  '^  Report  on  tiia 

aaarob  of  new  ol^iecU  to  add  to  bia  larva  o(dlao-  RiidiaU  of  tba  iE^san  Sea,  and  aa  Oeir  INa> 

fionsiortoillastrate  bis  own  studies.    Dredging  tribntion,  oonsidered  as  bearing  aa  Oadogr,* 

in  tbe  waters  for  specimens  of  sabinarioe  xool-  which  was  read  before  the  naeung  of  tba  Brit- 

cgy,  which  at  the  commencement  of  liis  studies  ish  association  in  Coric  in  1848.    Ua  abo  asB«* 

was  a  coinparatiyely  new  occupation  to  natural-  ad  in  the  excavations  of  the  Xanthlan  cttias,  the 

lata,  l>ecaine  under  his  hands  the  means  of  open-  ruins  of  20  of  which  he  waa  instroBMBlal  in 

Ing  a  new  field  of  researcli,  if  not  a  new  branch  discovericg.    In  1846  he  published,  in  coBjoaa- 

of  science;  and  the  results  of  his  labors,  publish-  tion  with  Lieut  Spratt,   **TraTels  bi  Ltci^ 

ad  in  the  8th  and  9th  vols,  of  tbe  '*  Magazine  of  Hilyas,  and  the  Cibjratisi''  the  nouerooa  &Ia^ 

Hatural  History,'*  under  the  title  of  ^  Records  trations  in  which  were  from  bb  peociL    la  tbe 

of  the  Results  of  Dredging,**  were^  among  his  latter  part  of  1849  he  waa  oontempboi^  a 

aarllest  contributions  to  scientific  literature.  In  dredgii^  eipedition  to  the  Red  ac%  when  ba 

bis  IBtli  year  he  made  a  summer  excursion  with  was  replied  to  England  by  hb  ttipoiBtnicat  as 

B  fellow  student  to  Norway,  bringing  back  professor  of  l>otany  in  King*a  o^legc^  LondoB. 

abundant  specimens  of  its  rocks,  plants,   and  Ue  delivered  his  inangnnu  addrMS  in  May. 

Biollusca,  which  formed  the  ba^  of  an  article  in  1843,  and  about  the  same  tima  was  appoinlsd 

tbe  ^  Magazine  of  Natural  History,**  under  the  curator  of  the  muaeum  of  tba  geolngicnl  aoeisty, 

title  of  '*  Notes  of  a  Natural  History  Tour  in  and  palsontologist  of  tba  new  mnsaom  of  prae- 

Vorway.*'    He  remained  connected  with  the  tical  geology,  establi^ied  in  ooBBectioB  witb 

Bidrersity  of  Edinburgh  until  1889,  varying  his  the  ordnance  geological  sorvey.  HaaobssqBSBtly 

reridenoe  there  by  excursions  to  southern  Eu-  became  professor  df  natural  histonr  at  tbia  intfi- 

lopa,  the  Mediterranean,  and  Algeria.     The  tution.    Among  the  first  fniiu  of  bia  laban  in 

greater  part  of  1887  he  passed  in  Paris  studying  this  congenial  sphere  waa  an  inportBBt  maiiw, 

gaology,  mineralcMry,  and  zoology,  under  Pre-  '*  On  the  Connection  between  tba  DbtribotioB 

TOst,   Geoffixiy    8t.  Hilaire,  and  others,  and  of  the  Existing  Fauna  and  Flora  of  tba  BriiU 

working  in  the  museum  and  collections  of  the  Isles,  and  the  Geological  Changco  wlilcb  bav« 

£^^111  d€i  planUi.    During  th'ui  period  he  pub-  affected  their  Area"  (1846),  in  wbkb  tbe  c«b> 

bed  also  papers  on  the  *'  Mollusca  of  the  Isle  elusions  arrived  at,  after  inTeatagalloats  Ib  an 

of  Man,**  the  '*  Land  and  Fresh  Water  Mollusca  unusually  wida  fi^  of  specobdv*  r«aMr«b.  ara 

of  Algiers,**  and  on  the  *'  Distribution  of  the  that  the  fauna  and  flora  of  BrilBb^  bocb  terrvt- 

Pulmooifera  of  Europe,**  beside  several  on  mis-  trial  and  marine,  are  neraberaof  foaifiM  inbab- 

aallaneous  subJecU  in  aoologr  and  botany.    Al-  iting  a  oontignoaa  oontiaent^  wbleb  at  bo  vvcy 

ibQash  nominally  a  alndAt  of  medicine  at  remote  period  ailsted  in  tba  Atlaaiie»    ~ 

XdlnBargby  ba  BBtar  took  thB  dav«a  ^  1LS>^  ^Obailvi^FiaiAViiam^dari^i^Br 


FORBES  :£07 

epoch.    Tlio  absorbing  nature  of  Prof.  Forbes's  langaage  of  his  friend  Dr.  Samnd  Brown :  **  Hit 

duties,  which  included  tlie  classification  and  true  greatness  was  cumulative ;  and  if  he  had 

arrangement  of  the  fossils  collected  by  the  ord-  lived  as  long  he  might  have  rivalled  Humboldt 

nance  surveyors,  did  not  prevent  him  from  con-  As  it  is,  he  was  not  a  philosopher  nor  a  great 

tinuallv  adding  to  the  mass  of  original  matter  discoverer;  but  he  was  a  consummate  and  phi- 

which  had  accumulated  during  his  dredging  ez-  losophical  naturalist|  wider  than  any  man  auvo 

cnrsions,  or  from  appearing  frequently  before  the  in  his  kind." 

Bcientifio  bodies  of  the  country  as  the  author  of  FORBES,  James,  an  English  civilian  and 
papers  on  marine  zoology,  geology,  and  many  writer,  bom  in  London  in  1749,  died  Aug.  1, 
kindred  subjects.  Of  papers  on  zoology  and  geof-  1819.  In  1765  .he  went  to  India  and  entered 
ogy  he  prepared  previous  to  1850  upward  of  89,  the  company ^s  service.  In  1780  he  was  ap- 
ezdusive  of  his  botanical  papers  or  those  publish-  pointed  collector  and  chief  resident  of  Dhuboy, 
ed  since  that  date,  which  are  numerous;  and  his  in  Guzerat.  On  the  cession  of  Guzerat  to  the 
note  books  and  collections  contained  the  mate-  Mahrattas  in  1783  he  returned  to  England.  His 
rials  for  many  more.  One  of  the  most  impor-  most  important  literary  work  is  his  *'OrieQtal 
tant  works  in  whicli  he  took  part  after  his  con-  Memoirs"  ^4  vols.  4to.,  London,  1818). 
nection  with  the  geological  society  was  the  FORBES,  James  David,  a  Scottish  natiml* 
preparation  of  the  palaeontological  and  geologi-  ist,  born  April  20, 1809.  From  an  earlv  period 
cal  map  of  the  British  isles,  to  which  he  append-  of  his  career  his  attention  hss  been  largely  given 
ed  an  explanatory  dissertation  and  a  map  of  to  researches  on  heat,  and  experiments  in  elee- 
the  *'  Distribution  of  Marine  Life."  In  1852  he  tricitv  and  terrestrial  magnetism,  the  results  of 
was  elected  president  of  the  geological  society,  which  have  appeared  in  many  numbers  of  the 
and  in  the  succeeding  year  obtained  the  pro-  '^  Transactions^^  of  the  royal  society  of  Edin- 
fessorship  of  natural  history  in  the  university  burgh.  Between  1840  and  1851  he  made  viaits 
of  Edinburgh,  vacated  by  the  retirement  of  to  the  Alps  of  Switzerland  and  Savoy  and  to 
Prof.  Jameson,  a  position  which  it  hod  been  Norway,  chiefly  for  the  purpose  of  examining 
the  ambition  of  his  life  to  fill.  lie  delivered  a  the  glaciers.  The  fruits  oi;  his  explorations  were 
course  of  lectures  in  Edinburgh  in  the  summer  *'  Travels  through  the  Alps  of  Savoy^*  (8to., 
of  1854,  but  was  soon  after  attacked  by  a  dis-  1848,  2d  ed.  1845) ;  and  "  Norway  and  its 
case  of  the  kidneys,  which  ultimately  proved  Glaciers  visited  in  1851"  (8vo.,  Edinburgh, 
fataL  He  died  in  the  plenitude  of  his  rcputa-  1858),  which  is  perhaps  the  most  complete  de- 
tion  and  intellectu/il  powers,  having  written  scription  of  the  mountainous  region  of  Norway 
more  on  scientific  subjects  in  the  lost  4  years  of  yet  published.  Both  works  are  illustrated.  In 
Lis  life  than  in  any  corresponding  period,  and  1855  appeared  his  ^^  Tour  of  Mont  Blano  and  of 
having  exerted  an  influence  upon  the  pursuit  of  Monte  Kosa."  He  is  now  professor  of  natural 
natural  sciences  which  few  men  of  maturcr  philosophy  in  the  university  of  Edinbur|;h. 
age  have  equalled.  In  addition  to  the  works  FORBES,  Sir  John,  a  British  physician  and 
enumerated,  Prof.  Forbes  assisted  Mr.  llanley  in  writer  on  medical  science,  born  in  CutUebrae, 
the  preparation  of  the  *^  History  of  British  Banffshire,  Scotland,  in  1787.  He  was  educat- 
Mollnsca^^  (4  voK  8vo.,  1853),  the  descriptions  ed  at  Marischal  college,  Aberdeen,  subsequently 
in  which  were  written  by  himself,  and  contrib-  served  in  the  medical  department  of  the  navy, 
nted  important  information  respecting  the  dis-  receiving  a  war  medal  for  his  participation 
tribution  of  plants  and  animals  to  the  last  in  several  engagements,  and  in  1817,  in  corn- 
edition  of  Jonnston^s  ^^  Physical  Atlas."  He  pany  with  his  friend  and  fellow-student^  Sir 
also  possessed  a  considerable  knowledge  of  gen-  James  Clnrk,  took  the  degree  of  M.D.  at  the 
eral  literature,  which  in  the  intervals  of  his  university  of  Edinburgh.  After  practising  his 
scientific  labors  he  assiduously  cultivated ;  and  profession  at  Penzance  and  Chichester,  he  re- 
after  his  death  his  friends  were  surprised  to  moved  to  London,  where  he  has  since  resided, 
learn  that  for  a  number  of  years  he  had  been  a  His  career  as  an  author  commenced  in  1824, 
regular  contributor  of  miscellaneous  articles  to  when  he  published  translations  of  the  works 
tlie  columns  of  the  London  "  AthensBum"  and  of  Avenbrugger  and  Laennec  on  auscultation, 
**  Literary  Gazette,"  a  collection  of  which  was  following  them  up  by  an  original  work  of  his 
published  under  the  title  of  ^^  Literary  Papers  own  on  the  subject.  The  appearance  of  these 
oy  the  late  Edward  Forbes,  with  a  Memoir  by  works,  which  have  gone  through  several  edi- 
Iloxley"  (12mo.,  1855).  His  other  posthumous  tions,  formed  an  era  in  the  practice  of  medi- 
pnblications  are :  "  Zoology  of  tlie  Voyage  of  H.  cine  in  England.  He  was  instrumental  in 
jL  Ship  Herald ''  (3  voK  4to.),  and  ^^  MoUusca  and  founding  the  British  medical  association,  one  of 
Badiata  of  the  Voyage  of  H.  M.  Ship  Herald,"  the  objects  of  which  was  to  obtain  information 
the  latter  written  in  conjunction  with  Prof.  Hux-  of  the  physical  character  of  the  country,  with 
ley.  Although  in  the  universality  and  grasp  of  reference  to  its  efifect  upon  the  health  of  the  in- 
liis  knowledge  and  in  the  variety  of  his  accom-  habitants,  and  to  the  ^^  Transactions"  of  which 
plishments  he  showed  himself  preeminent,  it  ho  contributed  an  interesting^  paper  <m^the 

lata  been  "" 

memorable  discovery, 

incnt^  and  never  slio\ .,      » 

liiuuDDSi  or  Cuvicr,  or  even  BufiTon.    In  the  great  Talue,  tsoui  to  Y^  .^«is%  to^'Q^:^^  *^^ 


B98  lORCfE  lOBD 

**  British  and  Foroif^  Medical  Review,*'  with  pen  in  hand  not  only  the  whole  Latin  litera- 

•iirnal  ability  and  independence,  retiring  in  1848  ture,  bat  all  the  collections  of  inscription  and 

a  loser  by  the  enterprise,    lie  is  tlie  anthor  medalsL     lie  died  before  the  work  appeared 

of  '*  Observations  on  Ute  Climate  of  Penzance  in  1771,  nnder  the  title  of  Totivs  Latinitatit 

and  Land's  End"  (London,  1828);  *^  A  Manual  Lexicon,  coruilio  et  eura  Jae,  Faeeiolati  opera 

of  Select  Medical  Bibliography''  (8vo.,  London,  et  studio  yEgid.  Foreellini  lueuhratum. 
1885) ;  ''  Iliostrations  of  Modern  Mesmerism"        FORGHIIAMMER,  JonAXX  GBOBO,aPanUh 

(8vo.,  London,  1846) ;  "  Treatise  on  Diseases  of  geologist  and  chemist,  bom  in  Ilnsam,  Schlr»- 

Uie  Chest,"  and  **  Nature  and  Art  in  the  Cure  wig,  July  26,  1794,  became  secretary  of  CK-r- 

of  Disease"  (8vo.,  1857) ;  and  of  the  following  sted  of  Copenhagen,  aocomnanied  him  on  a 

books  of  travel,  which  have  enjoyed  consider-  mineralogical  ez[^ition  to  the  island  of  Ik4ii- 

able  popularity:  "A  Physician's  lloliday ;  or,  a  holm  (1818-'19),  and  snbseqnenily  made  seve- 

Month  in  Switzerland  during  the  year  1848"  ral  Journeys  in  Great  Britain,  France,  and  IK;d« 

(8vo^  1849);  *^  Memoranda  made  in  Ireland  in  mark  at  the  expense  of  the  Danish  goveninitnt. 

1862"  (1852) ;  ^*  Sight-seeing  in  Germany,"  &c.  He  occupies  a  high  position  in  Capenhagi>n  u  a 

(8vo.,  1855).  He  is  physician  in  ordinary  to  the  professor  of  geology  and  as  a  member  of  the 

household  of  the  queen,  by  whom  he  was  knight-  academy  of  sciences,  and  lias  officiated  m.^  iti 

ed  in  1853,  physician  extraordinary  to  Prince  aecrctajT-  since  the  death  of  Oersted  (1*«5U 

Albert,  and  a  member  of  the  principal  medical  His  principal  works  are  Danemarke  fffogneetuke 

■ocieties  of  Europe  and  America.  Forhold  (18:)5),  and  Skandinaticne  geogneetUk* 

FORCE,  Pbteb,  an  American  journalist  and  Natur  (1843).    He  also  excels  as  a  lecturer  ua 

historian,  born  in  New  Jersey,  Nov.  26,  1790.  chemistry  and  mineralogy,  and  has  written  a 

He  removed  to  New  York  when  a  child,  became  manual  of  universal  chemistry  {Laerthoy  i  Si*f- 

a  printer,  and  resided  in  that  city  till,  in  Nov.  fcrnee  almindelige  Chemie^  1834-*5). 
1815,  ho  removed  to  Washington,  D.  C.    In        FORCIBLE  ENTRY.    In  Lkw,  the  rhrate 

1820  he  began  the  publication  of  the  **  National  forcible  entry  and  detainer  means  the  uoJavijI 

Calendar,"  an  annual  volume  of  national  sta-  and  violent  entry  upon  and  taking  poue^i^ 

tistics,  winch  he  continued  until  1836.    From  or  keeping  of  lands  or  tenementa,  with  actuator 

Nov.    12,  1823,    to  Feb.    2,   1830,    he    pub-  threatened  force  or  violence.    In  nearly  all  and 

liahed    the     **  National  Journal,"   a  political  indeed,  in  some  form,  in  all  onr  ataU^  tbrr* 

newspaper,    which  was    the    official  journal  are  laws  respecting  this  which  are  usually  very 

during  the  administration   of   John    Quinoy  stringent     1.  It  is  regarded  generally  asan  t>j- 

Adams.     From  1836  to  1840  ho  was  mayor  fonceandmadoindictable,  or  treated  as  beicc*^ 

of  Washington,  and  was  afterward  president  at  common  law.    2.  An  action  i.-^  given  f<>rca'n' 

of  the   national   institute  for   the    promotion  ages  <>r  remedial  proro!:s  providtt].  1>t  ::..  ^-.« 

of  science.     In  1833  ho  made  a  contract  with  of  which  the  party  entitle*!  to  puss.-^M  ui  i..;t 

the  U.S.  government  for  the  preparation  and  have  it  with  tho'k-a«*l  dolay  comra'.r:  !e  i*'. 

publication  of  a  documentary  lii.story  of  tlio  sufficient  inquiry  into  ((ue^tions  of  ri.:l.t  i*  '. 

Americancolonies»of  which  9  folio  volumes  have  title.     The  entry  and  detainer  are  u«.ua.'.»  *  ■- 

since  ap{>eared,  under  the  title  of  **  American  Ar-  ken  of  together ;  but  it  «e%^>ms  to  bo  m.  :tIo^  :..  -; 

chives.'*    This  work  has  occupied  Mr.  Force  for  they  arc  distinct    utft-nces^      j  1    Sar.w:     :  '. 

30  vetu^  and  in  its  prosecution  he  has  gathered  Uawle!>'s  lU'p.  124;  8  ('owen*s  Kep.  •J2r".  >    *  ■  * 

a  collection  of  liookis  manuscripts,  maps,  and  pa-  Koman  civil  law,  in  its  anxieiy  to  pn^riv  ;  * 

pers  relating  to  American  history,  which  in  com-  peace  of  the  community,  m.ido  ii  a  p  ::.>:...   * 

pleteness  and  value  is  not  equalled  hy  any  other  otVenco  even  in  an  owner  of  an  e>ui:e  !*•  lUc 

collection  in  the  world  on  the  same  subject.    Mr.  fonihlo  and  violent  iK'KM.ision  I'f  it. 
Force  has  also  puMished  4  voluniesof  hi*itorical         FOKD,   John,    an    English   drAn:a::«:.    I- r: 

tracts,  relating  chietly  to  the  origin  and  bettlo-  probably  in  lUington,  I*i'Von>hire,  iw  \l>^*-.  li  .-, 

ment  of  tin-  American  colonic?.  there  about  104".     At  the  ai^?  «»f  1m  he  w  ^  «   • 

FORCKLLINI,  E<iimo,  an  Italian  lexioogra-  tercd  a  student  of  law  in  the  Middle  Tir:.::i .  v  : 

pher,  born  near   Padua,    Aug.   26,   lO^S,  died  4  yearslaterhe  publi>he«l  a  |N>cmi»f  l.l:.^  ::,  •  ■. 

April  4,  176>*.     Admitted  into  the  seminary  of  entitled  •* Fame's  Memori:d.*'  an  i\jv  . :.  • 

Padua,  his  i>ro?ress   in  the  ancient  hin;:uapos  death  of  the  earl  of  l>evoii*h:re.     Tiiw'tA.**!  •  r 

induoe<l  his  master  Tacciolato  to  make  liim  his  authorship  which  this  pnnlucti.iQ  chj-vl  ii-^-i 

assistant  in   lexiciigraphical   labors.      In    1718  did  nv>t,  however,  divert  lum  fn-m  L:*  jr.*  - 

they  conceived  the  project  of  publishing  a  uni-  sittnal  duties.     Ilavini;  bev-n  ri'ini'.Ar*.>  ro...  i  • 

ver^  dictionary  of  tho    Lntln  langua^re;  hut  the  bar,  he  praclisid  law  unt.i  ;o;tS  t-r  \*^  ?. 

Foreellini  being  sent  in  1724  to  (VuiMa  as  pro-  when  he  is  suppos*cd  to  have  n.:iri-.l  t  ■  1  :-i  r  -.- 

fessor  of  rhetoric  and  director  «»f  tho  seminary,  tivo  iJ.u*o,  as  all  trace  of  him  ciate*«  xi\%.T  \    • 

tlio  exeiMitiiin  of  the  task  wsLs  nusiNiHled  till  his  date.     l*i»etry  and  dramatic  i>'m[H>s.:..-r.  ri.-. 

return  in   17:tl.     This  great  work,  which  wjw  the  recreations  of  his  leisure  h-.ur^  olJ  a*  • 


FORD  FOBDHAIC                    699 

« 

Ssg  Utile  effort  to  court  the  popular  taste.  In  Retaming  to  England,  he  became  a  regular  con- 
acoordance  with  the  practice  commoa  among  tributor  to  the  '*  Quarterly  Review,"  in  which 
the  Elizabethan  dramatists,  at  the  outset  of  his  his  articles  on  the  life,  literature,  and  art  of 
eareer  he  wrote  several  plays  in  conjunction  Spain  attracted  much  attention.  He  was  the 
with  some  of  his  associates,  not  venturing  be«  author  of  the  *'  Handbook  for  Spain,"  published 
fore  thejpublic  as  an  independent  author  until  by  Murray  of  London.  The  work  appeared  in 
1629.  He  is  said  to  have  assisted  Webster  in  1845,  in  2  vols.  8vo.,  and  several  editions  have 
'*  A  late  Murther  of  the  Sonne  upon  the  Mother,"  since  been  published,  that  of  1855  being  mucli 
a  play  which  has  been  lost,  and  Decker  in  the  enlarged  and  partly  re-written.  It  is  the  most 
**  Fairy  Knight"  and  the  *^  Bristowe  Merchant,"  learned  and  complete  work  of  its  class  yet  pub- 
which  have  likewise  disappeared.  He  joined  lished,  embodying  within  comparatively  narrow 
with  Decker  in  writing  the  '^  Sun's  Darling,"  a  limits  a  synopsis  of  the  social  and  political  condi- 
moral  masque  acted  in  1623-*4,  and  published  tion  and  progress  of  the  Spanish  people,  as  well 
in  1657;  and  of  the  *' Witch  of  Edmonton,"  as  full  descriptions  of  places  and  events,  and  hus 
written  in  conjunction  with  Rowley  and  Decker,  been  highly  praised  in  England  and  America-* 
the  last  act  is  ascribed  to  Ford.  His  own  plays  in  this  country  by  Irving,  Prescott,  Ticknor,  and 
are:  *^The  Lover's  Melancholy"  (1629),  ^Tis  other  authorities  on  Spain.  Mr.  Ford's  remdn- 
Pity  slie's  a  Whore,"  *'The  Broken  Heart,"  and  ing  publications  are  *^  Gatherings  from  Spain** 
"Love's  Sacrifice"  (1638),  "  Perkin  Warbeck"  (8vo.,  1846),  and  " Tauromachia,  the  Bull  Fights 
(1634),  ''The  Fancies  Chaste  and  Noble"  (1688),  of  Spain,  with  26  iUustrations"  (imp.  fol.,  1852). 
and  "  The  Ladie's  Triall"  (1689).  With  the  ex-  His  collection  of  books,  prints,  and  pictures  was 
ception  of  the  first  and  two  last,  these  are  of  a  one  of  the  choicest  in  England. 
deeply  tragio  character,  and  the  horrible  and  FORDHAM,  a  post  village  in  the  town  of 
even  revolting  stories  which  are  developed  in  West  Farms,  Westchester  co.,  N.  Y.,  on  the 
them  are  characteristic  of  the  author's  saturnine  New  York  and  Harlem  railroad,  about  10  m. 
temperament  Lamb  estimates  him  as  of  the  from  New  York  city,  and  8  m.  from  the  Hud- 
first  order  of  poets ;  but  in  the  judgment  of  son  river.  It  is  the  seat  of  St  John's  college 
Haxlitt,  Giffbrd,  Jeffrey,  Hartley  Coleridge,  and  and  St  Joseph's  theological  seminary,  two 
Hallam,  he  ranks  after  several  of  his  contemno-  prominent  Roman  G^olic  institutions.  Th* 
raries.  The  last  places  him  at  a  considerable  college,  which  stands  on  an  eminence  snr- 
distonce  below  Massinger.  His  versification  is  rounded  by  magnificent  gro^n^^  ^&s  founded 
easy  and  harmonious,  his  declamation  frequently  by  the  Rt  Rev.  John  Hughes,  bishop  (now  arch- 
elevated  ;  and  in  his  love  passages,  and  particu-  bishop)  of  New  York,  and  was  opened  for  stn- 
lariy  in  the  expression  of  deep  sorrow — "the  dents  June  24, 1841,  most  of  the  professors  being 
power  over  tears,"  as  Hallam  calls  it — he  had  secular  clergymen,  and  the  Rev.  John  McOloa* 
no  superior  among  the  dramatists  of  his  age,  key,  now  bishop  of  Albany,  first  president 
although  the  emotion  he  portrays  is  never  ex-  Tlie  college  was  invested  by  the  legislature  with 
cited  by  heroic  impulses,  but  by  guilty  or  un-  university  privileges,  March  17,  1846 ;  the  firsi 
fortunate  love.  He  had  not,  in  fact,  the  true  commencement  for  conferring  degrees  was  held 
dramatic  fire,  nor  the  elevation  of  a  great  poet  in  July  of  the  same  year,  and  immediately  after- 
He  wrote  with  extreme  care,  and  hence  there  is  ward  the  place  was  transferred  to  the  Jeauitii 
an  artificial  elaborateness  in  his  style,  and  a  who  broke  up  their  establishment  at  St  Mark's 
monotony  in  his  poetry,  which  contrast  unfa-  college  in  Kentucky,  and  took  charge  of  the  in- 
Torably  with  the  grace  and  vigor  of  several  of  stitution  at  Fordham  in  Sept  1846.  The  organ- 
bis  contemporaries.  Of  comic  ability  he  was  ization  of  the  college  combines  the  ordinary  foa- . 
entirely  destitute.  "The  Broken  Heart,"  and  tures  of  preparatory  and  grammar  schools  with 
^  Perkin  Warbeck,^  are  commonly  esteemed  his  those  of  a  university.  Students  are  received  at 
fineet  plays.  His  complete  dramatic  works  were  any  age,  and  there  is  a  separate  course  of  studies 
first  published  in  1811,  in  2  vols.,  edited  by  H.  for  Uiose  who  do  not  wish  tofoUow  tlie  classical 
Weber.  In  1827  appeared  Gifford's  edition  in  branches.  The  younger  pupils  are  kept  apart 
S  vols.  8vo.,  and  in  1847  an  expurgated  one  from  the  elder,  the  3  divisions  into  which  ths 
in  Murray's  "  Family  Library."  Tho  most  re-  students  are  separated  according  to  age  and 
cent  edition  of  Ford's  works  is  that  published  proficiency  being  allowed  to  have  no  communi- 
in  Moxon's  series  of  the  old  English  dramatists,  cation  with  one  another.  In  the  senior  class 
FORD,  RicHABD,  an  English  author,  bom  in  Latin  is  altogether  spoken  in  the  lectures  and 
London  in  1796,  died  at  Heavitree,  near  Exeter,  recitations.  In  July,  1859,  the  college  oontain- 
8ept  1,  1858.  He  was  educated  at  Winchester  ed  125  students,  86  of  whom  were  in  the  uni- 
and  at  Trinity  college,  Cambridge,  and  was  yersity  course.  There  were  18  professors  and 
called  to  the  bar  at  Lincoln's  Inn,  but  never  tutors,  all  but  8  of  whom  were  Jesuits.  The 
practised.  The  opening  of  the  continent  on  library  has  about  12,000  volumes.  Gonnect- 
thc  overthrow  of  Napoleon  enabled  him  to  ed  with  the  college  the  Jesuits  have  a  house 
gratify  a  taste  for  travel  and  collecting  worka  of  studies  for  members  of  the  order,  and  a  ooni- 
of  art,  and  he  remained  abroad  for  a  number  munity  of  lay  brethren,  many  of  the  former 
of  years  absorbed  in  those  pursuits.  In  1830  being  also  employed  as  professors  or  prefects  in 
he  visited  Spain,  where  he  spent  several  years  the  college,  and  the  latter  having  thA  ^tv^scx^aV 
In  the  study  of  the  country  and  the  people*  charge  H  \lbA  &0tnM0(A]^  iS£us%^  \ian^  ^g^w<K 


A&    TIm  laj  brBtkNn  nmiibcr  iiboat  t&  md      lOBBST,*  V.  W.oo.  UFmm^  •^. 

lh9ibbdtitiM(iniiiiitotQrtlMlioiMeof8tii««iX  Om  jMr  1861  oat  of  tU  9.  ptfk  of 

li.    Thare  an  2  ttnB%  tiM  fint  kstiiif  from  oou;  ai^  ItiflffSfWiadlgr 

tfM  iint  Monday  of  BaptHnW  imtO  Obimmaa,  xiT«r,  whldi  ia  lUiTigabla  ^  aoHll  ksaaa.    tka 

ttid tha  aaoond  from  Jaiu  t  QBtU  about Julj  16^  aorteaiaUDTaiidimfiilar.    Sonaoiflkalni 

whan  tha  annual  commanwwnant  fa  hakL    Tha  iatoorod^nrcaltlTraoBibiittliarHtiaH 

Inatitation  owna  40  aoraa  of  aroond.  atratahlnc  aralify  prodoetiTa.    Tha  abkf  artltiaa  of 

X.  to  tba  ii?ar  Bronx,  and  Uld  ont  in  baantUm  port  art  pina  timbar  and  liard  ooaL  tbafa 

plaaaQragroandiLcaraana,orcbardflLWoodiLand  ofirbtohiaTarrabondant.    OapitaL  llarka. 
aaitiTatodfialdiu   ^  bnildinga  bava  Utila  pro-       FOBSSTALLIKG.    Tha  oi^^  aad  on 

taoabn  to  alaganoa,  oonaiating  mainljr  of  an  old  moaning  of  thfa  woid,  oa  a  kw  tafmi  waa  tha 

aoimtiy  mai»on  and  ont-honaaa,   to  which  baying  of  good%  and  aapaelallr  of  ngr  Uad  d 

aanjadditionabaYabaaamadaaaocoaaionhaa  Ibod,  on  ita  wiqr to  manat,  with o  viow  laail 

damandad,  but  il  fa  dadgnad  aoon  to  aract  a  ita^^atanaohanoadprioa.    Otharkw 

tandaoma  adifico  on  tba  aama  groand.— *Tha  varaaaadinodmUaraaiiaa,aaoBgnaai*g^ 

Ihaologioal  aaminanr  waa  fonndra  bj  Bfahop  aaaant,  probablj,  bayta|g  of  o  prodaaar 

EaghaainlSil, andhaaalwajaramainodnndar  than  thaboyarwantadmrhimaAl^toaii 

Ml  oootroL    Tha  Jasoita  wara  ampli^ad  to  di-  at  opfoAt  to  o  oooaamar:  aho  i 

loet  it  whan  thar  took  oharga  of  tha  ocdiega,  to  maan  oiMnally  franaolantly 

hat  thay  ratignad  thair  ehaira  in  1855,  and  tha  dlTldfaiggooda to aaO again.  Thaaat 

oOoara  ara  now  appointad  by  tha  arohbfahop.  aanaraU^  oaad  4ogathar  in  tho  kw.    Tho  lUai 

Tho  fiumlty  oonafata  of  o  pre^dant,  proeorator,  haa  drappad  oat  of  naa  in  kw  and  akavlMaa 

and  profMaora  of  moral  and  dogmatic  thaologyt  Tha  aaaood  haa  baeoaao  of  oommon  oaa  In  wril- 

fkraiioh,riiatorio,aadaaoradmanc.  Thanombar  ingandapaaking^  inthoaanaa  of  aaoaapaMm 

ofatadantiinl858  waaSS.  Thaaaminaryfa  an  aim  gctthw  mora  than  ooa^  dkara  of  otfcii^ 

Impoaing  imildlogof  gmr  atona,  and  haa  attach*  Tha  ihvt  »  not  nnfroipwntly  mad  oat  of  tha 

od  to  it  n  parfah  choroh  of  tha  aama  material  kw,  in  tha  aanaa  of  a  wroogM  aad  i^forf 

with  a  tall  apira.    Tha  TiUage  oontaina  8  or  8  antidpatioQ;  andktha  kwfaaaaamloha 

other  ehorohea^  and  fa  a  kyorita  amnmar  rad«  tandad  to  oorar  ofanr  dorioa  or  oal^  or 

dacea.    In  Oct  1778,  immadfatalT  aftar  tha  ipiraicy  with  another,  by  any  maana  to  aoL 

Ofaonation  of  New  York  br  the  Britfah  troopai  tho  pnee  of  pioTfalona  ahoiw  what  m^^  ha 

the  American  army  occopied  a  ■eriea  of  intrench"  deemed  the  natural  priae.    Thkmi^thodaoa 

ad  eamjM  on  the  hiUa  from  Fordham  heighta  to  by  baying  to  aell  again,  or  by  apraodiaf  fdn 

White  rUuii8.8eTeral  pieces  ofcannon  have  been  romori^  or  by  miarepraaentadona  aa  to  kets 

dog  np,  and  the  remains  of  earthworks  and  other  which  would  affect  the  market,  or  by  conspiring 

fortificatioDS  are  still  seen  in  the  vicinity.  with  others  to  obtain  a  monopoly  or  a  con- 

FORDYGE,  David,  a  Scottish  philosopher,  mand  of  the  market,  or  to  keep  any  articles  of 

born  in  Aberdeen  in  1711,  died  in  1751.    He  fbod  oat  of  the  market.    In  all  the  Uaitsd 

waa  edacated  at  the  university  of  his  native  States  there  are  statutes  acainst  fonatairiof; 

elty,  where  in  1742  he  became  professor  of  and  it  fa  sometimes  regretted  that  they  ans  aoi 

moral  philosophy.    He  afterward  went  abroad  more  freqnenUy  applied  and  enforcedJ    Bet  ia 

and  travelled  through  France,  Italy,  and  other  thfa  coimtry  it  aeems  to  be  the  practice,  if  nul 

ooontries  of  Europe,  but  was  lost  in  a  storm  off  the  theory,  generally,  if  not  alwava,  to  k«*a 

the  coast  of  Holland.     Hfa  most  important  the  regulation  of  these  matters  to  the  potilk  ia* 

.  works  are :  **  Dial()gues  concerning  Education'^  telligence  and  to  the  inflaenoe  of  a  froe  and  kir 

a  vols.  8vo.,  London,  1745-*8) ;  **  Thoodorus,  a  competition, 
ilogue  concerning  the  Art  of  Preaching"        FOKESTI,  E.  Fauci,  an  Italian  ]mtriot«  bora 

(ISmo.,  1752);   ''Elements  of  Moral  Philoso-  in  Conselice,  near  Ferrara,  abont  1788»  dMd 

phy**  (12mo.,  1754).  in  Genoa,  Sept  14, 1858.    After  goiag  thiv^ 

rORE,  a  nautical  term,  signifying  a  vessePs  a  course  of  study  at  the  aniverdty  of  Bolagaa» 

frame  and  machinery  which  lies  near  the  stem,  he  received  the  degree  of  doctor  of  kws,  and 

«-FoBa  ASTD  Aft,  from  one  end  of  tho  vessel  to  found  employment  aa  a  criminal  kwycr  befers 

tho  other. — Fork  Brack,  a  rope  applied  to  the  the  tribuoafa  of  Ferrara.    In  1810  lia  was  ap- 

Ibreyard  arm  for  tlie  purpose  of  changing  oc-  pointed  prastor  of  Cresptno,  which  by  the  tneaiy 

aasionolly  the  position  of  the  foresail.— Fori  of  Vienna  had  been  transferred  fimi  tha  papal 

Taokli,  the  tackle  which  belongs  to  the  fore-  to  the  Austrian  dominions.    Tha  reaetioo  ioct« 

mast  dent  to  the  rei*stablishment  of  the  latter  anthor* 

FORECLOSE,  in  kw.  to  shut  out,  or  exclude,  ity  had  aroused  on  intense  opposition,  which  fad 

Foreclosure  means  in  law  the  act  or  method  to  an  organixed  national  movameot  kr  th# 

whereby   a  mortagee   finally  terminates  the  liberation  of  Italy  from  foreign  rak;  and  kto 

raortgageor's  eouity  of  redemption,  or  whereby  this  scheme  Forest i  entered  with  aothasuMB. 

a  mortgagee  shuts  out,  or  for  ever  excludes.  The  treason  of  an  associate  betrayed  that  aectioa 

the  mortgageor*s  right  to  annul  tho  mortgage  of  the  party  to  which  he  belonged,  and  he  waa 

and  repossess  himself  of  the  oroperty  mortgaged  arrested  at  aboot  tho  aama  time  with  Silvio 

hf  payment  of  the  debt  or  onUfBlion  to  accure  PellioQ^  Gonklonkri,  Maroneelli,  and  oUm 

orJUoh  tho  mortgage  waa^TOOb  (^Uovsauou')  Yanrau^^ataAiAa^  Oo  Jan.  7, 1811^  ha  waa 


SUBMERGED  FORESTS  FORFAR  601 

to  Venice  and  incarcerated  in  the  Piombi  prison,  mont,  who  visited  the  locality  in  1845,  satisfied 

After  2  years  of  suspense  and  captivity,  aggra-  himself  that  the  forests  had  been  subinerffed  in 

vated  by  total  isolation  from  family  and  friends,  consequence  of  immense  land  slides.  I>e  lal^eche 

and  frequent  inquisitorial  visits  directed  to  the  (^^ Geological  Manual  *')  cites  numerous  iustances 

discovery  of  others  implicated,  which  attempts  of  submarine  forests  on  the  coasts  of  Corn  wall, 

were  baffled  by  the  prisoner's  firmness,  Forest!  Yorkshire,  Somersetshire,  Scotland,  and  the  lleb- 

and  his  companions  were  conducted  chained  in  rides.    These  are  oflen  buried  beneath  alluvial 

couples  to  tiie  square  of  San  Marco,  Dec.  24,  deposits  of  sand,  clay,  and  marl,  and  are  only  oc- 

1821.    There  they  mounted  a  scaffold  while  casionally  exposed  to  view,  or  brought  to  light 

one  of  the  judges  read  the  sentence  of  death,  when  excavated  in  their  continuation  inland  be- 

which  was  followed  however  by  an  edict  com-  neath  the  surface.    They  contain  trunks,  stems, 

muting  their  punishment  to  imprisonment  for  branches,  and  leaves  of  trees  of  species  resembling 

20  years.    They  wore  detained  until  Jan.  12,  tliose  growing  upon  the  land.  The  vegetable  stra- 

182*2,  in  the  island  of  St.  Michael,  and  then  es-  turn  is  sometimes  a  bed  of  peat  and  moss.    Lyell 

corted,  again  chained  two  and  two,  to  Spielberg  refers  to  the  upward  and  downward  movement 

in  Moravia,  where  they  arrived  after  a  painful  to  which  the  crust  of  the  earth  is  subject  as  a 

Jonmey  of  a  month.    The  severe  discipline  of  cause  that  might  produce  this  phenomenon ;  and 

their  long  confinement  in  this  fortress  has  be-  also  mentions  one  instance  where  it  might  have 

come  memorable  through  the  record  of  Silvio  occurred  by  the  washing  out  and  removal  by  the 

Pellico,  entitled  Le  mie  prig  ion  L    The  emperor  tide  of  a  gravelly  stratum  supporting  a  peat  bed. 
Ferdinand,  on  his  accession  in  1885,  commuted        FOREY,  Slie  Fr^d^rio,  a  French  general, 

the  imprisonment  of  the  Italian  conspirators  to  bom  in  Paris,  Jan.  10, 1804.    His  mother  was  a 

perpetual  exile  in  America.    At  the  end  of  Nov.  daughter  of  an  officer  of  Louis  XVI.    His  uncle 

1885,  their  chains  were  removed,  and  after  a  placed  him  in  the  college  of  Dijon,  and  he  was 

few  months  spent  under  cuard  at  Gradisca  in  or-  subsequently  admitted  to  the  military  school 

der  to  recruit  tlieir  health,  they  were  transport-  of  St.  Gyr,  where  Beuret,  who  was  killed  at  the 

ed  to  Trieste,  and  thence  sailed  for  New  ^  ork.  battle  of  Montebello,  was  in  the  senior  clam. 

They  landed  on  the  last  of  Oct.  1836,  and  were  lie  fought  at  Algiers,  became  a  colonel  in  1844^ 

received  with  respect  and  hospitality.    Foresti  a  general  in  1848,  aided  in  the  coup  d*etat  of  Dec. 

•GOD  became  a  favorite  in  society.    He  was  2,  1851,  was  appointed  general  of  division  in 

appointed  professor  of  the  Italian  language  and  1852,  and  officiated  for  a  short  time  at  the  head 

literature  in  Golumbia  college,  and  for  more  than  of  the  French  army  at  Sebastopol  in  1854.    Gora- 

20  years  was  the  popular  teacher  of  both  in  acad-  mander  of  the  1st  division  of  the  French  anny 

emiesand  private  circles.    For  the  use  of  his  from  1857,  he  led  it  in  the  campaign  of  1869  in 

pupils  he  published  an  Italian  reader  (Crcstoma'  Italy,  drove  back  the  Austrians  who  had  attack- 

sia/f<x/uzna,  12mo.,  New  York,  1847).    In  1848  ed  the  advanced  posts  of  Marshal  Bnragnay 

Le  went  to  Europe,  but  the  reaction  which  fol-  d^IIilliers,  and  gained  the  battle  of  Monte^llo^ 

lowed  the  revolutions  of  that  year  obliged  him  the  first  of  the  campaign  (May  20),  by  holding  the 

to  return  to  America.    Failing  health  having  village  of  tliat  name  after  a  hand-to-hand  combat 

impelled  him  to  seek  a  milder  clinrnte,  he  sailed  of  several  hoursMuration,  inflicting  a  loss  of  about 

for  Genoa,  where  he  was  appointed  U.  S.  consul,  2,000  men  upon  the  Austrians,  and  capturing  200 

in  the  spring  of  1858.    lie  died  of  a  di.^ease  of  their  soldiers  and  officers,  while  the  French  and 

contracted  in  the  discharge  of  his  official  duties,  Sardinian  loss  was  estimated  at  not  over  700.   A 

retaining  to  the  end  the  finnncss  of  will,  clear-  note  accompanying  tlie  great  cross  of  the  legion 

ness  of  mind,  and  affcctionatencss  of  disposition  of  honor,  which  was  conferred  on  him  by  the 

which  had  endeared  him  to  so  largo  a  circle  in  emperor  on  May  21,  certifies  that  he  has  been 

Europe  and  America.    His  body,  wrapped  in  the  employed  36  years  in  active  service,  taken  a  part 

American  flag,  was  borne  to  the  cemetery  of  Sta-  in  14  campaigns,  and  that  he  has  been  wounded 

glieno  by  the  sailors  of  the  U.  S.  frigate  Wabash,  8  times.    He  took  an  active  part  in  the  subse- 

foUowed  by  a  vast  concourse  of  foreigners  and  quent  battles  in  Italy,  and  was  slightly  wounded 

natives.  at  the  battle  of  Solferino  (June  24, 1859),  whero 

FORESTS,   Submerged.     Remains    of  the  the  division  under  his  command  gained  impor- 

growth  of  forests  are  found  abundantly  in  the  coal  taut  advantages. 

and  in  most  of  the  formations  of  stratified  rocks        FORFAR,  or  Angus,  a  maritime  co.  of  Scot- 

of  more  recent  date.    The  occurrence  of  some  of  land,  bounded  N.  by  Aberdeen  and  Kincardine, 

these  collections  has  been  referred  to  in  the  E.  by  the  German  ocean,  S.  by  the  frith  of  Tay, 

article  Boo,  and  of  the  older  deposits  in  Goai.  ;  and  W.  by  the  county  of  Perth ;  length  SG  m^ 

see  also  Alluvium.    Several  instances  are  re-  breadth  30  m. ;  area,  889  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1851, 

corded  of  forests  having  been  submerged  in  101,264.    The  surface  of  the  N.  TV .  division  ia 

historic  times,  and  being  afterward  seen  still  in  general  mountainous  and  barren,  but  the 

standing  beneath  the  water.    I^wis  and  Glark  great  valley  of  Strathmorc,  which  lies  between 

made  mentionof  a  forest  of  pines  standing  erect  the  Benchennin  and  Sidlaw  hills,  is  celebrated 

in  the  Golumbia  river    about  the  year  1807.  for  its  fertility,  and  that  portion  of  the  county 

8o  extensive  were  these  that  some  travellers  which  borders  on  the  sea  is  level,  fruitful,  and 

were  of  opinion  that  a  tract  of  land  more  than  highly  cultivated.    Agriculturfi  Uxvi  ^N«r^  ^* 

M  miles  in  length  had  subsided  vertically.  Fre-  Tonccd  stale,    \^\tfiaX»^  o»Xa^  >wa^ftl^  \«8«&«»x 


602                 FOBFEITUBE  lOBGE 

and  turnips  are  oxtensivelr  grovn.    With  tho  of  oil  ho  has,  and  as  to  all  that  is  more  it  is 

exception  of  limestone  and  slate,  there  are  no  void.    2.  When  certain  conditions  are  annexed 

minerals  of   anj  importance  in  this  coanty.  to  an  estate,  either  in  tlie  dee<l  or  devise  or 

Forfarshire  is  noted   for  its  monufactnre  of  otherwise,  at  tlie  original  creation,  the  pena2tr 

coarse  linen,  the  chief  seat  of  which  is  at  Dun-  of  forfeiture  may  be  annexed  to  thoM  condi- 

dee.    Its  rivers  contain  some  valuable  salmon  tions,  and  will  take  effect  if  they  be  broken ; 

fisheries.    The  principal  towns  are  Forfar,  Dun-  as  if  A  grants  to  B  land,  on  condition  that 

dee,  Montrose,  Aberbrothwick,  and  Brechin. —  neither  he  nor  any  one  claiming  by  or  thnja^h 

FoBFAK,  a  parliamentary  and  royal  borough  of  him  shall  put  up  a  certain  baildtng,  or  any 

Scotland,  capital  of  the  above  county,  is  situated  building  within  a  certain  distance  of  one  of  the 

in  the  valley  of  Strathmore,  13  m.  X.  of  Dun-  boundaries,  or  any  other  thing  of  like  kind, 

dee ;  pop.  in  1851, 9,349.   It  has  linen  manufac-  then  if  any  thing  is  done  which  violates  the  ctm- 

tures  and  is  a  place  of  great  anti<|uity.  dition,  the  land  is  forfeited.    It  may  be  remark- 

FORFEITURE,  in  law,  the  loss  of  property  cd,  however,  that  the  law  does  not  favor  coa- 

as  a  consequence  of  some  act  which  the  law  ditions  of  this  kind ;  and  courts  would  con«tnM 

forbids  and  attaches  this  penalty  to,  or  which  them,  where  it  could  properly  be  done,  either 

the  party  has  agreed  not  to  do  under  the  same  as  giving  a  right  to  the  grantor  to  abate  and 

penalty.    Forfeiture  is  defined  by  Blockstone  remove  whatever  thus  violates  tlie  agreement, 

as  a  piinishment  which  the  law  iutlicts.    It  is  or  as  an  Injury  for  which  compensation  may  I4 

•0  undoubtedly  in  all  coses  of  forfeiture  by  had  in  damages,  leaving,  in  both  cases,  the  e*- 

crime ;  but  we  apprehend  that  it  can  be  called  tato  undisturbed.    3.  One  may  agree  to  pay  a 

punishment  in  the  ordinary  coses  of  civil  for-  certain  sum  in  case  a  less  sum  bo  not  paid,  or 

fcituro  only  as  all  consequences  of  wrong  doing  some  other  certain  thing  be  not  done,  at  a  cer- 

may   bo  called  punishment.     Forfeiture  was  tain  time.    This  isusually  doneby  aboad;  and 

annexed  by  tho  law  of  England  to  many  of-  the  sum  thus  agreed  to  be  paid  is  a  penaltj, 

fences,  as  treason,  felony,  misprision  of  trea<M>nf  which  the  courts  of  England  and  of  the  United 

pnemunire,  drawing  a  weapon  upon  a  judge,  States  will  reduce  to  tlie  amount  actually  due. 

or  striking  any  person  in  the  presence  of  any  So  one  who  becomes  surety  fur  another  in  t 

of  tlie   king's  courts  of  justice.     Lands  and  certain  sum,  that  this  other  shall  appear  ai  i 

hereditaments  were  forfeited  only  upon  attain-  certain  time,  forfeits  tho  sum  if  that  other  d<;4t 

der  or  c(»rruption  of  blood ;  but  forfeiture  of  not  appear.     The  recognizance  may  then  hi 

goods  and  chattels  took  place  upon  convic-  estreated,  as  it  is  called.     (See  EsrmcAT.^     Bui 

tion.     Attauider,  and  the  conse<iuent  forfeiture,  on  good  cause  being  shown,  courts  liove  iL« 

were  the  most  powerful  instruments  by  which  power,  and  are  usually  willing  to  esorci'se  i\  to 

the  ^TeaU'st  tyronts  amnn^  tiio  Eii;rli>h  mon-  initipite  the  i>enalty,  and  remit  the  fwr:^!'-:* 

aroiis  endouvorod  to  ci»nfirm  and  iiicroaso  their  in  wliole  or  in  part. 

power.      Our  fatliers  held  them  in  so  nmeh  FORCJE,  a   manufactory   in   w?ii«-h    ir  •:.    -r 

dread  and  detestati<m,  lliat  the  n>nstituti<»n  t>f  steel  is  softened  by  heat  and  wurkoti  ur>*:.  r  ;':.•: 

tlie  I'liited  States  (art.  iii.,  see.  JJ)  dechires  that  hammer.     The  term  is  alsct  applied  l«i  wi-ri.*  .- 

n<>  attainder  of  trea-^nii  ahuW  wnrk  corruptinn  whieh  tho  notive  oiidos  of  iron   arc  ri-:  .'-v-i 

of  ]»1«mm1  (»r  f»>rtViture,  exeept  duriu;;  tlie  life  without   fusion  to  a  metallic  *t:ili-.  urul   :..   : 

of  the  pers(m  attainted.     J>y  the  a«-t  of  April  forced  into  blooms  or  bars.     Sevt-rJ  f -r-:.?    :' 

y<»,  ITiHJ,  entitled  "An  a«"t  fur  llie  puni-ihnient  these   are   noticed    in   the   artirlo    iU>*<>iCA::. 

ot'et-rtain  erimes  ajrainst  llie  United  States,''  in  Forges  differ  from  founderiesand  b'.x*t  fjri.ii-.  4 

whieh   nearly  all  inipMrtant  utrrn<es  are  onu-  in  tlieirpri>duets  l>eing  articles  uf  wru-i^h:  ;r  .-. 

merated,  ^e^tiun  24  provide**  **  that  n<>  cnnvie-  while   thon?  of  tho   latter  are   ca-tinL*^.     T'-f? 

tion  or  judgment  for  any  of  the  olKenres  afore-  works  in  which  the  pig  in»n,  ult.iiniHl  l.-.  '.i  t;  e 

said    >]iall   work  eorruption  nf   Mond  or  any  bhi'^t  furnace^,  is  convertetl  into  niaHe:tl-!-.*  .r  ; 

forlViture  of  estate."     Forfeiture  l»y  crime  is  by  the  prooeH<4  termed  puddling  (Sv«*  Ib-n..  a-i 

equally  uMi^nuwn  in  the  lf;:i-ilati«»n  »»f  the  srv-  conunonly  called  puddling  funLu-en  fr»..:.i  .-■  - 

cral  htate-i;  s«i  that  it  may  he  «aid  to  liave  no  department  of  the  oiH>ratii»n;  but  thiv  aj-o  r.!-^ 

praetieal  t\i-.:en<e  in  thi>*  r-iuntry.— Civil  fur-  called  Airges  fmm   the  liammoriRg  t'-r  r      ^ 

feiture  may  oreur  in  :\  way»;:   1.   I»y  ojH-ratioa  which  fiuceeeds  the re<luoti«in  pp»n-!*»  in  :?..  :.-• 

of  law,  the  prineipul  in-tanro  of  whi<li  at  com-  nace.     The  term  for;;ingi4  e«;ual!y  .^j-j  Ik^)  .  :  • 

mon  law  was  the  forfriture  of  e-taits  whiih  tho  working  of  other  malleahlo  li'u-taK  a.«  .:     !. 

were  Ic'.'i  than  a  fee,  whit  !j  wa"*  in<urri*d  wIku  silver,  and  oopj»er.  whi-n  ihff^*  are   hea'.t-:  i-  i 

the  hoMer  !na<le   a   eon\A_\anre   of  ;i  L'rratt-r  hainmer<>d  into  desired  hh.-ipi-*. — Tlio  imi:  ^  ■.-• 

c-^tati-  than  he  held;  a<  l'i»r  i  xaiiiplr.  if  att-tiant  variety  of  articled  into  which  inMi  i^  f...-:    r..-l 

of  land  for  life  or  years  <i»u\i*\im1   thr  hunl  in  requires  forg^-!« of  various  dimeii-i-.tn^,  .-.i.d  ua'  * 

ffi",  tliL-  L'ranlee   to<»k   nothing',  hut   the  whole  of  them  adapted  fur  si>«ci;d  u-i*.      Iln-i  t^-i^. 

c-tate  ot' till*  ^rrantor  was  forfeit  1  d  t>  the   n-  however,  in  the  jreni-ral  rha.-a  t«"r  of  :!*.-    »■ 

niainthrniau,   or  r»*ver-ioner.       In   thr   I'liilfd  paratus  with   whieh  they  are  I:iri..%I.f.!        "I 

Stat*-*,  h«»wi\tr,  a  more  ju-^t  and  raiional  ruh>  smith's  forjr»\  fitted  f-»r  uM  sor:.*  ^.f  ^'tV.l  m.  ■%. 

prevaiU.     With  s«une  divrr-.iiy  in  it-*  drtaiN,  it  is  tho  \h.*<  repreM.-ntativo  ^.f  tho  «m.il>r  f -r.-f*. 

limy  hr  i:v\u-vii\\y  cxprc^^sed  thun.    1.  A  arrant  «»f  It  is  provided,  first,  ^ ilh  a  fetnall  ojK-n  !lr\ :*.>>* 

liivrv  than  the  ^Tuulor  has  o\H:ra\.v:^  vls  ^  ^tuxA.  ot  V^^iNk^M^n  a  sort  of  table  in  brick  v^.^-k^  S 


FORGE  608 

feet  to  ^i  feet  high.  A  chimney,  open  at  the  By  using  two  swaging  tools,  each  presenting  a 
Vase,  stands  at  one  end,  and  a  hood  of  sheet  iron  straight  semicircular  groove,  a  square  rod  of 
prevents  the  escape  into  the  room  of  the  vapors  iron  may  he  heaten  into  a  cylindrical  form  suit- 
m>m  the  fire.  Two  fires  are  sometimes  arranged  ahle  for  a  round  holt.  Pieces  of  iron  hammered 
under  the  same  hood,  and  a  douhle  hearth  is  to  a  smaller  size  are  said  to  be  drawn  down  or 
again  obtained  by  building  two  hearths  back  to  redoced.  The  reverse  process  is  csdled  upsetting 
hack,  the  same  chimney  having  a  flue  for  each  or  jumping ;  in  thb  operation  the  piece,  heated 
fire.  In  the  back  wall  of  each  hearth  is  fitted  either  throughout,  or  only  in  the  portion  to  be 
a  cast  iron  plate  or  back,  through  which  the  thickened,  is  set  on  end  and  struck.  Another 
perforated  nozzle  of  the  tuyere,  or  piece  forming  method  of  enlarging  pieces  of  iron  is  by  welding 
the  extremity  of  the  blast  pipe,  projects  into  or  building  up ;  thus  a  head  for  a  bolt  may  be 
the  fire.  The  pipe  connects  with  the  bellows,  made  by  Ending  a  fiat  strip  of  iron  around  the 
which  is  so  placed  that  the  smith  can  work  it  end  of  the  rod  for  the  bolt,  and  causing  these, 
with  one  hand,  as  he  attends  to  the  fire  upon  the  when  they  are  brought  to  the  welding  heat,  to 
hearth  and  the  articles  heating  in  it  with  the  unite,  by  giving  them  a  few  light  blows.  The 
other.  The  fael  may  be  charcoal,  bituminous  head  may  also  be  formed  by  heating  the  end  of 
coal,  coke,  or  anthracite.  Good  hard  wood  the  rod  and  upsetting  it,  when  it  is  soon  en- 
charooal  is  an  excellent  material,  not  only  for  larged  by  the  hammer  to  the  proper  size.  It 
its  great  calorific  property,  but  more  particularly  may  also  be  left  on  a  large  bar  by  drawing  down 
for  its  freedom  from  sulphur,  the  presence  of  the  other  portion  of  the  bar  to  the  required 
which  in  the  mineral  fuels  often  results  in  seri-  size. — For  small  operations  a  very  convenient 
ous  detriment  to  the  iron  exposed  to  its  action,  apparatus  has  within  a  few  years  been  intro« 
Upon  the  hearth  are  laid  the  various  kinds  duced,  called  a  portable  forge.  It  is  a  cast  iron 
of  tongs  required  for  holding  the  differently  frame,  supporting  at  top  a  small  hearth  and 
shaped  pieces  of  iron.  At  the  end  opposite  the  water  trough,  beneath  which  is  the  bellows, 
chimney  is  a  trough  for  water,  into  which  the  fitted  with  a  treadle,  by  which  it  may  be  work- 
tools  and  work  are  dipped,  as  may  be  convenient,  ed  with  the  foot.  This  forge  is  much  employed 
to  cool  them.  It  serves  also,  if  kept  scrupu-  in  various  workshops,  and  is  especially  useful  in 
lonsly  free  from  grease,  for  tempering  articles  operations  requiring  a  forge  for  a  short  time 
of  steel ;  and  the  water  is  also  frequently  sprin-  onl^  in  any  one  place. — ^The  great  forges  in 
kled  with  a  broom  dipped  in  it  over  the  fire,  to  which  are  fabricated  the  immense  wrought  iron 
check  the  combustion  of  the  fuel  at  the  surface,  shafts  for  ocean  steamers  present  tlie  same  class 
A  stock  of  fuel  is  kept  on  the  hearth  by  the  of  operations,  with  some  new  appliances,  how- 
trouj^h,  and  as  wanted  it  is  drawn  forward  upon  ever,  adapted  to  the  gigantic  scale  upon  which 
the  nre.  Conveniently  near  the  hearth,  and  at  the  work  is  done.  The  fires  in  these  forges  are 
the  same  'height,  is  set  the  anvil,  upon  which  either  large  reverberatories,  or  close  furnaces, 
the  smith  places  the  heated  iron  as  he  takes  it  blown  by  a  powerful  fan  blast.  The  work  is 
from  the  fire.  This  portion  of  the  apparatus  is  commenced  by  introducing  15  to  20  pieces  of 
particularly  described  under  its  own  name  in  square  iron  bound  together,  making,  it  may  be, 
this  work.  As  the  smith  holds  the  hot  iron  a  bundle  6  feet  long  and  2  feet  square,  into  the 
upon  the  anvil  with  his  left  hand,  he  hammers  furnace.  When  one  end  is  brought  to  a  welding 
it  with  the  right,  directing  his  blows  and  turn-  heat  the  mass  is  swung  out  suspended  in  chains 
iog  the  work  to  receive  the  precise  effect  in  a  from  the  great  crane  made  for  this  use,  and  un- 
manner  to  be  acquired  only  by  long  practice,  der  the  heavy  hammer  of  5  to  10  tons  weight 
If  the  work  is  heavy,  he  requires  an  assistant  to  the  pieces  are  made  to  unite.  One  long  rod  is 
idd  the  forging  by  striking  with  a  heavy  sledge,  left  projectiog  on  the  line  of  the  axis  of  the 
while  he  turns  the  piece  to  receive  the  blows,  mass,  and  serves  when  swung  in  the  crane  as  a 
and  strikes  himself  in  turn  with  his  hand  ham-  guide  rod,  or  porter,  as  it  is  called.  By  means 
ner,  tapping  it  at  last  upon  the  face  of  the  an-  of  the  pulleys  which  sustain  the  load  running 
Til  as  the  signal,  universally  adopted,  for  the  forward  and  back  upon  the  jib  of  the  crane,  the 
Uows  to  cease.  Hammers  are  employed  of  a  mass  is  brought  to  any  desired  point  within 
great  variety  of  shapes  and  sizes  adapted  to  the  area  traversed  by  the  swing  of  the  crane ; 
the  different  kinds  of  work.  There  are  also  and  by  moans  of  a  cross  lever  or  handle  fixed  to 
punches  for  driving  holes  through  the  soft  the  end  of  the  porter  the  men  are  enabled  to  turn 
uoo,  diisels  of  numerous  shapes,  and  swaging  the  mass  of  iron  while  the  other  cod  of  it  is 
tods,  which  are  generally  in  pairs,  and  called  receiving  upon  the  anvil  the  blows  of  the  ham* 
top  and  bottom  toolsi,  the  latter  fitting  by  a  mer.  When  the  iron  has  been  sufficiently  ham- 
tang  into  a  hole  in  the  anvil.  When  one  of  mered,  it  is  returned  to  the  furnace  to  be  again 
these  is  thus  placed,  the  work  is  laid  on  its  up-  heated,  so  as  to  extend  the  weld  throughout  the 
per  surface,  and  is  then  driven  by  the  hammer  whole  moss.  After  this  a  slab  of  wrought  iron, 
till  the  soft  iron  receives  the  reverse  form  of  called  by  the  workmen  a  use,  is  welded  on  one 
the  swaging  tool ;  or  the  top  tool,  secured  to  a  side  at  the  end  of  the  piece,  and  under  the 
limdle  of  twisted  rods  of  hazel  or  other  suitable  hammer  the  shaft  thus  built  up  is  drawn  down 
wood,  is  held  upon  the  surface  of  the  work,  and  to  the  required  size.  New  additions  are  repeat- 
tlio  assistant  striking  it  with  the  sledge  gives  to  edly  made  in  this  way  until  the  deak^  Ww^^ 
tiie  iroa  the  form  due  to  both  swaging  tools,  is  obtained.    OiA^X\i«  td^ol^^^SDj^N^^^^^x^aa^ 


vv 


into  tlMftrnao^  and  UMtpirtonwhkliraiiaiai  wjitwly  fli>hpJfl|iiiiWn»rfllit«wt«HMir 

optttaroooditisitopTCddiiriBfthelieatiiif  bf  ahiMM;  nardb  w«kMNr«lqrlto  MBtnw 

flr»  briek  and  dij.    Tbe  tnd  oata&da  remains  dKWUtt  aoi  imlada  ft  Bhwigi  mmf^  lh>  f»> 

MppcMTtod  in  the  chains  firom  the  orane.    The  toatioo.  FoqpqrmajOMMiilintlieaifMWB 

leeentlj  invented  steam  hammers  enn^oyed  in  of  a  fidie  name  to  n  traeiMtnmanl|«r  «f  ft 

tills  work  sre  desorlbed  in  the  artiole  HAinm.  traename  to  ft  fiJse  iMtnmaftl|Or«Mft  of  ft 

^thenseofthispowerftdmaiAinethoheaTr  genuine  name  to  ft  genaine  iMtnmanl|tf  Ike 

dttfts  of  ooean  staonera  are  fiOirioatedy  the  name  Ihnsamiidsd  gives  ifi^ortepsaaa  In* 

larsestmassesofironlbriedinsindeplMeft  The  hilitiee  which  flie  partjy  sppsftding  is  fcai  » 

w^|ht  <tf  the  inlormediate  paddb  shaft  of  the  right  to  give  or  impoee,  aM  ho  an^anial  Aft 

GrestEsrtem,  or  Levisthan,  which  waslsnnch*  name  fUselv  ibr  the  pvpoee  of  AnM  flftd  is* 

ed  Jan.80^1858YisnpwsrdsofSStoM»andthat  ception.   IrooeemplofsdtodiftWftii^agdm 

ofthecranlEsUtons.    Iti  length  b  38  Iceland  dictatkm of  the  teslntar,  wrato H al na  ^ 

its  diameter  g  feet  S  inches,  and  it  is  S  feet  in  od^omptiftgthafchoinssrtedoftoor 

hamster  at  the  mahi  bearings.    Thocranlnare  ciei  witMOt  direetioo.  or  one  or 

r  Ibet  long  between  the  centres.    The  screw  proriMoosof  aojhin^ftDdtlMn 

abaft  is  S  ftet  in  dismeter,  and  aboQt  178  Ibel  will  to  the  testator  as  writlsft 

long,  and  its  whoto  wei|^  aboat  186  tons,  direction,  thoi  obtained  hia 

The  largMt  shaft  yet  made  in  the  United  States  been  hdd  that  tiiii  is  ft  fiNfsqr*    Bftlift 

*  was  prrodnced  at  a  iarmb  in  Beading.  Penn^  for  case  where  a  soriveasrthoi  hMSrteiftlngpvte 

the  CMlins  steamer  A£iatia    At  the  Atlantic  himself  iMtsad  of  to  another,  the  IillflbMl 

Ibrgs  in  New  York  and  the  FrankHn  forge,  other  of  chaneerr,  ibr  the  pupoaeof  pnaarobigiha 

ahdts  hare  been  made  neaiij  as  Isne.    One  at  ri^ta  of  the  intended  lifate%  niMptAi 

the  former,  made  for  the  stesmer  Niagara,  had  IsnMy  to  the  asritenst  to  ho  viH^  aad  Asn 

ft  crank  worked  in  the  middle  portion,  and  one  ordered  him  to  take  it  as  tmslao  for  IhoiaiHiid 

near  each  oztremify.    The  krsest  hamster  was  legatecb  Toconatitntethafoiisiyof  ftsSMibiK 

19  inchsi^  ftversge  sbont  17  inchcft    The  oz*  mmt  be  the  name  of  soom  pevM  ^ 

treme  lei^gth  wss  iH  fo^  to  which  should  be  isthig,  or  reprssented  aa  aetaallj 

added  8  foet  more  for  the  arms  of  each  of  the  *  if  a  name  ho  written  whioh  I 

ersnksi  msking  88|  foet  in  alL    The  bearingi  man,  hot  with  an  additloa  or 

werel4tand]5iinehea.    The  total  wei^t  was  oonespondstononethsft 

about  86,000  IbiL  name  from  atranhing  or 

FORGER  Y,  in  general,  means  the  iDegsl  fol*  thbissaidnottobeftfoifsqrJ 

rificstion  or  counterfeittng  of  |i  writing.    Al-  need  not  be  snob  that  if  gennino  il  woald  be 

tlioagfa  this  offence  is  the  subject  of  a  great  tst-  oertainlj  yalid  in  law ;  but  it  most  purpart  sal 

iety  of  cases  in  England  and  the  United  States,  appear  on  the  face  of  it  to  have  legal  Tali£ty 

the  definitions  do  not  quite  agree.    That  given  and  efficacy ;  thus,  in  England,  one  may  U 

in  East^s  **  Pleas  of  the  Crown**  (vol.  iu  p.  convicted  for  the  forgery  of  an  *"*■>*— p^ 

852)  is:  ^'A  false  making  of  any  written  in-  note,  although  such  a  note  could  not  be  enforcedi 

strument  for  the  porpose  of  fraud  and  deceit*'  any  more  than  blank  paper.    It  is  saki,  hew* 

This  definition,  he  says,  results  from  a  compar-  ever,  that  the  fiilsifi^ion  of  an  insUaunsl 

isou  of  all  the  authorities.    But  bv  making  we  which  if  genuine  would  be  wlu^  illegal,  tUt 

must  understand  also  addition,  subtraction,  or  is,  >^o^  merely  void,  but  prohibited  and  itiolf « 

other  material  alteration,  which  indeed  East  onence,  is  not  forgery.    When  one  focgod  tbt 

himself  admits ;  and  by  instrument,  some  paper  will  of  a  living  person,  and,  falsely  n pf  i  wnfisc 

or  document  which  is  intended  to  have  and  ap-  him  to  be  dead,  obtained  the  money,  this  mm 

parently  may  have  some  efficscy  in  law  as  the  held  to  be  forgery :  and  on  the  other  haa^ 

foundation  of  legal  right  or  liability.    Ilenoe  when  one  falsely  and  fraudulently  appcodsd  Is 

we  regard  as  the  best  definition  of  furgery  a  will  the  name  of  a  person  who  never  had  cs- 

which  we  know  that  in  Bishop*s  '*  Criminal  isted,  It  wss  held  to  be  forgery. — At  cpssmoa 

Law,*^  vol.  ii.  sec.  483 :  **  Forgery  is  the  false  law,  the  publication  or  uttering  of  the  focgid 

making,  or  materially  altering,  with  intent  to  instrument,  or,  in  common  phraaeology,  the 

defraud,  of  any  writing,  which,   if  genuine,  making  of  any  use  of  it,  is  not  ftsoessary  Is 

might  apparently  be  of  legal  efficacy  in  the  constitute  forgery ;  thus,  a  man  was  conT»Bls4 

foundation  of  a  legal  liability.**    For  it  is  not  of  forgery  of  a  note,  which  he  liad  mftds  with 

every  falsificstlon  of  writing  which  constitutes  fraudulent  intent,  but  still  retained  in  hb  pocket. 

foreery  in  a  legal  sense.    If  one  writes  letters  In  the  United  States,  however,  the  itatiilit 

and  signs  them  with  the  name  of  another,  which  nenerally  make  the  uttering  or  nsing  the  focged 

may  bs  very  injurious  not  only  to  the  feelings  of  instrument  essential  to  the  offcaoe.    It  wmj  bt 

some  otlier  party  but  to  his  interests  he  is  not  well  to  remark  that  it  is  a  well  settled  rale  of 

in  law  a  forger,  if  no  pecuniary  rights,  obliga-  law,  tliat  while  an  intent  to  deceive  and  dtfrand 

tions,  or  engagements  are  or  are  intended  to  be  is  an  esMUtial  element  of  forgery,  yet  that  in* 

directly  affected  by  this  falsehood.    The  falsi-  tent  b  often  conclusively  prrsnmeil  thum  ths 

fieation  need  not  be  of  a  name,  nor  of  the  whole  forgery  itself;  thus,  if  one  forge  a  noia,  or  a^y 

of  an  instrument.    It  is  forgery  if  it  relate  to  a  name  upon  a  note,  and  oauae  ic  to  be  diicwnai 

word,oreventoapartofaword,asaletter.  ed,  it  ia  no  defoooa  whatever  lo  Iho  dmna  ef 


FOROET-ME-NOT  FORE                       605 

Homry  that  he  intended  to  pay  the  note  him-  The  Greek  word  icptavpa  signifies  a  fork,  hot 

self,  and  had  actually  made  adequate  provision  merely  a  flesh  fork,  employed  to  take  meat  from  a 

to  take  it  np  so  that  no  person  should  be  in-  boiling  pot,  and  not  one  used  at  table.  The  Latin 

jured. — The  crime  of  forgery  was  so  easily  com-  words/urca,  fuKina^fureilla^  und/uacinula  are 

mitted,  and  detected  with  so  much  difficulty,  equally  inapplicable  to  our  modern  forks.    The 

and  attended  in  some  instances  with  such  ruin-  first  two  were  probably  instruments  which  ap- 

OQs  consequences,  that  it  was  not  only  a  capital  proached  nearly  to  our  furnace  and  hay  forks. 

offence  in  England,  but  it  was  one  of  those  of-  The  furcilla  was  large  enough  for  a  weapon. 

fences  for  which  it  was  very  difficult  to  obtain  a  The  word  futcinula.,  which  in  modern  times  is 

pardon.    But  the  severity  of  the  laws  in  rcla-  used  chiefly  for  a  table  fork,  is  not  to  be  found 

tion  to  forgery  is  now  more  mitigated  in  £ng-  in  that  sense  in  any  of  the  old  Latin  writers. 

land,  and  it  is  not  a  capital  ofience  in  any  part  The  old  translations  of  the  Bible  only  explain 

of  the  United  States.  the  Greek  KMoypa  hy/uscinula.    According  to 

TORQKr'l£ErNOT(myo80ti3palustrtSy  Roth),  aome  records,  the  use  of  table  forks  seems  to 
a  pretty  little  European  plant,  which  grows  have  been  known  in  the  12th  century,  but  only 
almost  everywhere,  and  assumes  a  varied  aspect  exceptionally.  They  are  mentioned  in  the  in- 
according  to  its  situation.  It  is  dwarf,  rough,  ventory  of  a  princess  plate  in  1879,  but  they 
and  hairy  in  dry  places,  as  on  old  walls ;  but  be-  did  not  come  into  more  general  use  in  Italy 
comes  larger  and  smoother  in  muddy  ditches,  till  the  end  of  the  15th  century.  Galeotus 
It  does  well  when  planted  in  shady  places  in  the  Martins,  in  a  book  which  he  wrote  upon  Mat- 
garden,  or  even  if  cultivated  in  pots.  Its  flowers  thias  Corvinus,  king  of  Hungary  (1458-1490),  at 
are  borne  in  slender  curving  racemes,  bending  whose  court  he  resided,  praises  the  king  for  eat- 
at  the  top  Hke  a  scorpion's  tail,  whence  it  was  ing  without  a  fork,  yet  conversing  at  the  same 
called  2f,  seorpioides  hy  Bomo,  It  has  been  sue-  time,  and  never  soiling  his  clothes.  Martins 
cessfully  raisc^l  in  the  United  States  in  places  states  that  forks  were  used  at  that  time  in 
where  there  was  abundance  of  water,  either  many  parts  of  Italy,  but  not  in  Hungary.  He 
standing  and  stagnant,  or  in  a  running  brook,  adds  that  meat  was  taken  hold  of  with  the  fin- 
where  it  produces  many  fine  racemes  of  bright  gers,  which  on  that  account  were  much  stained 
blue  blossoms  throughout  the  summer,  which  with  saflron,  a  condiment  then  put  into  sauces 
in  many  countries  are  considered  the  emblem  and  soups.  In  the  16th  century  forks  were  nut 
of  friendship.  Independent  of  its  sentimental  yet  used  in  Sweden,  and  at  the  end  of  that  cen- 
character,  its  flowers  are  much  prized.  There  tury  they  were  entirely  new  even  at  the  court 
are  also  two  species  of  myosotis  common  to  the  of  France.  In  the  convent  of  St.  Maur  in  France, 
United  States  at  the  northward,  viz. :  M,  terna  the  introduction  of  forks  was  opposed  as  sinful 
(Nuttall),  a  little,  grayish,  pubescent  annual,  by  the  old  and  conservative  monks,  and  advo- 
from  5  to  12  inches  high,  with  a  very  small  cated  by  the  young  and  progressive  brethren, 
whitish  corolla,  which  grows  upon  dry  rocks,  In  other  monasteries,  too,  the  use  of  forks  was 
where  the  soil  is  very  thin  and  parched,  the  for  a  considerable  time  forbidden,  and  considor- 
plant  disappearing  on  the  approach  of  hot  ed  a  superfluous  luxury.  Tliomas  Coryat,  who 
weather;  and  the  scorpion  ^rnss  (Jf.  laxa^  travelled  in  1608  on  the  continent,  and  published 
Lehm.),  with  a  slender  smoothish  stem,  from  in  1011  an  account  of  his  travels  under  the  title 
one  to  two  feet  long,  branching,  and  bearing  at  of  **  Crudities,"  says :  **  J  observed  a  custome  in 
the  extremities  of  the  branches  racemes  of  all  those  Italian  cities  and  townes  through  the 
bright  blue,  yellow-throated  corollas,  seen  in  which  j  passed,  that  is  not  used  in  any  other 
summer  in  muddy  bottomed  ditches  and  rivu-  country  that  j  saw  in  my  travels,  neitlier  do  j 
lets,  and  near  open  springs  of  water.  Professor  thinke  that  any  other  nation  of  Christendome 
Gray  makes  the  latter  a  variety  only  of  if.  pa-  doth  use  it,  but  only  Italy.  The  Italians,  and 
luMtrit.  also  most  strangers  that  are  commorant  in  Italy, 

FORK,  an  implement  consisting  of  a  handle  do  alwaies  at  their  meales  use  a  little  forke 

and  two  or  more  prongs,  used  to  lift  certain  when  they  cut  their  meate.    This  form  of  feed- 

snbstinces  more  conveniently  than  with  the  ingj  understand  is  generally  used  in  all  places 

unaided  fingers.    There  are  various  kinds  of  of  Italy;  their  forkes  for  the  most  part  being 

forks,  such  as  those  used  for  agricultural,  raanu-  made  of  yronn  or  Steele,  and  some  of  silver,  but 

facturing,  and  domestic  purposes.      Tlie  last  these  are  used  only  by  gentlemen.    The  reason 

kind,  which  are  of  course  the  most  used,  pos-  of  this  their  curiosity  is,  because  the  Italian 

sess  a  historical  interest.    Table  forks  do  not  cannot  by  any  means  indure  to  have  his  dish 

seem  to  have  been  known  in  antiquity,  though  touched  with  fingers,  seeing  all  men's  fingers  are 

some  archaeologists,   as  Caylus  and  Grignon,  not  alike  cleane.    Hereupon  I  myself  thought 

have  found  articles  among  the  rubbish  in  the  good  to  imitate  the  Italian  fashion  by  this  fork- 

Appian  way  and  in  the  ruins  of  a  Roman  town  ed  cutting  of  meate,  not  only  while  j  was  in 

iDChatnpagne,whichthey  considered  to  be  table  Italy,  but  also  in  Germany,  and  oftentimes  in 

forks.    The  Jews  and  Etruscans  did  not  use  any  England  since  j  came  home ;  being  once  quipped 

at  table,  though  they  had  forks  for  other  pur-  for  that  frequent  using  of  my  forke  by  a  certain 

poses.    The  ancient  Egyptians  used  a  large  fork  learned  gentleman,  a  familiar  friend  of  mine, 

fcr  stirring  the  fire  or  water  in  the  kitchens,  and  one  Mr.  I^urenco  SVhitaker,  who  in  his  merry 

forks  of  wood  were  used  by  Egyptian  peasants,  humour  doubted  not  to  coll  me  at  table  furc\fer 


«06  lOBCt  ranoa 

oiily  Ibr  mkut  a  fotln  at  feeding^  bat  for  no  nMiten  frecnMBtlT  dnriif  tta  wmm  «f  te 

olliar  caofle.''^  The  ow  of  forks  was  at  first  Onelphs  and  GhibaffiiMSi  vaa  aidai  to  tka 

]iniehridicol6diii£ng)aiid;inoii6ofB6aiiiiioiit  Papal  States  bj  Ptope  Jans  H.  takaa  I7  tka 

and  Fletcher's  |^ts  ^^yoor  fork-oarring  traf^  Ironoh  and  maoa  the  esfiital of  tlia dspartiMiit 

aUer^is  tipokea  of  Terj  oontemptiioaslj ;  and  (tftheBablooninl79T|aadmBloradtothaB^ 

B«i  Jooson  has  also  ridiculed  them  in  his  aaaseein  1814. 

••DeirilisaaAss:''  FOBIJ,lCBLoaoi»A,SBltBiiaapaiBlar,ia» 

TteiMUUbtovMofiite  Idled  in  the  I6U1  oenti^.   Hawaathaint 

BRMif^iateeHtMDiMrtMttejraniBi^f,  who  applied  the  ait  oi  iTirMliinrtinlM  to  tka 

T^ttesipiUw«rB4*iM.  paintings  or  vanlted  eeiBnik   Abontunha 

Dr.  Johnson  asserts  that  among  the  Scotch  higji-  painted  the  "Ascension^  In  the  grssi  shji  si  eg 

knderseren  knires  have  been  introdnced  at  ta>  the  Saati  ApostoliatBoBsa  forOmiaal  Wfia 

ble  only  since  the  time  of  the  rerolntion.    The  In  1711,  when  the  chiqpel  van  beiofmbdLthls 

En^ish.I>otch(soritX«Bd^B^«i^(/<'*f'«^)lukTe  painting  was  cot  out  of  tfia  osOiM  and  piBBsl 

ad^yted  the  Italian  names  ybrM  and /^fviUlto  In  the  Qoirinal  palace,  where  II  aul  !«■■■& 
for  table  forks,  thooffh  these  names  were  prob*       FOBLOBN  aOPB,  a  nJiHa^y  phraw^  T 

ablr  nsed  at  an  earaer  period  to  denote  pitch-  nating  a  bodj  of  men  ssleeted  nosa  as 

forks,  flesh  forki^  and  other  large  instmmenti^  for  the  performance  of  paenBaify  ^ka^ 

for  wnich  formeriy  the  LowGennan  name  was  desperate  datis%  sneh  aa  Ifiadliip  tha 

Ikri$,    The  German  word  {MeZ  is  of  greet  an-  npon  a  fortress  or  headiaf  a  psmoaa  el 

a[aity,  and  has  often  been  doobtfollj  connected  battle.    Th^  are  nsnaUj  Yotanlean^  and 

th  ttie  Latin  gabahis.    In  Spain  forks  con-  who  smrfiye  are  generally  ItbenQy  >v«i 

tinned  to  be  rarities  till  a  comparsdTelj  late  The  IVeoeh  term  is  m^l^mjmrim^  Loid^jna 

period.    In  the  interior  of  Russia  thej  are  still  esDs  them 
notmnehinnse.    The  Ohineeense  no  forks,  hot  ^ 

liaTe  instead smallsticksofiTorT which  areoften       FOBMBB^  Kabl  Jbah^  a 

of  fine  worknuuuhip  inlaid  with  silver  and  fl^  bom  in  Mohlheim  on  tfia  Bhiae^  Am^  f,  Itll 

Elsewhere  in  Ada  and  Africa,  except  amoqg  His  fiuher  trained  him  to  mt  aceleBiasilSBl  M^ 

£orm>ean  settlers,  forks  are  unknown.  and  for  seteral  jsars  ha  djsrhargad  the  Mtai 

FORII,  a  legation  of  the  Pfepal  States,  boond-  of  sacristan  in  his  nati?a  town.    Gllbdlgra» 

ed  K.  bj  the  legation  of  Ravenna,  E.  by  the  tors  withabassToioeof  grertpoiwaraKdas» 

Adriatic,  S.  by  San  Marino  and  the  legion  of  pass,  he  soon  attracted  atteatioa  bj  Usa^gtag 

Urbino  e  Pesaro,  and  W.  by  Tuscany;  area,  inthedmrohcboir.andwasladBeadtofaapsi 

aboQt  900  sa.  m. ;  pop.  in  1858, 218,488.  Onthe  thestsge.    He  made  his  dAat  at  Obuma  Is 

coast  and  for  some  distance  inland  the  surface  1841  in  the  part  of  Sarsstro  in  Moaaot^s  Znk^ 

is  low  and  level,  but  the  W,  part  is  traversed  Flote,    In  1845  he  appeared  in  Vienna,  sa4 

by  branches  of  the  Apennines.    The  principal  5  years  later  was  engsged  as  first  basso  Bafcr 

productions  ore  grain,  hemp,  flax,  maader,  saf-  at  the  Italian  ooera,  Ovreot  Garden,  Loados, 

iron,  anise,  bees,  and  silkworms.  No  mineral  of  to  compete  with  Lsblache,  then   siaging  si 

much  ralne  is  foand  except  snlphur,  which  is  the  qoeen^s  theatre.    Daring  the  next  •  or  T 

abundant  Earthquakes  happen  frequently.  The  years  he  san^  with  great  soccess  in  the  prindpd 

interior  suffers  much  fW>m  drought,  while  the  capitals  of  Europe,  particnlariy  London,  and  is 

inhabitants  of  the  K.  E.  are  perhaps  equally  the  latter  part  of  1857  made  a  pmfraiinnsl  rial 

afflicted  by  unwholesome  marshes,  which  occupy  to  the  United  States,  in  the  chief  cities  ef  whkk 

a  large  proportion  of  the  land.    Manufactures  ho  has  since  repeatedly  appeared.    In  additke 

have  made  more  progress  than  .in  any  other  to  his  vocal  powers,  Formes  poescsaes  grsat  te' 

part  of  the  Papal  States. — ^Foru  (anc.  Forum  matic  abilities,  and  in  serious  ports  b  soareclf 

Zteii),  the  capital  of  the  above  legation,  is  a  less  distinguished  as  an  actor  tnan  as  a    ' 

handsome  walled  town  on  the  ancient  ^milian  Since  the  death  of  Lablache  he  ia 

way,  88  m.  8.  K  of  Bologna,  situated  in  a  fertile  if  not  unrivalled,  for  capad^  of 

plain  at  the  foot  of  the  Apennines,  between  the  ish  and  vigor  of  style.    He  am 

rivers  Ronco  and  Montone;  pop.  16,000.    Its  comic  parts  with  equal  faeilitr.     ^  . 

cathedral  contains  the  tomb  of  Torricelli.    Of  which  he  has  most  thoroogfaW  idcntUM 

the  9  other  churches,  the  most  interesting  is  himself  are  Marcel  in  the  Hmfmgm^U^  1 

probablr  that  of  San  (Tirolamo,  where  rests  the  rello  in  Do%  Giowanni,  Figaro  in  Fifmrms  BiA- 

body  of  King  Manfred.    The  town  hall  is  re-  weit,  Sarastro  in  the  Za^AerfHU^  B«tram  ia 

makahle  for  its  council  chamber,  decorated  with  Eobert  U  DiMt^  Figaro  in  the  **  Barber  ef 

ft'escoes  by  Raphael.    One  of  its  palaces  (the  Pa-  Seville,*' Am::. 

lazxo  Guerini)  is  built  aAer  designs  by  Michel        FORMIO  ACID  (Lat  /armM,  aa  anlX  m 

Angelo.    There  are  23  convents.   The  manufac-  named  from  its  being  foand  in  the  bodies  cf 

tares  are  silk  rihbons,  silk  twist,  oil  cloth,  wool-  ants,  is  artitidally  prepared  by  disenlrii^  i^p>t 

)en  goods,  wax,  nitre,  and  refined  snlphur.  The  starch,  or  tartaric  add  ia  water,  addi^  saJ^W 

city  is  said  to  have  been  founded  in  207  B.  0.  ric  acid,  and  distilling  the  aiztnra  on  p 

by  the  consul  M.  Livins  Salinator,  and  to  have  ide  of  manganese.    Carboi^  add  ns  asc 

been  named  in  his  honor.    It  constituted  a  re-  and  formic  add  mixed  with  walar  oirtSb 

jmUJc  atone  perwd  in  the  iniddVaa|5^dA&||^  \\\a  tritodais  and  Ummgana^  aluanO  aai^  ef 


FORMOSA  POBBEST  607 

specific  gravity  1.1168,  its  composition  repre-  warlike  race  of  copper-colored  barbarians,  of 

sented  by  the  formula  O^  UO^  HO.  whom  the  Chinese  are  in  great  dread,  and  with 

FORMOSA  (Portngaese,  Ilha  Formosa,  beanti-  whom  they  are  almost  constantly  at  war.  They 

fal  island ;  Ghmese,  Tai-wan,  the  terraced  har-  resemble  the  aboriginal  iDhabitants  of  the  Phil- 

bor),  an  island  in  the  China  sea,  between  lat.  21°  ippine  islands  in  appearance,  and  are  probably 

58'  and  25°  15'  N.,  and  long.  120°  and  122°  E.,  of  the  Malay  division  of  mankind.    They  wear 

separated  from  the  Chinese  province  of  Fo-kien  their  hair  long,  have  rings  in  their  ears,  and 

by  a  channel  80  m.  wide ;  length  250  m. ;  great-  are  clothed  only  with  a  piece  of  cotton  stuff 

est  breadth  about  80  m.;  area  15,000  sq.m.;  pop,  wrapped  about  the  middle.     They  dwell  in 

probably  about  2,000,000.  A  range  of  mountains  bamboo  cottages  raised  on  terraces  8  or  4  feet 

occnpies  the  eastern  part  of  the  island,  running  high.    They  have  no  written  language,  and  do 

from  N.  to  S.  through  its  entire  length.  As  some  not  appear  to  have  any  priesthood.    Their  gov« 

of  the  summits  are  covered  with  perpetual  snow,  ernment  is  patriarchal,  petty  chiefs  and  councils 

their  height  cannot  be  less  than  12,000  feet,  of  elders  ruling  them  in  the  manner  of  the  Amer- 

Among  these  mountains  are  several  extinct  vol«  ican  Indians.  The  Chinese  represent  them  as  hon- 

canoes,  and  sulphur,  naphtha,  and  other  volcanic  est  and  friendly  among  themselves,  but  as  ex- 

Sroducts  are  found  in  abundance.  The  £.  coast  cessively  fierce  and  revengeful.  One  of  the  offi- 
\  high  and  bold,  and  is  entirely  destitute  of  cers  of  the  U.  S.  steamer  John  Hancock,  which 
harbors.  The  W.  shore  is  fiat,  and  has  some  visited  Formosa  in  1855,  describes  them  as 
good  ports  accessible  to  vessels  of  moderate  being  of  large  stature,  fine  forms,  copper  color, 
dranght.  Ke-lung,  at  the  N.  end  of  the  island,  high  cheek  bones,  heavy  jaws,  with  coarse 
is  the  best  harbor,  and  is  accessible  to  large  black  hair  reaching  to  the  shoulders,  and  a 
vessels,  though  it  is  not  safe  from  the  violent  manly,  independent  bearing.  Their  arms  are 
typhoons  to  which  the  sea  around  Formosa  is  lances,  bows  and  arrows,  and  a  few  Chinese 
peculiarly  subject.  The  W.  part  of  the  island  matchlocks.  In  their  language  the  island  is 
IS  a  very  fertile  plain,  watered  by  numerous  termed  Kaboski,  and  also  Gaoavia.  Some  of 
small  rivers,  running  from  the  mountains  to  these  people  have  been  subdued  by  the  Chinese, 
the  sea.  It  is  well  cultivated,  and  presents  the  and  are  kept  in  small  villages  in  a  kind  of  prie- 
appearanee  of  a  vast  garden.  The  chief  pro-  dial  servitude. — ^Formosa  does  not  seem  to  have 
ductions  are  rice,  sugar,  camphor,  tobacco,  been  known  to  the  Chinese  till  the  15th  cen- 
wheat,  maize,  beans,  radishes  of  great  size,  tury.  In  1582  a  Spanish  ship  was  wrecked 
pepper,  coffee,  tea,  indigo,  cotton,  fiax,  silk,  there,  and  the  survivors  brought  the  first  ac- 
and  oranges,  peaches,  plums,  and  a  great  variety  count  of  the  island  to  Europe.  In  1684  the 
of  other  fruits.  The  wild  animals  are  leopards,  Dutch  took  possession  of  it  and  built  several 
tigerSjWolves,  and  deer.  Pheasants  are  very  plen-  forts  and  factories,  but  in  1662  they  were  driven 
tinil.  The  ox  and  buffalo  are  used  iu  tillage,  out  by  a  famous  Chinese  pirate,  Coxinga,  who 
and  horses,  asses,  sheep,  goats,  and  hogs  are  made  himself  king  of  the  W.  part,  and  trans- 
numerous.  Gold  is  found  in  the  mountains,  and  mitted  the  sovereignty  to  his  descendants,  who. 
there  are  mines  of  bituminous  coal  in  thoN.  however,  submitted  in  1683  to  the  authority  of 
part  Sulphur  and  salt  are  also  found.  The  the  Chinese  emperor,  to  whom  it  has  since  been 
commerce  of  the  island  with  the  mainland  of  tributary.  The  Chinese  colonists  have  freauent- 
China  is  very  extensive,  and  employs  a  great  ly  rebelled,  and  in  1788  an  insurrection  broke 
number  of  junks.  Its  exports  are  rice,  of  which  out  which  cost  the  imperial  government  100,000 
600  junk  loads  are  annually  sent  to  China,  lives  and  an  immense  expenditure  of  money 
sugar,  beans,  sulphur,  camphor,  and  timber.  It  before  it  was  suppressed.  Psalmanazar,  whose 
imports  saltpetre,  opium,  and  manufactured  extraordinary  imposture  excited  so  much  atten- 
goods  of  all  kinds.  Of  late  years  it  has  been  tion  in  England  in  the  early  part  of  the  last 
much  visited  by  American  sliips  for  purposes  century,  pretended  to  be  a  native  of  Formosa, 
of  trade.  The  western  and  most  fertile  part  and  published  an  account  of  the  island  which 
of  the  island  is  inhabited  by  Chinese,  who  have  was  entirely  fictitious. 

emigrated  to  Formosa  in  great  numbers  during        FORREST,  Edwin,  an  American  actor,  bom 

the  last  2  or  3  centuries.    They  are  industrious  in  Philadelphia,  March  9, 1806.    From  an  early 

and  prosperous,  skilful  cultivators  of  the  soil,  age  ho  manifested  a  predilection  for  the  stage, 

and  enterprising  merchants.    Capt.  Eagleston,  and  in  his  12th  year  performed  female  parts  in 

a  Salem  shipmaster  who  visited  Formosa  in  the  old  South  street  theatre  in  Philadelphia. 

1857,'  describes  them  as  civil  and  hospitable,  A  year  later  ho  assumed  male  parts,  and  on 

and  living  in  plenty;  beggars,  so  numerous  on  Nov.  20,  1820,  made  his  d6but  at  the  Walnut 

the  mainland  of  China,  being  entirely  unknown  street  theatre  as  young  Norval  in  Home's  tra- 

among  them.      The  women    are    small    and  gedy  of  "  Douglas."    A  protracted  professional 

coarse  in  appearance,  with  universally  small  tour  in  the  western  cities  of  the  Union  ensued, 

feet    The  capital  of  the  island  is  Tai-wan,  on  and  Forrest  returned  to  the  seaboard  with  con- 

the  8.  W.  side,  severed  miles  from  the  sea.  siderable  reputation  for  histrionic  ability.  After 

Northward  of  Tai-wan  is  tlie  town  of  Tam-  successful  engagements  at  Albany  and  Phila- 

■wy,  with  a  population  of  about  6,000.    The  delphia,  he  appeared  before  a  New  York  audi- 

Ji  and  mountainous  part  of  Formosa  is  inde-  ence  in  July,  1826,  in  the  part  of  Othello.    His 

pendent  of  the  Chinese,  and  is  inhabited  by  a  fine  natural  capacitlea  ttsvalVi^^'vi^^T  t^1\^^^K&- 


~m-^ 


'* 


.  .      -.                                                      t 

^flyf[^^  imiilt  n  frrmhih  JmiirMikin^  wifl  tht  yshiltdplilnNiiAcA*  Bi 

popularitj'  1m  nbeeqiMnttx raioy^d maj betiid  of ttieduktof WdUaglOB|V 

io  dale  from  tldft  oocanmL    For  aerenlTean  lotboqiiMB.  AmoamhhwaikM9fiSm*^Wm^ 

iMactodintbeprincipdUmtrefloftlieUnkNiL  dtriDgfoT  a  Fte  aad  PmoOL"  ••Oonlo  Aritb* 

MMariiuaiOUieUo^lIadbotli,  Handed  Bk^^  awtiy  **  PhanrimMpria  of  JW'  **  A  B—> 

iKf  and  in  other  prominent  Shakeqieareaa  dWofOrowfiiiD%''aMairaria^€foQn»Wel9 

portal  and  alio  in  a  number  of  jdm  1^  Amer-  aadfidrytaleiiiiMMiof  wUehanofft 

loan  anthorsi  tkie  moot  aaooeiirol  of  whidi  oliaraoler  and  are  UkMlntod  bj  1 ' 

wore  "^MetamonL^  written  for  the  aotor  If  fOB8KAL^ Ffeins  Bwodlak 

Jblm  A.8tone,tlie  >«Gladiat<Nr,»1^Dr.Bird,  aatinaliiti  bom  SaXalmar  te  1TM|  Aai  b 

and '^Bratmi"  Inr  J.  Howard  Fayne.   Thenart  Yerim.  Anbia,  Jidtj  11,  ITttw    HeotaiAadb 

oflietamora,andtfaatofSpartaeoainthe^61ft-  tfaennifewitarofQflrfiiifin,«iiitttdarlJ— 

diaUn','*contlniietobeamong  the  moat  poralar  atUpaal,pqbMied>tbeaiafai  BPpBJUaalafte 

and  eflRBotive  that  he  baa  aaaomed.    Inl8S4he  thandondnantpMloaoiihyofWoMtai  " 

iMted  England  and  acted  Ida  prindpal  eharao-  the  diaylaaamo  of  f  ofeBMiiwf  hf  m 


tara  with  oonaiderable  anoeeaa,  for  whieh  he  olTil  libar|y.    He  waa  aminftad  to  ft 

•oknowledged  his  obligationa  to  Mr.  Kacreadj,  ahip  in  the  nniTatalty  or  OopoB 

who  had  ahown  him  nmoh  attention.    Doring  reoommandatioii  of 

aaeoond  visit  to  Endand  hi  1887  lie  waa  mar-  Hiebohr  and  otheia  to  tfie  ailaiitlia 

vied  to  IGas  ffinol^,  danghter  of  the  weQ  aenttoEEfpt  and  Arabia  Igr  the 

knowndngerof  that  name,  with  whom  here-  BMrfc.    He  departed  in  ITtL  and 

toned  to  the  United  Stalea  in  1888.    In  1844  jeampnoedhighiadeaaibgrttoi' 

he  wmt  a  tldrd  time  to  England,  rwnaiwing  naterlali  for  8  Important  worioi 

AereSToara.    On thia ooeasion  a  rapture oo»  tfaefonnnmd  iot»of  thoKaali 

«nrred  in  the  friendly  relations  whieh  had  nre>  the  fdltorial  oare  of  Kiebahr^ 
vIomIj  aobeisted  between  Mr.  FoRoat  and  Mr.  '     ¥OB8TEB»EniavJoAflBii;n 

Maoreadj,  and  to  the  aeal  with  which  Mr.  or  and  writer  m»  art|  bom  to 

■brrest'a  friends  espoused  his  ouarrel  has  been  aarstidl^ApiilS^lSOOL  AAarati  ' 

flseribed  the  aerious  riot  whicn  took  plaoe  in  philoaopl^,  and  phlMotr  at  Ju^ 

Astor  place,  New  Y<^Maj  10, 1848,  during  he  deioted  himiilf  to  palntf^ 

an  engagement  of  Mr.  Macreadj  at  the  Astor  pupil  of  Gomefiaa  at  Maialeh'to 

plaoe  opera  houseu    In  the  same  year  Mr.  For-  empk^ed  upon  fk«soosa  at  Bonn 

Mst  separated  from  lus  wifo  for  slleged  mia-  hil886  hoTlaitedlt^y.    At^ 

Qondnetonherpart   Bulweqnently  she  brought  other  dtisSi  bo  oolleeled  inl 

an  action  for  divorce  against  him  on  the  ground  for  a  history  of  Italian  art,  and  at  PlaifaMiln  1817 

of  infidelity,  and  in  Jan.  1852,  obtained  a  ver-  disooTered  and  restored  the  frescoes  In  the  cliiKl 

diet  in  lier  favor,  with  an  annual  allowance  of  of  St  George,  and  made  a  valuable  eoUertioa 

$3,000  as  alimony.     The  appeal  which  Mr.  of  designs  from  the  old  masters.    SinoerKara- 

Forrest  took  ftt)m  this  decision  is  still  (July,  ing  to  Munich  he  haa  written  numerona  wosi% 

1850)  before  the  courts  of  New  York.    He  chi^y  on  the  history  of  art. 
withdrew  from   the  stsAO   in    1858,   having        FORSTER,  Gboboi,  an   En^lsh  trmTaOv, 

played  with  undiminished  effect  until  the  close  died  in  Nsgpoor  in  1788.    He  was  in  the  Si^ 

of  liis  career,  and  accumulated  a  fortune  by  his  Tice  of  the  £sst  India  company,  and  in  1T8I 

professional  labors.  His  fame  rests  chiefly  upon  undertook  an  overland  Journey  fiwtn  India  to 

nb  personation  of  characters  demanding  ro-  Bussia.    Disguised  as  a  MuaMuman  marohaat. 

bust  action  and  phvsical  power,  such  as  Jack  and  able  to  q>eak  Hindoo,  Persiany  and  the 

Cade,  6partacu^  and  Metaroora.  MahratU  dialect  with  frusility,  he  proeeedcd  W 

FORRESTER,  Altrxd  Henrt,  better  known  BeUaspoor  and  Jambo  through  the  vale  of  C^nh- 

bjf  his  nom  de  plume  of  Alfred  Crowquill,  an  mere,  which  had  been  visited  before  hj  ne 

English  anthor  and  artist,  born  in  London  in  European  traveller  eioept  Bemler.    Ua  paand 

1806.    lie  was  brought  up  to  be  a  stock  bro-  byGabool,Candahar,andIIerat«totha8oath«m 

ker,  but  at  the  age  of  15  commenced  tlie  career  coast  of  the  Caipian  aea,  and  travelled  thence 

of  an  anthor  by  publbhing  a  variety  of  papers  through  Ruasia,  arriving  In  ig»gt^«*4  in  1784. 

In  the  magasincs.    A  few  years  afterward  he  After  publishing  **  Sketches  of  tbe  Mythokxy 

took  np  drawing  with  a  view  of  illustrating  his  and  Customs  of  the  Hmdoos  ^  (Umdoo.  I78SX 

own  works,  and  first  appeared  before  the  public  he  returned  to  Calcutta,  where  in  17M 


He  was  also  among  the  first  illustrators  of  Germany,  bom  at  Grossglogan,  L , 

^  Punch"*  and  the  "^  Illustrated  Ix>ndon  News.*'  Nov.  84^  1799,  studied  thcolo^  In  Brwian,  w« 

Of  late  years  he  has  been  an  exhibitor  of  pen-  cndained  $»  prieit  In  1885,  appointed 

god-ink  drawings  at  the  loyaiaAidemy^aDdhu  of  the  cathedral  In  1687,    ' 


FORSTEB  609 

of  the  theological  seminary  and  preacher  at  ing  his  father  to  SaraioT,  he  studied  nearly  a 
the  cathedra],  opposed  with  great  zeal  the  influ-  year  in  St  Petershurg,  and  went  thence  to  £ng- 
ence  of  Ronge,  became  in  1S4S  a  member  of  the  land,  where  he  gave  instruction  in  French  and 
Frankfort  parliament,  attended,  in  Not.  1848,  German,  and  translated  several  works  into 
the  synod  of  the  German  bishops  of  WQrzburg,  English.  He  went  with  Cook  on  his  second 
and  was  made  in  1853  prince-bishop  of  Breslau.  voyage  round  the  world,  a  narrative  of  which 
FORSTER,  JoHANN  RKnmoLD,  a  German  trav-  he  published  after  his  return,  receiving  scientific 
eller  and  naturalist,  bom  in  Dirschau,  Prussia,  notes  for  it  from  his  father,  thus  eluding  the 
Oct  22, 1729,  died  in  Halle,  Dec.  9,  1798,  was  agreement  by  which  the  elder  Forster  was  vir- 
descended  from  an  exiled  Scottish  border  family,  tually  prohibited  from  publishing  a  narrative. 
He  was  educated  at  Halle  and  Dantzic  for  the  After  residing  in  Paris  and  Holland,  he  was  for 
clerical  profession,  and  in  1753  became  pastor  6  years  professor  of  natural  history  in  Cassel, 
at  Kassenhuben,  near  Dantzic,  but  devoted  whence  in  1784  he  passed  to  the  same  professor- 
himself  especially  to  the  study  of  mathematics,  ship  in  Wilna.  He  was  appointed  historiog* 
philosophy,  and  geography.  In  1765  he  went  rapher  to  an  expedition  rouna  the  world  under 
with  his  son  Johann  Georg  as  an  agent  of  the  the  patronage  of  the  empress  of  Russia,  but  the 
Buasian  government  to  investigate  the  condition  project  was  prevented  by  the  Turkish  war.  He 
of  the  colony  at  Saratov  in  southern  Russia,  became  librarian  to  the  electoral  prince  of 
but  received  only  slight  recompense  for  his  Mentz,  but  in  1792,  on  the  occupation  of  that 
labors,  and  in  the  following  year  repaired  to  city  by  tlie  French,  he  engaged  actively  in  sup- 
London.  He  was  for  a  time  professor  of  natu-  port  of  republican  principle&  and  in  1798  was 
ral  history  and  of  the  French  and  German  Ian-  sent  to  Paris  as  a^nt  of  Mentz  to  solicit  its 
guages  at  Warrington,  in  Lancashire,  and  in  incorporation  with  France.  After  the  recapture 
1772  accompanied  Capt  Cook  on  his  second  of  that  city  by  the  Prussians,  Forster  lost  all  his 
Toyage  to  the  south  seas,  being  engaged  as  property,  his  books,  and  his  ilSS.,  and  resolved 
naturalist  of  the  expedition.  After  his  return  to  eo  to  India,  but  died  while  studying  the  orient* 
he  furnished  many  materials  to  his  son,  the  his-  tal  languages  in  Paris.  He  is  accounted  one  of 
torian  of  the  expedition,  and  published  his  the  classical  writers  of  Germany.  Alexander 
botanical  observations  in  a  special  work  (Lon-  von  Humboldt  says  in  his  ^' Cosmos^':  '^The 
don,  1776),  and  also  *^  Observations  made  during  writer  who  in  our  Grerman  literature,  accordin|f 
a  Voyage  round  the  World  on  Physical  Geog-  to  my  opinion,  has  most  vigorously  and  success- 
raphy.  Natural  History,  and  Ethic  Philosophy"  fully  opened  the  path  of  the  scientific  study  of 
(London,  1778).  The  government  did  not  aid  nature,  is  my  celebrated  teacher  and  friend, 
him  in  these  publications,  regarding  the  narra-  George  Forster.  Through  him  began  a  new  era 
tive  of  his  son  as  an  evasion  of  the  conditions  of  scientific  voyages,  the  aim  of  which  was  to 
of  his  engagement,  and  not  being  satisfied  with  arrive  at  a  knowledge  of  the  comparative  history 
some  reflections  contained  in  that  work.  Im-  and  geography  of  dififerent  countries.  Gifted 
prisoned  for  debt,  he  was  released  chiefly  through  with  delicate  testhetio  feelings,  and  retaining 
the  interest  of  Duke  Ferdinand  of  Brunswick,  a  vivid  impression  of  the  pictures  with  which 
received  the  degree  of  doctor  of  laws  from  Tahiti  and  the  other  then  happy  islands  of  the 
Oxford,  and  in  1780  was  appointed  professor  of  Pacific  had  filled  his  imagination,  as  in  recent 
natural  history  at  Halle,  an  offi'ce  which  he  re-  timesthatof  Charles  Darwin,  George  Forster  was 
tained  till  his  death.  His  quickness  of  temper  the  first  to  depict  in  pleasing  colors  the  changing 
and  plainness  of  speech  exposed  him  to  many  stages  of  vegetation,  the  relation  of  climate  ana 
Texations,  and  his  love  of  play  and  passion  for  of  articles  of  food  in  their  influence  on  the 
increasing  his  collections  at  whatever  expense  civilization  of  mankind,  according  to  diflfer- 
ako  involved  him  in  difficulties ;  but  his  Intel-  ences  of  animal  descent  and  habitation.  All 
lectual  acuteness  and  wonderful  memory  gave  that  can  give  truth,  individuality,  and  distinct- 
Talue  and  success  to  his  lectures  and  publications,  iveness  to  the  delineation  of  exotic  nature  is 
He  wrote  and  spoke  17  languages,  could  be  united  in  his  works.  We  trace  not  only  in  his 
peculiarly  charming  in  conversation,  and  was  admirable  description  of  Cook^s  second  voyage 
suniliar  with  genend  and  especially  with  clas-  of  discovery,  but  still  more  in  his  smaller  writ- 
rical  literature.  Among  his  works,  beside  those  ings,  the  germ  of  that  richer  fruit  which  has 
above  mentioned,  are  Liher  SingularU  de  Byno  since  been  matured."  Beside  numerous  tran»- 
Antiqvorum  (London,  1776)  ;  Zoologia  Inaiea  lations,  his  most  important  works  are  on  sub- 
(Halle,  1781);  Btobaehtungen  vnd  WahrheiUn  jects  of  natural  history  and  ethnology,  as 
(Berlin,  1798)  ;  and  G€9chkhte  der  Entdeeh-  Kleine  Sehriften^  ein  Beitrag  tur  Ldnder^nd 
ungen  und  SchifffahrUn  im  Korden  (Frank-  VolJcerhund^^  Ndturgeschiehte  vnd  Philosophie 
fort,  1784).  The  last  was  translated  into  Eng-  des  Leberu  (6  vols.,  Beriin,  1789-'97),  and  An- 
Ush  (Lonaon,  1786),  and  contains  much  useful  sUhten  torn Niederrheiriy  von  Brabant,  Flaridern^ 
information  and  ingenious  conjecture,  together  Holland^  Enalandy  vnd  Franlcreich  (8  vols., 
with  many  ill-natured  reflections,  particularly  Berlin,  1791-94).  He  was  the  first  to  translate 
on  the  Englbh.— JouANN  Geobo  Adam,  eldest  into  (German  the  Saeontala  of  Kalidasa.  His 
0on  of  the  preceding,  a  German  traveller  and  widow,  the  daughter  of  Heyne,  afterward 
naturalist,  bom  in  Nassenhuben,  Nov.  26, 1754,  known  as  Therese  Huber,  published  a  collection 
died  in  Paris,  Feb.  12, 1794.  After  accompany-  of  his  letters  (2  vola,^  Ia\^<^  Wia»-3*S^.  ^S;^ 

VOL.  VIL — 39 


•10  lOBSTKB 

«ompkCA  wmto  irtre  o^tod  by  lib  danfhter,  ntgM  front  tti»dbtMTatoty  a(t  OrtiiHgk    H» 

wit]iaaitioalxioaoeb7G.G.QtrTiniis(9Toli^  aooii  after  tetdidd  on  hk  Mtito  ia  HBrtw4 

Leipdo,  1848-'4).  Buwex,  wliara  1m  mbMOMHiftlj  iwidtd,  fr*. 

roBSTERyJoHiryanEa^ithJoiirnaliflttfidaii*  qoflotly  TiaUiog  the  oodoimbL    Btridt  mm 

thor,  formeriy  editor  of  the  London  **ExMninor^"  lMf»«ni  in  the  "Philoeqphicil  ¥eg>riiie."  hit 

bomfaiKewo«8tleinl81i.    Hewesedneetedat  MinefaMa  writings  ere  the  "*  FteesBlal  Gd^ 

the uniTerri^itf  London,  end  was  a  member  of  dar^  (London^  18S4);  **Pbcket  Kaqrdopwdia 

its  first  law  dasB.   With  his  dasmnates  he  estab-  of  Katnral  Phenomena**  (London,  ISITX  a  eom- 

lished  the  ^  London  Uniyerritj  Magadne,"  oat  nendiom  of  prognosticaoona  of  the  weathsr; 

of  which  grew  the  "Englishman's  Magaxine,'*  JSiobaMmtgm  «ft#r  dm  Sit^hm  dm  L^fi^ 

among  his contribnUons  to  which  was  a  series  DnUk^m^dm  GMr(JPnDkkftt,  1888);  Omm^ 

of  biographical  artides  on  tbe^'Earij  Patriots  9ai4an$  $ur  Vvi^hmM  dm  c$mHm  (1888);  the 

of  En^and,"  which  were  sabseqnently  enlarged  whimsical  Aim&ilm  iTtm  fh^ftkim  w§ff&§§m 

into  his  *' Lives  of  the  Statesmen  of  the  Com-  ffimgeiL   1860);  BpUUlmrwm  Iknimimmm 

•Bcmwedth,*'  makinff  6  Tds.  in  "^  Lardner's  rBraasciliL  1868X  a  odleetion  of  original  loOM 

Cabinet  Ojdopndia,"  and  rqinblished  in  Kew  from  eminent  men  (Lodse.  lUotaon,  Wartoi^ 

ToriE,  in  1847.     It  is  espeoiaUj  exact  in  its  Chiomwdl)  presenred  in  the  Fonter  frn4j; 


frotSL  oontains  mnoh  information  not  before  and  several  poems  and  j^ilosophieal  writJip. 

pabUshed,  and  forms  a  eomi^ete  and  Incid  nar-  FOBSTTH.    L  A  K.  w.  eo.  of  H.  OifrfiM^ 

ntiye  tA  the  pditioal  events  of  the  period  of  bonnded  W.  bj  Yadkin  river,  and  diaineii  ly 

.wlddi  it  treats.    Mr.  Focster  pnrsoed  the  stodj  its  aiBnents;  aiea|aboiit  860  a^  n.;  popi  a 

of  law  nnder  Ohittj,  and  was  ealled  to  the  I860, 11.168»  of  wiMNn  I2868  were  dnvoa.    The 

bar|  bat  soon  became  a  valned  contribntor  to  sorfroe  u  modi  diveidnsd.    The  aoQ  Is 

penodicala.    In  1884  he  connected  himself  with  ally  frrtilei  and  the  itapiss  am  wbnti 

the  "Examiner,"  of  which  he  became  the  sole  and  oats.    In  1860  the  pro^hMiiona  am 

e^tor  in  1848,  and  from  the  time  of  his  first  to  40,786  boshda  of  wheal,  848,880  of 

eonnection  he  eontribated  largd j*  to  every  nam-  com,  and  87,860  of  oats.    The  eonntj  « 

ber  of  it,  in  both  the  depar&nents  oi  pditics  ed  %  ihctwies^  87  ndDbL  and  18  chntehsa,    li 

and  literary  criticism.    He  was  also  for  4  years  was  formed  in  1848  of  iSbm  eonthom  part  «f 

the editcHrofthe^'ForeignQaarterlv Review,"  Btokesoo.    OuitaL  Whiston.    IL  ANleoief 

and  for  a  short  time  of  the*' Daily  News  "after  tla ,  bimnilififl  r  anil  fl  TT  hj  ths  rhattahnnnhsi 

the  retirement  of  Mr.  Dickens.    In  1848  ap-  river;  area^  aboot  860  aq.  m.;  popw  In  18fl^ 

■       L    lliei 


peered  his  ^IM^  and  Adventores  of  Oliver    8,678,  of  whom  1,080  were  slavee.    

Goldsmith,"  which  was  enlarged  into  the  '*  Lifo  is  hilly,  and  in  some  ^aesa  moontainooa.   Ths 

and  Times  of  Oliver  Goldsmith"  (1854),  a  soil  is  everywhere  of  fair  qaality,  and  in  the 

graceful  and  thorough  biography,  of  which  also  vicinity  of  the  rivers  is  allavial  and  extmiiely 

an  abridgment  has  be^n  publisned  with  the  fertile.    Ootton,  grain,  and  potatoes  are  this 

same  title,    lie  has  frequently  contributed  to  staples,  and  in  1850  the  productions  amuontcd 

the  '*  Edinburgh'^  and  the  ''  Quarterly*'  reviews,  to  472  bales  of  cotton,  839,954  bushels  of  Indisa 

from  the  former  of  which  his  lives  of  Defoe  com,  72,855  of  oats,  and  78,338  of  sweei  pots- 

and  of  Charles  Churchill  have  been  reprinted,  toes.    There  were  28  churches  and  405  pupils 

His  historical  and  biographical  essays  were  col-  attending  public  schools.    The  ooonty  m  rs- 

lected  in  2  voh).  in  1B58.    In  1856  he  was  ap-  markably  nch  in  minenUs.    Silver,  copper,  ud 

pointed  secretary  to  the  commission  of  lunacy,  a  considerable  quantities  of  gold  are  obtained,  and 

place  worth  about  £1,600  a  year,  and  the  same  diamonds  and  other  prcdoos  stones  have  occa- 

vear  he  married  the  widow  of  Mr.  Henry  Col-  sionallv  been  found.    Named  in  honor  of  Juha 

bum  (the  well-known  publisher),  a  lady  of  am-  Forsyth,  an  eminent   «t^i>ftntn    of   Georgia. 

pie  fortune.  Capital,  Cumming.     Yaloe  of  real  estate  ia 

FORSTER,  Thomas   Ionatits  Maria,   an  1856,1786,228. 

Englbh  meteorologist,  born  in  London,  Nov.  9,  FOIiSYTU,  Joror,  an  American  senator  sad 

1789,  died  about  1850.    He  was  early  interest-  secretary  of  state  under  Presidents  Jeckstia 

ed  in  natural  sciences,  and  published  a  **  Jour-  and  Van  Buren,  bom  in  Frederic  co.,  Va^ 

nal  of  the  Weather**  in  his  16tli  year.    Ho  had  about  1781,  died  in  Washington,  OcU  31,  1S41. 

attracted  attention  by  publications  on  the  inilu-  He  was  graduated  at  Princeton  college  in  179t^, 

ence  of  the  atmosphere  and  of  spirituous  liquors  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  Aognsla.  Ga., 

upon  health,  and  on  the  natural  hbtory  of  the  in  1802.    He  was  elected  att4>mey-geDeral  of 

swallow,  when  in  1812  he  went  to  the  univcr-  the  state  in  1808,  representative  in  congress  in 

sity  of  Cambridge,  where  in  the  following  year  1812,  and  U.  8.  senator  in  1818.    In  IfriO  he 

he  produced  an  annotated  edition  of  Aratus.  was  sent  to  Spiun  as  resident  minister.  «L«rt 

He  associated  himself  with  Spurzhoim  in  prop-  he  conducted  the  negotiations  eonc«ming  il'« 

agating  the  system  of  phrenolojfv,  e<lited  an  edi-  ratific-ation  and  execution  of  the  treetv  bv  m  hn-h 

tion  of  Catullus  (1816X  ^<1  published  ''Obser-  Florida  was  ceded  to  the  United  SteU**.     In 

vations  on  the  Influence  of  Particular  States  of  1823  he  was  again  chosen  to  the  hooae  uf  rvp- 

the  Atmospliere  on  Human  Health  and  Dis-  resentatives,   and  was  one  of  the  main  m»> 

eases"  (London,  1817).  On  July  8, 1819,  ho  dis-  porters  in  congress  of  Gov.  Troop  of  "  ---- 

covered  a  comet  which  was  seen  on  the  same  in  his  contest  with  the  "••j^^^i  mt 


FORT  BEND  FORT  ST.  DAVII)                611 

concerning  the  removal  of  the  Creek  and  Cher-  streets,  on  which  stand  buildings  for  the  troope, 

okee  Indians.    He  became  governor  of  Geor-  "warehouses,  quartermaster's  establishment,  sUh 

gift  in  1827,  and  in  1829  was  again  returned  to  bles  for  8,000  horses  and  16,000  mules,  &0. 

the  U.  S.  senate.    He  was  a  delegate  to  the  The  barrack  is  a  large  edifice,  8  stories  high, 

anti-tariff  convention  called  at  Milledgeville  in  and  the  hospital  was  built  at  a  cost  of  $12,000 

1882,  but  withdrew  from  it  on  the  zround  that  or  $16,000.    Connected  with  the  fort  are  sev- 

it  did  not  fairly  represent  the  people  of  Geor-  eral  large  farms.    Leavenworth  City  is  about  2 

gia ;  and  he  opposed  the  South  Carolina  move-  m.  distant. 

ment  of  nullification  from  its  beginning,  and  FORT  MADISON,  the  capital  of  Lee  oo., 

voted  in  favor  of  Mr.  Clay's  compromise  act  of  Iowa,  situated  on  beautifol  rising  ground  on  the 

1888.    In  the  debate  in  1834  on  the  removal  of  Mississippi,  12  m.  above  the  lower  rapids;  pop. 

the  deposits  from  the  U.  S.  bank,  he  supported  in  1868,  about  8,000.    It  was  the  site  of  a  fron- 

the  president,  who  afterward  appointed  him  sec-  tier  fort  erected  by  the  government  in  1808  as 

retary  of  state,  an  office  which  be  retained  till  a  defence  against  the  Indians.    The  garrison 

the  retirement  of  President  Van  Burcn  in  1841.  was  forced  to  evacuate  it  in  1818,  when  it  was 

FORT  B£ND,  a  S.  £.  co.  of  Texas,  intersect-  burned,  and  few  traces  of  it  now  remain.  The 
ed  by  Brazos  river,  which  is  navigable  by  village  is  pleasant  and  healthy,  well  built,  with 
steamboats  during  part  of  the  year,  aud  touched  a  good  proportion  of  brick  houses,  a  substantial 
on  the  8.  W.  by  Bernard  river ;  area,  920  sq.  court  house,  and  6  or  6  churches.  It  is  the 
m.;  pop.  in  1868,  4,184,  of  whom  2,714  were  seat  of  the  state  penitentiary,  a  fine  limestone 
daves.  In  the  valleys  of  the  streams  the  soil  building,  and  is  connected  with  the  opposite 
is  alluvial  and  fertile.  The  rest  of  the  county,  side  of  the  river  by  a  steam  ferry.  In  mann^ 
consisting  principally  of  prairies,  is  less  produc-  factures  it  has  progressed  more  rapidly  than 
tive,  but  furnishes  abundant  pasturage.  Timber  any  other  town  in  the  state.  Its  commerce 
is  found  in  the  river  bottoms,  Brazos  and  Ber-  is  extensive,  and  it  is  a  depot  and  shipping 
nard  rivers  being  skirted  by  a  thick  growth  of  point  for  immense  quantities  of  lumber,  grain, 
oak,  ash,  elm,  and  red  cedar.  The  staples  are  and  pork.  Two  newspapers  are  published  here, 
cotton,  sugar,  Indian  com,  and  live  stock.  In  FORT  RILET,  a  military  post  of  Kansas, 
1860  the  productions  amounted  to  2,466  bales  established  in  1868,  at  the  junction  of  Repub- 
of  cotton,  100  hogsheads  of  sugar,  186,206  Ucan  and  Smoky  Hill  forks  of  Kansas  river,  on 
bushels  of  Indian  com,  and  68,880  of  sweet  po-  the  great  emigrant  route  to  New  Mexico  and 
tatoes.  There  were  4  churches,  several  acade-  Califomia,  140  m.  from  Fort  Leavenworth, 
mies,  and  120  pupils  attending  public  schools.  With  the  latter  place  it  is  connected  by  an  ex- 
Value  of  real  estate  in  1868,  $1,228,140.  Cap-  cellent  military  road,  completed  to  this  point  in 
ital,  Richmond.  1864,  and  for  the  continuation  of  which  W.  to 

FORT  D£S  MOINES,  the  capital  of  Iowa,  a  Bridger's  Pass,  on  the  boundary  between  Ne- 

flourishing  post  town  of  Polk  co.,  and  one  of  braska  and  Utah,  an  appropriation  of  $100,000 

the  most  important  places  in  the  interior  of  the  was  made  by  congress  in  1866.    The  fort  has 

state;  pop.  in  1866.  8,830.    It  is  built  at  the  accommodations  for  a  large  force  of  cavalry, 

junction  of  the  Des  Moines  and  Raccoon  rivers,  and  stone  barracks  for  8  infantry  companies, 

the  former  of  which,  on  the  completion  of  im-  and  being  situated  in  the  midst  of  a  fertile 

provements  now  in  progress,  will  be  navigable  country,   abounding   in    timber,    forage,    and 

thus  far  by  steamboats.    The  water  power  fur-  water,  has  all  the  advantages  requisite  for  an 

niahed  by  the  two  streams  is  employed  in  sev-  important  frontier  post.    There  is  a  Methodist 

oral  flour  and  saw  mills.    Timber  is  abundant  in  mission  in  the  neighborhood. 

the  vicinity,  and  productive  coal  mines  have  FORT  ROYA^  a  seaport  of  the  French 

been  opened.    A  newspaper  is  published  in  the  West  Indies,  and  capital  of  Martinique,  situated 

town.    For  many  years  this  was  a  military  sta-  on  a  deep  and  well  sheltered  bay  on  the  W.  side 

tion  in  the  midst  of  the  Indian  country,  but  the  of  the  island ;  pop.  11,800.    It  is  defended  by  a 

old  fortwas  abandoned  in  1846.  The  name  of  the  fort  which  commands  both  the  town  and  the 

town  has  recently  been  changed  to  Des  Moines,  harbor,  is  the  residence  of  the  French  governor. 

FORT  LARAMIE.    See  LARAiinE.  and  contains,  beside  the  parish  church  ana 

FORT  LEAVENWORTH,  a  military  post  government  offices,  a  prison,  hospital,  barracks, 

of  Kansas,  on  the  W.  bank  of  the  Missouri,  and  an  arsenal    In  1889  it  was  almost  wholly 

898  m.  above  its  mouth,  and   31  m.  above  destroyed  by  an  earthquake,  in  which  over  600 

the  Junction  of  the  Kansas  river.    It  was  es-    lives  were  lost.    

tabhshed  in  1827,  is  important  as  a  general  FORT  ST.  DAVID,  a  town  on  the  Coroman- 

randezvous  for   troops  proceeding  westward,  del  coast,  presidency    of  Madras^  Hindostan. 

and  as  a  depot  for  all  the  forts  on  the  great  It  stands  near  the  mouth  of  the  nver  Tripapo- 

Santa  F6  and  Oregon  routes.    It  is  the  inter-  lore,  12  m.  S.  S.  W.  of  Pondicherry,  and  was 

•acting  point  of  nearly  all  the  great  military  formerly  well  fortified.    A  British  &ctory  was 

roads  of  the  territories,  one  mnning  S.  into  established  here  in  1691.    It  withstood  a  siege 

Texas,  one  8.  W.  to  Santa  F6,  one  W.  to  Fort  by  the  French  in  1746,  and  from  that  period 

Riley,  and  a  fourth  N.  W.  to  posts  in  Nebraska,  remained  for  12  years  the  capital  of  the  British 

Utali,  Oregon,  California,  etc.     It  is  rapidly  possessions  in  this  part  of  India.    In  1758  the 

Improving  in  appearance,  being  laid  out   in  French  under  Lally  besieged  it  agmn,  captured 


UM  lOBT  WATini  laennoAxiinr 


It  after  •  duMrt  radManoe,  tad  dertroyad  Ite  iir  roouaitio  womtrj.   ft  ifm  ham  tha 

iortifiMtioiia.  inHiiMm  af  two  aiiall  itmrnaillM  Dwhna 

TORT  WATinS,  a  flooridiiiig  d<7,  capital  tlieDlia»  wUobuiitaoalhalfr.KdoMorBMi 

ofAIkiioo^Iiid^altiuiledSnaxiofaybamn^  Lomond.  TliaiieayiiiiderlhaiMHMof  ttwAw* 

Iran  ooltiTated  n|^  at  Iha  oonflnence  or  the  dow  or  Black  lifor,  it  flo«BX.ibioi^  thai*- 

8t.lDu7*8  and  BtJoaoph^riyaf&wliicli  hero  tito  TaDagr  of  tha  La0n,  diat  la  oa  aMhar  rida 

ftrm  the  ICaomee ;  pop.  in  1869,  dMmt  IS^OOO.  ligr  M1K  and  aflar  raoai?in|  oaa  or  t«o  tA^* 

Itoooupieatheaiteof tlioold''Twi|^twaeTil-  ataifaa aiaiuiiw the aaaaa orgbrth.    Wnmm^ 

li^**  of  the  Ifiand  Indiana.    Afortwaaereoled  y^nt  JttadnatoptaiantHiaiai 

bare  1^  order  of  Gen.  Wiqrne  in  17M;  itwaa  liaritiaa  whibh  Ibm  ita  eUaf  «-...«^ 

abandoned  in  1819,  and  in  1641  the  Infiana  noir  wfaiffing  graooAiny  tbioog^  n  fiab 

inraiemoTedW.orthelllHini^rifer.    The  eoantrjyBOir  donbling  and  iowbafW. 

town  baa  grown  up  with  great  rapidity,  and  ia  aweeoiqg  to  tbe  S.  deaoribfaMr  at  tiaaaa 

BOW  one  «  the  moat  important  plaoaa  in  the  eompiete  cifdJea,  and  fcrmJng  «i  aloog  ita 

atate.    It  ia  the  point  of  interaeoBon  of  9  rail-  manj  baaatiftd  paninaaki,    TIm 


ipada,oiierQnn&gftomTbledomL^  of  theaawindbigli^eallad  Uie^BalnoflMb,* 


flie  atate  Bne  bi  imnob^  and  the  other  firom  oooor  between  Alloa  aadfitiribig^  the 

FlttdMug^F^enn.,toOhioago.    TheWabndiand  betweaawbiabplaee%laaatn4|^laabliibeal 

Xrie  canal  paeaea  1^  it|  and  nmnerooa  pbmk  6  m.,  wbUe  bgr  water  it  li  II  aa.    Tba  aeanl 

loada  open  an eailfoommnnioatioa  with  Tarkma  coone  of  the  rifer  la  X.  or  &  B.   Xtawpibb 

towna  of  Indiana  and  a^faoent  atatea.    Itbaa  ftom  8  to  more  than  ST  fttbomai  and  Ha  battna 

in  aetife  trade^  ia  the  aee  of  a  Boman  Oathdio  la  generaQf  arnddx.    TbeHdeeelaapflramlla 

bUbop^  and  contidna  a  Methodiat  female  ooOege^  aeaaaferaaBtirth^brito^adietanBaefWi. 

a  German  Roman  OathoUo  achool  for  tvom  It  ia  naitoble  tbaa fer fcr Teeatle  of  IMtoaiv 

bidUea  nnder  the  charge  of  the  aieten  of  t>roYf  aadtoAIbafcrTiaaBlaofaOOtoaaL  lialemlb, 

denoiLJIdalijattdiweeUynew^qienyandlS  Jwdnding  aH  ita  Maaoeltia^  caaaol  ba  aMb 

chnrehea.  leea  thaa  ITO  m.,  tboeii^  ia  a  dhaui  laa  it 

fOBrE,bi  mode,  an ItaUaa  word aigniQring  wooldprobab^  aoi  enaedtO  aa.    HalMb, 

alroog^  load.    It  ia  the  opodte  of  p&nM^  aoll|  Albm,andDanmaialtalarfeettriMarfaa  A 

and  fanpliea  that  the  paaeage  to  which  it  iaalBx-  canal  88  akin  length  eonaeetaiiwllbflia€|ria 

adia  tobe  eiecntedloodly  or  IbroiblT*  AtB3ncarAneitbcfbMtowldanlnlaanaalmi7, 

F0BTE80UE,  Bn  JoBir,  an  En|Adi  lawyer,  called  the  frith  of  forth,  but  a  aea  the  oaaato 

who  fiTcd  in  the reigna of  Henry  Y Land £d-  ofOhrirmannanandrabonthe  W.,andeflia- 

ward  TV.    The  datea  of  biabbrth  and  death  are  lithgow,  Edinbor^  and  Hadffiqgton  en  te  & 

anoertain.    In  1426  he  was  appointed  one  of  The  frith  contains  seTcral  iaUndi,  and  a  great 

the  governors  of  LIdcoId^s  Inn,  and  in  1442  abundance  of  herrings  and  other  fish.    Length, 

chief  Justice  of  the  king's  bench.    He  was  a  50  m. ;  greatest  breadth,  16  m. 

aealoQs  Lancastrian,  and  when  in  1461  the  for-  FORTIFICATION.    This  anMeet  le  aoase- 

tnne  of  war  made  Henry  YL  a  fogitive,  Fortes-  times  divided  into  defensive  fortincatioB,  widcb 

one  accompanied  him  to  Scotland,  where  Henry  provides  the  means  of  rendtfing  a  given  locsl- 

is  supposed  to  have  appointed  him  chancellor  ity,  permanently  or  for  a  diort  time  only,  cape- 

of  England,  by  which  title  he  has  been  men-  Ue  of  defence;  and  offensive  fortificatioa,wlucb 

tioned  by  several  writers.    Soon   after,    the  containa  the  rnlea  for  condnctiag  a  akae.    Ws 

Yorkists,  who  at  that  period  controlled  the  par-  sliall,  however,  treat  <tf  it  here  vader  the  thnee 

liament,  included  him  in  the  act  of  attainder  beads  of  Pumahist  FoannoATios,  or  the 

which  was  passed  by  them  against  the  king,  mode  of  putting  a  locddty,  in  time  of  peaee, 

queen,  and  other  prominent  Lancastrians.    In  in  such  a  state  c^  defence  aa  to  compel  the 

1463  he  fled  to  the  continent  with  Queen  Mar-  enemy  to  attack  it  by  a  regular  siege ;  the  art 

garet  and  her  son  Edward,  and  remained  abroad  of  Suraia ;  and  I^eld  FonnncATioa;  or  the  coa- 

aeveral  vears  attending  on  the  royal  exiles.   He  atruction  of  temporary  worin  to  atrengthca  a 

returned  with  them  to  England,  but  after  the  given  point  in  coo8eq[nence  of  the  aaounatary 

Altai  fight  at  Tewkesbury  in  1471,  he  became  a  miportance  which  ft  may  acqmre  aader  ibe 

priaoner  to  the  victor,  Edward  IV.    Having  ob-  peculiar  drcumatancea  of  a  campaiga.    L  Pia- 

tained  his  pardon  and  liberty,  Fortescue  with-  ua.vwst  FoanncATiov.     The  obkat  kmrn  of 

drew  to  Gloncestershiro,  and  there  passed  the  fortification  appears  to  be  the  atopbada,  whirb 

residue  of  his  days  in  retirement    The  most  up  to  the  end  of  the  18th  ceatarjF  was  stall  the 

celebrated  of  liis  worlu  b  hb  treatise  De  Laudi-  national  system  with  the  Tmrfcs  (^alaalnX  ead 

lui  Lef^m  AngUa^  which  is  written  in  the  form  is  even  now  in  fbll  use  in  the  Indo-Chiaeee  pea- 

of  a  dialogue,  the  interiocutors  being  Prince  Ed-  ninsula  among  the  Bnrmese.    It  coaristo  of  a 

ward  and  the  author.  The  earliest  edition  is  that  double  or  triple  row  of  stoat  treea»  plantad  ap- 

of  Whitechurdi,  published  in  the  beginning  of  right  and  near  each  other  in  the  gronad,  ftirmiag 

the  reign  of  Henrv  YUI.,  and  the  latest  that  of  a  wall  all  around  the  town  or  camp  tobadrfead- 

A.  Amos  (Cambridge,  1825).    The  oldest  trans-  ed.    Darius  in  his  expedition  amoag  tiie  Serthi- 

lation  is  that  by  Mulcaster  (London,  1516).  ana,  Cortes  at  Tabaaco  in  Mexioo,  and Gapl. Cook 

FORTir,  a  huve  river  of  Bcotknd,  the  dd  of  in  New  Zealand,  all  came  in  coalaet  with  sack 

jftat  conntjj  in  daoi  and  one  of  the  moat  noted  elockadea.    Homatimna  tbawaoa  bataeea  the 


forhfioation  6is 

rows  of  trees  was  filled  up  with  earth ;  in  other  These  towers  were  now  called  roundels  (twi- 
instanees  the  trees  were  connected  and  held  to-  dtlli)^  and  were  made  large  enongh  to  hold  sey- 
gether  bj  wicker  work.  The  next  step  was  the  eral  pieces  of  cannon.  To  enable  the  besieged 
erection  of  masonry  walls  instead  of  stockades,  to  work  cannon  on  the  wall  too,  a  rampart  of 
This  plan  secured  greater  durability,  at  the  earth  was  thrown  np  behind  it  so  as  to  give  it 
same  time  that  it  rendered  the  assault  far  more  the  necessary  width.  We  shall  soon  see  how  this 
difficult ;  and  from  the  days  of  Nineveh  and  earthwork  gradually  encroached  on  the  wall, 
Babylon  down  to  the  c\o69  of  the  middle  ages,  so  as  in  some  cases  to  supersede  it  altogeOier. 
masonry  walls  formed  the  exclusive  means  of  Albert  Ddrer,  the  celebrated  Grerman  painter 
fortification  among  all  the  more  civilized  na-  developed  this  system  of  roundels  to  its  high- 
lions.  The  walls  were  made  so  high  that  es-  est  perfection.  He  made  them  perfectly  inde- 
calade  was  rendered  difficult ;  they  were  made  pendent  forts,  intersecting  the  continuity  of 
thick  enough  to  offer  a  lengthened  resistance  to  the  wall  at  certain  intervals,  and  with  case- 
the  battering  ram,  and  to  allow  the  defenders  mated  batteries  enfilading  the  ditch ;  of  his 
to  move  about  freely  on  the  top,  sheltered  by  a  masonry  parapets,  not  more  than  8  feet  high  is 
thinner  masonry  parapet  with  battlements,  uncoverea  (visible  to  the  besieger  and  subject 
through  the  embrasures  of  which  arrows  and  to  his  direct  fire) ;  and  in  order  to  complete 
other  missiles  might  be  shot  or  thrown  against  the  defence  of  the  ditch,  he  proposed  eawmnUreSy 
the  assailants.  To  increase  the  defence,  the  casemated  works  on  the  sole  of  the  aitch,  hid- 
parapet  was  soon  built  overhanging,  with  holes  den  from  the  eyes  of  the  besiegers,  with  embra- 
between  the  projecting  stones  on  which  it  rest-  sures  on  either  side  so  as  to  enfilade  the  ditch 
ed,  so  as  to  allow  the  besieged  to  see  the  foot  as  far  as  the  next  augle  of  the  polygon.  Al- 
of  the  wall  and  reach  an  enemy  who  might  most  all  these  proposius  were  new  inventions ; 
have  ^t  so  far  by  direct  missiles  from  above,  and  if  none  except  the  casemates  found  fi&vor 
The  ditch,  no  doubt,  was  also  introduced  at  an  with  his  a^  we  shall  see  that  in  the  latest 
early  period,  surrounding  the  whole  wall,  and  and  most  important  systems  of  fortification 
serving  as  the  chief  obstacle  against  access  to  they  have  all  been  adopted  and  developed  ao> 
it  Finally,  the  defensive  capabUities  of  mason-  cording  to  the  altered  circumstances  of  modem 
ry  waUs  were  developed  to  the  highest  point  by  times. — ^About  the  same  time,  a  change  was 
adding  at  intervals  towers  which  projected  adopted  in  the  shape  of  the  enlarged  towerSi 
from  the  wall,  thus  giving  it  a  flailing  de-  from  which  modem  systems  of  fortification  may 
fence  by  missiles  thrown  from  them  at  such  be  considered  to  date.  The  round  shape  had 
troops  as  assaOed  the  space  between  two  the  disadvantage  that  neither  the  curtain  (the 
towers.  Being  in  most  cases  higher  than  the  piece  of  wall  between  two  towers)  nor  the 
wall,  and  separated  from  its  top  by  cross  para-  next  a4joining  towers  could  reach  with  their  fire 
pets,  they  commanded  it  and  formed  each  a  every  point  in  front  of  an  intermediate  tower; 
small  fortress,  which  had  to  be  taken  singly  there  were  small  angles  close  to  the  wall,  where 
after  the  defenders  had  been  driven  from  the  the  enemy,  if  he  once  reached  them,  could  not 
main  wall  itself  If  we  add  to  this,  that  in  be  touched  by  the  fire  of  the  fortress.  To  avoid 
0ome  cities,  especially  in  Greece,  there  was  a  this,  the  tower  was  changed  into  an  irregular 
kind  of  citadel,  on  some  commanding  height  in-  pentagon,  with  one  side  turned  toward  the  in* 
Mde  the  walls  (acropolis),  forming  a  reduit  and  terior  of  the  fortress,  and  4  toward  the  open 
second  line  of  defence,  we  shall  have  indicated  country.  This  pentagon  was  called  a  bastion, 
the  most  essential  points  of  the  fortification  of  To  prevent  repetitions  and  obscurity,  we  shall 
the  masonry  epoch. — But  from  the  14th  to  the  now  at  once  proceed  to  give  the  description 
end  of  the  16th  century  the  introduction  of  ar-  and  nomenclature  of  bastionary  defence,  based 
tiUery  fundamentally  changed  the  modes  of  on  one  of  those  systems  which  show  all  its 
attacking  fortified  places.  From  this  period  essential  particulars.  Fig.  1  (see  next  page)  rep- 
dates  that  immense  literature  on  fortification  resents  8  fronts  of  a  hexagon  fortified  ac- 
which  has  produced  systems  and  methods  in-  cording  to  Yauban^s  first  system.  .  The  left 
nxmierable,  part  of  which  have  found  a  more  side  represents  the  mere  outline  as  used  in 
or  less  extensive  practical  application,  while  the  geometrical  delineation  ^f  the  work;  the 
others,  and  not  always  the  least  ingenious,  have  right  gives  the  ramparts,  glacis,  &c.,  in  detaiL 
been  passed  over  as  merely  theoretical  curiosi-  The  entire  side  of  the  polygon  /'  f"  is  not 
ties,  nntil  at  later  periods  the  fruitful  ideas  con-  formed  by  a  continuous  rampart;  at  each  end, 
tained  in  them  have  been  again  drawn  into  the  portions  c2'/' and  e"/'' are  left  open,  and  the 
daylight  by  more  fortunate  successors.  This  space  thus  arising  is  closed  by  the  projecting 
has  Wn  the  fate,  as  we  shall  see,  of  the  very  pentagonal  bastion  d!  V  a'  c'  e'.  The  lines  a'  V 
anthor  who  forms,  if  we  may  say  so,  the  bridge  and  a  cf  form  the  faces,  the  lines  V  d!  and  d  d 
between  the  old  masonry  system  and  the  new  the  flanks  of  the  bastion.  The  points  where 
■jitem  of  earthworks  merely  revetted  with  faces  and  flanks  meet  are  called  the  shoulder 
masonry  in  those  places  which  the  enemy  can-  points.  The  line  ci  /',  which  goes  from  the 
not  see  fh>m  a  distance.  The  first  effect  of  the  centre  of  the  circle  to  the  point  of  the  bastion, 
introduction  of  artillery  was  an  increase  in  the  is  called  the  capital  The  line  d"  d',  forming 
thickness  of  the  walls  and  in  the  diameter  of  part  of  the  original  circumference  of  the  hexa- 
the  towers  at  the  expense  of  their  height  gon,  is  the  curtain.    Thus  every  polygon  will 


614 


FOBnnoAnoir 


haT«  H  minrbutiona  as  sides.  The  bastion  om  to  the  right,  of  which  one  hslfotilr!*  seen, 
iffLj  be  either  fidl,  if  the  whole  pentSKon  is  is  ■  hollow  ooe.  Bastions  sod  cnruins  to- 
filled  np  with  esrdi  as  hish  as  the  Urrepkin  of  gether  constitate  the  enceinte,  or  boilj  of  tb« 
the  rampart  (the  place  where  the  kuds  stand),  place.  In  them  we  notice,  od  the  terreplein, 
or  hollow  (empt7)  if  the  runpart  dopca  down,  first  the  parapet,  constnicted  in  fh»ot  so  as  to 
inunediateh'  behind  the  guns,  into  the  interior,  shelter  the  defender^  and  then  the  ramps,  oa 
Id  fig.  1,  d  (  a  e  •  ia  a  niU  bastion ;  the  next  the  interior  slope  (i  i),  by  which  the  o 


cations  with  the  interior  ore  kept  np.  The 
rampart  is  high  enough  to  cover  the  hoiucs  of 
the  town  from  direct  fire,  and  tlio  parapet 
thick  enough  to  offer  lengthened  resistance  to 
heavj  artillery.  All  roaml  the  ramjiart  is  the 
ditch  1 1 1 1,  and  in  it  ore  fcreral  cIuhsch  of  out- 
works. First,  tlie  ravelin  or  di-iniluiiu  it  I  m.  in 
frontof  the  curtain,  a  triungulnr  work  wiili  two 
iJMes,  il  i  and  I  m,  eacli  witli  a  raiii|)art  and  para- 
pet to  reci'ivo  artillery.  The  open  rear  of  any 
vorkiscollcil  the  i;on^l  thus  in  llio  ravelin,  i-rn, 
in  the  bastion  il«,b  the  gorge.  Tlio  parapet  of 
the  ravelin  is  about  3  or  4  foct  longer  than  the 
parai>et  of  the  body  of  tlio  place,  so  tliat  it  is 
eonitntuidcd  by  it,  and  tlio  guni  of  tlio  latter  may 
in  cuae  of  Deed  fire  away  over  it  Ik'twccn 
the  curtain  and  ravelin  thcro  is  a  long  and 
narrow  detached  work  in  the  ditch,  tiie  U- 
imUU,  g  h  i,  destined  principally  to  cover  the 
onrtoina  from  hreacliing  fire;  it  is  low  and  too 
narrow  for  artillery,  and  its  )>nrB|H.'t  merely 
•erves  for  infantry  lo  Hank  the  dik:L  fire  into 
the  lunette  in'  ca^  of  a  succesarut  ossuult.  Ite- 
jood  the  ditch  id  the  covered  way,  nop.  bouud- 
ed  on  tho  inner  side  by  the  ditch  and  on  tlie 
oater  side  by  the  interior  slope  of  tlie  glucin,  r  r  r, 
which  from  its  highest  inner  lionniliiry  line  or 
omt(eritt}  slopes  verygnuluallyilown  into  tho 
field.  Tho  crest  of  tho  glacis  is  aguin  3  feet  or 
more  tuwer  than  the  ravelin,  m)  us  to  allow 
all  tho  guna  of  the  fortroiiB  (i>  tire  ovi-r  it.  Uf 
tho  sloped  in  these  eorthwurkii  tho  citerii>r  one 
ot  tho  body  of  the  place  and  of  lliu  uiiCnurks 
Id  the  ditch  (scarp),  and  theciteriorotie  of  llie 
ditch  (from  tho  covered  way  downward)  or 
couatcrwarp.arcgcncrollf  revetted  withiiiason- 
rj.     Tl)«  Mli*»t  twl  r«ualehni^  Bn(\ea  ot  ^Ln 


covered  way  form  Urga,  roomy,  abeltared  Motn 
called  placea  of  arms;  they  nra  coIUd  •uhcr 
salient  (o)  or  reiDtering  (a  p),  Mconlinf  t»  the 
angles  at  which  they  ore  ntaoted.  To  pRrcst 
the  ooTered  way  friHn  being  enfiladed,  trarcrses 
or  cross  parapets  are  constructed  acruu  il  at  ii;- 
tervals,  leaving  only  small  paasa^res  at  the  CLd 
nearest  the  glacis.  Sometimes  thi'ro  i*  a  smaJ 
work  constructed  to  cover  the  cummunicaiion 
across  tlie  ditch  from  the  teoaille  to  tlie  ravelin ; 
it  is  called  a  capon  n  iirt,  and  ounsLtts  of  a  narruw 
pathway  covered  on  cither  ude  by  a  parapet,  the 
exterior  surfaces  of  which  sUqw  down  Kradually 
Ukeaglacis.  TlicroisnichacapoDDi('n;U.'tiit<«a 
the  tenaiUe  g  h  i  and  tho  ravelin  t  /  la,  tg.  1. — 
The  section  given  in  lig.  2  will  assist  in  rrcdrri^ 
this  description  dearer.  A  is  ttie  lenwpleia  vl 
the  body  01  the  pUce,  U  is  the  i>ara(>et.  C  tlir  nis- 
sonry  revetment  of  the  scarp,  I>  the  ditch,  £  ihd 
runrff«,  a  smaller  and  dce[>cr  ditch  drawn  ».-rfti« 
the  middle  of  the  larger  one,  F  the  moMjcry 
revetment  of  tlie  counterscarp,  (i  tho  cuvcrvd 
way,  II  the  glacis.  The  steps  shows  bchithl 
the  parapet  and  glacis  ore  called  batkittfttM, 
and  ticrvo  as  etands  for  infantry  to  step  uo  ami 
firo  ovor  tlie  protecting  parapet.  Il  will  U> 
readilv  observed  from  tho  diagram  tliat  the  gnnj 
placed  on  the  flanks  of  the  bastioDd  awe^p  tl.o 
wliule  (litcli  in  front  of  tlio  a4)"iii>ig  l<a>ti'--::v 
Thus  Hie  face  a  b'  is  covered  by  thi'  firv  ui  th<? 
Ilank  c"  i",  and  the  face  a'  c'  by  iIm  tUnk  I  -i. 
Un  iho  other  hand,  the  inner  faces  iif  two  ^• 
joining  bastions  cover  the  focvs  of  itw  raiE'.tn 
between  them,  by  keeping  the  diich  in  fran:  <.4 
the  ravelin  nnder  their  fire.  Thw  thcrv  i>  co 
portion  of  the  ditch  unprotected  by  a  ''■•'^  ~* 
u«',  \n  this  oooaiata  th«  original  and  (real  Uuf 


FORTmOAtlOKr  616 

in  advance  hj  which  the  bastionary  system  in-  course  that  which  invented  baRtions,  the  Ital- 

angnrates  a  new  epoch  in  the  history  of  fortifi-  ian.    The  first  Italian  basticnis  bore  the  stamp 

cation. — ^The  inventor  of  bastions  is  not  known,  of  their  origin ;  they  were  nothing  bnt  poly- 

nor  is  the  precise  date  at  which  they  were  in-  gonal  towers  or  roundels ;  they  scarcely  altered 

troduoed ;  the  only  thing  certain  is  that  they  the  former  character  of  the  fortification,  except 

were  invented  in  Italy,  and  that  San  Michele  in  as  regarded  the  flanking  fire.    The  enceinte  re- 

1527  constructed  two  bastions  in  the  rampart  mained  a  masonry  waU,  exposed  to  the  direct 

of  Verona.    All  statements  respecting  earlier  fire  of  the  enemy ;  the  rampart  of  earth  thrown 

bastions  are  doubtful    The  systems  of  bastion-  up  behind  served  chiefly  to  give  room  to  place 

ary  fortification  are  classed  under  several  na-  and  handle  artillery,  and  its  inner  slope  was  also 

tional  schools ;  the  first  to  be  mentioned  is  of  revetted  with  masonry,  as  in  the  old  town  walla. 

Fia.  s. 


It  was  not  till  a  later  dav  that  the  parapet  was  wide  and  deep,  the  counterscarp  running  genw- 
oonstructed  of  earthworks,  but  even  then  the  ally  parallel  to  the  face  of  the  bastion ;  but  as 
whole  of  its  outer  slope  up  to  the  top  was  re-  this  oirection  of  the  counterscarp  prevented  the 
Tetted  with  masonry  exposed  to  the  direct  fire  part  of  the  fiank  nearest  the  shoulder  from  see- 
of  the  enemy.  The  curtains  were  very  long,  ing  and  flanking  the  whole  of  the  ditch,  it  was 
from  300  to  550  yards.  The  bastions  were  very  subsequently  done  away  with,  and  the  counter- 
small,  the  size  of  large  roundels,  the  flanks  al-  scarp  was  traced  so  that  its  prolongation  passed 
ways  perpendicular  to  the  curtains.  Now  as  it  through  the  shoulder  point  of  the  next  bastion, 
is  a  rule  in  fortification  that  the  best  flanking  The  covered  wav  was  then  introduced  (first  in 
fire  always  comes  from  a  line  perpendicular  to  the  citadel  of  Milan,  in  the  2d  quarter  of  the  16th 
the  line  to  be  flanked,  it  is  evident  tiiat  the  century,  first  described  by  Tartaglia  in  1554).  It 
chief  object  of  the  old  Italian  flank  was  to  cover,  served  as  a  place  of  concentration  as  well  as  of 
not  the  short  and  distant  face  of  the  adjoining  retreat  for  sallying  parties,  and  from  its  intro- 
bastion,  but  the  long  straight  line  of  the  curtain,  duction  the  scientific  and  energetic  use  of  offen- 
Where  the  curtain  became  too  long,  a  flat^  ob-  sive  movements  in  the  defence  of  fortresses  may 
tose-angled  bastion  was  constructed  on  the  mid-  be  siud  to  date ;  to  increase  its  utility  the  places 
die  of  it,  and  called  a  platform  (piata  forma),  of  arms  were  introduced,  which  give  more  room, 
The  flanks  were  not  constructed  on  the  shoulder  and  of  which  the  reentering  angles  also  (^ve  a 
point,  but  a  little  retired  behind  the  rampart  of  capital  flanking  fire  to  the  covered  way.  To 
the  faces,  so  that  the  shoulder  points  projected  render  the  access  to  the  covered  way  stiU  more 
and  were  supposed  to  shelter  them ;  and  each  difiScult,  rows  of  palisades  were  erected  on  the 
flank  had  two  batteries,  a  lower  one,  and  a  glacis,  one  or  two  yards  from  its  crest,  but  in 
higher  one  a  little  to  the  rear ;  sometimes  even  this  position  they  were  soon  destroyed  by  the 
a  casemate  in  the  scarp  wall  of  the  flank  on  the  enemy's  flre ;  after  the  middle  of  the  17th  cen- 
bottom  of  the  ditch.  Add  to  this  a  ditch,  and  tury,  therefore,  they  were  placed,  at  thesugges- 
you  have  the  whole  of  the  origiDsl  Italian  sys-  tion  of  the  Frenchman  Maudin,  on  the  covered 
tem ;  there  were  no  ravelins,  no  tenailles,  no  way,  covered  by  the  glacis.  The  gates  were  in 
covered  way,  no  glacis.  But  this  system  was  the  middle  of  the  curtain ;  to  -cover  them,  a 
soon  improved.  The  curtains  were  shortened,  crescent-shaped  work  was  placed  in  the  mid- 
the  bastions  were  enlarged.  The  length  of  the  die  of  the  ditch  in  front  of  them ;  but  for  the 
inner  side  of  the  polygon  {//"^  fig.  1)  was  fixed  same  reason  that  the  towers  were  transformed 
at  from  250  to  300  yards.  The  fionks  were  into  bastions,  the  half-moon  (demi-lun^)  was 
made  longer,  |  of  the  side  of  the  polygon,  \  of  soon  changed  into  a  triangular  work — ^the  pree- 
the  length  of  the  curtain.  Thus,  though  3iey  ent  ravelin.  This  was  still  very  small,  but  be- 
remained  perpendicular  to  the  curtain  and  had  came  larger  when  it  was  found  that  not  only  did 
other  defects,  as  we  shall  see,  they  now  began  itserve  as  a  bridge-head  across  the  ditch,  but  also 
to  give  more  protection  to  the  face  of  the  next  covered  flanks  and  curtains  against  the  enemy^s 
bastion.  The  bastions  were  made  full,  and  in  fire,  gave  a  cross  fire  in  front  of  the  capitala  of 
their  centre  a  cav^ier  was  often  erected,  that  is,  the  bastions,  and  effectually  flanked  the  covered 
a  work  with  faces  and  flanks  parallel  to  those  way.  Still  they  were  made  very  smaU,  so  that  the 
of  the  bastion,  but  with  a  rampart  and  parapet  prolongation  of  their  faces  reached  the  body  of 
00  much  higher  as  to  admit  of  its  firing  over  the  the  place  in  the  curtain  point  (the  extremity  <it 
pwqiet  of  the  bastion.    The  ditch  was  very  thecoxtaaiiV   TVi<^\irayiSi^^^»i^ 


616  FORTIFIGATIOK 

mode  of  fortification  were  the  following^ :  1.  The  fortified  in  1537-68,  and  jQlieh,  fortified  a  fSrv 
had  direction  of  the  flank.  After  the  introduo-  years  later  hy  an  engineer  known  under  the 
tion  of  ravelins  and  covered  ways,  the  curtain  he-  name  of  Master  John  (Jleister  Johann  \.  But 
camelcssandless  the  point  of  attack;  the  &ce9  the  man  who  first  hroke  completely  throosh 
of  the  bastions  now  were  chiefly  assailed.  To  the  fetters  of  the  Italian  school  and  laid  down 
oover  these  well,  the  prolongation  of  the  faces  the  principles  on  which  the  whole  of  the  »nh- 
shonld  have  met  the  cnrtain  at  the  very  point  sequent  systems  of  hastionary  fortification  are 
where  the  flank  of  the  next  bastion  was  erected,  founded,  was  Daniel  Speckle,  en^rinver  to  the 
and  this  flank  should  have  been  perpendicular  or  town  of  Strasbourg  (died  1580).  Ills  chief  prin- 
nearly  so  to  this  prolonged  line  (called  the  line  ciples  were:  1.  That  a  fortress  becomes  stn>n]?er 
of  defence).  In  that  case  there  would  have  been  the  more  sides  there  are  to  the  polygon  which 
an  effective  flanking  fire  all  along  the  ditch  and  fonns  the  enceinte,  the  difierent  fnmts  beiixg 
front  of  the  bastion.  As  it  was,  the  lino  of  de-  thereby  enabled  to  give  a  better  supp^irt  to  each 
fence  was  neitlicr  perpendicular  to  the  flanks  other ;  consequently,  the  nearer  tho  outline 
nor  did  it  Join  the  curtain  at  tho  curtain  point;  to  be  defended  comes  to  a  straight  lino,  the 
it  intersected  tho  curtain  at  },  i,  or  ^  of  its  better.  Thisprinciple,  demonstrated  as  an  ori- 
length.  Thus,  tho  direct  fire  of  tho  fiank  was  ginal  discovery  with  a  great  sliow  of  mathe- 
more  likely  to  injure  tho  garrison  of  the  opposite  matical  learning  by  Cormontaigne,  was  thcs 
flank  than  the  assailants  of  tho  next  bastion,  very  well  known  to  Speckle  150  years  earlier. 
2.  There  was  an  evident  want  of  provision  for  2.  Acute-angled  bastions  arc  bad  ;  so  are  obta«e- 
a  prolonged  defence  after  tho  enceinte  had  been  angled ;  the  salient  angle  should  be  a  riglit  one. 
breached  and  successfully  assaulted  at  ono  sin-  Though  correct  in  his  opposition  to  acute  sa- 
gle  point.  8.  Tho  small  ravelins  but  imper-  lients  (the  smallest  admissible  salient  angle  is 
fectly  covered  tho  curtains  and  flanks,  and  now  generally  fixed  at  GO*^),  tho  partiality  of  his 
received  but  a  poor  fianking  firo  from  them,  time  for  right-angled  salients  made  him  hu^e 
4.  The  great  elevation  of  tlie  rampart,  which  to  the  obtuse  salient,  which  is  indeed  very  aJ- 
was  all  faced  or  revetted  with  masonry,  exposed,  vantageous  and  unavoidable  in  jKilygons  with 
in  most  cases,  a  height  of  16  to  20  feet  of  masonry  many  sides.  In  fact,  this  appears  to  have  b<«a 
to  the  direct  fire  of  the  enemy,  and  of  course  merely  a  concession  tot  lie  prejudices  of  his  time, 
this  masonry  was  soon  destroyed.  We  shall  for  the  diagrams  of  what  he  considers  his  stn»nc- 
find  that  it  took  almost  two  centuries  to  eradi*  est  method  of  fortification  all  have  obtuac-angi«d 
catetliisprejudiceinfavor  of  uncovered  mason-  bastions.  8.  The  Italian  bastions  arc  far  tno 
ry,  even  after  tho  Netherlands  had  proved  its  use-  small ;  a  bastion  ravnX  l>c  large.  Consequently, 
lessncss.  The  best  engineers  and  authors  belong-  Speckle*s  bastions  are  larger  than  th(»*ic  of  Cor- 
ing to  the  Italian  soh<H>l  were:  San  Miohele(died  montaigne.  4.  Cavaliers  are  neof<-:iry  :« *.  vt  ry 
1559),  fortifie<l  Xapoli  di  Uoniania  in  (Iroece,  ba>ti()n  and  on  every  curtain.  TM^  «;-..•»  a  ■  :.- 
and  Candia,  and  built  Fort  Lido  near  Venice;  K'qiu-noe  of  tho  system  of  Mt-ge  i-f  \J\^  i. •..■■. 
Tarta:rlia  (about  1550) ;  Alghisi  da  Carpi,  (Jiro-  in  which  hi^rli  cavaruTs  in  tlic*  tri-nrln*  j ' j^-yA 
lamoMag^i,  andGiaronioCji>triotto,  wlu)al>out  a  groat  part.  Hut  in  Spt-rklc's  iuti  i:!i- r.  il.o 
the  end  uf  tho  lOth  century  all  wrote  on  forti-  c.ivalicrs  were  t«i  d»i  more  than  re>i»t  '.).>  -*  : 
tication.  Paciotto  of  Crbino  built  the  citadels  they  are  real  roupiircs  providf<l  lH'f««rv!i.i:  -i  i 
of  Turin  and  Antwerp  (15»>0-'7U).  Tlie  later  the  ba>ti<»n,  funning  a  sec<»nd  line  i-f  i!- :\ :.  o 
Italian  authorrt  on  forti  tication,  Marchi,  Busca,  after  the  enceinte  has  bei-n  l»reaelii-*l  ar.-!  >ti  t..- 
Floriani,  Kosetti,  intnMluced  many  improve-  ed.  Tlie  wlmle  of  the  crt-dit  gvn»  r.-uly  ;:  \  i  n 
ments,  but  none  of  these  WiTe  original.  They  to  Vaiiban  and  Connontaiirne  f»r  ta\a!.ir> 
were  mere  jilagiarists  of  nmre  or  loss  skill;  fonning  permanent  coupures  i*  then. t'  re  ;:i 
they  copitMl  most  <»f  their  devices  from  the  (ler-  reality  due  to  Spe<"kle.  5.  A  iM»rti«'n.  at  ■i.-l-:. 
man  I>aniel  Speckle,  and  the  remain»ler  from  of  the  tlank,  and  hotter  still  the  wh-lc  (■!*  :Le 
the  Ncthorlanders.  They  all  hehmir  to  the  17th  think  of  a  hiistion,  mu«*t  Ik*  ji«Ti»\ndit":;.u-  :•>  ::.e 
century,  and  were  comjrietely  oclii»ed  l»y  the  line  of  di-femv,  and  the  fi:ink  t-e  i-nrrol  iu  •.?:'• 
rapid  devoh)pment  of  fort  ill  cat  ory  .-cience  which  jmint  where  the  line  «»f  di-fi-nce  rn-^^t**  t.*;--  r^r- 
at  that  time  t«H)k  place  in  Clermany,  the  Net  her-  tain.  This  im]Hirtaiit  principU-,  the  ru'.ej^^!  1  •■ 
lands  and  Fran<'e. — The  detects  of  the  Italian  oovery  of  which  form-i  the  gnatiT  j-irt  kI  l\  o 
system  of  fort itirat ion  were  sinm  di>rovered  in  glory  of  the  Frrn<*h  en^riuevr  I*u>:in.  wa."  •...:* 
(Jennany.  Tho  first  man  to  point  <nit  the  chief  publicly  proclaimed  TO  }e:ir?.  l^f'-re  Ta^-i-- 
defect  of  the  elder  Italian  s<'1hmi1,  the  small  (i.  Cas<.'matrd  galleries  are  nirr«.*Ary  f  r  !,  * 
bastions  and  lone  curtain-*,  wa*  a  (terman  en^ri-  defence  tif  the  ditch;  con«H-.|Ui  ntly  >•....  kl-  '  i.* 
neer,  Franz,  who  fortitied  I'nr  CharU-'*  V.  the  them  both  on  l!ie  faces  and  tl.ii^ks  i-i"  il.v  \  .%*- 
town  of  Antwerp.  In  the  couneil  lu-id  ti>  try  tion,  hut  only  for  infantry;  if  !.••  h^-:  :;a^-.» 
tho  phm,  lie  insisted  upon  larg»r  haMions  and  them  lar;:e  enough  K»rartillir\.  t.««  ^.  -!:  .-. 
shorter  curtain**,  but  was  4mtv«ilvd  by  tl>e  iluko  this  re-^peet  have  lieon  fully  r.p  t'»  tl.*-  *.ir.  •:  .: 
of  Alva  ami  the  other  Spanish  jremraN,  who  provenunt».  7.  To  beuvfu!.  t^e  r:i\i '.  ::  r.  .-: 
believed  in  nothing  but  tlie  routine  of  tho  old  oe  as  largf  a'*  j»o— .ihli-;  act  nrdi:i/I_i».  >"'\'  'n-  * 
Italian  ^y>ti'm.  Other  (Jerman  lortre*^»^s  were  rnvi-lin  i^  the  Iarge>t  vvir  |«rM^-'*««!  N  •. 
di»tingui>heil  by  the  adi>ption  <«f  CiLMinal«d  gal-  Vauban'"*  impro>ement-  ujH>r.  ra.:a::  .-.■■•.; 
leries  upon  the  principle  of  DQrcr,  as  Ku^trin,  partly,  and  Curmontaigtie*»  imp ro^vii.«.:.:i  u^- :; 


FORTIFIOATIOK  817 

Vanban  consist  almost  entirely,  in  the  succes-  a  better  nse  of  the  accidents  of  the  gronnd  than 
sive  enlargement  of  the  ravelin ;  but  Speckle's  with  the  Italians.  The  first  town  fortified  en- 
ravelin  is  a  good  deal  larger  than  even  Cormon-  tirely  by  earthworks  and  wet  ditches  was  Breda 
taigne's.  8.  The  covered  way  is  to  be  strength-  (1583).  Subsequently  the  Dutch  method  re- 
ened  as  much  as  possible.  Speckle  was  the  ceived  several  maprovements :  a  narrow  zone 
first  to  see  the  immense  importance  of  the  of  the  scarp  was  revetted  with  masonry,  as  the 
covered  way,  and  he  strengthened  it  accord-  wet  ditches,  when  frozen  over  in  winter,  were 
ingly.  The  crests  of  the  glacis  and  of  the  easily  passed  by  the  enemy ;  locks  and  sluices 
counterscarp  were  formed  en  cremailUre  Qike  were  constructed  in  the  ditch,  so  as  to  let  the 
the  edge  of  a  saw),  so  as  to  render  enfilading  water  in  at  the  moment  when  the  enemy  had 
fire  ineflfective.  Cormontaigne,  again,  took  up  begun  to  sap  the  hitherto  dry  bottom ;  and 
this  idea  of  Speckle's ;  but  ho  retained  the  tra-  finally,  sluices  and  dikes  were  constructed  for 
verses  (short  ramparts  across  the  covered  way  a  systematic  inundation  of  the  country  around 
^gainst  enfilading  fire),  which  Speckle  rejected,  the  foot  of  the  glacis.  The  writers  on  this  elder 
Modem  engineers  have  generally  come  to  the  Dutch  method  of  fortification  are  Marolois 
conclusion  that  Speckle's  plan  is  better  than  (1627),  Freitag  (1680),  Volker  (^1666),  Melder 
Ck>rmontaigne's.  Speckle,  beside,  was  the  first  (1670).  An  application  of  Speckle's  maxims  to 
to  place  artillery  on  the  places  of  arms  of  the  ihe  Dutch  method  was  attempted  by  Scheither, 
covered  way.  9.  No  piece  of  masonry  is  to  be  Neubauer,  Heidemann,  and  Ileer  (all  from  1670 
exposed  to  the  eye  and  direct  fire  of  the  enemy,  to  1690,  and  all  of  them  Germans). — Of  all  the 
80  that  his  breaching  batteries  cannot  be  estab-  different  schools  of  fortification,  the  French  has 
lished  before  he  has  arrived  on  the  crest  of  the  enjoyed  the  greatest  popularity ;  its  maxims 
glacis.  This  most  important  principle,  though  have  fojmd  practical  application  in  a  great- 
established  by  Speckle  in  the  16th  century,  er  number  of  still  existing  fortresses  than  those 
was  not  generally  adopted  until  Cormontaigne ;  of  all  the  other  schools  put  together.  StiU.  there 
even  Y auban  exposes  a  good  deal  of  his  mason-  is  no  school  so  poor  in  original  ideas.  There  is 
ry.  (See  C,  fig.  2.)  In  this  short  abstract  of  neither  a  new  work  nor  a  new  principle  in  the 
Speckle's  ideas  the  fundamental  principles  of  whole  of  the  French  school  whicn  is  not  borrow- 
all  modem  bastionary  fortification  are  not  only  ed  from  the  Italians,  the  Dutch,  or  the  Germans, 
contained  but  plainly  stated,  and  his^  system,  But  the  great  merit  of  the  French  is  the  reduo- 
which  even  now  would  afford  very  good  defen-  tion  of  the  art  to  precise  mathematical  rules,  the 
sive  works,  is  truly  wonderful  considering  the  symmetrical  arrangement  of  the  proportions  of 
time  in  which  ho  lived.  There  is  not  a  cele-  the  different  lines,  and  the  adaptation  of  the 
brated  engineer  in  the  whole  history  of  modem  scientific  theory  to  the  varied  conditions  given 
fortification  wlio  cannot  be  proved  to  have  by  the  locality  to  be  fortified.  Errard  of  Bar- 
copied  some  of  his  best  ideas  from  this  great  le-Duo  (1594),  commonly  called  the  father  of 
original  source  of  bastionary  defence.  Speckle's  French  fortification,  has  no  claim  to  the  appel- 
practical  engineering  skill  was  shown  in  the  lation ;  his  flanks  form  an  acute  angle  with  the 
construction  of  the  fortresses  of  Ingolstadt,  curtain,  so  as  to  be  still  more  ineffective  than 
Schlettstadt,  Hagenau,  Ulm,  Colmar,  Basel,  those  of  the  Italians.  A  more  important  name 
and  Strasbourg,  all  of  which  were  fortifiea  is  Pagan  (1645).  He  was  the  first  to  introduce 
nnder  his  direction. — About  the  same  epoch,  the  in  France,  and  to  popularize.  Speckle's  principle 
struggle  for  the  independence  of  the  Nether-  that  the  flanks  should  be  perpendicular  to  the 
lands  gave  rise  to  another  school  of  fortifiea-  lines  of  defence.  His  bastions  are  roomy ;  the 
tion.  The  Dutch  towns,  whose  old  masonry  proportions  between  the  lengths  of  faces,  flanks, 
walls  could  not  be  expected  to  resist  a  regular  and  curtains  are  very  good ;  the  lines  of  de- 
attack,  had  to  be  fortified  against  the  Spaniards ;  fence  are  never  longer  than  240  yards,  so  that 
there  was,  however,  neither  time  nor  money  the  whole  of  the  ditch,  but  not  the  covered 
for  the  erection  of  the  high  masonry  bastions  way,  is  within  musket  range  from  the  flanks, 
and  cavaliers  of  the  Italian  system.  But  the  His  ravelin  is  larger  than  that  of  the  Italians, 
nature  of  the  ground  offered  other  resources  in  and  has  a  reduit  or  keep  in  its  gorge,  so  as  to 
its  low  elevation  above  the  water  horizon,  and  admit  of  resistance  when  its  rampart  has  already 
consequently  the  Dutch,  expert  in  canal  and  been  taken.  He  covers  the  faces  of  the  bastions 
dike  building,  trusted  to  the  water  for  their  with  a  narrow  detached  work  in  the  ditch,  called 
defence.  Their  system  was  the  exact  counter-  a  counter-guard,  a  work  which  had  already  been 
part  of  the  Italian :  wide  and  shallow  wet  ditch-  used  by  the  Dutch  (the  German  Dillich  appears 
es,  from  14  to  40  yards  across ;  low  ramparts  to  have  first  introduced  it).  His  bastions  nave 
without  any  masonry  revetment,  but  covered  a  double  rampart  on  the  fiices,  the  second  to 
by  a  still  lower  advanced  rampart  {fauue-hraie)  - — - — -— -- — - — — — ^,^  -  ^ rr* 

4vr«  ♦l^A  <rf«^»»^.  ^^#u«««  ^f  fiwv  ,iuX  .  ««.,.»^.^nl  ditch,  which  is  aligned  upon  the  ftcet  of  the  hasttons  of  tk« 

for  the  stronger  defence  of  the  ditch  ;  numerous  enceinte  m  m  to  be  completely  flanked  by  their  ilre.    A 

outworks  in   the  ditch,  such    as   ravelins,  half  crown  work  consists  of  two  snch  advanced  ftt»nU  (one  bastion 

moons  (ravelins  in  front  of  the  salient  of  the  ^^^"'J^l^^^^HttS^x^^y^^^ 

bastion),  liom  and  crown  works  ;***  and  finally,  ghonld  be  at  least  as  much  lower  than  that  of  the  enceinte  aa 

•  the  rampart  of  the  ravelin  to  maintain  the  command  of  the 

*  A  horn  work  is  a  bastionary  front,  two  half  bastions,  a  enceinte  over  them.    The  adoption  of  such  outworks,  which 

cartain,  and  a  ravelin  advanced  in  fh>nt  of  the  main  ditch  of  course  were  exceptions,  was  regulated  by  the  natoro  of 

~  doMd  OB  each  side  by  a  straight  line  of  rampart  and  the  groond. 


618  FORTIFICATION 

serve  as  a  conpuro;  but  the  ditch  between  the  tionii,  and  kept  his  flanked  nlient  an;:! 04  wiIl 

two  ramparts  is  entirely  witliout  flanking  fire,  within  musket  ranf^e;    but  the  Minphciiv  if 

The  inuu  who  made  the  Frendi  kcIkm)!  the  first  these  bastions  renders  the  dirfonce  cf  t).t:  pLv  o 

in  Europe  wus  Vauban  (1G33-17U7),  marahal  imiH>S8ibIe  as  Boon  as  the  face  of  one  b.L-:;«<n  u 

of  France.     Although  his  real  iniliiary  glory  breached,  llis  flanks  are  not  so  got HlaAS->ttx:i'i 

rests  upon  his  two  great  inventions  in  Uie  attack  or  Pagan^s,  forming  an  acute  an^rlc  with  i^.j 

of  fortresses  (ricochet  fire  and  parallels),  still  he  lines  of  defence;  but  ho  does  awav  with  i\.i 

is  popularly  better  known  as  a  constmctor  of  2  and  8  tiers  of  uncovered  guns  which  tij- 

them.     What  wo  liavo  said  of  the  French  school  ure  in  most  of  the  Italian  and  early  Frvnoh 

is  true  of  Vaubau^s  method  in  the  highest  de-  flanks,  and  which  were  never  very  U!^.  ful.    T!jd 

gree.  We  see  in  his  constructions  as  great  a  va-  tenaille  is  intended  to  strengtlien  the  d^feace 

riety  of  forms  as  is  compatible  with  the  has-  of  the  ditch  by  infantry  fire,  and  to  coTcr  th« 

tionary  system ;  but  there  is  nothing  original  curtain    from  direct  breaching  fire   fn>m  tiid 

among  them,  much  less  any  attempt  to  adopt  crest  of  the  glacis;  but  this  b  very  imperfectly 

other  forms  than  the  bastionary.    i3ut  the  ar-  done,  as  the  breacliing  batteries  in  tht:  rc^iiUr- 

rangcment  of  the  details,  the  proportions  of  the  ing  place  of  anns  (n,  fig.  1)  have  a  full  view  uf  the 

lines,  the  profiles,  and  the  adaptation  of  the  piece  of  tlio  curtain  next  to  the  flank  at  r.   T:.is 

theory  to  the  ever-varying  requirements  of  the  is  a  great  weakness,  as  a  breach  there  wooli 

locality,  arc  so  ingenious,  that  they  appear  per-  torn  .all  the  coupures  prepared  in  the  ba«t;ua  as 

fection  in  comparison  to  the  works  of  his  prede-  a  second  line  of  defence.     It  arisos  from  the 

cessors,  so  that  scientific  and  systematic  fortifica-  ravelin  being  still  too  small.    The  Ciivert^I  w^y, 

tion  may  be  said  to  date  from  Idm.    Vauban,  constructed  without  cremiulleres,  but  wi:h  tnv. 

however,  did  not  write  alineon  his  method  of  for-  erses,  is  mnch  inferior  toSpeckle*^:  tlio  tnr- 

tification,  but  from  the  great  number  of  fortresses  erses  prevent  not  only  the  enemy,  but  «l«i.i:Le 

constructed  by  him  the  French  engineers  have  defence,  from  enfilading  the  covered  way.    The 

tried  to  deduce  the  theoretic^  rules  he  follow-  communications  between  the  ditTereiit  wo.- ^4 

ed,  and  thus  have  been  established  8  meth-  are  on  the  whole  good,  but  still  not  &uflSelo!.t:'i>r 

odk,  called  Vauban^s  first,  second,  and  third  energetic  sallies.    The  i>rofilcs  are  uf  a  •]€  jrix* 

system.     Fig.  1  gives  the  first  system  in  its  of  strength  which  is  still  gonorally  adf^-u^l. 

greatest  simnlicity.   The  chief  dimensions  were :  But  Vauban  still  clung  to  the  system  of  rr- 

the  outer  side  of  the  polygon,  from  the  point  of  vetting  tlie  whole  of  the  outside  uf  tlie  r&.T:> 

one  bastion  to  that  of  the  next,  SoO  yards  (on  an  part  with  masonry,  so  that  at  \vx<    15  :%t1 

avcnijje);  on  the  middle  of  this  line,  a  j)erpcn-  high  of  masonry  was  un«N»viTod.     ThS  !a:»- 

dicular  a  <3,  }  of  the  first;  through /3,  the  lines  take  is  made  in  many  of  Vauban**  f.-rtrt-^-^. 

of  dofoncefrom«f"and  a',  rt"  </',  and  rt' <?".  From  and  onco  ni,*i(lo  can  only  W  T^•u\''*l:^.\   -•    .. 

the  pnints  rt"  and  (z',  ?  of  fi"  fz' nieasurod  on  the  enormous  expense  by  wi«lrii:iij  tl.f    >.  \    . 

lin*.-^  of  di'fcnco  cives  tho  fjioes  a"  ^"  and  <i' i'.  front  of  llic  fju'os  of  t!ie   l':i-ti':>.  ;.:.  :   ■ 

From  the  .>>lionliier  points  r"  and  h'  arcs  with  Btnicting  earthwork  oMniiiT^'u^ri!-*  :.i  .  .-..-' 

the    r.itlius  r"  (/' or  Z»' <"  woro  drawn   between  masonry.     l)urinic  tlio  jrreuier  pur ■-   .  i*  :   -     : 

the  lines  nf  defeni'O,  givini;  the  Hanks  //  d'  and  Vauban   followed   his  llr"«t  n;e:h'«'J:   :    '   ..'    • 

c"  r'.     hraw  f"  J,  tho   curtain.     Tlie  ditch:  1080  ho  inlrinJueed  two  oth^-r  ii*- :!.•»  !*.  ^  .-.  «■ 

with  ra-.liiH  o<;  yards,  an  arc   in  front  of  tho  for  their  object  t**  adniii  of  a  i'r^-l-n,vl  •'  :■ 

point   »:t*  tlio   hiisiion,  pmlon^^ed   by   tan^reuts  after  tho  bjU'^t inn  was  brea«-l.i-i!.     Ki-r  :     *  ;    *• 

drawn  t«)  tliis  an*  from  tho  shoulder  points  of  pose  he  took  up  an  iilea  of  l^Wri- ■:!.•-,  v.           : 

the  adjoining  ha-tions,  gives  the  countersi-arp.  proi»osod  to  motleriii/o  the  o'.«l  t^'W-r  .1    :  **  . . 

Till*   ravelin:  iVnni  tho  curtain  point «",  with  fortilicatitm  by  placing?  dvta«^]j«  •:  I-.**:.   :-     -- 

radios  <"  y  (y,  a  point  on  the  oi>po>iie  faco  11  lated,  in  the  ditch,  in  front  i»f  !i:vt««u*  --.     : 

yar«N  iH-yoml  the  shoulder-point ),  draw  the  arc  Vauban's  si'Cond  and  third  !:.*■:•:  •!•»  ..."  • 

y  ^1,  until  it  rro«*-;c«*  the  j»rolon;:aliun  of  the  per-  this.     The  ravelin  is  al-«»  ina-ie  1-iVi-.  •    ^  •     • 

penili*  >:!ar  a  ,i:    this  gives   the    point   of    tho  sonry  is  a  little  better  Ctiveftd ;   tin.  :.'.^.--..-. 

r.HVrlin;   t!io  (■h')nl   to  the    arc  just    described  cas^'Uiated,  but  badlv  ;  the  fa';h  :!;;'.  :'.•      ."' .  : 

gives   the   i:v\\  which   is  continut-d  from  tho  maybe  breachetl  bitwwn  b;i.-t:.*:i  :.:■ !  ! 

point  until  it  rea<*ljes  the  prolon^'atioii  of  the  is  maintained,  an<l  rentier-!  tlio  ili.'ji.^  . -'.  ■ 

tangent  f.>rniin^  t!ie  c^'unterM'arp  of  the  main  partly  illu«inry.      Siill,  Va!:':-.*:!  »•  ■:;*:  ii -•  t  ■   • 

ditch;  the  u'-t-^j  of  t!ie  ravilin  is  lixed  bv  this  sect>nd  and  tliirdnK:h<»'Na- vt  rv  -:r,."  j.    '*^ 

lino  ciually,  so  tliat  th..-  \vh«.Ie  of  the  ditch  re-  he  handt-d  over  to  I.ouis  \1V.  :!..•  j  \.^\  •'  -  • 

mains  tree  tor  the  fire  uC  the  Hank*;.     In   lr«»nt  fortilicatitm  »»f  I.aii«hi'.M *»■■•■ 'i:-!  ^^-^  ;.:.'- 

of  the  <'iirtain.  aiul  there  a;<>ne.  Vauli.in  rrtain«.d  **Sire,   here  is  a  pU^v  tli:.t   all   :.  _\  u".   \*        i 

th«'  \  )\iu]  I  /•i"}*'iii-f'nt  it  :  thi"  hail  already  been  n(»t  sullico  to  take."     Thisi'ijl  r..-:  ;  r-  -..    *  ". 

done  l»v  t!ie  Italian  Kloriani  iM-t'-ire  him,  and  the  duu   from   Uin;:   takt.n    '.'*  ::::}■-»   •:  :r:   ^    '•  . 

niw  Work  h;id  been  called  t*htil-t{^t'ii*i,jlii).  ban's  lileilT'^i.  IToy.  lT'»li.  arl   :^  ...    -'.     ' 

It<*  I'.u-.'s  were  in  the  direcii<in  oi'  tin-  liin-.  of  after  his  deatli  ( 171.. ». —  I.'.l-  i  rr*  r>  .  :  V  .  .    . 

defvr.ri'.     T!ie  «litch  in  froiit  I'f  t!ie  r;ivi  lin  was  wt-re  n-ctilied  I'V  (\.ini;' •:.:»: ::ti'*.  ^* ;  ■*'   •            1 

21  yards  \i  idf.  th«-  counter-»i-ar|»  par-.ilh'l  to  iho  nuiy  be  ciiri>idire«l  a-*  tl:e  j-  r:\-  *..  :i    :'  :"        :.<■ 

face- ttf  I  )i,.' ravelin,  and  the  pi'int  rfiMdid  oTf.  tionary   system.      (.'■•rv..  lita'jT.  ■    -I*  ■-"."- 

In  this  manner  Vauban  obtained  roomy  bois-  waii  a  general  ufengLncerN     llii  la.v-' - «-'-  — J 


>  • 


FORTIFIOATIOlir  619 

permit  the  construction  of  permanent  coupures  mirer  of  Speckle,  is  the  onlj  engineer  of  note 
and  second  lines  of  defence ;  his  ravelins  were  who  was  honest  enough  to  acknowledge  how 
Dearly  as  large  as  those  of  Speckle,  and  fully  much  he  owed  to  him. — ^We  have  seen  that 
covered  that  portion  of  the  curtain  which  Yau-  even  before  the  introduction  of  bastions,  Albert 
ban  had  left  exposed.  In  polygons  of  8  and  DOrer  used  caponnieres  to  afford  a  stronger 
more  sides  his  ravelins  were  so  far  advanced  flanking  fire.  In  his  fortified  square  he  even 
that  their  fire  took  in  the  rear  the  besiegers*  entirely  trusts  to  these  caponnieres  for  the  de- 
works  against  the  next  bastion  as  soon  as  he  fence  of  the  ditch ;  there  are  no  towers  on  the 
reached  the  crest  of  the  glacis.  In  order  to  comer  of  the  fort ;  it  is  a  plain  square  with 
avoid  this,  two  ravelins  have  to  be  concjuered  none  but  salient  angles.  To  make  the  enceinte 
before  one  bastion  can  be  breached.  This  mu-  of  a  polygon  entirely  coincident  with  its  out- 
tual  support  of  the  large  ravelins  becomes  more  line,  so  as  to  have  all  salient  and  no  reentering 
and  more  effective  the  more  the  line  to  be  de-  angles,  and  to  flank  the  ditch  by  caponnieres, 
fended  approaches  a  straight  one.  The  re&n-  constitutes  what  is  called  polygonal  fortifioa- 
tering  place  of  arms  was  strengthened  by  a  tion,  and  Ddrer  must  be  considered  as  its  father, 
reduit  The  crest  of  the  glacis  is  drawn  en  cri-  On  the  other  hand,  a  star-shaped  enceinte,  in 
maillh'e^  as  with  Speckle,  but  traverses  are  which  salient  and  reentering  angles  follow  upon 
maintained.  The  profiles  are  very  good,  and  each  other  regularly,  and  in  which  each  line  is 
the  masonry  is  always  covered  by  the  earth-  both  flank  and  face  at  once,  flanking  the  ditch 
works  in  front.  TV^ith  Cormontaigne  the  French  of  Uie  next  line  with  the  portion  next  to  the  rSen- 
achool  doses,  as  far  as  the  construction  of  has-  tering  angle,  and  commanding  the  fleld  with  the 
tionary  defences,  with  outworks  within  the  portion  next  the  salient — sudi  an  outline  eon« 
ditch,  is  concerned.  A  comparison  of  the  grad-  stitutes  tenaille  fortification.  The  older  Italians 
nal  development  of  bastionary  fortification  from  and  several  of  the  older  Germans  had  proposed 
1600  to  1750,  and  of  its  final  results  as  laid  down  this  form,  but  it  was  not  developed  till  after- 
br  Cormontaigne,  with  the  principles  of  Spec-  ward.  The  system  of  George  Rimpler  (en- 
kle,  as  stated  above,  will  tend  to  elucidate  the  gineer  to  the  emperor  of  Germany,  killed  in  de« 
wonderful  genius  of  the  German  engineer;  for  fending  Vienna  against  the  Turks  in  1688) 
although  outworks  in  the  ditch  have  been  mul-  forms  a  kind  of  intermediate  stage  between  the 
iiplied  to  an  enormous  degree,  yet  not  a  single  bastionary  and  tenaille  system.  What  he  calls 
important  principle  has  been  discovered  during  intermediate  bastions  constitute  in  reality  a 
all  these  150  years  which  had  not  been  already  perfect  line  of  tenailles.  He  declared  him- 
dearly  and  oistinctly  enunciated  by  Speckle,  self  energetically  against  open  batteries  with  a 
— After  Cormontaigne,  the  school  of  engineers  mere  earth  parapet  in  front,  and  insbted  on 
of  M^zieres  (about  1760^  made  some  slight  al-  casemated  batteries  wherever  they  could  be 
terationsin  his  system,  tne  principal  of  which  erected;  especially  on  the  flanks,  where  2  or 
is  the  return  to  Speckle^s  old  rule  that  the  flanks  8  tiers  of  well  covered  guns  would  thus  have 
must  be  perpendicular  to  the  linos  of  defence,  a  far  greater  effect  than  the  2  or  3  tiers  of 
But  the  principal  point  for  which  the  school  of  guns  in  open  flank  batteries,  which  could  never 
M^^res  is  remarkable  is  that  they  for  the  first  act  togeUier.  He  also  insisted  on  batteries,  thai 
tune  construct  outworks  beyond  the  covered  is,  reauits,  in  the  places  of  arms  of  the  covered 
way.  On  fronts  particularly  open  to  attack  wav,  which  Coehorn  and  Cormontaigne  adopted, 
they  place  at  the  foot  of  the  glacis,  on  the  and  especially  a  double  and  triple  line  of  de- 
eimital  of  the  bastion,  a  detached  ravelin  called  fence  behind  the  salient  angles  of  the  enceinte, 
a  lunette,  and  thereby  approach  for  the  first  In  Has  manner  his  system  is  remarkably  in 
time  to  tne  modern  system  of  permanent  in-  advance  of  his  time ;  the  whole  of  his  enceinte 
tr«Dched  camps.  In  the  beginning  of  the  19th  consists  of  independent  forts,  each  of  which 
oentnry  Bousmard,  a  French  emigrant  who  has  to  be  taken  separately,  and  large  de- 
■arved  in  Prussia  and  was  killed  at  Dantzitf  fensive  casemates  are  used  in  a  manner  which 
in  1806,  tried  still  to  improve  upon  Cormon-  reminds  us,  almost  in  the  details  even  of  their 
taigne ;  his  ideas  are  rather  complicated,  and  application,  of  the  more  recent  constructions  in 
the  most  remarkable  is  that  his  ravelin,  which  Germany.  There  is  no  doubt  that  Montalem- 
li  very  large,  is  advanced  to  the  foot  of  the  be^owed  as  much  to  Rimpler  as  the  bastionary 
l^aois  almost  so  as  to  take  the  place  and  fbnc-  system  of  the  17th  and  18th  century  to  Speckle. 
tiooa,  to  a  certain  degree,  of  the  lunette  just  The  author  who  first  fully  developed  the  ad- 
desoribed. — ^A  Dutch  engineer  of  Yauban^s  vantages  of  the  tenaille  over  the  bastionary 
time,  who  more  than  once  opposed  him  in  system  was  Landsberg  (1712);  but  it  would  lead 
nege  warfare  with  equal  honor,  Baron  Coehom,  us  too  far  if  we  were  to  enter  into  his  arguments 
gave  a  further  development  to  the  old  Dutch  or  describe  his  fortificatory  outline.  Of  the 
method  of  fortification.  His  system  gives  a  long  series  of  skilful  German  engineers  who 
stronger  defence  even  than  Cormontaigne's,  by  followed  Rimpler  and  Landsberg,  we  may 
the  clever  combination  of  wet  and  dry  ditches,  name  the  Mecklenburg  colonel  Buggenhagen 
tha  great  facilities  offered  to  sorties,  the  ex-  (1720),  the  inventor  of  blockhouse  traverses,  or 
ceDeot  communications  between  the  works,  and  traverses  hollowed  ^ut  and  adapted  for  casemat- 
the  ingenious  reduits  and  coupures  in  his  ed  mu^etry  fire ;  and  the  Wtlrtemberg  minor 
nrrelina  and  bastions.    Coehom,  a  great  ad-  Qerbort  (1784),  inventor  of  defensive  barracks, 


620  FOBTIFIOATION 

largo  barracks  in  the  gorge  of  salient  worksi  the  construction  of  the  sea  fVonts  of  const  fort«; 

proof  against  vertical  iirc,  with  embrasured  here  the  impossibility  of  breaching  Mntnc  ca^i^ 

cascinnte:^  on  the  side  facing  the  enceinte,  and  mated  walls  by  the  guns  of  shins  was  prettr  wril 

barracks  nnd  store  rooms  on  the  side  facing  the  demonstrated  by  the  bombardment  of  Seia.«to- 

town.    Both  tlieso  constructions  are  now  very  pol.  The  splendid  forts  of  Sebastopr>I,  Crc^nstadt, 

largely  used. — ^Thus  we  see  that  the  German  Cherbourg,  and  the  new  batteries  on  the  en- 

schoul,  with  almost  the    only  exception   of  trance  of  Portsmouth  harl)or  (England),  and  al* 

Speckle,  was  from  its  origin  adverse  to  bastions,  most  all  modem  forts  for  harbor  defence  apunA 

wiiich  it  sought  to  replace  chiefly  by  tcnailles,  fleets,  are  constructed  according  to  MonUlem- 

and  that  it  attempted  at  the  same' time  to  intro-  berths  principle.    The  partly  uncovered  m^nonrj 

duco  a  better  system  of  inner  defence,  chiefly  of  the  Maximilian  towers  at  Lintzf  A nMri a)  and 

by  the  use  of  casematod  galleries,  which  again  of  the  reduits  of  the  detached  forts  of  Ctjk*cc« 

were  considered  as  the  height  of  absurdity  by  are  imitated  from  Montalembert*s  less  Lappy 

French  engineering  authorities.     One  of  the  projects.    In  the  fortification  c»f  steep  heiiriits 

greatest  engineers,  however,  tliat  France  ever  (Eiirenbroitstcin  in  Prussia,  for  in<tan<v)  the 

produced,  tlie  marquis  de  Montalembert  (1713-  uncovered  masonry  forts  have  also  been  f«>ns«- 

*99),  major-general  of  cavalry,  passed  over  with  times  adopted,  but  what  resistance  they  will  ba 

drums  beating  and  colors  flying  into  the  camp  able  to  make  must  be  decided  by  actual  ex]>en- 

of  the  ( lerman  scliool,  to  the  great  horror  of  tlie  ence. — The  tenaille  system  has  never,  to  o^ 

wliole  French  engineering  corps,  who,  up  to  the  knowledge  at  least,  found  j^pctical  application, 

£  resent  date,  decry  every  wonl  he  has  written,  but  the  polygonal  system  is  in  great  favnr  in  i  ier- 

[ontalcmbert  severely  criticized  the  defects  many,  and  has  been  applied  to  most  modem  con- 

of  the  bastionary  system ;  the  ineffectualit^  of  stractions  there ;  while  the  French  tonacioui^Iy 

its  flanking  Are ;  the  almost  certainty  it  offered  cling  to  Cormontaigne's  bastions.    Tlio  vnctictJ, 

to  the  enemy  tliat  his  shuts  if  they  missed  one  in  the  polygonal  system,  is  generally  a  plain 

line  must  do  harm  in  another;  the  want  of  pro-  earthwork' rampart  with  revetto«l   scarp  ar.d 

lection  against  vertical  fire ;  the  perfect  useless-  counterscarp,  with  large  capt»nnieres  in  the  n-.i-l- 

ness  of  the  curtain  as  to  fire ;  the  impossibility  die  of  the  ftmts,  and  with  large  defensive  \sir- 

of  having  good  and  large  coupures  in  the  gorges  racks  behind  the  rampart  and  covered  by  -.:  to 

of  the  bastions,  proved  by  the  fact  that  no  for-  serve  as  coupures.    Similar  defensive  l^arrwks 

tress  of  his  time  had  any  of  the  multifarious  have  also  been  erected  n^  coupurei  in  many  ba^ 

permanent  coupures  proposed  by  the  theorists  tionary  works,  to  close  the  porpe-*  ««f  !lj»-  Kv- 

of  the  school ;  and  the  weakness,  bad  connection,  tious ;  the  rampart  serving  a-*  a  c«  Minrvrin::!."^!  v^ 

and  want  of  mutual  support  of  the  outworks,  protect  the  masonry  from  distant  lir-v    *  •:*  \'.] 

MouraU'iiilfort  thorof«)ro   preferred   either    the  M<mtalen>berl*s  ]irnpi>saU,  Imwovir.  r *..'.:■-. - 

tonaillt*  or  tliop<»ly;:(>nal  system.     Inoillier  case  tached  forts  has  had  t ho  ;rroati-it  <n«  •»■--.  r 

the  IkxIv  »»f  the  i»Iace   consisted  of  a  row  of  itiatod  anowora,  n«>t  mily  in  fortiii- ;r.- •.   ..:  '. 

casomiitcs.  witli  one  or  two  tiers  of  ^Mln^,  the  the  ntta»k  and  dcfi.n«MM»f  fi.rtro^'M."*.  :iT  !•■■■•.  -^ 

m:i>oiiry  of  which  was  covered  from  direct  lire  general  stratrp-y.     M<»iirali!nh«  rt    ]-r-  :- ^  I  •  * 

by  a  countor;^iiar(l  or  rourrc-ftirr  of  eartliwork  surnmnd  lar^'o  fi)rtn.«iM»'»  in  iiii]'"rT:\fi!  -;•■..*•■  -.« 

oxtv'iidin.:  all  around  and  having  a  secnn<l  ditch  by  asin^rloor  «l«niMcrh:ii!i  r.f  ^Tiiall  !'..r:-.  •■: 

in  its  fruit;  this   ditch  was  flanked  by  case-  man»lin;r  ek-vations  «hi«  !i,  t*:"!i.-*i  i- '  .•■  :    -. 

mat  i.-*  in  the,  rcOntcriiij^  angles  of  the  couvre-faco  appearance,  w«uild  >till  -iippftrt  irt.li 

cuvereii  by  the  paraj)et  of  the  rod  nit  or  lunotto  their  fire,  ami,  by  the  facility  tin  y  iriv^ 

in  tlio  rotiiterin;;   place  of   arms.     Tlie  whole  s«»rties,   would  render  a  horn^.ir«i"r» t 

system  was  ha-^i-d  upon  the  principle  of  o[»i)os-  j)laco  inipi*^!!!!!'.  and  when  re-/.:  ri!  : 

ill;:,  I'y  Tiie;iii'*of  ca*emate<l  guns,  hu«'h  an  t»ver-  intrenched  camf)  fi»r  ari  army.      \  s 

wije'.iniiii:  lire  to  the   enemy  the   moment  ho  alreacly  iutrihliieiMl  perniani  i:t  iri?r.  r  .  ■  . . 

rra<'lnMl  (he  crt'^t  of  theglacis,  or  of  the  ooiivro-  ^nder   the   guns   of  f-.rtrr -'••<,    V-::    *.' 

face,    that    he    c<uild    nt»t  po-sihly   hU'Veetl    in  trenclinnMit'*  cMn>i«.ted  nf  li.i,j  c  «:i:  •   : 

erc'tiiv  liis  brea<ljing   batteries     That    cilh-  which,  if  brokm  lliro'iirJi  a!  I'V*-   t-.- 

matrs  c«n:M  <l«i  tliis  ho  maintained  airainst  the  were  cmnphielv  at  t!ie  nu-n-v  i.f  •'■.. 

unanimous  ciuilenination  of  French  enu'inoers,  ]\\ix  thfsr  iijtri'ntli«'il  camp-,  uf  M--*  •  !*■ 

an«l  he   afti-rwanl  even  compiled  systems   of  were  I'apaMe  i»f  a  far   trrear-T   r-  -.-v. 

circular    and   tenailio    f«»r  title  at  ions    in    wlji<h  each  f-»rt  liad  to  be  taken  *in/y.  :v 

all   earthworks  were    n-Jfcted  aud  the  wljole  or  4  at  lea*t  wrre  ciiiiijut-r*-*!.  i   ..-i:   ; 

defence  intru>ted  V*  hiirh  ca5H"mate<l  batteries  op»n  hi««   treuclji  s   niMiri-!  ti.e  j!*  ■.      V 

with   fnmi  4  to  5   tii-rs  of  iruns  th^   mas<inry  over,  the  sif^re  of  eai  h  ff  the  l-rt-^  ■      '^ 

of  which   was  to  be  protect  id  l»y  the  lire  of  terrupted  at  every  nMMivnt  b\  '.:■.'■  i::i--  -.  • 

it**  batteri.'S   oiilv.     Tliu-*,  in  hi"*   circular   sv«»-  ratlier  the  arniv  on<aiuT'iri«»  l't}:i.!  •   .-  • 

te!n.  !;•'  ciiiitrivos  to  ci»nci.-ntrate  .'MX  gims  on  and  thus  a  c.»inliinatii>ii  i-f  ai  v.\.-  .  .»•   •  .  .• 

aisy  pt»int  ."ioii  yanls  fn>m  tlie  fortn!.s  and  ox-  and  re^'ular  tortre-^s  uarfiri- w.i- •»•  ■    -    !   ■» 

peer-*  tliat  >"ieh  an  imnien'*o  hUf»i  i*»riry  tif  tir.)  luu^'t   trrratly  -trenirthiTi   !*..•  i^  :".. :    ■        ^^ 

wo«;M  put  the  p.i>«.ihility  «»f  crectin::  i-i'*::e  hat-  Nap'»h««n    li«l    hi-*    arrni' •»   *:•!•. ''i   :-   .  •' 

ttri'"«  I  !itirily   u;:t  of  the   <pie-ti«»n.     In    thi<,  ihrnujli  tin:  i  ni-ujy*?  ci.MjjTp-k.  :..  ^.r   ■    • 

however,  he  hits  fv/uud  uo  adhereuts,  except  iu  the  ]ortrc>.**i'S  which  had  u.!  h<.xLi  i-  .-:-- 


' . '   " 


FORTIFIOATIOlir  ttl 

according  to  the  old  sjRtem,  and  when  in  retnm  mand  walls  and  towers  hj  its  greater  height, 
the  allies  (1814  and  1815)  marched  straight  on  and  offer  a  safe  approach  to  the  storming  col- 
toward  Paris,  leaving  almost  unnoticed  in  their  mnns.  The  introduction  of  gunpowder  did 
rear  the  triple  belt  of  fortresses  with  which  away  with  these  contrivances ;  the  fortresses 
Vauban  had  endowed  France,  it  became  evident  having  now  ramparts  of  less  elevation,  but  a 
that  a  system  of  fortification  was  antiquated  fire  effective  at  long  distances,  the  approaches 
which  confined  its  outworks  to  the  main  ditch  or  were  made  by  trenches,  leading  in  zigzags  or 
at  the  outside  to  the  foot  of  the  glacis.  Such  curved  lines  toward  the  glacis ;  batteries  being 
fortresses  had  lost  their  power  of  attraction  over  erected  at  various  spots  so  as  to  silence  if  pos- 
the  large  armies  of  modem  times.  Their  means  sible  the  fire  of  the  besieged  and  to  batter  down 
of  doing  harm  did  not  extend  beyond  the  range  his  masonry.  Once  arrived  on  the  crest  of  the 
of  their  cannon.  It  thus  became  necessary  to  glacis,  a  high  trench  cavalier  was  erected,  with 
find  some  new  means  to  break  the  impetuous  the  intention  of  conmianding  the  bastions  and 
movement  of  modem  invading  armies,  and  their  cavaliers,  and  then  by  a  crushing  fire  to 
Montalembert^s  detached  forts  were  applied  on  a  complete  the  breach  and  prepare  for  the  assault. 
large  scale.  Cologne,  Coblentz,  Mcntz,  Rastadt  The  curtain  was  the  point  generally  attacked. 
Ulm,  Konigsberg,  Posen,  Lintz,  Peschiera.  and  There  was,  however,  no  system  in  this  mode 
Yerona  were  severally  transformed  into  large  of  attack  until  Vauban  introduced  parallels  of 
intrenched  camps,  capable  of  holding  from  60,-  ricochet  firing,  and  regulated  the  process  of 
000  to  100,000  meiL  but  defensible,  in  case  of  sieees  in  the  manner  which  is  in  use  even  now, 
need,  by  far  smaller  garrisons.  At  the  same  and  still  denominated  Yauban^s  attack.  The 
time,  the  tactical  advantages  of  the  locality  to  besieger,  after  investing  the  place  with  a  suffi- 
be  fortified  were  placed  in  the  background  by  cient  force  on  a^  sides,  and  choosing  the  fronts 
the  strategetical  considerations  which  now  de-  to  be  attacked,  opens  the  first  parallel  during 
cided  the  situation  of  fortresses.  Such  places  the  night  (all  siege  works  are  chiefly  carried  on 
only  were  fortified  as  might  directly  or  in-  at  night)  at  about  600  yards  from  the  fortress. 
directly  stop  the  progress  of  a  victorious  army,  A  trench  parallel  to  the  sides  of  the  besieged 
and  which,  being  large  towns  in  themselves,  polygon  is  drawn  around  at  least  3  of  these  sides 
offered  great  advanti^s  to  an  army  by  being  and  fronts  ;  the  earth,  being  thrown  up  on  the 
the  centre  of  the  resources  of  whole  provinces,  side  toward  the  enemy  and  propped  upon  the 
Situations  on  large  rivers,  especially  at  the  sides  of  the  ditch  with  gabions  (willow-work 
points  of  junction  of  two  considerable  rivers,  baskets  filled  with  earth),  forms  a  kind  of  para- 
were  chosen  in  preference,  as  they  compelled  pet  against  the  fire  of  the  fortress.  In  this  first 
the  attacking  army  to  divide  its  forces.  The  parallel  the  ricochet  batteries  for  enfilading 
enceinte  was  simplified  as  much  as  possible,  and  the  long  lines  of  the  attacked  fronts  are  con- 
outworks  in  the  ditch  were  almost  entirely  done  stracted.  Taking  for  the  obiect  of  the  siege  a 
away  with ;  it  was  sufficient  to  have  the  en-  bastioned  hexagon,  there  snould  be  ricochet 
oeinte  safe  against  an  irregular  attack.    The  batteries  to  enfilade  the  faces  of  2  bastions 

ncipal  battie-field  lay  around  the  detached  and  8  ravelins,  in  all  the  batteries,  one  for  each 
ly  and  they  were  to  be  defended  not  so  face.  These  batteries  throw  their  shot  so  as  to 
much  by  the  fire  from  their  ramparts,  as  by  the  pass  just  over  the  parapet  of  the  works  and 
sallies  of  the  garrison  of  the  fortress  itself,  along  the  faces  in  their  whole  length,  taking 
The  largest  fortress  constmcted  upon  this  plan  them  in  flank  and  endangering  guns  and  men. 
U  Paris ;  it  has  a  simple  bastioned  enceinte  Similar  batteries  are  constmcted  to  enfilade  the 
with  bastioned  forts,  almost  all  squares ;  there  branches  of  the  covered  way,  and  mortars  and 
is  no  outwork,  not  even  a  ravelin,  in  the  whole  howitzers  are  placed  in  battery  to  throw  shells 
fortification.  No  doubt,  the  defensive  strength  into  the  interior  of  the  bastions  and  ravelins. 
cf  France  has  gained  80  per  cent,  by  this  new'  All  these  batteries  are  covered  by  earthwork 
and  inmiense  intrenched  camp,  large  enough  to  parapets.  At  the  same  time,  at  two  or  more 
afford  a  refuge  for  three  beaten  armies.  The  places,  zigzag  trenches  are  pushed  forward 
intrinsic  value  of  the  different  methods  of  forti-  toward  the  place,  taking  care  to  avoid  all  enfi- 
fication  has  lost  a  great  deal  of  its  importance  lading  fire  from  the  town  ;  and  so  soon  as  the 
hj  this  improvement ;  the  cheapest  will  now  be  fire  of  the  place  shows  signs  of  slacking,  the 
the  best ;  for  the  defence  is  now  based,  not  upon  second  parallel,  about  350  yards  from  the  works, 
the  passive  system  of  awaiting  the  enemy  be-  is  opened.  In  this  parcel  the  dismounting 
hina  the  walls  until  he  opens  his  trenches,  and  batteries  are  constructed.  They  servo  to  com- 
tiien  cannonading  them,  but  upon  the  active  one  pletely  destroy  the  artillery  and  embrasures  on 
of  taking  the  offensive  with  the  concentrated  the  faces  of  the  fortress;  there  will  be  8  faces 
strength  of  the  garrison  against  the  necessarily  to  attack  (2  bastions  and  their  ravelins,  and  the 
dlTided  forces  of  the  besieger.  II.  Sieobs.  inner  faces  of  the  adjoining  ravelins),  for  each 
The  art  of  sieges  had  been  brought  to  a  certain  of  which  there  is  a  battery,  constmcted  parallel 
perfection  by  the  Greeks  and  Romans.  They  to  the  attacked  faces,  and  each  embrasure  ex- 
tried  to  breach  the  walls  of  fortresses  by  the  actly  opposite  to  an  embrasure  of  the  fortress, 
battering  ram,  and  approached  them  under  IVom  the  second  parallel  fresh  zigzags  are 
oorer  of  strongly  roofed  galleries,  or  in  case  of  pushed  toward  the  town ;  at  200  yards  the 
need  by  a  lofty  construction  which  was  to  com*  naif  parallel  is  constructed,  forming  new  en- 


682  FORTOTOATION 

largements  of  the  zigzags  aimed  with  mortar  in  1848.  Under  sneh  cireomttinoea,  fi«ld  woria 
batteries ;  and  at  lost,  at  the  foot  of  the  glacis,  may  exercise  an  important  inflnence  upon  the 
the  third  parallel.  This  is  armed  with  heavj  issue  of  a  campaign  hj  enabling  an  inferior 
mortar  batteries.  By  this  time  the  fire  of  the  army  anccessfully  to  resiat  a  anperior  one.  For- 
place  will  have  been  nearly  silenced,  and  the  merly  the  intrenched  lines^  as  in  Vaoban's 
approaches,  in  varied  forms  of  curved  or  angular  permanently  intrenched  campa,  were  ccmtin- 
lincs,  to  avoid  ricochet  fire,  are  carried  up  to  the  nous ;  but  from  the  defect  that  if  pierced  and 
crest  of  the  glacis,  which  it  reaches  opposite  the  taken  at  one  point  the  whole  line  was  use- 
points  of  the  two  bastions  and  of  the  ravelin.  A  less,  they  are  now  nniveraally  composed  of  ooa 
lodgment  or  trench  and  parapet  is  then  formed  or  more  lines  of  detached  redoubts,  flanking 
in  the  salient  place  of  arms  to  enfilade  the  ditch  each  other  by  their  fire,  and  allowing  the  anny 
by  infantry  fire.  If  the  enemy  ia  active  and  dar-  to  fall  upon  the  enemy  throng  the  intervab  at 
ing  in  his  sorties,  a  4th  parallel  connecting  the  soon  aa  the  fire  of  the  redonUa  has  broken  the 
salient  places  of  arms  across  the  glacis  becomes  energy  of  his  assault.  This  is  the  principal  om 
necessary.  Otherwise  a  sap  is  pushed  from  the  of  field  works ;  but  they  are  also  employed 
8d  parallel  to  the  rcOntering  places  of  arms,  and  singly,  as  bridge  heads  to  defend  the  aooeas  to 
the  crowning  of  the  glacis,  or  the  construction  of  a  bridge,  or  to  close  an  important  paaa  to  unaU 
a  trench  all  along  the  covered  way  on  the  crest  parties  of  the  enemy.  Omitting  all  the  mors 
of  the  glacis,  is  completed.  Then  the  counter  fanciful  shapes  of  works  which  are  now  oat  d 
batteries  are  constructed  in  this  eauronne"  date,  such  fortifications  should  oonnst  of  works 
nunt  in  order  to  silence  the  fire  of  the  fiank,  eiUier  open  or  closed  at  the'gorge.  The  fomNr 
wliich  enfilades  the  ditch,  and  after  them  the  will  eiUier  be  redans  (two  parapets  with  a  ditch 
breaching  batteries  against  the  point  and  faces  in  front  forming  an  angle  racing  the  eoemr)  or 
of  the  bastions  and  ravelin.  Opposite  the  points  lunettes  (redans  with  snort  flanks).  The  Uttor 
to  bo  breached,  a  mining  gallery  is  constructed  may  be  closed  at  Uie  gorge  by  palixadinga.  The 
leading  down  from  the  trenches  through  the  principal  dosed  field  work  now  in  use  is  the 
£^is  and  counterscarp  into  the  ditch ;  the  square  redoubt,  either  as  a  regular  or  an  irref- 
counterscarp  is  blown  in,  and  a  fresh  trench  niar  quadrangle,  closed  by  a  ditch  and  parapet 
constructed  across  the  ditch  to  the  foot  of  the  all  round.  The  parapet  is  made  aa  high  ai  in 
breocli,  covered  on  the  side  whence  the  enfilad-  permanent  fortification  (7  to  8  feet),  bat  not  to 
ing  fire  of  the  liank  comes  by  a  parapet.  As  soon  thick,  having  to  resist  field  artillerv  only.  As 
as  both  broach  and  passage  of  the  ditch  aro  none  of  these  works  has  a  fianking  fire  in  itsci( 
complete,  the  assault  takes  place.  This  is  in  they  have  to  be  disposed  so  that  they  flank  each 
the  case  of  a  dry  ditch ;  across  a  wet  ditch,  a  other  witJiin  musket  range.  To  do  this  v^rcta- 
dike  has  to  be  coiistnictcd  with  fascincis  covered  ally,  and  strengthen  the  whole  lino,  l!.o  I'ai 
Otiually  by  a  parapet  on  the  side  of  the  llank  now  mt><t  jrenerally  adnpted  ia  to  ft-nu  ar.  ;:.- 
of  the  adjoining  bjistion.  If  on  taking  the  has-  trenched  camp  by  a  lino  of  svi:ire  tv\"'  '-^ 
tion  it  is  found  that  there  is  a  further  intrench-  flanking  eacli  tuher.  and  al»o  a  line  of  »;::  ;!-• 
ment  or  cuupuro  in  the  roar,  a  lod^nont  has  redan:),  situated  in  front  of  iLo  intcr\alst:"  ::.-.• 
to  be  clFectefl,  fresh  batteries  to  he  constructed  redoubts.  Such  a  camp  was  foniicd  in  :"r  "t 
on  the  breach,  and  a  fresh  breach,  descent,  and  of  Coniorn,  smith  of  the  Daiiubo.  in  1>4>.  i:  i 
pa«sai;e  of  the  ditcli  and  a-v^ault  to  bo  made,  was  defendtMl  by  tlic  llunpiriaii^  for  i  S? 
Tlie  average  resistance  of  a  bjistioned  hexagon  against  a  far  superior  anny. — Ti.v  !"•".".  •*  r 
of  Vauban'd  first  method  again>t  such  a  siego  statement  exhibits  the  fort  iticatn>r.!«  "I*  :^v  i  :.' 
is  calculated  to  be  from  I'J  to  22  days  if  there  ed  States  nowexi>ting  or  in  c«jur*o  of  etir.-tri'- 
aro  no  coupures,  and  27  or  28  days  if  it  is  pro-  tion  (Oct.  1S59),  and  the  amount  exw-r.  1.  :  \r 
vidcd  with  c<»ui>ure«?.  Cormontaigne^s method  is  their  constructi<>n,  miNlitication,  uiiti  n;  .4.r 
expected  to  hold  out  2")  or  respectively  35  to  - 


NaoM  er  Ijcalaj  cf  f^ri. 


37  days.     HI.  Field  F<»KTiFirATioN.    The  con- 

structioii  of  tield  works  is  a.-^  old  as  the  existence 

of  armies.     The  ancients  were  even  far  more 

expert  in  this  art  than  our  modern  armies;  the        I  ox  the  x«.itTn«»^  Kuo^TXEm.  , 

Komaa  Wpons.  Uloro  an  cnonn-    intrvucLea      I  r::«r;r;;;i7r'i;Lff^;':N.'v  ■     T 

their  camp  every  night.      During  tliO  17lh  and       S    Fori  Niicara,  Niairara  rii,r.  N   Y  «.- 

IHih   centuries  wo   s-ee  also  a  verv  treat  use      i  Kurt  ontan...  mir  t  »*».•«. «.  NY  ■• 

of  lield  works,  and   m  the  wars  of  rrederic        , 


.• 


•    « 


ToUl  on  the  iK^rthfrn  frt->D::rr  .  |?  ■  ^ 


the   (ireat  pickets  on   outpost  dutv  generally 

throw  ..i./ii.'i.tiy  i,r...iio.i  ro.ian-/  Yet  even  ,  K..r?;-„?,%r;.%":7::o''n^"::v::;;;;*;: 


:  r:».r.  V  i-    ■.;! 


then,  and  it  is  still  more  the  caso  now,  the  con-  «  F.irt  ki  tntranr<>  t.»  KfT:r..-Vr  nxcr.  m 

Ptru.'tii.n  of  field  works  was   contined   to  tho  ?  J-^rt  PriK...  i\.rii»n.MiAr^-.r.  Mo  r.     ■ 

stron;:the:iiiig  of  a  few  jKisitmns  elected  Iwlore-  5  F.rt  ..n  n...-  Man.j  1.  .Ui-.  ivr:*.*-. :  *  *-    •  >4  .  • 

hand  with  a  view  to  certain  evonlualilies  during  •  i'..ri  M.Miar\.  i'..rtjini..u!.K  »»-»-.r.  n  h  .     •• 

a  caiiiji.ii  II.      inus  rreotric  iiio  iire.ii  ^  camp  ^  r.-n  inii.i«ti.iinr*.  B.^t..B  hwl^  r.  M*.-.  :.-■ 

at    IMinZt-lwitZ,     >>  elhngton  S     lines     at     lorres  9  F«>rt  Winthro^  IkwUm  harS  r  ■■    ** 

Vedra-*.  the  Krc-nch  lines  of  Wi-is^enbur;:,  and  ^^  *»'rtW*iT.ii.lkMU.n  UrlMr...  '  '  '  '\ 

the  Austrian  iutrcnchments  in  front  of  Verona  |      Amount  carricU  forward %'ix  ^ 


"*-"'"""■"•"■ 

■■"^iii;. 

~ 

Amonnt  bionEht  Ainrird 

tssKmi 

Fort*  il  Nco  Budford  hirtwi  Uua 

Fnrt  AiUmi.  Newport  hurhor  B.  I 

IdBI  W 

FortTTDO.btill.N^  LoDdoB  bubor  Conn. 

K-  0*1 

Fort  Oriiwsld,  Hex  LonduD  bubuc 

s?saHi'ii.L^^-.b 

t 

13-  ,2 

F^'S.'Sl.'iiiluVtaW.ST 

IB 

U 

Fort  Wood,  Bcdloe'i  Uud.  N  T 

!" 

Fort  Ekhnond.  Slatco  l.l«d,  N  T 

•1 

FortoD  tile  of  Fort  Tonipkli>>,Bt*MDU]*Dd 

B 

Ss;Ss&'" 

T, 

«:]. 

M 

Foitit  eudr  Honk.  N.  J. 

tT 

B    ev9 

TS 

Fort  CuTDlll^lItn  PdIbI  BmU.  BalL  bubor 

llGeA.) 

« 

TWJ  1 

SI 

M 

fS  8*T.ni.°Ann.polU  hutwr  ' 

Fort  WiiUngtoD,  od  FotoinH  rirer  Md 

M 

Fon  nJSSfHSnpttiB  n-d^  V. 

M« 

Es&i:sro,'sj;'t^v« 

at 

n 

Call*  PliuA»r.  CbirlHt^  bubor  S.  i. 
Fsrt  Mmltrio.  ChulHton  bubor 

>» 

40 

Fort  iDBttr.  Cbulttton  hubor 

Fort  Pnlukl.  mooUi  of  GinDUb  river  O*. 

4> 

rortJKkHm.  SiTUfuh  ilvu 

« 

Fart  CllMb,  Amelia  blabil,  FU 

1.3 

48 

4* 

Fort  BarraDcia.  barrmck),  ud  ndoibt.  Pen 

•Bria  harbor 7:7?.. 

ta 

Port  MorfaD,  Uoblls  point,  Ata 

Fori  Oalne^  Dauphin  blud,  Mobile  ba7 

i-l 

M 

D«*B««fcTU.n.rr«MlBlo  Mobile  boj 
Krt^aooSib^cSS  Me^n'Sor'^'li*' 

M 

N 

^«  'e 

M 

it  99 

H 

Fort  SL  Phlll'ik,  opposlt*  Fort  Jackun,  La 
Fort  Urlonlon.  HamUiiiba),  Ln 

4   t- 

to 
«l 

la    *■ 

m 

DcbD«  for  QalTtiloo  bubor  ttiu 

Toll]  on  AUutlo  ud  pitf  cout 

|M,seoc  1 

Os  TBI  Pirmo  Co».T 

1 

Fort  at  Fon  polnL  San  Franc  w  bay  Cal 
Fon  at  Alcatrai  uUnd,  Sod  >  nucljco  bar 

1    .^'.■^ 

TotiloaPacldoooatt. 

la.* 

Amoiuit  for  norki  on  the  a  rlhim  ttn^Ua 

1  " 

Anwant  fcr-ork.onAU«itlc  sn<iguKcoMl 

s'o' 

AuoaDt  for  work!  on  PielOc  eout 

Total 

(a.  1      I 

FORTUNA,  the  goddess  of  ofaance,  both  h^ 
p^uid  anhgLppy,  called  by  the  EtroscanaN'iirsia. 
Among  the  Greekd  she  was  known  nnder  the 
name  of  Tyche,  as  the  daughter  of  OceaniiH,  ac- 
eording  to  Hesiod,  and  as  the  dst«r  of  the 
Harm  and  Parcte,  according  to  Pindar,  and  had 
har  tAinplea  at  Smyrna  and  other  cities.  8he 
iraa  worahipped  in  Italy  in  the  earliest  times  by 
tb«  Etnucahs  atVoIainii,  by  the  Latins  at  Pr»- 
nerte,  and  by  the  Volsci  at  Antium,  -where  she 
had  a  temple,  tn-o  itatnea,  and  an  oracle,  whose 
rwpomaoi  wer*  highly  valued.    She  was  diverse- 


tering  Rome,  with  a  creecent  on  her  head,  a 
helme^  comncopia,  or  globe  in  her  hand,  and 
resting  on  a  wheel. 
FORTCNATE  ISLANDS.   See  Canakt  laL- 

ASM. 

FORTUNE,  BoBXBT,  a  Scottish  botanist,  born 
m  Berwickshire  in  1618.  He  was  bronght  np 
as  a  horticulturist,  and  having  procur^  em- 
ployment in  the  botaoioal  gardens  of  Edinburgh, 
avuled  himself  of  the  privilege  afforded  to 
yonng  gardeners  oconpied  there  of  attending  the 
lectorea  of  the  universitv  profeaeor.  He  also 
went  throngh  a  course  of  private  reading,  and 
upon  his  promotion  to  a  post  in  the  botanical 
gardens  at  Chiswick  aa  recommended  himself 
byhiaacqnirementa  and  intelligence,  that  afl«ra 
severe  eiaminationhe  was  appointed  by  the  Loo- 
don  horticnltnral  society  as  collector  of  plants 
in  Dorthera  Ohina,  which  the  peace  of  1B43  had 
Jost  thrown  open  to  Enropeans.  His  "Three 
Years'  WanderiuKS  in  the  Northern  Provinces 
of  China"  (3  vok  8vo^  1847;  8d  ed.  1863), 
published  soon  after  hia  return,  beside  aSbrding 
foil  information  of  the  hortionltnre  and  agrienl- 
ture  of  the  Chinese,  is  one  of  the  most  enter- 
taining books  of  travel  recently  written.  After 
superintending  for  several  months  the  gardens 
of  the  apothecaries'  company  at  Chelsea,  he 
again  departed  in  the  latter  part  of  1848  for 
China,  under  the  an^ices  of  the  East  India  com- 
pany, to  examine  and  report  upon  tlie  natnre  and 
method  of  cultivating  the  tea  plant  and  to  ool. 
lect  its  seeds  and  introduce  its  culture  int« 
northern  India.  After  an  atisence  of  more 
than  S  yean,  he  returned  to  England  and 
published  his  valuable  work,  entitled  "  Two 
Visits  to  the  Tea  Countries  of  Chins"  (2  vols. 
8vo^  1862).  Scarcely  had  this  gone  through 
the  press  when  be  departed  on  a  third  tour  to 
the  same  country,  the  rcsulte  of  which  were 

Jiven  in  his  "Residence  among  the  Chinese; 
aland,  on  the  Coast,  andat  Sea;  being  the  Third 
Viat  from  1863  to  ISfifl"  (8vo.,  1867).  In  186T 
Mr,  Fortune  was  employed  by  the  U.  S.  patent 
office  to  visit  China  to  collect  the  seeds  of  the 
tea  shmh  and  of  other  plants,  with  a  view  to 
the  introduction  of  their  cultivation  into  the 
United  States.  He  proceeded  from  England  by 
the  overland  route  directly  to  the  tea  districts 
m  the  middle  and  northern  provinces  of  China, 
where  he  remained  until  March,  I8fiB,  and  col- 
lected a  large  quantity  of  seeds,  which  he  ship- 
ped to  the  United  States,  where  they  arrived  m 
April,  May,  and  Jnne,  generally  in  good  condi- 
tion. Mr.  Fortune  left  Hong  Eong  March  16, 
and  arrived  in  England  in  May,  at  which  time 
his  engagement  with  the  patent  office  termi- 

FORUM,  in  ancient  Roman  ciliea,  an  o^ 
place,  aorronnded  with  public  buildingB,  wtuoh 

was  originallvusedFor  the  administration  of  jus- 
tice or  the  Bale  of  goods,  and  subsequently  for  the 
transaction  of  all  kinds  of  public  businees.  In 
this  respect  it  corresponds  wiUi  the  ofora  of 


624  FOBWABD  FORWARDING  MERCHANT 

the  Greeks ;  but  nnlike  the  agora,  it  was  oblons  mach  to  the  eDactment  of  the  art  of  1S42  hj  m 

in  form,  and  never  sqaare.    Tlie  Romans  had  able  official  report  on  the  subject.    On  nv.rir.^ 

two  kinds  ot/ora,  the  eivilia^  sometimes  called  from  the  cabinet  on  the  expiration  of  Mr.  Ty 


venal ia^  which  were  nsed  ezclusivelj  for  mer-  at  the  court  of  Denmark,  where  hv  rcniaiLvJ  2 

can  tile  purposes.    The  city  of  Rome  contained  or  8  years,  when  he  resigned  and  camv  hcmr  i  j 

19  of  both  kinds;  but  the  forum  Homanum^  take  the  office  of  president  judge  of  the  di>;n<': 

whose  origin  is  coeval  with  that  of  the  city,  and  court  of  Alleghany  co.,  Penn.,  to  which  hv  \iai 

which  is  known  by  the  general  name  of  the  been  elected  in  his  absence.     While  in  Ofurt. 

Forum,  was  by  far  the  most  important,  notwith-  engaged  in  his  judicial  duties  he  was  suddczJj 

standing  some  very  magnificent  ones  were  built  taken  ill  and  died  in  48  houni. 
under  the  emperors.  It  occupied  a  hollow  space        FORWARDING  MERCLI  ANT,  one  whose 

between  the  Capitoline  and  Palatine  hills,  ex-  business  it  is  to  send  forward  goods  tu  a  dUULt 

tending  probably  from  the  arch  of  Septimius  consignee.    There  are  in  the  United  States  jvf- 

8everus  to  the  temple  of  Antoninus  and  Fans-  sons  who  engage  in  this  business  almost  i-i- 

tina  (although  its  limits  have  been  the  subject  dusively,  especially  in  the  western  cilice  in 

ofmudi  controversy),  and  comprised  an  area  of  7  which  produce  accumulates  on  its  way  to  tLe 

jugera.  Around  its  4  sides  stood  temples,  ^iVios,  East,  and  to  which  easterngoods  are  carried  rVr 

triumphal  arches,  and  other  public  edifices,  while  distribution  through  the  nest.    Ther«  is  iKtL- 

wi^in  it  were  the  roitra  or  stages  from  which  ing,  however,  in  their  business  which  is  sc>  fkr 

orators  addressed  public  assemblies,  statues  of  peculiar  to  Uiem  as  to  be  governed  by  peculiar 

illustrious  Romans,  columns,  and  trophies  of  laws  of  its  own,  and  therefore  call  for  e*p«ul 

war.    At  the  eomitium  or  upper  end  were  sus-  statement    But  there  are  two  classes  of  pers  u 

pended  the  laws  of  the  12  tables,  and  the /a«^i  or  who  come  under  this  name,  or  discbargv  U.« 

calendar  of  all  the  days  on  which  it  was  lawiUl  duties  which  it  describes,  and  of  wbum  m'.r« 

to  work.    It  is  now  known  as  the  Campo  Vac-  should  be  said.    One  of  these  consii&ts  of  tlc^ 

dno,  from  having  been  used  for  several  centuries  who  are  called  expressmen,  and  the  otL«r  vf 

as  a  cattle  market,  and  prescr\'es  no  traces  of  common  carriers,  who,  beside  carrying  food*  ^<i 

its  ancient  splendor  beyond  a  few  scattered  col-  their  own  route,  undertake  to  forward  tLesi  ^O 

umns  of  temples,    h  forum  judUiaU  was  built  further.    The  whole  business  of  ezpnMemt::  *j 

by  Julius  Ca)sar,  and  one  by  Augustus,  which,  of  comparatively  recent  origin ;  but  it  hi^  jl- 

with  the/an/mii^oTTuini/m,  seem  to  have  consti-  ready  reached  an  immense  extent  and  in.^»  :• 

tutcd  tlie  only  ones  in  Rome  for  the  transaction  tancc.    It  \\i\^  fH'own  out  of  coniir.e»n  c:irr:x:.    :" 

of  public  bu^inc9S.   The  others  were  UM:d  as  mar-  goods,  but  differs  from  it  mainly  in  t!.c  i\^ :  :!  /. 

kets,  or  were  simply  embellishments  of  the  city,  expressmen  have  no  means  of  oarri.ijv  \.i  \\  .  • 

FOUWARD,  Walter,  an  Aniorican  jurist  own,  but  hire  cars  or  voliiclef.  or  rv^:..  la  •:.•■•  . 

and  statesman,  born  in  Cunnectirut  in   17n5,  and  usually  go  with  their  parot!-.     1:  ::.«;■  .• 

diedinPiltsbur^,  Pcnn.,  Nov.  24, 1^02.     At  the  said,  too,  that  they  usually  carry  j.irxxl.-  .:.;.. 

ape  of  17  ho  cn]ii;rato<l  fri»ni  New  England  to  or  if  larger  packages,  still  nt)t  rarp:«H»  •  r  '.•..-.•. 

what  was  then  the  West,  and  settled  at  Pitts-  quantities  of  pM»ds.  as  hundrvds  if  b^T. '.-    r 

bur^r.  where  he  stu<lied  law.     lie  cnjrufred  early  bales,  the  carriajre  of  these  thin^-s  l-i  i\.^  <..    ■  -. 

in  politics,  and  in  iy«)»»^\v lien  he  was  only  lyyoars  to  common  or  private  carriers.     TLe  ;  r.:,..  :  « 

of  ape,  he  edited  a  democratic  ncw^pajier  called  question  in  relation  to  i-xpre^-sriK-ri  :-.  arv  ';   .■ 

the  "Tree  of  Lilnrty.''     He  was  admitted  to  still  common  carriers  in  law,  an^l  d<  it  :i>  y  ^, ..  „ 

the  bar  in  1S«M*»,  andl'or  10  jearspractisi^'d  with  come  under  the  strict  ros|K>ii»il.iI ;:.«■-.  vi 

succos,  nctjuiring  a  hii'h  reputati<»n  a.s  an  elo-  mon  carriers?     In  other  w.tJs  d"  tl  -t  ::  -  ' 

queni   advo»ate.     In    1*^22   he  was  elected  to  the  safe  carri ape  and  delivery  i-f  a1'.  t:.v  j-!< 

conpre>«i,  as  ri  re[>re>entative  fn»m  the  we»»tern  against  all  ri^k-*  *' except  the  act  ff  it  <  .:.  ! :; 

district  of  IVnu-ylvani:!,  and  served  till  March  public  enemy  r*'     Wo  have  Lo  i!i«:;l :  m!  ..• 

4,  \^2').     In  tlic  pri-»i«iential  ele<'ti<'ns  «if  1^21  tliat  they  do  thus  insure  the  pip^^!-  \\.^.y  r-  .• 

and  1S2S  he  Mipjmrte*!  .hilm  C^ulncy  Adams  in  throughout  tlie  whole  route  T-r  %\:.:  1.  :'  ■  -     *  - 

opposition  to  Andrew  Jaik-Min,  and  theiicefor-  fess  to  be  carriers,  and  that  they  are  t.".!  .-• 

ward  he  was  iilentitieil  witli  the  whi;r  party.  In  liable  for  any  lo^s  or  injtiry  l.»  il.ti:..  «  *. 

1837  he  was  electetl  a  niemlier  of  the  ct»nven-  any  prcK»f  or  intiniation  vf  l!4iir  i.-. .•"..:•, .. 

tion  t»»  retormthe  ct»n'«titutiMnnf  IVnn^vlvaniii,  default.   Wehv>ld,  tot»,  that  nuiu*tL:i.i .-  .» '.         i 

andhore  adi'»tintfni>he<li>a!'t  in  it>deiiheratitins.  to  inquire  by  what  means  or  ly  *!..»;  ;»r-.  j  - 

In  Marcli,  1S41,  President  IlarriNon  appointed  mcnts  the  cipre»i«iman  i'ri'|-«M.> !  "'-rr^  \   -  :    - 

him  rir>t  c«miptroller  of   tlie  trea-'Ury  of  the  ceL     If  ho  recvive^  it  in  iVrt'.a:.?.  a:.  :  --  .  • 

Uniteil  Slates.     In  September  « 'ft  he  r»ame  year  takes,  Fpecially  or  by  gi-n^ru:   a-l^^ ::.««. : 

Pre>ideiit  Tyler,  nn  the  re-ipnati.-u  <»f  the  cab-  notice,  or  sign,  to  *'ex!'re?v*  i:  ::.r  -.;»•'.     (,:  -    .- 

inet  appointed   by  Proident    Ilarri-t'n,  called  a  common  phrase)  to  >{iw  ( 'rlun- .  r  >^..  I  • . 

Mr.  Forward  into  hi^  cabinet  a-  M-eretary  of  cb^co,  he  isres|K>nsibief«»r  i:- *^:\  ij^l.'.  ir«  :"  ■  -  . 


the  trea>ury.     In  this  otlice  he  exerci>ed  preat    — A  railroad  company  whii  li  ;  k-. 
iullueuce  on  the  tarilf  question,  and  contributed    place  to  be  carried  to  a  diT'uiLt 


FORWARDING  MERCHANT  025 

thought  to  come  necessarily  under  the  same  npon  the  party  that  first  takes  charge  of  a  par- 
rale,  hut  it  is  not  quite  so.  There  is  this  differ-  eel  than  our  own  courts ;  hut  upon  the  whole, 
ence  between  the  two  cases:  the  expressman  and  resting  upon  the  most  recent  abjudications, 
has  not,  or  is  not  known  to  have,  any  regular  the  rules  oflaw  in  this  matter  may  he  summed  up 
means  of  conveyance  of  his  own  for  any  defi-  thus.  There  may  be  a  partnership  in  the  busi- 
nite  portion  of  the  distance  over  which  he  as-  ness  of  common  carriage  as  in  all  others,  and  a 
sumes  to  carry  the  goods.  The  owner  who  gives  railroad  company  may  connect  itself  with  other 
him  a  parcel  in  Portland  for  New  Orleans  has  companies  or  with  other  carriers,  and  form  a 
no  means  of  knowing,  and  indeed  no  reasons  for  quasi  partnership,  the  eflfect  of  which  will  be 
supposing,  that  the  expressman  has  not  made  that  each  member  will  be  liable,  in  solido^  for 
similar  arrangements  for  all  the  parts  of  his  all  the  rest  In  that  case,  all  the  companies  on 
route  that  he  has  made  for  any  part.  It  is  in-  the  whole  route  are  liable  for  a  loss  occurring 
deed  commonly  understood  that  every  express-  in  any  part ;  and  in  particular  the  first  company 
man  does  not  undertake  to  convey  goods  every-  taking  the  parcel,  or  the  last  into  whose  hancfs 
where,  but  this  man  advertises  from  A  to  B,  it  may  be  traced,  may  be  made  liable  severally 
because  he  has  so  arranged  and  provided,  ana  for  any  loss  which  has  happened  on  the  route, 
that  man  from  A  to  C,  and  the  other  from  A  to  The  company  comes  under  such  a  liabilitjrequally 
D ;  and  his  advertising,  or  indeed  his  undertak-  by  forming  such  a  partnership  and  entering  into 
ing  to  carry  to  the  specified  place,  may  prop-  such  a  joint  business,  or  by  advertising  or  indi- 
erly  be  understood  as  a  declaration  on  his  part  eating  such  a  Joinder  in  business,  in  any  way 
that  he  has  made  suflicient  preparation  in  that  which  entitles  third  parties  to  act  on  the  belief 
direction  and  to  that  distance.  But  if  the  man  of  it.  And  if  such  companies  have  a  Joint 
in  Portland  puts  goods  on  board  a  railroad  car  agent  at  either  terminus  or  at  any  station,  and 
to  go  to  New  York,  he  knows,  or  should  know,  this  agent,  with  the  knowledge  of  all,  and  pur- 
tbat  the  railroad  company  will  convey  it  a  cer-  porting  to  act  for  all,  sells  a  through  ticket,  as  it 
tain  part  of  the  way  in  their  own  carriage,  and  is  called,  none  of  the  companies  thus  repre- 
nnder  the  charge  of  their  own  servants,  and  sented  can  deny  their  joint  business  and  Joint  or 
will  not  and  cannot  do  any  thing  beyona  that  several  liability  for  the  whole ;  and  if  the  price 
point  except  to  put  it  safely  on  board  of  the  of  the  ticket  is  credited  by  the  seller  to  all  the 
cars  of  another  company,  who  will  take  it  to  or  companies  and  is  divided  among  them,  this  con- 
toward  New  York.  That  is,  the  man  in  Port-  stitutes  conclusive  evidence  that  each  of  them 
land  knows  that  the  railroad  company  will  there  undertakes  to  be  a  carrier,  with  a  responsibility 
receive  the  parcel  as  a  carrier,  ana  take  it  a  cer-  as  such,  through  the  route.  But  the  mere  fact 
tain  distance  as  carrier,  and  will  then  act  as  a  that  a  parcel  directed  to  a  distant  place  is  re- 
forwarding  merchant  for  the  rest  of  the  route,  ceived  at  a  station,  and  there  paid  for  for  the 
sending  it  on  in  the  best  way  they  can.  Here  whole  route,  does  not  of  itself  make  any  carrier 
then  is  a  change  of  relation,  and  with  it  a  change  for  a  part  of  the  distance  hable  as  carrier  be- 
of  obligation ;  for  the  essential  difiference  is  this :  yond  that  part.  The  test  of  the  liability  in 
a  common  carrier  insures  his  goods  against  all  every  case  is,  what  did  the  party  undertake  to 
risks  but  those  arising  from  the  act  of  God  or  be  and  to  do  ?  If  he  said  he  would  carry  all 
the  public  enemy ;  but  the  forwarding  merchant  the  way,  he  is  liable  as  carrier  all  the  way.  If 
is  Uable  only  for  his  own  default  or  neglect.  If  he  said  he  would  carry  a  part  of  the  way  and 
a  company  takes  a  parcel  in  Portland,  and  it  then  send  it  on,  he  is  only  liable  accordingly. 
is  lost  between  Boston  and  Worcester,  no  one  And  taking  all  the  facts  into  consideration, 
knows  how,  the  sender  can  look  at  once  to  which  of  these  bargains  was  it  that  the  railroad 
the  company  that  took  it,  if  they  are  carriers  company  made  with  the  sender  ? — With  this 
an  the  way,  but  not  if  they  were  carriers  only  principle  to  guide  us,  w^  may  return  to  express- 
to  Boston,  where  their  road  ends,  and  only  men.  A  person  living  at  Albany  wishes  to  send 
forwarding  merchants  for  the  rest  of  the  route,  by  express  a  parcel  to  New  Be^ord.  He  gives 
and  can  &ow  that  they  delivered  the  parcel  it  to  an  expressman  of  Albany,  who  takes  it  to 
safely  and  properly  for  further  carriage.  If  New  York,  and  there  gives  it  to  the  expressman 
it  is  known  where  the  parcel  is  lost^  the  sender  for  Boston,  who  pays  the  Albany  man  his  fee 
ma^  always  call  on  the  company  who  had  it  in  for  bringing  it  to  New  York,  and  takes  it  to 
their  possession  or  under  their  care  when  it  was  Boston.  The  expressman  between  Boston  and 
lotL  But  if^  as  sometimes  happens,  it  can  be  New  Bedford  pays  the  New  York  man  what  he 
traced  beyond  the  first  carrier,  and  no  negligence  paid,  and  also  the  fare  from  New  York  to  Bos- 
can  be  imputed  to  him,  and  no  one  knows  what  ton,  and  takes  it  to  New  Bedford ;  and  the 
has  become  of  it,  the  sender  is  wholly  remedi-  consignee  when  he  takes  the  parcel  pays  the 
less  unless  the  first  carrier  is  carrier  to  the  end.  man  who  ^ves  it  to  him  all  he  has  paid,  and  in 
Whether  he  is  so  or  not  has  been  very  much  dis-  addition  his  fare  from  Boston  to  New  Bedford. 
pDted.  Cases  turning  on  this  point  have  been  Now,  if  the  parcel  did  not  arrive  safely,  but  was 
very  frequent  both  in  England  and  the  United  lost  somewhere  on  the  route,  is  each  one  of  these 
fiti^es,  and  perhaps  the  Taw  may  not  be  posi-  expressmen  liable  for  the  whole?  We  should 
tively  determined  in  either  country.  Perhaps  say  this  must  depend  upon  what  each  one  un- 
it may  be  said  that  the  English  courts  arta  more  dertakes  to  do.  If  the  Albany  man  advertlssa 
&poaed  to  fix  the  liability  of  carrier  to  the  end  that  he  takes  goods  to  New  Bedford,  he  is  UaUa 

VOL.  vn.— 40 


rOSOASI  IXMBAHO 

as  to  as  Ne w  Bedford  as  eaiTler.    IfhaadTCfw  tliepliaeof  ttdlewbmilMdM.    ThitevMitli 

tins  that  be  carries  paroeb  to  Boston,  lie  b  so  the  sol^t  of  one  of  Lotd  BjnmC^  tnfefie& 

liable  to  that  place:  if  only  to  New  York,  be  Is  For  the  old  doge  one  other  humiliation  tcomub* 

liable  as  carrier  only  to  Kew  York,  and  as  for*  ed.    He  had  twice  asked  kafo  to  rssifB  hk 

war^Ung  merobant  at  New  York,  and  there  his  olBoe,  but  the  oonneil  had  obliged  hifli  torslaia 

liability  ends;  and  so  of  all  the  rest    (The  It.  He  was  bow  dq[>osed»  throsMh  the  larhina' 

cases  on  this  satdeet  of  the  obligstloA  of  car*  tlons  of  bis  enemies^  and  died  8  d^ja  after  la  a 

riers  beyond  tbcdr  own  nrate  are  Tery  nnmer*  qMsmashebeardthebellsof  SLlftfki 

oos;  the  following  may  be  regarded  as  among  to  Venioe  the  eleotkNi  of  a  new  mler. 

the  most  iinpcHtant  and  instmotlTe:  Ifosobamp  FOSOOLO,  Nioolo  Uoo^  an  ItaDaiipoci 

«i.L.aad  r.  Junction  railroad  co^  8  Ifeeson  miscdhmeoos  writer,  bom  fa  thelshiid  olZati^ 

and  Webby,  481 ;  8t  J<^nf«.yan  BantToofd,  cf»Yeiietiaatonlly,  fa  1777,  died  at  Ttarahn 

86  WendcOl,  660;  Fidrchildet.  Sloeqps,  19  Wen-  Oreen,  near  London,  Oct  IQL  1887.    He  was 

den,  8a9,and  7ffill,  898;  WUcozml  Parmelee,  educated  fa  Yenice,  and  fa  tiie  animrsHy  ef 

8  Sandford,  610 ;  Farmers'  and  Mechanics'  bank  Pindna.    His  first  tnigedy,  llmi^  was  iJuilassi 

f«.  Ohamplain  transportation  co,  88  Yermont,  at  Yadce  fa  1797,  and  was  so  aiisatisfaKoty  Is 

186.)    Expressmen  now  not  uncommonly  In-  the  sothor  that  he  himself  pnbfisbed  thesww*- 

sert  fa  their  bills  of  Isding  or  receipts  which  est  eritidsmof  it  thatappetted.    Fiiiaflfl^iths 

they   give  their  costomers  a  daose  to  this  establiriiment  of  a  fepuolio  wheo  the  sadsal 

^bet:  ^This  company  Is  responnble  only  as  aristocracy  of  Yenice  nil  l>y  the  handaofMspa* 

forwarders,  and  on^  for  the  ne^igence  or  other  Icon,  his  hopes  were  disappoteted  by  the  twsiy 

defimlt  of  perwms  employed  by  them;  and  tbia  cf  Campo  Formio,  whioli  gava  op  Yeilea  Is 

b  a  part  or  our  contract  with  all  whose  goods  Austria.    He  retired  with  other  paUleis  Is 

we  carry."    We  must  wait,  perhaps,  for  fmrther  ICilsn,  and  wrote  a  pditical  ran 

abjudication  before  we  know  certidnly  the  effect  XeMsfv  di  dut  asumn,  afterward 

of  thu  chuue.    But  applying  to  it  the  rules  of  under  the  title  of  Ze  nMna  Icttsrvi 

lawas  farasthey  are  now  settled,  we  should  say  Ortu.    In  1799  he  Tolnnteered  fa  the 

that  acmnmon  carrier  may  make  avalldspe-  contingent  ofthe  French  aniiy,  took  part  fa  lbs 

dal  bargain  with  hb  customer,  but  that  a  mere  defence  of  Q^iea  under  Ifasseoa,  aodiv 

notioe  or  declaration  inscribed  upon  a  ticket  or  Milan,  where  hb  time  wsa  divided 

bill  of  bding  does  not  of  itself  constitnte  such  books  and  pleesnre.    When  fa  1808 

a  notice.  assembled  toe  ctntuUm  of  Italian  4 

FOSOARI,  FsANonoo,  46th  doge  of  Yenice.  Lyons  to  provide  a  new  conatitntlan  Idt  the 

bom  aboat  1878,  died  Oct  81 ,  1457.    Elected  Cisalpine  republic,  Foaeolo  was  sppofaled  to  rr- 

dogo  in  1428,  the  whole  period  m  which  he  gov-  port  upon  the  state  of  the  ooontrj ;  and  in  sa 

oroed  the  republic  was  one  of  war  and  tumult  elaborate  discourse,  so  bold  that  it  was  deco* 

The  sultan  Amurath  laying  si^ge  to  Saloaica,  ed  unaafe  to  submit  it  to  the  first  contoL  bst 

Foscari  despatched  troops  thither,  who  repel-  which  was  afterward  published  under  the  titb 

led  the  Mussulmans.    Ho  then  engaged  in  hos-  of  0nuion4  a  Buonapartty  he  contiastcd  ths 

tilities  with  the  duke  of  Milan,  Filippo  Visconti,  abuses  of  the  military  government  w\Mk  had 


and  subjected  to  the  republic  the  territories  of  been    established  with  the    free  goTemaeat 

Brescia,  Bergamo,  and  Cremona,  making  the  which  had  been  promised.    In  1808  he  was  s^ 

Adda  tlic  boundary  of  Venetian  dominion.  The  pointed  professor  of  Italian  eloquence  in  ifas 

war  was  soon  renewed  with  various  success,  university  of  Pavio,  but  the  political  fadcpesd- 

nearly  all  the  Italian  cities  taking  port  in  it ;  but  eooe  evinced  m  his  lectures  caused  his  chair  ts 

the  doge,  supported  by  Cosmo  de^  Medici  and  by  be  soon  suppressed.    At  this  period  he  polh 

Francesco  Sforzo,  marquis  of  Ancona,  still  f^r-  lished  his  b^ntiful  lyric  poem   /  aep^Uru  his 

ther  extended  his  power  by  a  treaty  concluded  in  troged v  of  Ajaet^  and  an  Italian  translatiuo  oi 

1441.    In  1443  he  formed  a  league  with  Sforza,  Sterne'^s  ''Sentimental  Journey.**    On  the  ful 

the  duke  of  Milan,  and  the  republics  of  Genoa,  of  Napoleon  he  retired  to  bwicaarlaod,  and  ia 

Florence,  and  Bologna,  against  Alfonso  of  Ara-  1816  to  Engl^id.    Ho  wrote  for  the  "^fidia* 

gon,  king  of  Naples.    The  pope  took  part  with  bnrgh^'  and  ''  Quarterly"  ruviiws  artaeias  ca 

the  latter,  but  two  victories  of  Sforza  put  an  Dante,  Petrarch,  Boccocdo,  an\  other  Italiaa 

end  to  the  war.    In  his  old  age  he  had  made  authors,  delivered  a  course  of  lei>vas  on  Ital* 

peace  with  all  the  enemies  of  Venice,  including  ian  literature,  published  a  vol  ami  •#  *"£sasyf 

Mohamnaed  IL,  when  Jaoopo,  the  lost  survivor  on  Petrarch'^  (18*28),  and  edited  ai.odWoB  of 

of  his  4  sons,  was  brought  a  second  time  be-  the  Dirina  Commidia  of  Dsnto  (IbQ^ 
fore  the  terrible  council  of  ten,  falsely  charsed        FOSSANO  (one.  Fon$   &in%tM\,     ^  dQr  ef 

with  the  assassination  of  its  chief.    The  tribu-  Piedmont,  in  the  province  of  Coni,  ^Mad  on 

nal,  Jealous  of  the  power  and  popularity  of  the  the  left  bank  of  the  Stura,  18  m.  N.  K^^^i'^ 

doge,  condemned  his  son  first  to  torture  and  and  87  m.  8.  £.  bv  railway  from  Turin  y^^ 

tlien  to  exile  in  Crete.    The  young  Foscari,  1853, 16,041.    It  is  an  antique,  dimntil,  f^^ 

whodc  mind  was  disordered  by  suflering,  wishing  ularly  planned  town,  surrounded  by  waifT 

after  long  banishment  to  see  his  country  again  defended  by  a  strong  fortrc«,  which  cwin^ 

ai  whatever  peril,  effectedVusTelum  thither^  but  the  valley  of  the  Stura  and  the    n>a<l^ 

being  eoodemnad  a^^ba&  aoutid^  teaicShaA.  lTino^>si  tSan  Qui  d* Argentic.    Tho  h^ 


FOSSIL  FOSSIL  FOOTPRINTS  62T 

are  built  upon  arches  over  the  footpaths,  and  (the  forest  marble)  were  fonnd  fossil  remidns 

the  passages  in  many  places  are  so  low  that  a  of  crabs.    The  next  discovery  of  fossil  tracks 

tall  person  can  hardly  walk  upright  in  tbem.  was  near  Hildbnrghansen,  Saxe-Meiningen,  in 

FOSSIL  (LaL  foasilUt  dug  out  of  the  ground),  1884,  in  the  member  of  the  new  red  sandstone 

a  term  formerly  applied  to  all  mineral  sub-  called  hunter  Sandsteiiu    They  were  made  ap- 

stanoes,  but  now  used  to  designate  only  the  re-  parcntly  by  a  reptile,  and  were  seen  as  impres- 

mains  of  organic  bodies  found  in  geological  for-  sions  upon  the  upper  surface,  and  in  relief  on  the 

mations.    The  general  subject  will  be  treated  under  side  of  the  slabs ;  one  measured  12  inches 

under  the  title  Pa  l^ontoloot,  and  the  more  in  length;  others  were  8  inches  long  and  5  broad, 

important  fos^  animals  are  considered  under  A  little  in  front  of  each  large  track  was  a  small- 

their  respective  names.  er  one,  and  the  footsteps  were  seen  following 

FOSSIL  FOOTPRINTS,  or  Ichnolitss  (Gr,  each  other  in  pairs,  the  intervals  between  two 
(vvDc,  track,  and  Xc^or,  stone),  impressions  of  the  pairs  bein^  about  14  inches.  Five  toes  were 
^t  of  animals,  originally  made  in  clay,  sand,  or  imprinted  m  each  track,  the  great  toes  appear- 
mud,  and  retmncd  m  the  shale  or  sandstone  re-  ing  alternately  on  one  and  the  other  side.  The 
suiting  from  the  petri&ction  of  these  materials,  animal  was  named  cheirotherium  by  Prof.  Kaup, 
They  are  met  with  chiefly  in  the  new  red  sand-  from  the  resemblance  in  the  form  of  the  track 
stone  formation,  or  in  the  overlying  strata  of  to  that  of  the  hand.  Similar  impressions  were 
the  lias.  In  a  few  instances  they  have  been  afterward  found  in  a  rock  of  corresponding  age 
found  in  the  old  red  sandstone  or  upper  devo-  near  Liverpool,  England.  In  studying  the  fos- 
nian,  both  in  this  country  and  in  Europe.  The  sil  remains  of  reptues  that  had  been  found  in 
tracks  are  of  extinct  genera  of  animals,  and  fre-  this  division  of  the  new  red  sandstone  in  Ger- 
qnently  of  forms  so  strange  that  there  is  some  many  and  in  England,  Prof  Owen  was  con- 
uncertainty  in  referring  them  to  their  appropri-  vinced  that  instead  of  saurians,  to  which  they 
ate  order  or  even  class  in  the  animal  kingdom;  had  been  referred,  they  belonged  to  the  batra- 
and  it  is  indeed  a  question  as  to  some  of  them  chian  order,  and  were  the  remains  of  frogs  of 
whether  they  belong  to  the  invertebrate  crusta-  gigantic  size.  Further  investigations  resulted 
oea,  or  to  the  mammalia  of  the  higher  division  in  the  opinion  that  these  were  the  animals  that 
ofvertebrata.  Many  are  unmistakably  the  tracks  made  the  tracks.  Some  features  in  the  fossil 
of  reptiles ;  some  are  of  batrachians,  others  prob-  bones  induced  other  distinguished  anatomists  to 
ably  of  marsupials,  and  others  of  birds ;  while  regard  them  as  belonging  to  crocodiles,  and  by 
the  place  of  many  cannot  be  positively  deter^  others  again  they  are  referred  to  the  marsupi- 
mined  in  the  last  8  represented  classes.  The  alia. — ^Fossil  tracks  had  been  found  in  the  sand- 
tracks  vary  in  size  from  gigantic  impressions  20  stone  of  the  valley  of  the  Connecticut  at  South 
inches  in  length  by  18  to  15  in  breadth,  suppos-  Hadley,  Mass.,  as  far  back  as  the  year  1802, 
ed  to  belong  to  monster  batrachians,  to  minute  which  resembled  so  closely  those  of  birds,  that 
marks,  which  resemble  those  made  by  small  iso-  they  were  familiarly  spoken  of  as  the  tracks  of 
pod  crustaceans,  or  those  of  the  sow-bug  group.  **  poultry"  and  of  **  Noah's  raven."  They  at- 
They  follow  each  other  in  lines  over  the  surface  tracted,  however,  no  attention  beyond  the  im- 
of  the  strata,  and  as  the  slabs  are  split  open  the  mediate  vicinity  where  they  were  found.  In 
depressions  are  fonnd  to  extend  through  many  1885  others  of  similar  character  were  observed 
laveni,  precisely  as  b  seen  in  tough  foliated  clay  in  the  flagstones  at  Greenfield,  Mass.,  which 
when  the  foot  of  an  animal  sinking  in  disarranges  were  brought  from  the  neighboring  town  of 
and  permanently  compresses  its  folise. — Public  Montague.  These  tracks  were  so  clear  and  well 
attention  was  first  directed  to  these  fossils  by  define^^  that  they  commanded  the  attention  of 
the  Rev.  Dr.  Duncan  of  Scotland,  in  his  paper,  those  employed  about  them,  and  one  of  the  la- 
aooompanied  with  drawings,  presented  to  the  borers  at  least  was  induced  by  the  singularity 
royal  society  of  Edinburgh  in  1828.  In  this  he  of  the  phenomenon,  like  Hugh  Miller  while  ob- 
deecribed  the  tracks  found  in  great  abundance  serving  the  fossils  in  the  red  sandstone  he  quar- 
in  two  quarries  of  new  red  sandstone  in  Dum-  ried,  to  become  a  faithful  student  and  zealous 
ftieashire,  appearing  on  the  successive  layers  of  collector  in  this  department  of  geology.  (See 
tiie  rock  throughout  a  thickness  of  at  least  45  the  letter  of  Dexter  Marsh  to  the  editor  of  the 
fMtb  He  inferred  from  the  repetition  of  their  '*  American  Journal  of  ScienceJ"  voL  vi.  new  se- 
ooevrrence,  that  during  the  deposition  of  the  ries,  p.  272.)  Among  others,  Dr.  James  Deane 
aaod  of  which  the  rock  was  composed  the  im-  of  Greenfield  became  interested  in  these  tracks, 
preoions  were  made,  filled  in,  and  buried  up ;  and  in  March,  1885,  addressed  a  communication 
and  as  the  newer  layers  were  similarly  impress-  to  Prof.  Hitchcock,  state  geologist,  in  which  he 
ed,  tfiey  too  were  covered  in  their  turn.  He  represented  them  as  the  tracks  of  birds,  as  he 
OMMired  one  line  of  tracks  extending  from  20  supposed,  '*  of  the  turkey  species ;"  and  in  a  seo- 
te  to  feet  Dr.  Buckland  regarded  them  as  the  ond  letter,  against  Prof.  Hitchcock's  declaration 
of  land  tortoises.  In  the  ''Geological  in  reply,  "that  they  could  not  be  the  result  of 
dings"  for  March,  1881,  is  a  description,  organization,"  he  maintained  his  conclusion  thait 

Hr.  Scrope,  of  impressions  of  footsteps  re-  they  were  the  tracks  of  birds.    He  then  caused 

*  "  ig  those  of  crabs  seen  upon  the  surface  of  casts  to  be  made  of  some  of  the  specimens,  which 

„  _  oua  tilestones  of  the  lower  oolite  in  Wilts  he  sent  in  April  with  a  third  commxvt^\caX>KRiL^ 

^Clloiioestershire.     In  the  same  formatioa  ProL  BitcboMik,  aiA  vn^Vlkivt  i^ai^Na^x^^^^ 


828  lOBSIL  lOOIKRUITS 

BmnL  editor  of  the**  American  Journal  of  Sci-  f;fatabjthapablieatkiisofFkt£mdwock,vH 

enoe,*^  the  latter  intended  for  publication.    By  broa^t  prominently  before  the  geologieal  aoei* 

advice  of  Prot  Hitchcock,  this  diq^tion  waa  ety  of  London  in  1849  l>y  Dr.  Minlell,  who  pre- 

not  made  of  the  communication  for  the  '*  Joar-  amted acommnnication  accompanied  withyeci" 

nal,"  on  the  ground  that  he  himself  would  be  mens  which  he  had  recdTod  from  Dr. 

able  to  give  in  a  few  months  a  more  fbll  and  These  served  to  remove  the  iceptfcian 

aaUsfactonr  paper.   During  the  ensuins  summer  tainedby  the  endnent  geologista  aid  pakHaaol- 

Frot  Hitchcock  occupied  mmself  assiduously  in  ogists  m  Great  Britain  npon  the  natare  of  Iba 

investigating  this  subject,  and  near  the  dose  of  tracks,  admitting  which  to  be  of  birda  eits^ 

the  year  he  prepared  the  paper  which  appeared  lished  an  eariier  date  for  the  introdacthi  if 

in  the  number  of  the  *^  Journal^  for  Jan.  1886.  these  bipeds  ^^than  waa  aothoriaed  hy  wmw  rm^ 

In  this  he  compared  the  tracks  with  those  of  tiges  heretofore  discovered^  and  the  thaab  if 

living  birds,  givmff  fllustrations  of  the  recent  as  the  society  were  warmly  and  nnanimnwly  a- 

well  as  fossO,  and  advocated  the  opinion  that  pressed  for  so  valuaMe  a  enmmmiiratioo.*  Olh- 

the  tracks  were  made  by  extinct  species  of  birds,  er  commnnioationa  fWm  Dr.  Daaae  appaHil 

and  that  these  were  for  the  most  part  of  the  or-  with  iUnatrationa  in  the  ^^TnaamAm  ef  tht 

der  of  grallm  or  long-legged  waders.    He  found  American  Academy  of  Arte  and  Bel— caa*  (nL 

them  in  8  varieties  of  the  sandstone  which  oc-  iv.,  1849),  and  in  the  ^Journal  of  the  Aammj 

cur  irregularly  interstratified— a  reddish  shale,  of  Natural  Sciences"  (March,  18M);  aaial  the 

or  a  fine  micaceous  sandstone  passing  into  shale:  time  of  his  death  in  1868  n  memoir  lllHlnaii 

n  gray  micaceous  sandstone;  and  a  very  hard  with  70  beantifoDy  executed  fignraa  waa  fva- 

sandstone,  not  fissile,  but  very  brittle,  compos-  sented  to  the  Smithsonian  Inatitiitioa.    li  UM 

ed  of  day  and  sand.    The  beds  attain  in  some  the  legislature  of  IfssaarhniieetB  pvbBAai  aa 

places  a  thickness  of  more  than  1,000  feet,  the  elaborate  report  by  Prot  Hit^^hftodc  ''Oa  te 

tracks  occurring  at  intervals  throughout  the  se-  Sandstone  cv  the  Conneoticot  YaUey,  • 

ries.    He  ascertained  their  occurrence  near  the  ita  Fossil  Footmarks,*^  constitatiDff  n  f 

Connecticut  river  in  6  places  witMn  a  distance  nme  of  i88  pages  with  60  platea/ffiwlniiaf  U9 

€i  80  miles,  and  anticipated  that  many  other  lo-  apedes  of  animals  known  only  by  thai  ^    * 

calities  would  be  discovered  along  the  ran^  of  footprints  found  in  this  sandslooa.    The ! 

the  sandstone  of  the  Gonnecticut  valley  within  Ing  table,  found  on  p.  174  of  the  report^  pran^ 

and  beyond  the  limits  named.    The  dip  of  the  a  genend  view  of  the  resoha  arrived  at  ^  Frot 

strata  containing  the  tracks  varied  from  6"*  to  Hitchcock  as  respecU  the  area  over  whkh  te 

80^ ;  bat  the  impressions  were  evidently  made  tracks  are  founo,  their  number,  oii  tbiir  lb- 

while  their  surface  was  level.  Their  occurrence  tribution  in  the  animal  kingdom  accofdiBft» 

through  so  great  a  thickness  of  strata  could  only  the  arrangement  of  the  author : 

be  accounted  for  on  the  supposition  that  the  sur-  jj„„^,  ^  ,^^j^,^,  of  tr^rk.  i«  tu  nJWy  ik«  a. 

face  was  subsiding  during  the  time  of  the  deposi-         di«ooT«r«<t : » 

tion  of  the  rock.     Single  tracks  were  frequently  fe.*y">  <>' »>*•  •^?*'«n«^»J  eonui«inf  tnck*  imii«>      r 

.  1  .  I  •         A        •  i«   _   i.  1  Width  of  the  MoilBton«>  belt  roaUlnlBctrftrk*      ~      t  cr  I 

traced  m  regular  succession,  turning  alternately  whole  number  of  ipede.  in  th.T«iky£icrtbed«k.T,     \^ 

to  one  and  the  other  side,  as  birds  sometimes  Number  of  bipeds c 

walk;  and  the  surface  of  some  of  the  layers  was  S'k'S^^'Sli^'iJSi: :;;:::: :::;::'::: * 

found  to  be  trodden  thickly  over,  as  is  seen  in  without  proper  feet..!!!!.*.*!!."!!!*.!!!!!!!!!'..         a 

With  AB  uncertain  number I 

If  artnpialoid  anlmnls ) 

« 


muddv  spots  resorted  to  by  ducks  and  geese. 

Prof.  Ilitclicock  described  7  species  of  tracks,  TbiXtSd  bi^i' 

which  he  calle<l  ornithichnites,  one  which  he  fig-  Narrow-toed  Wnii 

ured  measuring  full  16  inches  in  length  and  10  m  ££^"**  "'•^  **  batmehtaB.. 


width,  and  recurring  at  intervals  of  4  to  6  feet  Batrachiaaft.'tiM  *fyof 'mmi'  'aaiamaBdeV  iu^ij !!!!.!.! 

along  the  surface  of  the  rock,  which  distances  £{11^*"^  ^*  tonoi«t  ikmiij j 

were  thus  the  measure  of  the  strides  of  the  cni»taoeaii'myHap«i*awi  inii^  :♦ 

animal.     His  views,  however,  as  he  afterward  Anneiidt,  the  nakedwonu » 

remarked,  were  not  adopted  by  scientific  men,  Of  uncertain  plaee • 

with  a  few  eminent  exceptions.    The  novelty  Anions  the  most  remarkable  of  these  are  sec 

of  the  subject,  and  the  discovery  of  new  locali-  of  the  huge  tracks  supposed  to  belong  t4>  btttrs- 

ties  and  new  forms  of  the  tracks,  kept  alive  a  chians,  the  dimensions  of  one  of  which  Ksr« 

stronff  interest  in  the  investigations  which  con-  been  already  given.    This  animal  (otmmim  JT^^ 

tinned  to  be  prosecuted  by  Prc»f.  Hitchcock,  ^I'i),  though  allied  to  the  fro^  and  to  the  lols- 

Dr.  Deane,  Mr.  Marsh,  Mr.  William  C.  Red-  manders,  must  have  been  like  an  elephacc  n 

field,  and  others,  whose  observations  were  re-  siie  and  weight.    The  lMUt4)m  of  th«  hind  f  ^-c 

corded  chiefly  in  the  *^  American  Journal  of  appears  to  have  been  furnished  «*ith  a  wr\ 

8cience.^^    In  1840  the  American  association  which  extendetl  beyond  its  mannn  and  ct«D«t* 

of  geologists  and  naturalists  appointed  a  com-  ed  together  the  4  toes,  and,  thou|;h  OLmpa^c^ 

mitteo  to  investigate  the  nature  of  the  tracks,  by  Prof.  IIitchcoi*k  to  a  snow  shw,  did  n*.<  pcv- 

and  this  committee  at  the  next  annual  meeting  vent  the  animal's  sinluog  tothedc|*ih  i>f  d  UKbe« 

reported  **  that  the  cndence  entirely  favors  the  at  least  into  the  mud.    Fur  a  Umi:  time  no  trB^** 

views  of  Prof.  Hitchcock."   Tlie  subject,  alrea-  of  more  tlian  the  2  hind  UneX  woe  fuond ;  (<: 

dy  introduced  to  the  noUoe  of  European  geolo-  finally  unmiatakabte  tracka  of  tha  tot  iJcct  wen 


FOSSIL  FOOTPRINTS  629 

^scovered^  provided  with  5  toes  each,  and  not  and  although  occnrring  in  the  same  geological 
more  than  ^  as  large  as  the  hind  feet.  The  tracks  group  with  the  tracks,  Uie  strata  were  evident]  j 
are  verj  ahundant  in  South  Iladley,  and  one  im-  somewhat  more  recent  by  reason  of  their  higher 
mense  slab,  too  large  to  be  removed,  lies  by  the  position  in  the  series.  One  locality  of  them 
side  of  the  public  road,  presenting  on  its  upper  was  at  East  Windsor,  Conn.,  and  another  in  the 
Borface  10  or  more  great  impressions  of  the  hind  grounds  of  the  Springfield  armory  in  Massachu- 
feet  of  the  animal .  A  vie  w  oi  this  locality  and  slab  setts.  Professor  Jeffries  Wyman  regards  them 
isgiven  in  the  frontispiece  of  the  work.  The  track  as  unquestionably  the  bones  of  a  reptile,  but 
of  the  hrontotoum  giganteum^  one  of  the  thick-  having  the  remarkable  feature  of  hollo wness 
toed  birda,  is  very  common  in  South  Hadley,  also  of  structure.  Coprolites  have  been  discovered 
mbove  Tumer^s  falls,  near  Greenfield,  and  at  oth-  at  Chicopee  Falls  and  at  Turner's  falls.  Dr. 
er  localities.  It  was  originally  described  by  the  Samuel  L.  Dana,  on  analyzing  those  fh)m  the 
name  oi<muthichnitagiganteta^  and  was  figured  former  locality,  detected  uric  acid  in  about  the 
in  Buckland's  *'*'  Bridgewater  Treatise."  The  an-  same  proportion  that  is  found  in  some  varieties 
imal  was  probably  several  times  lar^r  than  any  of  guano.  This,  considered  in  connection  inih 
Otftrich.  One  of  its  tracks  will  hold  a  gallon  of  the  other  ingredients,  led  him  to  the  conclusion 
water.  The  dinomis  of  New  Zealand  is  among  that  the  ooprolite  was  that  of  a  "  bird  belong- 
birds  the  only  one  whose  bones  indicate  an  ap-  ing  to  the  class  which  has  deposited  the  beds  of 
proach  to  such  a  size.  Many  tracks  formerly  sup-  guano.'*  ("  American  Journal  of  Science,'*  vol. 
poaed  to  have  been  made  by  birds  are  now  refer-  xlviii.  p.  60.)  Impressions  of  raindrops,  exact- 
red  to  the  group  designated  as  ornithoid  lizards  ly  like  those  made  in  soft  mud  during  heavy 
or  batrachians.  This  also  includes  some  enor-  showers,  are  very  abundant  over  the  surface  of 
moos  specimens,  as  those  comprised  in  the  new  many  of  the  slabs  containing  the  footprints; 
genua  gigantitherium.  No  trace  being  found  and  furrows  are  also  frequently  noticed  like 
of  more  than  2  feet,  and  these  having  3  toes  like  those  left  by  the  waves  upon  the  sand,  which 
those  of  birds,  the  animal  was  naturally  supposed  are  now  universally  recognized,  even  upon  the 
to  belong  to  the  ornithic  tribe ;  but  the  discovery  strata  of  much  older  formations,  and  described 
id  a  trace  of  a  long  tail  in  the  line  of  the  tracks,  as  ripple  marks. — ^The  numerous  specimens  of 
mmilar  to  that  made  by  living  reptiles,  gives  a  tracKS  collected  in  the  valley  of  the  Connecti- 
batrachian  character  to  the  vestiges,  which  has  cut  are  for  the  most  part  to  be  found  in  the 
induced  Prof.  Hitchcock  to  form  this  new  mixed  cabinets  of  Amherst  and  Yale  colleges,  the  Wes- 
ffronp.  In  the  species  G.  caudatum  the  whole  leyan  university,  the  Boston  society  of  natural 
wnfftii  of  the  foot,  from  the  extremity  of  the  history,  and  in  Uie  private  collection  made  by 
middle  toe  to  the  end  of  the  heel,  is  17.5  inches,  Dr.  John  0.  Warren  of  Boston.  The  trustees 
and  the  whole  area  covered  is  about  a  square  of  the  will  of  the  Hon.  Samuel  Appleton  of 
foot.  From  the  remarkable  rectilinear  arrange-  Boston  appropriated  $10,000  to  be  expended 
ment  of  the  tracks  there  is  some  ground  for  sup-  for  Amherst  college  in  the  erection  of  a  suitable 
posing  that  tlie  animal  may  have  had  2  other  building  for  a  scientific  collection.  This,  called 
feet,  with  the  power  of  walking  on  the  2  hind  the  Appleton  cabinet,  was  furnished,  through 
feet  alone  or  on  all  four.  The  reference  of  some  the  libendity  of  others,  with  sufficient  funds  to 
of  these  tracks  to  the  movement  of  fishes,  either  secure  a  large  collection  of  these  specimena, 
upon  the  surface  of  the  land,  as  some  kinds  are  President  Hitchcock  himself  contributing  a 
Imown  to  have  the  power  of  progressing,  or  by  series  of  them,  valued  at  $2,000.  The  lower 
swimming  close  iio  the  soft  bottom,  is  made  with  story  of  the  building,  100  feet  long  and  80  wide, 
hesitation  by  Prof.  Hitchcock.  One  set  of  marks,  is  exclusively  appropriated  to  their  arrange- 
however,  cutting  the  summits  only  of  the  little  roent,  and  is  nearly  filled  with  them.  Some  of 
ridges  left  by  the  ripples,  so  strongly  suggests  the  largest  slabs  are  80  feet  long,  and  others  are 
this  origin,  that  a  genus  has  been  introduced  from  8  to  10  feet  square,  weighing  nearly  a  ton 
under  the  name  of  ptiliehnus,  from  imXop^  each.  They  are  generally  arranged  on  tlieir 
fin  or  feather,  and  ix^t^  track.  The  tracks  edges  upon  strong  tables,  and  so  placed  that 
referred  to  insects  are  necessarily  of  very  ob-  both  surfaces  are  exposed  to  view,  one  side 
wore  character ;  some  of  them  are  so  minute  as  presenting  the  footprint  depressed  and  the 
not  to  exceed  ^V  o^  <^  ^^^^  ^^  length.  It  is  other  in  reliefl  The  whole  number  of  in- 
only  by  reason  of  their  continuity  in  long  paral-  dividual  tracks  exceeds  8,000. — Other  disoov- 
kl  rows  that  they  attract  notice.  Those  sup-  eries  of  fossil  footprints  followed  those  made 
posed  to  be  made  by  worms  much  resemble  the  in  the  Connecticut  valley.  Mr.  William  0. 
traeks  of  similar  creatures  seen  upon  the  mud  Redfield  in  1842  found  one  in  the  New  Jersey 
oil  the  shores  of  ponds  after  rains.  It  is  remark-  red  sandstone  at  Boonton,  presenting  8  thick 
mUe  that  very  few  bones  or  coprolites  have  been  toes  furnished  with  claws  or  nails ;  the  track 
ioniid  among  the  tracks.  As  to  the  bones,  their  measured  6  inches  in  length  by  8^  in  breadth. 
absence  may  be  owing  to  their  being  devoured  Mr.  Logan  about  the  same  time  discovered 
or  washed  away  with  other  vestiges  by  the  ebb  what  appeared  to  Prof.  Owen  to  be  reptilian 
tides  to  other  localities,  or  they  may  have  been  tracks  in  the  strata  of  the  coal  formation  in 
iHssnlved  by  water.  Those  discovered  were  not  Nova  Scotia,  the  first  indication  of  an  air- 
Ib  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  localities  that  breathing  animal  so  low  in  the  series  of  forma- 
abonnd  in  tracks^  though  not  many  miles  off;  tions.    This  was  followed  in  1844  by  a  descrip- 


FOSTSB  fOUOAmX 

tkm  of  nmnerooB  traekt  met  with  aft  aarard  iiif  iniiUdwitfitlieBijptiiiitarahtlMvnolfii 

places  in  Weetmorelaiid  €0.»  PeniL,  by  Dr.  to  deTole  Idmidf  to  the  mjiitus^  aad  flaiihedl 

Alfred  T.  King.    The  stnU  which  eontianed  Us  stodies  at  the  Baptist  aoBsga  in  BrirtoL 

them  were  sandstoDea  of  the  coal  fonnaUoii*  He  eomnMoead  liiscaraer  aa  a  wf sasliarat  Saw- 

The  imprewionii  were  remarkably  dlstinct»sooia  oastloKm-TTna  ia  ITM-and  aftarward  waaa  ta 

being  uparently  of  a  biped  with  ft  toea,  and  DabUii,aBd  aadaaTOfod  UMoeaaarfbllly  to  aila^ 

othen 01  qnadrnpeds having 5  toes,  some  vpoQ  Bsh  Llmself  either aa aaraaciiuir or sghonJBMrtsr, 

an  their  feet  and  others  npon  the  hfaid  feet  In  ITgThewenttoaBiytfstahapslinCliiAii 

akme,  with  4  toea  apon  the  fore  feet    These  tar.andthenoasaooesslTalytoDowBaadialMt 

Tostigea  were  OTidenttr  reptilian,  andprodnced  ana  to  Aoma  In  1804;  bat  thoqgh  his  pnssh- 

by  creatores  of  kindred  stractoTB  to  tl»sdUlr»>  !ngwsapowafftil,itBMdalittlaarnoifimiim 

tamam  of  Enrope.    ThepaperofDr.Kfaigi^  on  tha  pondar  mind.    WhUaallVoamhaint 

peared  in  the  ^ProoeedlngB<^  the  Academy  of  published  his  ealebratad^Smay%'*  and  aha  hs> 

jratoralScienoeaofFhlhidelphia''forNoT.  and  camathe  principal  oontrlbotor  to  the  ^XdiA 

Dea  1844^  and  in  the  ^American  Journal  of  BeTiew,"*  theartideaforiHaiA(18SiBBmaM 

8denoe^Tol.zlTiiLp.ft4ft.    In  1849Mr.Isaao  formed  hiaalmostaiBloslTalitaimy  labor  fertt 

Lea  of  Philadelphia  annoonoed  the  oooorreooa  years.  In  1817  he  mtarnad  toDoaaaai" 

of  footprinta  of  a  laige  reptile  at  PotUTiOe,  he  wrote  hb  '*Isss¥  an  the  Evils  af 

Bran.,  in  the  red  shate  fonnatlon  which  un-  Ignoranoei** in  mhkSk  he givaaaa  appa! 

derliea  the  cosl  measores;  and  in  18B1  Prot  aoripttonofthabarbafismprarailinf  intba] 

H.  D.  Rogers  disoorered  in  tlie  same  forma-  clsassa  of  the  Soalish  popniatlon,-   aipst 

tion  other  tracks  of  4-footedaidmalfl^wUih  5  toea  which  he  ealb'*aflMMfl^ymoiioto^y;dastt«M* 

ooaUtheirfeet    In  1860  tracks  of  a  reptile^  oot  his  dance.**    Hia  health  fellinf^bathsBmi* 

aoppoaed  to  be  aoheloi^an,  ware  obaerred  in  pjloyedhimedfchlc^inprspaiingwaitaferAi 

the  old  red  sandstone  at  Crnnmingstone,  Eng-»  press»  thoo^  preacning  at  intJfik  1i  Mi 

land.    Mr.  Logan  in  186S  foond  tracka  of  an  death.    Ha  wsa  a  promad  thinker 

animal  in  the  Potsdam  sandstone  oi  Canada^  arfbl  writer.    The  ^Lifa  and 


which  aresnppoaed  by  Prot  Owen  to  haye  been  of  FoaterCiTolsLftraXaditadl^  J.K.^|toi. 

made  by  more  than  one  speciesofartioolataani-  waa  pnblbhad  in  1846w    Hia  **  Hisliwhal  mi 

mals,  prdbabliy  alBed  to  the  king  crab  or  Umu^  Biognqthical  Essays**  appaaiad  in  ~ 

hi$.    Prof.  James  HalLin  the  ''Report  on  the  1850  in  1  Tola. 

Paleontology  of  New  York,**  toI  u.,  deseribea  FOSTER,  Rabikkjb  S.,  DJ>^  is 

tracksofgastaropodayCmstaoea^dBC^  which  are  Methodist  olergjrman,  bom  in  WilBaaMlai|( 

met  with  in  the  strata  of  Uie  Clinton  groap.  Ohio,  Feb.  9i,  1820.    He  rscelTed  hissdawtioB 

FOSTER,  JAHXSy  an  English  disscDting  min-  at  Aogosta  college,  Ey.^  entered  the  aHBistrj  it 
ister,  bom  in  Exeter,  Sept  16,  1697,  died  Nov.  the  age  of  17,  inid  was  recelTcd  Into  the  Okk> 
ft,  1753.    Ue  was  educated  in  his  native  city,  oonfereooe,  and  iq>pointed  to  travel  n  cimii 
began  to  preach  in  1718,  and  after  removing  In  tlie  moantain  region  of  western  Vapak 
from  Devonshire  to  Melbourne,  and  thence  to  While  stationed  In  Cincinnati  in  1848  he  vivu 
Ashwick,  succeeded  Dr.  Gale  as  pastor  in  Bar-  a  series  of  letters  entitled  ^  Obiectiooa  to  CaI- 
bican,  London,  in  1724^    He  subsequently  be-  vinism.^    In  1858  he  reeeived  the  honanrr 
came  lecturer  at  the  Old  Jewry,  and  in  1744  degree  of  D.D.  from  the  Ohio  Wasleyan  ad- 
minister at  Pinner^s  hall.    His  reputation  for  versitv.    In  1854  he  pnbli»hed  a  work  cntitW 
doquence  was  such  that  persons  of  every  rank,  ^*-  Christian  Purity  ;^  m  1855  another  cnciljtJ 
wits,  free  thinkers,  and  clergymen  of  different  the  ^^  Ministry  for  the  Time«.**    In  1856  ha  was 
penuaMons,  flocked  to  hear  him.  Pope  song  his  elected  president  of  the  North- WeOam  sci- 
praise :  veraity  at  Evanston,  IlL,  a  post  he  still  hokhL 
Let  modefi  Forter.  tf  u  win.  ezc«i  POTHERING  AT,  a  parish  and  Tillsca  cf 
T«n  matrupoiiUM  In  preftchiDg  well ;  Northamptonshire,  England,  on  the  river  Xeoe, 
and  Savage  ascribed  to  him  alone  the  art  ^^at  27  m.N.E.  of  Northampton.    Its  fiuoKMM  asik» 
once  to  charm  Uie  ear  and  mend  tlie  heart/'  the  birthplace  of  Rfchard  III.,  and  tha  scene  tif 
Bolingbroke  erroneously  attributed  to  him  the  the  imprisonment,  trial,  and  execntioo  af  Mirv, 
saying :  ^  Where  mystery  begins,  religion  ends.*'  queen  of  Scots,  was  Ibonded  in  the  reign  of  the 
Beside  many  sermons,  lie  publbhed  an  ^^  Essay  Conqueror,  and  paDed  down  bir  Jamas  L  loiaa 
on  Fundamentals,  especially  the  Trinity'*  (1720);  aAcr  his  accession  to  the  English  throne.    Tla 
^  Defence  of  the  Usefulness,  Truth,  and  Excel-  village  contains  a  handsome  chorch,  in  which 
lency  of  the  Christian  Religion"^  (1731);  and  were  bnried  Edward  and  Rkhanl,  dakc*  oi 
**  Discourses  on  the  Principal    Branches  of  York,  the  former  slain  at  Aginooort  and  the 
Natural  Religion  and  Social  Virtue'*  (London,  latter  at  Wakefield. 
1749-^53).  FOUCAULT,  Liox,  a  Freneh  nataral  p^.i 

FOSTER,  JoiRr,  aa  English  eraayist,  bom  in  loeopher,  bom  in  Paris,  ScpL  19,  1819.     WhJ» 

Halifax,  Yorkshire,  Sept.  17,  1770,  died  at  Sta-  stndving  medicine  he  wss  deeplr  un|ir*swd  by 

CetoQ,  near  Bristol,  Oct.  IS,  1843.    In  eariy  life  the  discoTeries  of  Dagoerra,  aaJ  turned  his  st- 

» wss  engaged  in  the  business  of  a  weaver,  to  tention  exdusiTely  to  opt  ics.    Ho  rmptdly  «> 

which,  howerer,  as  to  all  manual  labor,  he  had  quired  proficiency  in  thi»  branch  or  nataral 

an  iorincible  dislike;  and  si  Una  ag|a  ol  VI^\a^*  \Jt]&ks0v^^^  and  la  1844  ho  intinied  aa 


V 


FOUOHt  681 

jkBting  electric  apparatus,  which  was  at  ODce  bj  the  amnesty  of  Oct.  26, 1796.  He  afterward 
adopted  by  natural  philosophers  for  all  their  succeeded  in  ini^ratiating  himself  with  Barras, 
physical  experiments,  while  it  was  aliio  used  as  the  president  of  the  directory,  bybetraying  to 
a  means  of  lighting  large  factories  or  yards,  him  the  movements  of  Babeuf.  The  latter  was 
With  Hippolyte  Fizeau  he  made  a  series  of  deli-  guillotined  in  1797,  and  Fouch^  was  rewarded 
cate  and  raluable  experiments  upon  the  phe-  with  a  large  interest  in  the  outiBt  of  the  army, 
nomeua  of  light  He  solved  a  problem  which  had  and  in  Sept  1798,  by  beinff  made  ambassador 
attracted  the  attention  of  Wheatstone,  Arago,  to  the  Cisalpine  republic.  In  the  beginninff  of 
and  many  others;  demonstrating,  by  a  very  in-  1799  he  was  sent  in  the  same  ci4>acity  to  fiol- 
ffenious  contrivance,  that  the  velocity  of  light  land,  but  was  soon  called  to  Paris  to  enter  upon 
differs  materially  while  passing  through  a  va-  the  duties  of  minister  of  police  (July  81),  He 
cuum  or  through  transparent  bodies.  He  was  adopted  rigorous  measures  against  political  agi- 
no  less  successful  in  mechanics  than  he  had  been  tators,  without  distinction  of  party,  cooperated 
in  optics ;  by  means  of  the  pendulum  he  gave  a  in  the  coup  d'etat  of  the  18th  Brumaire  (Nov. 
new  and  striking  demonstration  of  the  rotatory  5, 1799),  and  strengthened  Bonaparte's  position 
motion  of  the  earth;  and  by  this  curious  ex-  byhisvigilancein  detecting  royalist  and  Jacobin 
periment,  which  has  been  repeated  all  over  tiie  conspiracies ;  but  the  first  consul,  who  distrusted 
worid  by  scientific  men  and  learned  societies,  Fou-  the  mercenary  and  intriguing  disposition  of  his 
cault  is  perhaps  better  known  than  by  fldmost  any  minister,  discarded  him  as  soon  as  the  appar- 
of  his  other  discoveries.  The  gyroscope,  another  ent  return  of  tranquillity  rendered  it  practica- 
instroment  with  which  he  experimented,  not  ble  to  dispense  with  his  services.  The  suppres- 
only  affords  new  indications  of  the  earth^s  ro-  sion  of  the  ministry  of  police,  and  the  union  of 
tation,  and  serves  to  measure  it,  but  furnishes  a  the  office  with  the  ministry  of  justice  under  the 
means  of  determining  astronomical  positions  charge  of  a  superior  Judge,  was  the  pretext  for 
without  observation  of  the  heavens.  Foucault  his  dismissal  (Sept  1^).  He  was  made  a  sen- 
was  rewarded  for  his  labors  by  an  appointment  ator,  a  post  which  yielded  him  about  $18,000 
to  an  important  post  in  the  imperial  observatory  annually,  and  Napoleon  rewarded  him  beside 
at  Paris,  and  since  1845  he  has  been  engaged  with  half  of  the  reserve  fond  in  the  treasury  of 
in  furnishing  weekly  scientific  papers  to  the  the  police,  which  amounted  to  nearly  $500,000. 
Journal  dt»  debatM.  In  1804,  when  Napoleon's  position  became  more 
FOUCHfi,  JoBBPH,  Napoleon's  minister  of  complicated,  FoucW  was  again  enaployed.  He  op- 
police,  bom  at  La  Martiniere,  near  Nantes,  poscKl  the  execution  of  the  duke  d'Enghien,  and 
May  29,  1763,  died  in  Trieste,  Dec.  25,  1820.  told  Napoleon  "that  it  was  worse  than  a  crime, 
A  delicate  constitution  unfitted  him  for  the  pro-  that  it  was  a  blunder ;"  a  saying  which  has  since 
fession  of  his  father,  who  was  a  ship  owner  and  become  proverbial.  After  the  establishment  of 
aea  captain.  He  was  sent  to  Paris  to  study  at  the  the  empire,  he  was  formally  reinstalled  as  min- 
Oratoire^  but  did  not  take  holy  orders.  He  offi-  ister  of  police  (July  10, 1804),  and  under  his  ad- 
ciated  as  professor  of  philosophy  in  Arras  and  ministration  tranquillity  and  order  were  secured 
other  towns,  and  in  1788  was  placed  at  the  head  at  home,  while  Napoleon  was  engaged  in  fighting 
of  the  college  of  Nantes.  He  married  about  that  his  battles  abroad.  In  1809  he  received  the  title 
time,  became  an  advocate,  founded  a  republican  of  duke  of  Otranto,  with  a  large  pension  from 
association  in  Nantes,  was  chosen  in  1792  mem-  the  revenues  of  the  kingdom  of  Naples.  In  the 
ber  of  the  national  convention,  voted  for  the  same  year,  at  the  time  of  the  landing  of  the 
immediate  execution  of  Louis  XVL,  and  in  1798  English  on  the  island  of  Walcheren,  while  Orfetet 
proceeded  to  Lyons  with  Collot  d'Herboiai  the  minister  of  the  interior  was  sick,  Fouch^ 
charged  with  the  execution  of  the  decree  issued  managed  his  department  along  with  his  own, 
by  the  convention  against  tliat  city.  During  and  caused  the  whole  national  guard  of  France 
the  course  of  5  months  severed  thousand  per-  to  be  put  in  motion.  In  his  letters  to  the  pre- 
aons  were  put  to  death  at  Lyons,  and  more  than  fects  he  referred  to  the  absence  of  the  emperor, 
double  the  number  were  driven  into  exile.  By  and  called  upon  France  to  show  to  Europe  that 
means  of  a  telescope  Fouch6  was  an  eye-witness  although  the  genius  of  Napoleon  imparted  glory 
of  some  of  those  butcheries  from  a  distance.  One  to  France,  his  presence  was  not  required  to  pro- 
of them  took  place  under  the  window  of  a  hotel,  tect  the  country.  The  last  expression  gave  of- 
where  with  30  Jacobins  and  20  courtesans  he  was  fence  to  Napoleon,  although  he  approved  of  his 
engaged  at  dinner,  and  the  party  rose  from  the  measures  in  themselves.  In  the  following  year, 
table  to  enjoy  the  bloody  spectacle.  After  his  re-  Napoleon  having  opened  secret  negotuitions 
torn  to  Paris  he  was  elected  president  of  the  with  the  court  of  »t.  James,  Fouch^  in  igno- 
Jaeobin  club  (June  4, 1794).  His  influence  and  ranee  of  this  fact,  and  without  consulting  the 
opposition  gave  umbrage  to  Robespierre,  who  emperor,  despatched  the  speculator  Ouvrard  to 
caused  him  to  be  expelled  from  the  club ;  but  London  with  the  same  object;  upon  which  the 
he  rejoined  it  aft»r  the  execution  of  Robespierre  English  government  put  an  end  to  all  negotia- 
(July  28, 1794),  upon  whom  he  now  endeavored  tions,  and  Fouch6  was  dismissed  (June  5,  1810). 
to  throw  all  the  odium  of  his  violent  proceedings  Savary  became  his  successor,  and  the  govemor- 
et  Lyons.  But  he  was  denounced  as  a  terror-  ship  of  Rome  was  assigned  to  Fouch^,  as  a  sort 
Irt,  driven  from  the  convention  (Aug.  9,  1795),  of  honorable  exile.  But  though  he  did  not  go 
sod  placed  under  arrest,  but  restored  to  liberty  to  Rome^  he  waa  com^^WvR«svk'^x«B!«s^s^ 


FOUNDATION  FOUNDERY                   688 

Pope^s  works,  dco.  The  two  brothers  acquired  bo  compressed  as  to  prevent  the  piles  from 
in  time  an  ample  fortune,  which  thej  lost  by  sinking  by  the  lateral  friction  produced ;  or  a 
an  nnsuccessful  attempt  to  establish  at  Glasgow  platform  of  fascines,  timber,  or  concrete  may  be 
an  academy  of  painting  and  sculpture  for  the  interposed  between  the  surface  of  the  ground 
instruction  of  young  men.  and  the  superstructure,  thus  distributing  the 
FOUNDATION,  a  term  applied  to  that  por-  weight  of  the  latter  over  a  large  extent  of  bear- 
tion  of  a  building  which  serves  as  a  basis  on  ing  surface.  Artificial  foundations  under  water 
which  to  erect  the  superstructure.  Foundations  form  the  most  difficult  class  with  which  the 
may  be  divided  into  two  classes,  natural  and  engineer  has  to  contend.  If  the  ground  be  of 
artificial  The  first  class  may  be  again  divided  tolerable  finnness,  it  may  be  enclosed  with  a 
into  foundations  on  dry  ground  and  foundations  dam ;  but  there  is  always  danger  of  the  bottom 
mider  water.  Under  the  first  of  these  subdivi-  beins  lifted  by  the  pressure  of  the  water,  and 
•ions  several  cases  may  be  considered,  depending  wei^ting  the  ground  with  planking  and  stones 
upon  the  character  and  position  of  the  bearing  is  generaBy  resorted  to  as  a  preventive  measure, 
stratum ;  if  this  be  of  solid  rock  or  indurated  If  the  ground  is  semi-fluid,  the  construction  of 
gravel,  no  further  precaution  will  be  required  a  coffer  dam  is  impossible,  and  the  best  mode 
than  to  level  the  foundation  pit,  that  the  ma*  of  proceeding  is  to  sink  the  work  in  large  cais- 
sonry  may  start  from  a  horizontal  bed ;  any  sons,  the  bottom  having  been  first  covered  with 
irregolarities  which  may  occur  should  be  filled  a  bed  of  fascine  work,  weighted  and  sunk  with 
with  concrete  rather  than  with  masonry,  as  the  stones  or  brickwork.  This  method  is  much  used 
compression  of  the  mortar  joints  will  inevitably  by  the  Dutch  in  their  hydraulic  works,  and  the 
cause  irregular  settlement,  unless  cement  is  em-  fascine  beds  are  often  of  large  dimensions  and 
ployed,  and  the  mortar  joints  kept  as  dose  as  several  feet  in  thickness.  The  bundles  of  fa»- 
poasible.  Gravel  forms  one  of  the  best  of  soils  cines  cross  each  other  at  right  angles,  and  are 
on  which  to  build,  being  nearlv  incompressible,  securely  bound  with  tarred  rope  and  strength- 
easily  levelled,  and  unaJSected  by  exposure  to  ened  with  poles  and  wicker  bands ;  after  b^ng 
the  atmosphere.  Sand,  too,  is  almost  incom-  weighted  with  gravel  and  broken  stone,  they 
pressible,  and  as  long  as  it  can  be  kept  from  are  sunk  when  required  by  means  of  guide  ropes, 
escaping,  can  be  employed  with  advantage,  and  afterward  secured  by  long  stakes  and  piles 
Solid  rock  is  not  desirable  in  practice,  owing  to  driven  through  them.  (See  Bbbakwatxb,  Cox* 
the  labor  and  expense  of  levelling  it,  and  the  obetb,  Dam  (Coffeb),  and  Puje). 
difficulty  usually  experienced  in  large  works  of  FOUNDERT,  a  furnace  with  the  requisite 
forming  the  bed  entirely  of  this  material,  and  of  conveniences  for  melting  and  moulding  cast  iron 
thus  avoiding  the  danger  of  irregular  settlement,  or  other  metal  upon  a  large  scale.  The  special 
A  striking  illustration  of  the  latter  difficulty  apparatus  and  operations  belonging  to  them  are 
occurred  in  building  the  piers  of  a  large  aque-  described  in  the  article  Oastino  ;  to  which  a  few 
duct,  as  mentioned  by  Hughes  in  his  **  Papers  further  details  of  interest  may  here  be  added. 
on  the  Foundations  of  Bridges  ;^*  10  of  these  Founderies  are  often  conveniently  placed  near 
piers  were  founded  on  gravel,  and  the  masonry  the  blast  furnaces  in  which  iron  ores  are  smelted ; 
speared  without  a  flaw  when  carried  up  to  the  and  from  the  products  of  pig  iron  furnished  by 
height  of  50  feet;  the  11th,  however,  was  these  the  particular  qualities  are  selected  for  the 
founded  partly  on  gravel  and  partiy  on  very  second  fusion,  which  is  the  special  object  of  the 
hard  rock,  and  after  being  carried  up  to  about  foundery.  But  the  business  is  commonly  prac- 
80  feet  was  fissured  throughout  its  entire  tised  to  better  advantage  in  the  vicinity  of  large 
height,  owing  to  the  gravel  yielding  slightly,  ironmarkets,and  in  towns  and  cities  where  there 
whUe  the  rock  was  incompressible.  As  in-  is  a  constant  demand  for  castings  of  every  van- 
stances  of  the  expense  of  preparing  a  level  ety  of  form.  To  these  places  pig  iron  is  brought 
bed  in  hard  rock,  wo  may  mention  the  Eddy-  from  different  sources  and  of  all  varietiea,  af- 
atone,  Bell  Rock,  Skerry  vore,  and  Minot's  fording  to  the  founder  convenience  of  obtaining 
Ledge  lighthouses.  For  foundations  under  suitable  mixtures  for  the  kind  of  casting  re- 
water,  it  IS  often  sufficient,  and  generally  fea-  quired.  His  supplies  of  fuel  are  also  delivered 
ttble  except  in  the  case  of  a  rock  bottom,  to  with  the  greatest  convenience  and  certainty, 
bring  up  a  number  of  isolated  supports  or  piles,  and  his  business  is  thus  simplified  and  concen- 
In  other  instances,  however,  a  solid  foundation  trated  to  the  operations  o(  the  foundery  itself. 
is  required,  and  this  can  be  laid  on  the  ground  Borne  of  the  most  extensive  founderies  in  the 
unless  there  is  liability  to  scour,  or  the  firm  United  States  are  those  employed  in  the  manu- 
ground  underlies  a  soft  stratum  which  must  be  facture  of  stoves,  hollow  ware,  and  other  cast- 
removed  ;  in  either  of  the  latter  instances,  the  ings,  in  Albany  and  Troy,  N.  Y.  In  the  former 
water  must  be  temporarily  excluded  from  the  city  nearly  200,000  stoves  are  annually  pro- 
site  of  the  foundation. — Artificial  foundations  duced.  The  manufacture  of  wheels  for  railroad 
may  also  be  divided  into  ordinary  foundations  cars  is  an  especial  branch  of  foundery  opera- 
Ana  foundations  under  water.  Of  the  first  kind  tions,  demanding  the  highest  skill  and  judg- 
wehave  two  general  cases:  1,  when  the  ground  ment  of  the  founder.  This  also  is  largely  con- 
is  soft  but  not  fluid ;  and  2,  when  it  is  of  a  semi-  ducted  at  the  cities  named,  as  well  as  at  many 
flnid  nature.  Soft  ground  may  either  be  consol-  other  places  in  the  United  States.  Upon  Euro- 
idated  by  diving  piles  into  it  until  it  becomes  pean  roads  wrought  iron  wheels  alone  are  con- 


6M  FOUNOLDTG  H06FITAL 

ddered  tafe,  and  are  in  general  ue;  and  it  ia  efaiMreii  were  eommnnly  aipoaai  la  the  gj«- 

enly  b j  the  skill  and  ingenmtj  directed  to  Uiia  nasiom,  ealled  tfnomMrom^  and  in  Bobm  al  tba 

tainch  in  tiie  fonnderiet  of  the  Umted  Stately  ealwiiiMi  taetmnm,  n  fnDar  whSdi  alood  in  om 

that  cast  iron  wheels  are  brought  to  a  degree  of  the  pnUio  marlui  Jplaeea.    The  reecpCioa 

of  strength  to  admit  of  their  bdng  nsed  with  and  edncationof  fonndUnn  waa  eneonraged  bf 

safety.    These  wheels  essentially  require  the  the  state  by  assigning  thmi  m  ytv^lf  to 

opposite  qualities  of  lightness  and  strength ;  those  who  took  them  nnder  thsir  nroCectioa, 

and  to  give  the  hif^est  posnhle  degree  of  each  while  those  niqMroteoled  Ij  private  infiTidBals 

with  tlM  greatest  nardness  of  periphery  to  re«  were  to  be  edooated  at  the  pnblie  expcBsa.    U 

irirt  wear  has  proved  one  of  the  nicest  problems  appears  that  Athens  and  Bome  had  alan  cai^ 


Ibr  the  foonder  to  solve.     Distributing  the  period  pnblio  institntloos  §or  that  parpose,  ani 

metal  nneqnally  in  order  to  seonre  lightness  the  appellation  <^  fipi^rpai^nmw  is  haoeved  Is 

with  sofficient  strength  involved  danger  of  frao-  have  had  retoenee  to  that  in  thegjwiswf  if 

tore  by  nneqnal  shrmkage  in  cooling.    This  re«  the  former  city,  whUe  Borne  is  auppoaed  tohaif 

qnired  especial  provision,  which  was  chi^  posseased  an  establishment  of  the  aane  Uni  at 

met  by  a  snitable  mixture  of  diffiurent  qnalitlea  the  eslioMMi  laslorin.  Bnt  moat  foomlMMS  »t 

of  pig  iron.    So  nice  an  operation  is  it  to  ob-  left  at  the  merpy  of  thoae  who  imaa 

tain  we  different  degrees  of  strength  reqdred  8uetonina»  in  his  treatise  i^  72lwlrA«i 

in  different  parts,  that  atsome  of  tne  works  as  matieia^  refers  to  Gnipho  the  rlietoridan 

many  as  B  to  12  varieties  of  the  best  American  MelissQs  the  grammarian  and  eonie  post  m 


chareoalrmade  iron  are  nsed  in  each  wheel,  and  foundlings  who  were  taken  im  hy  nem 
the  selections  are  made  with  the  utmost  care,  persons,  and  who  achieved  diatiactka>    Ht 
With  each  heating,  tests  of  the  strength  are  generally  foundlings  were  educated  mi.  trustri 
made,  and  remedies  applied  to  correct  any  de-  aa  sUvea.  ffiven  in  pawn,  aold,  and  flanaaaijj 
fects.    The  periphery  of  the  wheel  requires  n  mutllatea  for  the  purpose  of  enlisting  ths  wfmr 
q[uality  of  iron  susceptible  of  acquinng  the  pathiea  of  the  benevolent.    Thia  pmelles  wm 
bluest  degree  of  haraness  by  the  process  of  even  excused  by  Seneca,  upon  the  gRHad  tfitf 
chilling,  and  yet  retaining  great  strength.    Be-  the  children  were  sieves.     The  exposae  of 
tween  the  periphery  and  the  hub  the  best  ehildren  became  so  common,  that  the  claarie  bh- 
method  of  securing  the  greatest  streuffth  in  pro-  torians  speak  with  admiration  of  the  naljnnswfcn 
portion  to  the  weight  of  metal  is  found  to  consist  abstained  from  ita  practice.    Strnbopraissstht 
in  making  the  web  double  and  of  an  undulating  Igsyptians  for  their  humane  la  wa,  and  iEliantht 
or  corrugated  form.    The  wheel  is  thus  hollow,  Theoans  for  their  reetrktlve  regnlatleas  oa 
and  is  provided  with  holes  for  the  escape  of  the  the  sulject ;  while  Tadtua  mentions  as  a  ci^ 
air  withia,  which  would  otherwise  expand  by  cumstance  deviating  from  the  practice  of  tbe 
the  warmth  derived  from  friction  and  hurst  tbe  Romans,  that  the  old  Germans  and  tbe  J«v« 
wheel.    The  capacity  of  some  of  the  founderies  considerisd  infimticide  as  a  crime.    EndeiT*^ 
en^^af^d  in  this  work  is  very  large,  a  single  es-  to  restrain  the  cruel  practice  of  ezpasin;;  rhi!- 
tablishmcnt  averaging  the  melting  of  over  40  dren  are  said  to  have  been  made  in  the  eaHj 
tons  of  iron  daily,  and  producing  over  140  car  days  of  Rome ;  Romnlos  is  said  to  have  pnv 
wlieels.    Other  foundery  operations  are  refer-  hibited  the  mnrder  of  sons  and  of  fir«t  Ka 
red  to  in  the  articles  Bbll  and  Cannon.    «  daughters.    But  as  the  popnlatton  incrt^M-J 
FOUNDLING  UOSPITAL,  a  pubUo  instita-  and  the  public  morab  declined,  tho«e  vk  > 
tiou  for  the  reception  and  support  of  deserted  had  more  children  than  they  wished  for  ex- 
children.     The  unwillingness  or  inability  of  posed  some  of  them.    Ornaments  and  trink- 
aome  parents,  especially  of  those  of  illegitimate  eta,  more  or  less  costly  according  to  the  cirrnu- 
children,  to  take  care  of  their  offspring,  has  led  stances  of  tbe  parentu,  were  deposited  in  masf 
to  the  establishment  of  such  institutions  in  instances  with  the  children,  partly  with  a  vicv 
many  parts  of  the  world.    The  nations  of  anti-  of  enticing  people  to  take  care  of  thenu  and  pa.t- 
quity  were  notorious  for  their  disregard  of  all  ly  for  the  purpose  of  f^Uitating  the  ident  idea:  :•« 
promptinf^s  of  humanity  in  the  t refitment  of  if  at  any  niture  period  the  oarents  fthi»nld  Ur  is* 
foundlings,     infanticide  was  punished  by  the  clined  to  recover  the  chiluren.     Gibbon  «5«: 
ancient  Egyptians,  and  the  guilty  parent  was  ^' The  exposition  of  children  was  the  prenuhnc 
obliged  to  pass  3  whole  days  and  nights  in  the  and  8tubi>om  vice  of  antiquity :  it  was  sooKiiTTirf 
embrace  of  the  corpse  of  the  deceased  child,  prescribed,  often  permitted,  almost  al  way  »pra<^ 
which  was  fastened  to  his  neck.    But  in  Athens  tised  with  impunity  by  the  nations  who  tK^vtr 
and  Rome  infanticide  was  largely  practised  un-  entertained  the  Roman  ideas  of  paternal  po*  t-r : 
cliecked  by  law,  and  there  is  even  reason  to  be-  and  tbe  dramatic  poet^  who  appi»al  to  the  K'> 
lieve  that  in  Rome  the  law  commanded  that  man  heart,  represent  with  indineronr«  a  pi«pQ- 
deformed  children  ahould  l»e  put    to  death,  lar  custom  which  was  palliated  by  the  roi^tn^ 
Of   the   two   crimes  of   infanticide   and   de-  of  economy  and  compassiun.     If   tbe  t'other 
sertion,  the  latter  was  in  most  instances  pre-  could  subdue  hb  own  feelings  he  might  e«r«|>^. 
ferrvd  a.i  the  less  atrocious.     It  prevailed  ex-  though  not  the  censure,  at  least  tbe  cha^ti•<^ 
ten<(ively  in  all   the  states  of  (fn^eco  except  ment  of  the  laws ;  and  the  Roman  empire  «t« 
Thebes,  wliere  both  child  murder  and  the  expo-  stained  with  the  blood  of  infant^  till  #och  mnr- 
sure  of  children  wore  forbidden.    At  Athens  ders  were  included  by  Valentinian  and  his  c^- 


FOUNDLING  HOSPITAL  68S 

leagaes  in  the  letter  and  spirit  of  the  Ck>me1iAn  to  the  assistance  of  the  poor,  and  of  fonnd« 
law.  The  lessons  of  Jurispmdence  had  been  lings  and  orphans.  A  separate  foundling  ho«- 
insufficient  to  eradicate  this  inhuman  practice,  pital,  under  the  name  of  hospital  of  the  H0I7 
till  their  gentle  influence  was  fortifiea  bj  the  Ghost,  was  founded  in  the  city  in  1180  by  a 
terrors  of  capital  punishment.^'  The  first  Chris-  zealous  member  of  that  order,  the  count  Guy 
tian  emperors  did  not  venture  to  punish  the  of  MontpcUier,  which  was  sanctioned  by  Pope 
exposure  of  children,  but  Constantine  inflicted  Innocent  III.  in  1198.  During  the  13th  century 
the  pains  of  parricide  upon  fathers  guilty  of  foundling  hospitals  were  established  at  Rome, 
taking  the  life  of  their  children,  and  odled  ex-  and  at  Eimbeck  (now  belonging  to  Hanover), 
posure  also  a  kind  of  murder.  He  issued  orders  The  magnificent  foundling  hospital  at  Florence, 
to  deter  parents  from  it,  by  depriving  them  of  called  at  present  9f>edaU  degli  innoeentij  was 
all  hope  of  being  able  to  recover  the  children  founded  in  1816 ;  kmdred  institutions  were  es* 
even  if  they  should  pay  the  expenses  ihcurred  by  tablished  in  Nuremberg  in  1881 ,  in  Paris  in  1862. 
those  who  had  maintained  them.  He  also  decreed  and  in  Venice  in  1880. — ^The  great  hospital  of 
that  parents  who  were  too  poor  to  educate  their  Santo  Spirito  in  Rome,  on  the  right  bank  of 
cJiildren  should  receite  pecuniary  assistance,  the  Tiber,  near  St.  Peter's,  contams  a  found- 
bnt  the  practice  of  exposure  was  nevertheless  ling  hospital  capable  of  accommodating  up- 
continued  for  a  long  time  after.  Lactantius,  a  wivrd  of  8,000  children.  The  number  annn- 
Christian  father,  who  between  812  and  818  ally  received  is  about  800;  the  mortality  is 
became  tutor  to  Crispus,  son  of  Constantine,  about  67  per  cent,  in  the  hospital,  but  many  of 
describes  the  exposure  of  children  as  a  still  pre-  the  children  are  sent  out  to  the  country  to  be 
Tailing  remnant  of  barbarism ;  and  Julius  Ma-  nursed,  among  whom  it  is  said  to  be  still  greater, 
temos  Firmicus,  a  writer  who  lived  under  the  There  are  several  other  foundling  hospitals  in 
reignof  Constantine,  gave  particular  instructions  Rome;  the  total  number  of  foundlings  is  esti- 
for  casting  the  nativity  of  foundlings.  The  ex-  mated  at  upward  of  8,000  annually,  the  facili- 
posore  of  children  was  not  completely  prohib-  ties  for  admission  being  so  great  that  children 
fted  till  the  time  of  Valentinian,  Yalens,  and  are  brought  ft*om  all  parts  of  the  Papal  States 
Gratian,  in  the  latter  part  of  the  4th  century,  and  from  the  neighboring  Neapolitan  provinces. 
The  emperor  Justinian  passed  a  law  in  529  Its  revenue  is  about  (60,000  per  annum.  At 
which  declared  foundlings  to  be  free,  and  for-  Naples,  foundlings  are  chiefly  accommodated 
bade  those  by  whom  they  were  received  and  at  the  hospital  della  Annumiata,  There  are 
educated  to  treat  them  and  detain  them  as  in  Naples  annually  about  2,000  foundlings,  out 
slaves.  The  public  institutions  which  existed  of  15,000  births,  and  out  of  a  population  of 
for  the  reception  of  foundlings  in  Rome  in  the  about  400,000.  Naples  has  the  reputation  of 
6th  century  are  called  by  Justinian  hrephotro-  devoting  mate  care  to  the  education  and  wel- 
phiti,  in  imitation  of  the  Greek  institutions,  but  fare  of  foundlings  than  any  other  city  of  Italy, 
nothing  is  said  about  their  regulation  and  or-  The  number  of  foundlings  in  Tuscany  is  about 
ganization.  Establishments  for  foundlings  are  12,000  out  of  a  population  of  about  1,800,000. 
said  to  have  existed  in  the  6th,  Tth,  or  8th  cen-  A  considerable  number  of  the  foundlings  in 
tory,  at  Treves  in  Germany,  and  in  the  7tii  Italy  are  supposed  to  be  legitimate  children^ 
century  in  Anjou  in  France.  The  capitularies  abandoned  by  their  parents  on  account  of  pov- 
of  Charlemagne  refer  to  foundling  hospitals  as  erty.  About  one  in  16  of  the  children  is 
distinct  institutions.  In  Milan  an  institution  claimed  by  the  parents ;  the  majority  are  cared 
was  founded  about  787  by  an  arch-priest  named  for  during  infancy  and  childhood,  either  in  the 
Datheus  in  order  to  prevent  infanticide.  Of  hospitals  or  among  the  neighboring  peasantry, 
the  prevalence  of  this  crime  he  gives  a  very  who  supply  them  with  board  at  a  small  remu- 
pathetio  account  in  the  letter  of  foundation,  neration.  When  of  suflScient  age  they  are  dis- 
which  has  been  published  by  Muratori.  The  missed  to  support  themselves,  but  in  many  of 
mothers  of  children  (mostly  illegitimate)  carried  the  hospitals  they  have  some  claim  in  after  life 
to  this  establishment  strewed  salt  between  the  on  occasions  of  distress  or  sickness.  Many 
swaddling  clothes,  to  denote  that  the  infant  children  carried  to  the  foundling  hospitals  are 
had  not  been  baptized.  The  foundlings  (jac-  accompanied  by  tokens.  In  the  hospital  degV 
taU)  were  suckled  by  hired  nurses,  supplied  innoeenti  at  Florence  a  piece  of  lead  imprinted 
with  the  necessaries  of  life,  taught  some  handi-  with  a  number  is  hung  round  the  neck  of  each 
craft,  and  at  the  age  of  7  they  were  discharged  babe,  in  such  a  manner  that  it  cannot  be  easily 
at  free-bom.  This  latter  regulation  was  prob-  removed.  By  these  means,  and  by  other  tokens, 
ably  made  by  Datheus,  to  guard  against  the  it  is  easy  to  obtain  information,  even  at  a  late 
eiuiom  which  then  prevailed  among  the  Franks,  period,  in  regard  to  each  child. — There  are 
and  also  in  other  countries,  according  to  which  foundling  hospitids  in  Cadiz,  Barcelona,  and 
the  foundlings  became  the  property  of  those  other  Spanish  cities,  and  several  in  Madrid. 
by  whom  they  had  been  received  and  educated,  The  girls  brought  up  in  the  foundling  ho^ital 
imless  they  were  demanded  back  by  their  pa-  at  Barcelona  were  formerly  led  in  procession 
rents  within  10  days.  In  1070  Oliver  de  la  when  of  marriageable  age,  and  any  one  who 
Trao  founded  at  Montpellier  a  charitable  order,  took  a  fancy  to  one  of  them  might  indicate  his 
th^  members  of  which  called  themselves  hotipi-  choice  by  throwing  a  handkerchief  on  his  &- 
tmlwrii  iancti  tpirituiy  and  devoted  themselves  vorite  girl  and  marry  her.    The  number  of 


886  IGUNDUNG  H06FIXAL 

fomidliiigs  amraany  received  ia  the  prineipel  dren  admitted  Into  tboee  afjlunt 
lioepital  at  Madrid  is  aboat  4,000.  Theho^tal  all  iDegitiiDate  or  of  nnkiioini  Mrentu  A 
ia  chieflj  served  br  sisters  of  charity.  The  in-  fionDdlinff  homital  was  estaMishefl  in  156S  in 
fimts  are  intrusted  to  nurses,  and  at  the  age  of  the  hospital  or  the  Hd|v  Ghost,  under  the  diree- 
l7  they  are  transferred  to  the  college  of  the  de$*  tion  of  the  bishop  of  Ivis,  and  managed  hy  an 
^mmparadoi  (forsakenX  where  they  receive  in-  assodaticHi  of  pnests.  The  diildren  wen  well 
'atmction.  Some  are  sent  to  an  asylum,  where  ednoated  there,  many  of  the  boyafor  the  priest- 
they  are  drafted  to  learn  practical  handicrafts,  hood,  and  many  of  the  siris  were  married  and 
and  this  asylnm  is  in  a  great  measore  a  self-  provided  with  dowries.  Botthbho^tal  (which 
aopporting  institution.  A  canons  law  eiists  in  was  suppressed  in  1670)  refused  to  reorive  ille- 
fikiam  by  which  every  foundUng  is  to  be  con-  gitimate  children ;  yet  they  were  the  principal 
adered  as  belonging  to  the  utility,  it  being  victims  of  misery,  and  th^  oonditioo  was  each 
deemed  less  wrong  to  raise  100  plebeians  to  as  we  have  above  described  when  BL  Tiaeot 
the  rank  of  noblemen,  than  to  aeffrade  one  de  Paul  appeared.  He  pleaded  with  grentftrror 
aingle  nobleman  to  the  level  of  a  plebeian.  The  and  eloauence  the  eanse  of  the  poor  children,  eol- 
total  number  of  foundling  hospitals  in  Spain  is  looted  ronds,  and  enlisting  ttie  ijraMthisa  «f 
estimated  at  id)out  70,  and  the  foundlings  at  women,  he  established  in  1^  a  new  tnstitadoa 
about  18,000.  In  Portugal,  where  illegitimate  lor  foundlings,  with  the  assistance  of  Iha  aises 
births  are  much  more  numerous  than  in  Spain,  of  tiie  keeper  of  the  seal,  De  MariWae,  of  XDa 
the  number  of  foundlings  is  said  to  be  very  Legras,  and  other  philanthropio  In^ea,  aBJ  wiA 
great.  In  the  neighborlKM>d  of  Oporto  counter  the  cooperation  of  the  king  and  the  conrt  I>v- 
women  may  be  met  conveying  oabies  to  the  inc  tiie  life  of  Vincent  de  Paul  it  rsndned  i 
flmndling  homital  of  that  city,  4  or  5  together  private  institution,  under  the  nalona  ears  «f  i 
in  a  basket  They  are  the  illegitimate  children  committee  of  ladies.  In  1670  the  liospital  wn 
of  peasant  girls,  who  are  forwarded  by  the  converted  into  a  publio  institatioa  ay  Loaii 
authorities  to  the  care  of  the  hospitaL  The  XIV.,  and  was  transferred  to  the  me  de  5etn 
mnta  ea$m  ds  miterie^rdiA,  an  immense  chari-  Dame.  Bevcnuea  wereasiigned  to  it  aai  tans 
table  establishment  of  Lbbon,  contains  a  found-  raised  for  its  support,  and  the  first  prastdit  aai 
linff  hospital ;  and  there  is  another  hospital  at  procureur-genertu  of  the  pariiament  pbesd  M 
Befem,  near  Lisbon  (the  r^al  ea$apia).  These  the  head  <n  ita  administratioQ.  Sobsemislly 
two  hospitals  receive  together  over  8,000  chil-  it  was  enltfged,  ud  althouf^  rimHar  nstilB- 
dren  annually,  who  are  brought  up  for  some  tfons  were  founded  in  other  great  dtiss  ^ 
trade  or  calling.  Almost  every  town  and  village  Prance,  at  the  charge  of  the  feudal  lords,  aboot 
of  Portugal  has  an  establishment  called  ea$a  S,000  foundings  came  annually  from  the  pror- 
de  muerieordia  which  takes  care  of  foandlings.  inces  to  the  capital.  They  were  sent  in  soch 
— ^jVmong  tho  first  hospitals  which  received  and  a  reckless  manner  in  crowded  and  ill«coodttioc- 
educated  foandlings  in  France  was  the  ffotel  ed  wagons  that  9  or  10  children  freqaeotly  dM 
Dieu  of  Lyons  (1528).  Francis  I.  founded  a  in  one  journey.  Tho  same  ioconveoicoce  sroM 
kindred  institution  in  1686.  A  few  years  after-  in  Lyons,  when  the  exportation  of  foandTtop 
ward  it  became  customary  for  sisters  of  charity  from  the  rural  districts  swelled  the  ncmbir 
to  ])]ace  foundlings  at  the  entrance  of  the  cathe-  fW>m  500  to  600  at  the  beginning  to  1.5<.4  to 
dred  of  Xotre  Dame  of  Paris,  and  to  enlist  the  1,600  at  the  end  of  the  18th  century.  Xfitr 
aympathies  of  the  publio  by  exclaiming : /hi7«9  the  revolution  of  1789  the  republic  as^^QiiM^ 
bUndeesfMurretenfanUtrautSi^^^  Extend  your  the  guardianship  of  foundlings.  The  terror- 
charity  to  these  poor  foundlings^*).  They  were  ists  decreed  (July  4,  1798)  tliat  they  sJiouM  be 
accommodated  in  an  asylum  called  la  couche  called  ef\fanU  de  la  pairie^  in  compltmeot  u 
(tlio  bed),  at  the  expense  of  t!io  dignitaries  of  their  illegitimate  mothers.  In  1798,  U.^M^.O^o^ 
the  law  and  of  the  church.  The  metropolitan  francs  were  assigned  toward  their  supit^^rt.  As 
see,  the  monasteries,  and  chiefly  the  hospital  of  imperial  decree  of  Jan.  19,  1811,  oni«rrd  th« 
the  Holy  (ihost,  were  all  called  upon  to  contrib-  e«tabli^ment  of  a  foundling  hospital  in  esrh 
nte  toward  their  support  The  dispensation  arrondissement  of  France,  to  be  gt>Ten>cd  bj 
of  this  charity  lod  however  to  grave  abuses,  the  following  regulations.  Tlie  children  ire 
The  women  hired  to  take  care  of  tho  children  suckled  and  weaned  in  the  hosf/ttalA.  and  kfp* 
traded  with  them.  Some  were  sold  for  20  sous  there  until  the  age  of  8,  when  they  are  pbrtd 
each  to  sorcerers,  who  purchased  them  for  use  under  the  charge  of  peasants  and  artisan^  vbo 
in  their  art ;  others  to  beggars,  who  paraded  receive  a  stipend  for  their  board  and  truniaf. 
the  children  with  a  view  of  securing  the  alms  Tliis  stipend  is  reduced  from  year  to  rear  mtil 
of  tlie  benevolent  The  asylum  was  transferred  the  children  reach  the  age  of  12«  when  the  sM<- 
to  another  place,  but  the  donations  were  not  bodied  boys  are  placed  at  the  di^pt^^  ^4  xh* 
sufficient  to  support  the  institution.  Tho  chil-  minister  of  marine,  while  fur  th<«*e  who  ir« 
dren  increasea  in  numbers  at  a  fcirful  rate,  invalids  some  Isltor  appropriate  t««  tln^ir  c%4aA\' 
Lots  were  cast  to  decide  which  of  tho  children  tion  is  provided  in  the  hoitrital.  Thrv  srv  t^je 
should  have  tlie  benefit  of  education,  and  thoso  property  of  the  state,  and  thotf«  who  f^  the  s,r» 
who  drew  blanks  were  entirelv  neglected,  of  12  have  not  been  taken  into  the  pcWic  «cr- 
Kany  children  lost  their  health  or  died  from  the  vice  are  immediately  placed  under  apprvntir*^ 
deteriorated  milk  of  sickly  nurses.    The  chil-  ship  by  the  administration  of  the    hi>fpita!. 


FOUNDLING  HOSPITAL  687 

The  annual  expenses  for  nursing  and  for  the  ont-  enoe  of  the  taming  hoxes;  bnt  the  qnestion  of 
door  hoard  of  the  children  below  the  age  of  12  their  preservation  or  snppressioa  depends  upon 
amount  to  7,000,000  francs,  which  are  paid  bj  many  other  considerations  beside  that  of  infanti- 
the  departments  to  which  the  children  belong,  cide,  and  continnes  to  be  a  subject  of  anxious  in- 
The  expenditure  for  clothing  is  from  1,500,000  vestigation  in  France.    This  much  is  certain, 
to  1 ,  800,000  francs,  which  is  paid  by  the  respec-  that  the  extraordinary  facility  afforded  by  the  law 
tive  hospitals.    The  number  of  foundlings  in  of  1811  for  disposing  of  children  produced  a 
France  was,  in  1784,  40,000;  1811,   69,000;  singular  increase  in  the  number  of  foundlings. 
1819,  99,846;  1825,  117,805;  1880,  118,073;  8o  great  was  the  effect  of  the  law  upon  the  people 
1833,  129,699  ;  1845,  96,788  ;  1856,  120,000.  that  it  was  not  oncommon  to  hear  parents  ex- 
These  numbers  include  only  children  below  the  claim  at  the  least  inconvenience  which  may  have 
age  of  12.    After  12  the  administration  ceases  been  produced  by  one  of  their  children :  J^  U 
to  keep  them  under  its  control,  but  the  found-  meiWai  auxenfantt  trouves.  It  was  also  discov- 
lings  between  the  ages  of  12  and  21  are  estima-  ered  that  parents  put  themselves  in  collusion 
ted  at  from  60,000  to  70,000.    The  proportion  with  those  appointed  by  the  hospital  to  nurse 
of  foundlings  to  the  population  is  1  to  853,  and  to  the  children  or  to  supply  them  with  board,  and 
births  l.to  89.    The  annual  number  of  found-  it  was  ascertained  ihat  there  existed  mothers 
lings  and  deserted  children  is  from  25^000  to  who,  after  having  discarded  their  own  oflfspring 
80,000 ;   yV  ^^^  illegitimate  and  -^  legitimate  by  secretly  depositing  them  in  the  turning  boxes 
children.    The  annual  number  claimed  by  and  of  the  hospitals,  fdterward  managed  to  ofiBciate 
restored  to  their  parents  is  about  8,000,  or  about  as  nurses  of  the  institution.    In  addition  to 
1  in  9.    The  average  life  of  the  foundlings  does  the  money  saved  by  throwing  the  support  of 
not  exceed  4  years.    The  extent  of  the  mor-  the  child  upon  the  hospital,  the  mother  thus 
tality  is  appalling;   it  is  52  per  cent,  during  made    gain  from  her  own    shame.    Another 
the  first  year,  and  78  per  cent,  from  the  first  source  of  evil  was  the  placing  of  foundlings 
day  to  the  12th  year  of  their  existence,  so  in  the  houses  of  peasants  and  artisans  in  the 
that  only  22  out  of  100  foundlings  who  are  vicinity  of  their  parents,  and  the  children  have 
bom  on  the  same  day  live  ta  the  age  of  12,  been  taken  away  from  such  dangerous  neigh- 
while  in  the  community  at  large  50  out  of  100  borhood ;  but  this  has  given  rise  to  serious 
reach  the  age  of  21.  The  convicts  and  prisoners  remonstrances  on  account  of  the  cruelty  of 
of  France  comprise  18  per  cent,  of  male  found-  separating  the  poor  creatures  from  those  who, 
lin^  and  \  of  the  inmates  of  houses  of  prosti-  by  their  ministrations,  have  enlisted  their  affec- 
tution  are  female  foandlings.    Previous  to  1811  tions.    Since  1888,  however,  the  policy  of  the 
the  admission  of  children  was  public,  and  they  suppression  of  hospitals  and  turning  boxes  in 
were  deposited  in  the  hands  of  an  officer  of  the  the  provinces,  and  the  displacement  of  children, 
institution  ;  but  the  decree  passed  in  that  year  has  been  favored  by  the  government,  but  the 
imposed  upon  each  arrondissemcnt  the  obligation  discussions  on  the  subject  are  far  from  being 
to  establish  a  hospital  of  deposit  for  the  recep-  exhausted.    The  number  of  children  admitted 
tion  of  children  who  are  deserted  after  their  into  the  foundling  hospital  of  Paris  in  1852  was 
birth,  and  to  provide  it  with  a  turning  box  in  2,808;  1858,  2,880;  1854,  8,441;  1855,  8,700; 
which  the  mother  or  any  other  person  could  de-  1856,  8,943.    The  smidl  numbers  of  1852  and 
posit  the  child  secretly.  In  accordance  with  that  1853  were  exceptional,  and  owing  to  the  meaa- 
decree  256  hospitals  were  established  provided  ures  adopted  in  the  former  year  by  the  admin- 
with  such  boxes,  and  17  without  them.    Bnt  istration  to   check  the  abuses  in  abandoning 
many  arrondissements  removed  the  boxes  and  children.    Of  those  admitted  in  1856  only  674 
the  hospitals  of  deposit,  and  the  total  number  were  supposed  to  have  been  legitimate ;  only 
of  such  hospitals  in  the  whole  of  France  was  in  551  were  born  in  the  department  of  the  Seine, 
1856  not  above  141,  of  which  only  65  were  and  282  were  foreigners.    There  is  also  a  provi- 
provided  with  turning  boxes.    There  is  still  a  sional  depot  in  Uie  hospital  for  the  reception  (tf 
nospital  of  deposit  for  each  department,  but  children  whose  parents  are  sick  or  in  prison, 
in  88  departments  they  are  unprovided  with  Of  1,890  children  admitted  to  the  depot  in  1856, 
turning  boxes.    The  suppression  of  the  turning  249  died  in  the  same  year,  and  877  were  trans- 
boxes  proceeded  from  the  conviction  that  the  ferred  to  the  hospital  in  consequence  of  the  death 
great  increase  of  foundlings  since  1811  was  due  of  their  parents  or  guardians,  or  their  inability  or 
to  their  use,  but  a  series  of  letters  by  M.  IJlysse  unwillingness  to  support  them. — ^Previous  to  the 
Ladet  appeared  in  the  Gazette  dee  trOnmaux  separation  of  Belgium  from  Holland  there  were 
in  1852  tn  favor  of  their  restoration ;  and  there  in  both  countries  19  hospitals  (2  in  Holland,  and 
are  still  many  who  think  that,  by  insuring  so-  17  in  Belgium),  and  in  1826  they  contained 
crecy  in  depositing  children,  tbey  are  power-  18,220  foundlings,  against  10,789  in  1815.    The 
iU  preventives  of  infanticide,  while  their  op-  cost  of  maintaining  Uiese  hospitals  was  $850,000. 
ponents  look  upon  them  as  an  encouragement  or  about  $27  for  each  foundling.     The  total 
for  unnatural  parents  to  discard  their  children,  number  of  children  annually  abandoned  in  Bel- 
and  prefer  the  restraint  imposed  by  the  publicity  gium  is  estimated  in  1859  to  exceed  8,000  ont 
connected  with  the  deposition  of  the  child  into  of  148,000  births,  or  about  1  in  18.    The  aver- 
the  hands  of  an  officer.  The  statistics  of  infanti-  age  expense  attendant  upon  each  infant  is  abont 
cidei  however,  are  rather  favorable  to  the  infla-  $14.    Foundling  hospitals  are  Tery  nnmerooa  ia 


688  VODHDUHa  HOflFITAL 

Btlghtm.    The  tnndog  hossm  fai  whiok  as  in   phot  fat  the  ohfldm  of  a^BUqr 
IhooMMi  ohUdrao  were  sewetly  dmoeitea,  haTe    need  as  an  ai^lnm  Ibr  islSuilai  wlio  ara 
been  declared  illegal  iinoe  1884.    Tbemoetim-    wifthont  any  q^iestiooa  being  aakad  abiNil  tbair 
porCantfoQDdlinglioe|iiUd  of  Holland  is  that  of    narents.    U  b  not  diflkent  Ihm  IIm 

fbnndling  " 


Amsterdam,  where  abbat  8,000  ehiklren  are  re-  ibandling  hospitals  of  Rtanftkhohn,  oiospi  Im 
eeived  anniian7.->In  Germanj  foandling  honi*  an  entranee  fee  of  about  186  has  to  ba  fM  §at 
tab  are  oonsito^  to  exert  an  nofavorable  in-  oTery  ohild.  Thb  Institntkm  b  in  n  ionriiyif 
iloenoe  upon  moralitj,  and  many  of  them  have  oonmtion,  and  has  an  ineoma  of  over  |lMi,0Q8 
been  abousbed.  The  foondling  hospital  of  Vi-  per  annmn.  Many  parsnts  who  an  idly  alia 
enna.  foonded  by  Joseph  II.  in  1784,  b  an  ad-  to  maintdn  their  ohildreo,  aand  tbam  la  His 
mirtuile  insdtntion,  ana  oontdns  a  lying-in  hoe-  hospital  in  order  to  be  rsBered  tnm  tfta 
pitaL  Therearerimilarinstitations  in  the  other  attending  their  training  and  edneatioik  T 
piindpal  cities  of  the  Austrian  empire,  but  are  foandling  hoapitab  in  OhrisHanh  aid 
m  the  German  states  the  qrstem  of  KHindling  Korw^gian  dtiesi  hot  the  nomber  of  inn 
ho^tab  has  been  gradoally  abandoned.  There  b  not  as  great  in  Korwy  aa  iaOwaiiaa, 
are  children's  aid  soeietiei^  orphan  asylnms,  troe  that  in  the4yeafB  preceding  18M< 
and  other  diaritable  institotioiM,  where  chil-  cUldbominthewholeoomrtiywaafD  _ 
dien  whom  their  parents  are  nnable  to  sop-  bat  thb  large  proportion  b  in  n  fiaal' 
port  are  edocated  at  the  ezpenseof  the  goT-  dne  to  the umg  time  wMeb  elapasabaii 
emment  or  of  priTate  diaritable  fonndaoona.  betrothal  and  the  marriage  of  the  pawtS|—M 
BntfoondlinghoepitabwereoonirideredinGer-  of  whom  OTentnaDr  aeoore  the  Ig^timaqrM 
asany  to  liave  saddled  the  people  with  taxea  take  care  of  tlieir  chUdien.— T£a  ftMHDbi 
which  ooght  to  hare  been  borne  ezdoriTely  by  hospital  of  Moaeow  (Fsialftiriliasf  Jhm)  wm 
the  parentis  and  at  the  same  time  to  haTO  in-  foonded  by  Catharine  U.  in  ITti.  H  b  sa 
ereassd  the  temptation  to  liosntioasnesa.  On  immense  ekablislmienti  which  haa  been  eatefi 
tiie  other  hand.  howoTer,  it  b  maintained  that  ed  by  a  member  of  the  Demidoff  ftm^y.  wis 
the  abolition  of  foandling  hoqiitab  tends  to  in-  oontriboted  largely  to  ita  sopporL  A  bii^ 
sreass  infontidde  and  abortuNk—Toward  the  in  hospital  and  amMb  are  oonaeeted  wlA  IM 
end  of  the  17th  centary  proposab  for  a  foond-  institntioo,  and  the  entire  nnmberoCila  InHbi 
ling  hospital  were  made  in  London.  Addison  b  upward  of  S6,OO0l  Tlie  mar  paii  af  ths 
was  among  those  who  wrote  in  fovor  of  ita  bdlding  b  «»propriated  to  the  inftinlSi  of  wi— 
esta]^shment(inthe ''Guardian"  in  1718).  It  there  are  always  aboot  8001,  with  the  asmi 
was  foonded  in  1780,  chiefly  through  the  ezer-  nnmber  of  wet  nnrses,  who  are  drsssad  in  a 
tions  and  at  the  expense  of  Oapt  Thomas  Ooram.  uniform  of  dark  cotton  gowna  and  white  aaroa^ 
Goram's  full-length  portrait,  painted  by  Hogarth,  and  the  peculiar  cap  worn  by  nurses  in  rnirii 
b  in  the  chapel  of  the  hoepital ;  and  the  great  The  girb  are  separated  from  the  boys.  Aboot 
painter  said :  '*  The  portrait  I  painted  with  the  6,000  children  are  sometimea  in  the  rillagef  ia 
most  pleasure^and  in  which  I  particularly  wbhed  the  environs,  the  peasant  women  reoeirii^  9 
to  excel,  was  that  of  Gapt  Coram  for  the  found-  rubles  a  week  for  suckling  and  taking  care  of  a 
ling  hospital/'  Coram^a  statue  was  also  placed  child.  The  inhabitants  of  a  large  Tillage  near 
there  in  1850.  Handel  the  composer  was  one  Moscow  are  entirely  devoted  to  the  bringing  v 
of  the  principal  benefactors  of  the  hospital,  of  the  foundlings.  All  children  are  reeesvf^ 
He  presented  it  with  an  organ  and  gave  several  whether  foundlings  or  not,  on  condition  that 
performances  for  its  benefit,  and  performed  his  thev  are  given  up  to  the  state.  In  1857, 14.000 
great  oratorio  of  the  ^^Messiah^^  for  the  first  children  were  received,  and  from  1768  to  18U, 
time  in  the  chapel  (May  1, 175dX  andfrequently  800,000,  indoding  60,000  bom  in  tlie  lyfaig^ 
repeated  it  there  afterward.  The  hospital  was  hospital.  In  June,  1858,  there  were  1,900  or 
opened  June  2,  1756,  and  adapted  to  maintain  phan  children  of  officers  in  the  institntioo.  Ths 
and  educate  500  children.  But  the  great  influx  payment  of  $25  by  the  parent  entitles  the  ehfld 
of  children,  the  br^  mortality  among  them  (in  to  be  brought  up  exclusively  within  the  walk 
the  foundling  hospital  of  Dublin  the  mortality  of  the  institution ;  one  of  ^00  proeorea  for  a 
was  still  greater),  and  the  abuses  consequent  boy  the  rank  of  an  officer.  Beside  becontac 
upon  the  facility  of  admission,  led  to  a  modifi-  soldiers  and  mechanics,  the  government  has  cf 
oation  of  the  institution  ;  since  1760  it  has  late  years  established  many  of  them  aa  fomcii 
ceased  to  be  a  receptacle  for  foundlings,  and  and  colonists  on  the  crown  lands.  Many  of  the 
waa  then  changed  to  what  it  now  b  (1859X  best  Rnscqan  engineers  have  been  educated  ia 
a  hospital  for  poor  illegitimate  children  whoso  the  institution.  Those  who  diqday  great  abili- 
mothers  are  known. — In  Stockholm,  where  ties  are  sent  to  the  oniTersity,  and  sooie  of 
publio  prostitution  b  prohibited,  there  are  tliem  become  physicians.  The  nu^^ority  of  the 
nearly  50  illegitimate  children  out  of  every  girls  are  employed  in  manoal  bbor«  the  pro- 
hundred  children  bom,  and  in  the  interior  of  ceeds  of  which  go  partly  to  the  treasnrr  of  the 
Sweden  one  out  of  nearly  11.  Hence  there  b  institution,  and  are  partly  saved  for  them  to 
n  great  number  of  children  to  be  provided  for  form  their  marriaae  portion ;  bat  those  of 
in  the  numerous  foundling  hospitab  of  8we-  superior  ability  find  opportunities  for  cokivaS- 
den.  The  Stora  BamhorU  hospital  of  Stock-  ing  it,  and  may  become  musidaoa,  act 
AQbI^  oi^ginally  ettaUiahel  by  Om^xua  Aik»V  fymuaaaw^  toMher^  4c    All,  witbonft 


FOUNDLING  HOSPITAL  689 

ence  to  a^  or  sex,  can  return  to  the  hospital  or  mnsical  edacation.  In  the  IjiDg-in-hospital 
should  they  fall  into  distress  in  after  life.  The  connected  with  the  institution  pregnant  women 
mortality  among  the  children  is  about  60  per  may  enter  a  few  weeks  before  their  oonfine- 
cent ;  the  expenses  amount  to  nearly  $5,000,«  ment,  and  the  strictest  secrecy  is  maintained. 
000  annually,  which  are  defrayed  by  the  gov*  Among  the  foundlings  are  many  of  legitimate 
emment.  The  VoipitaUlnoi  Dom  in  St  Peters-  birth.  The  number  of  illegitimate  children  is 
burg  was  founded  by  Catharine  II.  in  1772,  rather  small  in  St.  Petersburg  compared  to  some 
as  a  branch  of  that  of  Moscow,  but  it  now  other  large  cities.  In  Uie  hospital  itself  the  strict* 
edipses  the  parent  institution.  The  small  ori*  est  morality  prevaib;  and  on  one  occasion,  when 
ginal  endowment  of  Catharine  has  been  in-  one  of  the  inmates  gave  birth  to  an  illegitimate 
creased  by  private  donations  and  by  large  gifts  child,  the  late  emperor  Nicholas  is  said  to  have 
of  the  successive  czars,  and  the  hospital  is  now  threatened  to  disgrace  the  whole  body.  The 
one  of  the  wealthiest  landed  proprietors  in  Rus-  empress  of  Russia  is  called  the  mother  of  the 
sia.  Alexander  I.  conferred  upon  it  the  mono-  foundlings.  Stringent  laws  have  been  passed 
poly  of  cards  and  the  revenues  of  the  Lombard  since  1837,  by  which  the  foundlings  become  the 
bank.  The  annual  revenues  of  the  hospital  are  property  of  the  government,  and  the  hospitals 
now  estimated  at  $4,500,000,  and  the  expen-  in  St.  Petersburg  and  Moscow  furnish  a  constant 
ditures  at  about  (8,800,CK)0.  It  has  been  so  supply  of  recruits  for  tho  army  or  navy.  These 
much  enlarged  that  it  forms  now  a  little  district  establishments  are  admirably  managed ;  but 
of  its  own,  near  the  Fontanka  canal,  in  the  best  those  in  the  interior  of  Russia  are  very  bad,  and 
part  of  St.  Petersburg,  covering  28  acres  of  the  government  does  not  seem  inclined  to  favor 
ground.  In  immediate  connection  with  it  is  a  the  establishment  of  new  foundling  hospitals  in 
^ing-in  hospital.  The  staff  of  nurses  is  gener-  the  provinces.  The  property  devoted  to  the 
idly  from  600  to  700 ;  upward  of  500  teachers  support,  maintenance,  and  education  of  found- 
are  employed,  beside  a  staff  of  physicians,  cooks,  lings  in  Russia  is  said  to  amount  to  $500,000,« 
housekeepers,  &c. ;  the  total  number  of  nurses,  000.  Infanticide  and  abortion  are  almost  un* 
servants,  and  other  employees  being  rarely  less  known  in  that  country. — ^In  China,  infanticide  is 
than  6,000.  The  education  of  the  children  costs  practised  throughout  the  empire,  and  in  soma 
$1,000,000  annually.  In  1790  it  contained  only  provinces  tibere  are  from  600  to  600  children 
800  children,  and  in  1887  about  25,000 ;  the  an-  killed  per  month.  The  number  of  illegitimate 
nnal  receipt  of  children  is  now  about  7,000.  The  children  is  immense,  although  the  laws  punish 
only  question  asked  on  their  arrival  is  if  the  child  illicit  intercourse  wi^  from  70  to  100  strokes 
has  been  baptized,  and  by  what  name.  If  not  of  the  bamboo.  A  fonndliuff  hospital  has  been 
baptized,  the  ceremony  is  performed  by  a  priest,  established  at  Canton  in  the  hope  of  preventing 
and  the  mother  receives  a  ticket,  the  duplicate  infanticide,  but  only  about  500  children,  a  very 
of  which  is  placed  around  the  child's  neck,  small  proportion  of  the  births,  are  deposited 
The  mortality  is  greater  than  in  Moscow,  which  there  annuaUy. — One  of  the  most  important 
is  accounted  for  by  the  inferior  vigor  of  the  charitable  institutions  of  the  city  of  Mexico  is 
nurses  who  come  ft^m  the  vicinity  of  the  cap!-  the  euna  or  foundling  hospital,  in  which  there 
taL  A  great  many  children  die  on  the  way  to  are  usually  from  500  to  600  children.  It  is 
St  Petersburg,  some  being  brought  1,000  miles,  supported  by  private  individuals,  the  most  in* 
from  Siberia  and  Bessarabia.  I^me  die  imme-  fiuential  citizens  contributing  the  funds,  and  the 
diately  after  their  arrival,  and  others  during  the  Mexican  ladies  their  time  and  attention.  When 
tedious  ceremony  of  baptism,  which  lasts  several  a  child  has  been  about  a  month  in  the  hospital, 
hours.  Four  or  five  deaths  occur  daily  in  the  hoe-  it  is  sent  with  an  Indian  nurse  to  one  of  the 
pital,  or  about  8,000  annually  among  those  in  the  neighboring  villages.  These  nurses  are  subject 
a^lum  and  those  out  at  nurse.  About  50,000  to  a  responsible  person  who  is  a  resident  of  tha 
duldren  have  been  already  deposited  in  the  village  and  guarantees  their  good  conduct.  The 
cemetery  of  Okhta,  a  section  of  which  is  set  mothers  of  the  children  often  officiate  as  narse& 
apart  for  the  foundlings.  It  is  said  Uiat  not  and  are  paid  for  their  services.  When  weaned 
only  St.  Petersburg  and  the  immediate  vicinity,  tibe  chUa  is  brought  back  to  the  hospital,  but 
bat  one-half  of  Russia  sends  its  surplus  of  infan*  generally  the  chSdren  are  adopted  by  respect* 
tine  population  to  this  institution,  and  the  other  able  persons,  who  bring  them  up  either  as  ser- 
half  to  that  of  Moscow.  Upward  of  25,000  vants  or  as  their  own  diildren. — ^In  the  found* 
firandlings  are  constantly  enrolled  in  the  books  ling  hospital  of  Rio  de  Janeiro,  the  boys,  who  are 
of  the  St.  Petersburg  hospitaL  The  children  brought  up  in  the  neighboring  establishment  at 
are  given  in  care  of  wet  nurses  for  about  6  Botofoga,  are  in  due  time  apprenticed  to  trades^ 
weeu,  when  they  are  sent  into  the  country  and  the  girls  are  educated  in  the  city  establish- 
imtil  they  are  6  years  old.  They  are  then  ment.  At  each  anniversary  persons  in  want  of 
hffooght  back  to  the  institution  and  educated,  wives  attend,  and  any  one  who  wishes  to  marry 
the  schools  of  the  St.  Petersburg  hospital  being  one  of  the  girls,  and  whose  proposals  are  ao- 
sopedor  to  those  of  Moscow.  Mjmj  of  the  giru  oepted,  app&es  to  the  managers  of  the  hocgintal, 
qoalify  themselves  as  governesses  in  Russian  who  inquire  into  the  character  of  the  ap]>licantk 
lamiliea,  and  the  boys  as  artisans  in  imperial  If  it  poves  satisfiaotory,  the  marriage  is  per- 
mann&ctories ;  or,  as  in  Moscow,  they  receive,  mitteo,  and  a  small  dowry  is  given  from  tha 
ki  oiiea  of  special  capadty,  a  scientific,  literary^  fonds  of  tha  \ioB^\\a2L--^^^^xss^ 


640  FOUHTAIK  lOUQDR 

Mtablishment  of  fbnndllng  homltals  has  been   Ameriom  and  Eodiih  readen  it  Ukdh^  Oob* 

la         -       .- 


freqnentlj  proposed  and  cuaofused  in  difforent  ridge^a  admiralion  for  thia  lomaoea 

places;  but  the  pnblio  sentiment  aeema  aa  yet  boonded.     He  aald  there  waa  amnathfaf  in 

to  be  decidedlj  averae  to  it,  and  foondlinga  are  Undine  eren  beyond  8oott;  that  it  waa  ooa 

generally  provided  for  in  oommon  with  other  and  dn^^  in  prqfection,  and  liad  praaantod  to 

objects  of  public  and  private  charity.  hia  imagination  what  Boolt  had  Barer  doaai  an 

Iroill^rriaN,  a  W.  CO.  of  Ind^  bomi^  abaoiately  new  idea.    Menad  aaja  that  ITatfiat 

by  the  Wabash  river,  and  drained  by  Goal  and  will  alwaya  continue  one  of  tlia  moat  daijghtfcl 

other  creeks;  area,  about  400  sq.  m.;  pop.  in  creationa  of  German  fiction.    ▲  fVancIa  tran^ 

I860. 18,258.    It  has  a  level  surfiboe.  abont  t  ci  lation  of  Undku  appeared  in  Faria  in_181T. 

which  is  occupied  by  fine  prairie  land,  while  An  En^^iah  transktion  by  the  Bar. 

much  of  the  remainder  is  covered  with  thick  Tracy  of  Kewbnryport,  from  the  4th 

forests.    The  aoilcondsts  chiefly  of  a  rich  Uack    edition  (Berlin,  1884X  waa  pnUiahed  in      

loam,  well  adapted  to  wheat  iod  other  grain.  Most  of  the  other  romanoea  and  talaa  of  Foa- 

The  productions  in  1850  amounted  to  027,378  qui  have  been  translated  and  pnbfiahad  ia 

bushels  of  Indian  com,  60,081  (tf  wheat)  58,480  England.    The  ibUowing  are  the  tittlea  af  Ihi 

of  oats,  and  7,554  tons  of  hay.    There  were  26  English  transUtiona:  "^Aabx^^  KaiaM.*  Ihi 

churches,  1  newqmper  <^oe,  and  8,662  pnpila  **lugio  Ring,"  ^IGnistrel  Love,**  **ThlaMr 

attending  public  schook.    Coal  and  hron  are  oh-  iheIcdander,*'^TheTwoOqitidnaft'*nnd*TO 

tfdned  in  large  quantities.    Capital,  Covington.  Love.**    The  shorter  talea  are  coDaeted  mkt 

FOUQU£.  L  HuKBioH  Avoubt  dx  la.  Mfym^  the  title  of  **  Bomantio  FlolioiL**    Savwal  tf 

baron,  a  Prussian  general,  bom  at  the  Hague  theae  tranaUtiona  have  been  wipwHIribai  ia 

in  1698.  died  in  Prussia,  maj  2, 1774.    He  waa  America.    A  corrected  editSon  of  Ua     ~ 

deacended  from  an  andent  I^orman  ftmily  works waapreparedl^Foaqn4lMta« Ida 

which  had  fled  on  account  of  religioua  perae-  (12  vols.,  Halle,  1841). 

cution  to  the  Ketherlanda.    WhQe  atationed  at  FOUQUET,  or  FouoQim,  KiooiiAfli 

KOstrin  he  became  aoau^ted  with  the  crown  of  Belle-Ule,  a  French  minister  of  finsL 

prince,  the  future  Freaerio  the  Great,  who  waa  in  Paris  in  1615,  died  March  8S|  IMO. 

In  prison  there,  and  he  possessed  the  confidence  tered  the  pnblicaervice  at  aneavly  i^^ 

of  thatmonarehuntilhisdeath.  Cariyle describee  pocurator  general  of  the  parliament  of  Fviiia 

him  as  *'  a  ready-witted,  hot-tempered,  highly  1650,  and  was  devoted  to  the  intareatoef  Aaaa 

estimable  man.**    His  memdrs  (2  vols.,  Berlin^  of  Austria  and  of  Mazarin,  by  whoaa  ioiMnes 

1788,  in  French  and  German)  contain  his  cor^  he  was  made  superintendent  of  flnaneesL  Ate 

reepondence  with  Frederic,  and  hb  biography  the  death  of  Kazarin  (1661)  he  waa  siiiiulsnrai 

was  prepared  bv  his  grandson  (Berlin,  1824).  by  Colbert,  who  had  revealed  to  the  Vugtbs 

II.  Friedrich  IIeixbich  Kabl  dk  ul  Motti,  alarming  condition  of  afiairs.    Fooquet  hai  al- 

baron,  grandson  of  the  preceding,  a  German  ready  awakened  the  distrust  of  Maxarin  bv  hn 

novelist  and  poet,  born  in  the  town  of  Bran-  boundless  ambition  and  by  his  reckless  prodipl- 

denburg,  Feb.  12,  1777,  died  in  Berlin,  Jan.  ity.  His  chateau  of  Vanz  cost  18,000,0001 

23,  1843.    He  was  in  arms  in  defence  of  his  equivalent  to  double  that  amount  at  the 

country  in  early  youth,  and  again  in  1813  in  ent  day.    Fouauet  was  a  man  of  brilliant 

the  war  against  Napoleon,  was  wounded  at  Pelisson  was  his  secretary,  and  hia  di 

Kulm,  and  present  at  Leipsio.    His  delicate  con-  which  eclipsed  in  splendor  the  nbodea  of  n; 

stitution  untitling  him  for  permanent  military  olty,  was  a  resort  of  tlio  most  distingukhsl 

service,  he  tendered  his  resignation  soon  after-  men  and  women  of  the  age.     Moli^re  and  La 

ward.    Devoting  himself  henceforward  to  lit-  Fontaine  were  the  poets  of  this  endumtcd  dr> 

craturc,  he  became  one  of  the  most  original  cle,  and  on  the  occasion  of  a  lete  which  ha 

and  fertile  writers  of  the  romantic  school.    An  injudiciously  gave  in  honor  of  the  king  (Aa^ 

enthusiastic  love  for  the  ideal  Christian  cliivalry  17, 1661),  Molicre^s  comedy  of  Lee  fi  ' 

of  the  middle  ages,  and  for  the  ancient  national  performed  for  the  first  time.     Thia 

poetry  of  Scandinavia  and  Germany,  pervades  about  1,000,000  franco,  and  surpaased  in 


most  of  his  worlu;  and  his  worship  of  the  past  any  public  entertainment  ever  before  ciw  ■ 

was  carried  to  such  an  excess  in  some  of  his  France.    Tlie  king  wos  anything  Urt  iatMnd 

later  writings,  that  he  was  supposed  to  favor  at  seeing  his  own  pidaces  and  entertaiunaan 

the  perpetuation  offeudal  institutions,  especially  eclipsed  by  those  of  his  minister,  and  his  il 

as  auring  a  few  years  previous  to  his  death  he  feeling  against  Fouquet  was  increased  by  thelM* 

edited  in  concert  with  Alvensleben  the  Zeitung  ter*s  supposed  ambition  to  rival  his  maiTfr  ia 

far  den  dtuUehen  Adel  ('*  Journal  for  the  Ger-  the  affections  of  Mile,  dc  la  Volli^re.  On  ScfC  1^ 

man  Nobility").    One  of  his  most  charming  1661,  he  was  arrested,  and  prosecoted  lor  wt^ 

northern  tales,  **  Sintram  and  his  Companions,*^  versation.    His  trial  histeu  3  yoaok^^WI 

was  sufTgested  to  him  by  Albert  DOrcr  s  cngrav-  his  pai>ers  were  found  instructions  to  hi*  fmnh 

ingof  the  **  Knight,  Death,  and  Satan.*'   One  of  apparently  given  with  a  view  of  overthr^in  f-. 

his  otlier  tales,  ViaUOtnie^  or  Mandrait^  is  in  laozarin,  but  which  were  alleged  ogminst  him  «. 

Menzers  opinion  one  of  the  best  elaborations  incitements  to  rebellion.     He  won  ab«>  char|:«^ 

of  the  old  national  legends.    The  work,  bow-  with  enlarging  the  fortifications  of  his  e«taUiAh* 

ever,  by  which  he  moat  endeared  himself  to  ment  of  Belle-Isle,  with  the  same  tttrntm^tk 


FOUQUIEB-TIN  VJLLLE  FOUBIEB                      Ml 

intentions.   He  was  convicted  of  peculation  and  notes  and  additions.    In  1780  he  deHvered  a 

of  treason,  Dec.  20, 1664.    Of  22  jadges,  9  vot-  oourse  of  popular  lectures  on  diemistry  and 

ed  for  his  death  and  18  for  banishment  for  life,  natural  history,  which  attracted  a  large  audi- 

To  send  into  exile  to  foreign  countries  a  minis-  torjr,  and  were  published  in  1781.    In  1784  he 

ter  who  knew  so  much  of  the  secret  affairs  of  was  appointed  professor  of  chemistry  at  the 

France  as  Fouquet  did  seemed  dangerous  to  the  king's  ^rden,  now  jardin  de%  plarUety  for  which 

king,  who  consequently  commuted  the  sentence  post  he  had  been,  in  preference  to  Berthollet, 

to  perpetual  imprisonment.  After  his  arrest  he  designated  by  Buffon.    He  had  been  previously 

baa  been  successively  detained  at  the  castle  admitted  to  the  scientific  meetings  held  at  La- 

of  Angers,  at  Amboise,  at  Vincenncs,  at  Moret^  voisier's,  took  part  in  the  discussions  on  system- 

and  at  the  Bastile,  where  his  secretary  P^lisson  atizing  chemistrv,  and  was  one  of  the  editors 

was  idso  imprisoned,  while  his  wife  and  chil-  of    the    Methoae  de   nomenclature  ehimique^ 

dren  were  removed  to  Limoges.    He  was  now  which  appeared  in  1787,  and  marked  a  new  era 

(Dec.  28,  1664)  transferred  to  the  castle  of  in  the  progress  of  that  science.    He  meanwhile 

Pignerol,  and  put  in  charge  of  Saint  Mars,  the  published  many  pi^rs  upon  diemistry,  and  en- 

ftature  gaoler  of  Lauzun  and  of  the  man  with  larged  and  improved  his  lectures.    In  1792  he 

the  iron  mask.    He  was  treated  with  great  rigor  was  elected  asnstant  deputy  to  the  convention, 

until  toward  the  end  of  his  life,  when  he  was  and  for  18  months  devoted  his  whole  time  ana 

permitted  to  see  his  wife  and  children.    The  energy  to  extracting  and  purifying  saltpetre, 

progress  of  his  trial  and  hb  death  are  feelingly  whicn  was  then  much  needed  in  France  for  the 

referred  to  in  Madame  de  S^vi^n^'s  letters,  manufiicture  of  gunpowder.    During  the  reign 

This  distinguished  lady,  as  well  as  Mile,  de  Sen-  of  terror,  Desaul^  Chaptal,  and  Darcet  were  in- 

d^,  La  Fontaine,  8aint-£vremond,  and  many  debted  to  him  for  their  safety ;  but  all  his  exer- 

o^er  eminent  persons,  had  in  vain  asked  for  his  tions  were  powerless  to  save  Lavoisier.    After 

liberation.   Although  strictly  watched,  Fouquet  the  9th  Thermidor.  being  appointed  a  member 

contrived  to  write  considerably  while  in  prison,  of  the  committee  or  public  safety,  he  endeavor- 

and  several  works,  chiefly  on  religious  sub-  ed  to  improve  the  system  of  public  education ; 

Jeeta»  are  attributed  to  him.    The  documents  he  organized  the  polytechnic  school,   caused 

referring  to  hb  trial  were  publbhed  in  Holland  the  establbhment  of  three  schools  of  medicine, 

in  1666-*67  in  15  vols.,  ana  a  2d  edition  in  16  and  suggested  the  idea  of  the  normal  sdiooL 

Tols.,  under  the  title  of  (Euvres  de  M.  Fouquet^  On  the  acyoumment  of  the  convention  he  was 

fai  1696.    He  had  5  brothers,  8  of  whom  were  elected  to  the   council  of  ancients,  resumed 

priests  of  high  rank,  and  6  sisters,  all  nuns.  his   public   discourses  on  science,  remodelled 

FOUQUIER-TINVILLE,  Antoink  Quentiw,  hb  lectures,  which,  under  the  title  of  Syeteme 

tL  French  terrorist,  bom  in  H6rouel,  near  Saint  de$  ecnnaUeancee  ehimiquee,  et  de  leur  applv" 

Qnentiii,  in  1747,  guillotined  in  Paris,  May  8,  cation  aux  phenomines  de    la   nature  et  de 

1790.    He  studied  law  in  Paris,  was  for  a  time  Fart  (6  vols.  4to.  or  11  vols.  8yo.,  Paris,  1801), 

proourator  at  the  Ch&telet,  which  place  he  lost  became    "  the   greatest  monument  erected  to 

Ij  his  misconduct,  and  afterward  obtsdned  that  chemical  science  in  the  18th  century.'*    Bo- 

of  police  derk.    Ruined  by  vices,  and  harass-  naparte    appointed   him    director-general   of 

ed  by  debts,  he  threw  himself  among  the  most  public  instruction ;  under  hb  care  the  publio 

Tioknt  democrats  during  the  first  troubles  of  schoob  flourished,  and  no  fewer  than  800  colle^ 

the  revolution,  became  an  agent  for  the  police,  or  lyceums  were  establbhed.    The  organization 

and  after  the  establbhment  of  the  reyolutionary  of  the  new  university  of  France  was  devised 

tribunal,  March  10, 1798,  was  advanced  to  the  by  him,  and  he  expected  to  be  appointed  grand 

post  of  public  accuser  before  it    From  that  master ;  but  Napoleon  gave  the  place  to  Fon- 

time  till  July  28, 1794,  he  was  the  indefatigable  tanes.    Thb  preyed  seriously  upon  hb  mind, 

purveyor  of  the  gnUlotine.    Without  talent,  and  hastened  his  death.    Beside  tne  works  men- 

aiid  with  a  coldly  sanguinary  nature,  he  was  a  tioned  above,  he  left :    La  mideeine  SclairU 

pniper  man  to  execute  the  purposes  of  the  ter-  par  lee  eeieneee  phyeiquee  (4  vols.  8vo.,  1791),  La 

sorUrto.    Impasable  as  the  Jaw,  indifferent  to  philowphie  chimique  (8yo.,  1792,  reprinted  in 

Meodf  and  enemies,  with  equal  remorselessness  1795  and  1806),  Tableaux  eynoptiguee  de  ehimie 

hb  ient  to  death  Bailly  and  Danton,  Vergniaud  (atlas  folio,  1805),  and  many  scientific  papers  in 

Mid  Hubert,  Marie  Antoinette  and  Robespierre,  the  Memoiree  de  Vaeademie  dee  edeneee  and 

Booii  after  the  fall  of  Robespierre  the  convention  other  learned  collections. 

IffOi^t  him  to  Judgment,  and  he  was  con-  FOURIER,    Franqois   Mabis   Chabues,   a 

teuted  and  executed  with  15  other  agents  of  French  writer  on  social  science,  bom  in  Besan* 

M«ioliitk>nary  justice.  Con,  April  7, 1772,  died  in  Paris,  Oct  10, 1887. 

FOUROROY,  Aktoink  Francois,  count,  a  Hb  father  was  a  woollen  draper,  and  he  was  the 

— th  diemist,  bom  in  Paris,  Jan.  15,  1755,  youngest  of  4  children,  the  others  all  beinfp 

tihere,  Dec.  16, 1809.    The  son  of  a  dmg*  daughters.    From  hb  earliest  infancy  he  mani- 

fn  raduoed  circumstances,  he  tried  to  gain  a  fested  a  singular  originality  and  force  of  charao- 

by  several  callings,  but  finally,  in  1775,  ter.    When  only  5  years  of  age  he  was  flogged 

a  student  of  medicine.    In  1777  he  for  telliuff  the  trath  about  some  article  in  lib 

a  translation  of  Ramazzini^s  Latin  Other's  shop,  and  from  that  time,  as  he  says,  hb 

^ Vractise  on  the  Diseases  of  Mechanics,^'  with  mind  was  ahve  to  the  oonventional  falsehoods  of 
vou  vn. 


Q4S  FOUBEEB 

trade.    HebMantospeealatoalmoetasBoonas  bad  ever  metred.    It  was aoltfll  ISli^ 

be  could  think  on  the  subject  of  refonning  the  a  codt  of  thia  book  MI  into  the  baada  of 

proceaBes  of  commerce.    At  school  he  was  dill-  Jnst-Muiron,  an  enthoaiaatie  and  beoerola^ 

Snt  and  qniok  to  learn.    The  prizes  for  French  gentleman  of  Beaancon,  that  it  bad  mada  a  aia- 
emea  and  Ladn  verse  are  assigned  to  him  in  gle  convert    As  it  bore  the  imprint  of  LeipsM^ 
the  records  of  the  town  schod  for  the  jear  without  the  name  or  addreaa  of  the  aotbor,  il 
1785.    But  his  &Torite  eaxlj  studies  were  ge-  was  a  long  time  before  be  waaabla  to  ind  oil 
ography,  botany,  and  music.    His  pocket  money  Fourier,  who  then  resided  at  B«llej.  Jwl-lliiroa 
he  used  to  ipend  in  buying  fllobes  and  charts,  afterward  asnsted  him  in  the  prepaiatioo  mi 
and  much  of  his  leisure  time  be  devoted  to  the  pnblication  of  other  woriu.    In  18SS  waa  iasari 
cultivation  of   flowers.     He  was  sofSciently  a  Draiii  ds  ramoeiatwm  rfaam^jgtia  •yrtesiitf 
master  of  mudc  to  be  enabled  to  construct  a  new  vela.  Svo.),  which  in  its  lateat  Ibrm  appealed 
mudcal  notation,  which,  however,  baa  never  under  the  more  impodng  title  of  TmiU  dt 
oome  into  general  use.    On  leaving  school  he  TuniU  anitermUe^  and  waa  the  great  work  ef 
was  seat  to  Lyons,  where  beentered  as  derk  in  bis lifo.    As  <»iginaUy  conceived  by  the  anAh 
a  commercial  bouse.    He  was  then  about  18  dooa  mind  of  the  author,  it  waa  maaat  lo  esi* 
years  dT  age,  and,  liaving  a  vehement  desire  to  brace  9  volumea.  in  the  fottowing  order:  1,  the 
travel  and  see  the  world,  he  engaged  soon  after  abstract  principiea  of  pasrional  attraetioB,  mi 
aa  travelling  agent  with  a  highly  respectable  their  partial  apfdicatioD  to  industrial  Msoria- 
bouse,    whMe  bushieas  connections  extended  tions;  2,  fkmiliar  ayntbeaia  of  the  priDdplasef 
over  France,  Germany,  Switzerland,  Holland,  attraction,  and  their  emiilibriam  in  practe;  1^ 
and  Belgium.    This  gave  him  the  opportunitiea  the  analyris  of  man's  uiysicaly  moral,  wid  an»> 
for  observation  which  he  desired.    In  1798.  tal  nature,  individually  and  colleetiveW,  with 
hftving  received  about  $20,000  as  bis  share  <n  regard  to  individual  aode^  andmiverau  i 
his  fiUher*s  property,  he  began  business  tw  4,  methodical  synthesis  and  transoendcntal 
himself  in  Lyons,  embarking  fis  whole  fortune  ry ;  5,  commercial  dupJicity  and  minoi 
in  colonial  produce,  which  he  purchased  at  Mar-  petition;  8.  the  false  developineBt  of  ^ 
seilles,  and  expected  to  sell  at  the  former  city,  nature,  and  a  regular  analyna  and  ajMhwii 
But  Just  then  the  troqpa  of  the  convention  oo>  of  a  fiJse  development  of   aniveraai  aa 
copied  Lyons,  and  pillaged  the  inhabitants,  tak-  as  an  exception  to  univeraal  harmony;  T, 
ing  the  greater  part  of  Fourier'a  small  fortune,  versal    analogy  and  iUustniti<wa  to 
The  Lyonneee  rose  aeainst  the  revolutionists,  ony ;  8,  the  scientific  thewy  <tf  the  ii 
and  Fourier  Joined  them,  but  the  insurrection  ity  of  the  soul;  and  9,  di<^ionafT  of 
was  prompti  V  suppressed,  though  not  without  a  and  references  to  the  whole  work,  two  tqIbbm 
fearful  slaughter.    Fourier  was  cast  Into  prison  only  were  printed,  however,  at  Pari*,  and  tto* 
for  5  days,  hoariy  expecting  to  be  led  out  to  the  not  a  solitary  critic  or  review  noticed.    Fooner 
guillotine,  and  only  escai>ed  by  some  accident,  drew  up  a  brief  summary  of  their  cootcnti,  ia 
of  which  we  know  nothing.    Flying  to  Besan-  the  hope  of  getting  thorn  into  notice  in  thi: 
(on,  hb  native  place,  he  was  again  incarcerated  way.  But  no  one  spoke.  The  truth  wm,  Ois:  the 
as  a  suspicious  person.     By  joining  a  troop  of  subject  was  so  novel  and  was  treated  la  ^ 
the  revolutionary  army,  however,  he  was  en-  original  a  manner,  that  no  onlinanr  criric  U-.i 
abled  to  exchange  the  cell  for  the  saddle,  and  as  able  to  speak.    Fourier*s  system  had  l>cn  tL« 
a  chaueur  d  chetal,  a  light  dragoon,  ho  served  labor  of  bis  life,  and  it  required  the  nio<  f«> 
nearly  two  years  in  the  army  of  the  Rhine.  lie  tient  and  careful  study  in  order  to  be  ct«i{>-t^ 
obtained  his  discharge  on  account  of  ill  health,  bended.    lie  sent  his  work  to  many  of  the  Wad- 
Jan.  2-i,  1795.    During  his  connection  with  the  ing  statesmen  of  the  times,  with  the  Mme  re 
army  he  made  important  military  suggestions  suits.    No  one  was  ready  orwiUing  to  lendk/a 
to  the  government,  for  which  he  received  its  a  helping  hand.    I>Mippointed  and  dL%^rs*<^i 
thanks  through  Carnot     Subsequently  also  ho  Fourier  returned  to  Lyons  in  1S25,  wberv  b« 
attracted  the  attention  of  Nai>oleon  by  a  striking  aoce|)tcd  a  cashiership  in  a  comnh»rrijd  boev« 
political  essay  put  forth  in  a  local  journal.    On  at  a  salary  of  1,200  franca,  or  about  ^5«\  a  tcv. 
acquiring  his  liberty  again,  he  resumed  his  com-  In  1826  he  went  to  Paris  again  to  prepare  a'coc- 
mercial  pursuits,  but  his  mind  was  then  mainly  pendium  of  his  srcat  work,  which  however  v» 
absorbed  by  his  speculations  on  the  possibility  of  not  published  till  1829,  under  the  name  of  ths 
correcting  the  methods  of  industry.    In  1799,  ITouteau  monde  induMtriel  it  mtcietairt  (I  v«Z 
while  employed  as  a  clerk  in  a  wholesale  ware-  8vo.).    This  was  afar  more  attractive,  ckar.  s:4 
house  at  Marseilles,  he  discovered  what  ho  call-  iudicious  statement  of  his  views  tium  any  ths: 
ed  the  universal  laws  of  attraction,  and  of  the  he  had  yet  given,  but  it  was  received  with  ue 
essential  destiny  of  humanity  upon  earth.    lie  same  indifTerence  by  the  press.     In  1S;S1.  «k«a 
spent  many  years  in  elaborating  the*«e  discov-  the  St  Simonians  began  to  make  a  stir  in  FnuKV. 
eriea ;  his  first  work,  called  Theorif  Je9  quatre  Fourier  sent  forth  a  bitter  jiamphlet  aci:^4 
moutemtnU  et  de$  deatinfts  g^n^raUs^  was  not  them  and  the  followers  of  Robert  Owen,  mvc*- 
published  till  1803;  but  Franco  being  then  agi-  ing  them  of  utter  ignorance  of  fociAl  kmcx 
tated  by  the  projecta  of  Napoleon,  no  attention  and  of  gross  charUtanry  in  their  prvtra«for*; 
was  given  to  it,  although  it  was  oneof  the  most  and  from  that  time  his 'extraonlinanr  «n:isr* 
flights  of  the  aoientMLc  Ima^natioa  that  began  to  receive  the  attention  c^  minds  iadiBtti 


POURIEB  64S 

to  Bach  stadies.  Madame  Clarisse  Yigoreanx  lions  as  whimsical  and  dreamy,  wUl  find  abnn- 
was  one  of  his  first  disciples,  and  by  her  earnest  dant  material  for  thonght  in  these  ezposores. 
and  poetic  work,  entitled  Parole*  de  Pravi-  The  fundamental  and  leading  principles  of 
denee,  written  in  imitation  of  Lamennais*  Fa-  Fourier  are  summed  up  in  the  following  short 
roUa  d'un  croyant,  excited  a  vivid  interest  in  formulas :  *^  1.  The  series  distributes  the  har- 
the  subject.  Manjof  the  ardent  disciples  of  St.  monies  of  the  world.  2.  Attractions  are  pro- 
Simon,  seeing  the  more  precise  and  scientific  portional  to  destinies.  8.  Analogy  is  univer- 
nature  of  Fourier*s  socialism,  abandoned  their  sal.''  In  other  words :  1,  all  the  harmonies 
old  master  for  this  new  teacher.  On  June  1,  of  the  universe  grow  out  of  a  regular  and  nni- 
1832,  a  journal  of  the  socialistic  doctrines  of  form  order,  which  Fourier  denominated  the 
Fourier  was  begun  under  the  name  of  Le  pha-  law  of  the  series ;  2,  all  beings  are  led  to  and 
lanstire.  It  was  continued  for  only  two  kept  in  Uie^  true  sphere,  not  by  a  principle  of 
years,  although  it  laid  the  foundation  of  the  external  force,  but  of  internal  attraction ;  and 
Fourieristic  propaganda.  About  the  same  time  finally,  8,  the  universe  being  everywhere  the 
a  practical  attempt  to  realize  the  doctrines  was  same,  constructed  upon  the  same  infinite  model, 
made  at  Cond^-sur-Vesgre,  near  Rambouillet,  and  according  to  tne  same  eternal  laws,  must 
but  somewhat  against  the  will  of  Fourier,  who  in  every  sphere  repeat  itself,  or  be  analogous, 
saw  that  the  capital  was  insufficient  for  the  en-  These  general  principles  or  deductions  Fourier 
terprise.  In  1835  Fourier  published  another  carried  out  into  all  branches  of  science,  but  his 
work,  called  La  fausse  industries  mcrcelee^  re-  chief  application  of  them  was  to  social  science. 
fugnante^  et  mensonghe^  et  Vantidote^  Virtdut"  Society  oeing  composed  of  men,  he  be^an  with 
trie  natureUe^  CMnbinee^  attrayante^  veridique^  an  andysis  of  human  nature,  of  human  impulses 
dannant  quadruple  produit  (1  vol.  8vo.) ;  but  it  and  attractions.  The  permanent  principles  of 
added  nothing  to  his  original  discoveries.  The  nature  were  three :  the  active  principle,  or  spirit ; 
next  year  his  friends  commenced  a  monthly,  the  passive  principle,  or  matter;  and  the  neutral 
under  the  name  of  La  phalange^  which  was  vig-  principle,  or  the  mathematical  laws  of  Justice 
orously  conducted ;  and  when  the  subject  had  and  harmony.  The  nature  of  man  was  co6rdi- 
created  an  audience  for  itself,  a  daily  paper,  La  nate  with  this  division,  and  contuned :  1,  his 
demoeratie  padfique^  was  established,  under  the  physical  nature,  adapted  to  the  passive  prin- 
editorship  of  M.  Victor  Consid^rant.  This  main-  ciple,  or  matter ;  2,  nis  moral  nature,  adapted 
tained  the  propagation  till  it  was  discontinued  to  the  active  principle,  or  spirit ;  and  3,  his  Ihx 
during  the  reactionary  movements  which  fol-  tellectaal  nature,  adapted  to  the  neutral  prin- 
lowed  the  revolution  of  1848. — ^Fourier  died  in  ciples  of  law  and  justice.  The  common  object 
1837,  but  his  doctrines  had  then  obtained  some  of  all  his  physical  desires  is  sensuous  enjoyment ; 
Togue  in  France,  where  a  school  was  regularlv  the  common  object  of  his  moral,  mutual  affeo- 
organized  for  their  diffasion.  At  the  head  of  it  tion ;  the  common  object  of  his  intellectual, 
were Consid^rant,Gantagrel,  Victor Hennequin,  order  and  association;  while  over  all  presides 
Laverdaut,  Victor  Meunier,  and  others,  ardent  a  superior  tendency  to  unity,  or  universal  har- 
joung  men,  who  devoted  their  lives  in  the  spirit  mony.  The  essential  faculties  of  the  soul,  then, 
of  missionaries  to  what  they  supposed  to  be  the  or  impulses  to  action  or  life,  Fourier  analyzed 
reformation  of  the  world.  In  England,  Hugh  into  6  sensuous  "  passions,"  4  moral  passions, 
Doherty  placed  himself  at  the  head  of  the  move-  and  8  intellectual  passions.  Thus : 
ment;  a  large  weekly  paper  called  the  *^Pha-  r  i.  sicbt,  or  desire  for  ei^oymeBta  of  color, 

lanx'*  was  set  on  foot  by  him,  and  ably  sustain-  BeoBnoiu  ik-    «  «*^  ^  ^     ju   *v     i ^ 

ed;  whUe   in  the  United  States  M?.  Albert  .SuT *.  ^  =tS?Sf  "  ^**'  *"  "*  """«•  " 

Brisbane,  by  his  vehement  expositions  of  the  SJ!??™J/     ^  T«»te,  or  desire  for  delights  of  the  palate, 

subject,  gave  to  it  an  inimense  6clat  and  tem-  "^^^^"^     J;  &  ortSe'Sr-SS^'^^ 
porary  success.    Not  a  few  of  the  earnest  and  r  ^  Friendship,  or  the  sffection  of  eqnsis. 

int^ectual  young  men  of  the  country  accepted  Morsl  affeo-J   7.  Lore^  or  Uie  atrecUon  of  the  sexes. 

the  new  doctrine  as  the  veritable  gospel  of  «<>«»•         1  ^  V'^y^^Jil'Zlil^Lf^^t^ 

.,-  uj-ztix  "xij-jj.  L^.  Ambition,  or  the  affecuon  or  sodeqr. 

fl0(»al  reform ;  but  of  late  years  it  has  died  out  1"^^  Cabalistic  or  emuiaUre  impulse. 

of  the  public  mind.     Nevertheless,  the  scheme  Intellectual  L,   AltemaUng  or  varrine  impulse. 

of  Fourier,  as  the  most  comprehensive,  con-  "^P^J**-  I }?.  g^miKwite  or  coml>iiJng  impulse. 
nstent,  bold,  and  remarkable  of  the  kinj  that  ^^  umtyism,  or  harmonizing  aspiratioa^ 
was  ever  broached,  and  as  having  inflaenced  These  simple  and  essential  desires  of  the  soul,  ao- 
flo  largely  the  current  of  thought  in  Europe  and  cording  to  Fourier,  may  all  be  directed  into  a 
America,  deserves  more  than  a  passing  notice  contrary  and  subversive  development,  by  the  un- 
from  the  philosopher  and  the  philanthropist  natural  action  of  circumstances.  In  the  false  con- 
He  was  a  man  of  the  noblest  humane  impulses,  ditions  of  society  they  become  so  many  uncon- 
of  rare  acuteness  and  sagacity  of  vision,  and  troUable  and  warring  appetites.  What  they  want 
of  profound  as  well  as  most  original  imagi-  for  their  rectification  and  true  development  b  a 
nation.  His  negative  criticisms  of  the  &-  social  sphere  adapted  to  their  harmonic  action, 
orders,  the  falsehoods,  and  the  miseries  of  so-  Societymustbeconstitutedaccordingtothesame 
oiety,  are  a  fearful  laying  bare  of  the  ulcers  of  law  of  groups  and  series  which  harmonizes  uni- 
onr  imperfect  civilization ;  and  even  they  who  versal  nature.  The  association  of  the  8  principal 
may  be  inclined  to  reject  his  more  positive  no-  agents  of  productlotk,  \Jbj^  Vs^  ^i  ^^^^^vasswa^ 


(44  FOUBIEB  lODBUXTBOV 

tad  kbor,  fbr  the  matoil  advantiM  of  eaoh  the  etatknerypodtloii  of  the  edMlei  nd  the 
memher  of  audi  aasooiatioii,  in  the  werenL  dUiiliBNoUoii  eiia  perftmery  of  dl  tae  witon  of 
hrenehee  of  agricoltnre,  mannfitctnre,  commeree^  the  leei^  hjmeeiie  of  the  borad  tidd,  Tfaii 
domettio  industor,  art^  scienoe,  and  education,  aapreme  condition  of  nature  and  man  will  con- 
would  prepare  the  waj  fbr  this  true  •ociety*  tinne  fbr  about  8,000  yean^  when  the  beam  of 
The  economies  eflfected  in  ezpen^tnre  and  con*  happineos  wQl  again  deacwid,  and  aoeletgr  pas 
enmption  woold  be  prodii^ons :  the  distribation  ihraiighaaeriesmdeblineairiniikriothaami 
oflaDorandofitsreanltwoold  become  gradual-  of  itiadTancea,  The  earth  Uaelfwfll  be  aodt- 
]j  very  exact  and  eqiutable;  thepleaanreaofcom-  ten  with  a  palvr  of  weakneoii  and  after 
bined  and  Taried  exertion  woold  take  from  toil  oonynUoufli  sink  into  final  death.  The  1 
ttamonotonranditarepalBiveaspecta;  whilethe  racoi  however,  will  not  peridi,  botlqr  * 
ddlly  the  wisdom,  the  moe  of  every  member  of  of  bicompodte  transmigratiotti^  afttdn  la  i» 
theaaeooiation  wonldbedwajsaYulabletothe  mortality  in  otharnberea.  Joimerwaar  "" 
benefit  of  every  other  member.  The  nidty  of  tme  to  nis  methoa  in  all  departmei^ 
the  aasociation  woold  be  exmesed  in  the  com-  <pirj^  and  applied  it  with  the  moat  i 
mon  domdn  and  combined  dwelling  houae;  the  unhesitating  fidelity,  whatew  the 
variety,  in  the  separate  apartments,  the  dtiffer-  to  which  it  might  lead.  His  ooamq^ 
ent  Imn,  the  iodividaal  tastes.  A  township  nltramnndane  specolations  thersfiDra 
of  abont  1,800  personS|  male  and  Ksmale,  Fon-  often  the  most  marre  and  groteaqpa 
riorregtfded  as  the  orional  germ  of  larger  oom-  and  seem  like  the  coqieotnrea  of  n  bnafie; 
Unations,  which  woold  interweave  and  nnite  and  yet  his  thooditftd  msciples  ftad  an 
themselves  together,  step  bf  step,  nntiH  a  net-  beantj  fan  hia  sodal  aoheme,  that  ihtj 
work  of  connected  assodatiotts.  boond  bv  the  his  aberrations  for  the  sake  cif  the  eor 
aame  prindplee^  and  governed  oy  a  tjnmo  or  dve  ideas  wludi  he  soggeste.— Hia 
eooneii  of  repreaentativea,  wonld  be  yread  over  works  (Sd  ed^  6  toIs.,  Paris,  1841  UB)  da  aat 
n  state,  a  natioiL  Enropeu  the  globe.  Bat  this  Inelade  all  Us  writings  Soma  tsaDaaaniMtal 
mod.  and  worio-embncing  hsrmony  would  be  qpeeolations  have  moe  been  pobBabadaiiar- 
thezeiRiItof  noinstantaneooaor  speedychangSL  ately;  others  rtill  remain  in  IflSa, 
but  of  a  regular  develonment  of  the  comUMa  ivUBIER,  Jbah  BAFnars  Joova;  bana,  a 
order,  acooraing  to  the  law  of  the  series.  8o-  Fk«neh  mathematician,  born  in  AuxaiTSLllanJI 
de^,  he  sdd, passed  through  a  process  of  reg-  SI,  1768,  died  in  Paris,  May  18, 1880.  talTBI 
Uar  growth,  nom  its  most  inantile  conditimi  he  was  appdnted  professor  of  mathwafin  at 
to  its  highest  maturity,  when  it  would  agdn  Auxerre.  Betook  an  active  but  moderstepsrt 
becin  to  deoHne,  and  finally  &11  into  decrepi-  in  the  first  movements  of  the  revolntion  st 
tade  end  decay.  In  this  it  resembled  tne  Anxerrc,  was  twice  iraprisone<l  there  and  ner^ 
growth  of  the  individcud  man,  who  had  his  as-  at  Paris,  and  was  only  saved  fh>fn  the  «ca5ivl 
conding  vibratioo.  or  advance  from  infancy  to  by  great  effort  on  the  part  of  hi^i  frieod^.  b 
youth,  from  yootn  to  manhood,  from  manhood  1794  ho  became  snb-profeasor  of  the  polytccb- 
to  old  age,  and  then  by  a  descending  vibration  nic  school,  and  4  ^eam  later  formetl  one  of  tbe 
from  old  age  to  death.  This  universd  career  scientific  expedition  which  acroropanied  tb« 
of  humanity  Fourier  distributed  in  the  follow-  French  army  to  Ffrypt.  In '  1H«^  be  wss  ap- 
ing order :  two  phases  of  incoherence,  contain-  pointe<1  prefect  of  the  departmont  of  Is^re.  tad 
ing  each  7  social  periods:  two  phases  of  com-  in  1808  ma<le  a  baron.  By  the  draining  cf  th^ 
bination,  containing  eacn  9  social  periods ;  marshcA  of  Bonrpoing,  he  freed  more  Uian  4"^ 
grand  total  of  83  social  periods  or  societies,  communes  from  the  pestilential  malaria  to  which 
The  first  7  of  these  periods,  embracing  the  his-  they  1ia<l  always  been  subject.  On  the  returo  of 
tory  and  progress  of  the  world  up  to  the  present  Kapoleon  from  Elba,  ho  issued  a  prorlamatina 
tune^  he  named:  1.  Edcnism;  2,  savafrcry;  8,  in  ravor  of  Louis  XVIII.,  and  was  removed  bj 
patriarchalism ;  4,  oarbarism ;  6,  civilization ;  tlie  emperor,  who  however  appointed  him  prt- 
6,  guaranteeism ;  and  7,  simple  association,  feet  of  the  Rhone.  In  1817  ne  was  appoiated. 
Five  of  them,  as  the  records  of  all  the  earth  Jointly  with  Cnvier,  one  of  the  perpetual  mc- 
prove,  have  been  periods  of  constraint,  poverty,  retaries  of  the  academy  of  sciences,  and  ufM« 
oppression,  fraud,  carnage,  and  false  science;  tlie  death  of  Laplace  in  1827  Kvame  prv«iiWc: 
the  other  two  are  the  feeble  dawns  of  a  bet*  of  the  eonseil  ds  wrftciionnew^nt  In  the  poli- 
ter day,  ushered  in  by  associations  of  joint  terhnio  school.  His  principal  work«  sre  tbc 
interest  and  reciprocal  guarantee.  But  as  Thi<n^Uanalytiqued€  lackaUur{fmxi\\ii^\ 
soon  as  society  shall  have  reached  them,  and  the  Analyte  de$  f^uatu^iu  Sitrrminit* 
a  higher  and  composite  order  begins,  when  7  (Paris,  1881),  a  jpoet humous  puMicatiiwi. 
other  periods,  distinguished  by  successive  crea-  FOURyEYRON,  BkxoIt,  a  Fri-nch  inventor, 
tioos  of  harmonic  beings,  will  give  happiness  to  born  in  St.  Stienne^  departinoot  of  tlte  Unrv, 
all  the  world.  Then  comes  the  plenitude  and  Nov.  1,  184>2.  He  wai*  educatt^  at  the  M'K'jut 
apogee  of  harmony,  the  nivotal  or  amphihar-  of  mines  in  his  native  city,  and  npus  Wavinc  it 
monio  age  of  the  race,  which  nature  will  reco^  in  1819  was  employed  in  the  mioesof  CneaA<. 
nize  by  the  conversion  of  the  aurora  borealts  and  soon  distinguished  himsielf  by  a  variciT  of 
Into  a  boreal  crown,  endrding  the  earth  as  the  usefbl  suggestions  and  inventions,  among  wKirh 
splendid  ring  of  Saturn  andrelea  that  planety  the  turbiuo  ia  bast  known.    lib  fint  tarUas 


POWLEB  FOX                         ta 

was  exhibited  with  complete  sncoess  at  Inval,  "^  Water  Core  JoomaL^  monthly  periodioala^  is- 
near  Gisors,  in  18d4,  and  the  prize  of  6,000  fined  in  New  York. — ^Ltdia  Foloeb,  wife  of  the 
francs,  which  had  for  9  years  remiuned  nn-  preceding,  bom  in  Nantncket,  Mass.,  is  a  grad- 
awarded,  was  bestowed  upon  him  by  the  acade-  nate  of  the  Syracuse  medical  college,  and  prao- 
my  of  sciences.    His  proposal  to  establish  sey-  tises  medicine.    8he  also  lectures  firequenUy  on 
eral  of  these  machines  in  the  Seine  at  Paris,  for  physiolosy  and  the  diseases  of  women  and  obil- 
the  purpose  of  supplying  every  part  of  the  city  dren,  ana  is  the  author  of  "  Familiar  Lessons  on 
with  water,  as  well  as  of  filling  the  ditches  Phrenology  and  Phyaology'*  (1847),  and  "Famil- 
which  surround  the  fortifications,  was  com-  iar  Lessons  on  Astronomy*^  (1848). 
mended  by  Arago.    He  has  published  on  this  FOX  (vulpes^  Cut.),  a  well  known  camivo- 
anbject  Memaire$  sur  Us  turbines  hydrauliques^  rous  animal  belonging  to  the  vulpine  division  d 
et  leur  application  en  grand  dans  lea  usines  et  the  family  canidm.    Foxes  may  oe  dlBtinguish- 
manufactures  (Li^ge,  1841).  ed  from  the  doffs,  wolves,  and  other  diurnal 
FOWLER,  Obson  Squibb,  an  American  phre-  eanida^  by  their  lower  stature,  pointed  muxde, 
nologist,  bom  in  Cohocton,  Steuben  co.,  N.  T.,  shorter  neck,  slender  limbs,  and  long,  bushy, 
Oct  11,  1809.    Hb  parents  were  among  the  and  cylindrical  tdl;  the  fur  is  finer,  thicker, 
early  settlers  of  Steuben  co.,  and  he  is  recorded  and  more  glossy ;  they  diffuse  a  strong  scent 
to  have  been  the  first  child  bom  in  the  township  from  a  gland  at  the  base  of  the  tail,  so  that 
of  Cohocton.     He  was  educated  at  Amher^  hounds  can  easily  track  them;  they  dig  bur- 
ooHege,  where  he  was  graduated  in  1834,  sup-  rows,  and  hunt  at  night,  the  pupil  of  the  eye 
porting  himself  during  his  collegiate  course  by  formmg  a  vertical  fissure ;  the  dentition  is  ^e 
•awing  wood  for  his  fellow  students,  and  by  same  as  that  of  the  wolf  and  dog.    Foxes  are 
teaching  during  vocations.    Immediately  after  shy,  cunning,  suspicious,  cleanly,  unsociable, 
graduating  he  began  to  lecture  on  phrenology,  and  incapable  of  true  domesticity ;  their  senses 
a  subject  to  which  he  had  previously  given  much  of  sight,  smell,  and  hearing  are  very  acute, 
attention,  and  on  which  he  had  read  Bpurzheim,  and  their  roeed  is  great ;  their  tricks  to  escape 
Combe,  and  the  other  current  authors.    In  1888,  their  enemies  and  to  seize  their  prey  are  so  re- 
in conjunction  with  his  brother  Lorenzo,  he  es-  markable,  that  the  epithet  foxy  is  proverbially 
tablished  in  Philadelphia  the  ^American  Phre-  applied  to  the  cunning,  deceitful,  and  unscm- 
nolodcal  Journal,"  and  from  that  time  forward,  pulons  knave.    Stealing  from  his  hiding  place 
as  editor:  lecturer,  and  author,  he  has  pursued  a  at  night,  the  fox  follows  the  steps  of  small  ani- 
career  of  unusual  activity.    Among  the  many  mals,  and  pounces  upon  the  hare  in  her  form, 
volumes  on  phrenology  and  kindred  subjects  and  grouse,  partridges,  and  pheasants  on  their 
which  he  has  published,  may  be  mentioned:  nests;   he  is  fond  of  fruit,  especially  grapes, 
^Memory  and  Intellectual  Improvement  applied  and  will  eat  squirrels,  rata,  moles,  field  mice, 
to  Self-Education"  (1B41);  *^  Physiology,  Ani-  cheese,  fish,  and  also  small  reptiles,  insects,  and 
mal  and  Mental,  applied  to  Health  of  Ik>dy  and  even  carrion ;  in  cultivated  districts  he  is  fond 
Power  of  Mind  "  (1842) :  "  Matrimony,  or  Phre-  of  visiting  the  fiarm  yard  in  search  of  poultry 
nology  applied  to  the  Selection  of  Companions"  and  eggs.    Foxes  are  so  cunning  that  they  are 
(1842) ;  "  Self-Culture  and  Perfection  of  Chuv  very  rarely  taken  in  any  kind  of  trap  ;  the  fair 
acter"  (1843) ;  "  Hereditary  Descent,  its  Laws  vorite  and  surest  way  of  destroying  them  is  by 
and  Facts  applied  to  Human  Improvement"  meat  poisoned  by  strychnine,  which  is  now 
(1848) ;  *'  Love  and  Parentage  applied  to  the  familiarly  employed  for  this  purpose  even  by 
Improvement  of  Offspring"  (1844) ;  "  A  Home  our  remote  Indian  tribes.    They  bring  forth 
for  All,  or  the  Gravel  Wiul  and  ()ctagon  Mode  once  a  year,  from  4  to  8  at  a  birth,  the  young 
of  Building"  (1849).    In  connection  with  his  being  bora  with  the  eyes  closed;  the  breeding 
brother  Lorenzo,  he  has  written  ^^  Phrenology  season  in  the  northern  states  begins  toward  the 
Proved,  Illustrated,  and  Applied"  (18361  and  end  of  February,  and  gestation  continues  60  to 
the  **  Self-Instmctor  in  Phrenology  and  Physi-  65  days.    There  is  considerable  variety  in  the 
ology"  (1849).    He  has  lectured  in  almost  every  tones  of  the  voice ;  they  lie  down  in  a  curved 
part  of  the  United  States  and  in  Canada. —  form,  sleep  profoundly,  and,  when  watching 
Lorenzo  Kilbs,  brother  of  thepreceding,  bom  birds,  stretch  the  hind  legs  behind  them,  a 
in  Cohocton,  June  23, 1811.    His  early  history  habit  noticed  in  some  docs;  they  hunt  singly, 
is  almost  identical  with  that  of  his  brother,  each  one  plundering  for  the  satiiBfaction  of  his 
*whom  he  accompanied  on  his  lecturing  tours,  own  appetite.    Of  the  14  or  more  well  ascer- 
He  has  also  lectured  aJone  in  all  the  consider-  tained  species,  6  are  found  in  the  United  States; 
able  towns  of  the  United  States  and  the  British  they  are  distributed  over  the  surface  of  both 
American  provinces.    In  addition  to  the  works  hemispheres,  most  abundantiy  in  the  north,  and 
written  in  connection  with  his  brother,  he  is  never,  according  to  Hamilton  Smith,  south  of 
theauthoroftiie '^Synopsis  of  Phrenology  and  the  equator;    Uie  resemblance  between   the 
Fhyriology"  (1844),  and  **  Marriage,  iU  Hbtory  species  is  greater  than  in  other  genera  of  the 
and  Philosophy,  with  directions  for  Happy  Mar-  fiamily.    Prof.  Baird  restricts  the  genus  wdpes 
nages"  (1846).    As  a  member  of  the  firm  of  to  those  species  having  a  long  muzzle,  the  tail 
Fowler  and  Wells  he  has  been  engaged  in  pub-  with  soft  fur  and  long  hair  uniformly  o^ed, 
]isbing"LifeIllustrated,"a  weekly  joumal,  the  and  the  temporal  crests  of  the  skull  coming 
^American  Phrenological  Journal"  and  the  nearly  in  contact  the  red  fox  being  the  type  ef 


ttii  itelkMi;  lie  proiKMes  tlie  geoiis  uraeifm  fli«toft]ieradlbK.aaiitheanBlt€fflM 

IbrthoMipeoiMwhiob.  like  the  gray  fox,  have  than  that  of  the  Enropeen  tpeelML    IWkit  or 

a  thort  maszle,  the  tail  with  a  oonoealed  mane  awift  fox  (F.  telax,  8i^)  ia  maUer  Utao  the  ral 

of  itiif  haira  without  anj  iDtenniztare  of  soft  apecies;  the  head  ia  ihort  and  broad,  the  can 

Ibr,  the  temporal  oreata  always  widely  aepa-  amall,  aiid  the  lefB  short ;  the  t^  ia  very  dann 

rated,  and  the  under  Jaw  with  an  aDgolaremar-  andboahy;  the  general  eolor  above,  Inrlnding 

cination  below.^The  common  American  red  the  ears  and  tail,  la  yeDowiah  gray,  grinled  oa 

hx  (F.  ^Wvfii.  Deem.)  haa  long;  silky  fbr,  with  the  back,  ddes  pale  reddish  ywow,  btlow 

afnU  bnshy  tail  tipped  with  white;  the  oolor  whitish,  and  tail  Mack  tipped.    TbearoliefiiS 

b  reddish  yellow,  grizzled  with  mj  on  the  (F.  loffiput,  Linn.)  b  chMAT  eonllDad  to  the 

lower  back ;  throat  and  narrow  Une  on  the  arotio  regions  of  both  hemMplicrea,  and  hss 

belly  white;  back  of  ears  and  tipe  of  the  hair  never  be«i  seen  within  the  Ihnitaof  the  Unilad 

on  the  tail  (except  the  terminal  brush)  black.  States,  though  it  haa  ocoaaionany  been  ftmnd  ia 

The  cross  fox,  the  Tariety  deeuitatut  (Qeofl^X  KewfoundUnd :  it  b  smaller  than  the  red  foi^ 

hM  the  muzzle,  lower  parta,  and  legs  blaok,  the  with  a  yery  ftill  and  bushy  taQ,  the  ooles  of  the 

tail  blacker,  and  a  dariE  band  between  the  fbet  thickly  fbrred,  and  the  pelage  jfine  and  dsasa; 

ahouldera  crossed  by  another  over  them ;  thb  In  the  adult  the  color  b  white,  in  the  yoaag 

b  found  from  northern  New  York  to  Canada  grayish  leaden.    We  are  ftmiliar  with  the  s^ 

and  northern  Michigan  and  Wisconsin,  whUe  the  pearanoe  and  habita  of  thb  rather  VBaospidoia 

red  rariety  occurs  from  PennqrWanb  to  Canada,  apecies  through  the  narratiTca  of  Dr.  Kne  aad 

and  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Missouri.    The  other  arctic  explorers. — The  gray  lbx(F.Firfia- 

ailyer  or  black  fox,  yariety  argmiatuM  (Shaw),  utntu,  Schreb.;  wroqfws  Baird)  ban  the  kaai 

b  Uack,  except  on  the  posterior  back,  where  and  body  about  S8  mchea  long;  and  the  tsfl 

the  hairs  are  nnged  with  gray,  and  the  tip  of  14or  15  inches;  the  tail  haa  a  eooeaaM  naaa 

the  tail  b  white ;  thb  b  found  in  Washington  of  stiff  haira.    The  color  b  gr«r  Taried  with 

territory.    The  £urq[)ean  red  fox  b  a  diflS^rent  black ;  sides  of  neck  and  flanka  ndTova;  baad 

speoies,  the  ftur  being  less  soft  and  lona;  andtiie  endrdingtiie  muzzk  black ;  throat  widta;  tafl 

tail  less  bushy  and  more  tapering;  themuzsle  hoary  on  the  sides,  rosty  bdow,  black  at  the 

b  kMiger,  the  eyes  ftirther  apart,  and  the  feet  tip.    The  head  b  ahorter  and  toe  bodr  stoatsr 

more  slender;  the  red  oolor  is  darker  and  the  than  In  the  inreoe^Unff  aeetion,  and  the  te  b 

tint  more  uniform,  with  littie  of  the  golden  hue  much  coarser.    It  b  decidedly  a  aonllien  ipt- 

of  the  American  species ;  the  space  where  the  oies,  being  rare  north  of  Tvamylrwai^  ni 

whiskers  are  inserted  b  white  instead  of  dusky,  oonmion  mMn  that  state  aonthward,  and  ftooi 

and  there  b  more  white  on  the  throat  and  the  Atlautio  to  the  Fteific ;  it  b  leaa  daring  and 

belly ;  thb  b  the  F.  vulgaris  (Briss.) ;  it  b  canning  than  the  red  fox,  and  rarely  tisiU  the 

found  from  Spain  to  Norway,  and  from  Great  farm  yard ;  it  invades  the  ne»t8  of  the  wild  tnr> 

Britain  to  eastern  Rnssia.    These  species  and  key,  pounces  upon  coveys  of  quails,  and  {rives 

varieties  vary  in  length  from  nose  to  root  of  tail  chase  to  the  raboit  like  a  dog.  When  pun4itf<l  hj 

from  24  to  80  inches,  and  the  tail  to  end  of  hair  hounds  in  open  woods,  where  it  cannot  tkolk 

from  16  to  20  inches.   From  tlie  fact  that  in  the  through  thick  underbrush,  it  will  very  of^ea 

bone  caves  of  tiie  United  States  no  skoUs  of  the  climb  a  tree.    In  general  this  species  <k>es  not 

red  fox  have  been  found,  while  those  of  the  dig  a  burrow,  preferring  a  hollow  log  or  a  bcb 

gray  fox  are  common,  it  is  believed  by  many  in  the  rocks  for  its  den ;  it  b  often  caogbt  ia 

naturalists  that  tlio  American  red  fox  b  a  do-  steel  traps,  and  as  a  pet  is  less  pbyfhl  ami  \tm 

scendant  of  the  European  F.  tulaaris.    The  odorous  than  the  red  fox.    Its  windings  wLro 

skin  of  the  red  fox  is  worth  from  $1  to  $1  25,  chased  afford  good  sport  for  the  hunter,  and  it« 

that  of  the  cross  fox  about  2  or  8  times  as  much,  chase  with  horses  and  hounds  in  the  soothcra 

and  that  of  the  black  fox  much  more.    The  states,  where  the  ground  b  favorable,  is  mcch 

American  red  fox,  being  a  northern  species,  is  rcUshed  as  a  healthful  exercise  and  exhiUratiiv 

rarely  hunted  by  horses  and  hounds,  as  the  na-  pastime.     In  Carolina  this  soecies  prudocv* 

ture  of  the  country  would  generally  render  thb  from  8  to  5  young  at  a  time  in  March  or  ApriL 

aport  impossible,  and  the  people  are  too  inde-  The  short-tailed  fox  (  V,  or  n  /if/oro/ii,  BainI) 

pendent  to  permit  their  stanaine  gnun  to  be  b  about  i  the  size  of  the  grav  fox,  with  the  tail 

trodden  down  by  man  and  beast  for  the  sake  of  only  i  the  length  of  the  body ;  it  resemlibs  a 

a  poor  useless  fox.    In  Great  Britain  and  Ire-  miniature  gray  fox,  of  about  the  size  of  a  boose 

land,  on  the  contrary,  the  sport  of  fox  hunting  cat,  though  of  sto«itcr  body ;  it  waa  found  on 

b  one  of  the  most  popular  amusements  of  the  the  idand  of.San  Miguel,  on  the  coart  of  Cali- 

higher  classes. — ^The  pzsirie  fox  (  V,  maenmrui^  fornia. — Other  ^)ecies  of  fox  exist  in  N^(>aQ2. 

BairdX  the  largest  species  known,  inhabits  the  in  the  Himalaya  mountains,  in  Syria,  snd  in 

oentral  portiona  of  North  America,  and  b  noted  EfO'pt,     named     respectively     V*   U^gtu^^ii 

for  the  beauty  of  its  fur;  its  general  color  b  (Hanlw.),  F.  HimalaievM  (OgilbvX  T.  OulA 

like  that  of  the  red  fox,  and  it  seems  to  run  into  (11.  SmitbX  and  V,  XUotitus  (Geoff.), 

the  variety  of  a  cross  fox ;    the  tint  is  yel-  FOX,  a  N.  W.  co.  of  Iowa,  newly  furmtd, 

lower,  and  there  b  naore  white  below ;  the  tail  and  named  from  the  Fox  Indiana    It*b  drmin«d 

b  uncommonly  ML  and  hidry  ;  the  skull  b  b v  a  small  affluent  of  tU*  iKr*  Moines  cmJ<^i 

oharacterized  by  a  muzzle  as  much  longer  than  lizard  river,  and  comprises  an  ar^aa  of  aUwl 


FOX  64T 

650  flq.  m.    It  is  not  indaded  in  the  state  oeii-  himself  placed  among  the  most  eminent  men  of 

BOS  of  1856.  the  day,  and  he  resolVed  at  once,  notwithstand* 

FOX,  Sib  Chahlbs,  an  English  civil  engineer,  ine  his  yoath,  to  win  the  respect  and  rival  the 
bom  in  Derby  in  1810.  ^ter  filling  various  achievements  of  his  associates.  He  made  his 
snbordinate  positions,  he  was  appointed  by  first  speech  in  the  house,  April  15,  1769,  in  fa- 
Robert  Stephenson  assistant  engineer  of  the  vor  of  Lnttrell  against  Wilkes.  He  spoke  with 
London  and  Birmingham  railway  company,  insolence,  according  to  Horace  Walpole,  '*bnt 
After  its  completion  he  formed  the  bnsiness  con-  with  infinite  superiority  of  parts.''  Throurii 
nection  with  Mr.  Bramah  which  resulted  in  the  a  desire  to  gratify  his  father  ne  sustained  the 
establishment  of  the  great  engineering  firm  of  ministry,  and  was  received  by  Lord  North  as  a 
Fox,  Henderson,  and  co.  In  1851  he  presented  valuable  accession.  In  Feb.  1770,  he  was  made 
the  drawings  for  the  crystal  p^ace  in  Hyde  park,  a  junior  lord  of  the  admiralty,  and  in  Jan. 
on  which  he  had  labored,  it  is  said,  18  hours  a  1778,  was  made  one  of  the  lords  of  the  treasury, 
day  for  the  previous  7  weeks.  Upon  the  comple-  He  was  possessed,  however,  of  a  strong  spirit 
tion  of  this  great  enterprise  he  received  the  of  independence,  fearlessness,  and  self-reliance, 
honor  of  knighthood.  He  subsequently  erected  which  soon  brought  him  into  open  collision 
the  palace  at  Sydenham,  using  the  materials  with  Lord  North.  As  if  hoping  to  intimidate  his 
composing  that  in  Hyde  park.  In  the  financial  ungovernable  adherent,  the  premier  in  1774 
crisiB  of  1857  the  house  of  Fox,  Henderson,  and  caused  Fox  to  be  dbmissed  from  the  treasury 
CO.  was  compelled  to  suspend  payment,  and  was  board  with  every  mark  of  contempt.  But  this 
afterward  dissolved.  treatment  did  not  produce  submission.    Fox 

FOX,  Chablks  James,  an  English  statesman  waited  dutifully  until  his  father's  death,  and 

and  orator,  born  in  London,  Jan.  24, 1749,  died  then  Joined  the  opposition.  The  American  war 

at  Chiswick,  Sept.  13, 1806.    His  father,  the  Rt.  was  now  imminent    Fox  assailed  the  leading 

Hon.  Henry  Fox,  afterward  Lord  Holland,  had  measures  of  the  ministry  with   unexampled 

amassed  a  great  fortune  as  paymaster  of  the  for-  power.    Mild  and  gentle  in  hb  daily  life  and 

oes,  then  the  most  lucrative  post  in  Eneland.  manners,  yet  in  the  house  of  commons,  when 

His  mother  was  a  daughter  of  Charley  the  2d  aroused  by  his  subject  and  inspired  by  revenge, 

duke  of  Richmond,  and  by  her  he  was  descend-  disgust,  and  contempt,  he  assailed  the  feeble 

ed  firom  Charles  II.  of  England  and  Henry  lY.  supporters  of  the  crown  with  a  vehemence  that 

of  France,  both  of  whose  dispositions  he  was  recalled  the  fires  of  Demosthenes ;   and  as  he 

thought  in  some  measure  to  have  inherited.  It  is  imitated  the  perfect  simplicity  of  the  Greeks  in 

said  Siat  hisfather,  when  he  was  about  14,  having  his  language  and  style,  nothing  intercepted  the 

taken  him  to  Spa,  gave  him  5  guineas  a  night  to  sharpness  of  his  strokes  or  the  clearness  of  his 

play  with ;  the  source,  perhaps,  of  his  invincible  rejoinders.     '^  He  is  the  most  brilliant  and  suc- 

attachment  to  gaming.  He  studied  at  Westmin-  cessfnl  debater  the  world  ever  saw,"  said  Burke 

fiter  and  Eton,  where  he  mingled  application  of  him ;  and  this  opinion  was  allowed  to  be  iust 

with  dissipation,  and  early  impressed  his  school-  even  by  his  enemies.    His  appearance,  when 

fellows  with  a  conviction  of  his  superiority.  He  aroused  into  eloauenoe,  must  have  been  singu- 

spoke  and  wrote  with  readiness,  and  his  friend  larly  fine.    His  black  hair  hung  carelessly  over 

the  earl  of  Carlide,  then  his  fellow  student,  his  forehead,  his  eyes  were  dark  and  piercing ; 

foretold  that  he  must  one  day  rule  in  senates  his  brown  complexion  reminded  the  spectator 

and  govern  the  opinions  of  his  time.  From  Eton  of  his  ancestor  Charles  II.    In  youth  he  had 

be  went  (1764)  to  Oxford.  Here  he  gamed,  stud-  been  fond  of  private  theatricals,  and  he  had 

ied,  and  spent  profusely  the  lavish  allowance  then  learned  tne  art  of  declamation  and  ani- 

E'ven  him  by  his  father.  He  read  Homer  and  mated  gesticulation.  He  was  always  careless  of 
>nginus,  and  sained  agood  knowledge  of  Greek,  his  dress  in  later  life,  as  if  absorbed  in  greater 
In  later  years  he  was  able  to  repeat  long  pas-  objects ;  but  his  form,  air,  and  vehemence  of 
sages  firom  Homer  with  ease  and  accuracy,  manner,  when  excited  by  debate,  lent  some- 
Leaving  Oxford,  where  he  was  not  graduated,  thing  terrible  to  his  appearance.  Nor  was  this 
he  travelled  m  1766  on  the  continent,  and  was  the  mere  artificial  rage  of  the  actor,  but  rather 
seized  with  a  new  ambition;  he  sought  to  the  ardent  impulses  of  a  generous  nature,  excited 
shine  as  the  best  dressed  man  in  Europe;  his  to  madness  by  the  repeated  triumphs  of  an  infat- 
red  heels  and  Paris  cut  velvet  were  displayed  at  uated  ministry.  Fox  foretold  the  defeat  of  the 
the  eonrts  of  the  continent,  and  he  was  very  British  armies  in  America,  and  saw  his  prophe- 
near  becoming  the  mosb  noted  coxcomb  of  his  cies  one  by  one  fulfilled.  Edmund  Burke,  now 
day.  He,  however,  was  not  altogether  idle  his  chosen  friend,  stood  by  his  side  in  that  long 
doring  his  residence  abroad,  for  he  taught  him-  struggle  against  Lord  North  which  ended  in 
self  lUlian,  and  contracted  a  partiality  for  Ital-  the  freedom  of  America.  In  1779  he  fought  a 
ian  literature  which  lasted  through  his  life,  duel  with  aMr.  Adam,  a  member  of  parliaments 
**'  There  is  more  good  poetry,"  he  wrote  to  a  While  thus  conspicuous  as  a  political  leader, 
friend  at  this  time,  ^  in  Italian,  than  in  all  other  Fox  had  wasted  his  great  fortune  in  extravar 
languages  I  understand  put  together."  In  Aug.  gance.  He  gamed  to  a  height  that  astonished 
ITC^  he  returned  to  England  and  took  his  seat  in  the  frequentersof  White's ;  his  confiding  nature 
parliament)  to  which  he  had  been  elected  in  his  made  him  the  prey  of  designing  men  and  wo- 
absence  while  yet  under  age.    Here  he  found  men,  and  he  was  the  most  noted  spendthrift  of 


MS  «OZ 

MitiBM.    By  1780  lie  bad  maiidttred  mors  kod,  edited  by  Lord  Jdm  >— il, 

lliaa  £100,000,  and  was  ofUD  in  waot  (tf  amall  with  Mar  2«,  1791,  and  briiw  into  dear  li^ 

smiia.     He  was  boet  by  baiUfb  and  cred-  bia Ubenil  fkriodptoi.  WnmUm§allmw9jiaAd 

tton^  and  Horaoe  Walpde,  on  paying  bim  a  in  tbe  eflbrt  of  tbe  IVendi  lo  gofwmn  thm- 

Tidt,  (bnnd  all  bit  ftinutnre  and  kiteben  nteii*  aelTea,  eoraoaed  tbeir  tiralfiii,  lawefed   llMir 

tSk  being  sold  ont  and  remored  nnder  ezeea-  fliOniea.  and  atlU  looked  forward  witli  hom, 

tkm.    In  Ihb  extremi^,  wilh  bis  nsoal  good  e?ea  when  tbe  masHioitiaof  theTeBmieaadMie 

bnmor,  Fox  oonsoled  nimself  by  writing  an  ezeootion  of  tbe  king  bad  sbocked  Mi  h 

^InTooatioa  to  Porerty."    Wben  tbe  ndiMry  ily  and  tooobed  bla  beait    Wbea  Hm 

ofLordNortbftU  in  1783,  Fox  was  made  aeo-  armieaerois  tbe  IVeaoh  frontiem  to  era 

rstary  of  fordgn  afbirs,  and  at  once  pfrqje^ted  ynnsofikeedoin»be  tremblei;  aadwiwntby 

a  peace  witb  tbe  bostile  powers.     Bat  bis  4y  before  the  eoergf  of  the  lennWIniM,  hi 

Degotiatkms  were  intermixed  by  tbe  death  of  exalts  oter  tbe  mimrtQiiia  oC  the  pnysifali 

tbe  marqoisofRoekingliain,  the  prime  miniiter;  He  wishes  that  tbe Fkeach  were  noire Bni'^esv 

and  wben  Lord  Sbelbome  took  tbe  bead  of  the  eld  friends  the  Americans;**  be  iJfJMiili  tts 

ministry,  Bmke,  Fox,  a^sereral  of  tbeir  asso-  Jaeobhia  while  be  depoanesa  their  aee&v 

elates  tLooffbt  proper  to  resign.    In  April,  1788,  ernelty;  be  dedarea  the  policy  ef  FitI  tale 

lioweTer,  Fox  agMn  came  Into  power,  in  that  ^^detestable.**  Fox  and  Bane  were  now  toei|» 

fiunooa  coalition  which  be  then  formed  with  fateforerer.  Fox  not  only  called  Barked  spin- 

Ilia  iiMrmer  enemy.  Lord  North.    Mnch  odiam  Hid  attacks  opon  the  Fmoh  lefoirtkMi  **Bssi 

was  heaped  apon  Barlce  and  himself  for  their  madnessJ*  bnt  praises  a  pamphlet  wUeh  bai 

ahare  in  this  transaction;  bat  wfiatever  may  been  wntten  aninst  bla  eld  frtaad  Igr  **eM 

bsTe  been  the  meana  by  which  ther  obtained  ¥ackfatosh.**    This  waa  the  ViuiiHm  gaflisa 

oflke,  the  object  for  which  they  employed  tbeir  with  wbidiSir  Jamea  firat  made  Ua  way  la  » 

power  was  certainlT  a  noble  one.  fox  now  in^  nown.    Bat  wben  Barke  proclalmad  in 

trodoced  bis  India  bill,  designed  to  relieve  tbe  menttbdr  final  separatloo,  Fox  bant  Inft 

anfRuings  of  India.    He  prassed  this  measara  Aboat  this  time.  1791,  he  actlreliraldsd 

with  bis  nsoal  warmth,  aided  by  Borke;  bat  force  In  bla  eflorta  to  abolish  the  aUiva 

the  crown,  the  peers,  and  the  India  company  and  on  that  sobject  deUvered  one  ef  hb 

nnited  against  bim,    Tbe  coalition  foil,  and  for  speeches.    In  1708  he  supported  Mr.  filla^ 

many  years  Fox  was  destined  to  ranaln  in  op-  ward  Lord)  QnfB  motkm  for  parSsnoBltfy 

poslnoo,  and  oat  of  office.    Wben  parliament  reform.    He  soon  became  the  leader  of  a  psi^ 

was  dissolTcd,  Fox  stood  for  Westminster,  while  jdedged  to  ixdiUcal  reform.    Pitt,  awlaiMd  ^ 

the  whole  influence  of  the  conrt  and  tbe  mink-  great  minorities,  defoated  erery  Uberal  mesam^ 

try  was  arrajod  against  him.    The  old  whig  and  Fox  and  bis  adherents  were  looked  apoo  as 

families  and  tho  people  supported  him,  and  he  daDgerous  factionists.    He  was  memWr  of  ••▼- 

was  elected  by  a  minority  of  several  hundred ;  oral  leagues  formed  to  amend  the  British  rocMi* 

but  the  court  partv  demanded  a  scrutiny  of  the  tution,  but  finding  his  opposition  in  Ui«  1k»u^ 

vote,  and  he  was  forced  to  enter  parliament  for  of  commons  useless,  in  1797  ccaMdto  attrod  lu 

a  Scotch  borough.    The  chief  bailiff  who  had  meetings.    The  latter  portion  of  hi5  lif*  fitn 

ordered  Uie  scrutiny  was  afterward  fined  £2,000  1797  was  chiefly  passed  at  St,  Ann*s  ilill  la 

by  a  Jury  of  the  court  of  common  pleas,  and  literary  retirement.    He  hoped  to  prudnee  wont 

Fox  tmsQIy  triumphed.    The  nation  was  now  work  which  might  procure  him  a  lasting;  fmr. 

divided  into  two  parties,  that  of  Fox  and  that  He  projected  an  coition  of  Dryden,  a  dcfooce 

of  the  king.    *^  Fox,*^  said  Dr.  Johnson,  **  is  an  of  Racine  and  the  French  stafpe,  and  a  dnquMH 

extraordinary  man ;  here  is  a  man  who  has  tion  to  refute  the  false  theories  of  Hume**  h»* 

divided  a  kingdom  with  Coysar,  so  that  it  was  a  tory.    Finally  he  resolved  tocompose  a  ht!4««7 

doubt  whicli  the  nation  should  be  ruled  by,  tbe  of  the  revdution  of  168d,  the  period  of  ticir 

sceptre  of  George  III.  or  the  tongue  of  Mr.  national  history  which  ho  thongbt  kast  nadcr- 

Fox.''    In  the  impeachmcDt  of  Warren  Hast-  stood  by  his  countrymen.    His  raeearrbes  w«rs 

ings,  Fox  aided  Burke  and  Windham  with  great  wide  and  laborious.    In  1803  he  went  to  Pkhi 

aeal ;    he    shared    in    their    violent   hostility  to  make  collections  for  his  historical  dssign, 

against  Hastings.    When  in  1788  the  king  be-  and  there  saw  Napoleon,  who  treated  bim  with 

came  insane,  Fox  sought  to  make  the  prince  of  marked  distinction.    Fond  of  every  form  of 

Wales,  afterward  lieorge  IV.,  regent ;  he  con-  genius,  he  was  charmed  and  impressed  by  ikst 

tended  that  on  the  incapacity  of  the  king  the  remarkable  man ;  there  grew  np  a  kind  of 

heir  became  regent  of  right.    Pitt  ridicul<^d  his  fHendship  between  them,  founded  upon  momsl 

doctrine  of  indefeasible  right,  and  when  Fox  respect,  which  Fox  transmitted  to  his  n«pbsv, 

first  propounded  it  said  with  exultation :  ^Xow  and  tho  good  feeling  of  Uolhuid 


ru  nnwtiig  the  gentleman.**    The  king  recov-  afterward  felt  by  Najwleon  in  t^t.  HeWoa.  TSs 

ered,  and  tiie  nation  escq>ed  the  rule  of  the  un-  history  was  never  completed :  it  extends  oc!t 

popular  son.    Fox  next  directed  his  attention  to  the' death  of  Monmouth,  lie  was  •orostom*! 

to  France,  Just  rising  in  revolution.    He  had  to  dictate  his  narrative  to  Mrs.  .Vraistesd.  a 

always  been  friendly  to  popular  progress ;  he  lady  with  whom  he  Hved,  or  to  some  other 

now  believed  that  a  new  era  waa  opening  upon  amanuensis,  as  he  would  have  done  a  d»beu. 

Europe.    His  Ivtters  to  his  nephew  Lord  llol-  He  married  Mrs.  Armistead  In  180S.     Fttt 


FOX  e40 

having  died  in  1806,  after  the  battle  of  Anster-  with  sentiments  of  troth  and  piety,  bnt  was 
Ktz,  pacific  measures  were  resolved  upon,  and  nnable  to  afford  him  any  education  beyond  read- 
Fox  became  secretary  of  foreign  affairs  in  the  ing  and  writing.  As  a  boy  he  showed  a  grayity 
new  ministry.  He  now  had  an  occasion  of  ob-  and  a  love  of  solitnde  and  contemplation  nn* 
liging  Napoleon.  A  person  proposed  to  him  usual  to  childhood,  and  which  the  occupation  of 
to  assassinate  the  French  emperor.  Fox  at  tending  sheep,  to  which  his  earlier  years  were 
once  directed  him  to  be  imprisoned,  and  wrote  devoted,  served  to  confirm*  He  was  in  dae 
a  letter  to  Talleyrand  informing  him  of  the  dan-  time  apprenticed  to  a  shoemaker ;  but  keeping 
ger  to  Napoleon,  and  offering  him  the  oppor*  aloof  from  his  fellow  workmen,  he  meditated 
tnnity  of  prosecuting  the  assassin  in  the  English  upon  the  Scriptures,  gradually  shaping  the  doo- 
eonrts.  Napoleon  directed  Talleyrand  to  thank  trines  which  he  afterward  promulgated.  About 
the  English  minister  for  this  friendly  act,  to  the  age  of  18,  under  the  influence  of  the  relL- 
which  Fox  replied  in  a  cordial  note  frankly  gious  enthusiasm  which  this  course  of  life  en- 
offering  peace.  But  death,  which  had  already  gendered,  he  abandoned  his  occupation  in  order 
borne  away  Pitt  from  the  midst  of  his  disap-  to  prepare  himself  for  the  mission  to  which  he 
pointments,  now  strack  down  his  ancient  rival  believed  he  had  been  called.  For  some  years 
in  the  moment  of  his  triumph.  Fox  died  of  he  led  a  wandering  life,  living  in  the  woods  and 
dropsy  at  Ohiswick  hous^  after  having  been  in  solitary  places,  and  practising  a  rigid  self- 
tapped  8  times  in  5  weeks.  He  had  always  denial.  His  friends  at  one  time  induced  him  to 
been  a  favorite  with  all  orders  of  his  country-  return  to  his  home,  but  in  a  short  time  he  re- 
men,  and  his  funeral  was  attended  by  a  great  sumed  his  solitary  and  nomadic  life,  and  finally, 
multitude  of  the  noble,  the  middle  classes,  and  in  1648,  made  his  appearance  as  a  preacher  at 
the  poor.  He  was  buried  in  Westminster  Manchester,  where  the  exposition  of  his  pecu* 
abbey.  Although  Fox  lived  wholly  without  liar  views  caused  a  prodigious  excitement,  and 
restraint  and  gratified  every  desire^  yet  happily  subjected  him  to  imprisonment  as  a  disturber 
he  bad  many  noble  and  generous  impulses  of  the  peace.  Thenceforth,  undeterred  by  the 
which  preserved  him  from  the  worst  features  of  assaults  of  the  populace  or  the  persecutions  of 
aensnality  and  vice.  Such  was  the  sweetness  the  magistrates,  he  travelled  over  England, 
of  his  temper,  the  ^nerosity  of  his  disposition,  preaching  his  doctrines  with  an  earnestness  and 
and  the  magnanimity  of  all  his  conduct,  that  he  perseverance  which  no  harsh  treatment  could 
was  loved  and  honored  by  the  purest  men  of  abate,  and  with  a  persuasiveness  also  which 
the  time.  Burke  loved  him  as  his  chosen  friend ;  won  him  many  converts.  He  advocated  virtue, 
with  Wilberforce  he  labored  side  by  side  in  the  charity,  the  love  of  God,  and  a  reliance  npon 
caoae  of  humanity ;  and  even  the  austere  John-  the  inward  motions  of  the  Spirit,  by  which,  as 
son  boasted  of  his  friendship.  In  his  political  he  asserted,  and  not  the  Scnptures,  '^  opinions 
principles  he  was  firm  and  unbending ;  no  emo-  and  religions  are  to  be  tried.*^  Simplicity,  not 
tion  of  ambition  took  him  from  the  path  of  merely  in  religious  worship,  bnt  in  all  the  rela- 
bonor ;  no  opposition  terrified  or  discouraged  tions  of  life,  was  also  urged  upon  his  converts ; 
him.  He  gave  to  the  whig  party  of  England  and  to  his  refusal  to  recognize  the  ordinary 
its  distinguishing  principles ;  he  originated  those  tokens  of  outward  respect,  which,  to  use  his 
measures  of  reform  in  the  constitution  which  own  words,  **  made  the  sects  and  professions  to 
have  finally  been  adopted ;  and  probably  no  rage,*'  as  well  as  to  take  any  oath,  are  to  be 
other  statesman  has  had  so  large  an  influence  ascribed  most  of  the  persecutions  and  imprison- 
upon  the  politics  of  England.  Sir  James  Mack-  ments  to  which  he  was  subjected.  The  term 
intosh  says  of  him :  *^  He  certainly  possessed,  Quakers  was  flrst  applied  to  Fox's  followers  at 
above  all  modems,  that  union  of  reason,  simpli-  Derby,  in  1650,  in  consequence  of  his  telling 
city«  and  vehemence  which  formed  the  prince  Justice  Bennet,  before  whom  he  had  been 
of  orators.  He  was  the  most  Demosthenean  brought,  to  ^*  tremble  at  the  word  of  the  Lord," 
qieaker  since  Demosthenes.'' — See  *'  Characters  or  from  the  tremulous  tones  in  which  they  were 
oSr  the  late  Charles  James  Fox,"  by  Dr.  Samuel  accustomed  to  speak.  In  1655  Fox  was  carried 
Parr  (2  vols.  8vo.,  London,  1809);  "Speedies  a  prisoner  to  Ix>ndon  and  examined  in  the 
in  the  House  of  Commons,"  by  C.  J.  Fox,  with  presence  of  Cromwell,  who  not  only  released 
ft  biographical  and  critical  introduction  by  him,  declaring  that  his  doctrines  and  conduct 
liOrd  Erskine  (6  vols.  8vo.,  London,  1815) ;  were  equally  harmless,  but  on  several  subse- 
** Memoir  of  C.  J.  Fox,"  by  John  Allen  (London,  quent  occasions  protected  him  fh>m  persecution. 
1820)  ;  '*  Memorials  and  Correspondence  or  In  1669  he  was  married  to  the  widow  of  a 
Oharles  James  Fox,"  by  Lord  John  Russell  (8  Welsh  judge,  and  2  years  afterward,  bavins 
▼ols.  8vo.,  London,  1854).  Some  interesting  preached  in  England,  Ireland,  and  Scotland,  ana 
particulars  of  the  private  life  of  Fox  are  given  made  thousands  of  converts,  including  men  of 
in  the  posthumous  **  Recollections  of  Sfunuel  position  and  learning,  like  Penn  and  Barclay, 
Bogera''  (London,  1859).  he  visited  the  North  American  colonies,  in 
FOX,  Georok,  founder  of  the  society  of  nearly  all  of  which  he  preached.  On  his  return 
Friends,  bom  in  Drayton,  Leicestershire,  Eng-  to  England,  in  1678,  he  was  imprisoned  for  ro- 
land,  in  Julv,  1624,  died  in  London,  Jan.  18,  ftising  to  take  the  oath  of  supremacy,  and  for 
1691.  His  father,  a  zealous  advocate  of  Pres-  exciting  disturbances  among  the  king's  subjects; 
byterian  doctrines,  early  imbued  his  son's  mind  but  having  been  released  within  a  year,  he  went 


660                        roZ  lOZ  OODUHS 

to  HoOandy  where  his  preachinff  teenifl  to  have  ofermun  and  poIitid«i|  hon  1m 

been  attended  with  oonsiderabTe  sncoeaa.    He  Soflblk.  in  17M.    He  waa  fidncated  at 

returned  to  En^and,  was  again  imprisoned  for  ton  Independent  ooUegOi  and  cinbneiiig  Uai- 

leflisiDg  to  pay  tiUiea,  revisited  Holland  in  1684^  tarian  dootrinesi  became  a  preacher,  in  which 

extending  his  trayelsto  Hamborg^  Holstein,  and  oapadtj  he  officiated  manj  jean  at  the  diapti 

even  to  Dantzio,  SAid  a  few  years  before  his  in  ilnA>ai7  square,  London.    He  has  alwm 

death  established  himself  in  London,  where  he  taken  an  active  part  in  poUtk%  and  ia  an  aUa 

rested  from  his  ardnooa  labors,  althonc^  he  and  fluent  neaker  and  writer  oo  the  eitrwM 

eontinoed  to  preach  occasionally.    Fox  was  a  liberal  side.    For  most  ef  the  time  dviag  the 

man  of  gennine  piety,  and  his  meekness,  hn*  last  IS  years  he  has  represented  the  boi«mh 

ndlity,  and  moderation  are  mentioned  in  terms  of  Oldham  in  pariiament.    He  wrote  the  int 

of  high  praise  ^  his  Mend  William  Penn,  who  artideinthefirstnomber  of  the^^WeMBsiMlBr 

says  that  *'  he  had  an  extraordinary  gut  oi  Review,^  and  has  since  been  among  its  mbIv 

opening  the  Scriptores,  hot  above  all  excelled  oontribntors.  Hehasalso been  one  of  the  «af 

in  prayer."    Althooghhewasamanof  limited  writers  for  the  ^Weddy  Despaldi*  newil 

edooation,  his  published  works,  containing  his  and  has  been  dmilar|y  connected  with 

journal,  correspondence,  and  all  his  writings  nrominent  magazines  and  newapapen^ 

upon  his  doctnne.  are  numerous  and  curious,  nis  published  worlcs  are  a  volume  of  **! 

Ihey  were  partially  collected  in  8  vols,  fol,  on  Kelurioos  Ideas,"*  "^  Lectures  to  tike  Wodai^ 

1684-1706.    An  edition  in  8  vols.  8va  has  been  Glasses'^(4  vols.  ISmo.).  Ac 

Sbliriied  in  Phibde^hia.--See  the  ''Life  of  FOXGLOVS.    SeeDwiTAuaL 

iorge  Fox,  with  Dissertations  on  his  Views,"  FOX  INDIANS,  or  Om»AMm^  n  tribe  sf 

A<^mr  8.  Jaanev(l  voL  8vo.,  Philadelphia.  1862).  the  Algonquin  nationa,  belonging  to  the  wesism 

FOX  JoHv,  theEn^^ishmartyrologist,  Domin  group  with  the  Sacs,  Miamia,  Henomones^  and 

Boston^  Lfnoohwhire,  in  1617.  died  in  London  others;  th^  formeriy  lived  at  the  8.  eod  sf 

In  1687.  He  wasedncated  atOxford,  and  elect-  Green  bay,  Wisconsin^  but  are  now  nmsfsi 

ed  a  fellow  of  Magdalen  college  in  1648,  but  beyond  the  MississippL    They  liAve  kn^  been 

becoming  a  convert  to  Protestantism  was  de-  united  with  the  Baca,  and  indeed  iifB  with 

prived  of  his  fellowship  in  1646,  and  reduced  to  them  one  tribe  in  language,  featare^cnaasmi^ 

great  distress  by  the  withhdding  of  his  patri-  and  social  and  politicu  interests.    They  m%  a 

mony  on  the  same  pretext.    After  some  time  fine,  athletic,  brave,  and  warlike  peonK  ■■■* 

he  obtained  a  situation  as  tutor  In  the&mily  averse  to  the  rertrainta  of  civilization  uunmsia 

of  Sir  Thomas  Lapy,  immortalized  by  the  story  of  the  tribes  within  our  borders;  the  intsnsl 

of  Shakespeare's  robbing  his  deer  park.  He  was  capacity  of  the  cranium,  according  to  Dr.  Mor- 

next  employed  in  tbe  house  of  the  dachess  of  ton*s  measurements,  is  very  large,  and  in  tbs 

Ricbmoiid  as  tutor  to  the  children  of  hor  broth-  few  specimens  examined  by  him  equal  to  il^ 

er  ^ho  earl  of  Surrev,  then  imprisoned  in  tbe  Caucasian  standard.    The  number  of  tbe  tribe 

tower,  aud  afterward  executed.    Hero  he  ro-  has  been  variously  estimated  at  from  l,€UCi  to 

mained  many  years,  and  on  the  accession  of  2,400 ;  before  the  revolution  tlieir  warrion  wcm 

Edward  VI.  was  restored  to  bis  fellowship.    In  estimated  at  from  100  to  260;  in  1806  thtn 

the  reign  of  Mary  he  was  obliged  to  flee  to  the  were  400  warriors  and  1,750  souls,  tradinf;  in 

continent,  where  he  was  employed  by  Oporinus  deer  and  bear  skins  and  a  few  furs,  living  okii> 

of  Basel  as  a  corrector  of  the  press.    On  the  site  Prairie  duChien,  at  the  confluence  of  the  Mi*- 

dcath  of  Mary  he  returned  to  England,  and  was  sissippi  and  Wisconsin  rivent,  and  at  that  tim«  s: 

appointed  by  Cecil  to  a  prebend  in  the  cathedral  war  with  the  Chippewas;  in  1825  they  lived  m 

of  Salisbury.    This  office  he  retained  while  he  lUinois  and  tbe  Jtusonri  territory,  numbcrixuc 

lived,  his  refusal  to  subscribe  to  the  new  articles  with  the  Sacs  6,400  souls,  and  claiming  betwees 

of  religion  preventing  any  furtlier  preferment  4^000,000  and  6,000,000  acres  of  land  on  botii 

He  was  the  author  of  numerous  works,  and  even  sides  of  Uie  Mississippi ;  in  1829  the  Foxes  weft 

of  some  Latin  poetry  and  sacred  dramas.    All  estimated  at  1,600,  and  the  Sacs  at  6,0(i0,  unit«d 

are,  however,  now  nearly  forgotten,  save  his  into  one  tribe  bv  a  treaty  made  at  Sc  Li>uis  ia 

*^  History  of  the  Acts  and  Monuments  of  the  1804;  in  1846  their  agency  was  at  Osage  riv<r. 

Church,^*  commonly  called  ^*  Fox's  lkx>k  of  and  the  whole  number  was  about  2,500,  owuin^ 

Martyrs,^'  which  first  appeared  in  London  in  8,000  horses,  supporting  themselves  by  agrieoi- 

1653,  and  which,  in  despite  of  its  many  defects  ture  and  hunting,  and  enjoying  an  annuity  of 

and  inaccuracies,  still  maintains  its  place  as  a  $81,000 ;  from  the  delegation  which  visiud 

popular  work.    It  details  the  sufferings  of  the  Wasliington  in  1852,  it  appears  that  the  FoxfS 

early  Protestant  refonners  from  '*  the  f^^at  per-  then  numbered  only  700,  with  a  Aind  of  fSO.iV*) ; 

sccutiona,  and  horrible  troubles,  that  bane  l)een  disliking  schools,  missionaries,  and  even  dvcU- 

wrought  and  practised  by  the  Hoinishe  prelates,  ings  of  civilized  man,  and  adhering  to  their  oM 

especiallye  in  tliis  realme  of  Enpland  and  Scot*  religion.    By  the  treaty  of  1804,  Sie  Sect  aaJ 

lande,  from  the  ycareof  our  Lorde  a  thousande.  Foxes  (for  they  cannot  be  separated)  ceded  to 

vnto  the  tyme  now  present,''  and  met  with  tlie  United  States  all  their  land  ea«t  of  the  Mi^ 

great  success,  though  its  trustworthiness  has  sissippi,  nearly  10,000,000  acre*,  for  an  c^air»- 

always  been  disputed  by  Catholics.  lent  of  money  and  goods  worth  about  t^lO^V*; 

FOX,  WiLUAM  JouxsoN,  au  English  Unitarian  in  1824  they  with  the  lowas  ceded  lu  oaoi,UN 


FOX  ISLANDS  FRAOnON                   661 

acres  more  for  $60,000 ;  and  in  1881  with  Hie  Napoleon  emperor  impeded  his   fnrtlier  ad- 

Sionx  oyer  16,000,000  acres  for  about  $318,-  vanceraent.    He  was  active  during  the  cam- 

000 ;  in  1883  thejr  ceded  6,760,000  acres  for  paign  in  Austria  in  1805,  and  at  Oonstantinople 

about  $737,000;  in  1837,  256,000  acres  for  where  he  had  been  sent  in  1807  to  aid  the  sultan 

nearly  $200,000;  and  in  1838, 1,250,000  acres  Selim  against  the  English.    Being  ordered  to 

for  $377,000.    In  1829  they  owned  the  country  Portugal  in  1808,  he  took  a  distinguished  part 

on  Uie  Mississippi  from  the  northern  boundary  in  the  battle  of  Viraieiro,  and  the  emperor  made 

of  Missouri  to  the  upper  Iowa  river,  and  their  him  a  brigadier-general,  and  two  years  later  a 

claim  extended  to  the  Calumet  branch  of  the  general  of  division.   At  Salamanca  he  protected 

Missouri ;  the  lowas  were  jointly  interested  in  the  retreat  of  the  French  army,  and  during  the 

this  tract ;  at  this  time  about  200  Sacs  and  following  campaigns  gained  greai  applause  by 

Foxes  lived  on  the  Little  Platte  river.    By  his  skilfm  manoBUvres.   At  the  battle  of  Orthez 

treaty  of  Oct.  1837,  the  Missouri  Sacs  and  Foxes  in  1814,  he  was  so  seriously  wounded  that  his 

bad  $175,400  at  interest  at  5  per  cent ;  and  by  life  was  despaired  of.    On  the  first  restora- 

the  treaties  of  Oct.  1837,  and  1842,  the  Missis-  tion  he  was   appointed  inspector-general  of 

eippitribesof  this  name  had  $1,000,000  invested  infantry;  during  the  Hundred  Days  he  was 

for  their  benefit. — ^The  name  of  Fox  Indians  is  placed  in  command  of  a  division,  fought  hero- 

sometimes  given  to  the  inhabitants  of  the  Fox  ically  at   the  battle  of  Quatrebras,  and  was 

islands,  between  the  N.  W.  coast  of  America  wounded  at  Waterloo.    On  the  second  restora- 

and  Kamtchatka;  they  belong  to  the  Asiatic  tion  he  returned  to  private  life,  and  devoted 

fishing  tribes,  living  on  seals,  stranded  whales,  himself  to  a  history  of  the  peninsular  war.    In 

and  other  marine  products  ;  they  are  a  quiet,  1819  he  was  elected  to  the  chamber  of  deputies 

timid  race,  short  in  stature,  with  projecting  by  the  department  of  Aisne,  and  delivered  his 

cheek  bones,  flat  faces,  and  small  eyes ;  they  maiden  speech  in  December.    This  speech,  in 

resemble  in  appearance,  habits,  and  languasre  which  he  supported  the  just  claims  of  an  old 

the  Esquimaux  of  America,  and  are  probably  soldier,  made  a  sensation,  not  only  among  the 

derived  from  the  same  stock.  representatives,  but  among  the  people.    For  $ 

FOX  ISLANDS.    See  AxBUTiAy  Islands.    ^  years  he  held  his  seat  in  the  legislature  where 

FOX  RIVER,  a  river  of  WLsoonsin,  called  by  he  was,  indeed,  the  national  orator.    His  health, 

the  Indians  Neendh,    It  rises  in  Marquette  co.,  impaired  by  his  former  wounds,  broke  down 

near  the  centre  of  the  state,  and  after  a  course  under  his  parliamentary  labors,  and  after  a  few 

of  about  200  m.,  during  which  it  makes  numer-  weeks  of  suffering  he  died  of  a  disease  of  the 

oas  bends  and  passes  through  Lake  Winnebago,  heart.    No  fewer  than  100,000  citizens  attended 

it  enters  the  head  of  Green  bay.    The  lower  his  funeral;  and  it  having  been  reported  that  the 

part  of  its  course  furnishes  valnable  and  exten-  only  inheritance  left  his  children  was  his  fame, 

mve  water  power,  but  it  is  chiefly  important  as  subscription  lists  were  opened,  and  within  a  few 

the  basis  of  a  series  of  improvements  under-  days  the  amount  had  reached  1,000,000  francs, 

taken  some  years  since  with  a  view  of  opening  The  speeches  of  Gen.  Foy  were  collected  and 

water  communication  between  Lake  Michigan  published  in  2  vols.  8vo.  (Paris,  1826).    His 

and  the  Mississippi.   A  canal  has  been  cut  from  unfinished  HUtoire  de  la  auerre  dt  la  pinintuls 

Fox  river  to  the  Wisconsin,  which  is  a  naviga-  appeared  in  1827,  in  4  vols.  8vo. 

ble  affluent  of  the  Mississippi,  and  the  channel  FRACTION  (Lat. /ran^o,  to  break),  in  arith- 

of  the  river  below  Lake  Winnebago  has  been  metic  and  algebra,  an  expression  for  an  unexecnt- 

deared  to  admit  steamboats  from  Lake  Michigan  ed  division,  originally  invented  to  represent  a 

and  Green  bay.    A  grant  of  land  was  made  by  quantity  less  than  a  unit    Thus  i  originally  sig- 

congress  to  assist  the  work.  nified  three  quarters  of  one,  and  afterward  was 

FOT.  Maxdiilibn  SfisASTiB:?,  a  French  gen-  used  for  the  fourth  part  of  three,  these  two  quan- 

era]  and  orator,  bom  in  Ham,  Feb.  8, 1776,  died  titles  being  identical.    The  dividend  number  is 

bi  Paris,  Nov.  28, 1825.    He  entered  the  army  called  the  numerator,  because  in  arithmetic  it 

in  1791  as  a  2d  lieutenant  of  artillery,  served  numbers  how  many  parts  are  taken ;  and  the  di- 

imder  Ihimouriez,  and  fought  for  the  first  time  at  visor  is  called  the  denominator,  because  it  names 

the  battle  of  Jemmapes.    He  was  imprisoned  the  parts.    These  terms  are  retained  in  algebra, 

at  Cambrai  in  1798  by  Joseph  Lebon,  but  was  where  it  is  evident  that  their  literal  meanmg  is 

aaved  from  death  by  the  events  of  the  9th  inapplicable.    Fractions  are  also  used  to  express 

Thermidor.    He  served  with  distinction  in  the  the  ratio  of  the  numerator  to  the  denominator. 

mj  of  the  Rhme  and  Mc^lle  until  1797.  De-  ^hus  the  expression  ^  may  signify  the  ratio 

^ning  to  serve  as  an  aide-de-camp  to  Bonaparte  *^             "~*'       ^     o    ^ 

<m  his  expedition  to  Egypt,  he  was  employed  of  the  sum  of  the  quantities  a  and  o  to  their 

in  the  so  called  "army  of  England,"  and  served  difference,  or  the  ouotient  arising  from  the  di- 

vnder  Mass^na  in  Switzerland,  wliere  he  signal-  vision  of  that  sum  by  that  difference.    Tlie  pro- 

ized  himself  at  Zurich  and  Schaffhausen.    In  priety  of  indicating  the  quotient  and  the  ratio 

1800  he  was  attached  for  a  while  to  the  army  by  the  same  sign  is  evident  from  the  considera- 

nnder  Morean,  before  joining  that  of  the  first  tion  that  the  quotient  bears  the  same  ratio  to 

eonsnl  in  Italy,  where  he  was  wounded  for  the  unity  that  the  dividend  bears  to  the  divisor.  A 

8d  time.    In  1801  he  became  a  colonel ;  but  his  decimal  fraction  is  one  whose  denominator  con- 

ft«edom  of  speech  and  his  vote  against  making  sista  of  1  with  seros  annexed,  in  which  case 


65S  nULUrUKB 

the  dgniwnlnitor  ii  not  wriUeiL  but  to  wider*  tbo  fiptriUf  proMM  I^JodidtoHl^ 
•tood  from  a  pdnt  being  preAzeOy  with  seroe  if  with,  imkNi  nuqr  not  tak«  pke»  and  a  Mw  Joial 
neoeeearj;  thiu*  .0871  for  f {2|f.  A  continiied  be  formed.  Oomfdieated  flvetariioftaa  termi- 
fraction  is  a  fraetioa  whoee  nomerator  is  1.  and  sate  in  death  of  portiona  of  bona  and  of  the 
whose  denominator  ii  a  whdo  nnmber  pins  a  eolt  narta,  in  nnneaHhy  abeceeeei  and  tetaa^ 
fraction  whose  nomerator  is  1  and  denominator  leading  perhapa  to  fiitalcooaeqpMnoeaiinkBi  the 
a  wliole  nomber  plna  a  fraction,  te.  limb  be  removed.  Tho  prognosia  of  fraelwe 
FRAOTUB£|  in  anrgeiy,  a  solution  of  con-  of  course  depends  on  iU  million,  estanL  com- 
tinni^  of  one  or  aetrnd  bonesi  prodoced  by  plication  with  woond%  and  a  variety  of  cfa«a» 
estemsl  violence  or  the  sodden  and  forcible  stances  which  will  occnr  to  evaix  pkyaciaa. 
eontraction  of  mnseles.  When  there  to  no  ex*  The  process  of  reparatioQ  haa  beoi  dsscrifcsi 
temsl  wound,  the  fracture  to  asid  to  be  shnple ;  in  the  article  Bosb  (toL  iii  p.  480X  and  il  w9 
when  complicated  with  lesion  of  the  surround-  only  be  necessary  to  snr  here  that  lymali  to 
ing  soft  parts,  compound;  and  comminuted,  eflbsed  between  the  bnJken  snrfroea^  whseh to 
when  the  bone  to  broaen  into  many  fitigments.  graduallyconTertedintocartilage^anainaiw 
SVactnres  may  occur  at  any  time  from  the  end  weeks  into  a  qwngyoasifio  mass  called  the  pi» 
of  intran-tenne  life  to  extreme  dd  age;  in  viMonal  callus;  this  holds  the  soda  toplhsr  tor 
youth,  fractures  are  oomnaratively  rare  on  ao-  a  few  months  nntO  the  permanent  cslns  tod^ 
oountof  theetostidtyof  thebonesiand  inad*  poaltedbetween  them;  the  former  to 
Tanced  life  common  ttom  their  brittleness.  absorbed,  and  the  latter  haa  all  tba 
l^ptores  of  vesseto  and  nerves  are  the  most  of  true  bone.  In  the  interior  of  4a 
dai^roos  complications  of  fractures  of  the  ex-  however,  and  in  the  cavitiea  of  the 
tremities;  gangrene  to  often  the  consequence  membranes  ai  the JointSi  no  provtoioi 
ci  the  former,  and  paralysis,  oonvulnons.  or  in*  to  formed;  if  the  parts  be  kept  In  close  aanail^ 
tsnse  pain  and  iimammstion,  of  the  latter:  tion,  bony  anion  inll  slowly  takejplBee;  fir as^ 
oomminuted  fracture  to  rery  apt  to  be  followed  the  union  wHl  be  ligamentsry. 
by  tedious  suppuraUon,  ne(70«8.  tolse  Jolnt|  or  of  treatment  are  to  reduce  or  ss< 
nneh  dHNtened  limb ;  diriocation  also  to  not  and  keep  them  at  rest  and  In  doaa 
nnfrequently  added  to  fractnre.  Fractures  may  as  to  prevent  deformity ;  aU  distarbing 
be  transverse  or  oblique;  the  former  are  most  must  be  relaxed,  the  ends  oj  the  bones 
common  in  children,  and  are  accompanied  by  ed,  and  the  parte  properly  supported  and  k^ 
little  displacement ;  the  latter  are  the  most  fr^  in  place  ;  tne  limb  is  bandsged,  to  pwwat 
quent,  and  often  require  all  the  sorgeon^s  skill  swelling  and  muscular  contractions;  and  sosss 
and  sufferer^s  patienoe  to  effect  permanent  re-  kind  of  splint  or  apparatus  to  applied  to  keep 
ductioQ  and  prevent  deformity  of  the  limb,  the  limb  immovable  aiMl  of  its  natural  leoittiL 
Tho  causes  of  displaoement  in  tho  ends  are  Splints  are  made  of  wood,  pa«tcboanl«  tin,  anJ 
muscular  contractions  and  the  weight  of  the  more  recently  and  best  of  sheet  gotta  pertLA* 
fractured  part ;  tho  lower  fragment  rides  over  all  properly  padded  and  secareil  again^  dtf- 
the  upper,  souietimes  to  the  extent  of  several  placement ;  the  starched  bandage,  ouoM^tinf:  U 
inches.  The  bones  most  liable  to  fractnre  are  layers  of  cloth  imbued  with  starch  or  dcxtriiw; 
tho  superficial  oneA,  like  tho  clavicle,  tibia,  and  is  light,  firm,  and  capable  of  very  exact  apf  I>- 
skull ;  or  such  as,  like  tho  radius  in  tho  forearm,  cation ;  a  plaster  of  Paris  apparatus  liaft  i««fl 
aro  likely  to  receive  tho  weight  of  the  body  much  used  in  Germany,  especially  fur  intrart- 
during  a  fall ;  old  ago,  caries,  and  cancerous,  able  persons  and  on  the  field  of  battle.  Whca 
scorbutic,  and  venereal  diseases,  predispose  to  swelling  and  inflammatifm  run  high,  antipliXr- 
fructure.  Violence  applied  to  a  part  does  not  gistic  and  refrigerant  applications  should  pne- 
always  produce  a  direct  fracture ;  for  instance,  cede  the  uso  of  bandages  and  splints ;  snd  ihtf 
a  fall  upon  the  shoulder  may  indirectly  breiUc  latter  when  applied  should  be  loo«en««i  wU«e 
tho  clavicle ;  tlie  knee-pan  and  tho  olecranon  swelling  comes  on,  and  afterward  readjusted  lo 
are  the  bones  most  commonly  broken  by  mus-  as  to  keep  tho  parts  unifonnly  in  pUcr.  Tbt 
culor  action.  Tho  physiological  symptoms  of  variety  or  bandages,  splintu,  and  apparatus  iot 
fracture  aro  pain  and  inability  to  move  the  limb ;  the  difiTcrent  kinds  of  fractures  is  rery  gnest; 
the  physical  characters  are  unnatural  mobility,  and  in  nothing  does  American  surgery  staad 
change  in  tho  length,  direction,  or  form  of  the  moro  preeminent  than  in  its  ingenious  and  rf- 
limb,  and  crepitation  when  the  broken  fragments  fectuol  instruments  for  the  treatment  of  bnik«a 
are  moved  u|>on  each  other.  When  there  is  great  bones.  The  accompanying  syroptums  of  de- 
swelling,  it  is  often  difficult  to  ascertain  the  na-  pression,  inflammation,  delirium,  painful  twit^b- 
ture  or  even  the  existence  of  a  fracture.  Tlio  mgs  of  muscles,  and  other  complicatioos^  moK 
course  of  a  simple  fracture  is  a  painful  and  be  treate<l  on  principles  familiar  to  eTvry  »ar* 
inflame<l  swelling  a  few  days  after  tho  occi-  geon.  When  a  false  Joint  is  produced.  att«fli|>u 
dent,  with  more  or  less  febrile  reaction ;  these  at  union  are  made  bv  exciting  inHlammatMio  ia 
gradually  subside,  and  with  proper  trt*atraent  tho  separateil  pieces  by  rubbing,  the  •vCoa.iav- 
tho  bono  unites  in  from  one  to  two  months,  ing  otf  the  en<K  and  otlKT  uperatioos  tK»w  to 
with  or  without  deformity  according  to  circum-  vogue;  care  being  taken  at  the  aam*  tituvto 
stances  not  always  under  tho  control  of  tho  strengthen  tho  patient,  and  to  eorrvrt  anv  %\> 
murgeon ;  when  the  conalilnUou  ia  dvwiaaed^  or  dent  constitutional  vice.    In  cmiipoond  free* 


FBAMINGHAU 


FEtANGE 


668 


tnrea,  espeeiaHy  the  severe  ones  now  so  common 
from  railroad  accidents,  the  question  of  ampu- 
tation is  frequently  a  most  difficult  one  to  re- 
solve ;  much  depends  on  the  strength,  habitsi, 
and  age  of  the  patient,  the  degree  of  lacera- 
tion, uie  proximity  to  joints,  and  the  injury  to 
vessels  and  nerves ;  if  the  operation  be  decided 
on,  it  is  generally  performea  at  once,  before  the 
accession  of  inflammatory  fever.  If  it  be  de- 
termined to  retain  the  limb,  the  bone  should  be 
reduced,  loose  pieces  removed,  and  the  neces- 
sary applications  be  made  to  induce  the  wounds 
to  heal ;  in  proper  time  bandages  and  splints 
flhould  be  applied;  cooling  lotions^  opium  to 
quiet  pain  ana  restlessness,  prevention  of  lodg- 
ment of  matter,  tonics  and  stimulants  to  sup- 
port the  strength  under  profuse  discharges,  are 
the  additional  general  indications  of  treatment. 
Particular  fractures  require  special  apparatus^ 
of  which  neither  the  limits  nor  the  character 
d  this  work  will  permit  any  description. 

FRAMIN6HAM,  a  township  of  Middlesex 
CO.,  Mass.,  on  the  Boston  and  Worcester  railroad, 
at  its  junction  with  a  branch  road  to  Milford; 
pop.  in  1856,  4,676.  It  borders  on  Cochituate 
uUce,  and  contains  several  ponds  abounding  in 
fish  and  wild  fowl.  In  1865  it  contain^  8 
woollen  mills,  with  $800,000  capital  employing 
274  hands,  and  manufacturing  yearly  $764,650 
worth  of  goods,  5  car  and  carriage  factories. 
and  2  hat  and  bonnet  factories.  In  1858  it  had 
a  hank,  a  savings  bank,  a  high  school,  and  7 
churches,  2  Baptist,  2  Congregational,  1  Method- 
ist, 1  Roman  Catholic,  and  1  Unitarian. 

FRANC,  the  monetary  unit  in  France  since 
1795,  in  Belgium  since  1838,  and  in  Switzer- 
luid  since  1849.  The  first  coins  having  this 
name  were  manufactured  under  John  the  Good 
in  1360 ;  they  were  of  fine  gold,  and  were  called 
'ftanM  k  eheial  from  the  impression  upon  them. 
These  coins  in  1695  were  intrinsically  worth  7 
livres.  Under  Charles  V.  the  impression  was 
changed,  and  they  were  styled  frana  d  pied^ 
but  ret^ned  the  same  value.  The  first  silver 
coin  called  a  franc  was  struck  by  order  of 
Henry  III.  in  1576,  and  presented  on  one  side 
the  bead  of  the  king  and  on  the  other  a  deco- 
rated cross.  The  franc  became  the  monetary 
nnit  on  the  CBtablishment  of  the  decimal  sys- 
tem, and  is  equal  in  value  to  about  19}  cents, 
mie  franc  and  livre  were  originally  synonymous 
as  moneys  of  account,  but  the  old  livre  tour- 
nois  is  now  reckoned  at  1^  per  cent,  less,  or  as 
81  to  80.  The  Swiss  franc  was  formerly  one- 
balf  greater  than  now.  Of  silver  coins,  there 
are  ^,  i,  1,  2,  and  5  franc  pieces ;  and  of  gold 
coins,  formerly  only  pieces  of  20  and  40  francs. 
bot  smce  1830  also  of  10  and  100  francs,  ana 
isi  Belgium  of  2^  francs. 

FRANCE  (Lat.  Oallia  or  Franeia\  one  of  the 
principal  states  of  Europe,  occupying  the  western 
end  of  the  central  part  of  that  continent,  between 
lat.  42*  20'  and  6V  5'  N.  and  long.  4*  50'  W.  and 
8^20'E.  It  is  bounded  N.  by  the  North  sea  and 
the  strait  of  Dover  (Pas-de'CcUais),  and  N.W.  by 
tbc  EttgUsh  ohannel  {La  Manehe)^  which  sepa- 


rate it  fV^m  Great  Britain ;  W.  by  the  Atlantic 
and  the  bay  of  Biscay ;  8.  by  the  Pyr^n^ea,  form- 
ing its  frontier  toward  Spain,  and  by  the  Medi- 
terranean ;  E.  by  the  Var,  the  Alps,  and  the 
Rhone,  the  Jura  mountains  and  the  Rhine,  whidi 
respectively  divide  it  from  the  San^ian  states, 
Switzerland,  and  the  grand  duchy  of  Baden ; 
N.  E.,  on  which  side  it  has  no  natural  boundary, 
by  a  conventional  line  which  runs  from  the  left 
bank  of  the  Rhine  at  its  junction  with  the 
Lauter,  to  the  shores  of  the  N  orth  sea,  some  20 
m.  E.  of  the  straits  of  Dover,  along  the  frontiers 
of  Rhenish  Bavaria,  Rhenish  Prussia,  the  grand 
duchy  of  Luxemburg,  and  Belgium.  Under  tiie 
meridian  of  Paris,  that  is,  toward  its  centre,  it 
measures  N.  to  S.  about  598  m.,  and  E.  to  W., 
between  lat.  48°  and  49'',  about  572  m. ;  while 
its  greatest  length  N.  W.  to  S.  E.,  from  the  ex- 
tremity of  Finistdre  to  the  mouth  of  the  Yar, 
is  664  m.,  and  its  greatest  breadth,  N.  E.  to  S. 
W.,  from  the  mouth  of  the  Lauter  in  the  Rhine 
to  that  of  the  Bidassoa  in  the  bay  of  Biscay, 
a  line  crossing  the  former  nearly  at  right  an- 
gles, is  about  620  m.  Its  entire  line  of  fron- 
tier is  estimated  at  about  2,930  m.,  of  which  1,- 
530  are  coast  and  1,400  on  the  land  side.  Its 
total  area,  Corsica  included,  is  pfficially  com- 

fiuted  at  52,768,618  hectares,  or  203,786  sq.  m. 
t  holds  the  6th  rank  in  point  of  extent  among 
European  countries,  being  surpassed  by  Russia^ 
Sweden,  the  Austrian  empire,  and  Germany. 
Previous  to  the  revolution  of  1789  France  was 
divided  into  86  provinces,  which  differed  from 
each  other  in  extent,  population,  rights,  immu- 
nities, and  administration.  Now  it  contains  86 
departments,  the  extent  of  which  is  nearly  equal. 
They  are  subdivided  into  363  arrondissements, 
2,850  cantons,  and  86,826  communes  or  villages. 
Sixty-five  of  the  departments  are  named  from 
the  rivers  by  which  they  are  drained,  11  from 
mountains,  8  from  their  situation,  8  from  the 
country  in  which  they  are  situated,  2  from  the 
sea  or  straits  which  border  on  them,  1  from  a 
forest^  and  1  from  a  spring.  The  following  ta- 
ble shows  the  departments,  the  provinces  Srom 
which  they  have  oeen  chiefly  formed,  their  pop- 
ulation in  1856,  and  their  capitals : 


FrorineML 


N.  DinsioK : 
FUmlers... 

Artois 

Picardy.... 


HormAndy  ... 


•iom: 


Iddof  Fimne* 


1 


ChimptfiM  .. 


DtpvtnraU. 


Nord 

Pas-de-Calais. 

Somma 

Seiue-Ind&ri-  I 
euro  ) 

Euro 

Qrne 

Calvados 

Manche 

Seine 

8eino-«t*0lse. 

Oiae 

Seioe-ct* ) 
Marne  f  "* 

Alsne 

Ardennes  .... 

Marne 

Anbe 

Baato-ManM. 


Fop.  kt 
I8M. 


1^2.858 
TIt.8M 

7S»,450 

404.M5 
480.127 
47.S89T 
60&,8(» 

1,7«7,419 
484.179 
896,065 

841,888 

fi65jB89 

828488 

872,000 
881,878 


GipiUli. 


Lille. 

Arras. 

AmienSL 

Bonen. 

Errenz. 
Alengon. 
Caen. 
Saint  LA. 


Paris. 

Yersaillat. 

BeauTaia. 

Melon. 

LaoB. 

M6tl6res. 

jChAIona-rar 

1     Manie. 

Troyea. 

^CbanaaanttSu 


ImI 


Lolr-M-Chir'. 
lBdn<*t-Letn 


Pa,*. 

CMUt 

Huito-TkBH 


C««»4ii-Knd 
HnrUhu  .... 
IIU-«(-Vll*llM 
Ijitn-laOH-  - 

>b^D».... 

gutlM 

Ttonn.. 


:S1- 


Win i 

FulJ I 


— la  BMNilittD^  Fnne*  nnki  4ft  mowttc 
■rat  Enrapoan  lUtM,  brine  InlMer  vnj  t» 
Bniria,  Qtnaaaj,  and  Adrtri^  It  hM  fmentmi 
but  aktwlf  dnring  tha  iMt  cflBtafj,  b  nomari. 
•00  with  the  promm  of  Onat  Britria  iM  Ika 
Uoitad  StatM.    We  Ratber  the  toBawlmf  if- 


{     PMIm 


t  LouU 


Nlorl 


t«l.4«I   Aoeh. 
US,SMJTvbca. 
4U.Ul<Pu. 
ISM  IS '  Foil. 
ISMM  Pfipfgnu. 
4S1.MI ,  TodIubu. 
U4.«tt   Albr. 
tn.«S1    CunuODOI. 
na.itt   Moolpcllln. 


I    Bouchn-IT'i 


«».«: 

MmrT 

8na.»M 

!f:u. 

*T«,»M 

MuhIIIm. 

Kl.-W 

..JM*I.«I 
Aeoording  to  thb  taU^  wtUa  a  period  rf  a 
eentotj  and  a  half  the  popnUfaia  baa  not  em 
donbled,  while  wHhin  Qie  laat  M  jean  Ito  U- 
ereaae  haa  not  beenoaHeM  pereent.;  belli 
moat  be  borne  in  mind  that  danng  the  bat  Mt 
ofthis  period  the  popalatbnwaabeeTflrmel  If 
tbe  blood;  wanof  the  em^r^  bj  vhkk  T»mut 
loet  no  fBWv  than  1,700,000  men  oo  the  benb 
field.  DotioffthiaperiodofSOTeantlMpv*- 
UoBorOie^Brit«io  baa  nearir  donbled,  Mdiht 
vi  tbe  United  Statee  inereHed  nenriy  frdiU. 
A  oomiMriaMi  between  tbe  oeoana  of  ITM  mA 
tbatcflBIWabowa  that  the  inenma  ha  bw 
Tei7  nneqaallr  dirlded  amour  tbe  ilipiawia. 
mne  <rf  tbem,  Belna,  Nord,  Bbte»«>Iam 
(now  diTided  into  S,  tbe  RbAfto  nod  the  Loln)^ 
Seine-Inftrieun,  bin,  UaadM,  Ifal— etfaha, 
Hante-Garonne,  and  Bae-Hbln,  bar*  naHtr 
donbled  tbdrpopntetioo;  hi  ITW  it  waa  la  tbe 
■gftregate  8,*eo,»W,  while  it  anMonla  Mwta 
7,S61,80].  It  mar  be  added  that  tbe  flnt  two 
on  the  list  hare  more  than  doubted ;  that  of  tb« 
Seine,  for  iastanee,  fnjm  723,833  io  17M  rrafbol 
1,727,419  in  1856,  the  incrvase  being  l.<>1- 
060.  Of  this,  S00,000  hare  boen  ^ncd  viUiin 
the  last  G  jcara,  and  the  ratio  of  iuoreaae  a  Kill 
EUgmentitig.  Paris,  more  tlian  anj  other  (crval 
citj,  seems  to  be  an  absorbing  centre.  On  xiA 
other  hand,  9  departments  6how  a  decri-Me  for 
the  same  seini-ccnlcnnial  period  ;  thote  are 
Ton  no,  Basses- Alpes,  Lozrrei,  IIaiile«-Atpr^ 
C6te-d'Or,   Indre^t-Loire,   Cental,   Morlilua. 


S,S5fi,498,  a  decrease  of  370,396.  AlEh.'D^ 
trifling,  tliis  is  not  eaailj  arconnted  fnr.  if  we  ti- 
eept  Sein«-et-Uame.  Thia  is  one  of  the  wot 
nrospcrooB  departtnenta  in  tbo  empire,  win^  w 
its  vicinity  to  the  capital,  bat  this  vicinitj  and 
the  increasing  namber  of  elegant  cunntrr  tnX* 
have  contributed  to  le«en  tbe  population.  T!.« 
caso  is  nearly  the  came  with  Eur«,  Ottm',  icl 
Disc,  wliose  {lopalation  has  remainAl  neariy  *u- 
tionary.  Tlie  total  increa#e  for  the  laM  &»  inn 
amoonts  to 7,000,W».  The S,  W.  region.  «S,-pf 
PBri<i  is  ntiiatod,  Iia.H  gained  tho  niu^t ;  t!>3 
conies  the  S.  E.,  in  which  are  Ly<.n«  and  Mx-- 
Bcilles.  If  wo  divide  (?ie  departments  iot^  4 
cla-ssoa  according  to  tbeir  ratio  of  incmw.  «* 
find  that  the  flnt  class  (31  departmiMit*)  has  in- 
creased 80  per  cent,  the  Sd  clan*  3i  per  miE.. 
tbo  3d  2S  per  oent„  whLle  the  4th  has  b««n  tta- 
tionnrj  or  ihii  iiiaaiim     If  we  draw  an  Inu^- 


FBAKOE 


655 


nary  line  E.  and  W.  through  France  abont  the 
parallel  of  47^,  we  shall  find  that  tlie  40  de- 
partments N.  of  that  line,  with  an  area  of 
92,230  sq.  m.,  have  a  population  of  19,600,000; 
while  the  46  departments  chiefly  S.  of  the  same 
line,  with  an  area  of  111,505  sq.  m.,  have  a  little 
over  16,500,000.  The  N.  of  France  therefore, 
with  a  surface  19,275  sq.  m.  less  than  the  S., 
has  8,000,000  more  inhabitants.  The  average 
population  to  the  square  mile  is  estimated  at 
180,  which  is  precisely  the  density  of  the  de- 
partment of  Jura.  There  are  37  departments 
more  thickly  peopled  than  the  average,  but  in 
general  only  slightlv  so.  The  most  densely  in- 
habited, the  small  department  of  the  Seine,  in 
which  Paris  is  situated,  has  8,346  inhabitants  to 
the  square  mile,  the  department  of  Nord  658, 
that  of  the  Rh6ne  472,  and  that  of  Seine-In- 
f§rieure  897.  That  of  the  Basses-Alpes,  the 
least  populous,  has  only  60.  As  to  occupation, 
the  total  population  of  France  is  divided  as  fol- 
lows : 


AfricultuTlsts «),851, 

MADolkcturera 2^871 

MechAnicfl 7,818,144 

Liberal  professioiia 8,991,126 

Servants....  758,505 

MiMeUaneou^ 780,690 

Tbtal 86,089,864 

According  to  statistical  tables  published  by  the 
government,  deducting  children,  invalids,  &c., 
the  active  population  of  France  is  estimated  at 
23,500,000,  of  whom  14,300,000,  or  a  little  over 
60  per  cent.,  follow  agricultural  pursuits.  The 
rural  population,  which  amounts  in  all  to  22,- 
000,000,  has  increased  only  1,500,000  within 
the  last  60  years,  while  the  city  population  has 
grown  from  6,000,000  to  14,000,000.  This  may 
be  partly  ascribed  to  the  increase  of  commerce 
and  industry ;  but  it  is  also  owing  to  the  allure- 
ments offered  by  cities  to  the  most  active  or 
ambitious  among  the  rural  population.  The 
foUowing  table  shows  the  numbers  of  births  and 
deaths  during  each  of  the  6  years  ending  with 

1855: 

Bnmn. 


T«M>. 


18S0. 
1851. 
1852. 
1658. 
1854. 
1865. 


LegiUBiAt*. 

Illefil 

iniAU. 

Male*. 

Feoulct. 

MalM. 

FcmalcK. 

450,806 
466,885 
459,589 
447,085 
488,182 
429,454 

488.712 
442,622 
485,697 
421.600 
415,182 
405,804 

85,802 
8,\755 
85,415 
85,281 
85,652 
82,792 

84,652 
85,195 
84429 
88,051 
84,445 
81,419 

Total. 


962,972 
979,907 
965.060 
986,967 
928,4  1 
899,660 


DZATIIS. 


Tmtb. 

MdM. 

FcnuUca. 

Toul. 

1860 

889,506 
410,748 
406,107 
897,150 
498,265 
485,968 

886.147 
406,706 
404,588 
898,446 
494,514 
450,870 

775,668 

1851 

817,449 

1858 

810,606 

1858 

795,696 

1654 

992,779 

1865 

986,888 

It  will  be  seen  that  in  1854  the  deaths  exceeded 
the  births  by  69,818,  and  were  to  the  whole 
estimated  population  as  1  to  36.  In  1855  there 
was  only  an  excess  of  37,274.  The  average 
ratio  of  mortality  from  1817  to  1854  (88  years) 


was  1  to  41  of  the  whole  population.  The  births 
were  to  the  deaths  as  118  to  100,  and  to  the 
population  as  1  to  34.  For  the  last  10  or  12 
years  the  annual  average  of  marriages  was  279,- 
500,  except  in  years  when  bread  was  dear,  as  in 
1847  and  1854,  when  there  were  only  270,683 
and  270,906  marriages.  In  1855,  notwithstand- 
ing the  high  price  of  provisions  and  the  increase 
in  the  army,  the  number  of  marriages  was  283,- 
486,  or  1  marriage  to  127  inhabitants.  The 
large  and  populous  cities  of  France  are  com- 
paratively few.  Paris,  the  capital,  has  (1856)  1,- 
178,262  inhabitants ;  Lyons,  which  comes  next, 
has  but  255,960 ;  Marseilles,  215,196  ;  Bor- 
deaux, 140,601;  Nantes,  101,019;  Rouen,  94,- 
645;  Toulouse,  92,223;  St.  fitienne,  91,983; 
Lille,  71,286 ;  Strasbourg,  65,120 ;  Havre,  62,- 
468;  and  Amiens,  52,149.— The  bulk  of  the 
French  nation  consists  of  the  descendants  of 
Gallo-Romans  mixed  with  German  and  Scandi- 
navian barbarians  (Burgundians,  Goths,  Franks, 
and  Northmen),  who  invaded  Gaul  between  the 
5th  and  10th  centuries.  But  the  latter  ele- 
ments are  far  from  being  important,  and  the 
French  may  be  called  a  neo-Latin  race  4  their 
language  partakes  of  the  same  character,  beinff 
Latin  with  a  slight  admixture  of  Germanic  and 
Celtic.  Although  the  various  races  have  melt- 
ed into  a  single  people,  some  of  the  original 
types  may  be  still  traced,  especially  in  the  re- 
mote parts  of  the  country  or  along  the  frontiers. 
The  inhabitants  of  Brittany,  2,800,000  in  num- 
ber, mostly  retain  the  characteristic  features  of 
their  ancestors,  and  the  Breton  language  is  stiU 
spoken  in  the  western  part  of  that  province. 
The  Basques  preserve  their  primitive  language. 
Alsace  and  Lorraine  are  inhabited  by  about 
1,300,000  Germans,  who  speak  both  German 
and  French ;  while  the  Corsicans  speak  Italian. 
There  are  beside  about  100,000  Jews  and  6,000 
gypsies,  scattered  or  wandering  over  the  coun- 
try.— The  shape  of  France  is  an  irregular  hex- 
agon, the  sides  of  which  might  be  drawn 
respectively  along  the  English  channel,  the  At- 
lantic, the  Pyr^n^es,  the  Mediterranean,  the 
Alps,  and  the  Rhine,  the  last  side  running  from 
this  river  to  the  North  sea.  The  first  of  these 
sides,  or  the  N.  W.  coast,  presents  from  Dun- 
kirk to  the  mouth  of  the  Somme  a  succession 
of  sandy  downs  from  which  project  Capes  Gria 
Nez  and  Blanc  Nez,  opposite  Dover.  At  the 
mouth  of  the  Somme  is  the  small  bay  of  St. 
Valery.  From  this  point,  sweeping  S.  W.  to- 
ward the  mouth  of  the  Seine,  the  coast  is  char- 
acterized chiefly  by  cliffs  of  chalk  and  marl, 
with  here  and  there  harbors,  the  most  impor- 
tant of  which  is  Dieppe.  The  Seine  now  wi- 
dens into  a  small  bay,  bearing  the  name  of 
Seine,  Havre,  or  Calvados,  from  which  the  coast 
line  runs  almost  due  W.,  fringed  by  a  chain  of 
reefs,  to  the  month  of  the  Vire,  whence  it  takes 
a  N.  direction  and  forms  the  square-shaped  penin- 
sula of  Ootentin.  On  the  N.  face  of  this  penin- 
sula, between  Capes  Barfleur  and  La  Hague,  lies 
the  magnificent  port  of  Cherbourg.  From  Cape 
La  Hague,  a  low  shelving  shore,  interrupted  by 


{05  IBASGB 

mnUlo  dUh,  mils  aoathwcrd  to  tlie  bij  of  BhoMLtliodMMTUMi»l9lMUclMk» 

OMlOil^  tlM  Mmdj  bottom  of  wliieh  is  dry  al  iacood  portib™  praMipalof  vliieb»t]l» 

flbb  tide.    The  ooast  thea  nsnmet  iu  wosterij  §mm  and  Tooka,  boUi  of  tho  liii|(hiiit  inpor- 

diMCtkm  to  form  the  trianffolar  peniiiMilA  of  tiDoe^  tbo  temor  on  Mooml  of  m  ]«§•  od 

BrittBnj,therookjolSf5sofwbichpresentawild.  alwiTS  ineroMlog  tmdt  with  ^AMoBi  and  tho 

mud,  and  desolate  aapoct    Be^othebayof  EmL  the  latter  Ma  naval  and  nullvjflr  " 


Steele,  Brittaii]riawaAhedb7the8t.Maloroada  The  land  lh»iti6i%aawabaTaaaU,ara  tat  MtAr 

and  the  b^  of  8t  BrioDo.    lu  extremity,  Oapa  IbrmedbypbvMoalboaadattoa  Oathe&Oadt 

BL  Mathiea  or  Finlat^  nma  into  the  Atlantte,  TJdinglinefoltowatliafidgaof  thaiy  i  daiai^  mlth 

and  it  the  weatemmoet  point  of  Fhmce.    The  one  or  two  deriatlooa  too  trillinf  l»  ba  aaliea^ 

eoast  is  here  deeply  indented  by  a  magttifloent  and  enda  with  the  kwrer  IWdawna,    OatibaK 

bay,eapableofeontaiidngat]ea8t500ahipaof  the  Bhine  from  Baael  to  Iha  month  of  tbaiaalv 

war,  iweh  reoelTea  iU  name  from  the  impor*  diridea  ftanoe  firom  the  grand  dae^yof  Baiaa. 

tant  military  aeaport  of  Breat,  and  by  the  leas  Toward  Bwitasrland,  the  ftmlier,  nBniiV&8i 

sheltered  bi^  of  Donarnenea,whidi  is  semrated  W.,atartBfromthaaraatb«idoftfiaBhfa%ii^ 

from  the  former  ^  the  peninsnla  of  Oroaon.  Iowa  the  Donba  to  Ha  f^  than  a  rite  of  tha 


Vhxn  the  point  which  prcjeets  8.  of  the  bay  osntral  Jnra  to  Ifomt  Bixon, 

of  Dooamenei^  the  eoasti  gradnally  dedininf  I^ndoa  to  its  month  in  the  fthfia,    TUa  ilt« 

and  beoon^  aandy  apdn,  recedes  £.  S.  £  in  part  aenaratea  Fraaea  from  8avioy;lkBa  tha 

toward  the  month  of  the  Loire,  presenting  in  dlndhig  fine  winds  its  wi^  to  Iha  Jjm^Mkfm 

aaooea^n  0^[>e  Ftomark,  the  small  peninsnlaa  theOottiaa  Aipa  andthanortibamiNfaariha 

of  5>niberon  ^id  Baraean^the  roada  of  Lorient^  Ifaritfane  Alp  to  theYar^and  eodawlA  Ilk 

rcrfsic*    F^rom 


and  the  bar  of  Or<Mc    Fhim  the  Loire  to  the  riyer  on  the  Mediterranean.    Tha 

Gifondoi  the  shore,  oontinning  low  and  sandy.  lineontheir.S.atart8ina8.E.d«««« 

is  indented  by  seTsral  bays,  generally  protected  the  North  ae%  4  ndlea  E.of  DankM^ 

by  idandsi  and  presents  the  two  seaporta  of  La  the  I^  which  it  feOowa  down  for  a  irw 

BochaQe  and  Boehefort    iVom  the  month  of  crosms  this  river  at  Menin,  mna  &  X,, 

the  Gironde  to  the  foot  of  the  Fyrte^ea,  tha  a  towndlea  K.  of  LDK  Valencjenpe^  i 

coast  is  bnt  an  nnbroken  Une  of  sandy  downa  beoge,  eroaringtba  ScheMt  and  Hm 

interspeiaed  with  marshes,  the  on^y  opening  to  recedes  8.  of  rhlHppevilla  and  Marl^ 

vassda  beina  the  basin  of  Aroaohon.    Drimna  then  runs  K.  toward  UMManss^wUchift 

sanda  have  herecorered  large  tracts  of  good  bdow  Chariemont ;  then  reanndaaitii 

aoO,  and  within  the  last  two  centorics  a  nnmber  conrse  to£.8.£.itmnsafowndleall!.af 

dT  scattered  cabins,  private  reridencea,  oonventii  der^  Sedan,  IContmMy.  and  Tbionvilla ; 


and  even  whole  villagea,  have  been  thus  com-  after  crossing  the  Moselie  N.  of  tbb  last  cihr, 
pletely  buried.  Of  lato  years  such  ravages  have  the  Sarre  near  Sarregaemines,  the  Voages  5. 
Deen  partially  stopped  by  tlio  planting  of  beach  of  Bitchejit  follows  the  Lanter  to  its  fall  into  the 
grass,  broom,  and  pine  trees.  Along  the  Atlan-  Rhine.  This  open  line  is  protected  by  a  schM 
tic  division,  which  is  685  m.  in  length,  there  of  strongholds  and  fortifiea  town^  the  principil 
are  many  islands,  including  Ushant  (Oneasant)  of  which  have  been  here  mentioned. — BcMde 
on  itte  extreme  point  of  Brittany,  Belleisle^  the  two  great  mountain  chains  which  form  the 
nearly  opposite  the  mouth  of  the  Loire,  Noir*  boundaries  of  France  toward  Spain  and  Italy, 
rooutiers,  Dieu,  R^,  and  Oleron,  between  that  several  others  of  minor  importance,  beloogisg 
rivor  and  the  outlet  of  the  Crironde.  At  the  to  the  Alpine  and  Pyrenean  systems,  inteneci 
entrance  of  the  English  channel,  near  the  Co-  the  country.  The  principal  of  the«e  rhaiiM, 
tentin  peninsula,  8  important  islands,  Jersey,  which  is  but  a  part  of  the  great  European  wa- 
Guernsey,  and  Aldemey  (Aurigny),  although  tershed,  starts  from  the  F^r^niVa,  taking  fir< 
physically  belonging  to  France,  are  held  by  a  winding  course  E.  N.E.  ncariy  parallel  to  the 
Great  Britain.  The  coast  of  the  Mediterranean,  Mediterranean  shore,  then  setting  np  north* 
S70  m.  long,  recedes  first  toward  the  N.  £.  in  a  ward,  nnder  the  namea  of  Kack  monntuai^ 
aemicircul^  curve  to  the  mouth  of  the  Rhone,  C^vennea,  and  G6to  d*Or ;  near  lat.  4^«  wherv  H 
and  forms  what  is  imi)roper]y  called  the  gulf  of  is  called  the  plateau  of  Langrea  and  Moats  Fas- 
Lyons  (Fr.  gol/e  du  Lion) ;  bold  and  rockv  near  cillea,  it  makes  a  curve  eastward,  and  thta 
the  Pyrto^  it  soon  lowers  into  a  sandy  beach,  branches,  projecting  northward  the  Voif««,  and 
intenected  by  a  number  of  lagoons,  such  as  southward  various  ridgee  which,  thro^h  the 
those  of  Than  and  Valcarda,  but  without  a  Jura,  connect  with  the  Alps.  Thb  chain  tk«i 
single  good  harbor.  It  is  everywhere  bordered  divides  France  into  two  very  nneqnal  parti^ 
by  shoals,  and  the  accumulation  of  land  is  such  the  greater  sloping  toward  the  Atlantic  and  ths 
as  to  require  constant  attention  to  prevent  the  English  channel,  Uie  smaller  toward  the  M«&- 
filling  up  of  the  lew  indifferent  porte  which  terranean.  Four  ranges,  the  general  directkia 
are  to  be  found  here.  Aigue^-Mortea,  which  of  which  is  N.  W.,  branch  off  from  this  waters 
was  formerly  an  accessible  port,  is  now  nearly  shed  and  separate  the  basina  of  the  varioo*  hv- 
6  miles  from  the  sea.  Agoe,  notwithstanding  ers  flowing  into  the  above  aeaa :  1,  the 
works  of  improvement,  affords  protection  only  known  as  the  eastern  Ardennee ;  i«  the  wei 
to  a  few  barks,  and  Cette  adroiu  only  vessels  Ardennes,  connectinawiththoeeof  Pieanly 
of  the  smallest  size.    Beyond  the  month  of  the  Artois;  8,  the  branchconaialtagof  theMnrvM 


FBAKOS  657 

mountains,  the  hills  of  the  Orleans  forest,  of  the  navigation  difficnlt  and  dangerons.  A  great 
lower  Normandy,  and  Monts  d'Arrde,  running  dike,  called  the  "  Lev^  of  the  Loire,"  the 
along  the  N.  shore  of  Brittany ;  4,  the  monn-  origin  of  which  is  lost  in  antiquity,  bounds  the 
tains  of  Anvergne,  which  may  be  more  properly  course  of  the  river  on  the  right  bank  from 
caUed  a  cluster,  of  which  the  hills  of  Limousin  Blois  to  Angers ;  this  vast  work  is  generaUy 
and  Poitou  are  but  the  continuation.  The  Py-  about  25  feet  high  and  40  broad.  The  Garonne, 
r^n6es  also  send  some  secondary  ramifications  which  has  its  source  in  the  v^ey  of  Adan,  in 
through  the  8.  W.  The  highest  summits  of  Catalonia,  follows  one  of  the  passes  of  the 
this  great  chain  within  the  limits  of  France  are  Pyr^n^es,  flows  N.  £.  until  it  reaches  Toulouse, 
the  Pic  du  Midi  de  Baffu^res,  the  Pic  Long,  the  then  turns  toward  the  N.  W.  and  becomes 
Tours  de  Harbor^,  Mts.  Taillon  and  Vigne-  navigable ;  it  receives  the  Tarn  and  the  Lot, 
male,  the  Pic  du  Midi  dePau,  and  Mt  Ganigou,  which  run  £.,  passes  Bordeaux,  where  it  is 
wboee  summits  are  from  9,000  to  10,000  feet  half  a  mile  wide,  and  meeting  the  Dordogne  a 
above  the  sea ;  but  the  most  elevated,  such  as  few  miles  below  this  city,  t^es  the  name  of 
Mts.  Perdu,  Posets,  and  Maladetta,  are  to  be  Gironde,  forms  several  islands,  and  falls  into 
found  in  Spain.  In  the  C^vennes  ridge,  Mts.  M6-  the  sea  by  two  channels.  The  navigation  be- 
zin  and  Lozdre  are  about  6,000  feet  high.  The  tween  Bordeaux  and  the  sea  is  impeded  by 
Beculet  and  the  Dole  tower  over  the  ranges  of  many  shoals ;  the  tide  flows  up  about  80  m., 
the  Jura  to  about  «6,000  feet.  Among  the  and  is  sometimes  preceded  by  a  huge  billow 
rounded  summits  of  the  Yosees,  which  are  that  sweeps  destructively  along  the  shore, 
known  under  the  name  of  "  balloons,"  the  only  This  phenomenon  is  called  the  ma$caret  The 
one  deserving  notice  is  the  Ballon  d' Alsace,  in  Adour,  rising  in  the  Pyr^n^es,  has  a  semi-circu- 
tbe  southern  part  of  this  chain.  The  group  of  lar  course  toward  the  bay  ef  Biscay,  into 
Auvergne  presents  the  Puy  de  Dome,  Mt.  Dore,  which  it  enters  after  receiving  numerous 
and  the  Plomb  du  Gontal,  rising  to  a  height  of  mountain  streams.  The  £.  slope,  which  is  in- 
nearlv  5,000  feet.  The  loftiest  summit  is  to  be  clined  8.  toward  the  Mediterranean,  is  enclosed 
found  in  the  Alps :  Mt.  Pelvoux  reaches  an  ele-  between  the  Jura  and  the  Alps  on  one  side, 
ration  of  nearly  13,000  feet ;  next  to  it  come  the  C6te  d^Or  and  the  C^ venues  on  the  other. 
Mts.  Gren^vre  and  Viso.  On  an  average,  the  It  is  drained  almost  entirely  by  the  Rhone  and 
mountains  of  France  are  comparatively  low. —  its  branches.  The  Rhone  is  not  very  wide,  and 
The  great  W.  slope  of  France  is  divided  into  8  runs  generally  with  the  impetuosity  of  a  torrent. 
parts,  one  inclined  toward  the  North  sea,  an-  It  reaches  France  after  issuing  from  the  lake  of 
other  toward  the  English  channel,  and  the  third  Greneva,  runs  8.  and  forms  part  of  the  French 
toward  the  Atlantic.  The  first  is  drained  by  8  frontier  line,  then  makes  abend  westward,  loins 
rivers :  the  Rhine,  which  scarcely  belongs  to  the  8a6ne  at  Lyons,  and  fiows  8.  to  the  Mediter- 
France,  since  it  merely  runs  for  about  100  m.  ranean,  into  which  it  discharges  itself  by  sev- 
along  a  portion  of  its  £.  frontier,  and  receives  eral  branches,  forming  a  delta.  It  is  joined  on 
the  Moselle ;  the  Meuse,  which  flows  in  a  north-  the  left  by  the  Is^re,  which  comes  from  Savoy, 
em  direction,  between  the  E.  and  W.  Ardennes ;  the  Drome,  and  the  rapid  Durance,  which  rises 
and  the  Scheldt ;  the  last  two  are  properly  Bel-  in  the  Alps.  The  few  lakes  which  France  con- 
sian.  The  8omme,  the  Seine,  the  Ome,  the  tains  scarcely  deserve  the  name ;  the  largest  is 
Vire,  and  the  Ranee  flow  into  the  English  that  of  Grand  Lieu,  near  the  mouth  of  the  Loire; 
channel.  The  Seine  rises  at  St.  Seina,  at  the  the  most  picturesque  are  those  of  Gerardmer  in 
foot  of  the  C6te  d'Or,  runs  in  a  N.  W.  direction,  the  Yosges,  and  Nantua  in  the  southern  part  of 
flows  in  its  sinuous  course  past  Troyes,  Paris,  the  Jura. — The  general  aspect  of  the  interior  of 
Rouen,  and  other  cities,  receives  on  its  left  France  is  agreeably  diversified.  The  banks  of 
the  Tonne,  and  on  its  right  the  Aube,  the  the  Seine  present  pleasant  landscapes,  with  fer- 
Mame,  and  the  Oise,  and  falls  into  the  sea  at  tile  andwell  cultivated  fields.  Those  of  the  Loire 
Havre.  The  Atlantic  receives  the  Blavet,  the  have  few  attractions  in  the  upper  part  of  its 
Vilaine,  the  Loire,  the  S^vre-Niortaise,  the  course,  but  are  beautiful  below  Orleans;  the 
Charente,  the  Gironde,  and  the  Adour.  The  neighborhood  of  Tours  has  been  characterized 
Loire,  which  is  the  largest  river  and  waters  as  the  "garden  of  France."  The  valley  of  the 
the  most  central  part  of  the  country,  rises  Garonne  is  covered  with  those  rich  vineyards 
in  the  Cevennes,  at  Mt.  M6zin,  runs  generally  which  send  their  produce  to  all  parts  <^  the 
N.  W.  as  far  as  Orleans,  and  thence  mostly  world.  Thelower  Rhone  is  remarkable  for  pic- 
W.  8.  W.  with  a  somewhat  tortuous  course  turesqoe  grandeur.  The  Auvergne  mountains, 
to  its  mouths.  It  receives  on  the  right  the  the  Pyr6n6es,theVosges,  the  Jura,  and  the  Alps, 
Ni^vre,  and  further  down  the  Mayenne,  which,  abound  in  fine  scenery.  Brittany  is  partly  cover- 
after  being  joined  by  the  Sarthe,  assumes  ed  by  wide  heaths  and  naked  rocks. — ^Thegeolo- 
in  its  lower  part  the  name  of  Maine ;  on  the  gical  outline  of  France  is  easily  marked.  A  belt 
l«ft,  the  Allier,  the  Cher,  the  Indre,  the  Vi-  of  the  granitic  rocks  running  through  the  Vos- 
enne  swollen  by  the  confluence  of  the  Creuse,  ges,  the  Alps,  the  Pyr^n^es,  and  the  peninsula  of 
and  the  Sevre-Nantaise.  The  Loire  and  its  Brittany,  forms  a  kind  of  basin,  in  the  centre  of 
tribatary  streams,  particularly  those  from  the  which  a  pile  of  the  same  formation  rises.  This 
south,  roll  down  immense  quantities  of  gravel  consists  ofthe  Auvergne  mountains, which,  being 
and  sand,  which,  continually  shifting,  render  mostly  composed  of  granite,  gneiss,  and  mica- 

VOL.  VII,— 42 


058  FEAKCE 

ceonsschUts,  boar  abundant  traces  of  recent  vol-  while  it  does  not  exceed  20  Inches  in  the  lax- 

canio  activity ;  extinct  craters*  lava  streams,  &c.,  ter.    The  centre  of  the  countrf  eiyoj  »  a  l*a[ty 

present  an  iiitere>tin£r  field  fur  the  ubsorvutions  inedinm  of  temperature  and  climate ;  in  the  >. 

of  the  jzeolofirist.     The  prhnary  rocks  at  the  the  summers  are  long,   dnr,   and   hot.     The 

circumfert-ncc    are  of  the  greatest  diversity,  mountainous  region  of  AuTersrne  i*Ti*ittd  by 

the  granite  however  predominating  at  the  ex-  long  and  severe  winters.      The   dcparti::*-*j 

tremity  of  the  peninsula  of  l^rittany.    The  in-  around  the  gulf  of  Lyons  are  subjc«*t  t<j  ULia- 

tervals  between  the  external  belt  and  the  cen-  greeablo  winds,   which  sometime*    &n>ve  is. 

tral  nucleus  are  mostly  filled  up  by  secondary  juriuus  to  the  crops  ;  the  most  dreaded  i$  iL« 

formations,  interspersed  with  tertiary  deposits,  mutral.    Of  the  vegetable  products  the  ni«.i*: 

Both  are  interesting;.     The  fonner,  which  are  generally  cultivated    are  wh«at,    rj'c   maize, 

calcareous  or  marly  and  generally   compact,  buckwheat,  oats,  barley,  potatoes,   colvWii.-t, 

contain  a  va»t  number  of  shells,  madrepores,  black  poppy,  the  olive,  ic.    The  averace  yirld 

and  other  organic  remains ;  stretching  in  long  of  wheat  amounts  to  225,tX)0,000  bnsheU :  rye, 

liill  ranges,  of  little  elevation,  they  run  through  83,000,000 ;  oats,  140,00i» ;  barley,  5u,0w:».rii>v 

Lorraine,  Burgundy,  Franche  Comt^,  Dauphin^,  potatoes,  250,000,00i).  The  chief  grain-growiai 

and  Languedoc.      Many  are  steep  and  bare,  districts  are  the  departments  of  £nre-et  U^ir 

or    covered  only  by  a  thin   vegetable    soil ;  (formerly  Beauce),  Aisne,  Xord,  Mearthe,  Vo- 

but  some,  the  hills  of  the  Cote  d'Or  espe-  selle,  Seine-et-Mame,  Seine-et-Oise,  Sfiue-Iofr- 

cially,    arc    admirably  suited    for    the    vine,  rieurc,  Somme,  and  Pas-de-Calaia.  Barley,  u*u, 

The' most  remarkable  tract  of  tertiary  for-  oleaginous  seeds,  hops,  and  beet  ro«H  an:  hsm:- 

mations    is   known  as  the  ^*  Paris  basin  ;"  a  ly  cultivated  in  the  department  of  Xord  ;  ba^- 

larger  one  covers  nearly  the  whole  of  the  val-  wheat  in  Brittany.    Meadows  and  pas^tnres  sre 

leys  of  the  Garonne  and  the  Adour,  while  sev-  principally  found  in  Normandy.  The  vineyinUi 

eral  others  of  smaller  extent  are  found  in  the  which  extend  through  no  fewer  than  7<^  dcpan- 

vi^cys  of  the  Rhine,  the  Ix>ire,  and  the  Allier.  ments^  yield  annuidly  about  900.0«X^,000  gil- 

These  are  mostly  calcareous,  enclosing  great  Ions  of  wine,  worth  about  $160,000,0(X>  a:  lis 

quantities  of  shells  and  the  remains  of  fossil  placesof  production;  nearly  the  4  th  part  of  i2*iff 

mammalia  of  large  size.    Tlie  district  around  amount  is  exported.     Anple  trees  are  abo^dart 

the  mouth  of  the  Rhone  is  entirely  alluvial. —  in  tlie  N.  Vi^  and  the  >ormandy  rider  enjoin 


of  tlie  country  than  in  nmst  other  £uro[)ean  8.  and  S.  E.;  mmlder  is  5ucce*j»fiir.y  cultiva:*! 

stjitc*.  amnnntin^  ti>41.So«».iM»0  ht-rtares  oiitof  in  the  E.  on  the  b^ink-.  of  the  Rhfrji-  s.:. :  :"•: 

5*2, 7«'i*^.  ••"•».     The  wlinlo  in:iy  K*  distril-uted  in  Durance:  ti»l>a4d"»  is  rui-iod  in  the  JwMrt'.' :  •» 

thefi»lln\viiigin.iiiner:  ar:il»lelan«ls  2.>.5iM».iMXi;  of    Xord,    rus-<le-Cal;iis    (liri>iidc,    JI^-!..   ■ 

niea-lows,    4>:)i».U«»'J  ;    viii.  yard-*,    2.i:;n.nni»;  Ille-et-Vil:iino.  L<-'t,  and  Lot-et-iiiini.;.. .     1. 

orchanl-i  iiri'l  ganlens.  r.4'\ ;  ini^iollaneuus  pnnei|«al  forot  tri^-cs  fire  the  clu^iri*.::  •  :.  \.^ 

cri»p-,  l«."iH.in»o  ;   cnp-e  w.hmI.  7, SMI ». UNO  ;  lioath  central  inount.iin-s,  tlie  oak  in  the  I';  rt-r.- 1-.  •  . 

land,  T,7^■.^<»^Mj;  ]m.»u.]s 'J' ".».•»••<•;  r^ad-,  rivt-r-,  fir  in  tlie  I^indes.      The  nn^t  ric  f.'.v    -u. -.:-.: 

caiiaN.  h.Hi-^s,    Jj*'.,  2, '••'i' »,•"»•». — The   climate,  distriiU  are  iIk- Ardennes  tuMc  liNil!  :"  •   V  - 

bei:i^'  <>ii  tlio  wht»!e  lc:!ii»erate,  is   one  of  the  go*,  the  plateau  of  La n«'ri>.  tht- C-!*.  -li-. :   . 

finest    ill    Europe:    i:  U   liowcvor  greatly  di-  Cevennes  and  their  r.imi:icatior.*.  t hi  .'.:r..  *:  : 

versificil   by  the   d'tiVronoes   of    latituile,   ele-  the  Alps.  TliedestnicliMUof  wutnl  J  .y^-.^  :.       - 

vatinn,    s.iil.    exiK»-:ire,  <\:<\      In   tliir*  re>pect,  sideraMo  within  the  last  twi»  c*.:.f.r:i-.  ..:  i: 

Franco  har*  been  divicli.d  into  4  reL'i<»ns  each  fore<-*do  iiot  c<»Vir  nii»re  than  ,V,  *:i.->*. 

Whvj;   cliaractorized  by  a  bTerial   iTiMliietioii :  area  of  the  country.     The  princit-.^:  :".ri -.:-.* .. 

tJie  l>t.  the  re/ion  of  the  rereal-,  extends  fmin  in  existence  are  th«>^.  oi  dinpirlv^i-.  }"  ;  •„    - 

tlie  nurtlurn  frontier  t<)  a  line  drawn  fmni  MO-  bliau,  L'E^tercl,  Hajuaiaii,   lUi:.*-   ...    v   ".  .- 

ziiresto  Xarjtes;  the  2«1,  thon^rinn  of  the  vine,  lers-Cotterets,  ( »rle,ii.-,  Ao.     T.ht   Kr-.:    \    r  -i 

is  comjiri-ieil  between  till*  line  and  another  pas>-  cninpn'H'su]»ward  of Sr.'Vvneraaini  0  =  *  v  -•-    .  -. 

ing  from  Stra-ihuiiri:  t«i  tJje  nit.uth  of  the  Cha-  — Framv  U  l*ar  from  beiuj  ^)  w^::  *:...  ».  '  •-  .-.; 

rente  ;  the  .'Jd.  tliri»5i::h  whicli  tlie  ciltivation  <*f  d<^ine?tic  uninial-i  rL*  >;ie  «';:^}j:  :*•  W.  c   •-.:•:;-• 

maize  ].revail>,  is  bouri.!-.-.!  S.  hyaline  extend-  her  extent  and  the  natr.roi.:  1.,  r-..;:.     1    .  : 

ing  from  (.Jreni.Me  t.i  IVrpi-nan:  and  tiie  4tli,  ber^uf  live  >t«'ck  in  1^54  werea.*!-':   n»    .      -- 

tile  re-ion  of  t!je  olive,  inclu-!.-  the  inn-t  s.,:irh-  ed  (-.ittle,  '.M'a'.'.t?:**:  ••I...iT'.  :.2.1.' 1.4:     .  :    --^  -. 

cm  ].:irt<»f  the  country.     The  air  i- generally  2.81\4:«o:  nniK-i  ami  J-nkcy-,  T"*?..  t.       :     . 

I'>iri»  and  h.-althy.     Tlie  mean  aniiihd  tempera'-  4o.»-y7,lll,  to   whi-li    .iS.;;t   Tijn?.   - 

ture  nf  ditlVrent  parts  of  Frar..e  h:w  been  est i-  mus-t   W    ad-lv-l.     Tl.i-*    i'.-.::V:* .. -i  v    .  :"  *■     . 

mateda-M  fMli,,\v<  by  IIundH'Mt:  at  T...:;l..!i.  62-;  is   yearly   >!:ip:ied    hv    i:.i;n.r:..t     •'.       V% 

at   Marseilles    b\\rr  :    at    r..»r.le.u:x.    50    :    at  the'la-t  40  yt:ir>  gnat':i:!^:.:..  :;  1..^.  N  t -.  j 

Nantes  6'. 2   :a:raris:.12   :  :i::d  at  Pimkirk,  ni.t  only  to*  the  iMijToven.i  m  v.f  i.a:^  .      •    -v 

.'•'"»  'r.     M.T.'  rain  falN  ann;:a:iy  in  the  valley  of  but  t.»  the  iurnKi-ution  «f  f.-r.  ;^-:i  .  : .  -.  ■ 

tin-  JChorie  than  o'.\  the  Atl.in:;.-  sIlx-  :  the  av-  ba^  boiU  generally  su^.v-* *:*::!.     '1 :..     .  -■     -  -  .- 

era^'o  fall  iu  the  former  Wiu-^  AUjvi.  'ivi  mcW^  njI  c^s^vvU  arc  those  of  Au\er5:uc  a:-!  li-^--  .; . 


FBANOX  650 

Hie  sheep  of  Berry  are  considered  the  finest ;  Hiitite-Mame,  Hante-Sft6ne,  bdre,  Eastern  and 
the  fattest  swine  are  raised  in  Alsace,  Lor-  Lower  Pyr^n^es,  Ard^he,  Arejron,  Sec,  Thej 
nine,  and  the  Pyr^n^;  the  horses  of  Li-  yield  annually  ahont  680,000  tons,  and  give 
monsin,  Brittany,  Perche,  and  Normandy  are  employment  to  abont  15,000  hands.  Har- 
renowned,  those  of  the  last  two  provinces  for  ble,  porphyry,  granite,  alabaster,  and  crystals 
their  strength  and  size;  the  mnles  of  Poitoa  de-  are  found  in  nearly  all  the  mountains ;  slate  in 
serve  the  same  praise.  Poultry,  which  con-  the  Ardennes,  Maine-et-Loire,  and  Finbtdra; 
Mbntes  one  of  the  principal  articles  in  the  building  stone  of  various  kinds  evenr where, 
buslmndry  of  France,  is  raised  with  peculiar  The  number  of  quarries  in  working  or^r  is  es- 
snocess  in  Maine,  Angoumois,  and  Burgundy,  timated  at  22,000,  giving  employment  to  over 
"Em  are  important  articles  of  export,  especially  80,000  hands.  CosI  beds  of  various  kinds  are 
to  England.  Bees  are  principally  raised  in  the  also  numerous,  and  within  the  last  25  years 
departments  bordering  on  the  Mediterranean ;  considerable  progress  has  been  made  in  the 
the  most  celebrated  honey  is  that  of  Narbonne.  working  of  mines.  The  most  productive  are 
The  wild  animals  are  fast  diminishing  all  over  to  be  found  in  the  departm^its  of  Nord,  Loire, 
the  country,  owing  to  the  progress  of  popular  Sa6ne-et-Loire,  Aveyron,  Ao^  and  their  annuiu 
ticin ;  the  black  bear  is  confined  to  the  higher  yield  is  about  2,000,000  tons.  Salt  mines  are 
ranges  of  the  Alps  and  the  Pyr^n^es,  where  the  worked  in  the  departments  of  Menrthe,  Mo- 
isard,  chamois,  and  wild  goat  are  also  found,  selle,  Haute-Sa5ne,  Doubs,  Jura,  Aridge,  and 
The  lynx  appears  rarely  in  these  mountains  Basses-Pyr^n^es,  while  salt  marshes  exist  along 
and  the  G^vennes.  Wolves,  notwithstanding  nearly  the  whole  of  the  seik  coast  The  produce 
the  active  war  of  extermination  carried  on  of  both  amounts  to  nearly  1,200,000,000  lbs. 
against  them,  are  still  numerous  in  some  central  annually.  Lead  is  extensively  scattered  through 
departments,  e^)ecially  the  mountainous  dis-  the  mountainous  districts,  especially  in  Brittany. 
trkts.  The  wild  boar,  roebuck,  and  fox  abound  Gopper  is  abundant  in  the  Pyr^n^es,  Alps,  and 
in  all  well  wooded  parts.  The  red  and  fallow  Yosges.  Together  with  these  metals,  fine, 
deer  are  becoming  rare.  whUe  hares  and  rabbits  cobdt,  and  manganese  are  found.  Alum  Sa 
sre  abundant  Several  kinds  of  squirrels,  the  gathered  in  Haut-Rhin,  Aisne,  Oise,  and 
polecat,  weasel,  marten,  hedgehog,  and  other  Aveyron.  ThemineralspringSjWhioh  are  abont 
amaU  animals,  are  common.  Otters  and  a  few  860  in  number,  are  divided  into  cold  and  hot, 
beavers  are  found  in  some  of  the  southern  '  ferruginous,  gaseous,  sulphureous,  and  salt  wa- 
streams.  Reptiles  are  few ;  a  venomous  kind  of  ters ;  the  most  renowned  are  those  of  Aix,  6t 
Tiper  and  a  harmless  adder  are  to  be  found  in  Amand,  Bagn^res,  Balaruc,  Bar^s,  Bourbon- 
some  regions.  Among  the  birds,  which  are  very  Lancy,  Bourbonne-les-Bains,  Cauterets,  Eaux* 
nmnerous.  are  eagles,  vultures,  falcons,  &c  The  Bonnes,  Forges,  Mont  Dor6,  Plombidres,  Vichy, 
rivers  ana  coasts  generally  abound  with  fish ;  &c. — ^France  is  essentially  an  agricultural  coun- 
&herie8  are  consequentlv  an  important  item,  try,  whether  we  take  into  consideration  the  ex- 
and  a  great  source  of  wealth.  Cancale  and  Mar  tent  of  lands  under  cultivation  or  the  number  of 
tennes  furnish  excellent  oysters.  The  pilchard  hands  employed  in  it  Out  of  her  whole  area, 
fishery,  which  is  conducted  mostly  on  the  shores  54  per  cent  is  given  to  agriculture.  The  whole 
of  Brittany,  is  the  most  important  of  all ;  about  agncultural  population,  amounting  to  20,851.- 
8,000  barrets  of  salted  pilchards  are  sent  into  628,  as  before  mentioned,  is  distributed  as  fol- 
the  market  annually,  and  the  inhabitants  on  the  lows:  proprietary  farmers,  7,159,284;  tenant 
eoast  live  in  greatpart  on  fresh  pilchards  during  formers,  4,000,848;  day  laborers,  6,122,747; 
the  season.  The  herring  fishenr,  the  head-  servants,  2,748,263 ;  woodmen.  820,986.  This 
quarters  of  which  are  at  Dieppe,  has  also  some  population  works  upon  a  capital  which  has  been 
nnportance,  as  well  as  the  sole,  ray,  and  mack-  assessed  at  $8,935,890,000,  thus  divided :  lands 
«rel  fisheries.  The  tunny  fishery,  much  less  and  buildings,  $7,877,480,000 ;  implements  and 
productive,  is  pursued  on  the  shores  of  the  furniture  of  ifarms  and  houses,  $681,750,000; 
Mediterranean.  The  coasting  fisheries,  which  cattle,  horses,  &c.,  $426,220,000.  The  annual 
employ  28,000  hands  and  7,000  boats,  bring  gross  income  of  the  above  capital  is  estimated 
•boot  $8,000,000  a  year  to  the  country.  Dun-  at  about  $1,700,000,000.  This  has  been  increas- 
kirk,  Boulogne,  St.  Yalery-sur-Somme,  Dieppe,  ing  at  a  rapid  rate ;  during  the  18th  century  it 
Fecamp,  and  6t  Malo  send  yearly  a  number  of  scarcely  reached  $800,000,000 ;  under  Napo- 
dups  which  engage  in  the  herring,  mackerel,  leon  I.  it  swelled  to  about  $600,000,000,  and 
eoo,  and  whale  fisheries. — ^The  mineral  wealth  has  thus  nearly  trebled  in  less  than  50  years. 
of  Fhince  is  at  once  large  and  diversified,  al-  This  result  may  be  said  to  have  been  obtained 
though  gold  and  silver  are  to  be  found  in  but  more  throuj^  the  abundant  resources  of  the 
Tery  small  Quantities.  The  former  appears  country  than  by  improvements  in  husbandry. 
in  some  small  streams  fiowing  from  the  Pyr6-  It  is  indeed  only  witnin  late  years  that  the  new 
Ii6e8 ;  a  few  mines  of  the  latter  are  wrought,  but  methods  of  culture  which  have  pro ved  so  suocess- 
with  little  profit ;  while  the  precious  metal  is  ex-  fbl  in  England  and  elsewhere  have  been  tried  in 
tnoted  in  larger  quantities  from  lead  and  copper  France  upon  a  large  scale.  The  small  farmers 
ores.  Larae  beds  of  iron  ore  are  found  in  neariy  all  show  unreasonable  repugnance  to  anydepart- 
parts  of  FVance ;  ^y  are  mostly  wrought  in  the  nre  fit>m  their  traditional  system ;  and  many  of 
dapartmenta  of  Ardennes,  Haut-Bhin,  Moselle,  them  still  atabVynii^  ^i^^^st^  V^  Ow\  ^t^\^k«^ 


MO  IRAVOB 

notfoof,  wblGh  eta  ody  be  diqidled  in  the  Tomii  4e^  an  the  priaeipil  Mili  of  dde  l»* 

eome  of  time  by  the  examrie  and  foeoen  of  portent  end  tn4T  national  nMMiMfeBv^  the 

their  more  enU^tMied  neighbon.    Theminnte  exeeHeneeof  whiA  ii  eiiilelM^ljf  |auiei  by  the 

enbdlTiiion  of  landed  propeorty.  and  the  email  tet  that  |  of  ite  prodnela  an  espeeted.   The 

eapltal  whidi  eeeh  one  has  at  ois  diqxMl,  are  mannlhctnfee  of  Jeweliy  and  bronae  goedi 

deohindnmoeeinthewayofrapidimproTement  amoont  anmal^  to  over  fUiOOOgOOO;  thiir 

— The  weig^  and  meesores  now  naed  in  France  prindpel  eeatiePariL    The  eaytel  ie  al»  the 

were  intrMiuMd  toon  after  the  fint  rerohition,  great  centie  id  the  fUnkalioa  of 

and  the  ve  of  the  dd  it  forbidden  br  kw.  al-  philotophioal  JMtnnaant^  boolBi^ 

tfaoDfh  the  M  namee  are  retained,  the  Telnee  eqteehuly  called  TmrtirU  mtim.    The 

wlu£  they  ezprMe  being  celcolatedbr  the  new  JMbnilneM  Jeatoceniedonwlth  aeam 

standard.    The  unit  of  length  it  Tf^omv  ^  <^  in Xyoni|  Tonnii  and  eefend  otiier  lane 

qnadrant  of  the  meridian,  or  diftonoe  uom  the  Lace^  taliei  and  enibfoideriee  »e  nnaa|y 

equator  to  the  north  pole,  and  this  aoadranty  as  fiMSttnedinandaroondKaM^yfit. 

ascertained  by  lOL  iSelambre  and  M6ohain  by  Msta.    Iron  woth%  over  800  in 

meesnring  an  arc  of  the  meri^an  between  the  ploying  40,000  worioBMn,  are  In  be 

rands  of  Donkirlc  and  Barodona,  is  eqnd  to  Tenooa   parts  id  Tnao^  and  pflrttealei^  is 

808,902  Endidi  feet    The  unit  of  length,  or  KI^Tre;  the  prodnet  of  plghmi  bns  bsen  en 

is  therefore  aboot  80.87070  Enc^indi-  the  inmese,  and  is  now  estimated  al  iOQuM 

rom  the  metre  eU  other  meesmres are de-  ton%  worth  eboot $20^000^000;  thalof  wiea||s 

rlTed  by  amtem  of  dedmd  mdtipllcetion  and  iron  is  aboot  400^000  tons,  vahMd  at  $SI^OOI^OHL 

diTidon,  and  their  namee  are  Ibrmed  on  the  sim-  The  making  of  entlery,  wUdi  on^lojaaigM 

pie  prindide  of  edding  a  Greek  prefix  when  the  worionsn,  w  prlndpdly  carried  on  al  IM^ 

measQreisamnltipleofthemetre,andaLatin  Leimi^  ChAtdleradti  v<>«n»«^  and  Thine; 

prefixwhenitisauracUon.    Thus,  a  decametre  hardware  is  produced  at  Ae  eame  plasty  ss 

B  10  metres^  a  hectometre  =  100  metres^  a  wdl  asSt  £tienne,  SttwdbouK  GharievB% In. 

Uometre  ss  1,000  metres,  a  myriametre  s  There  are  manuftotorise  of  fine  pocodein  snd 

10^000  metree;  and  a  decimetre  =  |^  of  a  me-  earthenware  at  84hrre%  LlHlOgei^  llef«%  Xsn^ 

tre,  a  centimetre  =s  j},,  a  millimetre  s  jf^y.  terean,  and8arr^goendnee,theprodnetsofwhiA 

The  udt of  square  meesure  is  the  OTi  or  square  emonnt  to  $8,000,000  a  yeer;  thapondsinef 

decametre  (100  square  metres)  s  119.8088  Bdrres  is  mudi  and  InedT  eeteemsdi    Aheil 

3nareTardB,orab<>ut  ^ofanacre.    Thennit  10,000  hands  are  employed  alwatchaakiai la 

solid  measure  is  the  bUm^  or  cubic  metre  ana  around  Besancon,  Montbdiard,  Ponta&r, 

=  85.8166  cubic  feet;  that  of  liquid  measure  and  YersslUee.    Leather  is  mann&etnred  to  die 

is  the  litre  or  cubic  decimetre   =   61.02705  vdue  of  $36,000,000,  of  which  $1,400,000  worth 

cubic  inches,  or  nearly  i  J  of  an  imperid  gallon,  is  for  gloves.    The  woollen  manniactar«  if  U 

The  unit  of  weight  is  the  gramme,  which  is  the  paramount  importance ;  its  diief  seats  sre  S»- 

weight  of  a  cubic  centimetre  of  distilled  water  dan,  Louviers,  and  £lben(  for  cloths ;  Verrin^ 

at  its  temperature  of  greatest  condensation.  Rheims,  Amiens,  Arras,  Sl  Omer,  Roubaii,  inl 

It  is  equal  to  15.4825  grains  troy,  or  about  Tourcoing,  for  flannels  and  other  coaree  sisffi : 

Sof  a  dram  avoirdupois.    The  compounds  of  Paris,  Beauvais,  and  Aubusson,  for  carpets ;  tht 

cse  weights  and  measures  are  formed  and  totd  vdue  of  woollen  iabrics  is  estimated  ss 

named  on  the  same  principle  as  those  of  the  nearly  $90,000,000.    The  cotton  manufacCn% 

metre.  The  monetary  unit  is  tlie yran^  (silverX  employina  no  fewer  than  170,000  workaMO, 

which  weiffhs  76.5  grdns,  and  is  worth  about  amounts,  induding  sJl  kinds  of  CdMics,  to  nesHj 

19.2  cts.   U.  8.  currency.    Its  fractions  are  $120,000,000  a  year.    It  is  mostly  carried  oe  ia 

the  centime  =f|^  of  a  franc,  and  the  decime  the  departments  of  Haot  and  Bas  Rhin,  NoHL 

=  A  of  a  franc. — Manufactures,  dthough  like  Aiane,  and  Sdne-Inferienre.    Linens  are 


agriculture  laboring,  as  a  ffenerd  rule,  under  lectured  principally  hi  the  N*.  provinces.    ^ 

the  want  of   large   capital,  have   been  pro-  Quentin,  v  denciennes,  and  Cambrai  prodve 

gressinff  steadfastly ;  and  as  respects  the  extent  the  best  cambrics ;  Lyons  and  Alen^oo,  the  be« 

and  vdue  of  her  products,  France  ranks  as  a  muslins.    Mirrors  of  superior  quality  ai«  maao- 

manufacturing  country  next  to  Great  Britdn.  factroed  at  St  Gobdn,  St.  Qutrin,'and  Cirvv; 

While  she  can  scarcely  enter  into  competition  other  glass  wares  of  various  kinds  give  emploT- 

with  the  latter  in  the  manufacture  of  cotton  ment  to  10,000  hands,  distributed  in  i30  csuL- 

goods  and  soverd  other  vduable  artides,  she  lidiments,  tlie  annud  product  amonnting  to 

excels  her  and  other  countries  in  nearly  dl  nearly  $5,600,00a    There  are  aboot  800 


inent  place  in  this  respect    Tlie  number  of  silk  bour^  Brest,  Rochefort,  Maneillca,  Tuolocu  and 

h>oms  amounts  to  over  80.000,  employing  170,-  Bordeaux.— The  gn»at  articles  of  export  unm- 

000  workmen,  and  producing  goods  worth  over  of  silk,  woollen,  and  other  mannfnrtnrcd  a«>«k 

$50,000,000,  to  which  must  be  added  about  wines  and  brandies^  Joinerv*  and  cahiaccaMkcn* 

|ltiU)00,000  worth  of  ribbons  manufactured  at  wares,  leather,  bronze,  steel  and  iron  wai 

Btftienne.  Thiaplaoe,ljona,lL'n|;aon)^\m«K  y*^T>^^i^i«nyy^^>n.^  ^i^k>»  mmA^.^ 


vUle  the  imports  ooniprise  all  sorU  of  colonial 
produce,  cottoD,  wool,  snnr,  coffee,  spicea,  d/e- 
•tnfb,  r»w  ulk,  iToolleD,  liemp,  flax,  coal,  txm- 
per,  eoUle,  hide*.  &c.  These  are  mostly  brouKiit 
to  Marseilles,  Havre,  Bordeaux,  Nsntea,  La 
Rochelle,  Dnokirk,  Boulogne,  SL  Malo,  Lorient, 
Bayonne,  Cette,  Ik.,  which  are  also  the  oatlets 
of  exportation.  The  following  tables,  compiled 
from  recent  official  pnblicationB,  show  the  offi- 
cial tai  actual  valnes  of  the  commerce  of 
I>ance,  distingnished  as  "  general "  and  "  8po- 
dal"— 4he  former  term  comprehending  all  the 
importa  and  exports,  and  the  latter  onlj  the 
import*  for  domeatio  conaomption  and  the  ex- 
ports of  French  prodnce  and  mannfactnres. 
The  official  th1ii«  b  that  fixed  by  law  in  1620. 
The  Bmns  are  given  in  millions  of  francs. 
OEinti,  Coinmci. 


^ 

Offl,!J.J 

JMulnlH 

l-p-U.   £,,„». 

T«^. 

Inp~l» 

CpM.. 

THL 

18M 

m 

]m 

J'Sli 

r^ 

1,011 

\-m 

i;-!^;:::; 

1,*M 

..«. 

MW 

ijfi 

MM 

These  figures  do  not  include  the  import*  and 
exports  of  fpli  and  silver,  which  were  as  fid- 
lows  in  ISfiS — the  value*  being  expressed  In 


OAld  ..1.^ 

* 

.^  -.1- 

l-p-u. 

I.p™ 

Tm.1. 

i-p™ 

K-r"--. 

T.W. 

IJUI 

IToi 

1.BSI 

r~i«»t^ 

t-pM.. 

i.r-0. 

M«.(na,owi 

Total 

MMO^wn 

M-lOftWD 

10  rears  ending  with  18G8  was  as  follows: 

r.«ta.»>A 

i-P-i.. 

K.,-*. 

MS.SH^OOO 

Total 

SIMIJJWO 

s<».7sa,ow 

It  win  thus  be  seen  that  France  has  been  great-    ports 
It  eariebed  with  the  precious  metals  ouring 
diis  period,  the  average  aDDual  excess  of 


—  -       -  -    -„  -         ,---   exportsbeing  808,787,500  fhncs. 

eariebed  with  the  precious  metals  ouring    The  following  tables  showthe  principal  articles 
_        -.i  .1.  1  _>  f_.      of  special  commerce : 


w. 

HI, 

HH. 

d—u,,. 

V^».(»«. 

q—uq. 

V.1-,  n.™ 

V.l~.  hu 

Corn 

1»~ 

•f^MS 
lis 

f  »OM(W.«W 

n,«><i,ow 

Sfsta 

1*1,«0I1,I»0 

i,ssa.sii 

-■ffiSi 

II.Nt 

■Ss 

}ll6,«)a,(W 

s(uoo.wo 

»ll.tO0.O(« 

lltiBWOTO 

«a.9».ooo 

THNM,»» 

-  ^ 

Coil T. 

too*. 

Wool 

ic>uioi).«M 

....^ 

)». 

•». 

1       ,tu. 

««....,. 

V^-.(~., 

^,.,. 

V— ,  (~». 

v^-.(™«-. 

T1««  «f  ™UoB,ink,  »«i1ei..«id 

«lll«lDd>plril* X.. 

■""'■■■^ 

n.sis 

UN 

8.384 
ll.DIt 
IT.IM 

nt,«n«oo 

MUKMe 

Tejoteoo 

1 

n.««i,ooo 
[  j.«(».oco 

"iiir 

asii 

1«T,«S 

J      Mi,:hl 

1 

SK;!^^::::::;:::::::::::::::::::::  : 

JMJJiJJf 

lOB^ 

loiSMM 

^  vi^.iv>I*n 

FfcQf 

'"■* 

The  total  value  of  iiiii)orta  into  France  from  tlia 
Cnite<l  States  during  tlio  year  ending  June  30, 
IftSB,  was  $32,741,917,  of  wbicli  $31,891,807 
WW  in  Auiericao  ve$«els ;  and  tlie  exports  from 
France  to  Uie  Cuited  SUtea  during  tlie  ssina 
period  amounted  to  $35,292,G21,  of  which  $31,- 
172,291  was  in  American  veisela.  Tlie  imports 
from  Great  Britain  into  France  of  British  and 
Irish  prodace  and  manufactures  wero  valued  at 
(31,066,790  in  18ST,  and  (24,307,790  in  ISSS. 
By  B  comparison  of  figures  it  appears  that  dur- 
ing the  decennial  [icriod  from  1647  to  lt5Q7  tlio 
total  of  imports  and  ti|)ort»  incrcast^d  over  75 
|>er  cvnt.,  and  that  tlie  uicrea.-^  of  eI|H>^t^)  van 
greater  than  that  of  iit)[>urt^  IiavJn;,'  been  t'i 
per  cent.,  n-hilo  tho  latter  «m  TO  |kt  ctnt.  It 
must  be  reniarkvil,  however,  that  tliu  iiniHirta 
fell  ofF  (jcrcatly  in  conse.|Ufncc  of  the  revolntlou 
of  ItMd.  while  tho  eiports scarcely  fi-H  tlie  shock. 
The  rmiu  of  iucreOM:  fur  30  yeiira  may  be  ««en 
from  the  following  fi(.'iirea,  represvnlhiK  tlio  av- 
erage annual  general  commtriM-,  including  »j>ecio 
movements  fur  3  decennial  periiHla: 


s  of  , '■Lipping  in  ISjU  and  1857 

FUTTI 


Ck. 

—■ 

,at. 

■«'- 

V~.l4.|    T«.,.. 

V—l^     T—f. 

iMii  i-'ijvj;;* 

in.Kl  1  i.sw.sit 

SMilS 

r«.j7 

rt«» 

.*. 

—- 

i«;. 

V««i 

T—,. 

V—l^lT-v.-,.. 

wJ^ien '. 

S.K* 

t.nM.tri 

RiSii'j  liu^M 

T»Lll 

W.*., 

IMTT  I  ISHn.lM 

UaAir  loatfflB t^m        MtMi 

BMwHii  100  ud  SM  toM 1,T4        •«»« 

otuwouu wt      taun 

Total li,I»        n%fM 

Tlie  number  of  rewela  has  renuinal  nearly  rt*- 
tionary  for  the  last  SO  years,  alUMajth  aguu  Laa 
been  inad«  in  capacity  of  abont  80,000  ttua.  Tha 
amount  of  trau^iortaUoa  iBcrMsed  4S  per  ecu. 
between  l&17andl89S.  About  30  per  c«ttL(i< 
the  foreign  trade  ii  carried  on  by  land-  Tte 
coasting  trade  of  France  is  very  large.  Tlwn 
are  242  ports,  the  principal  of  which,  in  tlte  or- 
der of  their  importance  in  this  branch  of  cob- 
merce,  are  Harseitle«,  Havre,  Bordeaux,  Room, 
Aries,  Uonflcur,  Charcnte,  Dunkirk.  Cetle,  Li- 
boume,  and  Plogne.  The  ainonnt  »t  coastiM 
trade  in  1856  was  2,432,613  ton^  of  which 
1,734.427  belonged  to  ports  on  the  Atlantic  and 
698,360  to  |>orlson  the  Mediterranean.  XlMtnJa 
between  porta  of  one  sea  and  those  of  WMthtr. 
called  the  "great  coasting  trade,"  nnfjojcd 
108,439  tons.— France  is  noir  Gooi[detii^an  mi- 
mlrnblo  sjetem  of  railwava,  whkh  will  be  cqsai^ 
if  not  snfi«rior,  to  any  other  in  Europe  or  Abmh- 
ca.  Parts  is  the  central  starting  point  of  tboa 
roads,  which,  mmiing  tn  every  direction,  jdaae 
the  metropolis  in  direct  «Nmnnnicattaa  wi'^b 
nearly  all  parts  of  the  empire.  Tbey  mm]r  b*  it- 
Tided  into  the  following  great  linea,  each  oftbcia 
aendins  off  numeroos  branches :  1,  th«  nonh- 
em  railway,  leading  to  the  X.  E.  frontier,  wbrrv 
it  connects  with  the  Belgian  mails;  3.  the  ext- 
ern or  Strasbourg,  bvMeaui,  Chalon*-si;r-ltinj'. 
and  Nancy,  to  the  banks  of  tlie  KLine  :  i.  ;Li 
south-eastern  or  MediierTaoean,  imsaiiig  tl.pjr..:b 
Fontaincbk-au,  D^on,  Lyons^  and  Aiigi.>«.  :>• 
Uarsuilles;  4,  tho  Orleans,  which  bramhi.-*  i: 
Orleans  into  the  central  railway,  whitb  r-Li  la 
a  S.  direction,  and  the  south-wtMern  or  Ikf- 
deanx,  which  ftnt  follows  the  Loirt.-,  ard  il.<3 
running  from  Tours  to  [tnrdeaux,  tvni^icatti  ti 
Baj-onnc,  connecting  with  the  t^poni'li  ht-vi:  \ 
tho  western,  connecting  the  lutirviivi^*  ».'.i 
the  seaport  of  Brent,  through  Vcr»uj|:vt,  Lr 
Uan>t,  and  Hcnnes;  6,  the  north-we>:<'m  •: 
Havre,  trevemiug  tho  valley  of  the  S.-uie.  T«  J 
otiicr  lines  of  grt-'Ot  importance  start  fmiii  I'-f- 
di;aui :  one,  tho  Boulliem,  cuinpUivd  in  KT, 
connects  this  city  with  the  Hcdiivrraiwu  i: 
Cette;  tho  other,  jtt  unftui>hvd,  will  (f**:- 
direct  commnnicaiicin  between  Ikirdeaui  sil 
Lyons,  under  tlie  naiuvof  the  great  roiitral.  T' 
aggregate  length  of  the  above  railway-,  eii.r 
completed  or  constmcting,  i*  al>out  6,44u  e-.:-:*. 
France  is  well  provided  with  cumniiio  ni*U 
which  are  divided  into  imperi.il,  dei>artroi;.;i, 
and  communal  nmiKtliccot  uf  e.ich  cL^  U^i 
respectively  defrajvd  by  tliegnviTnuKCt.  U.t  i^ 

KrtraentK,  or  the  cummuties  !'■  wliirh  tin}  U.- 
ig.  Theflrst  classof  these  tbnru<wtif^re:s  CU 
in  number  with  ariag-p're-^att.-eitrntdf  aim.;  Si.- 
000  miles,  ore  wide  higimayrs  |>avcil  vt  m^^- 
uuized,  and  bonkivd  with  fiiM  trecd ;  t^  ^ 


TRANCE  668 

partmental  roads  are  tolerably  good^  but  the  ntion,  gives  its  sanction  to  tbe  measares  "which 
communal  are  indifiereot,  and  too  often  out  of  have  b^  adopted  by  the  depnties.  There  are 
repair,  as  thej  are  not  like  the  others  under  the  83  ambassadors  or  ministers  plenipotentiary  of 
charge  of  civil  engineers  appointed  by  the  gov-  France  to  foreign  countries,  with  an  equal  nmn* 
emment  The  canals,  79  in  number,  have  an  berofsecretariesofembossyorlegation,  and  118 
aggregate  length  of  8,600  miles;  amoug  the  consuls,  24  of  whom  are  styled  consuls-general, 
principal  are :  the  southern  canal  (canal  du  The  internal  administration  of  ^toh  department 
tnidi)^  which  runs  from  Cette  to  Toulouse,  is  in  the  hands  of  a  prefect,  who  is  assisted  by 
where  it  joins  the  Garonne,  and  thus  connects  a  council  of  prefecture,  and  has  nnder  his  direo- 
the  Mediterranean  with  the  Atlantic ;  the  canal  tion  the  sub-prefects  of  the  arrondissements ;  a 
of  Burgundv,  between  the  Tonne  and  the  mayor,  aided  by  a  municipal  council,  is  at  the 
Sadne,  and  the  canal  of  the  Rhine  and  Rhone,  head  of  each  commune.  CouncUs  of  arrondisse- 
connecting  these  two  rivers;  the  canal  of  the  ment  and  councils  of  department  hold  sessions 
centre,  between  the  Loire  and  the  Sa6ne ;  the  of  a  few  days  every  year  to  regulate  the  assess- 
Loing,  Briare,  and  Orleans  canals,  opening  a  ment  of  taxes  and  give  expression  to  the  wishes 
communication  between  the  Seine  and  the  and  wants  of  their  respective  communities. 
Loire ;  the  8t  Quentin  canal,  which  is  remark-  Such  are  the  administrative  arrangements  all 
able  for  its  tunnel,  and  connects  the  Oise  with  the  over  the  country,  with  the  exception  of  the  de* 
Scheldt ;  the  canal  of  Brittany,  the  longest  of  partment  of  the  Seine  and  the  city  of  Lyons, 
all,  running  from  Nantes  to  Brest,  a  distance  of  which  have  an  organization  of  their  own. — For 
S80  miles.  The  aggregate  length  of  land  and  the  administration  of  justice  France  has  27 
water  communications  in  the  interior  of  France  imperial  courts  established  in  so  many  of  the 
is  reckoned  at  547,500  miles.  The  railways,  principal  cities,  and  holding  iurisdiction  over 
highways,  and  canals  are  placed  under  the  su-  irom  one  to  7  departments.  Thev  are  composed 
perintendence  of  a  special  department  known  6f  a  president,  several  vice-presidents,  and  from 
as  the  board  of  engineers  of  bridges  and  public  20  to  00  councillors,  to  whom  must  be  added  an 
ways  (ingenieurs  aesfonti  et  ehaunee$.)  Each  attorney  or  proeureur  gcnend,  assisted  by  ad- 
department  has  its  chief  engineer ;  and  the  de-  vocates  general  and  substitutes.  The  principal 
pvtments  are  divided  into  16  circuits  under  the  of  these  courts  is  that  of  Paris.  Under  them, 
control  of  division  inspectors. — The  present  gov-  each  arrondissement  has  its  court  of  original  or 
emment  of  France,  as  established  by  the  consti-  primary  jurisdiction  (tribunal  eivU  ou  de  pre- 
tution  of  Jan.  14,  1852,  is  virtually  an  absolute  mUre  inttanu) ;  each  canton,  its  tribunal  <Mf 
monarchy,  the  head  of  which  is  styled  em-  justice  of  the  peace  and  its  simple  police  conrt 
peror;  the  crown  has  been  declared  hereditary  At  the  head  of  the  judiciary  establishment 
in  the  male  line  of  the  Bonaparte  family.  The  stands  the  court  of  cassation,  which  is  a  supe- 
whole  of  the  executive  power  centres  in  the  rior  court  of  appeal  in  both  civil  and  criminal 
hands  of  the  emperor,  wno  employs  10  minis-  cases ;  its  decisions  are  invested  with  the  high- 
ters,  placed  at  the  head  of  the  following  depart-  est  authority.  The  crime  of  high  treason  falls 
menta:  1,  the  state  and  imperial  household;  2,  under  the  jurisdiction  of  an  exceptional  high 

instice;  8,  finance;  4,  home  or  the  interior ;  5,  court  of  justice.    The  courts  of  assize  are  organ- 

>reign  affairs ;  6,  war ;  7,  navy ;  8,  public  in-  ized  with  juries,  but  take  cognizance  of  criminal 

fltruction  and  worship ;   9,  agriculture,  com-  cases  only.    The  court  of  accounts  {caur  de$ 

merce,  and  public  works;  10,  Algeria  and  the  eompt€$)^  although  not  a  regular  tribunal,  may 

colonies.    The  last  was  created  June  24, 1858,  be  also  mentioned  here;  it  is  established  to 

its  duties  having  been  previously  performed  by  audit  and  examine  all  the  accounts  connected 

the  minister  of  the  navy.    To  these  were  added  with  the  public  revenue  and  expenditure.  Beside 

from  1851  to  1858  a  ministry  of  police,  which  the  regular  judiciary  courts,  tribunals  of  com- 

has  been  merged  in  the  home  department  The  merce  and  councils  of  prud^homme»^  chiefly 

legislative  power,  which  is  in  fact  under  the  composed  of  commercial  men,  are  established  in 

immediate  control  of  the  executive,  is  nominal-  the  principal  manufacturing  and  commercial 

1 J  divided  between  8  great  bodies  politic :  1,  towns,  to  decide  upon  cases  connected  with 

the  senate,  consisting  of  not  over  150  members,  trade  and  manufactures.    The  penitentiary  in*- 

appointed  for  life  bv  the  emperor,  and  of  the  stitutions  of  France  have  somewhat  improved 

archbishops,  marshals  of  the  empire,  and  ad-  during  the  last  20  years,  but  are  still  far  from 

mirala,  who  are  de  facto  entitled  to  seats;  2,  being  as  complete  and  perfect  as  they  ouffht  to 

the  legislative  body,  comprising  267  deputies,  be  in  a  highly  civilized  community.    Beside  the 

who  are  elected  for  a  tenn  of  5  years ;  8,  the  hagnet  of  Brest,  Rochefort,  and  Toulon,  most  of 

council  of  state,  consisting  of  40  councillors,  the  inmates  of  which  have  been  lately  trans- 

40  masters  of  requests,  and  40  auditors,  all  of  ported  to  the  penal  colonies  of  Guiana,  there 

them  appointed  and  removable  at  will  by  the  are  20  central  prisons  for  convicts  of  variooa 

emperor.    This  council  is  intrusted  with  the  erades,  the  principal  beins  at  Clairvaux,  Gaillon, 

preparation  of  the  various  bills  and  administra-  Melun,  Poissy,  Mont  St.  Michel,  Clermont,  dec 

tivc  regulations;  the  legislative  body  examines  They  contain  an  average  of  about  17,000  per- 

and  votes  upon  snch  bills  as  are  introduced  bv  sons.    It  is  estimated  that  there  are  annually 

the  ministers ;  the  senate,  the  province  of  which  from  85,000  to  40,000  individuals  nnder  confine- 

ii  the  preservation  of  the  laws  and  the  const!-  ment  or  the  surveillance  of  the  police. — ^Reli- 


664  FRANCE 

gions  toleration  is  exercised  to  its  fall  extent,    Bordeaux,  Caen,  Clermoot,  Dijon,  Dooaj,  Ct«- 
aud  the  law  secures  equal  freedom  and  protec-    noble,  Lyons,  Montpellier,  Nancy,  P^iris  Poi- 
tion  to  every  kind  of  wonship.    A  vast  majority    tiers.  Rennet,  Strasbourg,  and  Toukmse.    Earh 
of  the  population  bclons  to  the  Roman  Catho-    academy  is  governed  by  a  rector,  with  an  arad- 
lie  church.    The  French  government  supports    emy  in.^>ector  for  every  department.    The  rtc- 
not  only  tlie  pastors  of  tliis  church,  but  also    tor  is  assisted  by  an  academical  council,  of 
those  of  ttie  Protestant  and  Jewish  communions,  which  he  is  tlie  presiding  officer ;  the  ac^^rny 
France,  including  its  colonies,  is  divided  into  85  inspector,  by  a  departmental  council  i>res«dtd 
Catholic  dioceses,  70  of  which  are  bishoprics,  over  by  the  prefect.  Three  grades  of  instrorciiA 
and  15  archbislioprics,  viz. :  Aix,  Albi,  Auch,  are  recognized,  superior,  secondary,  and  prims- 
Avignon,  Hesancon,  Bordeaux,  Bourges,  Cam-  ry.   Superior  instruction,  embracing  the  higb««t 
brai,  Lyons,Paris,  Rheims.Rouen,  Sena, Toulouse,  branches  of  human  knowledge  only,  is  given  by 
and  Tours.     Only  5  of  the  bishoprics  are  out  a  number  of  faculties,  the  professorships  of 
of  France  proper,  viz. :  Algiers,  La  R^'union,  which  are  intrusted  to  men  of  tried  capacity  and 
Ajaccio,  Martinique,  and  Guadeloupe.    Every  talent.  There  are  8  faculties  of  theology  (A  Catt- 
bishop  and  arclibishop  is  assisted  by  vicars-  olic,  2  Protestant),  9  of  Uw,  3  of  iiM^icini?,  H 
general  and  a  cha[)ter.  The  dioceses  are  divided  of  science,  and  1 6  of  letters.  Secockdary  instnic- 
into  parishes,  which,  according  to  their  import  tion,  nearly  equivalent  to  the  curriculum  i/ 
tance,  are  intrusted  to  priests,  holding  for  life,  American  universities,  is  supplied  by  secoodtry 
with  assistants,  or  to  mere  officiating  minis-  sdiools  of  medicine  and  pharmacy,   impensi 
ters  removable  at  will  by  the  bishops.    There  lyceums  and  communal  colleges,  under-«eini- 
are  175  vicars-general,  661  canons,  3,388  curates  naries,  chiefly  for  theological  stndentA,  privau 
with  7,100  vicara,  and  29,537  officiating  minis-  institutions,  and  schools.    On  March  1,  1SS4. 
ters.    Eacli  diocese  has  a  seminary  for  the  in-  there  were  61  lyceums,  with  21,076  pupils :  2^ 
struction  of  clergymen ;  theological  colleges  or  communal  colleges,  with  27,905   pupils ;  ana 
faculties  exist  at  Paris,  Aix,  Bordeaux,  Lyons,  1,081  private  schools  and  institutiona  |S25of 
Rouen,  and  Toulouse.    The  French  Protestants  them  under  the  direction  of  laymen,  256  cog- 
mostly  belong  to  the  Lutheran  and  Reformed  or  ducted  by  clergymen),  with  an  aggregate  aon- 
Calvinist  churches;  they  number  about  4,000,-  her  of  63,657  pupib;  the  under-seminane*  not 
000.  The  Lutherans,  who  live  principally  in  the  included.    The  above  two  branches  of  pcbs 
departmentsofIIaut-Rhin,Bas-Rhin,Doubs,and  lie  instruction  are  under  Che  special  cootroi 
Seme,  have  249  pastors,  with  presbyterial  coun-  of  the  rectors  and  academy  inspectors.    T^ 
cils  and  consistories  under  the  superintendence  third,  primary  instruction,  is  especially  ininit:- 
of  a  directory  at  Strasbourg,  where  their  chief  ed  to  the  care  of  the  prefects,  aided  by  spivo! 
theological  seminary  and  a  faculty  arc  situated,  inspectors.     For  priin.iry  instruotic^i  tiurvr  a-.* 
The  Calvinists,  who  mostly  inhabit  the  depart-  460  hij:h  scliot)!;*,  and  Co,(KX)  priiiiary  >  l«  .* 
monts  of  Seine,  (iard,  Charente-Infcrieuro,  Ar-  establi>hed  all  over  the  country,      lin-*.-  i:- 
deche,  DroMie,  Tarn,  Tam-et-(Taronne,  I»t-et-  8Upi)orted  by  the  cummimes :  i>art  of  ili-.  :r  j  .- 
Garonne,  Lozere,  and  Deux  SOvres,  have  507  pils  are  admitted  free  of  cxjK-nM.»;  i!ie  i.:--- 
church  pastors,  presbyterial  couuL-ils,  91  consis-  pay  a  tritling  annual  chanre.     Asylinn-.  f^-r  i     - 
tories,  a  central  council  Hitting  at  Paris,  and  a  dren  complete  the  est:iMi<»hnKnts  i»f  {-r.:  j-;. 
tlieolo^^ical  college  ut  Montaiihan.     The  Jews*,  instruction.     Nonnal  M:hi»o!!4  for  the  id  :  -'.  - 
numbering  alH)ut  1<K),(X)0,  who  are  found  princi-  of  primary  teachers  eii-^t  in  n^-arly  a'.l  ti:-.  •!■ 
>ally  in  the  largo  towns  of  tlie  oast  and  soutli,  partineiits,  uiul  have  w«>rked  bati'ifact«»r.!*.     A 
lavo  synagogues  at  Paris,  Strasbourg,  Cohnar,  8Ui)erior  normal  scliool,  e>tabh^lK-d  a:  V^r.*.  > 
Metz,  Nancy,  Bordeaux,  and  Marseilles,  with  a  tho  seminary  from  whirh  come  the  ir.:*j«'ri:;  v: 
central  council  in  the  capital.  Their  jmst ors  con-  tlie  profe-is<irsap|iointetl  intlu*  imi*cr::i:  ]\ .  *.*.'...' 
sist  of  a  great  rabbi  of  the  Central  c«mMcil,  7  great  this  institution  ha-*  been  of  pre  jt  xrv.-v.  _.i 
synagogue  rabbis,  53  rabbis,  and  01  otlieiating  many  of  its  alumni  have  gaiui^l  a  i^^:\^:^.:'.^    : 
ministers.     The  clergv  of  the  Catholic  chureii,  literary  reputation.      In  connectiim  *.:h  :'.  s 
which,  previous  to  the  t'rench  revolutitJii,  was  the  we  mu^t  mention  the  Fri-nrh  (k:Iuml  :•.:  A::.- 
holder  of  fully  one  third  of  the  landed  pro[H.Tty,  to  whii*h  a  numbi'r  of  young  men  m-m  tin  v^  :• 
and  had  a  yearly  income  amounting  to  very  near  inal  school  ure  s^-nt  by  the  govirnmon:  t.   ;•  :- 
$40,0mO,«»6>,  now  receive  a  .silary,  the  aggregate  feet  tlieir  l^nowKMlge  of   the  lirwt  Ur:^.Ji^ 
amount  of  which  is  scarcely  over  $r>,«M»f»,000.  Canilhlate^  f.T  the  C'atholii-  p; jt*ti.i*»l  ar.  t*..- 
—The  government  has  a  direct  and  supreme  eateil  in  higli  ecileMa«itu'al>«'h«>i»Nor  ;rrea:  -    .- 
control  over  public  instruction,  through  the  in-  inaries  under  the  exelu>ive  itintrfi  .»:  t)  i  i  a:  .• 
stnimcntalityofthat  powerful  institution  known  olie   bi^ho|H  ;    ministers   are  pnj  ur.-l    .-:  *..  •; 
as  the  university  of  France,  and  the  combined  I*ri>te>tant  M'minarie«i  ut  S:ra.-K-ur^  a:  -l  M  ■  *- 
action  of  its  civil  officers  in  the  administration  aub-m  ;  rabbis   in  the  central  ral'Mi.i-     m  '  • '. 
thereof.     The   minister   of  ]»ubli<-   instruetion,  at  Metz.     These  ^el:^.H»l'«  are  of  i*«»-:r-*    ...:    : 
placed  at  the  heail  of  the  wliole  orgjni7ati<ni,  the  [lale  of  the  nniver-ity.     S»  aw  m!**.  :"  .  .  i  • 
is  assi»t<'(l  by  an  imperial  eounril  nnd  a  bo»ly  »»f  ebrated  [Kjlyteciinic  .M'hoi.l,  wturi-  i.  i\^  .  • 
IS  insjK'ct«»rs-general.     The  country  i-»  divided  lary,  and  eivil  eiigiuivrs,  ar:i'd«.r\  ■•iV  i -*,  \ 
into  l(\  districts,  each  with  it-*  ai-adi  my :  the  are  educated;  the  military  ».  h- •.•*.*  t-:  >■    i.     • 
scats  of  the^  institutions  are  at  Aix,  Kesanvon,  La  FKche,  and  bauuiur ;  ihe  { nM.:i\.al  m.Ii^%o 


I 


FRAKOE  MS 

for  artillery  and  engineering,  ^.;  all  of  which  are  at  Charenton,  near  Paris;  fonndling  ho»* 
are  under  the  sapervision  of  the  minister  of  pitals,  d^  Poor-relief  hoards  {bureaux  de 
war.  Some  other  practical  schools  connected  (nenfaiaance\  at  least  7,000  in  numher,  give 
with  the  navy,  civil  engineering,  the  mines,  either  indoor  or  outdoor  relief  to  over  700,- 
manufacturea,  forests,  ^.,  are  respectively  con-  000  individuals.  Various  societies  for  the 
trolled  hy  the  ministers  to  which  they  more  assiBtance  of  prisoners  or  the  sick,  and  a  vast 
properly  belong.  The  central  school  of  art  and  number  of  philanthropic  associations  of  all 
mannfiEictores  at  Paris,  a  dependency  of  the  kinds,  are  dispersed  throughout  the  country, 
ministry  of  public  works,  deserves  particular  There  are  46  rmmts-de-piiU  (pawnbroking  es- 
notice  on  account  of  its  general  usefidness.  tabliE^ments),  with  a  capital  of  nearly  $10,000,- 
Important  in  a  higher  sphere  are  the  college  of  000,  making  yearly  loans  to  the  amount  of  about 
France,  where  lectures  are  delivered  on  the  $12,000,000.  Such  loans  are  gratuitous  in  6  of 
highest  topics  of  science  and  literature;  the  tiie  above  establishments;  interest  in  the  others 
museum  of  natural  history,  an  admirable  oolleo-  varies  fh>m  2  to  16  per  cent.  The  first  savings 
tioQ  of  animal,  vegetable,  and  mineral  wealth,  bank  (eai$$e  d^eparane)  was  establi^ed  in  1818 
connected  witi^  ttiejardin  deiplante$;'9sA  the  at  Paris;  and  on  Jan.  1, 1858,  there  were  411 
lectnrea  on  oriental  languages  delivered  at  the  in  all  parts  of  the  countnr.  The  interest  on 
imperial  library.  Above  idl  these  learned  in-  deposits  is  4  percent — ^A double  system  of  taz- 
adtations  stand  the  French  academv,  the  acad-  ation  exists  m  France.  The  direct  taxes  are 
amies  of  inscriptions,  of  science,  of  the  fine  arts,  those  laid  on  land  {contributicn  foneiire)^  on 
and  of  moral  and  political  sciences,  which  com-  houses  (contribution  de$  partes  et  fenetres),  on 
pose  the  5  classes  of  the  illustrious  institute  of  persons  {contribution  pertonelle  et  mobiliire)^ 
fVance.  In  1854^  the  number  of  public  libraries  and  on  licenses  (impSt  de$  patenta).  The  indi- 
in  the  departments  amounted  to  888,  containing  rect  taxes,  beside  the  import  and  export  duties^ 
44,070  IISS.  and  8,689,869  printed  works.  This  comprise  excise  charges  upon  wines,  brandies, 
does  not  include  the  public  libraries  of  Paris,  salt,  gunpowder,  tobacco,  postage,  public  stages 
which  are  over  87  in  number,  with  104,000  and  coaches,  stamped  paper,  registry  of  dc^ds 
M8S.  and  more  than  2,600,000  printed  volumes,  and  sales,  &c.  This  complicated  system  re- 
There  are  in  France  1,037  printing  offices,  pub-  quires  an  army  of  public  officers  and  collectors 
lishing  1,115  periodicals.  Paris  has  91  printing  of  every  rank,  private  and  general  receivers, 
offices  and  470  periodicals. — ^The  charitable  in-  payers,  dKs.  These  are  under  the  control  of 
fltitutions  of  France  are  very  numerous.  Hos-  the  minister  of  finance,  who  is  assisted  by  64 
pitals  and  asylums  exist  in  nearly  every  town  finance  inspectors  and  the  court  of  accounts. 
of  importance.  These  establishments,  some  of  Beside  the  government  taxes,  there  are  numer- 
which  hold  considerable  property,  are  supported  ous  local  ones,  mostly  established  in  the  towns 
bv  the  state,  the  department,  or  the  commune,  of  importance  to  defray  local  expenditures;  they 
lliey  are  1,838  in  number,  with  an  income  are  generally  known  under  the  name  of  octroii. 
anx>unting  to  over  $10,600,000,  and  yearlv  ac-  The  yearly  estimate  of  receipts  and  expendi- 
eommodate  about  60,000  patients.  The  larg-  tures  is  called  the  budget^  which  is  proposed  by 
est  and  wealUiiest  are  at  Paris,  Lyons,  Bor-  the  minister  of  finance  and  voted  upon  by  the 
deanz,  Rouen,  Marseilles,  Lille,  Nantes,  and  legislative  assemblies.  We  give  below  a  table 
Strasbourg.  There  are  military  and  marine  of  the  budgets  at  several  periods : 
hospitals  under  the  control  of  the  secretaries         tmh.  r«c«ii»u,  fv.     xspM^itarM,  tt 

of  war  and  the  navy.    The  former,  established         }|}| u^mm      i  iSm^ 

in  the  principal  fortified  places  of  the  empire,         1 894 .'!.'.'!!.'!!!!!!'!.'.*  i  '9H97i  9S3       'w2jK»,t8S 

«re42  in  number,  with  18,000  beds  for  officers,         igo i5S™2?o      ?*S?5:i?o:iJ5 

non-commissioned  officers,  or  privates,  under         iSs!!!! *.!*.!!!! !!!!.".!ijw!»M!ao      ijro^Seoluo 
the  care  of  officers  and  men  belonging  to  the         isss! !!!.'.'.'!!!!.'!.'!!!!  i!448[884i6&9      i!oo8,8983i5 

medical  staff  of  the  army.    The  4  marine  hos-         J|g i  m'liMn      I'TtlS^SJ 

^tals  at  the  great  seaports  of  Cherbourg,  Brest^         isat!  ;;;;;;.*!.*;!!.'!; .'  iijTsIsw^iu      ii\iwm,9T[ 

Rochefort,  and  Toulon,  can  accommodate  about  The  receipts  and  expenditures  in  detail  in  1868 

1^000  patients,  and  are  taken  care  of  by  sisters  ^^ere  as  follows : 
of  charity  and  male  overseers.    Of  several  asy-  Bicnm.  rnmf, 

lams  for  disabled  soldiers  and  sailors  who  have  2*^  *?**'V y'Cu'r"^ ISmqSS 

•erved  then-  country  for  a  period  of  years,  the  fSSiTiSJ'iJSX"'.!^^.^^^^  ISlSSSS 

most  celebrated  is  the  hotel  dee  invalida,  at  Coitomt  «h1  Mit  datj ^i^^Ii*!!! 


having  a  marshal  of  France  for  its  gov- 


IndfrectUxet 424.016^000 

,     -,  ^    ^     «  ,  Pottofflc* 0«,fi6a,000 

cmor,  and  a  large  staff  of  officers.    It  contains    Mitoeifameoiu so6,oi7,MS 

Bearly  8,000  old  soldiers,  generously  provided    KxtwordHunr  •ourcet •     ^*^»J^ 

ibrby  the  government    Among  the  other  in-         toui ^ i,T8T,na,in 

sfcitations  are  the  blind  asylum,  known  as  the  ExpnrorrvKxa. 

hcopiee  de$  quinu'tingt.  and  the  imperial  in-    J"**"? ^^*":-v---v  ;•«.•.:  vvi.- 622^i,l«6 

•titation  fo?  the  educition  of  the  blind  at  ^•S°fr?!!^!'.^.!^^  .  !^^^^^                       89.4«m«« 

Paris;    the  imperial  institutions  for  deaf  and    Minister  of  suui 9,iS7,ooo 

dmnb  there  and  at  Bordeaux;   over  40  lu-         **     ofjiuUce vi^\^ 

Bfttio  asylums,  the  most  important  of  which         CaniedoTer. 608»8OO;M8 


$86  FRANOK 

Broafht  ibrwird 6»M0<XSM  of  grenadiers,  4  of  Toltigeim,  1  of  Zoo&tm,  1  of 

^^'"'Sflrir^rt'S!":::;:::::::;:::::::::  iSwS  chasseuw,  i  of  genckrmerie;  «iviir7--2 1^ 

»     orflMDces i9ats.»r  mento  of  cuirassiers,  1  of  oragooiM,  1  of  clo*- 

"     of  war \-\'\ fiJIS*??*  sears,  1  of  guides,  1  sqnadron  of  mounted  p:n- 

:     T^XYu^S^ctV'lSi'^oriiip:.::  'StS;^  darraene:  artillery-l  mounted  regimeut,  1  on 

«*     of  agriculture,  commerce,  aod  pubUo  foot  (with  1  squauron  of  workmen),  and  1  di- 

cXuon and .d-i^iniiu^uoW-^^                    mwSsJ  jision of  thecorps  of  engineers,    ih^  African 

RepAymcnu los^ssioes  troops  consist  of  8  reguients  of  ZoaaTea,  t 

Kxtraordinary  expenses i9.5W,ooo  battalions  of  light  African  Infantrj,  1  foreign 

Toui      i,Ji%9»fiH  legion  of  2  regiments,  8  regimenU  of  Algerian 

The  principal  items  of  expenditure  in  the  hud-  sharpshooters,  13  disdpUne  companies,  8  wgi- 

get  for  1859  are :  ministry  of  state  and  imperial  menu  of  mounted  Afriam  chassenn,  and  $  of 

household,  12,729,400  fr. ;  justice,  28,898,270  ;  mounted  Spahis.    A  body  of  troopa,  called  the 

foreign  affairs,  10,470,600;  interior,  160,623,-  imperial  gendannene,  forma  an  armed  Mike 

818 ;  finances,  903,694,229  Oncluding  630,473,-  for^,  w^S^  ftmcUons  are  to  prwerro  order  at 

698  interest  on  the  public  debt) ;  war,  854,042,-  home.    The  aggregate  cf  the  abora  troops  m 

020;  navv,  128,985,636;  Algeria,  16,663,003;  1»B8  amounted  to409,M3  men,  diatnbjitedlai 

public  instruction  and  worship,  68,040,986 ;  ag-  follows:    Infantry,  247,641 ;   cavalry,  65,407; 

riculture,  commerce,  and  public  works,  98,169,-  artillery,  84,263;  others,  61,762     Tho  general 

466.    The  public  debt,  Jan.  1, 1856  and  1857,  staff  comprised  10  marshals  of  France,  .8  p»- 

stood  as  follows  :  l^  of  divisions^  164  bngadier-geDcrals,  be«»k 

79  generals  of  division  and  170  bngadier-gen- 

'"^'  ends  belonging  tothe  reserve.  The  above  figures 

have  been  of  course  altered  by  the  state  of  wsr. 

77*^,900  fr.  During  tbe  Crimean  war,  tliere  were  in  active 

s^wijkS^  service  581,000  men  and  113,000  horm.    Tbe 

army  is  recruited  by  an  annual  contingent  of 


FloAtin;  debt : 

BearinK  tntemt 

Not  boaring  interest 
CoiiM>Udat«d  debt 


Total 


I«S4. 


651.7M«100  fr. 

7,Ua,04U,889 


S,SSS.14a,ltt  fr. 


8.8Si,9»,Me  fr.    ^y^^^  80,000  men,  either  volunteers  or  coo- 


During  the  15  years  of  the  restoration  (1815-  scripts,  above  20  years  of  age.    The  oonscripu 

'30)  the  national  debt  was  more  than  trebled ;  are  chosen  by  ballot  for  a  term  of  7  yean. 

under  Louis  Philippe  (1830-'48)  it  increased  There  are  several  causes  of  exemption,  ehber 

but  one  fourth;  while  within  tho  lost  10  years  natural  or  legal,  and  anv  conscript  lias  it  in  bis 

it  has  neariy  doubled.    From  1851  to  1858  tho  power,  by  paying  a  fixed  sum«  to  put  a  nibstimte 

incrca!^)  was  at  the  rate  of  439,949,200  francs  m  his  place.    France  is  divided  into  21  militarr 

a  year,  and  from  1814  to  1859,  a  jK'riod  of  45  divisions,  povcrne<l  by  genend^  of  divi^  r^  it.  i 

years,  of  which  only  3  have  been  years  of  war,  the  most  important  by  marshal^  nntl  *»7  »  V ;  - 

the  public  debt  of  Franco  has  been  in  tho  ag-  visions  under  bripadier-gvueraR      Tht*   I;-i!- 

gre;^ito  increased  from  $240,000,000  to  $1,700,-  quarters  of  the  divi^ons  are  in  thi-  i.'!!..».:r 

000,000,  and  the  annual  charjres  thereon  to  bo  towns  and  cities:  Paris,  Koiien,  Lillo,  ih..!-  :  - 

pro vi<le<iror by toxes from $12,000, 000 to $100,-  sur-Marne,  Meiz,  Stnusbourp.  Be^an^nir,  !  y-  :.-. 

000,000. — The  military  establishment  of  Franco  Marseilles   Montpellier,   Perjtitrnan.  Tf  j.  :.v. 

is  not  only  fonniilablo  in  extent,  but  placed  upon  Bayonnc,  lk>rdeaux.   Nante»»,    Keiiiu-^    Hki-, 

such  a  systematic  basis  of  administration  as  to  Tours,  IJourges,  Clermont,  and  l.imivv*.     11. r 

K*care  its  full  efficiency.     The  control  of  tho  country    ia    protectetl    by    185    fortn.^^*      : 

whole  Ik'Ioii^s  to  tho  minister  of  war,  who  is  strongholds,   tho    most    imp<irtant    U-ir^    t;  • 

assisted  by  i^evenU  boarils  or  consultative  com-  following  :     1,  along    the  X.    fmntit-r.    l.ii 

inittee»  of  general  officers,  neverally  attending  Donay,  Conde,  Valenciennes,  MauK-Uirc.  ii.^x'. 

to  business  connected  with  the  general  stall',  in-  Mezieres,  Sedan,  Ix»nffwy,  Thionville.  Mi  t.T,  .\'  '. 

fantry,  cavalry,  artillery,  fortilirations  <fcc.    Tho  Hacuenau ;  2,  alonjr  ilie  E.  frontier,  Stra^U'^.r^. 

army,  previous  to  the  war  in  Italy  (1859),  con-  Ik»ft)rt,  Bosan^m,  Fort  de  Joux,  I.Ti«n>,  firi.- 

slsted   of  tho  following  troops:  inl'untry — KK)  noble,  Brianvon;   8.  alonj?  tho  Me»iitrrra-ei:. 

regiments  of  the  line,  20  battalions  of  chasseurs  coast,  Antibes,  Toulon,  Marsoilles,  CVtto.  W  r. 

de  Vincennes,  and   9   companies  of  vetL-rans;  St  Elme,  Port  Vendres;  4,  ali^i^  the  ]yT\i.'K 

cavalry — 2   regiments  of  carabineers  and   10  lk*llegarde,  Mont  Ix>uis  Peq»ijrnan,   U-iv-rir   : 

rej?iments  of  cuirassiers,  forming  tlio  reserve;  5,  along  the  western  and  norihtm  rfft,  tie 

12  regiments  of  dragoons  nn<l  ^t  of  lancers,  KMUg  islands  of  Oloron,  Ki-,  Noinnimticr«,  iV.;t.-]v- 

the  cavalry  of  the  line;  12  of  chas>eursand  H  of  and   (Jroix,    Hochefort,  I-a   INicholle,  I"r:o:T. 

hii^^sars  or  light  cavalry,  and  10  8Upi»lementary  Brest,  St.  Malo,  Mont  St.  Miihcl.  i'!nr>=  rr. 

ci»mpanifs;   artillery — 17  R'pmonts,  heavy  and  Havre,   Boulojrno,   Calais,  and   iMinkirV      7:  ■ 

li^rlit,  with  4  companies  of  veterans  and  14  cou»-  government  litis  3  cannon  foundt-riv^  .v*  I  v  :a7. 

jKiiiics of  workmen;  engineers — :\  rcfjiments  2  Stra«il)ourg,  andTouh>UM»:  and  fait«'r:i  *«:,:.■  • 

coiui»:miis of  workmen,  and  1  company  of  voter-  i>ow<ler,  muskets,  cannon  Kills,  A'i\    Its  inil.iAry 

ans.     Tlio  above  does  not  inchulo  the  im|K.Tial  arsenals  and  warehi»usos  can   plari*  nt  anv  ••.  - 

guard  nor  the  trooi»s  especially  bilon^rin;^  to  tho  ment  at  the  dis|M)sal  of  tho  army  iiV-t:t  If.-*  ' 

Afrimn  sor\ioi'.     TJie  former,  a  Si-lect  ImkIv  of  gun^  and  howitzers  of  viirious  ^I/l'^  %»;::.  :'•• 

tried  M^lJiers,  coinprises ;  \u(aiiU>f — ^  Tc%v\s;is^u\A  m^ose  stores  of  muuitiuns  of  war  of  v very  k^^i. 


UtAKCfE  667 

The  FreDcb  war  department  is  admirably  com-  Marie^alante,  Lea  Saintea,  Degrade,  and  one 
plete  in  all  its  appointments.  The  principal  half  of  St.  Martin  island ;  6,  in  South  America, 
militaiy  schools  have  been  prerionsly  allnded  Gniana;  and  6,  in  the  Pacific  ocean,  the  Idar- 
to. — The  French  navy  is  perhaps  the  branch  of  qnesaa  islands,  or  Mendana  archipelago,  and 
public  service  that  has  increased  and  improved  New  Caledonia.  Tahiti  and  Oambier  islands 
the  most  since  the  establishment  of  the  empire,  are  under  the  protectorate  of  France.  The 
The  Teasels  afloat  in  1848  were  as  follows:  21  population  of  Algeria  is  estimated  (1856)  at 
ahips  of  the  line,  82  frigates,  87  war  corvettes,  about  2,600,000,  natives  and  Europeans;  thelat- 
47  brigs,  90  sailing  vessels  of  smaller  size,  and  ter  do  not  exceed  160,000,  of  whom,  according  to 
76  steam  vessels ;  in  all,  291  vessels  afloat^  beside  the  last  census,  107,407  are  French.  The  popula- 
28  steam  and  48  sailing  vessels;  total,  862  lion  of  the  other  colonies  scarcely  reaches  600^* 
vessels.  In  March,  1855,  the  total  had  been  in-  000,  a  little  over  f^  of  whom  are  Europeans. — 
creased  to  420,  distributed  as  follows :  56  ships  France,  which  comprises  the  largest  part  of  the 
of  the  line,  80  fi-igates,  58  corvettes,  87  brigs,  country  formerly  known  as  Gallia  Transalpina, 
6  sailing  gun  brigs,  88  light  sailing  vessels,  26  owes  its  name  to  the  Franks,  one  of  those  aa- 
transport  ships,  78  steam  advice  boats,  20  steam  sociations  of  German  tribes  that  invaded  and 
ffun  Doats,  5  sailing  bomb  vessels,  5  floating  dismembered  the  Roman  empire  during  the  5th 
batteries,  8  sailinff  gun  boats,  18  sail  and  steam  century.  These  warriors  were  above  all  noted 
transports.  Of  Uiese,  212  were  sailing  vessels,  for  their  fiery  spirit  and  rashness.  Crossing 
of  which  181  were  afloat  and '81  building;  ana  the  lower  Rhine,  they  settled  in  the  northern 
208  steam  vessels,  157  afloat  and  51  buildinff.  part  of  Belgium  under  various  chiefs,  and  sue* 
In  1858  there  were  afloat  or  building  252  sail-  cessful  conquest  brought  them  gradually  to  the 
ing  vessels  with  8,106  guns,  and  209  steam  res-  banks  of  the  Somme.  Meanwhile  other  hordes 
•els  with  4,414  gwis,  nuking  a  total  of  461  ves-  of  barbarians  had  taken  possession  of  sereral 
sela,  carrying  12,520  guns  and  56.616  seamen  other  provinces  of  Gaul;  the  Burgundians  had 
and  marines.  The  total  number  of  seamen  ex-  peacerally  shared  the  eastern  part  of  this  conn- 
ceeda  62,000 ;  tibere  are  beside  4  regiments  of  try  with  the  Gallo-Romans,  while  the  Visigoths, 
marines,  14,761  strong,  and  8  regiments  of  artH-  already  masters  of  nearly  the  whole  of  the 
lery,  8,514  strong.  The  naval  staff,  previous  to  Spanish  peninsula,  extended  their  military  rule 
the  war,  consist^  of  2  admirals,  18  vice-admi-  over  the  population  of  Aquitania.  The  cities 
rak,  23  rear-admirals,  114  ship  captains,  841  of  Armonca  had  formed  themselves  into  a  con- 
frigate  captains,  678  lieutenants,  552  sub-iieuten-  federation,  and  the  central  part  of  Gaul  from 
ants  or  midshipmen  {enseignei)^  and  280  cadets  the  Somme  to  the  Loire  was  alone  held  by  the 
(aipirants).  There  are  boards  of  marine  engi-  Romans.  Such  was  the  condition  of  the  coun- 
neers,  of  by  drographical  engineers,  of  inspectors,  try  in  481,  when  a  young  man  of  15  was  pro- 
hc.  Naval  schools,  and  several  scnools  of  appli-  claimed  king  by  the  Frankish  tribe  living  in  and 
cation,  for  the  education  or  scientific  improve-  around  the  city  of  Toumay.  This  was  Khlod- 
ment  of  the  officers  and  even  the  seamen,  are  wig  or  Clovis,  the  founder  of  the  Frankish  do- 
connected  with  the  navy  department.  A  board  minion  in  Gaul,  and  of  the  Merovingian  dy- 
of  admiralty,  another  superintending  the  naval  nasty,  as  it  was  called  from  his  grandfather 
works,  and  a  third  attending  to  the  improve-  Meroveus.  In  486  he  invaded  the  Roman  proT- 
ment  of  instruction  among  the  sailors,  act  as  ince,  conquered  the  governor,  Syagrius,  at  Sois- 
advisors  to  the  secretary  of  the  navy.  The  sons^  and  thus  secured  to  himself  the  possea- 
maritime  territory  of  France  is  divided  into  5  sion  of  the  whole  country  to  the  Loire.  Tea 
districts  or  prefectures,  subdivided  into  arron-  years  later,  after  forcing  back  to  Germany  some 
diasements  and  quarters.  The  naval  prefects  rival  tribes  which  had  crossed  the  Rhine  in  the 
redde  at  Cherbourg,  Brest,  Lorient,  Rochefort.  hope  of  dividing  the  spoils  with  the  Franks^ 
and  Toulon,  and  under  them  officers,  callea  Clovis,  yielding  to  his  wife^s  entreaties,  oon- 
heads  of  service,  commissaries,  and  under  com-  sented  to  be  baptized,  and  henceforth  all  the 
missaries,  are  placed  in  the  several  subdiviaons.  Catholic  bishops  of  Gaul  were  enlisted  in  his 
— ^Fhmce  could  once  boast  of  the  extent  of  her  cause.  Their  powerful  influence  helped  him 
colonial  possessions  in  America,  and  also  for  a  greatly  in  consolidating  his  authority  among 
while  in  Asia.  She  has  lost  the  greater  part  of  the  Ghallic  population,  and  carrying  his  con- 
them,  and  possesses  now  only  the  following:  1.  quests  southward.  A  single  victory  won  (507) 
in  Africa,  Algeria  on  the  N.  coast,  several  at  Vouill6  over  the  Visigoths,  who  were  Anana> 
islands,  seaports,  and  military  posts  on  the  banks  gave  him  the  possession  of  nearly  all  Aquita- 
d  the  river  Senegal,  the  island  of  Goree  on  the  nia.  On  his  death  in  511,  his  kingdom  extend- 
eoast  of  Senegambia,  8.  of  Cape  Verd,  and  some  ed  firom  the  banks  of  the  Rhine  to  the  Pjr^ 
trading  posts  idong  the  coast  of  Guinea,  and  n6es,  thus  including  the  whole  of  Gaul,  with 
La  Reunion,  formerly  Bourbon  ishind,  8.  E.  the  exception  of  the  province  occupied  by  the 
of  thfl^  continent,  in  the  Indian  ocean ;  2,  in  Burgtmdians,  the  Mediterranean  shore,  which 
Asia,  the  districts  of  Pondicherry,  Karioal,  had  been  retained  by  the  Visigoths  through  the 
Chandemagore,  Yanaon,  and  Mah6  in  Hindo-  aid  of  Theodorio,  king  of  the  Ostrogoths,  and 
Stan ;  8,  near  the  coast  of  North  America,  the  peninsula  of  Brittany.  This  kingdom,  al- 
the  islands  of  St.  Pierre  and  Miquelon;  4,  in  though  partitioned  among  the  4  sons  of  Clovisi 
the  Caribbean   sea,  Martinique,  Guaddoupe,  was  soon  increaaed.b^tbAt«^QSS^Rs^.^^^^^^a:^E^B^ 


668  FBANCS 

dy ;  and  Kblother  or  Clotaire  I.,  the  yonngeRt  unparalleled  historical  celebrity,  and  paved  th« 
of  those  princes,  enrviving  his  brothers  and  way  to  the  throne  for  his  soccessor.  Tvecty 
nephews,  could  for  a  while  (558-561)  boast  of  years  later,  752,  his  son  Pepin,  confininfr  tlie  laA 
possessing  a  larger  empire  than  his  sire.  A  of  the  Merovingians,  Chilueric  III.,  within  the 
new  division  among  his  own  sons  brought  on  walls  of  a  convent,  with  the  approval  of  the 
long  civil  wars  between  the  eastern  Franks  or  pope,  assnmed  the  title  of  king.  The  fir«t  two 
Austrasians,  who  inhabited  from  the  Rhine  to  princes  of  the  Carlovingian  dynasty,  both  grtat 
the  Meuse,  and  the  western  Franks  or  Neus-  men,  raised  the  Frankish  power  to  iu  higher 
trians,  who  lived  W.  of  the  latter  river.  The  pitch.  Pepin  the  Short  (752-768),  firmly  esub- 
Burgundians,  who  under  their  new  masters  had  fishing  his  authority  all  over  Gaul,  forced  into 
preserved  their  name,  sided  alternately  with  the  complete  submission  Aquitania,  which  during 
one  or  the  other ;  while  the  Aquitanians,  tak-  the  reign  of  the  lazy  kings  had  aacceedcd  in 
ing  no  interest  in  a  conflict  among  their  barba-  vindicating  its  independence,  and  conquered 
nan  conquerors,  were  little  affected  by  it.  This  Septimania,  a  province  along  the  Mediterranean 
bloody  period,  which  extends  over  the  latter  shore,  which  nad  been  held  by  the  Arabs  of 
part  of  the  6th  century  and  the  beginning  of  Spain.  He  made  his  influence  idso  felt  in  Italy, 
the  7th  (567-618),  presents  two  leading  charac-  where  the  Lombards  became  his  tribataric«» 
ters :  Brunehaut  or  Brunehilde,  the  queen  of  while  his  liberality  toward  the  pope  broo^ht  to 
Sicgbert  of  Austrasia,  and  Fredegonda,  the  his  side  the  powerful  moral  agency  of  religion, 
queen  of  Chilperic  of  Neustria.  The  latter,  a  Ilis  son,  Karl  or  Charlemagne,  fullowins  the 
true  representative  of  the  barbarity  of  her  age,  aame  policy,  showed  himself  tlie  most  fsithhl 
was  notorious  only  for  her  crimes ;  her  brother-  protector  of  the  holy  see,  overthrew  the  L/vi- 
in-law,  her  stepson,  her  own  husband,  fell  in  bard  monarchy,  and  placed  the  iron  crown  nf^a 
succession  under  the  daggers  of  her  emissaries,  his  own  head  in  774;  waged  for  82  years  (77i- 
She  died  a  natural  death  in  597.  Brunehaut,  804)  a  merciless  war  against  the  Saxony  who 
on  the  contrary,  a  Qotliic  princess  of  refined  were  finally  subdueil  and  compelled  to  embrace 
education,  of  more  than  ordinary  power  of  Christianity;  destroyed  the  ia»t  remnant* c-f 
mind,  dragged  by  misfortune  and  passion  into  the  barbarous  Avars  who  had  settled  in  Hon* 
a  series  of  bold  enterprises,  always  preserving  gary,  and  tried  his  anns  against  the  Mt^ems 
a  queenly  dignity  in  the  most  desi>erate  circum-  of  Spain.  He  thus  made  himself  the  marter  <4 
stances,  died  in  dreadful  tortures  at  the  handa  an  empire  which  includeil  not  only  GauV,  hot 
of  her  rival's  boil  Iler  death  ended  for  the  the  whole  of  Germany,  the  largest  part  <»f  Italj. 
time  the  national  struggle ;  and  Clotaire  II.  and  the  N.  £.  of  Spain.  To  invent  hi*  dofL;2- 
held  the  whole  of  the  Frankish  dominion  under  ion  with  a  more  imposing  character,  he  «t>kd 
his  sceptre.  So  did  liis  son  Dagubert  (628-638),  it  the  "now  empire  of  the  West."  ai*.l  ».►» 
who  liod  a  taste  for  magnificence,  and  took  as  crowned  by  the  p<»pe  at  Kome  in  .*"»*i  ]\c 
his  prinoip.al  minister  Elipius  or  Eloi,  the  most  aimed  indeed  at  a  c<»mplete  rvstoratifU  «  f  ::•? 
celebrated  silversmith  of  his  time,  who  was  ancient  Roman  empire,  by  marry  in;:  th»- 1  J^.-i.-.- 
canouizcd  as  a  saint,  lib*  successors  were  mere  tine  empress  Irene;  but  this  wa<t  prevvn!^'!  "■» 
phantoms  of  royalty,  and  have  been  styled  revolutions  at  Constantinople.  Ainiil  hi*  «■*.-• 
"lazy  kings'*  {roi$  fainennU),  A  kind  of  pres-  and  vast  political  design^  Charltmagnv  f.^r.i 
ti^re  being  still  attaclied  to  the  Merovingian  leisure  to  extend  tlie  blessing-*  <»f  rivihrar  a 
namt\  tliey  ]»reserved  the  royal  titK%  while  the  to  his  Hubjects,  by  establishing  schi*  N  i.v! 
power  was  wielded  by  the  mayors  of  the  palace,  patronizing  science  and  literature.  T*.o  l-.» 
wh<i,  from  the  condition  of  private  otlicers  of  the  emperor  impressed  all  the  world  with  bi- 
king's household,  had,  by  help  of  the  aristocra-  spect  for  his  greatness  and  genius;  aztd  «c.h 
cy,  risen  to  tlic  rank  of  prime  ministers,  in  each  was  his  fame  abroad  that  emba?«sies  came  to  1  i 
of  the  three  kingdoms,  Austrasia,  Neustria,  and  court  from  the  most  distant  hovereiim*.  H.f 
Burgundy,  of  wlii<'h  the  Frankisli  dominion  son,  Louis  le  Debonnaire  (814-X40K  a  weakasti 
consisted.  Through  their  rivalry  the  old  con-  superstitious  prince,  was  |>ecuharly  unfitted  f-^ 
test  between  the  Austrasians  and  the  Neustri-  the  heavy  task  which  devolved  upon  him,  inU 
ans  revived  ;  notwithstanding  the  politiciU  tal-  the  selfish  ambition  of  I/>uis*s  sncceftK^n  hx<- 
ents  displayed  by  Ebroin,  mayor  to  the  sons  tened  the  national  an<l  social  disruption.  I>m 
of  Clovis  IL  (Ot5(>-t»81),  the  Neustrians  were  at  than  80  years  after  CharlemagneV  deat!i  r*4:  , 
length  controlled  by  the  mayors  of  Austrasia,  his  empire  was  divided  into  3  kinpk*mi,  aci 
who  soon  took  the  title  of  dukes  and  finally  ac-  85  years  later  (>^88),  thmugh  the  imbisiliiy    i 

2uired  alwwdute  possession  of  the  Frankish  king-  his  great -grandson,  Charles  the  Fnt,  it   l.aii*  <i- 

oms.     Pepin  of  Ileristal,  tlie  most  illustrious  ti rely  fallen  to  pie ws.     Fn»m  its  fragment*  w:T» 

among  these  nominal  minister^  and  real  mon-  formed  the  kingdoms  of  Fninct\  Itali.  arij  l^r- 

archs,  governed  them  in  the  name  of  several  sue-  many,  with  thcsecondary  states  of  L«  iir.iin*',  Ha:- 

cessiye  kings.  After  his  death  <  714),  his  natural  gundv,  and  Navarre.     Amid   the   r^mwilw^-^* 

son  Karl,  R«»eelebrate<l  under  the  name*  if  Charles  which  letl  to  this  couMnnmation,  tU-  |*.« .  r   f 

Mart  el,  si*ized  and  wielded  with  an  iron  hand  A  the  nobles  had  been  rapidly   imrva^irj.    :ijf 

still  more  extensive  |>ower.  The  virt<»ry  won  by  dukes  and  counts,  who  had  i'Ot-n  nt  V.r<  =yr« 

him  over  the  Saracenic  invaders  of  France  (732 5,  officers  of  the  kingn,  had   cntri^ol    t.    r.il* 

between  Tours  and  Poitiers,  secured  for  him  an  their  dignities  hereditary  ;  and  Charle*  iLc  likd 


FRANCE  e09 

(877)  not  only  sanctioned  their  pretensions,  bnt  found  among  either  the  clergy  or  the  peq>1e  of 
extended  the  principle  of  inheritance  to  all  the  cities.  The  latter,  whose  material  and  moral 
fie&  Such  was  the  foundation  of  the  feudal  condition  had  greatly  improved  during  the  pre« 
system,  the  origin  of  which  may  he  said  to  Tious  century,  were  then  vindicating  their  mu- 
ooincide  with  the  h^nning  of  France  proper,  nicipal  liherties,  and  willingly  entered  into  an 
The  name  France  indeed  appears  in  nistory  alliance  with  the  king  against  their  feudal 
alxmt  the  9th  century,  and  applies  to  the  coun*  masters.  Philip  Augustus  (1180-1228),  the 
try  W.  of -the  Scheldt,  the  Mouse,  the  8a6ne,  most  sagacious  prince  of  his  time^  nearly  douhled 
andt^eC^vennes;  and  henceforth  we  distinctly  the  royal  domains.  Beside  Normandy,  Ton* 
see  a  French  nation  forming  hy  the  fusion  of  raine,  Ai\jou,  Maine,  and  a  large  part  of  Poitoa, 
the  Frankish  with  the  Gallo-Roman  element,  which  he  seized  upon  hy  force,  after  confisca- 
asd  a  new  language,  a  mixture  of  the  German  tion  had  heen  adjudged  hy  parliament  against 
and  the  Latin,  springs  up  at  the  same  time.  The  King  John  of  England,  he  acquired  by  various 
Oariovingian  family,  bemg  essentially  Grermanic,  means  the  counties  of  Artois,  Yermandois, 
could  scarcely  preserve  the  affections  of  this  Yalois,  Auvergne,  &c,  making  his  royal  power 
new  people ;  the  imbecility  of  most  of  its  later  felt  at  the  same  time  from  the  Fyr^n^  to  the 
memoers  moreover  brought  them  into  contempt.  Rhine,  and  from  the  Mediterranean  to  the  £ng- 
Ihey  were  soon  opposed  by  national  princes  lisli  channel.  Vainly  did  the  count  of  Flanderg 
who  had  courage  and  talent;  and  i^r  a  struggle  ally  himself  with  the  English  king  and  Otho 
which  went  on  during  the  latter  part  of  the  9th  IV.  of  Germany.  Philip  gained  over  his  com- 
and  nearly  the  whole  of  the  10th  century,  they  bined  enemies  a  brilliant  victory  at  Bovines 
were  finally  deprived  of  their  hereditary  tiirone,  in  1214;  and  thenceforth  the  royal  power 
and  another  aynasty  was  inaugurated  (987).  was  paramount  over  the  country.  France  was 
Previous  to  this  a  new  race,  the  Normans,  had  thus  enabled  to  play  a  conspicuous  part  in  Eu« 
ertablished  themselves  in  the  N.  W.  of  France,  ropean  affairs;  and  the  rank  to  which  Philip's 
They  had  carried  on  a  system  of  piracy  aJong  able  policy  raised  her  was  fully  maintained  bytne 
the  coast  as  early  as  the  reign  of  Charlemagne,  wisdom  of  his  ^[randson,  Louis  IX.  (1226-1270X 
and  nnce  then  they  had  pushed  their  incursions  who  proved  hunself  at  once  a  saint  and  a  hero, 
into  tiie  very  heart  of  the  country ;  most  of  the  The  traditional  policy  was  followed  under  his 
principal  cities  were  laid  waste ;  and  the  terror-  reign ;  well  devised  treaties  and  fortunate  mar* 
stricken  people,  unable  to  resist  such  formida-  riages  were  concluded,  which  secured  the  ulti- 
Ue  assailants,  bribed  them  to  depart.  But  such  mate  possession  of  Languedoc  and  Provence, 
a  measure  only  insured  their  return;  and  at  while  the  conmions,  or  the  third  estate,  as  it  was 
last  the  imbecile  Charles  the  Simple  thought  then  called,  was  placed  under  the  more  inmiedi- 
the  best  way  to  stop  the  invasions  was  to  give  ate  control  of  the  king.  The  introduction  of  the 
the  invaders  possession  of  part  of  the  country ;  Roman  law  and  the  regular  constitution  of  the 
the  beautiful  lands  situated  W.  of  the  lower  parliament^  forming  a  lugh  court  of  justice  which 
Seine  were  ceded  in  912  to  Rollo,  the  chief  of  a  was  to  supersede  gradually  all  feudal  jurisdio- 
large  horde  of  these  Northmen,  and  Normandy  tions,  were  migh^  additions  to  the  efficiency 
soon  became  one  of  the  most  flourishing  and  of  the  royal  power;  while  the  king's  personiu 
best  regulated  provinces  in  iYance.  Its  dukes  kindness  and  virtue,  the  wisdom  of  his  admin- 
held  the  first  rank  among  the  feudal  princes,  istration,  the  removal  of  many  grievances  under 
when  Hugues  or  Hugh  Capet,  the  duke  of  which  the  people  complained,  and  the  severity 
Franoe,  on  the  death  of  Louis  V.,  assumed  the  with  which  oppressions  by  the  nobles  were  pun* 
title  of  king  (987).  The  beginning -of  the  new  ished,  conciliated  the  respect  and  affection  of 
dynasty  to  which  this  prince  gave  his  name  was  the  nation.  The  popuhuity  thus  secured  for 
bumble.  Hugh  was  indeed  in  point  of  territory  the  royal  title  was  so  strong  as  to  be  scarce- 
the  most  powerful  of  the  feudal  lords ;  but  he  ly  impaired  by  the  unworthiness  of  Louis's  suc- 
bad  the  prestige  of  neither  past  glory  nor  genius,  oessors,  who  completed  the  monarchical  system 
His  immediate  successors  were  even  less  distin*  that  was  to  prevail  for  several  centuries.  More 
gmshed  than  himself;  they  took  no  part  in  the  than  ever  they  leaned  upon  the  third  estate  in 
great  events  by  which  the  llUi  century  was  order  to  counterbalance  the  ascendency  of  the 
marked.  While  southern  Italy  was  conquered  two  privileged  orders.  Men  of  low  birth  had 
hj  Norman  adventurers,  while  William  of  Nor-  already  been  introduced  into  the  parliament : 
iDsndy  was  giving  a  new  rule  to  England,  while  tmder  Philip  IV.  their  infiuence  increased,  and 
aU  the  Christian  princes  eagerly  engaged  in  the  representatives  of  the  third  estate  were  admitted 
emsades,  the  Capetians  quietiy  stayed  at  home ;  to  the  general  assemblies  of  the  nation,  which 
and  by  this  very  inactivity,  without  any  par-  before  had  consisted  only  of  deputies  from  the 
ticular  di^lay  of  policy,  they  upheld  their  clergy  and  the  nobility.  Through  these  new  mem- 
royal  supremacy,  which  during  the  1 2th  and  hers  the  king  was  nearly  certain  to  gain  his  end  in 
18th  centuries  was  established  on  a  solid  foun-  all  important  circumstances.  It  was  by  their 
dation  by  kings  of  uncommon  ability.  Louis  agency  that  he  succeeded  in  1802  in  trinmph- 
YI.  (1108-1187),  a  king  of  unsurpassed  aotiv-  ing  over  the  pretensions  of  Pope  Boniface  YlU. 
ity  and  bravery,  forced  a  great  many  of  the  Neither  were  they  inactive  when  this  same  king 
nobles  into  submission,  and  to  this  end  more  induced  Pope  ClementY.  to  suppress  the  kni^ts 
than  once  availed  himself  of  the  support  he  templars,  seized  upon  their  muneose  wealth, 


670  FRANCE 

and  bronght  their  grand  master  to  the  scaffold.  1420,  by  which  the  roral  inheritance  of  FraDot 
The  Capetion  kings,  whatever  may  have  been  was  delivered  up  to  her  deadly  enemy.     Henry 
their  faults  and  personal  shortcomings,  sacceed-  Y.^  on  marrying  the  princess  Catharine,  was  sp- 
ed in  giving  so  powerful  an  organization  to  the  pomted  heir  to  Charles  VI.,  and  meanwhile  wm 
kingdom  as  to  enable  it  to  stand  the  brunt  of  the  to  assume  the  power  of  regent.    France  seemed 
foreign  and  civil  wars  which  were  to  threaten  now  to  be  irretrievably  lost ;  all  her  organixed 
its  existence  under  the  younger  branch  of  Valois  powers,  royalty,  clergy,  nobility,  and  burmeeSi 
(1328-1589).    The  rivalry  between  France  and  were  prostrated,  when  a  simple  country  siri  ap- 
England,  consequent  upon  the  accession  of  Duke  pearea  and  overthrew  the  power  of  England. 
William  of  Normandy  to  the  throne  of  the  lat-  Carried  away  by  patriotic,  or,  as  was  supp«.>i«d, 
ter,  had  already  been  the  cause  of  occasional  by  a  supernatural  inspiration,  Joan  of  Arc  wu 
hostilities  between  the  two  nations ;  it  came  to  the  very  impersonation  of  the  natitmal  f^elin^: 
a  decisive  crisis  during  the  first  half  of  the  14th  the  English  were  defeated,  and  the  dlMnherilcd 
century.  On  the  direct  branch  of  the  Capetians  son  of  Charles  VI.  was  triumphantly  coodacud 
becoming  extinct,  Edward  III.,  by  virtue  of  to  Rheims  to  receive  there  the  royal  nnctioo 
hereditary  right  derived  from  his  mother^s  side,  (1429).    Brought  to  a  premature  end  by  treaKA 
claimed  not  only  such  provinces  on  the  conti-  and  cruelty,  the  Maid  of  Orleans  could  not  c«:4n- 
ncnt  as  had  been  taken  from  his  ancestors,  but  plete  the  deliverance  of  her  country,  but  »li«  had 
the  whole  kingdom  of  France;  thus  beginning  given  the  signal;  the  nation,  aroused  by  bcr 
that  protracted  conflict  which  French  historians  example,  fought  its  own  battles,  and  after  SO 
call  the  *^  hundred  years*  war'*  (1337-1458).  years  of  repeated  efforts  drove  the  foreign  in- 
Twice  France  was  on  the  eve  of  becoming  a  vaders  away  (1453).  Calais,  the  only  place  now 
dependency  of  the  English  crown.    In  1340  an  left  in  the  liands  of  the  English,  wa^  to  be  re- 
Ei^lish  fleet  destroyed  the  naval  force  of  France  taken  105  years  later.    After  these  long  xiiLs 
at  Sluis,  on  the  coast  of  Flanders;  in  1346,  at  France  was  at  last  enabled  to  exercise  her  re- 
Cr6cy,  the  Eoglish  archers  won  an  unexpected  cuperative  powers;  her  population  increa^d  i: 
victory  over  the  flower  of  French  chivalry ;  and  a  rapid  rate,  industry  and  art  doorisLcdL  and  :h« 
10  years  later,  at  Poitiers,  the  Black  Prince  not  last  vestiges  of  the  past  calamitiea  disappeared, 
only  conquered  King  John,  but  made  him  pris-  Meanwhile  her  kings  had  returned  to  their  tradh 
oner.    The  states-general  were  also  the  scene  tional  policy  of  enlarging  the  royal  domains  a&d 
of  a  deadly  struggle  between  the  regent  and  the  consolidating  the  royal  power  by  the  destrociioa 
third  estate,  so  that  royalty  itself  was  nut  in  of  the  feudd  aristocracy.    To  this  taak  n-.xie 
jeopardy ;  companies  of  adventurers  ana  mer-  applied  himself  with  greater  zeal  than  the  rx^.r 
cenary  troops  ransacked  the  provinces;  the  peas-  and  tyrannical  Louis  XI.  (1461-14^3).     N3=> 
antry  of  several  districts,  driven  to  despair  by  bcrless  nobles  of  every  rank  were  d«rliv<rt-J  :o 
the  onpre^sion  of  their  lords,  broke  out  into  a  tlio    executioner;    the  most  iH»Wfri'v;l  .i    ^.. 
fearful  insurroctiun,  which  was  named  the  Jac-  Charles  the  Buhl  duke  of  Hiir;;uD-ly.  wd«  a  i 
qu€rie^  and  marked  by  all  the  Iiorrors  uf  a  servile  to  his  ruin  and  death  in  1477  by  tho  inir-j.;** 
war.    Charles  V.,  by  his  vigorous  policy,  sue-  of  I^ui^  wlio  ot  once  seized  upon  par",  i. :  ::.. 
ceodod  in  quelling;  internal  disorders ;  and  with  largo  inheritimcc  K'ft  by  tltat  fonnidabl^  \  l-^ 
the  help  of  his  preat  constable,  I)u  (.incsolin,  and  tho  duchyof  Hurgumly  wasthus  uiia^.xt  1*. 
he  recraincd  in  a  fow  campaipns  all  tlie  English  the  crown.    Tlio  fino  j»rovincosuf  Anj^ii.  Mi:  ■. 
acquisitions  in  France,  with  the  exception  of  a  and  PrtU'cncc^boMdc  claim- upHmiliekirij* i;.  : 
few  important  seaport ■«.     When  both   died,  in  Kaplos,  wore  K-qucatlictl  tu  L*»i:U  l-y  rh-  .\< 
13S0,  the  kingdom  was  in  a  fair  way  to  r^'j^ain  prince  of  the  housoof  Anjou;  tin-  kitijuf  Ar.»r  . 
its  former  prosperity,     l^ut  the  minority  of  rosi^rned  to  liiin  tlio  counties  <.'f  K*'iis^;i;-:.  ».  : 
Charles  VI.,  and  hi.s  subsequent  derangement,  Conlapne;  and  Franco,  roachiu^tli*:*  i.tr  :...*.- 
a^ain  plunpod  France  into  a  series  of  calamities,  ral  frontiers  towanl  the  S.  and  the  >.K.,  Uv^    : 
The  conllict  between  the  various  cla^i-ios  of  hv-  one  of  tlio  jrreat  jKiwers  on  the  Mrii.ifrrart :■ 
ciety  was  ronowiNl  with  increased  fury  ;  rival  On  the  N*.  W.,  by  the  marriai^o  of  i'Jiarli-*  \  V.\. 
faction*,  headed  by  princes  of  the  roval  family,  willi  Anno  of  Brittany,  hhe  ^rained  ]..<'»<h-:*   s 
Orleans   and    Hur^^undy,   wapod   airainst  each  of  that  larpe  province,  whi».h  hatl  li it-],  r:.- :-..; 
other  a  war  of  treason  and  assassination  ;  while  nearly  independent.  With  a  well  vrjrai.i/cxi  v--/ 
the  Enudidh,  enc«»;iraired  hv  the  forlorn  conditi«m  and  a  full  trea-turv.  she  was  now  iva.S  f.  -r  :'  -i  r> 
of  their  enemv,  a^ain  invaded  France.     For  the  ct»nte>tA.    I'nder  Charles  VIII..  u  %\o:ilii". ;  i  : 
3d  time,  the  trench  chivalry  was  decimiited  on  prince  who  il reamed  of  followin*:  ;n  tl-o  !  •  > 
the  memorable  field  of  A::inoourt  (141*)).   .lohn  steps  of  Alexander  the  CJreal  hi\*\  C^arlvr.;^-.;. 
the  Fearless  beini;  tre:ichorou*ly  niunlered  hy  a  French  force  invjuled  Italy  in  14:«4.  lii.i  l^  :- 
the  O.-leanists   or  Armajjnacs,  in  an  interview  quered  tiie  kinplom  of  Napios  wiii...*.:  ,  -  > --• 
wiiicii  wjis    intended    lo    hrin^;    about    peace,  tion;  but  this  o-n  jnest  was  K»-: -'.ill  jii.tk,  r  *.  »." 
I<urpin«ly,  that  is,  the  X.  E.  part  of  France,  it  had  been  ;:ainid.     Such  w.l*  :he  c  ::i!.:- r. -.- 
threw  itM^-lf  into  the  arms  of  the  Eii;?Iish.     An  ment  (»f  thoM*  Italian  w.irs  in  whit  i.  \:.\-  .-.•  r  .- 
insane  kinjr,  a  queen  of  foreijjn  oriirin  impelled  denceof  the  French  ^h'Mie  no  li-s*  o  r**;  ..  .:    .--f 
by  her  unniitural  hat r^^^  to  her  son  tlie  dauphin,  than  tlieir  prowtss.  and  in  \*  Mel.  \].}  :■:  ^  '..< 
and  a  prince  carrie<i  awav  bv  his  thirst  for  v^ii-  victories  were  alwav^  f<»ii"\vi-l  *.v  -rri*-.:    -.  • 
geance,  concluded  the  famous  treaty  uf  Troves,  disasters.    Italy  was  ju^tlv  tvniivd  iJv  ^tj^*.  .•:' 


FRANCE  671 

the  French.  Loais  XU.  tried  all  the  arts  of  diplo-  namben  increasing  dailj,  the  Protestants  plan- 
macy  to  secure  his  oonqnests,  but  he  was  no  ned  a  powerful  ot^ganization  not  odIj  to  preserve 
match  for  the  Italian  politicians  of  the  16th  cen-  their  liberty  of  conscience,  but  also  to  gain,  if 
tnry,  and  still  less  for  the  crafty  Ferdinand  of  possible,  political  influence,  lliev  formed,  as  it 
Aragon.  By  the  latter  he  was  expelled  for  ever  were,  a  kind  of  commonwealth  within  the  state. 
firom  Naples,  of  which  he  had  partlv  taken  pos-  This  could  not  but  inspire  the  rulers  of  an  ab- 
aeasion,  while  Pope  Julius  II.,  the  republic  solute  government  with  uneasiness  and  fear; 
of  Venice,  and  the  princes  of  Italy,  availing  and  although  prudent  advisers  tried  at  first  to 
themselves  of  Spanish,  German,  and  even  £ng-  bring  about  a  reconciliation,  such  a  policy  could 
lish  alliances,  forced  him  out  of  the  duchy  not  be  permanently  adopted,  and  the  king  was 
of  Milan,  which  he  claimed  in  right  of  his  soon  found  entirely  on  the  side  of  the  OathoHcs. 
ffrandmother,  Valentina  Visconti,  and  which  he  Both  parties  meanwhile  had  their  chosen  chiefs, 
had  twice  conquered.  Francis  I.,  in  his  turn,  and  both  were  ready  for  the  contest.  This 
appeared  in  Italy  as  a  conaueror,  and  his  first  commenced  in  &ct  as  early  as  1560.  during  the 
victory  at  Marignano  or  Melegnano  (1515)  short  reign  of  Francis  II.,  and  lastea  with  more 
seemed  to  forebode  permanent  conquest;  but  or  less  violence  till  1598.  No  fewer  than  8  civil 
the  king  of  France  was  opposed  by  the  em*  wars  were  wag^  during  the  reigns  of  Oharlea 
peror  Oharles  V.,  and  after  his  disastrous  defeat  IX.  and  Henry  III.,  a  t>eriod  of  scarcely  28  years. 
«t  Pavia  in  1525,  he  was  carried  a  prisoner  to  The  Protestants  held  their  ground  with  tenacity ; 
Madrid.  Not  daunted  by  the  captivity  of  the  the  most  illustrious  among  their  chiefs.  Admiral 
king,  France  kept  up  the  contest  against  the  Gaspardde  Goligni,  accomplished  wonders;  but, 
immense  forces  which  Germany,  the  Nether-  thoroughly  honest  and  too  ready  to  confide  in 
lands,  Spain,  and  Italy  phiced  at  the  disposal  of  the  honesty  of  others,  he  permitted  himself  to 
their  imperial  master.  Francis  I.,  after  his  lib*  be  deceived  by  the  fair  promises  of  Charles  IX., 
eration,  and  his  son  Henry  II.,  were  conscious  and  with  thousands  of  his  companions  was 
of  the  importance  for  their  own  country,  as  treacherously  murdered  on  St.  Bartholomew's 
well  as  for  Europe,  of  checking  the  ascendency  night,  1572.  This  fearful  massacre  did  not  how* 
which  the  house  of  Austria  umed  at;  for  ever  annihilate  the  Protestants,  who  continued 
more  than  80  years  France  waged  war  not  the  struggle  against  the  holy  league  or  Catholic 
only  for  her  own  independence,  but  for  that  of  union,  Vhich  had  been  organized  for  the  better 
Europe  also ;  more  than  once  her  own  borders  protection  of  the  Catholic  church  in  France,  and 
were  invaded ;  but  she  finally  came  out  of  the  which  was  upheld  by  the  pope  as  well  as  Phil- 
struggle  with  honor,  and  not  without  profit  ip  II.  of  Spain.  The  heaa  or  the  league,  Duke 
She  was  indeed  obliged  to  give  up  all  her  claims  Henry  of  Guise,  secretly  aimed  at  the  crown, 
to  possessions  in  Italy;  but,  by  the  treaty  of  and  his  popularity  seemed  to  warrant  his  sue- 
Cateau  Cambr^ns  (1559),  she  added  to  her  pro-  cess,  when  Henry  III.  during  the  session  of  the 
vinoes  the  bishoprics  of  Metz,  Toul,  and  Yer-  states-ffeneral  at  Blois,  in  1588,  had  him  des- 
dan,  which  she  had  Just  conquered ;  while  by  patched  by  his  body  guards,  known  as  the 
her  alliance  with  the  Protestants  of  Grermany  **  forty-five."  A  few  months  later,  in  1589,  the 
on  the  one  side,  and  with  the  Turks  on  the  king  himself  fell  by  the  dagger  of  the  fanatic 
oUier,  she  succeeded  in  defeating  the  ambitious  Jacques  Clement,  leaving  his  crown  to  Henry 
designs  of  the  Austrian  monarchs.  During  this  of  Navarre,  the  head  of  the  family  of  Bourbon, 
period,  her  social  organization  had  been  im-  and  the  leader  of  the  Protestants.  The  strug- 
proved;  science  and  literature  had  been  cnlti-  gle  henceforth  took  essentially  a  political  turn; 
Tated  under  the  fostering  care  of  the  king,  the  and  Henry,  joined  by  but  a  few  of  the  Catholics 
princes,  and  the  wealthy;  poets  and  prose  who  had  served  his  predecessor,  and  much 
writers  had  appeared  who  had  given  compara-  reduced  in  circumstances,  had  great  difficulty 
tive  perfection  to  the  French  language;  paint-  in  making  good  his  claims  to  the  crown.  His 
ing,  sculpture,  and  architecture  had  been  sue-  personal  bravery  and  ability,  and  the  sym- 
eessAilly  cultivated;  and  with  all  its  drawbacks,  pathetic  gayety  of  his  character,  finally  concil- 
the  first  half  of  the  16th  century  may  be  ac-  lated  many  of  the  Catholic  royalists,  but  he 
counted  one  of  the  brightest  periods  in  her  his-  could  hope  to  be  recognized  as  king  by  the  ma- 
tory.  The  latter  part  of  thb  century  unfortu-  jority  of  the  nation  only  on  his  conversion  to 
nately  was  darkened  by  the  horrors  of  religious  Catholicism.  To  this  he  assented,  June^  25, 
civil  wars.  The  reformation  had  been  hailed  1593 ;  and  now  his  whole  attention  was  given 
with  Joy  by  many  minds  in  France,  and  its  to  the  pacification  of  his  kingdom.  This  he  ef- 
doctrines  were  rapidly  propagated  bv  Calvin  fected  by  concluding  with  Spain  the  treaty  of 
and  his  followers.  Mostly  circulated  at  first  Yervins,  May  2, 1598,  upon  the  conditions  of 
among  the  nobility,  they  gained  ground  all  over  the  old  treaty  of  Cateau  Cambr^sis,  and  by  pub- 
the  country,  although  it  may  be  remarked  that  lishing  the  celebrated  edict  of  Nantes,  which 
the  great  mass  of  the  nation  remained  faithfid  grant^  to  the  Protestants  full  religious  liberty, 
in  uieir  allegiance  to  the  Roman  Catholic  admission  to  all  offices,  and  several  places  of  se- 
chnrch.  Francis  I.  and  Henry  II.  attempted  to  curity,  among  others  the  strong  city  of  La  Ro- 
check  the  progress  of  the  new  principles ;  they  chelle.  Henry  now  devoted  himself  entirely  to 
even  resorted  to  persecution,  but  this  only  gave  the  work  of  healing  the  wounds  which  had  been 
ft  new  impetus  to  the  rdigious  movement  Their  inflicted  on  the  country  during  nearly  40  years 


of  UoodilMd  and  derartatkm.   Aaiitod  ht  tcBmm^  fauMtod  blm  widi  bmh^  «r  At 

Solly,  bis  boiom  friend  and  niiiiiflfcer,  he  restored  botee  of  greetMHi    IWmttedqrtfllnHWi 

Older  in  all  branches  of  paUie  serrioe,  emeUo-  death  be  assumed  tlie  whole  Areelim  of  fiiie 

laled  the  administration  of  Jostice,  lightened  affidn^  and  hia  mlnlitera  were  Hitio  navs  Ihsa 

tiie  taxes  while  bettering  the  pnblio  fiianee&  derta^  intmated  with  the  saaiiatiM  of  hiade» 

fostered  agrienltore,  encouraged  the  arte  and  eigne.    Two  only,  Oolbeti  and  Lovvoi^  osb  be 

eeiences,  uid  finally  created  a  regolar  iijstem  regarded  aaezecptioBa  to  the  nie;  bafcpBal 

of  goTemmenti  Mming  especially  at  the  moral  eoortiera'aathnrwere^  their  preteaisieaa  aefw 

and  material  improYement  of  the  people.    He  distnibed  the  king's  edf-eoaUeaes^  and  tte 

thenretomed  to  the  old  ]^olicy  of  WnadMl^  phuu  and  impravements  thsgr 

and  mediated  the  bomiliation  of  the  bonee  of  of  eonree  appropriated  hj  the  1 

Anstria;  great  preparations  were  made  fcr  the  The  first  yeara  of  hie  amdidslnAMi  ware  tta 

ent«prise,andllenrywaaoatbeeyeofhiade-  mostnssAd.    Oolbert  dewoted  Unadf  to  ' 

partore  for  the  army,  wbm  be  waa  swiswiinsted  prorlngalltharesoareeaof  thaUatgdoB; 

ay  BaTttllaOi  May  14, 1010.    This  calamity  in-  Waneb  of  rerenne  bf  rams  proiparona ; 

termpted  for  nmy  15  years  the  prpgrees  of  at  the  beginning  of  the  eentny  andar 

the  Idngdom  at  borne  and  abroad.    Under  the  IV^  the  netionJ wealth  jneraaaed  wHb 

ngwMsy  of  Henu*s  widow,  Mary  do*  Medid,  nfmtj.    Inteileetnal  pt ogreas  henjl  fi 

mother  of  Louis  £QL,  disorders  were  renewed;  material,  and  ereiythinr  conspired  to 

tiie  Protestants  dreamed  of  their  Imaginary  in»  HteraryperlodofinpanfidedMagBtteaBeaL  A 

dependent  oomnumwealtb;  the  pabUotreasore  shortwaregalnBtSpnav  whidi  waatan~ 

was  scandakMisly  wasted;  and  the  Idngdom  was  bythetreatyof  AiziaCfhapeDelnlM^ 

distracted  by  war  between  the  qneen  mother  and  ly  intemipted  thia  bapmr  ooaBsaMaaaaB 

tiie  yoon^  kins,  soon  after  the  latter  readied  it  bad  awakened  anipicfaia  among  the 

hismi()on^.    Happily  a  mat  minister,  Gardl*  boring  powers^  and  a  triple  dUaneewa^ 

nd  Btohdieo,  took  the  runs  of  govemment  in  between  Hol]aiid,8pafai,  ud  ^*g»^»«^ 

1IS4|  cnuhed  rebdlkm  under  wluktoTer  ftvm  it  fy  4  yeara  bad  dspeed  wbenLoala  XIV.,  sftths 

showed  itseU;  consolidated  the  power  of  the  head  of  more  than  lOO^OOD  men,  In^ndtd  Hd- 

monarch  at  home,  and  partly  reriring  the  politi-  land,  which,  bring  dceerted  hj  one  of  1 

odderigns  of  the  latofdng,  boldly  threw  tne  in-  conld  be  pieeervcdonly  ty  the  mited 

finenceand  arms  of  IVanoe  into  that  Eoropeen  of  Spain  and  Germany;  tibe  bloody 

oonflict  called  the  80 years' war.   Whileannihi-  lasted  0 yeara;  the Freadiarmiea,nBdarOoail^ 

latlngthe politicd  powerof  the Frendi  Protee-  Tnrenne,  aid  Lozemboorg,  were Tielorioaa  ia 

tants,  he  energetioQly  supported  the  German  neariT  erery  enoonntec^  while  IVench  fibels<si 

Protestants  in  their  stmggle  against  the  hoose  tingnished  themselves  agdnst  the  nnitcd  dstiI 

of  Austria;  to  this  end  he  spared  neither  money  forces  of  Spain  and  Holljmd.  Thepe*ceofyiflM- 

nor  troops;  and  on  his  death,  in  1642,  the  rival  goen,  1678,  put  an  end  to  regular  bo«tilitie% 

of  France  had  been  already  many  times  humbled,  but  not  to  toe  encroachments  of  Loais  XI V^ 

The  successor  of  Bichelieo,  Cardind  Mazarin,  who,  inflated  by  success,  seized  opoa  proviaocs 

pursued  the  same  policy ;  and  the  first  years  of  and  cities  which,  according  to  bis  own  ccutrvt- 

the  reign  of  Louis  XIV.  were  marked  by  bril-  tion  of  past  treaties,  belonged  to  France.    £a- 

liant  victories,  most  of  them  won  by  the  young  rope,  tired  of  war  and  awed  by  the  events  of 

duke  d'Eogbien.  afterward  the  **  great  Gond^."  the  last  campaigns,  durst  not  thwart  the  count 

The  treaty  of  Westphalia  in  1648  not  onlv  as-  of  the  overbearing  monarch.    Louie  had  aov 

sorted  the  triumph  of  religious  and  political  lib-  reached  the  aenith  of  his  greatness ;  be  bad  sdd* 

erty  in  Germany,  but  the  victory  of  France  over  ed  to  his  kingdom  Flanders,  Francbe  CocdS^ 

Austria,  a  victory  which  added  to  her  territory  the  imperid  city  of  Strasbourg,  and  levenl 

the  province  of  Alsace.    The  troubles  of  the  other   important  territories ;    he  was  fcerd 

Fronde,  a  faint  image  of  the  old  civil  wars,  de*  abrcMid  and  respected  at  home;  be  was  Lodi 

tracted  nothing  from  the  influence  gained  abroad  the  Great  for  his  subjects,  and  even  bis  encinks 

by  the  French  government,  and  Mazarin  con-  scarcely  refused  him  this  title.    The  le^nes 

dnded  with  Spain,  in  1659,  the  treaty  of  the  of  Augdmrg,  devised  by  William  of  Ora^ 

Pyr^^s,  which  secured  two  other  provinces  to  had  united   together  the  emperor,   lIoQanl 

France,  Artois  and  Rou<isillon.  This  able  politi-  Sweden,  and  Savoy,  and  was  Joined  bv  Eaglsa^ 

cian  resigned  to  the  hands  of  Louis  XIV.  a  king-  on  the  revolution  of  1688.    Louis  llV^  who 

dom  well  prepared  for  the  full  exercise  of  abso-  undertook  to  reestablish  James  II.  on  bi«  throM, 

lute  power.   Under  this  monarch  France  rose  to  engaged  in  a  desperate  struggle  aninst  ihtl 

the  height  offortune  and  glory,  while  he  himself  powerful  codition,  and  maintdneU  it  fur  f 

was  placed  above  dl  control.    Louis  XIV.  was  years;  his  armies  and  navd  forces,  the  forvcr 

firmly  impressed  with  the  belief  that  Ood  sends  especidly,  still  achieved  many  triumphs ;  aaJ 

kings  on  earth  as  his  chosen  representatives,  when  the  peace  of  Ryswick  was  eoorlodcd  ia 

and  imparts  to  them  especid  light*  for  the  ful-  1697,  the  dlies,  dthough  they  boaiited  of  mc- 

nlment  of  their  mission.    This  consciousness  of  cess,  were  nearly  as  much  exhausted  as  their 

dmost  preteruaturd  superiority,  being  united  opponent.    Tliis  8d  war  of  Louis  XIV.  miy  ia 

in  him  with  unlimited  ambition,  untiring  per-  some  degree  be  considered  a  war  of  prinripk; 

aeverance,  a  domineering  spirit,  and  firm  aelf-  the  4tb  and  lait  onci  thatof  the  SpeoUi) 


FRANOS  878 

tion,  was  brongbt  about  bj  mere  family  ambi*  adts  the  nation  seemed  aiming  to  coTer  tbe 
tion.  A  more  formidable  coalition  opposed  the  disgrace  which  had  befallen  her  arms.  One 
ambitions  schemes  ofthe  old  king,  who  aimed  at  consequence  of  the  spread  of  philosophical 
nothing  lesstlum  placing  his  grandson  upon  the  teachings  was  an  earnest  and  genend  desire  for 
Spanish  throne,  Tacant  by  the  death  of  Charles  reform,  which  showed  itself  m  different  ways 
II. ;  the  two  greatest  generals  of  their  time,  as  soon  as  Lonis  XVI.  had  ascended  the  throne 
Marlborough  and  Prince  Eugene,  were  at  the  (1774).  The  king  himself  and  some  of  hia 
head  of  the  allied  armies ;  defeat  after  defeat  counsellors  were  willing  to  place  themselves 
befell  the  French  forces,  and  the  kingdom  at  the  head  of  this  reform  movement ;  but  the 
seemed  reduced  to  extremities ;  but  the  con-  well-meaning  monarch  was  too  deficient  in 
atancy  of  the  king  did  not  fail  him  during  a  energy,  and  the  opposition  around  him  was  too 
contest  of  12  years*  duration ;  he  succeeded  in  strong,  to  admit  of  the  success  of  such  an  under- 
hia  bold  undertaking,  and  by  the  treaties  of  taking.  The  privileged  orders  carried  their 
Utrecht  and  Rastadt  (1719-^14)  the  house  of  hostility  so  far,  that  the  people  took  the  re- 
Boorbon  inherited  the  best  part  of  the  once  forms  into  their  own  hands;  and  a  revolution 
magnificent  Castilian  monarchy.  The  burden  was  the  result.  This  very  revolution  was 
which  he  bore  to  his  last  moments  was  far  too  partly  prepared  by  the  help  which  Louis  XVL 
heavy  for  his  weak  successors;  he  had  more-  extended  to  the  English  colonies  in  America; 
over  taxed  the  energies  of  France  and  stretch-  the  sympathy  which  nearly  all  classes  felt  for 
ed  the  royal  power  to  such  an  extent  that  a  re-  their  liberty,  the  principles  which  their  exam- 
action  was  unavoidable.  The  18th  century  was  pie  diffused  among  the  thoughtful,  tlie  enthu- 
an  age  of  depression,  decay,  and  ruin  for  all  the  siasm  excited  by  their  ultimate  triumph,  en- 
iostitutions,  doctrines,  and  classes  that  had  couraged  the  French  nation  to  attempt  its  own 
hitherto  commanded  respect.  Royalty  lost  its  liberty.  The  states-general  met  on  May  6, 
prestige,  both  through  the  unbounded  lioen-  1789;  the  third  estate,  by  dint  of  prudence, 
tiousness  of  the  regent  duke  of  Orleans,  and  energy,  and  perseverance,  secured  its  ascendency 
the  king  himself  and  through  the  irretriev-  over  the  nobility  and  the  clergy,  and  swore  not  to 
able  corruption  or  imbecility  of  its  minis-  separate  until  they  had  given  a  constitution  to 
tera;  nobility  became  degraded;  the  great  their  country,  and  thus  originated  a  movement 
oonatitnted  bodies  fell  into  general  contempt ;  that  soon  became  uncontrollable,  but  which, 
dnd  an  uncontrollable  spirit  of  censure  and  though  it  occasioned  many  f^ievances  and  smf- 
raillery  hastened  the  work  of  destruction,  ferings,  was  finally  productive  of  much  good. 
Even  the  remedies  that  were  tried  only  add-  The  constituent  assembly,  the  first  of  the  great 
ed  to  the  universal  confusion.  Politically  assemblies  which  guided  the  French  revolution, 
the  French  government,  controlled  in  turns  labored  for  about  2^  years,  from  May  5, 1789,  to 
by  unscrupulous  princes,  by  Cardinal  Fleury,  Sept.  80, 1791,  to  establish  the  principles  which 
who,  how  ffood  soever  his  internal  administra-  still  form  the  basis  of  the  French  law  and  con- 
tton,  failed  to  support  the  national  dignity  stitution— civil  and  religious  liberty,  equality 
abroad,  and  by  the  king's  mistresses,  gradually  of  rights,  and  popular  sovereignty.  It  over- 
aank  in  the  eyes  of  Europe ;  and  toward  the  threw  feudal  and  hierarchical  privileges,  pro- 
end  of  Louis  XV.^s  reign,  it  could  scarcely  be  vincial  divisions  and  customs,  gave  to  the  conn- 
ranked  among  the  great  European  powers,  try  a  regular  administration,  and  tried  to  estab- 
The  4  wars  in  which  France  then  participated,  lish  a  kind  of  constitutional  monarchy.  The 
against  Spain  (1717-U9),  for  the  succession  of  legblative  assembly,  which  succeeded,  had  but 
Poland  (178S-'35),  for  the  succession  of  Austria  a  short  existence,  from  Oct.  1, 1791,  to  Sept.  21, 
(1740-'48),  and  finally  the  7  years'  war  (1756-  1792 ;  ill  satisfied  with  the  new  form  of  ffovem- 
*68X  were  productive  only  of  disgrace  and  dis-  ment,  it  did  not  uphold  it,  and  paved  the  way 
aster.  This  dark  picture  is  somewhat  relieved  for  the  republican  government.  This  was  it 
by  occasional  successes  and  individual  deeds  of  once  proclaimed  by  the  third  popular  assembly, 
gallantry ;  such  was  especially  the  case  in  the  the  national  convention,  on  its  first  meeting, 
8d  war  above  mentioned,  when  Maurice  of  Sept.  21;  and  then  the  fearful  trials,  butch- 
fiazony  won  glorious  victories  for  the  country  eries,  and  gigantic  struggles  of  the  Ft'ench  rev- 
ci  hia  adoption,  and  vindicated  her  cldm  to  be  olution  commenced.  Organizing  at  once  a  gov- 
■lUl  one  of  the  great  military  powers  of  £u*  emment  of  absolute  powers,  the  convention 
rope ;  but  the  7  years'  war  plaoe<l  in  a  shame-  sentenced  Louis  XVL  to  death  as  a  declaration 
Hu  light  the  incompetence  of  the  French  gene-  of  war  against  all  the  kings  of  Europe,  and 
lala,  tlie  unparalleled  want  of  discipline  among  summoned  all  nations  to  independence,  extend- 
tbeir  soldiers,  and,  notwithstanding  a  few  happy  ing  to  them  the  helping  hand  of  Franoe.  Thence- 
exeeptions,  the  lowering  of  the  general  military  forth  the  country  had  to  struggle  against  nearly 
diaracter  of  the  nation.  The  navy  was  not  mH  the  European  powers ;  the  tremendous  im- 
only  demoralized,  but  it  was  utterly  mined;  pulse  it  gave  to  the  whole  people  carried  her 
the  French  colonies  in  Asia  and  America  were  through  all  foreign  dangers;  and  when  the  con- 
krt,  and  the  French  flag  almost  disappeared  vention  adjourn^  Oct.  26, 1796,  after  a  aearion 
from  tlie  seas.  At  home,  however,  literature  of  more  than  87  months,  the  republic  was  every- 
and  philosophy  were  cultivated  with  extraordi-  where  triumphant.  The  internal  struggles  be- 
ardor,  and  with  the  glory  of  these  pur-  tweenUie  republican  and  tbe  reactionary  parties 
VOL.  VIL— 43 


fX4  IBAIGB 

Ibat  mttlcta  tU  eriftonee  of  the  direeteid  BmUi  of  Oift  fartramBl^  «•!  in 

«¥eniiiient|froiiiOoLt7,l7M,toKoT.9,17M,  ppetewioe  ef hii tiiroa^aHiwMb,  ia  cow|liMi,ii 

«•  merged  in  the  mflitaiy  gkrj  of  Bonafwrte^  with  otdow  Ihn  tlie  bolr  aDHMi^  ke  Wd  ki 

whoie  oampeigot  in  Italj  (l^^^T)  i^  ^'P^  18SteMiteFk«Mh«^jtopitdofnitteBbenl 

dicioa  to  I^fypt  (179^*9)  pointed  him  oat  «i  rerolntioii  la  Speia.    Hk  hralher,  Ohnrlm  X, 

the  ftitnre  master  of  the  nation.    WhetLonhis  a  atrange  nditnre  of  geiw  oaa  iaapilaea  and 

letom  from  the  East,  theyoang  general  droTe  eonoeltedbigotrXyaaiioailotBkahMkttalildi 

the  legkbtiTe  eoonoil  from  their  chamber  and  libertj  fmee  waa  e^ejmg^  IrM  to  iknn 

firmed  a  new  eomtitntioB,  hk  eowie  waa  pnblie attention  1^ aopporlipglte Qraak  ~ 

ananimondy  approred,  and  tbehiitory  of  IVance  recttoaaaafaMtlmDej  (1817-^  and 

beoamelbrlSyeanthehittorjofarini^man.  A]glera(1880).    Bat  thaae  eotarpffii 

Cboaen  firrt  oonaol  for  10  yeare,  Dee.  18, 1799,  coneOiate  pahBe  opinion;  and  wfaaa  the  Uag 

he  broke  op  the  coalition  whidi  had  been  attempted  to  aatpeadaooM  of  tiieaaoi 

igcmed  against  France,  by  hia  Tictory  at  Ma-  coaranteeaaeearadl^tiie  charter,  a 

lengo^  Jane  14^  1800;  forced  Anstria  to  con-  Msarreetion  broke  oat,  Jnly  f7, 1S80,    ..*.».. 

dnde  the  peace  of  Lanerille  in  1801,  and  waa  obliged  to  ab^cafee;  and  after  a  ftrwdanf 

Bndbmdth^  of  Amiens  in  1809;  and  ^  a  con-  interral,  hk  coorfn,  Loois  Fldlippa,daka  ef  0^ 

ooriiat  with  the  pope  reCstobHshed  Cairistian  kens,  was  appointed  Mag  (Aug.  >>  by  the 

worship  in  Fhmce.  Oonsol  for  lifoiAng.  8, 1809,  ber  of  depatiea.    The  eUoi^  ^ 

then  hereditanr  emperor,  May  18,  1804,  he  acceptable  to  tiie  adddk  classi 

prored  hioMeli  a  great  kgidator  at  home  by  waa  maintained ;   and  nii<aHllaniHn§ 

file  formation  of  the  dTQcodeL  the  otganiaition  occarional  ootborsta  of  lawibilcan^ 

of  pnbttc  instmctlon,  and  the  Improvements  he  tiie  peopk^  the  Jnly  aaonawiay,  as  k 

introdnoed  in  all  the  brancbeaof  poUkserrice;  lasted  tor  18  yearn.    At  ini  Loa 

whik  he  added  to  hk  military  and  pofitkal  glory  aeemed  willing  to  foMl  the  Sfpattatiima  of 

Sr  hk  trimnpfas  at  Ansteiliti,  JeuL  Anerstadt  liberalkta,  supported  Bsjglam  agikal  ITnlkBl, 
jrkn,  Friedland,  Eckmftbl,  and  wagram,  and  and  aeiaed  apon  Aneona  to  eoaaterbalaaee  Ihs 
by  the  treatiee  of  peace  which  he  ligned  at  iaflnence  of  the  Anstrkas  k  Itdy.  Bnt  If 
Fradmrg,  1806,  TUsit,  1807,  and  Vienna,  1809,  degreea  hk  pdky  was  fhawgad;  the  fam- 
with  the  great  powen  of  Earope,  snoeesrively  meat  proved  reicSonaiy  athoaee  aad  daiuidef 
brooght  by  Eof^d  into  coalition  agdnsthfan.  energr  abroad ;  and  the  pomdar  flmsr  aa  wifah 
He  had  now  reached  the  hei^t  of  hk  power  It  had  r^ed  dessfted  it  ApoBtleal  maaitaa- 
and  (^ory ;  he  had  placed  hk  brothers  on  the  tkn  in  fovor  of  parliamentary  reform  liinagk 
thrones  of  Holland,  Westphalia,  and  Spain,  and  on  another  reTolntioo,  Feb.  fi,  1S48;  aad 
hk  brother-in-Uw  on  that  of  Naples;  he  althoogh  the  m^ority  of  the  nation  wonld  bsTt 
thus  extended  his  infloence  over  nearly  the  preferred  the  continQation  of  a  coostitiitkiul 
whole  of  western  Europe,  and  played  a  part  liberal  monarchy,  the  irresistibk  ooane  ef 
equal,  if  not  soperior,  to  that  of  Charlemagne,  events  precipitated  them  into  a  repobficL  The 
Bnt  Ids  insatiate  ambition  was  an  incessant  caose  middle  claMcs,  being  apparently  resigoed  to 
of  terror  and  hatred  against  him  among  the  sov-  their  present  fiUe,  profesBcd  to  be  ready  to  fire 
ereigns  and  the  nations  of  Europe;  they  were  this  new  form  of  government  a  fair  trial;  bat 
waiting  for  the  moment  when  thk  wonderful  within  a  few  months  their  representadves  ia 
fortune  should  be^n  to  decline.  It  was  shaken  the  constitoent  aasembly,  frightened  by  sods!* 
by  the  successful  resistance  which  the  con-  istic  movements,  gave  strong  erideace  d  their 
queror  met  with  in  the  Spanish  peninsula  (1808-  deadly  opposition  to  it  A  eo-caOed  repablima 
*18) ;  but  his  prestige  was  mined  by  his  disas-  constitution  was  adopted,  and  on  Dec.  1Q»  18ei» 
trotts  expedition  to  Russia  in  1812.  The  European  Louis  Napoleon  Bonaparte,  the  nephew  of  Sa- 
nations, recovering  their  courage,  united  against  poleon  1.,  was  elected  president  of  the  Fmch 
him;  and  their  combined  exertions  inflicted  republic  for  a  term  or  4  yeara,  by  8.658,7$} 
npon  him  at  Leipsic,  Oct.  18, 1813,  a  blow  from  votes^  against  about  1,600,000  given  to  Gca. 
which  he  never  recovered.  It  was  in  vain  that  Cavaignac,  who  had  done  good  serrioe  for  the 
he  accomplished  wonders  during  the  campaign  preservation  of  order  during  the  moat  tfjiaf 
of  1814 ;  he  could  not  expel  bis  enemies  from  the  circumstances.  Internal  dissensions^  aooM  aigne 
French  territory;  he  was  dethroned,  and  a  prince  of  which  were  apparent^  eoon  eatranged  the 
of  the  house  of  Bourbon  received  from  the  con-  minority  of  the  legislative  aaacmbly  from  the 
querors  the  sceptre  of  France,  now  restricted  to  president ;  and  rumors  of  revolotion  bccsm 
lier  old  limits.  The  sudden  return  of  Napoleon  rife  as  the  epoch  of  a  new  preeidential  ckctJoa 
from  Elba  overthrew  this  new  power;  and  for  approached.  The  expected  revohition  took 
lOOdays,  from  March  20  to  June  28, 1815,  he  was  place,  Dec.  2,  1851 ;  by  a  bold  stroke  of  pobry 
again  the  acknowledged  sovereign  of  France ;  the  president  dissolved  the  aasembly,  avaacd 
but  the  battle  of  Waterloo  (June  18,  1815)  de-  dictatorial  powers^  and  made  an  appeal  to  tbt 
stroyed  his  power  forever,  and  the  Bourbons,  people,  asking  them  to  aanctioa  by  thdr  veiss 
under  the  protection  of  foreign  bavonets,  once  what  had  been  done.  The  support  of  the  srwy 
re  1  »d  the  kingdom.  Louis  XVIII.,  the  first  had  been  previously  seeured,  and  varioas  oaooa- 
HI  under  the  restoration,  granted  a  charter  certed  attempts  at  armed  resistance  were  sDKPlb> 
ets,  and  keeping  eaiaAilly  within  the  ered  by  ene^getio  and  bloody  meaeaiia.    The 


FBAHrOE  67(1 

revolationarj  president,  who  alone  controlled  fortr  to  destrojtlie  languages  of  the  inhabitaati 

the  elections,  was  chosen  for  a  term  of  10  years  of  Ganl,  eomparativelj  few  words  of  theirs  siu> 

by  7f 889,21 6  votes;  a  new  constitation,  very  Tiyed  in  the  lingua  ruttiea.    Many  Oeltio  ele^ 

mnch  like  the  consalar  one  framed  by  Bonaparte  ments  had  combined  with  the  Latin  even  befora 

in  1799,  was  promulgated;  and  finally,  Nov.  7,  Onsar,  and  some  were  introduced  afterward; 

1852,  the  senate  made  a  motion  for  the  re^stab-  bat  it  is  difficult  to  distinguish  them  fiom  the 

lishment  of  the  empire;  this  having  been  as-  Latin  stock  on  account  of  their  common  origin 

sented  to  by  a  vote  of  7,824,129  citizens,  the  from  the  storehouse  of  the  Indo-European  fami- 

empire  was  procliumed,  Dec  2,  1852.    The  ly  of  languages.    The  Latin  jaraon,  tainted  by 

emperor  wields  his  power  with  such  energy  and  Germanic  ingredients,  is  called  on^tia  Bamana^ 

ability  that  he  is  considered  the  leading  spirit  and  also  OaUiea  or  GaUieana.    It  coezi^ed  for 

of  Europe ;  and  France  has  resumed  the  rank  some  time  with  the  Fretdniha  (Franema^  jFhm- 

ehe  held  during  the  reigns  of  Louis  XIV.  and  eica\  or  Theotisea  or  Tudetqus;  and  idthougfa  it 

Kapoleon  I.    The  war  against  Russia  for  the  continued  to  exist  with  more  vigor  than  the 

protection  of  the  Ottoman  empire  n854-^5),  last  named,  it  was  eventually  called  linaua 

and  that  in  Italy  against  Austria  (1859),  show  IhiHe<h  OaUiea^  or  rather  Franc(hBomana^  Umr 

that  she  has  lost  nothing  of  her  military  supe-  gue  Fran^om,    While  the  Prankish  prevailed 

liority. — ^A  more  detailed  account  of  the  princi*  in  the  N.  and  E.  of  the  country,  the  nuUca  or 

pal  events  in  the  history  of  France  will  be  found  Bcmana  was  spoken  8.  of  the  Loire,  although 

m  the  articles  on  her  various  sovereigns,  states-  also  used  in  the  Frankisb  regions.    Tne  council 

men,  and  generals. — See  Statuiique  gerUrale  of  Tours  (818)  recommended  the  use  of  both 

mith4fdiqu€  et  eompUte  de  la  Fravce^  by  J.  H.  the  rustic  and  Tudesc  versions  of  the  homiliaib 

8chnitzler(4  V0I8.8VO.,  1842-6);  PaUria^cu  la  Probably  the  most  ancient  monument  of  the 

Ft(Mceaneienneeimoderne{^vo\A,^Vm%\M)\  Roman  is  the  oath  of  Louis  the  C(erman  to 

Berum  QaUiearum  et  Franeiearum  Scriptorii^  Charles  the  Bald,  who  on  his  part  swore  in 

&u  reeueil  det  hiatorienM  de  France^  hj  Dom  German,  in  Strasbourg,  Feb.  8^    This  oath  ran 

Bouquet  and  other  Benedictine  monks,  conUn-  as  follows : 

^^^  TSv™^./^^  ^®  institute  (21  vols.  foL  ^    j^  ^„  .t  ^  CbrtotUii  poblo      .t  nortio 

1788-1857) ;  CoUeetum$  da  memo%re9  rektt%f$  a  Poor  ramoiar  da  Dim  et  po«r  le  ptople  Chf«tiMi  et  Boira 

VkiMtoire  de  France^  respectively  published  by  eommiui  adruiieBt,  diet  di  en  sTMt.  in 

Gnizot,  Petitot,  Buchon,  and  Miohaud  and  Pou-  •^"^  oommun,         dor6n«Tmnt  (de  Uto  die  la  elHtBtoX  ea 

joulat;  the  general  histories  of  ^ance  bv  Sis-  U\^Vi..  S^Sr  l\^i^  SS  t^A^ 
mondi  (31  vols.  8vo.,  1821-'43X  Henri  Martin  h  f-  1 
(4th  ed.,  17  vols.  8vo.,  1855-^9),  Michelet  (not  The  Latin  grammatical  suffixes  were  gradually 
yet  complete,  12  vols.  8vo.,  to  Louis  XlY.),  dropped,  and  the  accusative  case  was  in  generid 
Th^hile  Lavall^  (12th  ed.,  4  vols.  12mo.,  taken  as  the  new  word.  Auxiliary  verbs  were 
1858),  and  Dumy  (2  vols.  12mo.,  last  ed.,  1859);  successively  introduced  from  the  Teutonic  idi- 
''*'  History  of  France,''  by  £.  £.  Crowe  (5  vols,  oms,  the  case  endings  were  supplied  by  prqK>- 
8vo.,  London,  1858  et  9eq.)\  **  History  of  sitions,  the  personal  endings  or  verbs  by  pro- 
France,"  by  J.  Whito  (1  vol.  8vo.,  E^nburgh  nouns,  or  both  by  the  fragments  of  ancient  end- 
and  Lofndon,  1859).  ings  and  by  pronouns  before  the  verb.  In  the 
FRANCE,  IsLB  OF.  See  MAmrrnrs.  10th  century  the  Latin  iUe^  ute  were  converted 
FRAN(^  Lamovaob  and  LrrsBATUSB  or.  into  the  article  le  and  the  pronouns  «l  and  00t(es), 
The  French  is  the  most  important  of  the  6  Ro-  the  lattor  being  pronounced  $t.  According  to 
manic  languages  produced  from  Latin  by  the  in-  Raynouard's  hypothesis,  the  lingua  Bamana  was 
flnence  of  other  tongues.  The  Italian,  the  Ruma-  separated  into  two  dialects.  The  Visigoths  and 
nio  or  Wallachian,  the  Provencal,  Spanish,  and  Burgundians  S.  of  the  Loiro  said  oe  (Latin  ac, 
Portuguese  aro  its  sisters.  The  Belgs  of  Gaul  (German  auch,  also)  for  yet,  for  which  the  Franks 
probably  spoke  Celto-Teutonio,  the  Aquitani  and  Normans  (who  established  themselves  in 
Oelto-Iberic,  while  the  Celts  or  Galli  proper  France  in  912)  along  the  Seine  used  ail;  henoe 
occupied  the  centre  of  the  country,  and  at  the  the  southern  or  Provencal  dialect  was  named 
tame  time  Qreek  colonies  held  points  on  the  Med-  la  langue  d^oe,  and  the  northern  fRoman-Wallo- 
Iterranean  sea.  The  language  of  Rome  over-  nic)  la  langue  d'oil.  After  879  the  focus  of  the 
whelmed  all  Uiese  idioms.  The  Gallic,  however,  former  was  at  the  court  of  the  kings  of  Aries,  and 
iraa  yet  spoken  in  the  8d  century ;  Celticism  was  in  927  the  chief  point  of  the  latter  at  the  court 
peroeptible  in  the  lingua  rustic<i,  or  degenerate  of  the  duke  of  Normandy.  Less  troubled  bir 
Latin,  at  the  close  of  the  5th  century ;  and  the  wars  and  more  thoroughly  Romanized,  the  south 
meient  vernaculars  continued  to  exist  afterward,  produced  distinguished  traubadoure  during  two 
The  ruitiea  exteuded  from  the  Rhine  to  the  Py-  centuries,  while  the  north  had,  somewhat  later, 
T^D^eB  in  the  4th  century.  The  corruption  of  its  trautirei,  both  named  from  trotare^  io  find 
the  Latin  was  similar  in  all  the  countries  from  — finders  of  songs,  poets.  From  the  beginning 
the  Danube  to  the  mouth  of  the  Tagus,  and  the  of  the  crusades  to  the  death  of  St  Lonis  a095- 
•bove-mentioned  languages  differ  only  in  conse-  1270)  both  dialects  approached  toward  a  rasion. 
q[nence  of  the  various  Mrbarous  tongues  that  The  vulgar  language  was  employed  in  the  cm- 
Mve  acted  upon  them.  Since  the  Suevi,  Yisi-  sades  in  rousing  the  pooulac«,  whose  war-cry 
gotha,  Burgimdians,  Franks,  &c,  made  no  ef-  was:  JOiexelvoU {Qodw'wMity,   Under  Johnthe 


«0toiran  Md botii Itt  «f  aad  in  •tL    Aftw   #*«»  tfllfr, te  Iv  mhI;  «i  «  cOir/ 
IkvgMOti  oT  the  Bibto  dito  tofora  1100;  bot    pt^i^g^t  rm^g,  D^mtf  #fM  ««i>H  «i^  |«^ 
popoltr  heroie  and  raUckMM  aoiigi  •PP^tf'  to   fim,  4«^  IKxn  w<wi^  jmstm^  mAw  fM» 


liiiv«  bMn  oompoMd  wd  rwited  by  tbe  Im*  UariLtmtimf  JPimp^  in^i— ^  ryai  jyi^  ^ 

flmum  (JoeuIaUrmy    ThadtTclopniMitofciiir*  pw.  BytiiMpiwition,A>iin|iwfoiiplilhn^p 

ikfio  poetry  in  Pnyfeiioe  wai  diteked  by  tlie  tti6l«ndfii«wiffl4<aioolUn|itod 

IMMeotioo  of  the  AII%enMt;  the  lugaago  of  iirfd;  nioibii^  A<ii%  tuytwwir^gMPe 

the  tvoabedoai*  was  piotoribedy  end,  together  eynen^  to^frc—  witffcti^  eelma^  ^gmiii^  iiye 

with  the  politioal  nde  of  the  north,  the  idiom  relMv  mirmmhnm,  jmImi  wU§k    Maummkm  el 

ef  Ffeaidy  (n  branch  of  the  Ibnvim  ^^  «3C*  ehange  of  iwannanta  are :  0 — faMW;  fiai 

tooded  toward  the  aonth.    The  real  Finiioh  kn-  frwyi^  i^iiM^  alwii;  Okmrim,  i 

M^  began  to  be  developed  about  the  time  of  nomiif  JmUf  urm^,  te^  ftoaa 

the  eonqoaat  of  Ctonntantfnople  If  the  French  emn,  mrfm^JUmt^  aaalai^  J&r^ 

erMaden,atthebe^nniogofthelSthoentarT.  eMMU^  >Mwn|  mriMa/  Q    ipd; 

AhMdybeteetbeoonqneaiofEn^andbyWu-  Alaa,  dig,  ftom  •fimlii^  barh^  y^raanw^  A 


Ham  aOM)  £o|^  yonths  were  aent  to  be  ed-  fmma;  Q    Jmm^§fAi^m,4i,/HU,immi^lkni 

ncated  in  France:  but  the  oonqneat  made  the  gSmtt,  0§tfM^  mt^  from  biaik  fdmmm^  Jm 

Horman-Fkvnoh  the  official  and  coort  laagnage  rfiyee^  f^fm§Qm^  Immlk^  Imm^  mimmOm 

in  England.     Froimart'b  ^'Chronidm'*  (lith  €hMrM;  U^Lmk,  horn  mmimh$  fGhM 

eentory)  ia  the  fint  woric  ingeonine  Fkenoh.  wigX  te.;  the  letter  I  beeaaae  Mmia§t  m 

Wnoek  L  anbttitiited  the  langoage  lor  Latin  4ni§,  jmt^  te^  from  (the  orlgMO  ^"Tm 

in  pobMo  tranmctioiML     Babelaia  neatfy  en-  jgwit/T    ekhM,  §kmin,  rmit\  i^■i^a^( 

sfabed  it;  Bonaard  and  Do  BcUky,  Amyoi  and  StHif  te^  from  eqms  niaaaii^  rajiaw^dayinn 

MoBteigni^andotheradeTelopeditfiirther.  The  ^apmi^  mHfimm;lB    imwkt^  >(P*i  <Mii<l■^ 

rOigioaartfiirm,  politioal  tronblee,  the  ininence  from  Mmr^  wSmmn,  Mitum  ;  F    1  ajfir,  Aim 

eftheltalhnwara  andgoeena,  modified  itgreat-  (f^MriU  Atm^  Jaanj;  Ae^  tnm  Jki*^ 

U.   TheintrodoctioQ  of  Arabic  wordaiacUe4y  barb./kpaalff\  Jrna{^  JM^f;  ~ 


to  the  oromdM^  and  that  of  Gre^  and  ^ImMi^/nMitdML,  from  Greek 

latfaiwordaandofaoientifiotermatotheatn^y  with»;Y    >rai^ 

ef  thoae  langoagea  and  to  the  ooltiration  of  the  mrem  (eirmmmX  arean^'eemiil  9m/m;T 

tabhihed  by  Biohefien  for  the  regolation  of  the  from  ItaL  aaMa  and 


national  knjnu^o  O^X  the  infloenoe  of  the    tera,  9Umlm^  pmt,  pmikm;  D   >Mr^  i«yn 


eoartythehOMNniofthePort-Boyalist^eipecial-  ikii,  ea^,  iM,  ooMati  Mnir,  9^ 

ly  Pascal  (1666X  and  a  Rohunr  of  great  writers.  diumu$j  barb.  litf-tM^iM,  ftaaini^  tad#rt,  Mk 

porified,  sagmented,  and  diffosed  it  more  and  advoeatu$y  hen^iem^  oa  (ptdem\  nrndm*;  2>» 

more.    It  was  first  used  as  a  diplomatic  Ian-  iU^  Sehelle^  ipie^  hiuiu,  crits,  naUrt^  CUt,  mdii 

gnage  at  the  conferences  of  Kimegoen  (1678).—  hdU,  Ac,  from  both  mttaU  nnd  ItaL  partid* 

The  French  is  certainly  a  very  clear  tongne,  pie  $tato  (8pan.  €$tad^)j  mala^  Germ.  JUffUmt 

on  account  of  the  strictly  logical  order  of  its  Sehnuhj  Lat.  critta^  nateif  imtm^  Germ.  Mmi^ 

syntax,  bat  Tery  monotonoos,  and  incapable  Mast ;  also  nes,  ret,  ckea^  ibc^  ttom  nosics,  tmu^ 

of  the  composition  of  words  already  fixed,  as  casa;  and  s  instead  of  Latin  fu.*  f««i  Utua, 


well  as  of  bold  poetic  tnms.     The  French    nreneM^  oaset,  Ac^from  laudatU,  pr^$ktmditU^ 


langoage^  in  short,  is,  like  every  other,  the  ex-  barb.   ad-Mtu  ;  X — tdchtr^  mrfcAitra, 

ponent  of  the  nationjality,  Ticissitudes,  intelli*  wwtutadu^  timer^  from  Utmrw^  man/la,  ^t^ 

genoe,  coltore,  and  taste  of  the  people  that  ^wm(^  Ux«r$;  L— fotn^ii#^  opiirt^  ipUrt^pi' 

neak  it    The  following  are  some  examples  of  rti^f  ^rai^  remorgve,  kc^  from  hueimidt^ 

the  changes  from  ancient  to  modem  French  apoitohuj  epiMtplOy  barb.  pUwea,  wlanH^  rtmmi 

forms :  A—aimer^  p^  ehanti^  «Mr,  tabU^  ehien^  cum  ;  niteaUj  aw^fd^m  (amubmX  mt^  hmmm, 

Ac,  from  omare,  po^  eantatutn^  tnare,  tabula^  haugre,  autre^  ehamd^  cm«j;   GuiUaumt^  wm^ 

ctmii;  £ — eirpatr,  pletn^  venin^  jUl,  &c,  from  heaux^  eKeteu^  kc^  from  UMla  (lerelX  ^^^ 

§p0rare^  plentts,  tenenum,  /el ;  l—foiy  ortUmner^  alba,  balmmum,  Buharui^  ali^r^  oaiAui^  oai^ 

asrv^  vainerty  $angUy  vieye^  &o.,  from  fidu^  Oildkelw^  moUU^  bdlug^  «^7/vt/  B — amiti^ 

ardinarejCireuluMfVineere^cinffulum^virgo;  O —  pileHn^  auherge^  Ac-  from  aliatrt,  ^  • 

hmtre,  conir,  fvua,  puU,  Ao^  from  hora,  ear,  rota^  Germ,  fferberfe  ;  It— nous  oaaieiia, 

Mtf ;  V—puii,  j0ugy  nombre^  JUuet^  eroix^  ^.,  eonter,  nappe,  n^U,  airain^  rieA^  #n^ 

from  puUueAuifiuw^  numenu,  Jluviue,  crux  ;  i£  bhn  (whence  £ng.  k0p\  te.,  from  mnmrnn^  Go- 

— ii^U,  uree,  eUeU,  prcie,  Jui/,  dec,  fh>m  rumna,  eomputare,  wutppa^  mutpittUL 

jEyptuM^  OracuM,  emculum,  prada,  Judaus  ;  (E  rem,  kaminew^  meum,  humuhu  ;  N — W 

— ciel,  feeand,  foin,  mame,  oc,  from  ealumyfa^-  pMiA,  Boloffne,  four,  fofur,  Biarm,  Us, 

eunduM,/anumy  marent;  An — or,  louer,  omau^  moi$,  eowent^  ooittr,  dn.,  fhmi  tmiMmi 

o^er,  peu,  {jnim  auruw^  laudart,  atioeUa,  ad-  wot,  Bon4mia,  (fitfrniif /uriiMS,  1 

laubart  (barbaroosX  jMticai.     Tonic  Towels  ihtula,  ooonoa,  ewnna,  Mnfmfica,  CMutore  ;  Ga 

were  dropped  or  safnired  rarioos  chaoffes  of  — mouilU  in  Champoi^ne,  rifms,  Ehpoftu,  fro- 

eliaion  or  contraction,  eren  destroying  the  or-  gner,isc^  from  CUeygaia,  rmm^JIupmmim^  yra»> 

fanio  affinity  of  the  oooaonanta;  a.  g.:  Pami^  ntfa.*£iamplea  of  ndrcntitaoaa  lelteraart:  a 


If^AKOE  (Lavquaos  axd  loBurunii  877 

before  an  iDitial  impure  i^  as  in  eteaheau^  eiear-  there  are  80,  represented  hy  18  letters,  tiz.  :  &  h 
mouehe^  e$tomac^  ^^\fi  esprit,  &c^  from  McaheU  (also  written  e  and  «&  as  in  chmir.  q^  qu^  voAf 
luniy  Teuton,  skirmish,  skiff,  trrofiaxo^^  spiritus,  as  in  ton^  et  eau),  d,  f  f and  pA),  g  nard  (also  gk^ 
Other  prefixed  letters  are:  grenouille,  huUre^  ^uXthesonndof  Engli^^anda  ia visum^eraner 
lendil,  nomhril,  tanU,  &c,  from  ranicula,  ostreOf  (written  g  before  a,  i,  and  Vy  and  j  before  aU  tow* 
indicium,  umbilicus,  amita.    In  the  following  els  except  •  and  y),  h  (nulesa  mote),  I,  I  mmtitti 
examples  letters  have  been  inserted  for  the  sake  as  in  the  English  mUlion  (written  ilL  il,  gU^ 
of  euphony :  ehambre,  domptcr,  Embrun,  trom-  Ih),  m,  it,  n  mouiUi  as  in  the  English  cnion 
pette  (trambe),  hanU,  rendre,  Angculeme,  jor^  (written  gn,  nh),  »,  r,  4  (also  e  before  «»  i)  y ; 
gUur,  trtsor,  perdrix,  &o.,  from  camera,  barb,  also  x  in  BruxelUs,  t  in  tuUunCy^  t  (also  nnsl 
damitare,  Eburodunum,  tuba,  hasta,  reddere^  d  when  pronounced  with  the  next  word,  as 
leulisma,  joculator,  6*(ravpos,  verdix, — Changes  grand    hommcX   e  (also  final  jf,  when   pro- 
of quantity  and  of  accent,  ana  all  sorts  of  mis-  nounced  with  tne  next  word,  as  nevfaunes),  y 
takes  in  writing  and  in  pronunciation,  have  as  in  the  English  yes,  with  the  preceding  power 
ftirther  increased  the  dissimilarity  of  words  of  i  (for  instance,  payer,  pronounced  j^V^X  ' 
from    their  prototypes,  which   were   chaste,  (written  also  s,  x,  when  pronounced  with  ttie 
strong,  oi^ganic,  and  significant     8ome  fur*  next  word,  as  2et«aujc,atta;«9pHteXsnd  the  sound 
ther  examples  may  show  both  the  deviation  of  the  English  s^  as  in  sAaU  (written  «A).   Host 
from  the  prototypes  and  the  conglomeration  consonants  are  not  uttered  when  final,  unless 
of  altered  words  into  ungainly  compounds.    Of  they  are  joined  to  a  succeeding  word  which  be> 
the  first  kind  are:  oindre,  teindre,  coucher,  gins  with  a  vowel  or  h  mute.    S,x,£,t,  being 
chSmer,  coutume,  poltron,  gine,  &c.,  from  uiv-  the  principal  grammatio  letters,  are  most  fre- 
gere,  tingere,  collocare,  Romanic  calmare,  conr  quently  Joined  in  this  manner.  On  French  too- 
metudinem,  poUice-truncato,  biblicxd  gthenna,  nunciation  Malvin-Cazal  and  Mme.  Sophie  Do- 
Specimens  of  altered  words  are:  alentour  {d  puis  may  be  advantageously  consulted. — ^The 
le  en  tour),  auparavant  {d  le  par  ab  ante),  dialects  and  patois  of  the  French  language 
aufourd*hui  (d  le  jour  de  ho-die),  desormais  are :  I.  The  academic,  consecrated  bv  the  b<Mt 
{de  is(ta)  hora  magis),  dorenavant  (de  hora  in  literature.    IL  Old  French  :  1,  Walloon  (rau^ 
cb  ante),  lorsque  (la  hora  qua),  ^    Owing  ehi),  in  Belgium  and  West  Luxembourg;  51, 
to  the  mixture  of  Uie  languages  of  oc  and  ou,  Franco-Flemish ;  S^icard  and  dialect  of  Ar- 
as  well  as  to  the  introduction  of  many  forms  in  tois.    All  these  are  Franco-Romanic   III.  New 
later  times,  there  are,  as  it  were,  two  parallel  French:  A,  in  the  north — 1,  Norman;  %  patois 
idioms  in  the  French  language ;  as  for  instance :  of  Paris  and  Champsgne ;  8,  of  Lorraine  and  the 
€011,  eiel,  pire,  chef,  temps,  bois,  poudre,  eerre,  Yosges ;  4,  the  Bourguignon ;  6,patoisof  Orleans 
j)oumonyaoigt,pierre^atix,mauvais,&c.,  along''  and  Blois;  6,  of  Anjou  and  Maine;  B,  in  the 
aide  cfaquatique,  celeste,  patemel,  capital,  tern-  middle  and  west — 1,  Auvergnat ;  2,  Poitevin; 
pordi,  lignexix,  pulveriser,  titreux,  pulmonaire,  8,  Vend^n ;  4,  Bas  Breton ;  5,  Berrichon  ;  6, 
digitalc,  petr^action,  falsifier,  malteillant.  As  Bordelais  and  Gascon ;  0,  in  the  east — 1,  Franc- 
the  accent  or  stress  falls  upon  the  last  effective  Gomtois  and  its  varieties  in  Yalais  and  Neuf- 
^Uable  of  a  word,  imparting  thus  a  monotony  ch&tel,  and  partly  in  the  cantons  of  Freybnig 
to  the  spoken  language,  some  pretend  that  tiie  and  Bern ;  2,  Vaudois  (Roman,  Remain) ;  8, 8a- 
French  has  no  accent    This  is  an  incorrect  as-  voisien  and  Genevois ;  4^yonnais ;  5,  patois  of 
aertion,  for  possibU,  inconsolable,  sentiment,  iio.,  the  cities  of  Dauphin^ ;  D,  in  the  islanos  of  Jer- 
differ  from  the  English  words  in  accent  more  sey  and  Guernsey,  Anglo-Norman.    French  ia 
than  in  sound.    There  is  also  no  reason  for  the  also  spoken  with  various  local  pecuUarities  or 
denomination  of  the  3  signs  C^*)  as  accents,  since  corruptions  in  Algeria,  on  the  Senegal,  in  the 
they  are  marks  of  omission,  and  the  two  first  Mascarene  and  Seychelles  islands,  French  Gui- 
Bometimes  marks  of  sound ;  thus,  for  instance,  ans,  the  French  West  Indies,  the  greater  part 
In  eti,  Itre,  p^e,  sure,  maitre,  &c,  derived  from  of  Hayti,  in  Illinois,  Michigan,  Louisiana,  and 
eestate  and  estado  (see  above),  estre  (Span,  esiar^  some  other  of  the  United  States,  by  the  hoMam 
siare),  patre,  seeurus,  magister,  they  denote  of  Lower  Canada  and  even  someaboriginal  tribes^ 
omissions;  and  in  words  like  perUtrer,  eeUbrer,  and  in  some  settlements  in  Asia  ana  Oceanicti 
«^Z^&i«^&cL,  the 'and*  are  merely  signs  of  sound,  There  are  also  small  French  colonies  in  the 
ma  no  word  can  have  more  than  one  accent. —  Banat  of  Temesv^  and  elsewhere.  It  is  the  most 
The  French  is  written  with  the  same  letters  as  generally  known  of  all  languages  among  dWl- 
tlie  English.    K  and  W  occur  only  in  Norman  ized  nations,  and  many  illustrious  foreigners,  as 
mud  Flemish  names  incorporated  into  Frendi,  Leibnitz,  Humboldt^  Gibbon,  and  Sir  William 
mod  in  other  foreign  words.    There  are  12  dis-  Jones,  have  written  some  of  their  works  la 
tinct  vowels  as  regards  their  quantity ;  they  are  it.    The  dialects  of  the  langus  d'oe,  pmrtieii- 
represented  by  6  letters  called  vowels,  or  by  larly  the  Limousin,  Languedocieo^  and  Pro- 
their  combination,  and  by  the  help  of  m,  n,  viz. :  venial,  are  spoken  S.  of  a  line  jMssing  through 
a,e,l,iyOyU,<m,eu,  and  4  nasals,  an,  in,  on,  tin.  the  departments  of  Charente,  uharente-Infim- 
iDciuding  all  modifications  (d,  S,  i,  6,  A,  oH,  and  eure,  Haute- Vienne,  Oreuze,  Allier,  Pny-de- 
the  so-called  e  muet),  they  stand  for  20  sounds,  D6me,  Haute-Loife,  Ard^he,  Drome,  and  Isk«. 
of  which  Malvin-Caad  and  Michelet  of  the  eon-  Celtic  (Breygcid)  is  spoken  by  nearly  1,000,000 
Bervatoire  de  musique  count  17.    Of  oonscmants  people  in  Innist^re,  06te-dn-Nord,  and  Morbl* 


178  rntAVGE-iLMMVAAB  Ajn»  XaBUSOBO 

hah;  BaiqiM  Ivf  about  180,000  in  BiSMt-Qn^-  the  llth  and  lith  ewtoriaa.    TU  Iwrtw^ 

H^esjGarmanbyaboot  1,000^000 in Hant-Rhin  on  the  other  hand,  in  their  narratiTe  pocaa^ 

and  Baa-Rhin,  and  to  aome  extent  in  Motelle  Imown  aa  cktm9$n$  isjmU^  and  written  in 

«nd  Heorthe;  Flemish  in  parts  of  Kord  and  the  enei)getio  Isa^iw  ^M^  treated  of  mat 

Pto-de-Oalais;  Catalan  in  I7r6n6ee-0rientales:  national  snljects  and  eslebratedtlieheroiBdMds 

and  Italian  in  Oorsiea^— Among  the  authors  of  of  iUostrionald^lsaidkn^^ita.    Bonaoflhcir 

grammars  ofthelVenehtongoe  are:  J.  SjlTina  oompositionsi  t&  earlieat  e^edallj,  kaTe  a 

(1587);  fitioineDolet^  2)0  laveiMtiuitiMJVwi^  striking  character  of  gwmdenrwMeiini«raoms 

^fou6  (I^onsi  1541);  Jaoi|nesPelletier,  IHalegum  times  be  not  nn&Twabl/  comMured  wtth  that 

mtr  Vwrikograj^  H  la  pr^tumeitUum  IVampai$e  of  the  ancient  epic  poena.    Tbeae  fiswisiai  db 

(Poitiers.  15m))  ;  Lojs  McTgret,  Dr^U  de  la  ^etU^  which  are  also  called  riaiaiKssL  are  Ttry 

|ifVNiifnatnL^n55^;  Robort  and  Henry  Ste-  nnmeroos.  and  haTO  been  rlaasifled  mtoScy* 

^ens(Pans,  1558 and *79) ;  Ramos,  €hranmair§  des,  bearina  respectirdx  the  namea  of  Char- 

JWm^oiis  (1571);  PUllppe  Gamier,  Frmeeota  lemagne,  Sang  Arthur,  and  Alexander.     The 

GMid  Stfiumk  (StraMoorg,  1607);  Yangelas^  first  cycle  of  coorse  indndes  aD  audi  poasm 

JUmarqum  mir  la  lamffftsmMfiaimilWT);  the  as  celebrate  the  deeds  of  tiie  great  fraalnh 

P^rt-Rojal   writers,   Lancelot  and  Arnanld,  emperor,  his  descendants  and  rassals;  one  of 

£Vtiminatrsf<ii^fi0lf0tf«»tMiii^(166O,  often  re-  the  oldest  and  perhana  the  moat  megnillcent  of 

poblished);  Domarsalsy  VMtabkijmn^eidsla  this  category  is  enUUed  Lm  thanmm  dm  E$laai 

^rammair0lkimfaim(l79ff)iIiedmtfPnnd^  pudsSoneepoux.    The  Armoriean  cycle  or  tbat 

§iiUraux  4trauafmhd6laipra$nmaireIVamfai$»  of  King  Arthur  is  filled  np  with  the  trmfition- 

(1780);  WaiDy,  Orammair§  iVon^iss  (1754) ;  arr  legends  connected  witn  old  Britain  and  the 

Ckmdillae,  in  his  Qmn  iPHudu  (1755) ;  Bean-  achieTementsof  the  Korman warriors;  the  JB^ 

a6e,  6^ra»«iairs  ^In^nOi  (Paris,  1767) ;  D'Oll-  fliaaiiShi(;or  thatof  mng  Arthnr  of  Britva 

Tet,  EmaiU  ii$  frammair^  (1788);  Domeme,  ononedde,andtheiiMian£i2)Ni,ortliatoftbs 

€frm^mair€lSrMMimnuufUfi^  dokesof  Kormandir  on  the  other,  majl»e  said  la 

^^Theoretical  and  Practical  Grammar  of  the  bethedonSleibonaationonwhichautbepoeBB 

I^rench  Tongne**  (1801);  Fabre,  S^niaxe  IVat^  beloDgingto  this  series  rest    The  cgrde  of  Al- 

^aiw(1808);  Gnermlti  OtatmnMre  Ihmfaim  exan&r  consists  of  poems  in  which  reeoQectiflas 

8806);  Lhomond,  JsUmiHt9  ds  la  fframmair^  ofGreece  and  Rome  are  atrai^ie^eDonghndiad 

ranpatM  /  Giramt^DaTiy&er,  Cframmaire  dm  np  with  chivslrio  notiona  and  legends  of  ftifr 

gramnuurei  (1811,  many  times  reprinted) ;  Lan-  land.    The  **  History  of  the  Taking  of  Troy/ 

dais,  Chrammaift  ginhiU  H  raimmnk^  a  com-  CK>mposed  about  1160  br  Benolt  de  8c.  Mane, 

pilation  from  numerous  sources  ^1886) ;   No^l  and  the  ^^  Romance  of  Alexander,**  about  118(1 

and  Chspsal,  Noutelle  grammaire  Fran^aUe  by  Lambert  li  Cors  and  Alexandre  of  Paruk  are 

(1823,   37th  ed.  in  1844). — Among  the  best  fair  specimens  of  these  compositions.  TheTver* 

aictionaries   are    those    by  Robert    Stephens  succeeded  by  satirical  and  idlegoric^al  po«isd  •:/ 

(French  and  Latin,  1632) ;  Aitnar  de  R&nyonnet  eaually  vast  proportions,  some  of  which  er.j>\T. 

(1606)  ;   Richelet  (Geneva,   1680)  ;   Furetiere  ea  unparalleled  popularity,  such  as  th«  LobJax 

(1690) ;  Menage  (1694) ;  the  famous  dictionary  du  renard  and  the  Koman  dt  la  rot.    The/i! .%- 

of  Tr^voux,  so  named  from  its  place  of  publico-  aux  and  several  lighter  kinds  of  poetry  culti  va:r-i 

tion  (1704) ;  that  of  Boiste  and  Bostien  (1800) ;  by  the  troubadours  were  also  treated  by  tb«  tr<  c- 

Roquefort (1829) ;  Raymond;  Londais;  Charles  veres,  who  found  here  an  ^propriatc  fieM  f<r 

'^odX^T^  Dietionnaire  critique  des  dietionnairei  their  ingenuity  and  ready  wit.  Among  those  tL^ 

2808),  Dietionnaire  raisonne  det  dijfieultc*  de  la  excelled  in  the/abliaux  was  Rutebeu^  who  livtd 

ngue  Franfai»e  (1818),  Dietionnaire  dee  ono-  in  the  reign  of  St.  Louis.    Songs  were  ni»t  d^ 

matopiee  (1828) ;  Laveaux  (1820) ;  Bescherelle,  lected,  and  those  of  the  illustrious  AbelanI  in  th« 

Dietionnaire  national^  ou  grand  dietionnaire  12th  century  er\joyed  a  wide  popularity.    Aai«^ 

critique delalangueFran^iee {2 \o\s,A^^'^)i  froy  le  Bastard,  Quesnes  of  Ifethune,  and  \\t 

Noel  and  Carpentier.  PAt^^ieiVanf^iM^  (1831).  castellan  of  Coucy  were  among  his  mo9t  dt«uc- 

The  Dietionnaire  ae  Vaeadimie  Franfaise  was  guished  succesjiors.    Thiboud,  count  of  Choa- 

published  in  2  vob.  fol.  in  1694,  and  has  been  pagne  and  king  of  Xavarre,  defterrea  to  be  par- 

aeveral  times  reprinted.     A  Dietionnaire  Ait-  ticularly  mentioned;   the  songs  in  which  Im 

tarigue  de  la  langue  PranfaiUy  on  a  grand  scale,  alludes  to  his  love  for  Queen  RUnche  of  Ca^:il<« 

is  in  preparation  by  the  academy.  Girard(1718),  the  mother  of  King  Louis  IX.  of  France,  hh^e 

Beauz^  (1769),  Koubaud  (1785),  and  Guizot  given  him  historical  celebrity.    The  prwea«  ^'f 

(1809-^22)  have  written  on  French  synonyroca,  prose  was  slower  than  that  of  poultry,  bat  t^ 

and  J.  B.  F.  Gerusez  (1801),  Henry  (1811),  13th  century  presents  tm-o  specimens  shoving 

Villemain,  in  the  dictionary  of  the  academy,  J.  that  it  liad  already  acquirea  a  certain  decrM 

J.  Ampere  (1841X  F.  Wey  (18^),  and  F.  Gcnin  of  power  and  polish ;  these  are  the  "'  Chn«ir!« 

(1845-'6X  on  the  history  of  the  French  language,  of  the  Conquest  of  Constant inonlc,**  hy  Vil>- 

— ^Tlie  earliest  literature  of  France  is  that  of  hardouin  (1207),  remarkable  for  W  solJier-lIke 

the  trout^ree   and   troabadoun.    The    latter,  simplicity  and  straigbt-forwordneM,  and  the 

who  wrote  in  tlie  soft  southecn /an^u^  (Toe,  pro-  Metnoiree  in  which  Joinville,   with  vlnaiac 

dnce<l  short  lyrical  effusions  on  love  or  matters  artlessness,  tells  us  of  the  heroic  d«y>ds  obi 

of  trifling  import ;  they  flourished  most  during  private  virtuea  of  the  good  king  Lonis  UL  Tht 


FRANCE  (Lakquagx  ahd  Liikbatuxi)  679 

whole  literatore  of  the  14th  century  cnlminates  forms  and  elements  into  the  vemacnlar  was 
in  Froissart^s  *^  Chronicles,"  which  remain  the  far  from  attaining  the  fortunate  results  he  an- 
model  of  this  kind  of  writing,  and  present  the  ticipated ;  in  spite  of  all  his  defects,  howerer, 
liveliest  pictures  of  society  and  manners  during  he  contributed  to  elevate  the  tone  of  Frencn 
that  period  of  war  and  gallant  emprise.  Christine  poetry.    In  the  17Ui  century,  Malherbe  appear- 
de  Pisan  and  Al^  Chartier  deserve  notice  for  ed  as  the  reformer,  or  rather  the  regulator,  of 
their  intelligent  efforts  toward  the  improve-  poetry ;  a  man  of  fastidious  taste  and  meagre 
ment    of  prose.    This  improvement  is  fully  im^nation,  he  ridiculed  the  artistic  luxuriance 
illustrated  m  the  15th  century  by  the  Memoira  of  Honsard,  and  introduced  in  its  stead  a  style 
of  Comines,  which  presents  a  striking  deline-  of  ^ammatical  correctness  and  dry  elegance 
ation  of  the  characters  of  Louis  XI.  and  his  con-  which  sometimes  reached  pomposity,  but  was 
temporaries.    Already  a  popular  poet,  Villon,  destructive  of  feeling  ana  enthusiasm.    His 
a  strange  compound  of  villainy  and  inspira-  polishing  process  was  nevertheless  of  great  ser- 
tion,  had  given  evidence  in  his  poems  that  vice  to  poetical  language ;  and  his  odes,  stanzas, 
French  verse  was  able  to  reach  a  nigh  sphere  and  other  pieces  present  many  beautiful  lines, 
of  excellence ;  and  a  princely  songster,  Duke  which  are  frequently  quoted.    Balzac  devoted 
Charles  of  Orleans,  that  it  had  lost  nothing  of  his  attention  to  the  improvement  of  prose ;  and 
its  gracefulness.    The  revival  of  antique  learn-  his  semi-philosophical  works,  his  epistles  espe- 
ing  and  the  religious  reformation  exercised  a  cially,  were  valuable  at  the  time  as  models  of 
powerful  influence  on  French  literature  in  the  careful  and  harmonious  rhetoric.    Such  were 
16th  century.  Its  principal  characteristics  being  also,  notwithstanding  their  mannerism,  the  fH- 
freedom  of  thought  and  variety  of  style,  writers  volous  but  witty  letters  of  his  friend  Voiture. 
cannot  be  judged  according  to  a  single  standard.  Both  were  great  favorites  at  the  hotel  Ram- 
In  originality  Rabelais  and  Montaigne  are  en-  bouiUet,  the  headauarters  of  a  society  of  wits 
titled  to  the  first  rank.    The  former,  whom  and  fashionable  laaies,  who  acted  as  arbiters  of 
Lord  Bacon  styled  "  the  great  jester  of  France,*'  good  taste  and  elegance ;  many  social  reunions 
was  a  profound  scholar,  physician,  and  philoso-  were  now  in  reality  literary  clubs,  which  gave 
pher,  and  contented  himself  with  the  renown  particular  attention  to  philological  propriety; 
of  a  profane  humorist.     His  nondescript  ro-  one  of  these,  receiving  from  Cardinal  Richelieu 
mance,  the  **  History  of  Gargantua  and  Panta-  the  title  of  the  French  academy,  was  especially 
grueV  is  filled  with  strange  tales,  wild  notions,  appointed  **  to  establish  certain  rules  for  the 
amusing  quibbles,  and  gross  buffooneries,  inter-  French  language,  and  make  it  not  only  elesrant, 
gpersed  with  a  seasoning  of  good  sense,  sound  but  capable  of  treating  all  matters  of  art  and  sci- 
philosophy,  and  keen  raUlery.    A  more  refined  ence.      Leaving  mere  disquisitions  about  words 
class  of  readers  are  attracted  by  Montaigne,  to  such  societies  and  to  second-rate  writers, 
whose  **  Essays,"  one  of  the  standards  of  French  three  great  men  now  enriched  French  litera- 
literature,  are  a  series  of  free  and  familiar  disqui-  ture  with  works  in  which  style  was  only  a  me- 
fiitions  upon  every  subject,  couched  in  the  most  dium  for    conveying  original  conceptions  or 
easy  and  winning  style,  but  sceptical  through-  powerful  thoughts.    Pierre  Corneille  brought 
out.    His  views  were  partly  reauced  to  a  sys-  tragedy  to  a  degree  of  grandeur  which  has  not 
tern  by  his  friend  and  disciple,  Charron,  in  his  been  surpassed ;  Le  Ctd,  ffarace^  Cinna,  and 
treatises  De  la  sagesse  ana  Det  troia  vMUs,  PolyeucU  are  still  the  objects  of  admiration; 
Meanwhile  the  reformation  had  been  vindi-  wh^e  PompSs^Hodogune,  MeraelittM^Don  Sanche^ 
cated  by  Calvin  in  his  In»titution  de  la  re-  and  Nieomede^  though  less  perfect,  abound  with 
ligion  Chretienne^  a  masterly  piece  of  writ-  striking  beauties.     Descartes,  in  his  DUecun 
ing,  which  afforded  convincing  evidence  that  $ur  la  methode^  showed  that  the  French  vemac- 
French   prose    had    now    acquired    strength  ular  was  now  equal  to  the  highest  philosophical 
and  gravity  enough  to  become  a  fit  vehicle  of  subjects;  and  Pascal,  \nh\B Lettres provindaUij 
religious  eloquence ;  and,  later  in  the  century,  in  which  comic  pleasantry  and  venement  elo- 
an  admirable  pamphlet,  the  Satire  MenippUj  quence    are  happily  blended,  first  formed  a 
and  some  speeches  of  Chancellor  L^H6pital.  standard  of  French  prose.    Such  was  the  open- 
proved  it  to  be  flexible  enough  for  political  ing  of  the  splendid  literary  epoch  whicn  is 
purposes.    Its  capacity  for  lighter  subjects  had  generally  styled  the  age  of  Louis  XIV;   and 
been  previously  aemonstrated  by  the  tales  of  following  it  came  a  galaxy  of  superior  minds, 
Margaret  of  Navarre.    Amyot  invested  it  with  who,  under  the  royal  patronage,  applied  them- 
new  graces  by  happily  blending  Grecian  and  selves  to  perfecting  every  branch  of  literature. 
Frencn  beauties  in  his  translation  of  Plutarch's  Sacred  eloquence  was  perhaps  the  most  success- 
*'  lives."    In  poetry  this  period  was  less  success-  fully  cultivated,  and  the  pulpit  was  adorned  by 
ful.    Clement  Marot  had  indeed  exhibited  ele-  the  funeral  orations  of  Bossuet,  full  of  pathos 
gance,  grace,  and  wit,  in  his  epistles,  epigrams,  and  religious  melancholy ;  those  of  Fl^chier,  so 
and  elegies ;  hut  he  had  merely  given  perfec-  remarkable  for  artistic  finish ;  the  sermons  of 
tion  to  inferior  branches  of  poetry.    Ronsard    Bourdaloue,  the  powerful  dialectician,  and  those 
attempted  a  higher  fiight ;  he  tried  to  invest    of  Massillon,  the  most  exquisite  and  most  at- 
I^ncn  verse  with  that  power,  variety,  and  in-  tractive  of  preachers.    Tragedy,  in  the  hands 
spiration  which  he  so  much  admired  in  Greek  of  Racine,  lost  perhaps  a  little  of  the  imposing 
metres ;  but  his  violent  introduction  of  foreign    character  with  which  it  had  been  invested  by 


OorneO^  Iratteoned  with  the  most  tovMliiiig  his  Diteomn  mtr  nitMm 

«f  honuui  feelingii  clothed  in  a  langiiage  imi^  all  thep—rioniteTivaci^of  theoimjari 

proachable  for  correctneai,  elegance,  and  sweet-  slon  in  his  AtMra  dl0  wmimtUm  dm  fffmm 

nesa.    Andromofue.  Ipki^Ms^  wad  Pkidr§  r^  proimtantm.    The  personal  Jfianirai  ef  Ctofl> 


n^  ns  of  the  prodnotions  of  ancient  Oreece.    nal  da  Bets  ooneemiBg  the  wan  ef  the 
while  AthaUe  brings  on  the  ^tage  in  a  s^le  of    m  amonff  the  mastemeoea  of  tadliar  Ustof, 


adequate  splendor  an  episode  of  the  Jewish  Hamilton^  MSmokw  m  sails  Js 

annals.    Comedj,  which  had  been  soooessftdlT  mn  of  inrightlj  narratlTa^  hringa  «a  to  IMtsr 

attempted  b/ Ck>meille  in  £s  aMiOMir,  reached  kinds  of  Itteratora.    Thenovebof]bsa.aaL^ 

Us  hi^est  pitch  with  Hdidre,  a  most  origi-  fiiyette,  ZaUds  toA  lA  primemm  d§  CUass» 

nal  ddinestor  of  human  character;  his  master-  sent  a  fiuthftd  thoogh  aomewhafc  Ideal 

pieces,  Le  muantkrope^  TarU^e,  V<nmr^  and  of  eleoant  sodefeTt  into  whkh  wa  pi 

Ilis  j^swnstsasaatM^  are  profonnd  and  hnmor-  throogh  the  fionuiar  letters  writteii  hj 

oua  ereatioos.    ViotUiMmmriMuAVidoUdM  de  SeVignA  to  her  danghter  and  fHanda;  hi 

fgmmM^  which  are  scarcely  inferior,  ^a^Ajf-  §uA  these  letters,  which  nafer  were  ~ 

Ctmis  a  licentioos  but  exoeedinglj  attractive  fcr  publication,  ramidi  na  with  a 

eomedj,  Zs/Mlla  is  i^isrr»^  a  stnmge  mixture  and  liv^dy  panorama  of  the  age.     Wi 

of  the  comic  and  dramatio  elements,  scTeral  JWsMifiM^  wUdi  la.  written  in  an  apl 

ISyces,  Le  JwutjmoU  pentilhoimM  and  jLs  atgladis  and  can  sosroslj  he  ranked  among  noval^ars^ 

imaffiMioire^  afford  abundant  OTidence  of  Ho-  ated  a  deep  sensation  towttd  tM  and  af  ttn 

UAre^s  flexibili^  of  genius  no  less  than  of  his  17th  esntary,  heiu  eonsUsnd  an  Indhadasn* 

power  of  obserration.  After  him,  but  at  a  great  sore  of  Louis  XIV.,  gidaad  great  popidari|f 

distance  in  point  of  merits  Begnard,  Danconrt|  on  the  same  account  dmng  the  ^  " 

and  Dufresnj  furnished  the  French  stsge  with  and  deserTcdly  kespa  a  high  lanl 

light  comic  sketches.    Fable,  through  La  Fon*  atsndard  woiks;  it  marka  the  OiunnlSa  | 

tame^a  senius,  was  but  comedj  on  a  smaller  of  a  period  of  pure  UtafaiTj^oi7.r— wa 

scale;  this  inunitaUe  poet,  whose  popularitj  la  leadi  the  age  that  has  been  ealfedpUoai 

uariTalled  aa  it  is  unfailing,  had  presented  in  jwrsaeaWiiass.  A  number  of  free  thiuEan^i 

hia  collection  of  fiibles^  a  drama  ma  hundred  whom  Bajls^  the  author  of  tta  great  II 

acts,?  animated  by  touthftilnQss  and  keenness  of  nmin  ilitfrrfpfr  it  thfi  leadhig  npiri^andasma 

obaerration,tranqMrencyofnarratiTe,depthof  lieentkms  poets^  Chanllea  espaemQy;  laid  hssa 

emotion,  and  humorous  fancy.    Host  of  these  peTiug  the  way  fbr  the  eoming  piinnanphsni 

<|ualities  are  also  found  in  his  miscellaneoua  The  17th  centnrj  had  been  on  the  whole  a  la- 

poems,  and  espedaUy  in  his  ^Talee,"  whose  Ugioosage;  the  18th  was  eminently  an  agsef 

licentiousness,  however,  renders  them  unfit  for  scepticism  and  infidelitr.  Literature,  which  bad 

general  reading.    Didactic,  philoeophical,  and  been  a  pare  art,  seekug  for  ideal  beauty  sad 

satirical  poetry,  that  is,  poetry  unaer  its  less  reli^ous  truths,  now  U^ame  a  means  of  coe- 

poetical  forms,  liad  as  their  representative  Boi-  reying  bold  opinions  or  asaudting  timo-hoooced 

leau,  who  finished  the  work  previously  under-  creeds  and  institutions.    The  whole  age  was 

taken  by  Halherbe,  and  was  indeed  the  Ar-  swayed  by  four  men  of  genius,  Hontesqnien,  Vol- 

istarchus  of  his  time ;  his  Art  poitique^  his  taire,  J.  J.  Roumeau,  imd  Bi^on,  who  all  cxsr- 

jS^ru,  his  Satire*^  as  well  as  bis  heroico-comio  cised  a  powerful  influence  over  their  cooto^ 

poem  Le  lutrin,  are  remarkable  for  good  sense  poraries,  while  each  acted  a  difitfent  part  in  the 

and  symmetry ;   thev  abound  with  wise  max-  general  straggle.    Hontesqnieu,  a  wnler  of  sa- 

ims  and  common  truths  finely  expressed,  bat  are  usual  scope  of  mind,  combining  a  mairuKas 

entirely  deficient  in  poetical  enthusiasm.   Mond  Tigor  with  great  brilliancy  of  styU,  eommeaced 

philosophy  was  not  neglected;   Malebranche,  his  career  bv  publishing  Z«i  lettrm  P^rmmm,^ 

the  disciple  of  Descartes,  the  sagacious  and  ima-  satire  on  French  manners,  goTcmment^  sad 

nnative  author  of  La  recherche  de  la  tSrite^  even  religion.    IIo  illastrated  tlie  philosupby 

Bossuet  in  his  Connamanee  de  Dieu  et  de  •oi-  of  history  in  his  CanndiratwnM  n^r  la  ^rmminr 

mime^  F^n^lon  in  his  treatise  De  VexUtenee  de  et  la  dkeadence  dee  Bamaim,  a  masterpiece  of 

Dieu^  and  f  ascal  in  fragments  which  have  been  historical  style,  and  finally  produced  the  &pni 


wtthvhkh 

inspired  byiustice  and  humanitT.* 

his  SenUneee  et  maximee  wrote  a  libel  upon  Vol  taire,  the  tracpersomficat  ton  of  his  ace.  p*^ 
mankind,  and  La  Bruydre  in  hiii  t7<iracr^re«  drew  tean  in  disposition  as  well  as  in  talents,  wm 
Tivid  and  amusing  sketches  of  human  charac-  destined  by  his  faults  no  ]em  than  his  gnud  qnsh- 
ters,  manners,  and  oddities. — History,  which  ties  to  become  at  once  a  leader ;  andthepovcr 
under  the  pens  of  St  R^  and  Vertot  was  but  he  seized  when  still  young,  he  prea«nrcd  unta- 
a&int  imitation  of  the  style  of  ancient  historians,  piured  to  his  last  moment  He  was  ftir  half  a  oca- 
was  treated  with  some  energy  by  M^zeray  in  tury  the  king  of  public  opinion.  UiswondcrM 
his  HUtoire  de  Franee,  and  with  in^nnity  by  versatility  enabled  him  to  treat  sococsafuUj  sl- 
Fleury  in  his  HUtoire  de  Vigliee^  a  treasure  of  most  all  branches  of  literature;  as  a  tragic  poet  be 
good  laith  and  leaminff ;  while  Bossuet  clothed  takes  rank  by  the  side  of  Comeille  and  ICariae ; 
tt  with  an  imposmg  character  of  eloquence  hi  his  tragedieS|  Mer^pe^  Zri rs^  Mmkmmt^  Akus 


'         FBANOE  (JUxQVjjm  axd  LDBBAnnni)  681 

fto^  combine  pathos  with  dramatic  interest  and  of  Paul  et  VirginU;  Dnclos,  Iflle.  Delannaj^ 
liveliness  of  style;  hxADUcounturVhcmmeBBA  and  8t  Simon,  whose  J/<$m^>e«  bare  gained  a 
other  philosophical  poems  are  to  be  classed  deserved  celebrity;  Barth^lemy,  who  wrote  the 
with  tnose  of  Pope;  while  his  miscellaneona  Vaycige  du  jeune  Anaeharns  en  Gr^;  Rul- 
effosions,  as  numerous  as  they  are  sprightly,  hi^re,  a  historical  essayist ;  Provost,  who  pro- 
raise  him  in  this  sphere  above  any  other  French  duced  the  novel  of  Manan  Leteaut ;  Mar* 
rt  The  perspicuity  of  his  mind  appears  montel,  the  anthor  of  BUuaire;  and  Lebrun, 
his  Dictumnaire  philo9aphique  and  other  the  lyric  poet  The  age  was  not  poetical; 
philosophical  works ;  and  his  wit  in  his  novels,  poetry  had  d^;enerated  kito  verse-making,  and 
which,  notwithstanding  their  licentiousness,  are  the  verse-makers,  in  imitation  of  Thomson's 
modds  of  their  kind.  His  various  books  on  his*  **•  Seasons,"  indulged  in  all  sorts  of  descriptive 
lory,  Charlef  XIL^  Le  Hiele  de  LouU  XIV.y  pieces.  Delille,  tLe  most  skilful  of  them,  gained 
VttMi  iur  le$  nuBun  da  natumi.  are  still  read  a  reputation  by  translating,  not  without  a  cer« 
wiUi  profit  and  pleasure,  while  his  bulky  cor-  tain  degree  of  accuracy,  the  ^^Georgics^'  of  Yir- 
respondence  is  scarcely  excelled  by  that  of  Mme.  gil.  Toward  the  end  of  the  centuiy  imitation 
de  S(6vign6.  If  Voltaire  may  be  said  to  have  was  the  order  of  the  day,  and  the  only  poet 
been  the  master  ofminds,  J.  J.  Rousseau  was  the  who  was  gifted  with  originality,  Andrl  Gh^- 
inaster  of  souls.  His  pasuonate  eloquence  con-  nier,  died  on  the  scaffold  before  his  best  effa- 
quered  the  coldest  and  even  the  most  prejudiced ;  sions  were  published. — ^Neither  the  revolution 
doquence  indeed  is  the  mainspring  of  all  his  nor  the  empire  was  favorable  to  literature.  Some 
works.  As  a  prose  writer  he  has  no  superior,  tragedies  after  the  classical  pattern,  among  which 
scarcely  an  equd  among  the  most  perfect  of  his  those  of  Joseph  Gh^nier  may  be  mentioned,  a 
rivals.  ISSs^r^essAjy  Diicoun  centre  la  iciencei  few  light  comedies,  beside  novels  and  short 
€t  U$  arU,  which  he  wrote  when  88  years  of  age,  poems,  were  not  sufficient  to  relieve  the  general 
was  a  declaration  of  war  against  civilization ;  Uie  dulness.  Mme.  de  StaSl  and  Gh&teaubriand  were 
second,  Origine  de  Vinkgaliteparmi  lee  hommeiy  the  forerunners  of  a  revival,  but  the  improve* 
was  an  attack  upon  the  existing  social  order,  ment  was  perhaps  owing  less  to  the  Corinne 
In  his  £miU  he  drew  a  visionary  plan  of  edu*  and  VAlUmagne  of  the  former,  Le  genie,  du 
cation,  and  in  hb  Control  eoeial  proclaimed  the  Chrietianieme  and  Lee  martyr*  of  the  latter,  than 
prindples  of  popular  sovereignty  and  universal  to  the  influence  upon  the  public  taste  of  the  mas- 
anffirage.  His  JSfbtteelle  HetoUe  is  a  novel  in  terpiecesofEnglish  and  Grerman  literature,  which 
which  love  and  paradox  are  blended  together,  found  more  and  more  admirers  in  France.  The 
while  his  Can/eeeume  excited  a  mixed  feeling  romantic  school  now  inaugurated  a  new  era. 
of  sympathy  and  disgust  Buffon  occupied  a  Through  the  exertions  of  many  young  and  ori* 
less  agitated  sphere,  devoting  his  labors  to  the  gind  writers  new  life  was  infused  into  nearly 
description  of  nature ;  and  his  great  Eietoire  every  branch  of  literature,  poetry,  history,  phi- 
naturelle  is  a  scientific  and  literary  monument,  losophy,  and  the  drama.  An  animated  contro- 
which  time  can  scarcely  injure.  Diderot,  a  versy  was  maintained  in  pamphlets  and  peri- 
passionate  and  incorrect  writer,  and  D*Alem-  odicals,  between  the  supporters  of  reform  and 
Dert,  a  great  geometer,  founded  the  BneyUh  the  adherents  of  the  classical  school ;  but  the 
pidie^  a  vast  review  of  human  knowledge,  often  contest  reached  its  utmost  Airy  when  Alexan- 
threatening  to  social  order,  always  hostile  to  dre  Dumas,  Victor  Hugo,  Alfred  de  Yigny, 
religion.  Helvetius  in  his  treatise  De  Veeprit^  Fr^d^ric  Souli^  and  others  produced  on  the 
D*Holbach  in  his  Syethne  de  la  nature,  La-  stage  dramas  fhmned  according  to  their  own 
mettrie  in  his  ffomme-^nachine,  and  Raynal  in  ideas  of  the  Shakesperian  style.  The  perform- 
bis  JSRtUnre  phUoeopKigue  dee  deux  Indee,  far  ances  of  these  dramas  were  indeed  regular  bat- 
exoeeded  the  destructive  doctrines  of  the  ency-  ties  between  the  opposing  literary  parties ;  and 
dopflddists ;  while  other  writers,  such  as  the  vir*  it  was  only  at  the  end  of  several  years  that  the 
tnons  Vauvenargues,  Gondillac,  a  most  perspicn-  younger  body  of  combatants  came  out  victori- 
ous analjrtic  philosopher,  Mably,  a  bold  publicist,  ous.  Among  the  plays  which  were  thus  received 
and  Gondoroet,  who  wrote  afterward  an  Eeguiaee  with  both  enthusiasm  and  censure,  Henri  III, 
dm progrh  de  Veaprit  humain^  mostly  kept  on  the  et  ea  eour^  Antony,  TeretOy  and  AngiU,  by  Duma^ 
aide  ^moderation.  The  various  branches  of  lit*  Semani,  Marion  Delorme,  Luer^  Borgia,  and 
eratnre  connected  with  philosophy  were  the  most  Le  roi  s^amuee,  by  Hugo,  are  still  remembered ; 
pfodnctive ;  but  the  others  were  far  from  being  while  numberless  pieces,  successful  at  the  time, 
neglected,  as  appears  from  the  following  names  have  since  fallen  into  complete  oblivion.  In  fact, 
whidi  we  take  almost  at  random.  Gr6billon  and  the  only  gain  resulting  from  this  protracted  dis- 
Dncia,  both  tragic  poets  appealing,  the  former  to  pute  was  the  abrogation  of  the  obsolete  rules 
terror,  the  latter  to  sympathy ;  Gilbert,  a  thor-  which  had  so  long  regulated  the  French  stage. 
oagh  enemy  of  Voltaire  and  the  encyclopodists,  A  reactionary  movement  was  attempted  when 
and  a  satirist  of  uncommon  power ;  Le  Sage,  the  the  illustrious  actress  Rachel  appearea  with  such 
anthor  of  Oil  Bias,  the  most  perfect  novel  of  the  striking  effect  in  the  tragedies  of  Gomeille  and 
age,  and  of  Turearet^  perhaps  the  best  comedy  Racine.  Ponsard  and  Latour  St.  Ybars  returned 
next  to  those  of  Molidre ;  Beanmarchais,  whose  to  the  old  form  of  tragedy ;  but  the  Lucrke  of 
Barbier  de  SetiUe  was  as  it  were  the  signal  of  the  former  and  the  Ftr^tnis  of  the  latter  en* 
rerolntioa ;  Bemardin  de  St  Pierre,  the  anthiv  Joyed  but  ephemeral  soooeas,  while  the  ^  School 


IBAMCB  giAM—iAtti  SMB  IdMMmummd 


dTGoodSeiiM^^MtheadhflniitioftliSsiiioTe*  Umm  naitan  dTBoval^wiitbf  w» 

iiieQtwerestTled,reckoiiioo]yA  few  light  oocii*  aientloa  tb^  eontempwrarie^  Mm.  Gharl« 

•^M  bj  £inlle  Angler.    Tbie  scbool  bad  been  Bejbrad,  lime,  linile  de  QiniiJBa*  Thtobie 

preceded  in  tlietngio  line  l^OaetmbrDelaTigiie^  Qialier»  Jnlee  Sandeea,  Enile  Soawm^nd 

whagradaallydeviatingfromtbeclaiHcelmodeli  E6?al,  and  If^.    A  new  genwalioa  alj^^oty* 

attempted  to  reconcile  the  daado  and  the  ro-  telkfabaa  beea  liring within  the  laal  t&^mts 

mantio  mtems,  in  bis  iftirtfio /bZMffv^  Zii  #«p  whcaepowenareaoareeljtobaooanaiadwtt 

jfbalf  d^Edauard^  and  LoutM  XI.    Meanwhile  theb  pgedeeemoti^  bat  who^  aaiertlielti^  am 

Eogtoe  Scribe,  who  never  gave  a  thought  to  Bot  devoid  of  taleoL    Someof  Hieie  beloag ta 

thia  literary  quarrel,  was  day  by  di^  increaring  what  tl^j  themeelTea  oaU  the  "laaliit  aemL* 

hb  enormooa  stock  of  snccesifol  eome^e%  or  Th^  are  Hemi  Mmgefi  Alataadra  Damas  J0| 

rather  yaodevillee,  on  a  larger  or  amaDer  eoale.  Ohami^aory,  Smeit  Feydeao^  aa4   Owiam 

Kovela,  which,  with  the  exception  of  De^ngn^'a  Flanbert    Octave  FeoQlel^  the 

6ibi^-itf^  had  been  scarcely  noticed  during  the  thor  of  Xa  f%wam  ifwi^j/imM  \ 

eroitement  of  dramatic  refonn,  became  the  rage  and  Kdmond  About  deaarve  to  ba 

aa  soon  as  this  was  on  the  point  of  being  accom-  Boetry  is  &r  from  being  as  popular  iftnaaeam 

plished.     George  Sand  (Mme.  Dndevant)  ae*  the  noval|  and  poeta  have  baeaaadaivatiBvmj 

qnked  repatation  bv  her  Indiana  (188SX  and  ali|^itly  regarded  by  the  poblia;  botlbmroftfam 

anbaeaoently  established  her  claim  to  be  consid-  have  soeh  claims  to  admiratkMa  aa  l»  ba  dmr 

erod  Uie  most  admirable  sty  Ibt  of  her  time  by  even  to  the  least  poetical  mhida;  thaaaaraB^ 

her  snbaeqnent  performances,  FUmtta^  IMa^  ranger,  Lamartine,  Yiotor  HaA  and  AUMdi 

Jao^ym^  Andri,  Smon^  ifin^proi,  Ccnuieh^  L$  Mnsset    The  fiiit  named,  wno  vrota  netting 

CMRpi,  La  wkire  au  diabU^  La  p$iU4  FadUU^  bat  songs,  is  at  once  the  most  national  and  the 

LaJUUuU^wadL'homMedsnsii^    Alexandre  moatpopalarofall,aswaDasthabaaikBef«nia 

Dumas,  the  inexhanstible  story-tdQer,  has  won  fweigncoaBtries.  iyirbnngbsnng  mabaisaissn 

nneqaalled  popolarity  by  his  nvii  aMMfna-  mnrnm In  rrsnnn,  tbnrn  is  nnlj  nna  nliu  dassi  iis 

iairm^Vinftaniapr^LemeamUdiBra^dmmtif  to  be  mentioned  after  Btangar ;  thia  is  Flsna 

£e  eonUe  d§  MonU  Ckri$to^  JoMphBalmma^Lt  Dopont,  whc^  however,  stmida  hat  bdhini  Mi 

€QUier  ds  la  fvtae,  Ange  Fitou^  La  eamtnm  d$  master.    LaniarUne^  whose  eflbriona  piasmt a 


Okamf^  and  other  recitals,  in  all  filling  ban-  happy  oombination  of  hannour, 

dredsof  volnmesL    l&ig^neSoe  also  had  his  days  ing,  and  relij^oas  sentiment,  Is  tha 

of  glory,  when  Le$  mytUrm  d$  FarU,  Le  Jw  ite  of  all  nmids  that  iadina  to 

arraat,  and  Martin  Venfant  trouti  depicted  with  and  reverie.    His  MHitatimtt^ 

C^aringcolorstheseoretand  most  shttnefol  mis*  BeeimlUmmkU  pojtifum^  his  jftedpm  and  CiaMt 

eries  of  society.    Honors  de  Balzac  nndertook  d^un  ange^  have  left  many  vestiges  in  the  ncah 

topresent^UDdertlietitleofZacomec^ttfAtfmatiie,  ory  of  his  contemporaries,  and  are  still  read. 

a  oaguerreotype  of  every  aspect  of  French  so-  admired,  and  learned  by  heart.    Ilia  fricod  sad 

ciety  daring  his  time ;  this  immense  work  was  rival,  Victor  Hngo,  perhaps  his  sapcrior  is 

interropted  by  death ;  but  some  parts  of  it,  com-  point  of  strength  and  variety,  thoogh  not  gifted 

plete  in  themselves,  are  invaluable  for  depth  with  the  same  graceful  charm,  has  written  moee 

of  observation  and  acutencss  of  delineation  :  voluminously.  His  Oda  tt  haUadeB^  OrietUalm, 

Euqenie  Orandet^  Le  F^re  Goriot^  La  recherche  FeuiUee  d'automne^  ChanU  du  enpuseuU,  Veit 

de  raheoluy  Le  eontrat  de  mariage^  JHodeeU  Mi-  inUrieuree^  Lu  ragcne  et  le$  ombrwa^  and  Cm- 

gnon^  Lee  parene  pautree^  Lee  ecenee  de  la  tie  temvlatiane^  are  poems  of  sentiment  and  ^ncy ; 

pritee^  dec     Fr^d^rio  Souli6,  who,  although  his  while  his  Chdtimente  are  bitter  aatires  agai&rt 

popularity  b  not  as  great,  is  nearly  the  equal  Napoleon  HI.  and  his  aasociatesL     Alfred  dt 

of  those  we  have  iust  named,  evinced  uncom-  Musset,  the  most  independent^  and  perhaps  tht 

mon  talents  in  his  historical  novels  of  southern  most  original,  of  the  four,  has  pabii^edcaly 

France,  among  which  Le  tUomte  de  Beeiert  spe-  two  smaU  volumes  under  the  modest  sppeSa- 

dally  deserves  to  be  mentioued.    Still  greater  Uon  of  Foieiee,    Hb  £une  among  the  littfiry 

power  characterized  hb  pictures  from  the  sociid  ftatemity  was  great  from  hia  first  appearaocc; 

world :  La  lionne,  La  eomteese  de  Montr  ion^  Di-  hb  popularity  is  still  gaining  groonoLbot  hai 

ems  etLouieeyLe  lion  amoureux,  andLeetnemoiree  scarcely  extended  beyond  the  limit*  of  Fi 

du  diable,    Alphonse  Karr  in  his  Soue  lee  til-  Among  the  many  other  poeta  Castmir 

leuhjMididquatorzeheureey  Oeneviite^  Clotilde^  vigne,  whose  MeaeenienAte  rivalled  fur  a  «■»«« 

and  numerous  short  tales,  has  given  unrivallea  the  success  of  Lainartine*a  Meditalimu^  sad 

specimens  of  good  sense,  fine  feeling,  and  genu-  Auguste  j&urbier,  the  nervooa  aathcr  of  ths 

ine  humor.    By  theori^nality,deUcacvofstyle,  /am5«t,  must  not  be  forgotten.     Of  the  mort 

and  charm  of  fancy  which  Alfred  de  Musset  dis-  recent  poets,  the  only  one  who  can  be  rlawril  in 

pUyed  in  his  nouteUee^  such  as  Frederic  et  Ber-  the  same  category  b  Victor  de  La  Prade.  wbost 

nerette^Emmeline^  Lee  deux  maitreuci^Le file  du  elegant  productions  have  been  rewanied  by 

Tifi^n,  and  ifimAJPiiMoa,  he  b  entitled  to  a  high  hb  election  to  the  French  academy. — Hbiorv 

rank  as  a  novelist.    Such  b  also  the  case  with  b  undoubtedly  the  most  snccea^fnl'  branch  ci 

Pros[>cr  MC*rimee,  whose  Chnmi4iue  du  tempe  modem  French  literature.    A  larger  aaiabcr 

du  CharUe  /X,  Colombo^  Le  taee  £tnuque^  and  of  valuable  historical  works  have  been  pobliah- 

Guillot  are  gems  of  their  kind.    Beside  ed  within  the  last  85  years  than  darmg  ai^ 


FRAKGE  (Lavouaoi  axd  LmaunrB)  ,68t 

other  equal  period  of  time;  and  the  taste  for  in  splendid  language  the  researches  of  others, 

soch  peifonnanoes  is  still  on  the  increase.    M.  Soch  is  not  the  case  with  A.  de  Yanlabelle,  the 

Goixot,  the  great  philosophical  expounder  of  so*  anthor  of  an  excellent  HuUnre  de  la  rttUKuraiian 

eial  iosdtutions  and  moral  revolations,  and  An-  (1814-1880),  deservinff  of  more  fame  than  it 

SLstit  Thierry,  the  artistic  historian  of  the  mid-  has  gained.  Great  historical  pnhlications  are 
e  ages,  stand  foremost  among  the  promoters  of  in  progress  under  ih»  patronage  of  the  govern* 
this  historical  movement  The  Enaii  tur  Vhie-  ment  or  of  learned  societies,  the  Collection  dee 
toire  de  France^  hy  the  former,  the  Hietaire  hiitariens  de  France^  and  the  Hutoire  litterair^ 
de  la  civilieati&n  en  Europe  et  en  France,  which  de  la  FSrance,  among  the  numher.  An  associa- 
lie  wrote  before  engaging  activelj  in  political  tion  of  professors  and  learned  men,  under  the 
life,  and  his  JBuioire  de  la  revolution  a* Angle-  direction  of  Dnruv,  are  publishing  a  Hiitoire 
terre,  which  he  has  completed  since  he  left  the  univenelle,  adapted  to  the  wants  of  the  general 
ministry  in  1848,  are  monuments  of  philosoph-  reader;  that  is,  a  series  of  special  histories  com- 
ical history ;  while  the  Lettree  eur  Vnistoire  de  pressed  within  the  limits  of  one  or  two  volumes, 
I^ance  of  Thierry,  his  Hietoire  de  la  eofumite  and  bringiug  the  annals  of  all  nations  to  about 
de  VAngleterre  par  lee  Normande,  his  ICecite  the  date  of  their  publication.  Yillemain  ought 
dee  tempi  Mh'otingiene,  and  his  ffietoire  de  la  to  be  reckoned  among  the  historians,  not  only 
formation  du  ticn-etat  en  FrancCy  present  a  for  his  Hietoire  de  CromweUy  but  above  all  for 
DBippj  combination  of  dramatic  narrative  and  the  admirable  pictures  of  men  and  society  in  his 
perspicuous  discrimination.  Three  writers  have  excellent  Tableaux  de  la  littirature  in  the  18th 
devoted  their  efforts  to  a  full  recital  of  the  gen-  century  and  the  middle  ages,  and  his  Soutenire 
eral  history  of  France:  Sismondi,  whose  vo-  eontemporaim.  As  a  lecturer  and  a  critic  no  man 
luminous  work  is  an  inexhaustible  mine  of  has  contributed  more  to  the  diffusion  of  enlarged 
knowledge  and  thorough  research ;  Michelet,  literary  doctrines,  healUiy  principles,  and  good 
who  combines  the  profound  learning  of  a  Bene-  taste. — ^Archssology  has  not  been  neglected,  aa 
dictine  monk  with  the  humorous  fancy  of  a  is  evidenced  by  the  works  of  Letrone,  Raoul- 
poet ;  and  last  but  not  least,  Henri  Martin,  who^  Rochette,  and  more  recently  by  those  of  Beul6y 
imder  the  impulse  of  patriotic  enthusiasm,  has  VAeropole  d^Athhue  and  Etudee  tur  le  Pehponr 
successfully  embodied  in  his  book  the  results  nise.  Ohampollion  threw  new  light  upon  an* 
of  modem  science,  while  infusing  into  its  pages  cient  Egypt  by  hb  system  of  decipheriug  hiero- 
a  lively  and  never  slackening  interest  De  Ba»  glyphics.  The  study  of  oriental  languages,  pro- 
rante,  after  giving  (1824)  in  his  ffittoire  dee  moted  by  Sylvestre  de  Sacy,  is  still  success- 
duee  de  Bourgogne  an  attractive  specimen  of  full^  carried  on,  the  most  recent  publications 
imrely  narrative  history,  has  recently  published  of  mterest  being  those  of  Ernest  Renan  upon 
histories  of  the  French  convention  and  of  the  di*  the  Semitic  languages.  The  works  of  Abel  de 
rectory,  in  which  his  monarchical  predilections  BSmusat  have  been  valuable  contributions  to  the 
are  strongly  apparent  The  revolutionary  period  occidental  knowledge  of  the  Chinese  literature. 
baa  engaged  the  attention  of  many  historians,  — ^Moral  philosophy  was  brought  back  to  spir- 
amongwhom  the  most  prominent  are  Thiers,  itualistpnnciples  by  the  natural  reaction  against 
Hignet,  Michelet,  and  Loub  Blanc.  The  first  the  materialism  of  the  preceding  age.  Thia 
of  the  four,  by  his  Hittoire  de  la  rholution^  at  revolution,  prepared  by  Iloyer-Oollard,  Maine 
once  gained  a  well-deserved  popularity,  which  de  Biran,  and  others,  has  been  accomplished  by 

rve  him  an  introduction  into  political  life ;  he  Yictor  Cousin  and  his  disciples,  who,  under  the 

DOW  completing  his  Hietoire  du  eoneulat  et  name  of  eclectism,  unfuriea  the  banner  of  spir* 

da  Vempire,  which  places  him  in  a  still  hi^er  itualiam.    The  eloquent  lectures  which  Cousin 

rank  as  a  writer  and  publicist    The  histories  delivered  at  the  Sorbonne  exercised  a  powerful 

of  IGehelet  and  Louis  Blanc  are  marked  with  influence  over  the  rising  generation ;  thev  have 

■trong  democratic  opinions;  while  that  of  Mi-  been  printed,  with  corrections  and  considerable 

gnet^  a  vivid  yet  substantial  sketch,  bears  the  addiUons,  nnder  the  title  of  Coun  de  philoeo* 

unpress   of  philosophical   impartiality.    This  pMe^FrcfgmentedephiloiophieyDuvraiyd^ 

wiiter  has  also  produced  several  miscellaneous  et  du  hten.    Joumt)Y  and  Daniiron,  who  ao- 

hiatorical  works  which  are  highly  valued :  Hie-  Imowledged  him  as  their  master,  contributed  to 

inre  de  Marie  Stuart^  Charlee  Quint,  eon  oMt-  the  progress  of  the  same  doctrines,  which  are  still 

caiion  et  ea  mort,  Philippe  11.  et  Antonio  Peree^  advocated  by  Cousin's  younger  disciples,  £mile 

and  a  large  compilation,  uietoire  dee  nigotiatione  Baisset,  Amld^  Jacques  Yacherot,  raul  Janet^ 

rslsfioei  d  la  euecaeion  d?Etpagne,  containing  Adolphe  Frank,  and  Jules  Simon.    The  hooka 

beantifnl  narratives,  preceded  by  an  admirable  of  the  last  named,  Du  devoir^  De  la  liberti  de 

fntrodoction.    Lamartine  also  figures   among  eoneeienee^  and  De  la  liberte,  are  among  the 

^e  bbtorians:   his   Hietoire  dSe  Qirondine^  most  meritorious  performances  for  healthfulnesi 

which  appeared  in  1847,  created  a  deep  sensa-  of  tone,  honesty  of  purpose,  and  generositv  of 

tkm  by  its  magnificent  style  and  enUiusiastIo  mind.    Beside  the  eclectic  school,  four  philo« 

apirit    He  has  rince  publbhed  the  jGfwtoirtf  <2«f  sophers  of  great  originality  and  uncommon 

€onetUuantej  Hietoire  de  la  reitauration,  Hie-  power  have  uione  each  in  his  own  sphere,  viz.: 

Mre  de  Turquie^  ^^  more  remarkable  for  Joseph  de  Maistre,  the  blunt  apologist  of  abso- 

abowy  eloquence  than  soundness  and  accuracy,  lute  power,  in  his  treatise  Dii  pape,  and  the 

#s  ho  too  oflen  oontents  himself  with  dothing  eooentrio  anthor  of  the  Soirke  de  St.  PkUn^ 


084  RAVGB  (Lmiotam  abb  Iiimaiw) 

Uwr^;  Bonald,  who.  in  his  LS^fidtOiam  prkid'  HieUiiitoa  8latet,L6oB  VlMMh«p.Xfl 

Uoe^  as  well  as  his  other  phikeophical  wntion  Blan^  FMdMo  BaaOali  AnM  Obehaii'Di 

mbeld  the  cause  of  monarehx  and  the  ohnreh ;  Beaitaioiit»  and  DeToeqnarillt.    TlMnlaaltwi 

Mllanohe,  the  mjstic  dreamer,  who,  in  his  JPal-  are  well  known  in  AnMriea  bj  tibeir  baahi  Ai 

In^Mfitffoeialtf.  attempted  to  represent  throogh  9f9Um0  pMimUMr§  mtm  JmU  Umi 

a  series  of  symbolical  narratiTes  coached  in  a  fmeltmaf^ mm AaiU  Vmu^w^lhB^ 

poetical  style  the  Tarioos  phases  of  the  history  m  AmMgy^.    The  admlrabla  liiamriaal 

of  manJcind ;  and  Lamennais.  who,  at  fint  a  of  LaftrrMie  upon  Fk«aeh  ivianiaMa 

bold  and  independent  defender  of  the  papal  not  ba  fbrntten.    The  pofitieal  wttam 

power,  was  gradoally  led  to  beoome  the  advo-  deserve  to  be  Bamed,  ofea  aflsr  Ihm  ialBn 

eate  of  pore  demoerai^.    Bk  Bmai  tm  Timd^  the  daily  qnestkna  th^  tnatod  b  bm, 

fhene$  eti  wiaUire  ds  felifi9ti^  Lm  jpmrolm  ^um  nnmeroos.    ArodnB  them  are  AfOMM  C^ml 

eraymU^  l^li9r0dupmqHe,Onswwd4pri99i^  the  model  Jonmiuisti  Ooniai^aD 

and  AgWttecTfratfjp&XDSd^pAM,  show  the  Tarkma  known  dnrinf  hia  lifraoia  as  Jnwl 

atepsoithistranformation,whiletheyareplaoed  fnerm^  m mMtmUt  d  eisaal /  Ooi 

among  the  master|rfeoea  of  IVench  eloqaenoe.  unitator,  periuma  hisaqnal  In  pcrfat  €(f 

On  the  publication  of  his  fintperfbrmanceihe  and  wit  thoogh  fiur  from 

had  been  styled  the  <^  Christian  Roossean."  The  ciaMioal  perfectkxL    The 

£bimi2«j>JUlMspAM  MfM^s  of  AngnsteCkmite^  literanr  critics  are  a  legloa.    flflisrtia'db 

parts  of  which  have  been  reprodnced  in  Eni^ish  and  St  Mare  Girardin,  who  kma  he  ~ 

VyG.H.Lewes,HarrietMartineaa,andProtGil-  admitted  to  the  Fk«neh  aeataqri  tte 

Imie,  oflbrs  a  connected  qrstem  of  philosophy,  merdy  as  a  Jounaliat^  the  lattM*  om 

emhodying  ideas  derived  from  H0gd  and  Tanons  his  Teraatfle  talenta  as  a  politleal  ^ 

French  socialist  philosophen.    Among  theae^  erltic,  and  ekgani  leetnrer;  Phflmita 

8t  BImon  and  Foorier  are  incontrovertibly  the  Onvinier-FleiuT.  Smeat  Benai 

most  conspicnoos;  and  alUiongh  their  doefrines  nnd,  Henri  Taine,  and  ilnd|ywi 

bare  been  n|)ected  as  a  whde^  they  hare  ezer-  oramatic  teiUeloBistb     CkBtevB 

cbed  a  powerfnl  inflnence  over  the  present  Bte.  Beave  are  entitled  to  a  pioi 

generation.    Pierre  Leronx  is  in  some  sort  one  this  daas  of  writen ;  the  temar  b  a 

of  their  disciples;  and  his  principal  work,  Ik  nnsparing  critic, In  tiie  ine  aria  aa 

VhmmaniU^  as  9on  jir^ae^  $t  £t  mn  ae«a<r,  atnre;  the  latter  ezcela  In  tba  4 

has  commanded  great  attention.   The  historian  literary  character^  and  haa  alao 

Ifichelet  takes  rank  among  fandftilphilosopherB  TMtemdsUpoitUFrQMfmlm  mm  li'siiA 

byhislastbookfXMmoiir.  Thevarioosbranchea  a  history  of  the  Fbrt-Royidista.    GhnriaadiBI* 

of  natoral  philosophy  boast  of  many  original  mosat  and  Albert  de  Broglte,  regular  cootribo- 

and  powerftil  writers,  at  the  head  of  whom  we  tors  to  the  Bevue  da  deux  mindm^  give  their  a^ 

mast  place  Georges  Curler,  author  of  Le  rigne  tention  to  historical  matters  from  a  philoso|)hinl 

animcH  distribtU  d'apr^  9on  organisation^  and  or  religious  point  of  view.    Th^opnile  Gaatia; 

Beeherehei  iur  la  o$$ement$/o9$iU»^  with  an  ad-  Edmond  About,  JAoa  Delaborde,  Vitd.  M^ 

mirable  introduction  entitled  Diteoun  ttir  lei  close,  have  particularlv  devoted  theaasuvsi  ts 

ritoluiioni  du  globe,    Cuvier's  rival,  £tienne  fine  art  criticism ;  Delednse,  F^tla,  Hector  B«^ 

Geoffroy  St  UilAire,  must  of  course  be  mention*  lioz,  Fiorentino,  Scudo,  to  muneal  oiattcnL    Tbs 


ed  after  him.    The  son  of  the  latter,  Isidore,  is  '^  chroniclers,*'   who  weekly  talk  of  amaaat 

worthy  of  his  father,  and  many  disciples  of  these  events  in  socie^,  and  whose  origin  aaoat  be  tmesa 

great  men,  among  whom  are  Dumeril,  Jussien,  to  the  witty  Lettrm  F^ritienmm^  which 

and  Alcide  d^Orbigny,  have  been  and  are  pub-  Girardin,  under  the  assumed  name  of  ^ 

lishiDg  works  which  expound  with  clearness  and  Delaunay,**  published  in  the  Joornal  Lm 

elegance  the  latest  scientific  discoveries.    Min-  have  become  a  body  by  themselvea,  o 

eralogy  boasts  of  £lie  de  Beaumont,  Beudant,  EugdneOuinot,  Jules  Lecomte,  Philippe 

and  Dufr^noy ;  chemistry  and  physics  of  Th6-  Henri  de  P«^ne,  dec    Alphooae  Karr,  a 


nard  and  Dumas,  Gay-Lussac,  and  Despretz.  1st  in  the  guise  of  a  livelr  critic,  In  hia  matAh 

Fk^nch  medical  literature  is  particularlv  rich,  CruSpety  which  are  carenilly preeeiiad  la  besa 

from  the  contributions  of  Bichat,  Broussais,  Cor-  form,  is  always  witty,  aensibiei,  and  haniiiiawi 

Tisart,  Magendicj  Trousseau,  and  many  others.  The  literary  movement  which  eommeaesd  with 

Mathematical  sciences  have  distinguished  rep-  the  restoration  is  now  nearij  eihansled;  aad 

resentatives  in  Lagrange,  Laplace,  ianp<^re,  Biot,  although  there  has  been  no  nlKnK  off  fai  iaSi^ 

and  especially  Arago,  who  has  no  equal  for  lectoal  activity,  the  rising  geoeratioii  of  wriaHt 

deamess  of  exposition  and  perApicnitv  of  style,  do  not  seem  on  the  whole  to  equal  tbdf  jrsdi 

Among  the  travellers  whose  writings  have  been  oessors. — See  HiBt$vr$  UitSrmrt  4t  Jb  JWbs% 

of  most  service  to  science  or  who  have  attracted  by  Dom  Rivet  uA  other  BeDeAetiae  m 

oarticular  attention  are  Freyssinet,  Duperrey,  continued  by  members  of  the  Institote  (tS 

Dnmont  d'Urvillo,  Ren6  CaiI16,  Victor  Jacque-  4to.,  1783-1958);  Hi^MrtUtUmiMdelm  f 

mont,Fontanier,  and  latterly  Father  line— Many  oeanl  2s  18*  #i^  by  Amp^(8  vobs  mS-*4i); 

able  pens  have  been  devoted  to  political  econ-  Thbloau  ds  la  littkratmr§  om  wsywi  4gs^  by  T9^ 

omy  and  philosophy :  Michel  Chevalier,  whose  main  (9  toIs.  ISmo..  last  cd^  1B57);  Emmbw^ 

Xtf«f««iirr^mm^  have  made  him  known  in  VhuUifUUhmr4imW9iieU^hjBi.Um%^ 


FRAKOm  FRAKOIA                    685 

rardin  and  Pbilar^te  Chasles  (1827) ;  Tableau  tU  FRANCIA,  Frakoisoo,  whose  real   name 

la  poiiie  Pranfaiu  au  IC  iiicle^  by  Ste.  Benre  was  Fbancesoo  Raibolini,  a  painter  of  the  Bo- 

S6^) ;  ffutaire  de  la  litterature  Ihunffaue,  by  lognese  school,  born  in  Bologna  abont  1460, 

emogeot  (new  ed^  1  vol.,  1857).  died  in  1517,  or,  according  to  Lanzi,  in  1588. 

FRANCHI,  AuBONio,  an  Italian  author,  bom  He  was  originally  a  goldsmith,  and  at  an  ad- 

in  Peffli,  Sardinia,  in  1820.    From  a  Roman  yanced  period  in  life  turned  hb  attention  to 

Gathcmc  priest  he  became  a  rationalistic  philo-  painting.    The  immediate  impulse  to  his  genina 

■opher,  and  adopted  the  above  name,  his  real  seems  to  have  been  the  invitation  extended  by 

name  being  Oristoforo  Bonavino.    In  his  intro-  Giovanni  Bentivoglio  to  the  artists  of  neigh- 

dnetion  to  his  principal  work,  La  FUa&qfia  delle  boring  cities  to  adorn  his  palace  in  Bologna. 

9euoU  Italians  (1852),  he  states  the  ground  of  Francia,  zealous  to  uphold  the  honor  of  Bolo- 

his  conversion :  **  When  I  had  examined  the  snese  art,«Gompeted  with  the  strangers  so  effeot- 

dootrines  of  the  various  Catholic  schools,  I  ively  that  he  was  held  by  his  countrymen,  ao- 

tomed  to  the  principles  of  the  Jansenists ;  next  cordinff  to  Yasiui,  "  in  the  estimation  of  a  god.** 

I  consulted  Protestant  systems,  interrosated  He  padnted  some  noble  works  for  the  Ssnti- 

the  philosophy  of  the  past  century,  pondered  voglio  chapel,  one  of  which,  an  altarpiece  with 

the  works  of  modem  critics  touching  religions  portraits  of  the  Bentivogli,  is  probably  as  fine  a 

Snbols,  and  the  finaL  indisputable,  unimpeach-  specimen  of  his  style  as  exists.    The  British 

e  conclusion  in  wnich  my  mind  found  rest  nationid  gallery  a  few  years  ago  purchased  for 

was  this :  In  reason  resides  the  supreme  crite-  £8,500  an  altarpiece  from  the  dale  of  Lucca's 

rion  of  all  trath."  Mittermayer  in  Germany,  and  collection.  Later  in  life  Francia  attempted  fresco 

IGchelet  in  France,  have  declared  him  to  be  the  painting,  of  his  proficiency  in  which  he  has  left 

heat  logician  and  critic  of  modem  times.    The  a  notaUe  example  in  the  series  illustrating  the 

titles  of  his  works  are :  La  religume  del  eeeolo  life  of  6t  Cecilia,  which  are  now  unfortunately 

JT/JT  (1858);  Appendice  deUa  fitoBofia  (1858) ;  hastening  to  decay.    His  style  partakes  of  the 

n  eeiUimento  (1854) ;  H  razianalismo  delpopolo  characteristics  of  Teragino  and  G.  Bellini. 

(1855) ;  Le  rationaliime  (in  French,  with  an  FRANCIA,  Joefi  Gaspab  Rodbigubz,  com- 

mtrodnction  by  D.  Banoet,  Brassels,  1858).  monly  called  Dr.  Francia,  dictator  of  Paraguay, 

FRANCHE  C0MT£  (free  county),  or  conn-  bom  there  about  1757,  died  m  Assumption, 

tj  of  Burgundy,  an  ancient  province  on  the  £.  Sept.  20, 1840.  He  boasted  that  he  was  of  French 

frontier  of  France,  bounded  N.  by  the  Faucilles,  extraction,  but  his  father  is  supposed  to  have 

and  £.  by  the  Jura  mountains,  S.  by  Burgundy,  been  bom  in  Brazil,  of  Portuguese  descent,  and 

and  W.  by  Burgundy  and  Champagne.    Capital  to  have  emigrated  to  Paraguay  as  an  agricul- 

Beaan^on.  It  b  drained  by  the  Sa6ne,Doub8,  ana  turist  along  with  other  settlers.    His  mother 

Ain,  is  partly  covered  with  forests,  and  contains  was  a  creoIe  woman.    He  was  destined  for  the 

iron  ana  coal  mines,  marble  (quarries,  and  salt  pits,  priesthood,  studied  at  the  university  of  Cor- 

The  country  was  originally  mhabited  by  the  Se-  dova  de  Tucuman,  was  graduated  as  a  doctor 

onani,  and  called  l^^xima  Sequonorum  by  the  of  divinity  or  of  canpn  law,  officiated  for  a 

Bomans.    In  the  5th  century  it  was  occupied  short  time  aa  professor  of  theology,  afterward 

hj  the  Bui]gundians,  and  then  became  a  part  of  implied  himself  successfully  to  the  practice  of  the 

the  Frankish  dominions;  after  the  disraption  law,  and  gaining  a  reputation  for  ability  and 

of  the  Carlovingian  empire  it  belonged  to  the  rectitude,  he  was  appK>inted  to  several  public 

kingdom  of  the  two  Burgundies,  from  which  it  offices,  including  that  of  first  alcalde  or  mayor  of 

Um  to  the  German  empire.    It  was  then  gov-  Assumption.  After  the  declaration  of  independ* 

«med  by  its  own  counts,  although  the  name  of  enoe  of  the  Paraguayans  in  1811,  he  became  the 

Fkanche  Comt^  does  not  occur  before  the  mid-  secretary  of  the  revolutionary  junta,  which,  be- 

dla  of  the  11th  oentury ;  the  origin  of  this  name  side  him,  consisted  of  two  assessors  and  a  presi* 

Is  attribnted  to  the  freedom  of  the  country  from  dent,  Don  Fulgencio  Yegros.    The  latter  and 

all  taxes  and  imposts,  save  a  certain  sum  grant-  Francia  were  in  1818  appointed  joint  consuls  for 

ad  annually  to  the  sovereign  under  the  title  of  one  year,  but  Francia  was  the  moving  spirit  of 

a  free  gift    A  little  later  it  was  also  styled  tha  the  government.    At  his  instigation  the  consul- 

.palatine  county  of  Burgundy.    In  1884  it  fell  to  ship  was  abolished  in  1814,  and  he  was  made 

tha  Yalois  house  of  Bnrgund v  by  the  marria^  dictator  for  8  years,  at  the  end  of  which  he  con- 

af  Hjurgnerite  of  Flanders,  who  then  owned  it,  trived  to  secure  his  election  as  dictator  for  life. 

with  Philip  the  Bold.    On  the  death  of  the  last  He  combined  in  his  own  person  the  executive 

dnka,  Charles  the  Bold,  it  passed  to  the  house  of  and  the  administrative  powers  of  the  govern* 

Anttria  by  the  marriage  of  his  daughter  Mary  ment.    He  monopolized  the  cultivation  of  Par- 

with  the  archduke  Muimilian,  through  whoee  aguav  tea,  and  of  other  products  of  the  eoun- 

aon  PhOip  it  became  attached  to  the  crown  of  t^,  but  hnsl>anded  the  national  resources  with 

fibain,  whidi  reUuned  it  until  the  latter  part  of  gnuit  sagacity,  gave  a  powerful  impulse  to  tha 

tiSa  17th  century.    Louis  XIY.  conquered  it  in  rearinff  of  horses  and  cattle  and  to  the  cnltiva- 

li74^  during  his  war  against  Holland,  and  got  tion  of  rice  and  grain,  and  established  a  stand-" 

definite  posMssion  of  it  by  the  treaty  of  Nime-  ing  army  and  gufud  houses  along  the  frontierfli 

Men  in  1678.    Franohe  Comt6  is  now  divided  to  protect  the  people  against  attacks  from  the 

Satwaen  the  departments  of  Haate-Sa6ne,  Jura,  Indians.    He  devi»ed  a  code  of  laws,  promoted 

aad  Donhai  adncation,  checked  the  abases  of  the  dergy, 


FRAHOIA.  FBASOIB  L  (RuMiO 

tmproTed  the  appeanmoe  of  the  ca|>itaL  and  a  UndMar.  Hb  npvteltaas  flw^rnataf 
while  neighboring  states  were  in  anarohy,  bete-  Pttvffoay  wasptitlciiIai|jMgMvalfldiiiEvope 
eared  for  Paragnaj  a  comnaratiTe  deme  of  bj  ms  treatmeiit  of  Boapted,  whom  be  de> 
tranqnilUty.  He  peremptorily  declined  all  inter>  tained  for  10  yearii  and  pf  the  anniwMli  pcnm 
eonrse  with  other  Sooth  Amerioan  states  and  of  him  br  other  penona  wfaoaa  he  bad  Mr> 
aImo§t  all  foreign  nationsi  and  detdned  all  for-  foredwith.  Amou^  Hiese  were  two  8wias  av> 
eigners  who  set  foot  in  the  conntrj.  No  ez«>  geons.  Reumr  and  I^mfdiaBiivwIw  wwe  de- 
port or  import  trade  was  allowed  without  the  toinea  hr  him  from  18ii  to  iOB.  Ob  fBbak 
dietator*8  license,  and  death  awaited  those  who  retom  uiey  rdated  their  obaervittoMi  aal  M 
were  discovered  in  the  act  of  leaTing  the  coon-*  the  same  time  egpressed  their  dkBhe  of  ft  iili^ 
try  withoat  his  spedal  permission.  Those  op*  in  an  Brntd  MiUriqus  mir  Im  rittluHm  d§  JW 
posed  to  his  mle  were  dther  shot  or  imprisoned,  ragtiy  9t  U  mmmrMmmt  iitM&Hmi  Sm  db»> 
The  principal  victims  of  his  adndnistradon  were  f0ifr.A«iMia  maris,  1827).  Twoyomg  8eolA> 
peoQiadng  officials,  oormpt  priesta,  and  persona  men,  L  P.  ana  W.  P.  RobertaoOy  wlw  wwl  le 
generally  who  endeavorea  to  enrich  themselvea  Puagoay  on  a  eommerdal  Tisatafe^  if  atiosi 
At  the  pnblio  expense.  He  was  hnmane  to-  oatorthecoanti7bythedletalor,aadth^yflBe 
ward  the  poor,  and  emel  toward  their  oppree-  iqipalKng  aoooonta  of  hia  admlntslralka  m  I 
aors,  and  wofossed  to  be  impelled  to  rigoroas  worin:  ** Letters  on  FmMa«r^(Bwdktli.ei, 
ineasares  oy  a  sense  of  Justice.  He  was  most  London,  18S9X  ''Firalicia^  Beiga  of  Tensr 
unrelenting  toward  those  who  were  accused  of  (London,  18S9X  and  ^Lstters  ob  8o«ft  ' 
a  oonsc^racy  against  his  life.  Gen.  Bamires  of  foa^  (8  volSi,  London,  184S).  Agraaldo 
EntreRjos  was  supposed  to  contemplate  aninva-  of  htoUfoand  eharaelerwaa  gIveaVyl 


slon  of  Paraguay  (1819).    A  letter  finom  him  to    Oarlyle  in  an  artide  in  the 

Tegros,  Frandrs  former  assodate  in  the  con-    riew**  n84SX  in  iriiieh  the  diolalor  ia  yM^f 

aulate,  fen  into  the  latter^s  hands.    Tegros  was    landed  for  hb  eceentrieandmfhIeM  mmntwrn 


charged  with  plotting  agdnst  the  country,  and,  Justice. 

with  upward  of  40  others,  was  put  to  death,       FRANCIS  L,ldng  of  Thmea^ . 

and  about  800  persons  were  impiisoned  for  18  count  of  Angooltaie  toorin  garaaaa  of  Lsrii 
months,  when  they  were  onty  released  upon  tlie  XIL),  and  Louisa  of  Baroy.  bora  wX  Omsi^ 
pranent  of  a  large  ransom.  SomeofFhrnela^  8^  IfL  1484^  died  at  Ramnoiiiltol^  Wum  81, 
prisoners  were  sul^Jected  to  the  most  cruel  tor*  1547.  He  numried  Glaade.  daq^lsr  of  Lsrii 
torei^  and  the  delist  which  he  seemed  to  find  XH.,  inl614^  and  soeceeded  UmaoBavsithrii; 
in  inflicting  torment  gave  rise  to  the  belief  that,  Jan.  1, 1816.  Louis  was  meditatinf  tibe  rsssa 
Uke  some  of  bis  brcuiera,  he  was  occasionally  quest  of  the  I01anese(which1iedaiaicd  ashor 
deranged.  In  his  habits  of  lifo,  too,  he  was  pe-  of  his  grandmother,  valentinn  Y laoonti)  at  the 
culiar.  After  havinff  been  fond  of  rambling  moment  of  his  death ;  and  the  youthfol  kins, 
and  social  aod  sensnal  ei\joyments,  he  led  a  life  having  renewed  his  predecessors  treatj  with 
of  the  atmost  retirement,  and  Paraguay  was  not  England,  immediately  tamed  hia  eyes  in  tht 
more  isolated  from  the  rest  of  the  world  than  same  direction,  and  with  an  army  of  about  4^,- 
he  from  the  rest  of  mankind.  He  resided  in  000  crossed  the  Alps  by  passes  fmriooily  coo- 
the  palace  of  the  former  sovemors  of  Paraguay,  sidered  impracticable.  The  Swiss  army  Mi- 
attended  by  4  slaves.  His  barber,  a  mnlatto,  ployed  by  the  duke  of  Ifilan  to  defend  the  foot 
was  his  principal  channel  of  communication  of  the  Alps  was  driven  back,  but  being  Jcbed 
with  the  public,  and  a  half  breed  named  Pa-  by  reC^nforccments  gave  him  battle  at  Msri- 
tifios  was  his  principal  secretary.  After  the  gnano(Melegnano),10m.8.  RfromMIlaiifScfC 
death  of  his  master  the  latter  was  implicated  18, 1515.  It  was  a  fierce  contest,  sinoe  called 
in  a  charge  of  conspiracy  against  the  govern-  the  battle  of  the  giants ;  and  thoiudi  the  Swi» 
meot,  and  hung  himself  in  prison.  When  riding  had  only  infantry  to  oppose  to  the  finest  cavahy 
out  to  inspect  the  public  works  and  the  bar-  in  Europe,  the  sturdy  mountainoers  rscind 
racks,  Francis  was  accompanied  by  a  strong  only  on  the  second  day  with  a  lose  of  18,008. 
escort,  and  armed  with  a  sabre  and  a  pair  of  Francis  had  lost  8,000  of  his  beet  titiopi^  bat 
double-barrelled  pocket  pistols.  Especially  to-  he  had  displayed  extraordinary  gcoerdibip  aad 
ward  the  end  of  his  reign  he  was  in  constant  valor ;  ana  his  name  became  at  once  the  noit 
fear  of  assassination.  He  remained  a  bachelor  distinguished  in  Europe.  In  theehivafaie  ipirit 
until  the  70th  year  of  his  age,  when  he  was  re-  of  the  age  he  acceptra  knighthood  on  the  ipot 

S>rted  to  have  married  a  young  French  woman.  fW)m  the  chevalier  Barard,  whose  &ial  ebar|e 

e  was  a  man  of  remarkable  physiognomy,  had  completed  the  victory.    Peace  was  ensh 

with  dark,  piercing  eyes,  and  of  great  men-  eluded  with  the  Swiss  and  a  concordat  with 

tal  powers,  which  he  cultivated  by  study  and  the  pope ;  and  Francis,  master  of  Mi]aa«  pe> 

reading.    He  was  especially  fond  of  the  French  turned  in  triumph  to  Paris.     In  1517  lie  oMnk 

literature  of  the  18th  century,  and  an  admirer  a  treaty  of  friendship  and  of  allianoe  against  ths 

both  of  Robespierre  and  Napoleon.    The  anec-  Turks  with  the  emperor  Maximilian  and  Charlss 

dotes  of  his  ecoentridtiea  were  almost  as  nn-  I.  of  Spain.    Maximilian  died  in  Jan.  1518.  sad 

merous  as  the  reports  of  his  cruelties.    Yet  his  Francis  became  a  competitor  with  Charles  I, 

death  was  deplored  as  a  public  calamitv,  and  tbe  afterward  so  famous  under  the  Utle  of  CharScs 

people  seemed  to  recogniie  in  hhn  a  friend  and  Y.  of  Germany,  for  the  imperial  aoaptfiL  Cteisi 


FRANCIS  L  (FsiLvoi)  687 

prevailed  in  the  electoral  council  in  consequence  of  carrying  the  war  into  Italy.  He  neverthe- 
of  a  recommendation  of  Frederic  the  Wise,  less  despatched  an  army  of  80,000  men,  under 
duke  of  Saxony,  and  Francis  betrayed  the  pas-  Bonnivet,  a^inst  Milan,  which  failed  trough 
sions  natural  to  disappointed  ambition.  His  the  incapacity  of  the  commanding  general, 
chagrin  forced  from  him  expressions  of  dispar-  Bourbon  principally  conducted  the  imperial 
agement  of  his  successAil  rival,  which  were  re-  operations  in  this  quarter,  and  in  conjuncUon 
sented;  and  from  this  jealousy,  as  much  as  with  Pescara  (1524)  drove  the  French,  after 
from  conflicting  interests,  arose  that  hostility  a  rouf  at  Biagrossa,  into  their  own  country, 
between  these  princes  which  kept  Europe  in  The  retreat  was  fatal  to  the  chevalier  Bayard, 
turmoil  during  their  reigns.  It  was  easy  to  who,  strange  to  say,  after  having  saved  France  at 
find  causes  of  strife ;  Italy  and  Navarre  af-  H^ddres,  was  nevertheless  suTOrdinate  to  Bon- 
forded  them  abundantly.  But  before  engaging  nivet  The  imperialists  entered  Provence, 
in  war,  each  strove  to^in  to  his  interests  the  Francis  hastened  in  person  to  relieve  Marseilles, 
English  king  Henry  V III.,  who  obviously  held  carried  all  before  him,  pursued  the  enemy  again 
the  balance  in  bb  hand.  Charles  hastened  to  into  'Piedmont,  and  laid  siege  to  Pavia.  He 
pay  this  monarch  a  personal  visit  at  Dover  as  was  here  defeated  in  a  great  battle,  Feb.  24, 
lie  passed  from  Spun  to  his  dominions  in  the  1525.  His  Swiss  allies  fled ;  and  Francis,  un* 
Netherlands,  and  forgot  not  at  the  same  time  to  horsed,  after  fightins  foremost  in  his  brave 
secure  the  influence  of  Cardinal  Wolsey  by  a  army,  and  killing  with  his  own  hand  7  of  the 
virtual  promise  of  the  papacy.  Francis  invited  enemy,  at  length  yielded  his  sword  to  the  Nea- 
the  English  king  to  France,  where,  by  a  splendid  politan  viceroy  Lannoy,  who  received  it  on 
liospit^ity,  he  hoped  to  gain  both  the  cardinal  nis  loieee,  and  was  humed  a  prisoner  to  Madrid* 
and  hb  roaster.  The  sumptuous  interview  took  Tout  e$t  perduyfon  Vhonneur^  he  had  written 
place  in  the  plain  between  Guinea  and  Xrdre&  to  his  mother  from  the  field ;  but  it  is  a  ouea- 
which  history  commemorates  as  the  field  of  tion  with  historians  whether  the  honor  tnere 
the  cloth  of  gold  (1520).  Unprecedented  saved  was  not  lost  at  the  Spanish  capital.  En- 
main^iflcence,  feats  of  chivalry,  and  gallant  ex-  rope  was  filled  with  alarm.  The  emperor^snn- 
ercises  of  every  description,  occupiiKl  the  two  worthy  behavior  to  hb  gallant  captive,  far  lesHy 
courts.  The  kings  themselves,  according  to  however,  than  hb  growing  power  and  ambi* 
Fleuranges,  had  a  personal  wrestling  match,  in  tion,  roused  the  animosity  of  Henry  of  Eng- 
private.  Franob  easily  overthrew  hb  antiqzo-  land,  who  now  declared  for  France,  and  de- 
nbt,  but  by  hb  frank  and  generous  bearing  failed  manded  the  liberation  (^  the  king,  as  did  also 
not  to  win  the  firiendship  of  hb  royal  brother.  Rome,  Venice,  Florence,  and  (renoa.  But  the 
Henry,  however,  fiattered  by  the  wily  Charles,  emperor  insisted  on  large  cessions  of  territory, 
whose  vbit  he  returned  after  hb  conference  the  restoration  of  Bourbon  to  all  hb  rights,  the 
with  Francis,  was  easily  secured  to  the  interest  marriage  of  iVancis  with  (Charles's  sister  Elea- 
of  the  emperor,  and  declared  that  he  wished  to  nor,  queen  dowager  of  Portugal,  and  the  delivery 
remain  impartial,  but  should  pronounce  against  of  hb  two  eldest  sons  as  hostages  for  his  ffood 
the  aggressor.  The  French  long  began  hosUli-  faith.  Francb  at  last  signed  a  treaty  on  these 
ties  by  seizing  Navarre.  His  troops  abo  in-  conditions,  but  at  the  same  time  caused  a  secret 
vaded  Spain,  but  were  routed  and  chased  be-  protest  against  them  to  be  drawn  up,  and  was 
Tond  Navarre.  Charles  attempted  to  enter  liberated  March  17, 1526,  his  sons  taking  hb 
France  from  the  north.  He  was  repelled  at  place  at  Madrid.  He  at  once  demanded  and 
H4ddrefl  by  the  chevalier  Bayard,  and  Francb  obtained  from  the  pope  absolution  from  hb  oath 
inarched  into  the  Low  Countries.  By  some  to  fulfil  the  treaty,  and,  gracefully  thanking 
strange  over  cautiousness  he  lost  an  opportunity  the  English  king  for  his  sympathy  and  alliance, 
of  catting  off  the  whole  imperial  army.  Mean-  sent  forth  armies  again  to  Italy.  If,  say  French 
while  Cardinal  Wolsey  effected  a  league  be-  historians,  he  was  guilty  of  peijury,  then  was 
tween  hb  sovereign,  the  emperor,  and  the  pope,  every  man  in  France  hb  accomplice.  Charlesi 
agdnet  Francis.  A  papal  army,  under  Prosper  overreached,  and  now  opposed  by  all  Italy  as 
Cdoona,  seized  Milan,  and  dbpossessed  the  well  as  France  and  England,  sent  Bourbon  with 
French  of  all  their  Italian  conquests,  except  an  army  of  mercenaries  against  the  pope. 
the  ibrtress  of  Cremona.  Francis,  in  the  midst  Rome  was  sacked  with  unparallelled  barbarity, 
of  these  disasters,  received  fVom  Henry  of  Eng-  and  Uie  pope  was  imprisoned.  A  French  army, 
land  a  dedaratiot  of  war  (May  29, 1522).  Un-  meanwhile,  under  Lautrec,  hastened  to  avenge 
dannted,  however,  although  hb  treasury  was  the  insulted  pontiff)  but  after  a  series  of  tii- 
ntteriy  exhausted,  he  succeeded  in  putting  the  nmphs  was  destroyed  by  disease  before  Naples, 
IdofRlom  in  a  state  of  defence.  The  constable  Peace,  an  obvious  necessity  for  all  the  belliger- 
de  Bourbon,  at  thb  crisis,  r^ecting  the  queen  enta,  was  concluded  at  Cambrai  by  the  mother 
notber^s  invitation  to  marriage,  and  robbed  by  of  Francb  and  the  aunt  of  Charles  (Margaret 
the  incensed  woman,  through  legal  chicanery,  of  Austria)  in  July,  1529.  The  king  of  France 
di  bb  family  estate,  not  only  offered  hb  sword  retained|LBurgundy,  surrendered  hb  Italian 
to  the  emperor,  but  proposed  to  incite  a  rebel-  olaima,  Sdpaid  2,000,000  crowns  ransom  for 
lion  in  France.  The  conspiracy  was  discovered,  bis  sons.  Tne  French  courtiers  vied  with  eadi 
and  Bourbon  fled ;  but  Francis,  uncertain  of  ita  other  in  supplying  the  ransom  money.  Frauds 
eztODti  was  compelled  to  lUiMuidon  hb  bold  pUm  at  the  same  time  married  Queen  Eleanor ;  but 


Qgg  FRANCIS  II.  (Faahoi) 

DO  pledges  coDld  secure  peace.    In  1583  the  no  amusements  than  to  the  management  of 
duke  of  Milan  put  to  death  an  agent  of  the  affairs  of  state,  had  jet  sacoeeded  in  obtaining 
king  of  France,  charged  with  murder.    Seixing  some  important  advantages  over  the  emperor 
this  as  a  pretext  for  war,  Francis  took  np  arms  Charles  V.  and  the  house  of  Spain,  and  in  tcr* 
again,  and  in  1535  overran  Savoy.    Charles  in  minating  favorably  a  long  series  of  wan^  chidlj 
the  spring  of  1536  marched  upon  Provence,  in  Italy  and  the  Netherlands,  against  the  gruw- 
and  the  French  trooiM  hurried  again  to  the  de-  ing  might  of  that  house.  Henry  died  in  1559  uf  a 
fence  of  that  region.    Charles  lost  half  his  wound  accidentally  received  in  a  tonmamcnt. 
army  through  famine  and  disease,  the  countrr  Francis,  then  aboy  of  16yean,  possessed  of  net- 
liaving  been  laid  waste  purposely  by  the  French  ther  character,  strength,  nor  talent,  succeeded  to 
commander,  and  with  the  remainder  fied  before  the  throne.  He  had  already  married  the  dangh- 
the  light  troops  of  the  province.    At  the  same  ter  of  James  V.  of  Scotland,  the  beautiful  ud 
time  the  prince  of  Nassau,  who  had  invaded  afterward  unhappy  Mary  Stuart    Her  infloenee 
the  nortli  of  France,  was  compelled  to  retreat  gave  the  reins  of  government  to  ber  nncks, 
Soon  after  these  events,  the  eldest  son  of  Fran-  Francis  duke  of  Guise,  and  the  cardinal  of  Lor- 
ds died,  poisoned.    The  crime  was  laid  to  the  raine.    The  arrogant  sway  of  these  two  amfai- 
charge  of  the  emperor,  probably  without  any  tions  and  unscrupulous  prinoea  alarmed  and  ini- 
foundation;  but  the  circumstance  carried  the  tated  the  princes  of  the  blood,  Anthony  king  of 
exasperation  of  the  two  sovereigns  to  the  ex-  Navarre,  and  his  brother  Louis  of  Coode,  who 
treine  of  decency.    Fk'ancis  attacked  the  Low  became  the  leaders  of  a  Protestant  party  in  op- 
Countries,  and  even  formed  an  offensive  alliance  position  to  the  court.  Every  thing  oonenrred  to 
with  the  Turkiali  sultan  Solyman ;  but  the  pope  produce  civil  commotion.  Protestantism  bad  pco- 
and  the  queen  of  Hungary  interponng  with  of-  etrated,  in  the  form  of  Calvinism,  into  Fruea 
fers  of  mediation,  a  truce  of  10  years  was  con-  Ita  spirit  suited  that  of  the  feudal  nobiliCv.sad 
eluded  at  Nice  (1538).    The  rivals  exchanged  the  profligacy  and  corruption  introdnccd  fcj  the 
visits  and  embraced ;  and  on  the  occasion  of  a  Itsiian  Medicis  into  the  court  and  manners  of 
second  visit  Charles  promised  to  invest  a  son  France,  and  the  influence  of  stranger^  didpossd 
of  the  French  king  with  the  sovereignty  of  the  people  to  rebellion.    It  was  by  secret  plot^ 
Milan,   but  the  promise  was  never  fulfilled,  however,  rather  than  br  open  revolt  that  the 
Charles  giving  tlie  duchy  instead  to  his  son  Protestant  princes  tried  to  wrest  power  frooi 
Philip.    War  again  broke  out  in  1542,  and  the  liands  of  the  Guises.    Assisted  by  the  duke 
Francis  sent  5  armies  against  various  quarters  of  Montmorency,  La  Renaudie,  and  othcra.  thcv 
of  tlie  imperial  dominions,  and  gained  a  great  framed  the  conspiracy  of  Amboi&e,  in  wbica 
battle  nt  CerisoUes  (1544),  but  without  inipor-  they  agreed  to  enter  that  place  on  a  certAia 
tant  conso<iucnccs.     After  a  short  and  bootlci»s  day  in  dctjiched  parties,  to  ma^Fa^rc  the(iuL«e>, 
invasion  of  Franco  by  Henry  VI 11.  and  Cliurles  and  seize  the   piTson  of  tho   kiiijr.     Ku:  ::« 
in  nlliaiice,  peace  was  a^ain  concludeil;  and  no  plot  was  denounced  almost  at  the  nio!nt-Lt  -f 
further  military  events  took  ])]aco  during  the  execution,   by  two    Prt>te!Stants;  titc  duVt    f 
rcipn.     Tlic  king's  health  had  been  hoi)i'lessly  Gui*>o  secretly  assembled  a  lunly  cf  tr..N«ps,  ii! 
ruined  some  years  before  in  consequence  of  one  cut  to  pieces  the  forces  of  the  ron«pir.^u>r>  u 
of  his  many  amours,  and  death  at  len^'th  en-  they  were  entering  tlic  city.     His  triumjh  vn 
sued.     Francis  was  an  unhesitating?  libertine,  stained  with  barbarous  cruelty,  .an*!  the  «a!cn 
though  during  the  latter  years  of  his  lite  his  at-  of  the  Ix)ire  were  cnloretl  with  the  b!'-.<    : 
tentitm  was  given  to  wisi-r  thoughts;  and  not-  those  who  fell  in  combat  or  jH-TiOiv^I  tr.  ti-f 
wit hst angling  his  vices  and  his  cruelty  to  tlie  scafiblil.     The  court  was  depraved  or  bip^ttfJ 
Protestants,   admiration    cannot    be   withlield  enough  to  gaze  at  the  executions  a»  K-^iLt-?  tf 
fn»ni  many  gallant  and  noble  traits  of  character,  public  festivity,  from  platforms  and  ibc  »ii- 
wliich  miglit  have  been  blessings  to  liis  coun-  dows  of  the  castle.     Arre^tA  au-l   cxocu:.-  c^ 
try  liad  lie  been  content  with  any  other  than  throughout  the  ctmntry  followed.     T!kfdu'ke-f 
military   glory.      He  introduced   into   Franco  Guiso  was  made  lieutenunt-genonil  of  iLc  kLr^ 
striking  improvement**  of  art  and  learning.     Ho  dom.     The  axo  was  brought  into  pUy  U«  ^ifli. 
was  gifted  with  remarkable  elegance  and  grace,  the  oppo.Mtion  of  the  princes,  and  the  iui;ui«:::  z 
In  youth  he  wa.-*  the  uunjuun  A}mIIo  of  Ids  com-  was  si'l  up  to  reprv>ji  Calviiii?sm.    A  n-yai  ^On-t 
ratles,  "  the  ctnirtier's,  scholar's,  soldier's  eye,  made  the  bi«»liops,  instead  of  tho  |»arl»airrtc:s 
tongue,  sword."   Of  hismuniticencc  many  mon-  judges  of  heresy;  the  chancellor  l>o  Til ';  ul 
umonts  remain ;  as  the  imperial  library  of  Paris,  gave  his  cou-^'ut,  led  by  re.'bmus  of  h!;iiArii:T 
the  iin{)erial  college,  the  original  Loiivn,*,  Fon-  and  caution,  and  h.iving  sutticivnt  pr\-««f  i-f  i:.'* 
tttinebleau,  and  Cliambord.    IJy  his  lirsi  wife  ho  ]>ersecut ing  spirit  of  the  parliam«.iiLs.  Uui  a:  :>/* 
h:i«l  7  children;  by  the  second  none.     To  his  same  time,  and  for  the  same  nun-'n*,  hi:  ir^-! 
son  Henry  H.  he  bequeathed  a  treasury  with  a  the  calling  of  a  general,  or,  if    tho   i-  j*  r  • 
surplus  of  4i)0,000  crowns.  fused,  of  a  national  council,  ti>  y^c'xU  iLe  c!.--r.*; 
KKANCJS  JI.,  king  of  Franco,  l>orn  in  Fon-  and  France.    The  princes  of  l.»«rnunf.  uc-^.r^^* 
taiiii'liKan,  .Ian.  1 0,  L')4.'J,  died  in  ( )rlean«».  1  )ec.  of  ct>mpletinp  their  victory  by  ihi-  .1^  ^ih  ni  i'.  c  o*, 
5,  l.>t*H|.   He  was  the  ehlot  son  of  Henry  \\.  and  convened  the  ^tatl•s-genl'^i^at  <  »r!fttri*.     C\<q-Jc 
Catharine  dv*  Medici.     His  father,  more  brave  had  tried  to  di%>emblo  hi^  ni*'r:i:icAtii^  4:Vr 
than  wise,  more  devoted  to  amours  and  chival-  the  failure  of  Amboi»o,  and  was  now  unfc«- 


FRANCIS  I.  (GxRacAHT)  FRANCIS  XL  (Gbbicaht)         688 

dent  enough  to  appear.  Ho  was  arrested,  FRANCIS  II.,  emperor  of  Germany  (L  of 
tried,  and  soon  condemned  to  die  as  a  traitor.  Austria),  bom  in  Florence,  Feb.  0,  1768,  died 
The  death  of  Francis,  however,  saved  his  life,  in  Vienna,  March  2,  1835.  He  was  the  son  of 
and  restored  him  to  the  leadership  of  the  Hu-  the  emperor  Leopold  II.  and  of  Maria  Louisa, 
guenots.  The  joung  king  had  long  suffered  daughter  of  Charles  III.,  king  of  Spain.  Ue  was 
m>m  an  abscess  in  his  ear,  and  died  after  a  educated  first  at  the  polished  and  popular  court 
reign  of  17  months,  so  suddenly  that  rumors  of  of  Florence,  then  at  Uiat  of  Vienna,  where  he 
poison,  now  regarded  as  unfounded,  spread,  and  had  an  opportunity  of  studying  the  statesman- 
were  believed  throughout  the  country ;  the  ship  and  reign  of  his  uncle,  Joseph  II.  lie  ae- 
more  easily,  as  assassination  was  becoming  fash-  companied  him  in  his  unsuccessful  campaign 
lonable  in  France,  and  the  queen  mother  was  against  the  Turks,  and  even  took  the  title  of 
renowned  for  her  love  of  alchemy  and  the  use  commander-in-chief  of  the  army,  though  still  a 
of  poisons.  Francis  bequeathed  to  his  brother  youth  of  21  years,  while  the  old  and  experienced 
and  successor,  Charles  IX.,  then  a  boy  of  10  general  Laudon  served  as  an  assistant  After  the 
years  of  age,  a  treasury  loaded  with  debt,  and  a  death  of  Joseph  (1790),  Francis  held  the  reins 
state  fhll  of  the  elements  of  civil  war.  The  re-  of  the  empire  for  a  few  days,  till  Uie  arrival  of 
gency  was  intrusted  to  Catharine  de*  Medici,  his  father  from  Florence,  whom  he  followed  in 
whose  intrigues  fostered  the  flame  of  civil  ana  the  next  year  to  the  convention  of  Filniti^ 
religions  dissensions.  where  the  emperor  and  the  king  of  Prussia 
FRANCIS  I.  (Stkitien),  emperor  of  Germany,  formed  the  first  coalition  against  revolutionary 
bom  in  1708,  died  Aug.  18, 1765.  He  was  the  son  France.  The  short  and  mUd  reign  of  Leopold 
of  Leopold,  duke  of  Lorraine,  and  of  a  niece  of  ended  in  1792,  and  Francis  succeeded  him  in 
Louis  aIV.,  and  the  great-grandson  of  Ferdinand  his  hereditary  dominions,  and  was  successivdy 
III.,  emperor  of  Germany.  In  1729  he  succeeded  crowned  king  of  Hungary,  emperor  of  Germany| 
hia  &ther  as  duke  of  Lorraine  and  Bar,  but  in  con-  and  king  of  Bohemia,  but  was  soon  surrounded 
sequence  of  the  war  of  the  Polish  succession,  in  with  difficulties  and  dangers.  Hungary,  stripped 
which  Louis  XV.  took  a  feeble  part  in  support  of  its  constitutional  privileges  by  the  centnuii- 
of  his  father-in-law,  Stanislas  Leszczyiiski,  the  ing  and  Germanizing  efforts  of  Joseph,  and  not 
dethroned  king  of  Poland,  his  duchy  was  ex-  fully  appeased  by  the  concessions  of  Leopold, 
changed  for  Tuscany,  where  the  house  of  Medici  was  in  a  state  of  national  excitement,  and  the 
was  on  the  point  of  becoming  extinct,  and  given  Belgian  provinces  were  ripe  for  revolt  The 
to  Stanislas,  to  revert  after  his  death  to  the  crown  legislative  assembly  of  France  obliged  Louis 
of  France.  Francis  soon  after  married  Maria  XVI.  to  declare  war  against  the  young  king  of 
Tlieresa,  daughter  and  heiress  of  the  emperor  Hungary  and  Bohemia  in  April,  1792.  The  vio- 
Oharles  VI.  Charles  appointed  him  general-  tories  of  Dumouriez  and  the  revolt  of  Belgium, 
issimo,  and  he  fought  in  a  successful  campaign  the  victories  of  Custine  on  the  Rhine,  the  exe- 
against  the  Turks.  After  the  death  of  the  last  cution  of  Louis  XVI.,  and  that  of  the  aueea 
of  the  Medicis,  he  went  with  Maria  to  Florence,  Marie  Antoinette,  the  aunt  of  Francis,  follow- 
ibe  capital  of  his  now  dominion,  and  returned  ed  in  rapid  train.  It  was  in  vain  that  Clairfait 
with  her  after  the  death  of  Charles,  to  share  obtained  some  advantages  over  the  Frencb| 
with  her  the  regency,  the  cares,  but  not  the  that  Francis  took  the  command  in  person, 
prerogatives  of  the  inherited  crowns.  He  fought  and  was  for  a  time  successful,  that  a  new  and 
for  her  rights  in  the  wars  which  now  ensued  in  mightier  coalition  was  formed ;  the  armies  of  the 
q>ite  of  the  pragmatic  sanction,  and  which  republic  soon  drove  back  the  allies;  Francises 
would  have  deprived  her  of  her  inheritance  had  confederates  deserted  him,  and  in  1795  Tuscany, 
she  not  been  stoutly  supported  by  her  Hun-  Sweden,  Spain,  and  even  the  king  of  Prussia, 
gsrians,  who  swore  at  Presburg  to  die  for  their  concluded  at  Basel  a  treaty  of  peace  with  the 
^  king  Maria  Theresa,"  and  found  an  ally  in  republic,  whose  Italian  army,  now  commanded 
George  II.  of  England.  Frederic  the  Great  of  by  Gen.  Bonaparte,  conquered  in  the  two  next 
Prossia  was  satisfied  with  the  glory  won  in  the  years  the  whole  north  of  Italy.  Francis  him- 
wsrsofSilesia,  and  the  conquest  of  that  province,  self,  notwithstanding  some  slight  advantages 
sod  Charles  of  Bavaria,  who  had  been  chosen  gained  by  his  brother  the  archduke  Chanes 
emperor,  died  in  1746.  Francis  could  now  be  over  Morean,  in  southern  Germany,  was  finally 
elected,  and  was  acknowledged  in  the  peace  of  forced  to  conclude  the  treaty  of  Campo  Formio 
Aiz  la  Chapelle  as  emperor  of  Germany  (1748).  (Oct.  17,  1797),  in  which  he  sacrificed  Bel- 
Being  of  a  mild  and  peaceful  disposition,  and  in-  gium,  Milan,  and  a  Rhenish  province  of  the 
ftienoed  more  by  personal  avarice  than  by  am-  empire,  in  exchange  for  Venice.  Changes  in 
hition,  he  promoted  commerce  and  agriculture,  France  and  new  French  aggressions  tempted 
perticnlarly  in  Tuscany,  but  left  the  heavier  cares  Austria,  Russia,  and  England  to  another  war. 
of  government  to  his  masculine  consort,  who  The  allied  armies  were  successful  for  a  while 
was  soon  sg&in  involved  in  a  7  years*  war  with  under  the  archduke  Charles  in  Germany,  under 
Frederio.  Two  years  after  the  termination  of  Hotze  in  Switzerland,  and  under  Kr&y  and 
this  war  Francis  died  at  Innspruck,  leaving  the  Snwaroff  in  Italy.  But  reverses  came ;  Suwa- 
Qerman  crown  to  his  son  Joseph  II.,  for  whom  roff  was  recalled  by  his  emperor,  and  Bonaparte, 
his  mother  reigned  till  1780,  and  Tuscany  to  returning  fh>m  Egypt,  became  master  of  fVance 
Us  yoonger  son,  afterward  Leopold  H.  by  a  eovp  d'etat^  and  of  Italy  by  the  passage  of 

VOL.  VIL— 44 


FRANCIS  JOSEPH  (Austbia)  091 

tion  than  that  of  the  state,  and  his  family  was  constitution  of  March  4.    Bnt  on  tho  very  next 

largo  and  prosperous.    Tho  latter  part  of  his  morning  tho  victory  of  Dainjanics  at  Szolnok 

reign  was  undisturbed.    Of  liis  4  wives,  prin-  destroyed  at  onco  the  delusions  of  Windisch- 

ccsses  of  TVUrtemberg,  Sicily,  Modena,  and  Ba-  gratz,  and  now  the  imperial  anny  suffered  de- 

varia,  tho  second,  Maria  Theresa,  was  the  moth-  feat  after  defeat  in  Ilungary  and  Transylvania, 

cr  of  13  children,  among  whom  were  Maria  Radetzky,  however,  was  again  victorious  over 

Louisa,  wife  of  Napoleon  I.,  Ferdinand,  who  sue-  Charles  Albert  in  Italy  (March  28).   To  subdue 

cceded  to  tho  throne,  and  Francis  Charles,  the  Hungary  foreign  aid  was  necessary.    Francis 

father  of  tho  present  emperor,  Francis  Joseph  I.  Joseph,  therefore,  went  to  Warsaw*  to  invoke 

FRANCIS  JOSEPH,  tho  reigning  emperor  of  the  assistance  of  the  czar  Nicholas.    This  was 

Austria,  grandson  of  tho  preceding,  eldest  son  of  granted,  and  Hungary  was  soon  invaded  from. 

the  archduko  Francis  Charles,  and  nc])hew  of  every  quarter.    Francis  Joseph  himself  went 

Ferdinand  I.,  born  Aug.  18,  1830.    Ho  was  for  some  time  to  that  country,  and  was  present 

educated  under  the  caro  of  Count  Bombclles,  at  the  taking  of  Raab  (June  28).    After  the  fall 

and  was  early  inspired  with  ambition  by  his  of  tho  revolution,  its  leaders  who  had  surren- 

mother,  tho  archduchess  Sophia,  daughter  of  dered  were  punished  with  unmitigated  severity, 

the  king  of  Bavaria  and  sister  of  tlie  queens  of  One  day  (Oct.  6)  witnessed  the  execution  of 

Prussia  and  Saxony,  a  handsome,  energetic,  Count  Batthyanyi,  the  Hungarian  Egmont,  at 

and  unscrupulous  woman,  who  possessed  more  Pesth,  and  of  18  generals  at  Arad,  all  of  whom 

iniluenco  and   enterprising  spirit  than   either  had  voluntarily  surrendered.    The  dungeons 

tho  emperor  himself  or  her  husband,  tho  heir  of  tho  empire  were  filled  with  victims.    GOr- 

presumptivo  to  tho  throne.     Like  his  uncle  gey  alone  was  spared.    Soon  after  the  surren- 

Fcrdiuand,  lie  was  taught  to  speak  the  various  dcr  of  Venice  (Aug.  23)  and  Comom,  which 

languages  of  his  polygk)t  empire,  and  also  be-  inaugurate<l  the  unlimited  centralizing  sway  of 

came  a  skilful  rider  and  fond  of  military  dis-  the  minister  of  the  interior,  Bach,  Prince  Feliz 

plays,  without  however  evincing  any  particular  Schwarzenberg  resumed  with  new  energy  the 

talent.      Sent  to  Pesth  in  1847  to  install  his  management  of  foreign  affairs.     Tlie  revolu- 

cousin  Stephen  as  palatine  of  Ilungary,  he  spoke  tionary  schemes  of  a  Gennan  union  apart  from 

Hungarian  to  tho  asscmble<l  nobles,  and  even  Austria  had  been  defeated ;  now  tlie  schemes 

gaine<l  somo  popularity.    This,  however,  was  of  Prussia  for  forming  a  separate  union  with  a 

of  short  duration.     The  revolutions  of  1848  number  of  smaller  German  states  were  discom- 

having  brought  the  Austrian  empire  to  the  fited.     In  Oct.  1860,  Francis  Joseph  mustered 

hrink  of  dissolution,  his  mother  became  tho  his  south  German  allies  at  Bregenz,  and  in  Nov. 

leading  spirit  in  the  counter-revolutionary  plots  Prussia  yielded  to  their  threatening  attitude, 

which  saved  it.    Francis  Joseph  was  sent  to  Austrian  influence  prevailed  in  restoring  tho  an- 

the  army  of  Italy,  and  was  favorably  mention-  cient  onler  in  tho  electorate  of  Hesse  and  in 

ed  in  some  reports  of  Gen.  Radetzky.    Lom-  Schleswig-Holstein,  as  well  as  the  ancient  fed- 

bardy  having  been  reconquered  by  that  general,  eral  diet  at  Frankfort.     After  the  death  of 

Prague  and  Vienna  subdued  by  Wind isch gratz,  Schwarzenberg,  who  was  succeeded  by  Count 

and  the  Hungarians  defeated  before  Vienna,  it  Buol-Schauensteinasminister  of  foreign  affairs, 

Beenie<l  to  tho  archduchess  Sophia  that  the  mo-  Francis  Joseph  renewed  his  fnendly  relations 

ment  had  arrived  for  completing  her  work,  with  Fre<leric  William  IV.  in  an  interview  at 

Francis  Joseph  was  declared  of  age,  Dec.  1,  Berlin  (Dec.  1852),  which  was  followed  by  a 

1848,  at  tho  temporary  court  of  Olmtttz,  and  on  treaty  of  commerce  (Feb.  1853^.    In  the  mean- 

the  following  day  his  father  resigned  his  right  while  absolutism  was  gradually  reC'Stablishcd 

to  the  succession,  and  the  emperor  his  crown,  within  the  empire.    Tlie  national  guards  were 

in  favor  of  tho  youthful  prince.    Hungary  had  dissolved,  the  freedom  of  tlie  press  put  down, 

still  to  bo  conquered,  and  a  constituent  Austrian  and  finally  the  constitution  itselt^  which  had 

parliament  was  assembled  at  Kremsir.    The  never  been  in  operation,   abolished  (Jan.  1, 

young  emperor  in  his  inaugural  i)roclamation  1852)     The  unfavorable  reception  which  the 

I>romise<l  a  constitutional,  progressive,  and  emperor  met  with  in  Hungary  on  a  journey  un- 
iberal  reign.  Its  beginning  was  successful,  dertaken  in  the  autumn  of  the  same  year  proved 
Tlie  Hungarians  under  GOrgey  retreated  before  that  that  country  felt,  as  it  was  treate<l,  asa  con- 
"Windischgriktz,  giving  up  Prcsburg,  Raab,  and  quered  province.  An  outbreak  at  Milan  (Feb. 
finally  (Jan.  5,  1849)  Buda  and  Pesth;  Guy  on  6,  1853),  which  was  suppressed  by  Radetzky, 
and  Perczel  were  routed ;  Schlick  was  victo-  evinced  the  revolutionary  spirit  of  Lombardy, 
rious  in  tho  north  of  Hungary.  The  battle  of  On  Feb.  18  of  the  same  year,  while  walking 
Kapolna  (Feb.  26,  27),  which  was  announced  on  tho  public  promenade  of  Vienna,  the  em- 
"by  ^Prince  Windischgrfitz  as  a  decisive  victory  peror  was  furiously  attacke<l  with  a  knife  by 
over  the  united  main  army  of  tho  rebels,  was  a  young  Hungarian  tailor,  named  Lib^nyi,  who 
believed  to  have  given  tho  finUliing  blow  to  had  for  months  me<litated  and  coolly  prepared 
the  revolution  in  Hungary.  On  receiving  this  for  this  deed.  Tho  wound  inflicteil  was  regard* 
news  tho  emperor  dissolved  the  Austrian  par-  ed  as  threatening  to  the  life,  and  afterward 
liament,  ordered  the  arrest  of  its  liberal  mem-  to  the  sight,  of  the  monarch,  who,  however, 
bcFB,  and  promulgated  a  new  constitution  of  slowly  recovered.  Libenyi,  who  had  been  die- 
Ids  own  (petroyirte  Ver/as8ung\  known  as  the  armed  with   difficulty,  died  oa  the  gallows 


59-2  FRANCIS  JOSEPH  (ArvTKu) 

protostin3:]iUfi<kUtytoropu].Uramsm  ftn«l  ITiiii-  Sanllm.!,  Ajinl  10,  prancin;*  luc  3  .lay  a  f -» 

gary.     A  ffw  Dunitlis  alttTwanl  Czur  Nirlmlxs  cimipllance  with  li">  •••■r.'!::!"!:-.  mA  \ ;.  ::■■  •■  "  - 

pai«i  FranoH  Joseph  a  viMt  at  OlinutiJ,  but  llic  inon»viiioiit  of  !io-ti:i:Ivs  i::ii->.';:^:.. iy  i'    ..  ■■*. 

attitiKlti  ot*  the  latter  in  tho  war  in  Turkoy,  inir  it?*  rrjoctiMn.     The  Aii.*:ri:iri*.  ^-.L- r  *.     .: : 

whif^ii  WHiii  foUowvil,  ami  <liirini;  whirli  lie  mn-  Gyuhii,  ern-sol  ihc  Tii-ir.')  i  Aj  r:l  "j-'.  -JT  .  --.  • 

oIiuUmI  a  treaty  with  the  allied (Dcr.  2.  1NJ4),  occupivil  tho  X".  E.  fn.\iricc*  ■  t*  VU'.:.    :.:   .- 


T»  - 


iK-inipicil  th»'  Uaniihiaii  i»rinri|»alitii"*,  aiul  cm-     far  a-*  the  IVtra  ]>;k!Lo:L,  while  t:.-.r  !■ 
ceiitriitoi]  a  hirirc  army  ia  (jali«ri:i,  wiL^tar  fr«»ni     was  advanoc«l  as  fj,r  :is  r.« •'.■!.!•'»  '-n  t;:-.'  T--  . '  *. 


by  iiiiol  ami  lliibiiLT.     llie  t'X{i 
tlu'se  diphiiimtic    ami    military   undrrtakinL'S  conso-iucnoo  nf  whi^h  tho  crar.«!  il:kt:  '.. :":  1  .- 
Were  im-t  by  means  4it'  c-xtravairant  ami  ni'teii  rany.   ami  tlie  ccuntry  w;is  j-hir. «!   -.-:.l-  r  ■■ 
vicilent  llnanrial  (ipo  rat  ions.     In  April,  ISo-l,  military  tlii^tator^hip  of  Vi«."t"r  Er::.i:.  :•. !.  ::. 
Franrin  Jom-jiIi    married    Elizabeth,    daii^jhter  kin^  of    Sardinia.     Similar   im-.»\v ::.•.:.•_■!    *^«- 
of  the  Bavarian  dnke  Maximilian  Joseph  of  after  dri>vo  the  duke  of  Modona  ar;  !  :;.^^  ■: ;  •.- 
Zweibrurken-Hirkenfeld,  wlio  in  1^.">5  bore  him  ess  of  Parma  into  exile.     Tho  ov^ril-.w  :  -  :r  - 
adan^'hter,  S«>phiiv,    in    1h.">j>   another,  (iisela,  utariosof  the  Po,  and  probably  want  .f  .:-■  .•    -. 
and  in  l^Os  a  son,  Kndidph.     All  tlieo-e  family  pre ventfd  a  bold  stroke  ajain>l  t!io  S.i-:.-  ..- • 
events  were  fidlowed  !iy  partial  and  s<anty  po-  liefore  the  approach  of  the  Frenii.  ;i:.lt:...  ^-r.- 
litieal  amnesties.   The  lirst  born  ehild  died  dur-  val  of  their  emperor.     AfiiT  tho  lir-:  vij-  r  -.. 
in;:  a  second  imperial  journey  lhron::h   Hun-  repulse  sutTered  from  the  Freneh  M  M-:.*'-!.  ■ 
gary,  in  isTiT,   at   IJuda.     In    ()rtid»er  of  tliC  (May  20.).  the  Au^trlans  i-ave  up  :1. •.■•■::'■:.•.•. .-. 
(tame  year  Francis  Joseph  received  a  vi-it  at  retiriuji  toward  ihe  Ti«  inn  ar.il  P:a«*»  r:.*a     T  • 
Vienna  from  Alexander  II.  of  Itu*si:L  wliith  allied  armies  iloselv  fnlbiwiil.  c -I'-ir-ia::!-':  '' 
quieted  the  apprehensions  rau<e<l  by  a  jireced-  the    respective   mi»nar«.'li*    in    per-fn.      Vi. :  r 
ing  interview  of  the  same  ntonarch  with  Na-  Emanuel,  on  the let^,  rrus-e'l  the  .S-:a.  a:  :  »   ■. 
p<deon  III.  at  Stutt'^^art.    While  Austrian  diph)-  the  battle  of  PahMPM  M;iy  rJl);  CJari^  al ':. -: 
inaey  yrua  thus  8ucces-ful  in  its  various  (tpera-  the  liead  of  a  tnutp  «if  vi.lnnt».-t.ri  wrk*  j.!!  \.  ■■: 
tions  it  was  most  etrectually  active  in  Italy.     A  ti»  enter  Lnmbardy,  and  ti.»  r"!>e  :?:c  r..-  ■.•  *-.: 
cnnconhit   conclmled  with    the   see   of    K-muo  oers  i»f  the  lake   reu'i«»r. :   while.  i.iii^-Vi-!     ;.   i 
(1SV)P,   which  conferrerl   extraordinary   rights  false  display  on  the ri^rht.  Nap«  lei'.'.  :r..:.-:\ —- . 
Tipon  till*  Uonum  ('atlmliiHii-!i«»ps  and  llie  .Ir*'!-  the  main  bulk  i«f  his  anry  *  r!.;:i!   ;'.. 
its.  and  pi'ivjife  treatirs  wiili  'I'ism-mmv.   Piii-iii.i,  tlie  S:i:"iliiii;iiis  ti"»T]ii- ba:  k- « '' ;''■    1 
and  M'id«Ti:i.  ni:i«!i'  Au-tri.-m  intlvu-nci*  pr«'l«'iiii-  In-  m.-i-id  a:   Ti;rM;:'»  :i:.-l   !•■;!"/    ■  . 
nan*  in  ihr  piiiiii-iij;i.     lii-ynjid  ihe  Po.  Ai:-!:'ia  bi  i'-tc  i!.c  AM-Tri;i!'.  ■  .■riiri...:.;i  r- :  ■  :  ■  ■      ■   .■ 
lil■ld  th«' iniportaul  niiliiary  p»«-itiii:i'' nf  Aufi-iia  iiii"«:;»ke.      Ki  rr.i-.-::,^'  t'.«-    T- '.■■■  :■ 
and  Pi;i'-iii/a.     To  r«iuntiTl»;i!;iin'r  thi»  •.i;iiv  of  tiiM  r.i:i-.  tiny  ll.riW  t!.i  ;ri-i ',\«  -   ■•  ■  - 
ihiiiL"'.    Sanlinia   ^:^en■_'thl•nl■d    hi  r-i-lf  !ty    in-  uimn  P.n!r.'!«ir;i.  ai.d  .-"tV.  ri  >1  !;.■  :'.-•  . 
rre:i-iii:r  lur  ;u'niv.  bv  t.-nli-tiii;^  liie -v  ni]'aihies  \\:d  at   M.iji ;  ^i. '.lu::*.-  l  .      F"*.::.     -   '    - 
jis    Will    a>    l!ie    r.-l'ujirs   of  tlic  ntlar  Italian  rivin:^  tVi-in  Nii-ni-a,  ri.;ii  hi  ■!  •.;-.  ..•      i 
htatr%   a^id    llhallv   bv     an    air.ami.'    \^il)l    Na-  evaluation  of  Milan  i  J  ■.:!.!•  .". ;.      A    _■ 
poll-,  in  III.     i):i  N»-\v  Yrar'-^ilay.  l^."il*.  tlie  » in-  triat   was  iii«w  bi  jii!j.  i:r.i  .-r-.;  :•  1 
pi  ror  N'a[i<»lfniMli'rlan-d  toth.- dipiMWia*;'"  <  nrji^  battli' and  defi  al  at   .M-l.^,-:  :i:.' i'    ■.     - 
in  Pario- his  di''>af  i-l'ai  ii»»n  u  ii!i  l!.*'  Italian  jn'l-  «tnz.ia!ul  p!//ij!n;::-::i' u  It!; !  ..   ■■  •    •■ 
icy  Ml'  Fraini-^  »bi-.«|.!i,  and  lii>  !•  \v  \\iird>  xnitc  tin*  liiu-s  »,i'  tin-  Ojl;.!  .-i:  .1   {']  ..,,... 
un'b"-tiiMil    liv  Au-tria  a-*  a  ibp-a!.  ir   i.«»i  :i<  ;i  An<-'i;.:i  and   Pn'l- jua,  ^x .  :•■  j!  ••  ■  v     ■    ■     ■ 
dei'lai-aTioii   nf  \\  .i\\     On   bi-l!»   -i.li  -   t!;i-   iin.-i  bli-w.       I...:!;bar'!y.    P..ri:;.i.    ..■   1    >!     '       . 
arti\«'  pri  paratii-n- I'nr  a  ;:r»Mt   -:riijj:<'  'm  _mm.  rlaiimd   l!ji-ir    a:i:;«  xa'i--::    !■■    Pi-  ■       .  - 
Naptili'«in  di  inan-lid  tVtiiii  .\ii>tiia  tin- -m  it  inh  r  rixid  uii  t!ie  b.ii.Iv*  •  f  ?!.■  M  :  ■  ",     • 
of  hi*r  private   tnatii^  with   thi-  Italian  -fat.-,  army  t'l-.f,-  iij.-r.' ti;: '.i  ■!  ;.j-  •-•  •"..         .     . 

and  !heevaenati«»n  "fall  n«»:i-A'!-tr!an  ti-rri'i-rit -.  1"\\  in:;  i  !.i  m\.  ai.-l  Fr.i!.*   -.'..-.■■. 

in  Italy;  Austria  •liinan-bd  iV.-ni  Smlinia  a  dl--  Hii^-vd  cbn.  (iy.ii  li.  ).i  '.I  :  ■..»:..:  . 

urmanh-nt  and  i!i<"  i\jiMl-iii!i  nf  ihi'   iif !:.'» ■  ^.  pir>-in  in   lb-'  ^.t.  at   b.if.'-    «;   >     ■   - 

N'»!ii'  of  llje-«'  il'-niaiiiU   \\  ii-i  aiVi-.  d   t<i.     '11. i-  1.M ».  in  \\lii<h   i.»  arl\  !..i!:"  ■;  -  .    "  : 

alarnHif    Kn:.'Ii-h   mini-try   in    \aM   "tV- !rl    it-.  ah'-\vi;e  i  n_M::i  •!   ]'7   a  w:  •  \     •' 

nit'liatitMi.     Tfie  priipi»-il:i»n  t.i  r.ill  a  K:n-i'|'i  .-Ml  rvft  TidiuL' fr-'la  t)..-   Lik.  .?'« t. .■■".,  •     • 

co:j"-,  ^^,   i.'iadi-    bv    Uu--ia.  wa*-   a.r:..i|    i.i  l-v  i:  v  i-f  tin-  Pi-.     Thi-  \ :  t.  ;■..!:' ■ 

Nap- '111 -n.  liiit  rt'jr.ii'd  liy  Fr  iii'-i- .hi-<  j-b,  w  !im  in   e*.  i-ry   ]ir.  i»  .!'.!i;;   l.i*'!-.    •:•   .  '^     ■     - 

ojiji-ilii!  til   t!i«-  admi-^-ion  of  Sari!;!;:a   in   l!i«'  but  it  i-nn-i'iir-d  fit-!":.  .  •  r'  •   XI  • 

ronjri->.      A.i-Tr'a')  rfhf'ir»'iiii«::l- \vi  Ti- jii'iir-  .b'-i  p]|  ritii' ■!  t«i  \'.  v.-.-..  •     .    ■■.   ■  - 

inu'   int.!    I.mnl'ardv  ;    Friii.-!i   t:- •<■{'-  l-j-au   t»  an-l  -m':.  :i't.  :  I  \  tin:  .  •"  •' •    ...... 

crox- the  Al;i-.  ar.'l  t"  ^ail    fnna    Mar-.  !l'«  -  U'V  ^\iTi-   in   -i^-bt   it'i.i  !i     ■•■.-.    :    ■    \ 

(ivn«ia.      At   tiii-;  jijiM-t  »ri'   Fraufi*' .b'-tph  •»iir-  w.i'i  tlireatrti-nj  Zar;L  F.  .•   • .  ^   ■:   "i  . 

pri-e«i  tlie   World  by  .•^ending  un   ultimatum  to  6Uth  prej'arinj;  to  r«.vi':a!:.;.;-:v  liu:  ^-.^-i    ;■   - 


PRANCIS  608 

siA  mobilizing  her  armies,  apparently  in  favor  the  institntes  of  medicine,  and  in  1817  snooeed- 
of  Austria,  when  a  sudden  armistice,  and  im-  ed  Dr.  Stringham  as  professor  of  medical  Jari»* 
mediately  preliminaries  of  peace,  were  concluded  prudence.  In  1819  ne  was  made  professor  of 
between  the  two  emperors,  the  latter  at  a  per-  obstetrics  in  addition  to  his  other  duties^  and 
sonal  interview  in  Villafranca  (July  11^.  This  retained  this  appointment  until  1826,  when  the 
treaty  gave  Lombardy  as  far  as  the  Mincio  to  whole  faculty  resigned,  and  a  minority  of  them 
Sardinia,  living  the  4  great  fortresses  of  Man-  founded  the  Rutgers  medical  sdiool,  which, 
tua,  Peschiera,  Verona,  and  Legnano  in  the  pos-  after  a  successful  career  of  only  4  terms,  was 
session  of  Austria.  It  also  provided  that  Italy  closed  by  the  le^slature.  In  this  institution 
should  be  reorganized  as  a  confedcrarcy  of  states  Dr.  Francis  filled  the  chairs  of  obstetrics  and 
under  the  honorary  presidency  of  the  pope.  Be-  forensic  medicine.  Since  hia  retirement  from 
fore  leaving  Verona  for  his  capital  (July  14)  this  post  he  has  devoted  himself  to  the  practice 
Francis  Joseph  published  an  order  of  the  day,  of  his  profession  and  the  pursuit  of  literature, 
in  which  he  throws  the  blame  of  his  defeat  on  neither  of  which  indeed  he  had  allowed  his  aca- 
the  standing  aloof  of  his  natural  allies,  and  ex-  demical  duties  to  interrupt.  In  coi^juncUon  with 
presses  his  confidence  in  the  devotedness  of  the  Drs.  Beck  and  Dyckman  ho  edited,  in  188S, 
army  if  any  new  struggle  should  arise.  A  confer-  '8,  and  '4,  the  "New  York  Medical  and  Phya- 
ence  for  the  final  settlement  of  the  new  treaty  was  icid  Journal.^'  lie  actively  promoted  the  objects 
held  in  Zdrich  immediately  afterward.  of  the  New  York  historical  society,  the  woman's 
FRANCIS,  John  Wakefield,  an  American  hospital,  the  state  inebriate  asylum,  and  the 
physician  and  author,  bom  in  New  York,  Nov.  cause  of  natural  history,  the  typographical  guild, 
17,  1789.  His  father  was  a  German  who  emi-  and  the  fine  arts,  in  behalf  of  which  he  has  fre- 
grated  to  this  country  soon  after  the  peace  of  quently  written  and  spoken.  In  addition  to 
1788,  and  his  mother  a  Philadelphia  lady  of  biographical  sketches  of  manr  of  the  distin- 
Swiss  family.  In  his  youth  he  was  for  some  time  guished  men  of  the  last  half  century  with 
in  the  printing  establishment  of  George  Long,  whom  he  has  been  in  intimate  relationship 
Subsequently,  however,  having  been  carefully  (among  others,  of  Robert  R.  Livingston,  PhiUp 
prepared  by  the  Rev.  George  Strebeck,  and  the  Freneau,  Daniel  Webster,  J.  Fenimore  Cooper, 
xiev.  John  Conroy,  of  Trinity  college,  Dublin,  Cadwallader  Colden,  Samuel  L.  Mitchill,  Ed- 
he  entered  an  advanced  class  at  Columbia  col-  ward  Miller,  John  Pintard,  and  the  actors 
kge,  and  about  the  same  time  (1807)  began  to  Cooke  and  Kean),  and  articles  in  different  med- 
study  medicine  under  Dr.  Ilosack.  lie  was  ical  periodicals  on  obstetrics,  vitriolic  emetics 
graduated  A.B.  in  1809,  and  M.D.  by  the  col-  in  croup,  tanguinaria  Canadenm^  iodine,  the 
lege  of  physicians  and  surgeons  in  1811,  being  goitre  of  W.  New  York  and  Canada,  on  medi- 
the  first  person  upon  whom  a  degree  was  con-  cal  jurisprudence,  yellow  fever,  death  by  light- 
ferred  by  the  latter  institution.    A  few  months  ning,  caries  of  the  jaws  of  children,  elaterium, 


In  1810,  while  yet  a  student,  he  issued,  in  con-  *^  Notice  of  Thomas  Eddy  the  Philanthrooist** 

junction  with  Dr.  Ilosack,  the  prospectus  of  the  (12mo.,  1828);    **Denman^s  Practice  of  Hid- 

"American  Medical  and  Philosophical  Register,"  wifery,  with  Notes"  (8vo.,   1825);  "Address 

which  was  published  quarterly  and  continued  for  before  the  New  York  Horticultural  Society'* 

4  years.    Inl813Dr.  Francis  was  appointed  lee-  (1830);  "Address  before  the  Philolezian  6o- 

turer  on  the  institutes  of  medicine  and  materia  ciety"  (1881);  "Letter  on  Cholera  Asphyxia 

medica  at  the  college  of  physicians  and  surgeons,  of  1832  "  (8vo.,  1832) ;  "  Observations  on  the 

and  soon  afterward,  the  medical  faculty  of  Col-  Mineral  Waters  of  Avon"  (1834);  the  "Ana- 

nmbia  college  having  been  consolidated  with  tomy  of  Drunkenness ;"  "Discourse  before  the 

that  institution,  he  received  the  chair  of  materia  N.  Y.  Lyceum  of   Natural  History"  (1841); 

medica  in  the  united  body.    Ue  would  accept  discourses  before  the  N.  Y.  academy  of  me&r 

nofeesforhisfirstcourseof  lectures,  fearing  lest  cine  (1847,  1848,  and  1849);  addresses  before 

the  increased  expenses  of  the  new  establishment  the  typographical  society  of  New  York,  ^  On 

might  exclude  some  who  wished  to  attend  the  Dr.  Franklin"  (1850  and  1859),  and  '^On  the 

full  course.    With  the  design  of  both  complet-  Publishers,  Printers,  and  Editors  of  New  York;" 

ing  his  own  studies  and  transferring  to  the  *'  Old  New  York,  or  Reminiscences  of  the  past 

medical  schools  of  New  York  some  of  the  most  Sixty  Years"  (8vo.,  1857;  2d  edition,  enlarged, 

valuable  features  of  those  abroad,  ho  visited  12mo.,  1858).   A  memoir  of  Christopher  Colles, 

Europe,  where  he  became  acquainted  with  Cu-  read  by  him  before  the  historical  society  in  1854^ 

Tier,  Gall,  Denon,  Dupuytren,  Gregory,  Play-  was  published  in  the '' Knickerbocker  GaUery** 

fiur,  Brewster,  Bell,  the  Duncans,   Jameson,  in  1855.    His  discourse  at  the  Bellevue  hospital, 

Abemethy,  the  Aikins,  Sir  Walter  Scott,  and  1858,  embraces  a  minute  view  of  the  progresa 

Dr.  Rees,  to  whose  cyclopssdia  he  coutributed  of  anatomical  investigation  in  New  York  irom 

aeveral  articles.    On  his  return  to  New  York,  its  early  state  under  the  Dutch  dynasty  down 

the  chair  of  materia  medica  having  been  added  to  the  present  time.    He  was  elected  the  first 

to  that  of  chemistry,  he  became  professor  of  president  of  the  New  York  academy  of  medi* 


6M  FRANCIS  FRANCIS  OF  ASSISI 

ctno  after  its  organization  in  1847;    ho  id  a    died,  ITostinf^  obtained  the  ma^tcTx:  and  oAer 
forci{;n  ass4>ciate  of  the  royal  mcdioo-chirurgi-    their  duel  Francis  returne<l  to  Enpland  iu  «il*- 


the  degree  of  LL.I).  from  Trinity  college,  liart-  member  of  parliament  for  YartnoutL   in   I'l.t 

ford.  Conn.  His  style  is  animated,  excursive,  and  isle  of  Wight.    He  was  a  bold,  sovoro,  an>l  fro- 

often  enlivened  by  humor,  ^vhilc  his  intimato  quent  speaker,  but  he  never  became  distin;;TiUL- 

acquaintanco  with  the  history  and  old  inhabi-  ed  as  an  orator.     His  politics  were  always  ti- 

tants  of  New  York,  and  his  fondness  for  local  tremely  liberal.    When  the  prosecution  «'f  H^- 

antiquities,  cause  him  to  be  looked  upon  as  an  tings  l>egan  in  1786,   its  leaders  wowld  L^ve 

oracle  in  matters  relating  to  his  native  city. —  committed  the  management  to  Francis.    1  l-i 

JouN  W.,  jr.,  son  of  the  preceding,  born  in  Now  house  of  commons,  however,  rexusid  iwior.  ly 

York,  July  5,  1833,  died  there,  Jan.  20,  1855,  large  majorities,  to  pennit  this  appoitituicr.:. 

was  graduated  at  Columbia  college  in  1852.    A  Hurke,  Fox,  and  Windliam  LiU^rcd  in  v:&:d  lo 

"Memorial  of  his  Life,"  by  Henry  T.  Tucker-  change  this  determination.    At  l.^«t  the  cu:a- 

man,  was  published  in  New  Y^'ork  (1  vol.  8vo.,  mittee  of  managers  united  in  writing  a  Lote 

1855).  to  Francis  inviting  him  to  aid  them  in  their  U- 

FRANCIS,  Sib  Philip,  a  British  politician  bors ;  ho  consented,  and  pas^nl  many  xk-^*  iz, 

and  pamphleteer,  bom  in  Dublin,  Oct.  22, 1740,  this  occupation.     ^Vhen  others  ttre^U   Fr:i::i':f 

died  in  London,  Dec.  22, 1818.     He  was  the  son  never  flagged.     He  embittered  the  exi<t<.[;--v  ^i 

of  the  Rev.  Philip  Francis,  author  of  an  elegant  his  enemy,  and  no  doubt  destroyed   h.«  <<vi 

and  popular  translation  of  Horace,  and  also  of  i>eaco  in  the  etTort.     Hastings,  however,  tiLii.j 

several  tragedies  of  little  merit,  and  some  liberal  triumphed    and    died    acquitted.     Wbvn   :.c 

political  pamphlets.    The  son  removed  with  his  French  revolution  broke  out,  Francis  wa«  in 

father  to  England  in  1750,  and  was  placed  on  iirm  friend.     He  be<'ame  an  active  incfLUr  if 

the  foundation  of  St.  Paul's  school,  where  he  the  revolutionary  association  of  "  Frii-nd?  <•:"  tic 

remained  about  3  years.    Hero  Woodfall,  after-  People."    He  was  defeated  at  the  cli-o:.i«D  .?i 

ward  the  printer  of  the  "  Public  Advertiser,'*  1790,  when  ho  stood  for  Tewkolmry,  I  ji  ia 

and  the  ]mblisher  of  tho  "  Letters  of  Junius,"  1802  was  returned  by  L<»rd  ThaiK :  kt  lit 

vas  his  fuUow  pupil,  a  circumstance  much  relied  borough  of  Appleby,  and  continued  to  «•;:  i' r 

upon  in  tho  effort  to  prove  Sir  Philip  tlieauthor  that  l)orough  while  l»e  remained  in  i.:ir;ia::»:.« 

of  those  letters.     In  1756  he  was  appointed  to  He  su.>taine<l  Fox  and  (irey  iu  their  i-Lii.-  i-t  rt- 

n  place  in  the  office  of  his  father's  patron,  Mr.  form,  and  advocated  tho  aholititiii  t.f  t!  e  -'i^v 

Fux,  t lion  secretary  of  state,  which  he  com iiiued  tnuK*  with  ur.tailiuir  ardor.     H:s  ]'■'..•.."  r 

to  retain  under  the  seoretjirvsliip  of  Mr.  Pitt.  M.-liucv  i>  worth v  i»f  li.ii.i.p.     In  ^  •  :.    i*  •. 

He    was,  in   fact,   a  succc-ssl'ul   placeiMan.     In  the  Inrnmriouot  tliedreiivillo  iLin*::;. .  i  .  .     .' 

1758   he   went  as   ])nvate   secretary    to   (ieu.  was  made  a  kni;r!.t  mI"  the  I'.itli.     It  i-  "    .        : 

Blijrh  when  that  ollirer  coinijiaiulrd  nn  exiicili-  that  it  w:waNuilc>i«"ri«.(l  To>^ii«l  h;::i  t  •  I.  :....• 

tion  ajiaiii^t  the  Frencli  c«>;LSt,  Jind  wa-*  pre-^eiit  governor- ^'c-neral,  Iv.it   thi^  ji;-i""]:.::r.t:.:  :    ■■  .- 

in  a  battle  near  C'lierlK)Ur;r.     When  tlie  larl  uf  ti)«>k    place.     lie    re'.irid    fn'Ta    j-iir '.;..::.   .  : 

Kinnoiil  went  in  1700  as  am])as'i;nlor  io  roriii-  1N»7,  ami  alti-rward  wnite  |'.l!;i;'}.!.->  ..-.  :  ; 

gal,  on  the  re<'oinnien<lati«ni  of  Mr.  Pitt  he  tt)ok  ical  articles  in  the  in  \v>jm;.it-.     !':•■..;  :.  . 

FrjiiH'is  with  him  as  hi*s  necretarv;  and  on  Iiis  scnritv  of  old  ii;:e  lie  w  a-  -■.i-Mi  r.'.i    r.     .      :  : 

return  to  En<rlnntl  in  Kti^J,  Francis  rc-ci-ived  an  tho   attention   ol'  tlu-    |.i;''!;<',      I:,    l-*'.    . 

appointment   in   the  war  ollice.     Here  he  re-  Tayli»r  ]  iii»li''hvd   his  **.Ii::ii:>   i-li*'."    .   u 

roained  until  March,  1772,  whrn  he  ri-i.::iu-d  in  a  i)istini:ni';hed    I-i\iri>:   i  ;i:iri.*.  :\"    \.;..    >  : 

con>e«iUence  i»f  a  «jnarrelwith  l.onl  UarririL'ton,  Philij)  Fianci.-.     Tiie  ar^-uisie:.:  i-i.  ji  ■  .     -. '. 

the  new  mini'^ter  at   war.     Tin'  remainder  of  coincidfUtvs  reuuirkaMe ;  I'lt  r.-i.-  ■'!  i     ..    •- 

that  yi*ar  he  jiass^.'d  in  Iravelliii;:  thruu-h  Flan-  acknowledirrd  writin.:-v:'i;i:  ti.i  li-.r- 1-.      . 

ders,  (iormany,   Italy,   an*!    Fram-i-.     In   ,Iiin<',  of  Junius.  He  hiijinvli',  it  i^ -jii  !,  ;k!.%  .■.  -  o 

1773,  soon  alter  hi.-  n.turn,  he  was  ajipointi-d  that  he  wrote  t}ii*  hinioM-.   litti.-..     ii-.  v..--   i 

one  of  the  covmcil  of  lJen;ral  witl»  a  ^•alary  of  author  of  alioijt  ifi  pi«i;?i' a!  j-a:..;  : '■.  :•■     :■    ■■  .- 

£10,000.     It  has  hetii  sMi'iiii>rd  that  he  owed  twice  marrieti.  the  >«.''i  nj  tin.^-  t  ■  .i   V  •-  '»^  .:■ 

this  lucrative  place  to   the   inlluence  of  L-ird  kins,  a  <KT;:\niai:*s  ilan^'I/nr.  ^^  I.»  :;  :  •    •..  .-    -■  " 

Barrington.  now   twice   m.ire   his   lVi»rnl ;    hut  7o.     lly  hi-    I;r?t    >\  il'e   iic  L:i  a  .-  :.  ...  :  : 

the    fact  is  ni»t   dearlv   *--tahli-.hiil.       Francis  dauirhti-rs. 

went    to  India  in   the   Mirnirnr   if   1771.    and  FJi.W'Cl.'^  or  A'vsjm.  a  ^.i'.n:  -f  :1.-  ':  -. 

remained  thi-re  till   I)eo.    17>o,    whm    he   re-  Cathulii-  rhnrcli,  and  i-':ii.l.  r  -f  :'.■       -   .-    : 

si^rned    on   umaint  of  hi-  ijuarril   \\ii!i   War-  Franc  i-ians.  hurn  in  A<>i-i.  iii  tiii  j  r: -.    '.'.'. 

Ten  Ha^itinu'-.     TJiis  «juarrel  h-d  to  a  duel,  in  dele^ration  uf  lVru;;:;i, i:i  1  IsJ.d.- ■: :..  ■»:••  / 

which  Francis  wa-*  .*;ln)t  ihroutfh  the  h-nly.    Hi-  (.)ct.  4.    I'JJ'J.     His  f;.Ti,ir,  !*:•  :r..   !...-:.''. 

arti\e  and   somewhat   au.-tere   di^]Mf>itii»n   ha^l  wa- a  wealthy  merchant.     T:;v  >  :;  u  ;.  :  .  j   : 

brouirhi  him  int.i  c<»ristant.  ojipi>-irion  to  lia--  to  sj)e.ik  the  Frmi  h  loritnu-,  ;.:. .  *.!.•  * ..-   ■.« 

tinp-,  and  f«»r  a  time  he  controlled  the  majority  whirh  ho  ina^terid  it  rii-i-vd  :ij».        .:  j. 

'he  council.    Two  of  tho  members  having  Laplisnial  name  of  CuovaM.i:oiL aiv:'i:  .^..' ^.-.. 


FRANCIS  OF  ASSISI  FRANCIS  OF  PAULA  695 

He  led  a  gay  life  until  bo  was  captured  in  a  civil  made  long  journeys  in  behalf  of  the  Catholic 
conflict  of  Assisi  with  Pern^a,  and  kept  for  a  faith.  lie  sought  to  visit  Morocco,  and  was 
year  prisoner  in  the  city  of  liis  enemies.  Dur-  only  prevented  by  a  sickness  which  detained 
ing  his  detention  he  formed  the  design  of  re-  him  in  Spain.  His  cherished  design  was  to  lay 
Bouncing  the  world ;  and  fancying  that  he  beard  down  his  life  in  the  Holy  Land  in  behalf  of 
one  day  while  praying  in  a  church  a  voice  from  Christ's  religion.  His  first  attempt  to  reach 
the  crucifix,  bidding  him  repair  the  falling  walls  Syria  proved  ineffectual ;  contrary  winds  hin- 
of  Christ's  house,  ho  gave  the  proceeds  of  somo  dercd  his  vessel.  But  the  plan  was  not  re- 
goods  he  had  sold  to  the  priest  of  the  church,  linquished,  and  after  a  brief  sojourn  in  Acre, 
offering  himselfas  an  assistant.  This  act  brought  he  joined  the  camp  of  the  crusaders  at  Daml- 
upon  him  the  displeasure  of  his  father,  who  etta  in  1219.  He  arrived  only  to  witness  the 
threatened  if  ho  persisted  to  deprive  him  of  his  failure  of  the  Christian  army,  but  he  was  grat- 
inheritance.  But  neither  this  threat,  nor  the  pop-  ified  in  his  desire  for  an  interview  with  the 
ular  ridicule  which  saluted  his  seeming  insanity,  Saracen  chief,  and  was  permitted  to  testify  in 
could  turn  him  from  his  purpose.  He  formally  presence  of  the  infidels  concerning  Christ  and 
renounced  his  right  of  heirship; emptied  his  pock-  the  Christian  faith.  On  the  occasion  of  the 
ets,  and  even  stripped  himself  of  his  clothing,  formal  approbation  of  his  order  in  1228,  he 
putting  on  the  cloak  of  a  laborer.  Ho  was  then  preached  a  sermon  before  the  sacred  college, 
(1206)  24  years  old.  From  this  time  he  gave  him-  which  seems  to  have  been  the  last  of  his  im- 
self  exclusively  to  works  of  piety  and  charity,  portant  public  performances.  His  failing  health 
He  begged  in  the  streets  for  money  to  repair  the  and  growing  blindness  confined  hira  more  and 
church,  and  assisted  the  masons  by  carrying  the  more  to  that  favorite  seclusion  of  the  hill  of 
stones  with  his  own  hands.  He  frequented  the  Alvemo,  on  which  a  nobleman  had  built  A 
hospitals,  washing  the  feet  and  kissing  the  ulcers  church  and  convent  for  the  Franciscan  brethren, 
of  the  lepers.  Now  ho  was  stripped  of  his  In  this  solitude  he  gave  himself  more  ardently 
coarso  raiment  by  robbers,  and  now  he  put  it  to  prayer  and  religious  exercises.  His  enthn- 
off  from  his  own  person  to  clothe  tho  poor  siasm  became  rapture.  His  visions  were  mol- 
whom  ho  met  by  the  way.  His  excessive  hu-  tiplied.  The  Saviour  and  tho  saints  seemed  to 
mility  in  dress  and  demeanor  began  after  a  time  appear,  and  the  legend  tells  of  the  itigmatOj 
to  win  sympathy  for  him.  Prominent  men  the  print  of  nails  in  the  hands  and  feet,  and  of 
desired  to  imitate  him,  and  to  become  his  com-  a  wound  in  the  side,  corresponding  to  similar 
panions.  The  rich  merchant,  Bernard  of  Quin-  marks  on  the  person  of  the  Saviour,  which 
taval,  in  whose  house  Francis  had  been  a  guest,  Francis  brought  away  with  him  from  one  of 
sold  all  his  estate,  distributed  it  to  the  poor,  and  these  interviews.  It  was  even  aflHrmed  that 
came  to  pray  with  his  friend.  To  him  was  soon  blood  continued  to  flow  from  his  wounds;  and 
joined  a  canon  of  the  cathedral,  Peter  of  Catana.  portions  of  this  blood  were  long  after  exhibited 
These  brethren  received  the  dress  of  Francis,  a  for  the  reverence  of  the  faithful.  He  was  can- 
coarso  robe  of  serge  girded  with  a  cord,  Aug.  onizedJulyl6,1228. — Tho  literary  remains  of  St. 
16,  1209,  from  which  day  the  foundation  of  the  Francis  aro  neither  numerous  nor  especially  re- 
Franciscan  order  properly  dates.  At  the  be-  markable.  Tliey  consist  of  letters,  monastic  con- 
ginning,  Francis  and  his  companions  occupied  a  ferences,  parables,  and  poems  in  the  Italian 
little  cottage  just  outside  the  wall  of  the  city;  tongue.  The  best  edition  is  that  of  1641  (folio, 
but  as  their  number  increased  they  removed  to  Paris),  The  life  of  the  saint  has  been  many 
the  premises  of  tho  Portiuncula,  which  had  times  written  by  brethren  of  the  various  brancl^ 
been  offered  them  by  the  Benedictines,  refns-  es  into  which  his  order  has  been  subdivided;  by 
ing,  however,  to  accept  this  as  a  gift.  His  own  Thomas  do  Celano,  his  disciple ;  by  St.  Bonaven* 
habits  were  consistent  with  tho  strict  poverty  tura;  by  Helyot;  by  Chalippo  (4to.,  1728,  and 
enjoined  by  his  rule.  He  slept  upon  the  grouna,  2  vols.  12mo.,  1736) ;  by  Chavin  (8vo.,  Paria, 
■with  a  block  of  wood  or  stone  for  his  pillow,  1841);  by  Bohringer  in  his  series  of  biographies; 
ate  his  scanty  food  cold,  with  ashes  strewed  and  by  Frederic  Morin  (16mo.,  Paris,  185S). 
npon  it,  sewe<l  his  garments  with  packthread  to  FRANCIS  op  Paula,  the  founder  of  the 
make  them  coarser,  bathed  himself  in  snow  to  order  of  Minims,  a  saint  of  the  Roman  Catholic 
extinguish  tho  fires  of  sensual  desire,  obeyed  church,  bom  in  Paula,  Calabria,  in  1416,  died 
the  orders  of  his  novices,  fasted  long  and  rigid-  in  Plessis-les-Tours,  April  2, 1607.  He  was  de- 
ly,  and  shed  tears  so  freely  that  he  became  voted  by  his  parents  to  St.  Francis  of  Assisi,  to 
nearly  blind,  and  could  only  save  his  sight  by  a  whoso  intercession  they  ascribed  his  birth,  after 
dangerous  and  painful  searing  of  the  face.  He  their  marriage  had  been  for  a  long  time  child- 
preached  wherever  ho  could  find  audienco,  yet  less.  When  12  years  old  he  was  brought  into 
be  would  never  take  priests'  orders,  and  con-  an  nnreformed  convent  of  Franciscans  in  Cala- 
tented  himself  with  the  humble  place  of  a  dea-  bria,  where  he  surpassed  all  the  monks  in  the 
con.  He  forbade,  too,  the  spirit  of  controversy,  strict  observance  of  tho  rule.  Two  years  later, 
and  inculcated  peace  as  tho  spirit  which  all  in  1428,  he  returned  to  Paula,  resigned  his  right 
Christians  should  labor  to  establish.  In  the  of  inheritance,  and  retired  to  a  grotto  to  lead  the 
civil  strifes  which  raged  so  fiercely  in  Italy  in  the  life  of  a  hermit.  Ho  was  hai^dly  20  years  old 
18th  century,  ho  brought  his  order  in  as  a  peace-  when  he  found  many  followers,  who  built  them- 
naker.    Francis  was  a  zealous  missionary,  and  selves  cells  near  his  grotto.    He  received  from 


696 


FBAXCI5  D£  SALES 


the  Archbishop  of  Coscnza  tho  permission  to 
build  a  church  and  couvent,  which  were  com- 
pleted in  1430.  IVoin  this  year  dates  the  esUib- 
fishniciit  of  tho  onlcr  of  t!io  Minims,  which 
adopted  tho  name  of  hermits  of  J?t.  Froiicis.  To 
tho  u.-ual  3  i:ionasiic  vows  (poverty,  chastity, 
obedioucc)  St.  Francis  addtrd  as  a  fourth,  per- 
petual abstinence,  nut  only  from  meat,  but  al^ 
from  e^'gs  and  milk,  except  in  cases  of  sickness. 
He  himself  was  still  more  ascetic.  Ho  slept  on 
the  bare  ground,  took  no  food  before  sunset, 
often  contented  liimself  with  bread  and  water, 
and  sometimes  ate  only  every  other  day.  The 
fame  of  miracles  re|)orted  of  him  induced  ro]»e 
Paul  II.  in  1409  to  send  to  him  his  chamberlain 
in  order  to  investigate  the  facts.  The  report 
made  to  the  pi>i)e  was  very  favoruble  to  tho 
saint  and  his  new  order.  Tope  Sixtu:«  IV.  con- 
firmed this  order,  appointed  tho  fouuder  su- 
perior-general, and  permitted  liim  to  cst.iblish 
as  many  convents  ^is  he  coulJ.  King  I^uis  XI. 
of  Franco  called  him  to  his  c<.»urt,  in  order  to 
cure  him  of  a  dangerous  sickness,  but  Francis 
waited  until,  in  14S2.  the  ]K»po  ordered  him  to 
go.  lie  met  the  f>Wk  khv^  in  Tours,  and  ex- 
horted him  to  leave  the  issue  of  his  sickness  to 
the  will  of  God,  and  to  prepare  himself  for 
death.  Tho  successor  of  Louis,  Charles  VIII., 
retaineil  the  saint  in  France,  and  consulted 
him  in  cases  of  conscicnco  as  well  as  in  state 
affairs,  and  built  for  him  S  ciinvents,  two  in 
Fnince  and  one  i:i  Rome.  Francis  was  canon- 
ized by  Ix?o  X.  in  1519. 

FRAXCI.S  DE  Sai.es.  a  saint  and  bishop  of 
the  Uo!!i:in  Catholic  ohureh,  b<»rn  at  the  chateau 
do  S.1I0S.  nair  Amiei'v,  Savoy,  Au^.  21,  13il7, 
died  in  Lyons.  I>co.  2^,  U'.'22.  Hoili  his  par^-nts 
were  iiol»lo  bv  birtli.  rrancis.  thvir  eldest  son. 
was  N.'i:t  ^urcvMsivclv  t.)  the  eulK-^ro  of  Anneov, 
to  the  .Icsuiis'  schoid  in  raris.  and  to  Padua, 
where  iie  •itudi^.^l  law.  At  tho  a.::o  of  *i'.>  he 
receivfil  tlie  «leu'roe  nf  d<vtor  of  hiws.  His 
inciinailo:).  iievertljele-s  was  toward  the  ecdo- 
sia'itieid  lile.  lie  rel'u-fd  ri.i)ea:edlv  tho  olVerod 
dignity  of  st'iiator,  and  llnally  obtained  liis 
father's  jjcnnis-i-in  to  aiHVpt  tiie  plaro  of  pro- 
vost in  the  cathedral  at  (iiiievu.  llin  ordina- 
tion a*;  deae«in  siK.»n  fojinwrd,  and  in  lo'Jl,  a: 
the  a;:e  of  21,  he  b<.'L:an  hU  wtirk  :ls  a  prea«;iiiT. 
His  MK'i'i-««  was  iniTiii-diate  .'unl  wuiwhrfi:!.  Ilis 
canu>:  niaiiiier.  anil  the  >|»iriinal  Llevalion  a  nil 
beauty  oi  !iis  tiii»iij\t,  gave  liini  a  po\vir:'-.;l 
hoM  on  l,is  a:uli.  ii'T-i.  He  went  on  font 
tliroiiL'h  the  in-ijlil'-inn:,'  viilai:e<i,  n  i'*it«'d  the 
pri>oiH,  mid  bceann*  i  very  w  hero  known  as 
the  fri..'nd  i»f  th»'  sjrk  and  the  po(»r.  Ai- 
co!iipanied  by  his  enij-in,  Li»uis  de  Sahv,  In- 
Went  una  mi-^-ion  ainunjiln'  I'^'tt-'-tant-*  of  the 
province  ,.f  Cliablai'*.  All  "^^rN  of  tliili.ultiis 
were  tiiri»",\ii  jn  liisway.  Tljerr  wi.re  i-.<i<.pira- 
cies  :i.::»ii:".t.  his  ]i|\.^  ami  ^hintlt-rs  .'iji!ii<t  his 
charai  ii.r.  At  lir-t  the  c«»nvt  rts  w«r.'  f.  w. 
Some  of  the  ><»ldiers  were  moved,  and  a  parli.d 
refv»rni  in  their  nianners  wa<  nreoinpl^ltid  :  bnt 
uearlv  4  ye!ir>  p;i»..d  hy  without  any  eon-^iiler- 
ablc  imprea:>iou  upun  the  heresy.     At  laat,  huw- 


ever,  conrcrsiona  multiplied :  new  mi^sionanei 
came  to  his  aid,  and  in  Ij'jS  tlie*  Ca:;.  *^'  rc- 
liirion  was  publicly  restored  and  the  re:'.-r:r.vd 
faith  was  suppressed  throuprhout  the  j^rov.r.<^. 
Repeated  conferences  were  held  with  <!>•.:;- 
guished  Protestau:  leailers,  and  the  lr:.l..^i 
success  of  Francis  in  tho  arpumeLi  "n  iih  I.1 
Faye  led  tho  [mpe  tt>  select  him  to  deal  w.'.h 
Theihluro  ISeza;  but  in  this  case  he  was  c-  •:  :^.  '.i 
to  report  a  conversi»»n.  In  lo^'J  ho  was  th-s.a 
Ci)adjut<fr  to  the  bi>hopof  Geneva,  T.hi>odva:h 
in  1603  lett  to  Franeis  iho  full  ehar.;^.'  *»:  t^.e 
diocese.  His  episcopal  life  was  chiira.ter.zrd 
by  tho  same  Ze:il,  vijor,  and  devulion  i»!..ii 
had  marked  his  mi?>ionary  career,  lie  *■■♦.: 
first  to  Paris,  where  ho  pre:u''hed  Kfiri-  He:.-T 
IV.  in  the  cha{>el  of  the  liuuvre,  ard  l.V-  r^i 
offers  of  money  and  ]»laco  wvre  niade  to  re'i.r. 
him  in  France.  Hut  he  preferrotl  t«»  r«  ::.r:i.  -■%! 
after  asMstini;  the  cardinal  do  l>er'>:'.!e-  i  ;  *.i« 
establishment  of  the  Carmelite  or>lcr  u:A  i'tt 
congreiratiun  of  the  Orat*»ry,  ho  wci.:  I'^.'sl  :j 
Switzerland.  He  established  new  a!id  -:r..ur 
rules,  not  onlv  for  the  clercv  unil  Liitv  • :"  lii 
diocese,  but  for  his  owu  perMm.il  i-oiol:,  l  I;* 
renounced  all  luxuries,  muitip':ie<i  :"».  •:  ^ 
couraged  lawsuits,  and  reformed  t}..-  iir  ■!.*• 
ciplino  of  tho  mona.-terie-s.  U\^  f.i:::-.  :**  s 
preacher  led  various  cities  to  .sol:>-i:  !.>  a.-:  ;£ 
the  serviees  of  the  Lenten  sea>or..  ;!e  i^a* 
more  than  once  cho?cn,  from  his  iii.».!nru;e  a:«I 
peaceful  temfter.  to  reeoncile  di^p.i:* -^  >.:•*. -.2 
ditferent  partie's  and  orders  in  the  «*  -r...  .\. 
still  wider  reuiiwn  was  iriven  to  \.U  i.-.i.-  ' y 
the  ]>ubrh-ati<>[i  {^\ti  I'^'-^i  *-i  tl.-.-  ■!.:-•  .-- 
tiim  to  a  Uovo'ii  \,\u-."  I:..-  j  - ;  ■  -.■'.' 
bi.»ok,  «»ri:ii;;aliy  toinp« -id  "f  ■■.■::i.:-  :  *  ■  .. 
Was  to  >ho\v  tiiat  ii.r  *cc  .1  ir  -•..■. 
incoinpatiiile  wltii  a  tr«i-y  r-  l.j:-'  >  .  :■  "*  ■ 
ritlieuled  i:,  oili.-r-s  d'ti-i:::n-'..:  r.  .^^  ..  ■  -  - 
profane  jilea>;:re-i  in  t:.-.-  -:.  rt  i  -:  .■ 
one  occa-i 'n  it  wa-  ti-ri  i-v  ;i  •:•  .  ■ -.  .  . 
liiirr.od   l'«.:'».'i»   tiie  o-h  ..:    t!..-  ■■.-■>■ 

l»ut  jeih  rally  the  I ic  ar.-l  !:-»  li    ":.      «    «    ': 

approvetl.  and  eveu  ili-*  !'.•■■•:•-!  .'.*   ■'..■.    -     :" 
LnL'lainl.  wh.)  h:;d  rv-vivi'd  a  i'-..».  ■  :  ■ 
a  pre<jei.:  from  ilit  iineen  o:  l.-.i'.-  ■ ,  .:    .- 
ci»nnin.niled  it  t»>  the  rlerjy  of  I.>  r-  .".    .     .'.   ■  -* 
translated  iiitoina!:v  t'i:..:ii'.-s,  a:.'!  ..'..  —  '    ..  .  "  • 
years  4o  eiiititin-*  oi  it  w^re  pii[i-:  -  !       i"-  .  .    » 
Was  far  tVi-m  Lh'Iorvaiiiii;;^' ni'iii.i.-:.-   ::  -V"    ■       -. 
He  ni't  t»nlv  e-^iai'ii-Iie-i  *•.-:. ^t-n'."  »•:  •   .  ■'     _*    ■■ 
d«:-.  b'lt  he  fi'=.niie'i  a  new  iT'i^r  •  :"  :   .    • 
called  till- i»r«li  r  I'f  ::.e  Vi-;:.i::.«'..  ..:  :         .     - 
l!i'' \v*  i.'.tiiv and  ae'"i!njMir-i;i«i  Ma   ..' 
til  t'»  Cii'.iie  !""ni   rr.ii.i  e  a:;l   pr.  -    " 

In   i'«lii  1.1"  p:r.'li ';.«.■  I  li>  w.-i^  »  .:  : 
of  (i  "l,"  a  fit  >■'{■'.>  I  !■'  il..'  i  r:--   -      :    •-.   ■ 
tii»!f."     Ti.i' ai)i    'i:.*!:!'.  r.*.  i-l   •a\-    ...j    :  . 
as  a-»>i''iaiit  b. >;»■•[' \:.i'".id  ii.'.i  !••  ,•  • 
liioiv   fuilv  Uf  ti.e  Wi'ik  ■■I   ri  I '.u\  :.■.'' 
Till*  fann'^i-i  (';.!\  iiii-.:  ii-  ie;»:i-r  ]•-  ".  -k-- 

rariu"  i»;ii:  ol   1.1>  ii':.\.r!-.      I:.    1'  !  •   :  • 

Pari"  as  *>:is:  of  t'..^-  ii..'*4-'y  ....  :.:   :  .  .        ■     ■ 
}ia:iil  I  if  the    priniv>-  I  "'.r. -:.:.:.   :'  r    : 
pnneo  ul  Pied:a<j:.t.     li*.-*  preuei..: ;,'  ..  '....*  - .  .• 


FRANCISCANS  697 

.  the  impression  which  it  had  made  in  the  once  expelled  from  the  order,  was  reelected 

3  reign.    On  his  return  to  his  own  dio-  genera],    Cffisarios  of   Spire   left   the  order, 

I  applied  himself  more  resolute! j  than  followed  hy  72  others,  called  after  him  the 

the  mioistration  of  alms,  the  suppression  CsBsarines  or  Ca^sarians,  who,  however,  were 

idala,  and  exercises  of  personal  disci-  reconciled  with  their  brethren  when  in  1256 

In  1622  he  accompanied  Louis  XIII.  of  Bonaventura  as  general  restored  a  stricter  ob- 

from  Avignon   to  Lyons,  where,  on  servance  of  tlie  rule.    The  lax  government  of 

las  day,  after  preaching,  he  was  attacked  the  general  Matteo  di  Aquas  Spartas  caused 

toplexy,  and  died  on  the  third  day  after,  in  1294  the  foundation  of  the  Minorite  Celes- 

orks  of   St.   Francis  have  been  often  tines ;  who  however,  after  the  death  of  their 

ed.    The  best  edition  is  that  of  1885,  16  protector  Celestine  Y.,  were,  in  1307,  con- 

o.,  Paris.    A  complete  edition,  to  com-  demned  by  the  inquisition  as  heretics  and  sup- 

•  vols.,  is  in  progress  6  vols,  having  been  pressed.    Some  of  them  who  fled  to  France  es- 

pd  up  to  1858.  tablished  in  1808  the  Minorites  of  Narbonne  and 

NCISCANS  (Minorites^  Fratres  MinO'  the  Spirituals,  who  were  likewise  condemned  in 

religious  order  in  the  Roman  Catholic  1318  as  infected  with  the  heresy  of  Peter  John 

founded  by  St.  Francis  of  Assisi  in  1209  Oliva.    Another  offshoot  of  Celestines,  the  Mi- 

mall  church  called  Portiuncula  near  As-  norite  Clarenines,  founded  in  1302  by  Angelo  di 

Then  the  number  of  his  disciples  had  in-  Cordona,  was  tolerated,  and  existed  until  1506, 

to  10,  he  gave  them,  in  1210,  a  rule,  in  when  they  united  with  the  Observants.    Much 

ttrict  poverty  and  a  union  of  the  active  more  successful  than  these  secessions  was  the 

itemplativo  life  are  the  principal  points,  attempt  of  Paoletto  di  Foligno  in  1368  to  restore 

er  was  orally  confirmed  by  Innocent  III.  the  strict  observance  of  the  rule.  His  followers 

,  and  again  in  1215,  and  spread  with  such  were  called  Observants,  and  those  who  adhered 

dinary  rapidity  that  5,000  brethren  were  to  the  milder  rule  Conventuals.     Henceforth 

ed  at  the  general  chapter  in  1219.    In  these  two  names  dbtinguish  the  two  great  par- 

onorius  III.  confirmed  the  order,  by  a  ties.    By  the  15th  century  the  number  of  new 

the  first  among  the  mendicant  orders,  congregations  had  thrown  the  order  into  great 

lem   the  right  of  collecting  alms,  con-  confusion.    I^o  X.  made  an  attempt  in  1517  to 

to  the  church  of  Portiuncula  the  cele-  reunite   them,  but  succeeded  only  with  the 

indulgence  which  was  afterward  extend-  various  congregations  of  Observants,  on  whom 

1  the  churches  of  the  Franciscans,  and  he  therefore  conferred  the  right  of  electing  the 

them  several  other  privileges.  The  general  (minuter  gerurali%\  while  the  Conven- 
povcrty  made  the  Franciscans  the  favor-  tuals  could  only  elect  a  magister-general  (mo- 
di classes  of  the  people,  and  thus  secured  gister  generali$)^  whose  election  had  to  be  eon- 
lore  novices  than  any  of  the  other  or-  firmed  by  the  general.  From  that  time  the  quar- 
Porty-two  years  after  the  death  of  the  rels  between  the  Observants  and  Conventuals 

the  number  of  Franciscans  was  esti-  were  less  violent.  The  Conventuals  made  sev- 
at  about  200,000,  with  8,000  convents  eral  attempts  to  regain  the  ascendency,  but  in 
provinces.  At  the  head  of  the  con-  1681  Urban  YIII.  commanded  them  to  abandon 
^ardian  was  placed ;  the  guardians  of  their  claims  for  ever.  Notwithstanding  the 
ice  chose  a  provincial,  who  was  assisted  desire  of  the  pope  that  no  further  separations 
litorcs;  the  general  assembly  of  all  the  should  occur,  several  congregations  arose,  most* 
ials  (general  chapter)  elected  a  general,  ly  for  the  purpose  of  still  surpassing  the  strict 
)wiso  definitores.  The  simplicity  of  the  observance  of  the  Observants.  These  commu- 
t  room  for  the  greatest  variety  of  opin-  nities  were  styled  Minorites  of  the  stricter  ob- 
rhis  showed  itself  during  the  lifetime  of  servance,  and  though  forming  separate  prov- 
ider, one  party  wishing  to  have  the  vow  inces  from  the  main  body  of  the  regular  Ob- 
trty  mitigated,  the  other  strenuously  op-  servants,  were  always  under  the  same  general, 
my  such  change.  From  1219,  when  Elias  They  were  called  Alcantarines  in  Spain  from 
ona,  the  first  leader  of  the  milder  party,  St.  Peter  of  Alcantara,  Riformati  in  Italy  and 
de  by  St.  Francis  himself  vicar-general  of  Germany,  and  Recollects  in  France,  Englandf 
^r,  until  1517,  when  Leo  X.  divided  them  Ireland,   Belgium,  and  Holland.     The  C^u- 

0  separate  organizations,  the  strife  never  chins,  originaUy  a  congregation  of  reformed 
At  the  election  of  almost  every  new  Franciscans,  became  afterward  an  independent 

we  find  the  two  parties  in  competition,  order.     (See  Capuchiks.)    The  number  of  the 

n  the  popes  sometimes  siding  with  the  Franciscans  has  been  greatly  reduced  by  polit- 

metimes  with  the  other.    The  milder  ical  revolutions  since  1789.    In  the  18th  c«n- 

rhen  in  a  minority,' generally  submitted ;  tury  the  Franciscans,  including  the  Capuchins, 

1  rigorous  party,  when  prevented  from  still  counted  nearly  200,000  members  with 
ng  the  whole  rule  of  St.  Francis,  pre-  about  26,000  convents ;  in  184^  the  number 
JO  form  separate  branches.  In  several  of  the  Observants,  the  meet  numerous  branch, 
hey  even  dared  to  oppose  the  pope  was  estimated  at  about  80,000.  Since  1848 
le  decided  against  them,  and  to  appeal  their  number  has  again  begun  to  increase.  They 
m  to  a  general  council.  As  early  as  are  found  in  every  part  of  Europe.  In  Asia 
rben  Ellas  of  Cortona,  after  having  beea  they  have  a  provinoe  in  Palestinei  whose  mem- 


698  FRANCISCANS  FRAXCEX 

bcrs  aro  the  ^nrdions  of  the  holj  sepnlclire  and  of  tbe  secnlar  clerpy.    With  tbe  I>08nlni 

other  Chrbtian  sanctoarics,  and  arc  celebrated  thcv  maintained  varioos  philosophical  ms.1  theo- 

for  tlicir  liospitalitv  to  pilgrims  and  travellersw  logical  controversieS|  which  are  partly  ftJl  kepi 

In  China  they  have  cnargo  of  two  apostolic  up  as  an  ancient  inheritance  of  both  orders  um 

vicariats.     The  Franciscans  were  the  earliest  Franciscans  being  realists.  anti-AnjrastinUA*.  and 

mUsionaries  to  America,  having  come  over  with  defenders  of  the  unmacolate  conception,  vhi^ 

Culumbus  on  his  second  voyage  in  1493.    Their  the  Dominicans  are  nominalists  and  AccrKla- 

first  formal  establishment  in  the  new  world  was  iana,  and  were  formerly  opponents  of  the  is* 

in  1502,  when  12  friars,  with  a  prelate  named  maculate  conception.    Among  the  c<:Ubn:c4 

Antonio  de  Espinal,  accompanied  Ovando  to  men  produced  by  the  order  are  AntL^nj  c€ 


They  seem  to  have  effected  no  establishment,  entXIV.  In  the  first  period  of  their  hist.^rytbfr 
and  all  perithed  miserably.    An  Italian  Fran-  had  a  considerable  number  of  mystical  wrnoi 
ciscan,  Mark  of  Nice,  penetrated  into  New  Mex-  and  composers  of  li>*mns,  as  Thomas  de  C«laa(% 
ico  and  Cailfomia  in  1539,  and  gave  the  name  tlio  author  of  2>iV«  /iyp,  and  Giacopooe  d&  Tod, 
iSan  Francisco  to  the  country  which  ho  visited,  the  author  of  the  JStabat  Hater. — Sc.  FnzKii 
The  exag^rated  reports  of  what  he  had  seen  also  established  an  order  of  nuns  who  are  ctzr 
and  heard  led  adventurers  to  those  regions,  and  erallv  called,  from  its  first  abU-ss  Cara  cf  A«- 
with  them  came  a  number  of  Franciscans,  some  eisi,  i^oor  Glares  or  Clari»os.     Anotbirr  Vrssrh 
of  whom  remained  behind  after  the  return  of  were  the  Tertiarians  or  jioni tents  of  ili«  *J::ri 
the  expeditionists  and  were  martyred.    Father  orOerof  St.  Francis,  who  remained  in  th<>  vor!i 
Andres  do  Olmos  founded  a  successful  mission  but  followed  a  rule  and  discifdino  «:?x::lAr  ts 
in  Texas  in  1544.    Subsequently  priests  of  this  those  of  the  first  and  second  orders.    TLey  re- 
order establislied  themselves  permanently  in  ccived  their  rule  from  St.  Franci*  in  12^1.   Tls 
Florida,  California,  Mexico,  and  other  parts  of  order  includes  a  great  many  kings  acd  ^raerss 
the  Soutli  and  West,  and  were  among  the  first  (as  Louis  IX.  of  France,  and  the  xno:h«V  a^ 
to  plant  Christianity  in  Canada,  and  in  what  aro  wife  of  Louis  XIV.)  and  poises  amonc  ii<*  xses- 
now  the  northern  and  north-eastern  states  of  hers,  Pins  IX.  beint;  one.    The  Tertiarims  i/- 
the  UnioD.    Their  labors  in  Canada  date  fmm  terward  began  to  live  in  commnnity  a^i  tAi« 
Kilo,  when  4  KecoUects  (3  priests  and  one  lav  vows,  but  this  practice  was  in  time  alan  lo-ri 
brother),  came  over  from  Franco  and  took  Kew  communities  of  Tertiari.«UL«  s::^  -«:.  ■.■j*:'.;t 
cliaivo  of  the  Huron,  Aljonciuin.  and  M(»nt:ig-  sjiranj?  up,  devuicil  to  tc:u*lii;:£r.  rir.d  "'■.■:      :- 
iiiiis  nii-yiun<.  which  tht-y  and  their  brethren  dependent   of   the   parent   »»rii«.r.     T:  .;    :  .  • 
CDnduilo'l  alone,  until  iho  .K-suits  came  to  aiil  In lU-ies  in  IVnnsylvunia,  Indi.iiiii.  M. ':...'  '    '■•''  - 
thi.ni  in  IG'Jo.     The  Kvcollct-ts  li^rured  lar;:ely  consin.  and  Hr^H>klyn,  N.  Y.     Ar:    -r  j  : 
in  the  ini-i.-ionarv  liiMt)rv  of  Canada  f«»r  nianv  muni  tits  ft*  women,  tlie  Klizain  ::..: .  *.  :    .•     w 
years.     Tho  cclehr-ited  cx]»lorer  Hennepin  w:u  in  131*5  hy  Antri-lina  di  C*'r':'.ir.«.  .'ire  *':     •.■  -* 
a  rranriscan  missionary.     The  fonndati'»ns  of  important.     In   France   thvv  wtre    .-     •.    . 
the   unUr  in   CalilVirnio,  notwith>tanJin;:   tho  dau;;hiers  of  charity.     In  l-^i:'.  t.-.,  y  :  .  -  .-  -    : 
niinilu  r?  who  were  put  io  death  by  tho  Indians  l.iMiu  monihers.     In  the  rnit..-!  >r:ir.  -  •     -    s.- 
^till  remain,  and  have  reoenily  been  roenlorced  establi-jhmentst»f  >i-;ter!»  of  tlielh.ri  ■  -'.:  :■  t>"- 
hy  acNv-'i'-ns  from  Kuro|'e.   They  are  numerous  Franci^in  the  dim-f-io  of  Vii.i'inr.v  -.  V  .  ■  .   ^    . 
in  .'ill   parts  of  Central   and  S'»n:h  America.  Cincinnati,  anil  Sanlt  Sio.  M.»r!*\  -  i    •.  :. .    : 
Their  present  hou«io<  in  tho  United  States,  ex-  theUijservani.-icon^i^ii  4»f  aei.'V.  1  v.;*  .  -.  •     :  •  ■. 
ce] it  tlin-e  in  Calil'*»rnift,  have  been  fonnde'<l  very  capodie,  n  cord  u*  a  jr'.ri'.le.  rir.ii   *..■  .* 
reeer:rlv,  clnLtlv  I'V  Italians  and  (iermans.   Thev  color  diilVr-*  in  dillereni  I'Vaii'if -.     ]■.    :  '  -  l-  . 
iiave  a  convent  and  coile;:e  at  All«L'hany,  Cat-  and  Ireland  it  i^  pray,  wht-rn-e  !':.•■  :  .■:  ■      z"  ' 
tiranpus  CO.,  N.  Y.,  whiili  now  (Is*)'.))  numbers  friars*'      S«»!ne   o'HjrreL'aii'Vi'*    1- :    *         "■.'- 
12  niemhers  antl  is  intencK-d  as  the  nucleus  of  a  prow.     The  Conventii.i!*;ri!:»T:i;v  i\.  .r  .         • 
Iar;.v  esiabli-^hmeiit ;  a:id  there  arc  hon-es  of  tlio  cowl   ar.d    oapoche.      liny    ri^^i    v,.  ..-   ?    - -. 
oni<.ratTenti)|MiliK,  III.  CJ  niemhirsin  l^.".^^l.  anil  and  are  alwavs  without  U-ard-. — T:  •   t  " 
Cincinnati  (4  ineniU-r-).     All  these  are  (.>l»sorv-  work  on  the  iVanci^iMn.-i'.  th.*  .1 ;.  .  r "  *  .•  -     -    . 
ants.     Tiio  ConvtntuaU  ljfi\o  convents  in  It.'ily,  J//;j^>rf.wi  i*Jd  ed.,  l'»  \ «■'.-.,  II.  t:;i,  17    '  .    ;■  '   * 
AuMria,  liavaria,  Switzi  rl;,:;d.   Maliru  Tuhii-d,  Iri^h  Franci-can  Luros  W.i.:i:::i^  <  ':  .  1    :  :     " 
'JiirkfV,  and  miico  iN^is  in  thf  I'liitv*!  .'^tates  Tiio   author   liim^Ii"  carri- d  t:.f  1  •:.  ":■        '.  • 
"VVc  liinl  Franci-c.ans  HM»n  af:«-r  the  <h-;»th  of  St.  Cinlert»  ihc  viar  \'»\0;  lK\::^  .a      .:          '.    '  ' 
Frarui>a':jiri'fe<'Sors<»f  tljenl  ijv  ji:  t!u'n::ivrr-ity  ir)"i:J  <vol.  x\iii.,  K^-nie.  174    ■.      il  -  v.    •..  ••   ■ 
ot'Tari-,  >vlii.'!i  in  1244  was*-i'njm:j!i«li '1  l«y  J*i.po  tlieu  in'n.»*ru|'!ed.  iii.td  a  l\  •*    >..j*-  .  .-     ■  '  .■ 
IrnhKi  nt  IV.  to  admit  Franci-cai.s  :ii;.i  iKi-nin-  taken  up  a^'aiu  lyt^rdtri-:'  •:  ■   j- ■    :  '        .- 
icans  i.)  ;ir:idemical  di^'nitie'*.     In  nT.ji.::  with  now  vtdnmes  w^re  j'uMi-I  i-l  :/.  I:    ■.  - 
Ihe  P.'niii.iiuiis  they  .-trove  for  ^eVl  r;.l  tcntii-         FKANCKK.    At•i:^T   nji.M\\\.    *  »      -    -. 
ries  In  vxt.  lid  in  the  theoln-rical  ^^■!.••«»l«i  i!ie  preacher,  ami  iouiid«  r  i-f  t-i    k::     .:    '      -    j: 
iuliueijcc  oi  tho  monastic  orders  al  the  expense  lialle,  burn  iu  J.ubvck,  Marih  i'  ,  1' 


.-    'V* 


FRANCOLIN  FRANCONIA                  699 

Jnno  8, 1727.  He  stndied  at  the  universities  of  be  had  become  blind,  the  establishment  was 
Erfart,  Kiel,  Gotha,  and  Leipsic,  and  founded  condncted  by  his  sons  Lanrent  and  Miuette. 
in  Lcipsic  a  school  for  the  interpretation  of  the  In  1833  they  ail  withdrew  from  the  arena  ex- 
Scriptures,  which  attracted  a  great  number  of  ceptiu^  their  adopted  brotlier  Adolphe.  The 
Btadents.  Accused  of  pietism,  lie  was  obliged  older  Franconi  recovered  his  Bight  in  the  latter 
to  renounce  tliis  emploYiiiciit  iu  1691,  and  part  of  his  life.  At  his  request  hb  funeral  was 
passed  to  llolle,  where  he  taught  the  Greek  and  attended  by  his  favorite  horse, 
oriental  languages  in  the  university.  Hero  he  FI'ANCONIA  (Ger.  Franlrn^  or  Franlrn' 
founded  a  charitable  institution  for  the  educa-  Land^  land  of  the  Franks),  an  old  duchy  and 
tion  of  poor  children  and  orphans,  which  soon  afterward  a  circle  of  the  German  empire.  In 
became  one  of  the  roost  considerable  in  Ger-  the  Cth  century  it  formed  the  central  part  of 
manr.  A  chemist^,  whom  lie  had  visited  on  his  Thuringia,  and  on  the  dismemberment  of  that 
death-bed,  bequeathed  to  him  the  recipe  for  kingdom  fell  to  the  Franks,  under  whom  it  had 
compounding  certain  medicines  which  after-  several  nomes.  That  of  Fronconia  was  given 
wara  yielded  an  annual  income  of  more  than  about  the  10th  century,  when  it  constituti^l  the 
^20,000,  and  made  the  institution  independents  £.  part  of  the  Fraukish  territories,  and  was 
It  combined  an  orphan  asylum,  a  piedagoglum,  governed  by  dukes  who  for  some  years  wore 
m  Latin  school,  a  German  school,  and  a])nntlng  independent.  In  1512  Maximilian  I.  erected  a 
press  for  issuing  cheap  copies  of  the  Bible.  part  of  it  into  a  circle  of  the  empire,  containing 

FKANCOLIN,  a  gallinaceous  bird  of  the  the  towns  of  Xurcmberg,  Schweinfurt,  Rothcn- 

l^nso  family,  sub-family  perJirinoi  or  part-  burg,  "Weissenburg,  and  Windsheim.     Between 

ridges,  and  ^nuB  francoUnus  (Steph.).    There  ISOl  and  1819  it  was  partitioned  among  "War- 

are  about  80  species  found  in  the  warm  parts  temberg,  Baden,  Ilcsso-Cassel,  Saxony,  and  Ba< 

of  the  eastern  hemisphere,  especially  in  Africa ;  vario,  the  last  named  state  receiving  the  largest 

■ome  prefer  open  plains,  where  they  roost  in  portion,  and  still  retaining  the  name  in  the  8 

trees,  and  others  woody  places ;  when  alanned,  circles  of  Upper,  Middle,  and  Lower  Franconio. 

they  conceal  themselves  in  the  brushwood,  or  — Upper  Franconia.  (Ger.  Ohcrfranlrn)  nearly 

mn  with  considerable  si)eod,  taking  wing  only  of»rresponds  with  the  former  circle  of  Upper 

when  hard  pressed ;  their  food  consists  of  bulb-  Main,  and  lies  in  the  N.  £.  part  of  the  kingdom; 

OU8  roots,  grains  and  iui-ects,  and  they  feed  in  bordering  on  Saxony ;  area,  2,220  sq.  m. ;  pop. 

early  morning  and  at  evening.     The  bill  is  in  1855,  493,913.    It  is  a  mountain  region,  oo 

longer  than  in   the  common   partridge ;    the  cupied  in  the  X.  £.  by  a  portion  of  the  Fich- 

irings  are  moderate  and  rounded,  the  8d,  4th,  telgebirge,  and  rich  in  gypsum,  marble,  gold 

and  5th  quills  the  longest ;  the  tarsi  are  strong  silver,  lead,  and  iron.    Agriculture  and  cattle 

and  spurred ;  the  feet  4-tood.     The  francolin  raising  are  carried  on  with  succeirs.    Cai)ital. 

of  Europe  (F.tw/<7<ir/<,  Stcph.),  in  the  male,  has  Baireuth. — MiDm.E    Fkaxconia.  (Ger.  Mitteh 

the  plumage  of  a  general  yellowish  brown  color,  Franl'cn)  comprises  that  portion  of  territory 

each  feather  with  a  dark  centre ;  the  ear  cov-  anciently  known  as  the  circle  of  Rezat^  and  in-* 

erts  white ;  circle  round  the  eyes,  cheeks,  and  eludes  the  fonner  margraviato  of  Anspach,  the 

aides  of  head,  and  the  throat,  deep  black,  be-  free  city  of  Nuremberg,  the  bishopric  of  Eich- 

low  which  is  a  broad  chestnut  collar  extending  «stadt,  and  part  of  Baireuth ;  area,  2,798  sq.  m. ; 

around  the  neck ;  the  rump  ond   tail  white  pop.  in  1855, 533,587.    It  touches  Wilrtemberg 

barred  with  black,  the  outer  feather  of  the  lat-  on  the  W.    It  is  intersected  by  branches  of  th^ 

ter  entirely  black ;  breast  and  lower  parts  black ;  Franconian  Jura,  and  a  small  portion  of  the  moun* 

aides  blotched  with  black  and  white ;  under  tainous  district  is  too  rough  for  tillage,  but  f  of 

tail  coverts  chestnut ;  bill  black.   The  female  is  the  circle  is  in  a  high  state  of  cultivation,  pro' 

without  the  black  markings  and  chestnut  collar,  ducing  the  grape,  tobacco,  pasturage,  and  hops 

and  her  bill  is  brown.    This  is  the  only  species  There  are  few  minerals,  but  important  manufao 

indigenous  in  Europe,  where  it  is  found  in  the  tures  are  carried  on  in  most  of  the  towns.  Capital^ 

aonthern  parts ;  it  also  occurs  in  northern  Africa  Nuremberg. — ^Lower  Franconia  (Ger.  Unter' 

and  the  greater  part  of  Asia.    The  flesh  is  deli-  IVanken)^  nearly  identical  with  the  former  circle 

cate,  and  much  esteemed  in  India.  According  to  of  Lower  Main,  comprises  the  old  bishoprics  of 

Gonld,  this  genus  seems  to  form  a  connecting  WQrzburg  and  Fuldo,  with  several  smaller  terri- 

link  between  the  brilliant  pheasants  ond  trago-  torice;  area,  8,G04sq.  m.;  pop.  in  1855,  589.07G. 

fuins  of  the  East  and  the  sober-colored  partridges  It  is  bounded  N.  by  the  Saxe  duchies,  S.  by 

of  Europe ;  to  the  splendid  C4)lors  of  the  former  Wttrtemberg  and  Baden,  W.  by  Darmstadt,  and 

it  unites  the  form  and  habits  of  the  latter.  N.  W.  by  Ilesse-Cassel.    Its  N.  part  is  traversed 

FRANCONI,  Antoinb,  an  equestrian  artist,  by  the  RhOngebirge,  and  its  S.  W.  by  the  Spes- 

born  in  Venice  in  1738,  died  in  Paris,  Dec.  6,  eart  mountains.    There  are  several  extensive 

1836.    At  first  a  mountebank  and  perambulating  forests,  but  tho  plains  and  river  bottoms  are  well 

physician,  he  afterward  gave  bull  tights  at  Lyons  cultivated,  producing  grain,  potatoes,  hops,  and 

and  Bordeaux,  and  associated  himself  in  1783  tho  grape.    Capital,  Wfirzburg. 

"with  Mr.  Astley,  who  was  tho  proprietor  of  a  FRANCONIA,  a  post  township  of  Grafton 

drcus  in  Paris.    He  became  subsequently  cele-  co.,  N.  II.,  75  m.  N.  of  Concord;  pop.  in  1850, 

brated  as  the  founder  of  the  cirque  ohjmpique  584.    It  is  situated  in  the  midst  of  tho  magnifi- 

ia  Paris,  which  was  opened  iu  Dec  1807.    Aa  cent  ecenery  of  tho  White  mountains,  and  con* 


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■  > 


FBANKFORT-ON-THE-MAIN  FRANKINOENSE               701 

re,  the  tower  of  which  is  still  unfinished.  The  of  the  cabinet  of  the  vicar  of  Germany. — ^Frank- 
98t  celebrated  Lutheran  church  is  that  of  St.  fort  is  mentioned  in  794,  under  the  name  of 
lol  (formerly  Barfuuerhirehe^  where  tlio  Palatium  Franconei\fard,  as  the  place  selected 
nrman  parliament  was  held  in  1848  and  1849.  by  Charlemagne  for  the  seat  of  an  imperid  con- 
new  synagogue  for  the  orthodox  Jews  was  yention  and  religious  councU.  The  election  and 
ened  in  1856,  and  one  for  the  rationalistic  coronation  of  the  German  emperors  there  sub- 
W8  in  1858.  The  theatre  of  Frankfort  was  sequently  gave  great  importance  to  the  city. 
larged  and  embellished  in  1855,  and  is  among  Under  Napoleon  I.  it  became  the  capitid,  first  of 
a  best  in  Germany.  The  new  post  office  on  a  principaJity,  and  then  of  a  grand  duchy,  with 
a  Zeil  is  a  stately  building,  as  well  as  the  new  an  area  of  about  2,000  sq.  m.,  and  a  population 
change.  The  principal  business  of  Frankfort  of  800,000.  Since  1814  it  has  recovered  its  in- 
banking.  There  are  about  20  first-class  bank-  dependence,  and  since  1816  it  has  been  the  seat 
^  bouses,  foremost  among  which  are  those  of  of  the  German  diet.  On  April  8,  1833,  the 
itlischild,  BethmannJGrunelius,  Metzler,  Gon-  city  was  the  theatre  of  a  political  outbreak  for 
^  and  Heyder.  The  number  of  houses,  which  many  students  were  arrested.  In  1848 
lefly  Jewish,  engaged  in  the  stock  and  ex-  and  1849  it  derived  political  importance  from 
ange  business  amounts  to  at  least  200.  The  the  German  parliament  held  there.  A  riot 
ignitude  of  this  business  is  due  partly  to  broke  out  during  the  excitement  about  the 
b  great  wealth  of  the  city,  and   partly  to  Schleswig-Holstein  war  (Sept.   18,  1848),  in 

geographical    situation,    which    makes  it  which  the  Prussian  major-general  Auerswxdd 

eonvenient  medium  of  exchange   between  and  Prince  Felix  Lichnowsky  were  killed  by 

enna  and  Paris,  Trieste  and  Hamburg,  and    the  mob^ 

enna  and  Berlin.    A  new  bank  with  a  capi-  FRANKFORT-ON-TITE-ODER,  a  Prussian 

.  of  $4,600,000  was  established  in  1854.    The  city,  capital  of  aif  extensive  circle  of  the  same 

lef  local    manufactures  are  c^irpets,   table  name  in  the  province  of  Brandenburg,  on  the 

rers,  jewelry,  playing  cards,  oilcloth,  tobac-  left  bank  of  the  river  Oder,  49A  m.  by  rail  from 

,  miiff,  and  Frankfort  black.    A  chamber  of  Berlin,  and  170  m.  from  Breslau ;  pop.  of  the 

hutry  was  established  in  1855.    The  suburb  circle  about  900,000,  and  of  the  city  in  1855, 

fiachsenhausen,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  80,938.    The  prosperity  of  the  town  is  due  to 

lin,  and  united  to  Frankfort  by  a  fine  stone  its  situation  on  the  railway  between  Berlin  and 

idgc,  is  an  important  market  for  fruits  and  Silesia,  to  its  navigable  river,  which  is  connected 

getables.    Leipsic  has  taken  from  Frankfort  by  canals  with  the  Vistula  and  the  Elbe,  and  to 

»  supremacy  which  it  once  possessed  in  the  ite  8  annual  fairs,  at  which  large  quantities  of 

ok  trade,  but  there  are  30  booksellers  in  the  cotton,  woollen,  silk,  and  other  goods  are  sold, 

J,  and  several  important  publishing  and  en-  though  to  a  less  extent  than  formerly.    The  city 

aving  establishments.    There  are  about  20  has  8  suburbs,  fine  streets,  public  squares  and 

Ely  and  periodical  publications ;  the  principal  gardens,  a  theatre,  many  charitable  institutions, 

litical  daily  journals  are  the  FranJcfurter  a  Roman  Catholic  church,  a  synagogue,  and  6 

umidl^  the  Postteitung^  and  the  Journal  de  Protestant  churches.    The  university  was  re- 

ttncfort    The  government  is  republican,  and  moved  to  Breslau  in  1810;  a  gymnasium  still 

Bteaintwo  burgomasters,  who  are  annually  remains,  beside  which  there  are  10  schools. 

)eted  by  the  senate,  a  senate,  a  legislative  as-  Beyond  the  wooden  bridge  which  connects  the 

nbly,  and  a  permanent  committee  of  citizens,  old  town  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Oder  with  the 

le  burgomasters  preside  over  the  senate.    Ac-  suburb  on  the  right  bank  is  a  monument  to 

rding  to  the  new  law  of  1856,  that  body  is  Prince  Leopold  of  Brunswick,  who  was  drowned 

mposed  of  21  members  elected  for  life,  4  of  here  in  1785,  while   attempting  to  rescue  a 

lom  are  chosen  from  the  ranks  of  accomplish-  family  during  an  inundation.   Tne   battle   of 

]B.wjeTs(Syndilen\  and  4  from  those  of  me-  Eunersdorf  was  fought  within  8  m.  of  the  town 

aides.    The  legislative  assembly,  which  has  in  1759,  and  there  is  in  Frankfort  a  monument 

members  in  all,  is  composed  of  57  members  of  the  poet  Kleist,  who  died  from  a  wound  re- 

idnding  4  Jews)  chosen  from  the  citizens,  20  oeived  in  this  battle. 

nnbers  f^om  the  permanent  committee  of  cit-  FRANKINCENSE,  the  fragrant  gum  resin, 

ma,  and  11  deputies  from  the  rural  districts,  known  in  medicine  as  clihanum^  the  product 

te  revenue  of  1858  was  estimated  at  $900,000,  of  the  tree  BotweUia  \erraia^  which  grows 

»  expenditures  at  $850,000,  and  the  public  among  the  mountains  of  central  India  and  upon 

bt  at  $8,350,000,  beside  a  debt  of  $280,000  the  Coromandel  coast.    It  is  imported  from 

Dtracted  for  the  construction  of  railways.  Calcutta  in  the  form  of  roundish  lumps  or  tears, 

■nkfort  and  the  free  cities  of  Hamburg,  Ld-  which  have  a  pale  yellow  color,  are  somewhat 

ok,  and  Bremen  occupy  the  17th  place  in  the  translucent,  and  are  covered  with  a  whitish 

nmanic  confederation,  and  have  one  vote  in  powder  produced  by  friction.    It  has  an  agree- 

B  amaller  council  of  17.    Frankfort  has  a  able  balsamic  odor,  but  its  taste  is  acid  and  bit- 

Mrate  vote  in  the  general  assembly  {PlenuvrC)^  ter.    Like  the  common  balsam  gum,  it  softens 

A  fbmishea  a  contingent  of  1,044  men  to  the  when  chewed,  adheres  to  the  teeth,  and  whitens 

lend  army.    The  German  diet  has  been  held  the  saliva.    It  readily  inflames,  and  imparts  in 

lee  1851  in  the  palace  of  Prince  Thum  and  burning  a  fragrant  odor.    This  is  the  property 

xk^  which  in  1848  and  1849  was  also  the  seat  which  re&deced  it  cohi^i  «iftM«(&i^^^ir^'Q&» 


702  FRANKLIN 

anciont:*,  l\v  who!n  it  xraa  intrcxluced  ns  ono  of  aro  Indian  corn,  potatoes,  and  hay.     In  !*'> 

tlie   iiiiiroilioiits   in  their  inoouse,  wliirh  was  the  production:*  were   253,G10  bf>hvN  •  :   l\- 

\)\irTH:i\  (inrtjisum),  according  to  Mainionidcf^  to  dian  corn,  247/217  of  potat«>o%  4'.*.:U:*  T  -n*  i( 

cc»ncejil  the  siiicU  arising  from  the  slauglitored  hay,  and  884,1^07  1 1 •'*.  of  butter.     Ti.«.  re  w.re 

nniiiials  of  ilio  sacrifices.     According  to  otliers,  0  cotton  and  5  woollen  fucturie^  2  ir-  r.  f  .:;• 

tlio  Miioko  of  it-*  burning  ^vas  regarded  as  in  it-  derie?,  2C  taiinerio?,  3  factories  of  •  ".^^.rv.  1 

Self  an  arceptablo  oiVcring,  because  it  was  sym-  of  edge  lr>oK    and   8  of  :i;rr;c:lf.:rJ    i::.j!- 

bolical  c»f  ]»raycr  and  of  interi*)r  worship  (I*?,  ments.     In  1^58  it  contained  1*4  eh::rr\.-*  t:.  I 

cxli.  2;  Kev.  viii.  3,  4).     Olibaiuiin  is  but  ini-  2  newspaper  otlices.     The  priiirip^  ^  J.dLriv'* 

perfectly  soluble  in  water.     Alcohol  takes  up  of  trau«portation  aro  the  C'lUinetiieut  r;v*r  r-.."- 

about  J  of  it,  funning  a  transparent  solution,  road,  and  the  Vermont  and  M:t«-.iih:i>o*.!-  riJ- 

]>racunnL)t  obtained  8  ])art3  of  v(»latilo  oil,  50  r<»ad.   The  Connecticut  river  h;V4l»evn  ri.j.:--:.ir. 

of  resin,  110  <>f  gum,  and  5.2  of  insoluble  glu-  igable  hero  for  l»oats.     Formed  from  Ha::  j-l.  -•» 

tinous  matter;  livss  0.8.     The  article  finds  but  co.  in  1811.    Capital,  (irecnticl J.    IV.  A  N  E. 

little  u-io  in  medicine  except  for  fumigations,  co.  of  X.  Y.,  borderim:  on  Canada  Hi*!,  d.-j..:...! 

and  rarely  as  an  ingredient  of  ]>lasters. — Another  by  Saranac,  Chateaiiiray,  Salmon.  St.  I!i-j.«.  ai  i 

variety  of  frankincense  is  obtained  from  Anibia  Racket  rivers;  are.i,  1.7C4?«j.  n\. ;  pi»p.  '.k  Ir'i, 

an<l  tlio  N.  E.  portion  of  Africa.     The  tree  25,477.    The  St.  Liwrence  ti»uc!:».'S  i:*  N.  W. 

which  ])roduces  it  has  not  been  describetl;  it  corner.   It  has  an  uneven  surface,  divvr-^:'-.-:  Ir 

d  ks  not  appear,  liowever,  to  be  the  same  spo-  a  great  number  of  small  lake-.     The  S.  K,  j*-  > 

cie>  if  of  the  siune  genus,  as  that  from  which  tho  tion  is  i»ceupied  by  t!ie  Adip  'ndic  u:  .:;■.: ..:.«. 

Indian  olibaninn  is  obtained.  tho  highest  peak  of  which  in  this  o.  :-  M*. 

FUA N KLIN',  the  name  t»f  counties  in  many  Seward,  r»,loo  f^^-t  abtive  ti>!e.      It^'g  ir  r.  :i 

of  the  United  States.     I.  A  W.  c«\  of  Me.,  bor-  found  in  con-idend-le  <iMat!tities.     T.^e  «^  !'.  j 

derintc  on  Canada  Kast,  and  dndned  by  I>e:ul  adapted  to  grain  an«l  pa-turagf,  and  m' ;•"•';  * :"  t 

and  Sandy  rivers,  branches  of  tho  Kennebec;  con-i.-ts  ui  rjili  samly  lo;im.     Tho  pr*^;  :■:    n 

area,   l,Gtio  sq.  ni. ;  pop.  in  1S50,  20,027.     It  in  1n*)5  were  :17,5'.«4  loi.s  of  hay.  7' ►.■.•!■.:  lis:  .:* 

ha-s  no  navigable  streams,  but  there  are  .several  of  wheat,  14k»U7  of  uats  ^:J.»il.'>  of  h.-I^.-j :  r*. 

mill  creeks  and  small  pi>nds.     The  surface  is  484,425  of  potatiKS,  and  l,o."»o.04i»  p.-.  .-:  \  .:« 

undulating,  with  a  few  moimtainous  elevations,  ter.     There  wore  11  gri-t,  S5  saw,  1  ••[!.  !  ..irl- 

tlio  chief  of  which  aro  Mt.  Hhie,  Mt.  Abraham,  ing,  and  2  wo«jlmi;i<.  17nianul*ait*>r;v — : -• .:  :.. 

and  Saddleback  mountain.     The  s<iil  is  a(hii>ted  1  t»f  soap.  1  j>f  sahratus,  2  of  ajrl-  ■:;:  .r  -.'.      - 

to  grain,  ]>otatoes,  and  pasturage.     The  produc-  pk-ments.  s  (.f  ri.a<  hes  and  waj'-n-.  '  •  f  ...    - 

tio:is  in   1^5')  were  47,^i»o  bushels  of  wlieat,  net  ware,  2  of  wo.»lIen  g-Mhl*.  1  !;i  v '.;• 

21'»,0P2    cf  jiotatiK'S,    M,^7y    <■:'   Ir  cjian    r.Tn,  1    fiirna*  i\   1   b:''k  vir-!,  »!  :.i:  •.- -  ■ -.  _ 

12".M(J4  i.t'iMt.-,  4'»,717  tiM.- of  li:iy.  r)to,7-Jn  ]1  s.  pap«  r  oiliiv-.  i ';7 -«:..  ■   !:..■.-«..  .i:.-:     '. 

.if  i'litiiT,  ;i:iil  1<':;,<"«".' of  wiM-l.     Tlii-iv  w».-:-f  15  A  railn-iid  Ir- !:i  <  >:'I:  •.-'■;;_•  !..  i:      ■    >   . 

LT-t  niii!-i, 'J.')  -.I'.v  and   I'.asii'!::   inilN,   •»   lluur  pa— es  th.'-'i^ii  t!^- 1  -   i-.r^ ,      l'  ::...   1 -■■   ■ 

iMilI'.  ■)  >!.:-i-h  fa'torifv.  '.t  ?;iiiinrii.*>.  1  wiMiJl^n  ton  i ..».  in  l*^  "*.    I'.. ;■'.;. i',  V.!  ■:.■■.     \'     .\  ^ 

f.i':-ry.  ;.'>  »!i'ir«'lii'S.   1    i  rw-jiai'.  r  nlVne,  and  of  Pi  :;:i..  i...:-!!.  r:' /  *-u   V  .■ ;,  1 -.:  1.  '  ■  ! 

li.T*^;*  I'Mji'.-N  :;'*riiili:i:/ jiji^'lir  M-i:iM!s.     Fnniied  by   Su':*ii  i:. ■■■■.•!:. •.'.•,.    N.   W".   I  ^     1   ..     ■ 

i:i  l^'.o  i«;::  I't' pi »:■;':■  •!.-»  i»f  n\!'. .ril  ai;<l  Si>iiurv,'t  Cnve  in.iii;::.:!!-.  ..".'i  «';:.;;i... -l  '  v  -    ■■  . 

t«'i::.:i. -.     (';.'.'i:ai,   Far::.':  .::>-m.      II.   A    V.  W.  aiv;i,  71"  -  :.  i...  :  [    \.   \:\    >'•"..■    ■    :       *=     • 

•  ■•■.  "t"  \  :..  ]•  ':''li  •:•";!.::  fii  ra:i.»:a  Ka-t  an<l  f.ako  of  it  f":>i>:^  «  i  .i   i!.  '■    ':::.•  -*    :  .     -.  . 

<>  iia:  ijla".::.  arjil  'Iraiiii  <l   'y  Mi--i.-,'i»'  ainl    f.a-  wa'.ere-l,  al:-.l    :.'■  ■  .r.  i::  .•   in    -!  .'   .  ■     .- 

:... '■..!■   liv.r-:  aPiu'-:-"   ^■..  m.:  i'«'p.  in    K)*\  ir*>u.     In  :);.■    N.  ;■..:■:   i  -.;-   I*..:-    '    -      . 

-^. '■"■'.     T:.'  >M-:"..i'f  i- i:-".ji;;ar,  !!.<•  .-oil  fi-nile,  loi:y  ].•  ak  f-rrni:/  :!  .■  >.  U"    v-     . 

:.;;  1  •.;..' rli":-:"  ]■!•.•. i\i  til-:.'.  ;.:■■■  iiiar:  If,  in-n,  i>a!-,  l!ie  Kiva:ir;'.>  r.:  .'■•.     T!i-.- :  r  ■1  ■   ■        -    ■    > 

;..!.•■.,-.    v.....].   an-i    !:a\.      I:i    I""!"   it    \iil.l,<l  w»r.'    '•:i7.o''"J    1- :-:.. '>    i.fv.'-   .:     ■  -      ■     ■ 

-■^,7"»7   !•■:-:. ^!-  <f  j- 'rat' ■•-.''*». -I  "S  «»f  w  l.-iat,  ijnititi".  v   p:-"!:.*'!   I>;.  ;;■  ;.  (■-.■•. 

J  ;■''.",'■  f  .'.:-.  7'*.  ■•  I.'  !■■;-  '  r  I.m.v.  1.:{:".».U5  e\. .  j.t'l.a:..-i-*.  ■  . .".  ■'.■■:•■.  ■  :"  I    .'  . 

i"  -.  ■  f  !•■::•  :•.  l,l;"',':':o  ..f  ,  !:..,^..,  ai,.l  jom.:;:;.j  .1.^7  ..f  ,,;jr..  :....-"!  |  ..  .  ,..  ).  .^ .  .  -  ; 

<f  v.-.i..':.      1  !.:■-■  \^-i  :-.■  ;J  t:-ir  ami  gri-i  mill-,  4  b"..!ttr.  a:.'l   41.!'.'.!   «  '.    w  ■    '        !       ■. 

W"i'.!.-i  1  I' '.  •:!<"•.- :r<-n  I- ■ill'!' ril -.  15  Tanin-rii  s  Tln^ir  a::-!  lT-*:  i:  "1-.  '■  '  -.■..■  :      "-.  ■    ' 

47    < 'm  "■-!.' •«,    -    :.■  \v-;;.|.i  r   «'l!ii'.-,   ai.tl   7. 5:. 7  •»!i'r::t-.  .'»   fi:-:  .■■-.:»   v.    ■     ■  :.    :     ■ 

1'   ;!- .i**' :.■:■:._•  ]■.■";■-■  li'.!-.     'I  In- •■•ir.Mii.  :io  t,iiii.«  i- '...-.  17  •!.-'       ■'..-.  7    .■■•.. 

•  ::!.•   I   ■.'.•.  I- '■.;r!':«.l  ■■:!:;.:■■  •ii..-!i  I.  iki- Ci-aTa-  flii::.!;.^.    ;,'!'l    *»,"-7'.'    •••..- 
;'.■.■.'.!■■:!- i:;i\  ij.  :•'.'■  l.t  r-i    i"..;- \.---.  :^  i-f  •.»■)  -ili.'  I-.     'I..    .      ■■%■.-:■.■..■      1      .   • 

.-■1   '-^.r  rl.f    Vrr:;.i'nf   •!  :,*";»!    r;i;!r"ai!.  l-.:!;i:..:  \  a!!.  %  ii'--..\  i    .■   •  .     1 

<•  •..■      ;  ::.  :'."2.    Cai-it;.:.  >;.  .\:::.ri^.    III.  VI.  A  >. .  ■.".-!  V.  .'.  .-...  :  N  F       -  .  '. 

.\  N.    ■'•  .   •   •-    .■;■  M..--.,  !-•:■■!<  ri:  _'   ■■!.  \'<T:r!'>:i:  t-n  :;■.-:■.  N.  W.  1  ;.  •'.      ;..       i.    "  ■    .     . 

.."■  :    N-   \    i  !t-i;  -I.i:--'.  ii:''r-«  .■".  <1  Vv   ?!;i-  < '  .;  .  *■■..  i:..  ::■■■■.    iv    ;•«*  ■"     1  7  J 

:..".[  '.:...i;'il  l-y  Mi!li  :'s   .1:..!    h«.:-!i.Il  Wi  :•  -!  i*.  i -.     '1'.    -.::..     «    ■ -■ 

:  •.."■.     .'■■■r    i-^'i  N-;.   in.;   ;■■:■.   ia    [*-'>',,  t:-.i:i  !\    \. ■..■'..■■   :';■;. 

■  •'..    ' ..      1  ...■■::  :.!■.■  is  jjilly  .iii-l  in  r-  <:\i*-  ]-\  ..  •  1  ;:.!■  ;•■.!,'  i.  :t  ;■■...■.■:  •"      : 

:.;■.'...:... ;jo.-.  "...v  -vW  is   ^OO^A,  IVUA  \\.v:   t\A\\M^  NS\:r«j  70,":    1  l-u-l.^.'.- v.I  ^\i.^..^  i.  :  4  ■'^     :..... 


FRANKLIN  708 

com,  187,792  of  oats,  1,125,404  lbs.  of  tobacco.  sbU  fertUe  near  the  rivers,  but  the  land  else- 
and  13,952  of  wool.  There  were  14  flour  anu  where  consists  chiefly  of  pine  barrens.  In  1850 
grist  mills,  80  saw  miUs,  2  forges,  1  furnace,  24  the  productions  were  4,347  bales  of  cotton, 
tanneries,  15  tobacco  factories,  25  churches,  and  189,195  bushels  of  Indian  com,  4,995  of  oats, 
700  pupils  attending  public  schools.  Value  of  44,039  of  sweet  potatoes,  and  83,220  lbs.  of  rice, 
real  estate  in  1856,  $2,453,264,  showing  an  in-  There  were  9  com  and  flour  mills,  4  saw  mills, 
creaseof  85  per  cent,  since  1850.  Organized  in  14  churches,  and  132  pupils  attending  public 
1784.  Capital,  Rocky  Mount.  VII.  A  N.  co.  schools.  Capital,  Meadville.  XII.  A  N.  E. 
of  N.  C,  intersected  by  Tar  river;  area,  about  parish  of  La,,  watered  by  Boeuf  and  Macon 
450  sq.m.;  pop.  in  1850, 11,713,  of  whom  5,507  bayous,  the  former  of  which  is  navipable  by 
were  slaves.  The  surface  is  level  and  the  soil  steamboats;  area,  739  sq.  m. ;  pop.  m  1855, 
fertile.  The  productions  in  1850  were  898,031  8,621,  of  whom  1,908  were  slaves.  Its  surface 
bushels  of  Indian  corn^3,798  of  oats,  and  800,-  is  hilly  and  its  soil  fertile.  Cotton  is  the  staple 
268  lbs.  of  tobacco.  There  were  12  corn  and  production.  In  1855  there  were  raised  3,898 
floor  mills,  10  saw  mills,  2  tanneries,  and  17  bales  of  cotton,  and  88,320  bushels  of  Indian 
cborches.  The  Raleigh  and  Gaston  railroad  corn.  Valuoof  real  estate,  $544,701.  Capital, 
passes  along  or  near  the  W.  border  of  the  county.  Winnsborough.  XIII.  A  K  W.  co.  of  Ark., 
formed  in  1779.  Capital,  Lewisburg.  Value  intersected  by  Arkansas  river ;  area,  770  sq. 
ofreal  estate  in  1857,  $1,077,721.  VIIL  AN.  m.;  pop.  in  1854,  3,976,  of  whom  572  were 
C  CO.  of  6a.,  bordering  on  S.  C,  drained  by  slaves.  It  has  a  hilly  surface  and  some  fertile 
North  and  Iludson^s  forks  of  Broad  river,  and  soil,  and  in  1854  produced  1,156  bales  of  cotton, 
bounded  on  the  N.  £.  by  the  Tugaloo ;  area,  244,285  bushels  of  Indian  corn,  and  5,384  of 
CSOsq.m.;  pop.  in  1852, 10,900,  of  whom  2,227  wheat.  Capital,  Ozark.  XIV.  A  S.  co.  of 
were  slaves.  It  has  a  hilly  surface  and  a  pro-  Tenn.,  bordering  on  Alabama,  and  drained  by 
dnctive  soil,  the  river  bottoms  being  particu-  the  sources  of  Elk  river ;  area  about  780  sq. 
larly  fertile.  In  1850  it  yielded  2,653  bales  of  m. ;  pop.  in  1850,  13,768,  of  whom  3,623  were 
cotton,  447,050  bushels  of  Indian  corn,  104,764  slaves.  The  surface  is  hilly,  the  S.  E.  part  being 
of  oats,  and  114,331  of  sweet  potatoes.  There  traversed  by  a  branch  of  the  Cumberland  moun- 
were  4  saw  mills,  1  flour  mill,  1  cotton  &c-  tains.  The  soil  is  generally  fertile.  In  1850  it 
tory,  and  80  churches.  Gold  has  been  found  produced  788,380  bushels  of  Indian  corn,  139,- 
in  small  quantities,  and  iron  is  abundant.  Vdue  711  of  oats,  and  30,895  lbs.  of  tobacco.  There 
of  real  estate  in  1856,  $1,076,157.  Capital,  were  25  corn  and  flour  mills,  15  saw  mills,  1 
Carnesville.  IX.  A  W.  co.  of  Florida,  bounded  newspaper  office,  85  churches,  and  3,340  pupils 
B.  by  tlie  gulf  of  Mexico;  area,  462  sq.  m.,  attending  public  schools.  It  is  traversed  by  the 
including  the  islands  of  St  Georee  and  St.  Vin-  Nashville  and  Chattanooga  railroad,  which  here 
cent;  pop.  in  1850, 1,561,  of  whom  377  were  passes  through  a  tunnel  2,200  feet  long.  Cap- 
slaves.  The  Appalachicola  river,  here  navi-  ital,  Winchester.  XV.  A  N.  co.  of  Ky.,  inter- 
gable  by  steamboats,  flows  for  some  distance  sected  by  the  Kentucky  river ;  area,  about  212 
along  its  W.  border,  and  then  traverses  its  cen-  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1850, 12,462,  of  whom  3,365 
tre.  Its  valley  is  very  fertile,  but  the  soil  else-  were  slaves.  The  river,  which  in  this  part  of 
where  is  sandy  and  little  cultivated.  The  sur-  its  course  is  navigable  by  steamboats,  flows  for 
face  is  low,  and  much  of  it  covered  witli  swamps  some  distance  between  perpendicular  limestone 
and  ponds.  In  1850  the  county  contained  6  grist  cliffs  several  hundred  feet  high.  In  the  N.  part 
and  6  saw  mills,  2  tanneries,  1  newspaper  office,  of  the  county  it  is  joined  by  the  Elkhom.  The 
8  chnrches,  1  academv,  and  1  school.  No  re-  surface  is  beautifully  diversified  and  the  soil 
tarns  were  made  of  the  agricultural  products,  productive.  In  1850  it  yielded  549,723  bushels 
Capital,  Appalachicola.  X.  A  N.  W.  co.  of  Ala,,  of  Indian  com,  25,335  of  wheat,  98,742  of  oats, 
bordering  on  Mississippi,  and  bounded  N.  by  and  37,125  lbs.  of  tobacco.  There  were  18  com 
Tennessee  river,  hero  navigable  by  steamboats ;  and  flour  mills,  10  saw  mills,  2  woollen  factories, 
area,  1,260  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1850, 19,610,  of  whom  6  newspaper  offices,  17  churches,  and  656  pupils 
8,197  were  slaves.  It  has  a  fertile,  well  culti-  attending  public  schools.  The  Louisville  and 
vated  soil,  and  a  hilly  surface  partly  covered  Lexington  railroad  passes  through  Frankfort,  the  • 
with  oak  and  other  timber.  The  productions  in  capital  of  the  state  and  county.  Organized  in 
1850  were  15,045  bales  of  cotton,  892,891  bush-  1794.  XVI.  A  central  Co.  of  Ohio,  watered  by 
els  of  Indian  com,  95,556  of  oats,  and  69,708  of  Scioto  and  Olentangy  rivers;  area,  530  sq.  m. ; 
sweet  potatoes.  There  were  5  saw  and  3  grist  pop.  in  1850, 42,910.  It  has  a  level  surface  and 
mills,  1  iron  foundery,  7  tanneries,  2  newspaper  a  rich  and  generally  well  cultivated  soil.  In  1850 
offices,  83  churches,  and  466  pupils  attending  it  produced  97,993  bushels  of  wheat,  2,521,988  of 
public  schools.  The  railroad  from  the  head  to  Indian  corn,  174.963  of  oats,  19,644  tons  of  hay, 
the  foot  of  Muscle  siioals  in  the  Tennessee  has  and  90,587  lbs.  oi  wool.  There  were  14  com  and 
its  "W.  terminus  in  this  county,  which  is  also  flour  mills,  32  saw  mills,  3  iron  founderies,  3  wool- 
traversed  by  the  Mempliis  and  Charleston  rail-  len  factories,  14  tanneries,  14  newspaper  offices, 
road.  Capital,  Russellville.  XL  A  S.  W.  co.  58  churches,  4  colleges,  and  14,287  pupils  attend- 
of  Miss.,  watered  by  Homochitto  river;  area,  ing  public  schools.  Several  railroads  centre  at  Co- 
about  730  so.  m. ;  pop.  in  1850,  5,904,  of  whom  lumbus,  the  county  seat  and  state  capital.  XVIL 
a,850  wore  davea.    Ito  surface  is  uneven,  and  ita  A  8.  E.  co.  of  Ind.,  bordering  on  OUo^  ^is^»s^ss*L 


704  FRANKLIN 


soil.  It  snppliiiri  ]»rovision9  for  llio  Cincinnati  April  17, 171K).  llisbirtli  isroronlid  (.  f  pi'-rv: 
market.  In  ISr^)  the  prixluot ions  wcro  1,(X>2,-  under  tho  second  date)  in  tho  public  ri^ristrr 
14'J  l>uslicU  of  Indian  corn,  124,289  of  wheat,  of  Doston,  and  it  apf fears  that  he  wa»  taptizri 
100,271)  of  oats,  and  6,3<J2  tons  of  Iiay.  There  on  tho  same  day.  lie  was  the  Tonnp(-«i  «- n. 
Were  12  corn  and  flour  millrs  25  saw  mill?,  7  and  youngest  child  except  2  daw;rhter^  of  i 
tanneries,  manufactories  of  cotton  and  paper,  42  family  of  17  children;  it  appears  thM  Li- 
churches,  2  newspaper  offices,  and  2,315  pupils  lineal  ancestors  had  also  been  youngest  fc«r« 
attending  public  schools.  Blue  or  Trenton  limo-  during  4  successive  generational.  It  i^  a  c^'ra- 
atone  is  abundant.  Tho  AVhitowater  canal  trav-  mon  saying  among  modem  Englii^hmos  t!.:.: 
erses  tho  county.  Capital,  Brookville.  Organ-  England  owes  her  greatness  to  her  r..cpr.r 
izod  in  IHIO.  XVIII.  A  8.  co.  of  111.,  watered  sons.  Franklin  was  called  upon  to  euoure  s> 
by  I)ig  Muddy  river  and  Saline  creek;  area  greater  hard.^thips  perhaps  than  Ms  ^^•tLl^«. 
about  400  s^.  m. ;  pop.  in  1855,  7.1^^2  ;  in  1858,  yet  certainly  derived  imjiulfie  in  his  carer r  fr  -n 
about  9,800.  It  is  heavily  timbered  and  fertile,  those  early  privations  which  apjHrar  t^  f-^vr 
In  1H50  tho  productions  were  20S,riOO  bushels  greatness.  His  fatlier,  a  ni«n-confomii»t.  h&! 
of  Indian  corn,24, 883  of  oatii,  and  3,008  of  wheat,  emigrated  to  Xew  England  in  ltiS2  in  M&r-h 
There  were  14  corn  and  flour  mills,  2  saw  mills,  of  religious  free<Utm;  his  Wiither,  ihe  *^--ri 
1  newspaper  oftice,  15  churches,  and  350  pupils  wife  of  his  fatlier,  was  Abiah  Fulirer.  iHir'.'.-r 
attending  public  schools.  Capit.il,  lionton.  XIX.  of  a  distinguished  colonist,  Peter  Kulji-r,  i-::*.- r 
An  E.  CO.  of  Mo.,  iNMindod  N.  by  the  Missouri  of  a  i>oem  in  defeni-e  of  lilnfrty  of  cnn^iirr  •.'. 
river;  area,  874  Fi\,  m.;  pop.  in  1850, 12.918,  of  Frankrufs  father,  originally  a  dyer,  l-c-rar  *  5 
wh.>m  1,358  were  slaves.  It  is  drained  by  Ma-  Boston  a  tallow  chandler  and  soap  Uijli-r.  Hi^- 
ramec  river,  which  Is  n.ivigablo  by  small  steam-  ing  bound  out  his  elder  sons  apprentirea  :> 
boats,  and  witli  a  little  improvement  might  bo  trades,  lie  designed  the  youmrest  *':is  a  tl:h«  •  f 
made  a  channel  of  communication  with  the  Vir-  his  sons  *^  for  the  church ;  the  child  was  a^c>r:- 
ginia  mines  in  this  county.  Rich  mines  of  cop-  ingly  placed  at  schocil  at  the  age  of  8  T«-ar^  sr  i 
per,  lead,  and  coal  are  found  on  its  banks  and  in  manifeste<l  early  aptitude  for  stotly.  I  H-f>-*r^  t:  v 
other  parts  of  the  county.  The  surface  is  uneven  end  of  a  year,  however,  the  projiosed  il^l  -^r^ 
and  well  limbered ;  the  Sf>il  mostly  fertile.  In  ment  of  the  **  tithe  ''  was  rei'«m?-idvreil,  in  c-^z- 
1800  the  proiliictions  wore  51/J»iO  bushels  of  sequenco  of  narmwed  cirrumstuuix-s :  ar  ?  •.: 
wheat,  521, 3S2  of  Indian  com,  72,103  of  oats,  the  age  of  10  he  was employ»d  in  c'if.injw  v* 
;in<I  »'i.*)i»>21  lt»s.  of  excellent  t(»b:uTo.  There  and  attendinL'to  tli»' >!i'»j».  Tl;!*!  rt.iV  >  i ''  .-- 
Wriv  l"*  cnrn  iinil  flour  mills,  S  saw  mills.  1  became di>t:istelnl  t«>  :iii art iv,-.  r:  t.  r- '.-■■_• 
i)e\v.''ji.i[KT  ollice,  IX  cliuri'he-J.  and  4»11  pupils  wln>so  dispn^iiimi  wa^  I'nr  tl.-.' -t  \,  .-.]  ',v:  -  .- 
att^udiii;!  pu!»lic  soln«»ls.  The  rai'ifli' railroad  the  leadrr  of  hi-;  pl.ivnriti-i  i.u  :.!!  :*:•  r  ■ 
pa-j-es  tlirouL'li  the  county,  and  a  briurh  rnad  tures.  His  fatluT  furbaile  .ill  rJi-v.^v.!  .  :  ::.■  ■  . 
frtiin  Franklin  villa;ro  in  the  K.  jiarl  lutiieS,  \V.  and  apprehendiuL'N^  ilt'jdin--.  a*  ■■•::::.;•  ;■  ' 
lM)unil:iry  nt'ihestatr  isinmur-eof  ('o!i-tnkti«)n.  an  appreiitiro  to  lii-*  bn'tln-r  .^lT.^  -.:*:-■• 
Cijiital,  rni<»n.  XX.  A  N.co.  of  li)\va.  reoent-  The  b»ty,  always  t'un-l  of  reals' j.  :*r.  ! -a  ••.  . 
ly  fmnu'd,  ilraiaod  by  Iowa  river  and  brandies  now  to  book -i.  often  sat  uj»  tie  i  :  '•.  :  .—  ■  - 
of  tli<*  Kod  CV'lar  river;  areji,  57*»  s-j.  in. :  pup.  nijrht  eUfraired  in -!»:•!>■.  Hi-  enr".---:  :'.■■  -■  ■ 
in  l^^o'l,  7>'"*.  Productions  in  l'^r»«'»,  7'' 1  l)i:s!iols  were  I»eIoe*s  *•  K^-Jiv  ««m  rr.;-.'*-"  V.:  ■■ 
of  wheat,  1,T'.»7  I'f  oats,  and  l?>,»i2j  of  Iniliun  **E>>:av> in  do  rnm'l.'"  Huiiv.i!.'- w  .--;...  '■  ■  .- 
CTM.  and   Jlurtoii's  lii>:ori<al  •••'liiti   : -.       ;' 

riiANKI.lN'.    T.  A  port  of  entry  and  tlio  rap-  ceivrd  .al-«>  afanoyrT  jHHTrv.  ;»■..•,  n  -   •. 

ital  .'f  St.   Mary's  parish,   I.a.,  >iir.ated  on  the  lads   the  *' I.i,»'!il}i'U-«'»  Tra.-.-dv."   :    ■     •:■ 

rijrht  I'.irik  t-l  tiio  I'avi-u  Tei-h* .  ♦''■"  ni.  by  water  Teai'h.  or  BIa«'kbe:ird  ;"  wri  r.  ^«■■I  -v  ••" 

fr.'iri  tlio  p  r.f  of  Mexi<'o;  ]».]•.  in   Is"):;.  alMHit  them.     Tl.t-so   were  p'.:b'i-:.i  d.   \  :\    '    ^  :  •     - 

1,40'^.     It  i;«  tho  >ijippin;.'  point  for  larje  iiuan-  li»ukid  di>fouragiiij!y  u]«  ■•:  t\  -  ;*■■-■•■::_•?.■- 

titie<i  of  cott.'n.  .^urar,  and  mai/i\  whii'h  are  "tlins,"  adds  tlie  a';T"''i.'jr  :!    r  :.:.■■    - 

])rodnced  in  t!ie  ii»-iL'!i!'"rhfM«il,  and  i-  a<'tv>'.i!>lo  *'l  esraj»ed  In-inL'a  po.:."'     >!•..■:'•_■  v.  .:■..■      .  : 

by  lar^e  sleanibi'-it-.     II.  A  po^t  villa::i«nn»l  iho  volume  of  t]:o  "Sji.  •  •:i?.ir."  I.o  u  .- •  ■  : 

caj'ital  of  •Uihn'.ou  Co..  Iiiil..  >iiuated  in  a  town-  Hi:htt^<l  tint  he  <*i':itr:\id  i:  .'».'      ■.-  :.    :        -    '" 

i«hi;»  of  i:s  own  name  on  Youii/s  trnk.  2o  m.  ma-tenui:  tin*  '»?\le  :i!.!  ;.        nvj- ..-.  :. 

S.  .'^.  K.   of  Intliaiiap«»li-:  pi.p.  in   ls">;j,  aln.ut  conipriwii:,,.j  w!.i.!i   !.e    r  :  v  !• -•  :    :.   : 

il. It  i- <»iu' of  the  priiu-ii'.d -t:itio!i<  <Mj  the  moaiH   <»f   his   pii!'-i  •;.i.:.!    :.:;,ri.  ■.        •        ^■.• 

Madi-i'u  arid   Iii«lianapi»li>  railr-Ttd.  ;iiiil  tlu-  K.  Sj^ark-s  thiiik*:  hiin  ii-'Vi  r;)i- '..  *-   r  .  :  .         .    •. 

te:-:!iii!  i>  of  the  Martin'i\ illo  railnMi'..     He-id^'  sin^'ularly  rejardl^ -s  i  f  li?.  -  .■-\  r..*   .•   *     ■       ;• 

t!n^  I  «»uu!y  !.ui!diiiL'-,  it  coiit:iin>  a  larji*  ^rmi-  wa-*  K-«*  a   jTiriMry  o':f- . :.   n'."*.  -    .-  •     :    \ 

nary,  ."> .  rii  rhurrlH-,  arid  a  Iu■w^|.a!1^^lt^ll•^•.    It  nia^tiTv  of  l.tn;:'i.»L'«'.  t  »  l-e    ■'.<'.'•■.•     -  » 

ii till- M  .1*  of  rraiikliu  1  l»apti<l)  i-"llrL-i',  f«»uiii!rd  it  a>  an  ai-.'i'iiip!i-li::M-:i:.  :'•  »•    •      ■.         -     • 

in  l*»;''."i  r.nd'r  the  name  of  the  liapli.-l  manual  thrvn;L'!i  it  over  li.e  h":'.::a:'.  :r     -!.  •.:   :  : 

labor  institute,  uf  cummunicating  uiwal  ia>.c:t.a'..y  u:  .1  :.-  -l.. 


IRANKUS  705 

most  attractive  manner  the  benefit  of  Ms  dis-  witbont  recommendations.   Disappointed  tbere, 

ooveries  and  research.    Franklin  had  been  disin-  be  continued  bis  flight  to  Philadelphia.     His 

olined  to  arithmetic,  bat  at  the  age  of  16  he  felt  its  voyage  from  New  York  to  Perth  Amboj  in  an 

need,  mastered  it  without  assistance,  and  studied  open  boat  was  eventful ;  he  saved  the  life  of  a 

navigation.    He  read  also  at  this  period  ^^  Locke  fellow  passenger,  a  drunken  Dutchman,  who  fell 

on  the  Human  Understanding,*' the  ^*  Port  Royal  overboard;  and  after  being  80  hours  without 

Logic,''  and  a  translation  of  Xenophon's  *^  Mem-  food  or  water,  he  at  length  disembarked  at 

orabilio,"  with  the  style  of  which  he  was  par-  Amboy,  suffering  from  fever,  which  he  says  he 

ticularly  pleased.    He  had  read  Shaftesbury  and  cured  by  drinking  plentifully  of  cold  water.    He 

Collins,  and  becoming  a  sceptic,  applied  himselC  walked  thence  to  Burlington,  and  took  boat  to 

to  skilful  devices  of  argumentation  gathered  from  Philadelphia,  arriving  after  some  difBcultv  and 

the  *^  Memorabilia,"  practised  them  as  exercises  danger  at  the  foot  of  Market  street  at  9  o'clock 

in  conversation,  and  often  defeated  antagonists  on  a  Sunday  morning.    He  had  one  dollar,  and 

whose  cause  and  understanding  were,  as  he  af-  about  a  shilling  in  copper  coin ;  the  latter  he 

terward  confessed,  deserving  of  the  victory,  gave  to  the  boatmen.    He  bought  8  rolls  of 

When  about  16  years  of  age  he  met  with  a  book  bread,  and  ate  one  as  he  walked  up  the  street 

by  **  one  Tryon,"  recommending  vegetable  diet,  with  the  others  under  his  arms,  nis  pockets 

which  he  adopted;  it  proved  economical,  and  he  stuffed  with  stockings  and  shirts,  and  thus 

sained  thus  an  additional  fund  for  purchasing  equipped  he  passed  by  the  house  of  his  future 

books,  and  saved  also  much  valuable  time.    *^  I  father-in-law ;  his  future  wife  was  at  the  door, 

made  the  greater  progress,"  he  said,  ^*  from  the  and  remarked  the  awkward  and  ridiculous  ap- 

oleameseof  head  and  quickerapprehension  which  pearance  of  the  passer-by.    He  gave  his  rolls  to 

generally  attend  temperance  in  eating  and  drink-  a  poor  woman,  and  waUced  idly  into  a  Quaker 

ing."    Meantime  he  wrote  a  paper  in  a  disguised  meeting  house,  where,  there  being  no  audible 

band  for  the  *^  New  England  Courant,"  a  Journal  service,  he  fell  into  a  comfortable  Seep ;  it  was 

published  by  his  brother ;  it  was  printed  as  an  the  first  house  and  the  first  repose  of  which  be 

anonymous  contribution,  met  with  approbation,  had  the  benefit  in  Philadelphia.    He  loved  in 

and  excited  curiosity.    Other  communications  after  life  to  dwell  upon  these  adventures,  and 

followed  in  the  same  manner,  and  at  length  the  found  it  well  for  his  children  to  compare  the 

young  author  was  discovered.     The  brother  "  unlikely  beginnings"  of  a  homeless  wanderer 

took  it  amiss,  and  the  circumstance  was  a  first  with  the  **  figure  he  made  afterward ;"  he  might 

occasion  of  hard  words ;  the  young  apprentice  have  added,  in  the  words  of  a  future  eulog^ 

was  beaten  by  a  passionate  master,  who  was  *^  as  an  ornament  of  America,  and  the  pride  of 

little  restrained  by  ties  of  consanguinity.    From  modem  philosophy."    He  found  employment  as 

this  early  subjection  to  tyranny,  Franklin  thinks  a  printer  without  delay,  obtained  lodging  at  Mr. 

he  may  have  first  imbibed  that  hostility  to  arbi-  Read's,  the  father  of  the  young  lady  who  had 

trary  power  which  was  one  day  to  inspire  a  noticed  him  eating  his  roll  on  the  momingof 

French  statesman  with  one  of  the  noblest  lines  his  arrival,  and  tried  to  forget  Boston.    The 

of  modem  Latinity :  govemor  of  the  province.  Sir  William  Keith, 

Eripuit  oaio  fWmen,  soeptrumqua  xyrmnnu.  accidentally  saw  one  of  his  letters,  and  was 

Exception  was  taken  by  the  general  court  to  stmck  with  evidences  of  the  writer's  superiority. 

the  political  character  of  Fr^klin's  newspa-  To  the  amazement  of  Franklin,  Sir  William 

per.    The  elder  brother  was  arrested  and  im-  sought  him  out,  proposed  to  him  to  set  up  busi- 

prisoned,  and  the  future  publication  of  the  jour-  ness  for  himself,  and  promised  him  the  public 

nal  by  James  Franklin  was  forbidden.    In  this  printing.    He  was  induced  by  these  promises  to 

conjuncture  the  younger  Franklin  undertook  to  consent  to  go  to  England  to  purchase  types  and 

elude  the  interdict  by  consenting  to  be  nominal  material,  and  previously  to  doing  so,  to  return 

printer;  an  arrangement  which  required  the  can-  to  Boston  to  obtain  his  father's  consent.    This 

celling  of  his  indenture  as  apprentice.     The  was  withheld,  and  Franklin  returning  to  Phila- 

brother,  however,  required  new  and  secret  in-  delphia  remained  some  time  longer  with  his  first 

dentnr^  which   were   accordingly  executed,  employers.     In  the  mean  time  he  had  made 

Thepaperreappeared,  and  was  continued  for  sev-  progress  in  his  courtship  of  Miss  Read.    The 

eral  months,  nominally  printed  and  published  governor  invited  him  often  to  his  house,  and  ad- 

by  Benjamin  Franklin.   A  fresh  difference  soon  hered  apparently  to  his  original  intention  of  set- 

aroee  Mtween  the  brothers,  and  the  apprentice,  ting  him  up  in  independent  business.    Arrange- 

Bopposing  his  master  would  not  produce  the  se-  ments  therefore  were  completed  for  the  voyage 

cret  artides  of  agreement,  asserted  his  liberty,  to  London.     His  father's  permission  was  no 

His  brother's  influence,  however,  prevented  him  longer  withheld.    Miss  Read  consented  to  an 

from  getting  employment  at  any  of  the  printing  engagement,  and  he  embarked,  being  just  18. 

offices  in  Boston,  and  he  resolved  to  go  to  New  On  arriving  in  London  he  discovered  that  he 

York  in  search  of  work.    lie  accordingly  in-  had  been  grossly  deceived  by  the  govemor.    Sir 

dnoed  the  captain  of  a  trading  vessel  to  take  him  William  Keith,  ^^  a  ffood  governor  for  the  people, 

aecretly  on  board,  on  pretence  of  escaping  the  planned  many  excellent  laws,"  but  having  "noth- 

oonsequences  of  an  unfortunate  intrigne.     He  ing  else  to  give,  had  given  expectations."  Frank- 

Bold  his  books,  and  in  8  days  w^as  in  New  York,  lin  was  alone  in  a  foreign  country,  without  credit 

atthe  age  of  17,  friendless,  almost  pennileas,  and  or  acqnaintanoe,  and  almost  penniless.     He 

VOL,  VII.^6 


706  FRAKJOIN 

promptly  Bongbt  a  printer,  and  took  scrvico  for  in  \rliicb  qncstions  of  morale  politico  and  p!ii« 

nearly  a  year.     lie  fell  into  some  extravagance,  lodO])Iiy  were  discussed,  and  which  ho  cou-^idi-r- 

however,  and  committed  follies  of  which  ho  be-  od  the  best  school  of  miitual  improvement  in  ibd 

came  ashamed,  and  from  which  ho  returned  province.     lie  ver^'MKm  became  a  man  nf  mark: 

Belf-rebuked  to  industry  and  temperance.    Ho  his  great  intelligence  and  industry.  hi.«  ini:cD::;:y 

wrote  and  published  a  metaphysical  criticism  in  devising  better  systems  of  economy,  vf  elu- 

upon  WoUaston's  *^  Keligion  of  Nature  \*^  his  em-  cation  and  improvement,  now  cstaMl^iinj?  a  «-j'> 

ployer  saw  his  talent  and  ingenuity,  but  expos-  scription  and  circulating  library,  now  puMishi:.^ 

tolated  against  the  principles  advanced  in  his  a  popular  pamphlet  upon  tiio  neoessiity  of  p^;^r 

essay.    The  pamphlet  was  an  introduction  to  currency  (having  previously  contrived  a  c^p^r* 

■ome  literary  acquaintances.    He  had  alterca-  plate  press,  and  engraved  and  printed  the  NeY 

tions  with  his  follow  journeymen  on  the  subject  Jersey  paiier  money),  and  prc(«ently  filso  hU  vjj- 

of  temperance ;  they  were  beer-drinking  sots,  nable  mmiici  pal  services,  rapidly  won  for  hi:?!:  L« 

and  many  of  them  he  refonned  altogether ;  he  respect  and  .idmiration  of  the  colonic:*.     In  17  3 

"was  strong  and  athletic,  while  they  could  carry  ho  first  published  hb  almanac,  under  the  nair^e « 5 

less  and  did  less  work.    His  skill  in  swimming  Richaru  Saunders.     It  took  the  name  tf  **  I'>V'r 

attracted  observation,  and  ho  gave  exliibitions  Richard's  Almanac,'^  and  was  concinned  |>r>-£'..v 

of  tlio  art  at  Chelsea  and  Blackfriars,  which  ex-  bly  about  25  years.     It  is  unnecessary  here  en  •;. 

cited  so  much  attention  that  he  meditated  open-  luile  to  the  profit  derived  from  it  to  thv  J*v*'r'-: 

ing  a  swimming  school,  and  wrote  2  essays  u])on  the  wise  saws,  the  aphorisms,  and  encoTirairi-n.vr; 

swimming;  but  in  tho  mean  time  he  entered  to  virtue  and  prosperity  through  the  exvxllvr.: 

into  engagements  with  a  good  man,  Mr.  Denham,  proverbial  sentences  with  which  he  filU-d  the  c^  r* 

to  return  to  Philadelphia  and  be  his  clerk  in  a  ncrs  and  spaces,  became  very  p<ipular,  and  :h  y 

dry  goods  shop.     They  sailed  together  from  were  at  length  spread  overE norland  and  Fmr.'rin 

Gravesend,  July  23,  1726,  and  landed  at  Phila-  reprint  and  translation?*.  In  1 733,  at  tho  are  if  CT, 

delphia,  Oct.  11.    He  kept  an  interesting  jour-  he  began  to  study  the  French,  Italian,  Spa:::-'::, 

nal  of  tho  voyage.    lie  had  been  18  months  and  Latin  langnogos ;  and  after  10  y«ur^*al'-vi.  e 

in  London,  hod  profited  by  advantages  of  ac-  from  Boston,  he  revisited  the  scenes  i>f  hi?  clM- 

quaintanceship  and  books,  but  was  unimproved  hooil,  healing  family  difTerenceH,  and  c«  n<«>!  i^ 

in  his  fortunes.     Sir  'William  Keith  had  been  the  deathbed  of  his  brot  her  withprfmist-sv-f^r- 

BUperseded  as  governor;  Franklin  met  him  in  vision  for  his  son.    KcturningtoI'hllaiKIpM&.be 

the  street,  but  seeing  that  he  looked  ashamed,  was  elected  clerk  to  the  ossomMy.     .S-n  x':.  :- 

passed  on  without  remark.    To  MLss  Read  ho  ward  he  was  apiKunted  pi^stma-ter,  a:i>!  ii.r.. re 

had  behaved  bailly.    He  had  written  to  her  but  his  mind  ui>oa  nmnieipol  alf:iir^,  wr  tc  *  :^:  -> 

once  during  hii^  absence,  and  1 1 iut  was  to  say  that  and  etVoi'ied  iinprovonK'iii-i  ia  'J.e  i  'y  •.  .: 

she  was  not  likely  to  see  him  suon.     She  hoil  and  e-taMi-^heil  a  tlroomii«ar;y.     IK  '.  •    .. 

been  j)ersu:uled  to  marry  anuth«jr,  and  was  now    foumUT  of  tlie  univt-r>i:y  ■■f  IVt-::-;!'.     : 

in  sore  iilUiction,  her  husband  JiJiviii:^  ah-'i'oniiod  of  tlio  AiiuTican  i'h;'.'/*-'pMr:i!   ^••.■..'\      .';. 

in  debt,  and  under  .-susiiicion  of  bi;,'amy.  Franklin  took  ai'iivc  j»art  in  provilir-iT  S'-t  »li  :"■  :.  .    ..•-     : 

attributed  lier  misfortunes  to  his  own  ooiulnct,  a  tlireati-nid  Si'ai»i-li  aiul  Fri!.«  !i  :i.v..*          .   , 

andresulvcd  if  j»ossibleto  rej)airliisern'r.  Ilwas  inviuted  the  e':unii!i;ie;d  >:i'^c  \\M- :;    *■  *.-* 

dtmbtful  whether  a  marria^'o  with  her  Would  bo  name;  ho  «K-cliiK-l  in  \-V''.'i\  ]■•■.  r. :.:-._.   :■ 

valid;  it  had  not  been  ck-arlyitseortained  that  his  this  inventiun.  aiib«»tij!i  ir.\;:i.-.l  t-  i!  i  - 

**  prcde(\'<sor/'  as  he  styles  him,  had  had  a  pre-  otlVr  v{  a  patent.     \V!.i!r  iu  !»-♦.:■.  ■  :  '.  ~; 

viouswiff,  and  Franklin,  whom  Mr.  Tuckerman  witne^-'^LMl  sonie  im;^'rfii:  v\!  <.r;':j'--  '^  ::.  ■     • 

calls  the  im'arnatfd  rommon  sen^e  of  his  lime,  triciry  ;    and  ha\i:i-:  ii-^w   1!i..m:l-  -  .::;   .   :  :   •■ 

did  n«»t  for;:et  thai  he  mi^'ht  be  called  upon  to  witlnlraw  from  pr:\;i*.e  bii*::n  -».  I.e  ;   .-  ..  .-  -: 

nay   liis   i'ivdeee>sor's  debt-*.     "  We  ventured,  i»hili.SM|iliir;d  .ij»p.ir:i:us:i:;d  br^-ai;  :    -  :  . .  r-    :  .- 

Li»wever,"headd.s'*overallihediTiicnltie-.  and  I  lion-;  (:;.r  an  acivunt  i»f  \\  iiirh  -«-i  Y.   L'  :  ■. 

tov'k  her  to  wifo  on  llio  1st  of  Sei«t ember,  17o«.».**  Ki  r.iTRi»-MAt.NKTi'«M,  ai.d  ].:iiiizN:N           1 

She  ]»ruved  a  good  an^l  faithful  lulpmate;  thoy  ventioii  nf  l!ie  liirlitniiii!  r-il  w.i-.  n,  :■--.:     .     ■- 

throve  topether,  and  ahvavsenihavtireil  to  make  Tdii\iti<»n  »»f  di>euveries  the  ni-  •*  >-r   i   .   :  »  .. 

each  other  liappy.     iS.nne  time  before  liis  mar-  lia«l  yot  been  ma«!e  i'l  nafirul  ]•'.'.--'■. 

riaje  he  sufiered  a  Seriuus  illne--* ;  In.*  believed  was  i:ut  jillowvil,  hi»\vevir,  i.i  j-r. -.    ■   ;  i 

hini'seif  to  be  dying,  and  was  rather  tli-appoint-  ati  ly  with  hi-<  M-ieiijifn'  j'lir*. ;;:'.:•.   I:-.-  v.  .. 

od  to  Mud  that  lie  was  pttiij;^  well,  anil  thai  ho  to  I  lie  a-.enibly  in  17*^"  ,  wa-  ;»;;■■.::.  1 

was  to  \io  over  all  the  "<l;-;urrv^aL'le  work"'  of  himier  formakin.:  an  Ii.di.iu  tri  .iTx.  :,   .".        :~ 

dyiiifcj   s*ime  time  or  other  ajain.      A   similar  deputy  pu>: master-;:!  nera'.fi-r  A \.- r.   ..     .  .  1  *   .- 

illne-i  earried  oil"  his  emjib»y,.:-;  mA  IVankliFi,  pre-ented  wi:h  the  dejree  if  i  li-r^r     •   ..■•■ 

formin;^  a  connection  t-hortiy  afli  rwanl   wiili  ILirvaid and  Yale eo'.ieCiS.     Iii::.*.;.'       ; 

a  |»er.soii  who  had  m«>ney,  eslab.i-^hed  a  iiew*.-  w.ir  impi*rnlin::,  he  w.."*  i.aiiii.'!  .i  ■]■ ;   .•     '. 

paj»i.'r,    the     "  IVnnMlv.'Uiia    lia/.e::.-,*'    whieh  general  eon ::rexi at  A lb:ii:y.     1!..- ;  r.  ;    -  '  -.     .. 

WiLS  mai].i:red  with  great  ability.     He  had  al-  <»f  u[ii.«n  for  t!ie  ruii^nieN  ubj.  I.  \*;t- -.- 

ready  written    the    **  l)iisyi»u<ly.'*   a   >erii «;   i^i  ly  a«l'»j(ted  by  the  itino:/!  r..  V  .:  •    .    • 

ani'i-inj:  jiajier*;,  for  another  jiMirnal,  and  w;w  liie  b^anl  t»f  trade  in  K:'.«'l.in-i  il- :• -•  •;• : 

the  leading  member  of  a  club  called  the  Junto,  lie  was  over  alWward  acu\ely 


•.•  *<.j..»*.« 


IRAinniS  707     * 

engaged  in  national  affidrs.  We  find  him  in  in  the  principal  objects  of  hia  mission  to  the  en- 
B<^n  in  1754 ;  and  the  French  war  having  be-  tire  satisfaction  of  his  constituents.  He  sofgested 
^on,  he  assisted  Mr.  Quincy  in  procuring  a  loan  to  the  ministry  the  conquest  of  Oanada,  and 
in  Philadelphia  for  New  England.  He  ybited  his  scheme  was  adopted.  With  Lord  Xamea 
Braddock  in  Maryland,  and  modestly  remon-  and  others  in  Scotmnd  he  passed  6  weeks 
strated  against  that  general's  expedition  which  of  the  **  densest  happiness,"  as  he  called  it| 
resulted  so  disastrously.  As  postmaster-general,  of  his  life.  He  gavd  Lord  Eames  the  famooa 
he  was  called  upon,  however,  to  facilitate  the  '^Parable  against  Persecution."  He  made  fur- 
march  of  the  army,  and  labored  faithfully,  and  ther  experiments  in  dectricity,  invented  a  mn- 
even  to  his  own  pecuniary  disadvantage,  in  the  sical  instrument,  the  armonica  (musical  glasses), 
service.  After  the  defeat  of  Braddock,  he  was  and  received  from  tiie  ministry  a  high  proof  of 
the  means  of  estabUshing  a  volunteer  militia,  their  consideration  in  ihe  appointment  of  his 
and  took  the  field  as  military  commander.  Af-  son  to  the  govemor^ip  of  Is  ew  Jersey.  At 
ter  a  laborious  campaign  it  was  proposed  to  com-  the  end  of  5  years  he  re^mbarked  forhomef 
mission  Franklin  as  general  in  command  of  a  reaching  Philadelphia  Nov.  1,  1762.  He  re- 
distant  expedition ;  but  he  distrusted  his  mili-  ceivcd  the  official  thanks  of  the  assembly.  New 
tary  capacities  and  waived  the  proposal.  He  difficulties  arising  between  the  province  and  the 
resumed  his  electrical  researches,  and  wrote  proprietaries,  he  was  again  appointed  agent  to 
accounts  of  experiments,  which  were  read  before  the  English  government,  to  petition  that  the 
the  royal  society  of  London,  and  procured  for  king  tiS^e  Pennsylvania  afBEiirs  into  his  own 
him  the  honor  of  membership;  toey  also  ob-  hands.  He  reached  London  early  in  Dec  1764. 
tained  for  him  the  Copley  gold  medal,  and  were  The  revolution  was  imminent.  The  project  of 
published  in  England  and  France.  8ir  Humphry  taxing  the  colonies  had  been  announced,  and 
Davy  says  of  these  papers  that  their  style  and  Franklin  was  the  bearer  of  a  remonstranoe 
manner  are  almost  as  admirable  as  the  doctrine  against  it  on  the  part  of  the  provincial  govern- 
thev  advance.  Franklin,  ho  said  subsequently,  ment  of  Pennsylvania.  He  was  indefittigable  in 
seeks  rather  to  make  philosophy  a  useful  inmate  his  exertions  to  prove  the  unconstitutionality 
and  servant  in  the  common  habitations  of  man,  and  impolicy  of  tne  stamp  act ;  and  when  Uie 
than  to  preserve  her  merely  as  an  object  of  repeal  of  this  obnoxious  measure  was  attempted 
admiration  in  temples  and  palaces.  The  great  he  underwent  an  examination  before  the  house 
aim  of  his  mind  was  ever  practical  utility,  of  commons  (Feb.  8,  1766).  The  talents  and 
and  although  it  has  been  said  of  him  by  Eng-  greatness  of  the  man  are  said  to  have  never 
lish  historians  that  he  had  usually  a  keen  eye  been  more  favorably  exhibited  than  on  this 
to  his  own  interests,  they  are  forced  to  add  occasion.  His  conduct  made  it  an  everlasting 
that  he  had  ever  a  benevolent  concern  for  the  record  of  his  firm  and  patriotic  spirit,  of  his 
public  good.  Franklin,  an  active  member  of  wise  and  prompt  foresight,  the  semblance  ci  an 
the  Pennsylvania  assembly,  was  indefatiga-  almost  inspirea  sagacity.  The  repeal  of  the 
ble  with  his  pen.  The  proprietary  persisted  stamp  act  was  an  inevitable  consequence.  He 
in  measures  conflicting  with  the  privileges  of  subsequently  travelled  in  Holland  and  Germany 
the  inhabitants  and  with  the  public  good ;  in  with  Lis  friend  8ir  John  Pringle ;  and  visited 
consequence  of  which  the  deputies  resolved  to  Paris,  where  he  met  with  due  attention.  Tempo- 
petition  the  home  government  for  redress,  and  rary  tranquillity  in  America,  after  the  repeal  of 
appointed  Franklin  their  commissioner  for  the  the  stamp  act,  was  followed  bv  commotions  in 
purpose.  He  published  afterward  (1759)  the  Boston  occasioned  by  the  equally  ofTensive  reve- 
**  Historical  Review,^'  which  contained  his  pa-  nue  act,  and  others  subversive  of  colonial  rights, 
pers  in  aid  of  the  cause  of  his  constituents,  and  In  1772,  a  member  of  parliament,  to  convince 
Bad  in  the  meanwhile  obtained  so  much  rep-  Franklin  that  every  perverse  measure  and  every 
ntation,  that  Massachusetts^  Maryland,  and  Geor-  grievance  complained  of  by  the  Americans  ori- 
gin intrusted  him  with  the  agency  of  their  luSairs  ginated  not  with  the  British  government,  but 
also.  On  making  the  English  coast,  the  ship  with  tories  in  America,  gave  to  Franklin  a 
in  which  he  had  embarked  narrowly  escaped  the  number  of  letters  written  from  Massachosetts 
rocks.  In  describing  the  circumstance  to  his  by  (jov.  Hutchinson  and  Lieut.  Qov.  Oliver, 
wife  he  s^d  :  **  Were  I  a  Roman  Catholic,  I  warmly  urging  coercive  measures  against  the 
should  perhaps  vow  to  build  a  chapel  in  grati-  colonies.  Frimklin  immediately  sent  these  let* 
tade  for  this  escape ;  but  as  I  am  not,  if  I  were  ters  to  the  speaker  of  the  Massachusetts  house 
to  vow  at  all,  it  should  be  to  build  a  lighthouse."  of  representatives.  Their  publication  cansed 
He  arrived  in  London,  July  27,  1757.  Honors  great  and  just  indignation  in  America,  and  was 
and  compliments  in  abundance  awaited  him.  of  invaluable  service  to  the  popular  cause.  The 
Oxford  and  Edinburgh  conferred  upon  him  their  Massachusetts  house  petitioned  the  king  that  he 
highest  academical  degrees.  He  made  personal  would  remove  Hutchinson  and  Oliver  from  the 
acquaintance  with  the  most  distinguished  men  government.  Franklin  appeared  before  the  privy 
of  the  day,  but  never  failed  to  bestow  his  prin-  council,  Jan.  29,  1774,  to  present  their  peti- 
cipal  attention  upon  the  object  of  his  mission,  tion  and  advocate  the  removal.  '^  He  was 
An  illness  of  8  weeks  retarded  progress,  and  great  no  w,^' says  Bancroft, '*  thrice  venerable,  from 
difficulties  followed  from  many  circumstances,  genius,  fame  in  the  world  of  science,  and  age. 
Three  years  6la|»sed,and  at  length  he  succeeded  being  alreadyneariy  threesooire  years  and  ten.** 


708  FRANKLIN 

He  was  grossly  reviled  and  shamef^illy  insulted  diplomatio  career  forms  a  chief  chapter  in  0.« 

by  Wedderburn  the  solicitor-general,  who  made  history  of  his  country.     He  sipned  the  pc-are 

against  him  a  long  pergonal  harangue,  amid  tlio  Nov.  30, 1782,  and  now  longed  to  return.  He  wki 

applauding  laughter  and  cheering  of  the  lords  not  able  to  do  so,  ho  we  ver,  until  17^5.  whoa,  af^^r 

in  council.    Franklin  boro  this  contumely  with  53  years  in  the  service  of  his  country,  ho  rotirt<l 

his  accustomed  patience  and  dignitied  equanim-  to  private  repose,   l^fcirc  leaving  Pari4  he  n:>:^- 

ity.  The  petition  was  rejected,  and  tlio  next  day  eluded  the  treaties  with  Sweden  and  Pr:<««ii, 

Franklin  was  dismissed  from  the  office  of  deiH  cmbodyingmany  of  his  groat  iutornational  { riv 

nty  postmaster- general.    Meanwhile  he  calmly  ciples.     Ho  had  been  tlirougliout  the  ^l.o'.^ 

pursued  his  honest  and  patriotic  course,  and  period  of   his  mission  an  object   of   mark-.^ 

found  time  for  further  research  in  science,  for  enthusiasm.    His  venerable  a^o.  Lis  piam  ilc* 

Journeys  again  to  Paris,  Scotland,  and  AValcs,  i>ortmcnt,  his  fame  as  a  ])hilosophcr  and  <a:v^ 

and  a  visit  to  Ireland.    He  had  determined  to  man,  the  charm  of  his  conversation,  his  Wjt^ 

await  in  England  the  result  of  the  continental  his  vast  information,  his  varied  aptitadis  aii 

congress.   In  the  mean  time  Mrs.  Franklin  died,  discoveries,  all  secured  for  him  not  only  :ho 

His  parents  and  15  of  his  sisters  and  brothers  had  enthusiastic  admiration  of  Europe,  but  a  <  irw-^o 

all  long  been  dead.  A  daughter  alone  was  to  re-  of  ardent  friends,  embracing;  tho  very  widt-s: 

main  to  his  solitude,  his  cherished  son  being  about  range  of  human  cliarncters.   His  simple  cotuxo 

to  sacrifice  the  ties  of  kindred  to  loyalty  or  i)olit-  and  address,   and  dignified   aspect,   ain<^n«;  i 

ical  ambition.    Franklin  embarked  for  homo  in  aplendidly  cmbroidcrod  court,  cummaiidoi  t]bo 

March,  and  arrived  May  5, 1775,  just  IG  days  after  respect  of  all.     ^*  His  virtues  and  renow  u."  Mji 

the  battle  of  Lexington.    Ho  had  labored  faith-  M.  ijicretello,  ^^  negotiated  for  him ;  aiid  Wijn 

fully  in  England  to  save  the  mother  country  from  the  second  year  of  his  inis>ion  had  vipir^-^i,  c  j 

the  final  outbreak,  and  now  repaired  as  faithfully  one  conceived  it  possible  to  refu<ie  A\.-kI*  »:  1 

to  his  duties  in  tho  congress.   As  a  member  of  the  armies  to  tho  countrymen  of  Franklin.'*   ( >o  :.Ls 

committees  of  safety  and  foreigucorrespondenco  return  to  Philadelphia  (Sept.  14,  17^•>),  he«^ 

he  performed  most  valuable  services,  exerting  clectc<l*'])residont  of  Pennsylvania.**    Wd>:..ri.-- 

all  liis  influence  for  a  declaration  of  independ-  ton«  with  whom  ho  enjoyed  an  unint*'rru; •:!.*: 

ence.  That  instrument  he  had  the  honor  to  assist  friendshi]i,  was  among  the  first  to  woicvttiiO  L.n. 

in  drafting,  and  to  sign,  July  4, 1770.  Ho  was  sent  At  tlio  age  of  82,  he  conscnte«l  to  hv  a  drlej^:-.' 

Boon  after  to  Paris  as  commissioner  plenijiotcn-  to  the  convention  for  funning  Uic  fodt^ral  i  <  i- 

tiary,  together  with  Silas  Deouu  and  Arthur  Lee.  stitiition.     He  entered  actively  antl  hoarti!  v  :lv 

During  the  voyage  ho  continued  some  interest-  tho  business  of  the  convention,    lie  s^-rvtii  x.-  > 

ing  experiments  which  ho  had  begun  in  tho  as  pre<idont  of  tho  society  for  p(»liti>.\i!  l:>-.'j.-i -". 

spring  of  the  same  year  in  relation  to  iho  (lulf  and  wroto  intoresiin;:  and  viL'"riiii'.  ]':i'.it.'  • :    . 

strciiiii.     He  was  the  lirht  to  make  obsirvati<»ns  manv  iinixtrtant  siibjeo:-.     In  Iiia  **r.:.  \- ..:  '. 

of  tJiis  current;  and  his  chart  of  it,  pnblisljod  wmto  to  \V:isliin:;ti»:i :  *'  F.>r  my  j..r-'  »[     -■. 

90  years  apo,  jitill  forms  the  basi"*  of  charts  n<tw  I  should  liavc  dioil  two  vtar*  a::** :  1  ;:  :. 

in  use.   Tho  learned  snporintendont  of  the  ooast  thoso    years    have    boeu   >j»iiit    in    i\r 

survey,  Pri»f.  Harhe,  made  this  statement   in  a  ing  pain.  1  am  phid  to  have  livnl  t:.-.:.  .  -.. 

lei'tiire  in  Feb.  I d'JS  and  added  that  Fnmklin's  1  ran  look  n|-on  our  i»re*i-ni   ^i:u.l:.  ■:..'      1.  • 

tlieory  illnstratinir  in  general  the  resnlts  uf  tho  faculties  and  alletti»in<  wi-re  nn::u:  ...T'  :  t  •  : 

great  tran-.ter  ot' tropical  water  to  the  north  is  hL^t.     At  his  death  i'MMm  j.tr-»i.-   :i. —  : 

advocate<l  hy  niiHlern  |»hilo>oj»hers.     Onarriv-  to  do  honur  to  his  renniin-J.     Il-w:^-    ;..•—  . 

ing   in    France,    Franklin   e>tal»Ii>hed   liitnself  by  the  side  of  his  wite  in  the  riii:^t* -y  .  :  t     ■  ■: 

ahno-it  imnie<li;itely  at  l*;issy.    A  French  writer  church.     Thrn;ii:h«.»ul  the  co!;rj:ry  i  \, 'v -;. 

(Lacretelle)  of  hi^'h  ceh'brity  says  that  **  hy  the  of  re^]»ect  w.as  nianiie-ted  tn  l.is  i:.tT  ■■•:  ■      ..   : 

elleit  wljicli  Franklin  protlud.'!!.  he  apj^'ars  t*>  in  Kurope  extrat)nlii»;iry  puMii'  u--".:":.-  :  ..i  •  .• 

have  fulfilled  his  nii>-ii«.»n,  nc^t  with  a  cuuri,  hut  on  record  of  honor  dne  !«»  4>i.e  ■  :'  ::  ■■  «•"    .'. 

witli   a  tVeo   people."     Men  api)ear«'d  to  li».ik  est  lu-nel*.tctors  ot*  munkiiid.     Fa  !:    :.  •- 

on  him  as  a  s^afcce  cumc*  frum  a  niw  world  Ut  found  w  ilh  his  roli^'i"Us  chnr^rti  r.    !»•     ■  :  ■' —  • 

unfolil  mysteries.     He  was  ncii  .it  lir>t  n-ivivid  that  dtirin;;  a  periiMiuf  hi^  lifi-.  1  i:i:-.    :    •   ._■ 

ofiicially,  but  s-tmn  ^'ained    inlliicnci-  with  tlie  of    21,  he    had    been  ii  tli'-mu':    I'.i  -:       .    . 

miniMry;  and  ujnin   receipt  o\'  news  vt'  llur-  it   has    been    said    th:i:    o    ^\.. ..v-    r-vi   - 

goyno's  dis;ister,  he  had   tho  happine»  to  cmi-  death  he  expre-M-il  a  "eoM  arpr  •':  .»:.■■•.     .  ■  ".    • 

elude   the   treaty   ol*   Ft!».    G,    177**.      Kntrli-h  **  system  of  nmrnU"  «.l*  ••  .1, -; -.  ,  i"  N  ..-.^    ■ 

emi-i-jari^'s  came  to  Paris  thereup-'U  to  smnil  "Whatever  hi*  t'.iiih  auil  d.M-trl::«i.i.4y  ;...•. 

Franklin  upon  the  huSject  of  rrcijut-iiiation,  ot'  hi-*  revorenci'  for  relij;'»n  ;ii;d  i.  '  r.-'..k     .   -■ 

whii'h  they  tli^oovered  ihut   incKpenileuce  was  tion-i  was  con«ii:intly  T.ianiJV^r.     I*,  u.i^::.-. 

to  Ik-  till'  solo  h:isi<.    His  jiruilence  ai.«l  >aL'acinus  who  ii-iiu::ht  t'orwanl  a  iii'»t:..:i  f.  t  . .    .  •  - . 

firinne>s  det'eatod  every  attenii»l  ot'  thy  l>riti-h  intlie  Philadelphiacuiivt  i.::.i!i.     T..-  :      •        t  .• 

gi>verr:!nent   to  S4iw  disconl   between  Aineri<;i  rejected,  as  "  ihe  conveii:i«':i.  i  \.  •;  *        -  4  :     - 

and  iier  ally.     Ho  was  now  accrvdittd  l.»  t?m  sruis  tlion^'ht  praytT'i  i:n:iei-.  ♦.I'lk  "     ^* 

French  kin::  as  niini-«ter  plenipotentiary  (177*^1,  him  ndvi-in^  his  il.i'ijhii  r  !■'   ri  !y  :     -. 

and  -uhT.pioFiily  one  of  the  coni:in>-ioner'»  for  j»rayer  than  upon  prcichiiij;  uii.i  ..>  ..  ;  : . 

negotiutiug  i>oacc  with  the  mother  country.   Hia  moral  adviser  ho  has  Icli  Ui  bea-iiiui  :  Jj  —.:  ^'-, 


TBASKUS  700 

at  least,  of  scarcely  surpassed  human  wisdom,  feet  in  lenffih  nntil  relief  arrived  from  Port 
At  the  most  criti(^  epoch  of  his  public  life,  Jackson.  Franklin  was  carried  to  Canton, 
when  beset  with  menace^  jealousy,  bribery,  and  where  he  obtaioed  passage  to  England  in  a  vea- 
official  caprice  and  ix^jostioe,  he  said :  *'  My  role  sel  of  the  Ohiaa  fleet  oflndiamen,  commanded 
is  to  go  straight  forward  in  doing  what  appears  by  Sir  Nathaniel  Dance.  On  their  voyage  home 
to  me  to  be  right,  leaving  the  consequences  to  they  were  attacked  in  the  strait  of  Malacca, 
Providence."  Franklin  was  a  strong,  well  formed  Feb.  15,  1804,  by  a  strong  French  squadron, 
man.  His  stature  was  5  feet  9  or  10  inches,  which  they  beat  off.  FraiiSdin  during  the  ba^> 
His  complexion  was  light,  his  eyes  gray.  His  tie  acted  as  signal  mid^ipman.  On  reaching 
manners  were  extremely  winning  and  affable.  England  he  joined  the  ship  of  the  line  Bellero> 
His  name  is  not  borne  by  any  of  his  descendants,  phon,  and  in  1805  took  part  in  the  batUe<^ 
His  daughter,,Sarah,  the  wife  of  Richard  Bache,  Trafialgar  as  signal  midshipman,  performing  hla 
bore  7  children,  whose  living  descendants  are  functions  with  distinguished  coolness  and  conr- 
numerons. — ^The  last  of  his  race  who  bore  his  age  in  the  midst  of  a  hot  fire.  Of  40  persons 
name  was  his  grandson,  William  Temple  Frank-  who  stood  around  him  on  the  poop,  only  7  ee- 
lin,  who  died  in  Paris,  May  25, 1828,  and  who  caped  unhurt  For  6  years  sulraequently  he 
published  in  London  and  Philadelphia,  between  served  in  the  Bedford  on  various  stations,  the  last 
1816  and  1819,  editions  of  his  grandfather^s  of  which  was  the  coast  of  the  United  States 
works.  The  complete  edition  of  the  works  of  during  Uie  war  of  1812-'15.  He  commanded 
Franklin,  edited  by  Jared  Sparks,  appeared  in  the  Ixiats  of  the  Bedford  in  a  fight  with  the 
Boston  in  12  vols.  8vo.  in  1836-'40,  with  notes  American  gun  boats  at  New  Orleans,  one  of 
and  a  life  of  the  author  (new  edition,  Phila-  which  he  boarded  and  captured.  He  was 
delphia,  1858).  wounded  in  the  action,  and  for  his  gallantnr 
FRANKLIN,  Sm  John,  an  English  admiral  was  made  a  lieutenant  In  1818,  the  British 
and  arctic  explorer,  born  at  Spilsby,  Lincoln-  government  having  fitted  out  an  expedition 
shire,  April  16, 1786.  He  was  the  youngest  son  to  attempt  the  passage  to  India  by  crossing 
of  a  resectable  yeoman,  whose  patrimonial  es-  the  polar  sea  to  the  north  of  Spitsbergen, 
tate  was  so  burdened  with  mortgages  that  to  Franklin  was  appointed  to  the  command  of 
maintain  and  educate  a  family  of  12  children  the  Trent,  one  of  the  two  vessels  of  the  ex- 
he  was  obliged  to  sell  it  and  engage  in  trade,  pedition ;  the  other,  the  Dorothea,  being  corn- 
John,  his  youngest  son,  was  intended  for  the  manded  by  Gapt  Buchan.  After  paanng  lat 
clerical  profession,  and  received  his  early  educa-  80^  N.  the  Dorothea  received  so  much  daanage 
tion  at  St.  Ives  and  at  the  grammar  school  of  from  the  ice  that  her  immediate  return  to  Eog- 
Louth.    He  soon  showed^owever,  a  decided  land  was  decided  on.    Franklin  begged  to  be 

Eredilection  for  the  sea.  While  a  school  boy  at  permitted  to  continue  the  voyage  with  the  Trent 
routh,  he,  with  one  of  his  comrades,  took  ad-  alone,  but  his  commander,  Capt  Buohan, 
vantage  of  a  holiday  to  walk  to  the  coast,  12  would  not  consent,  and  the  two  vessels  returned 
miles  distant,  merely  to  look  at  the  ocean,  which  to  England  together.  Franklin's  conduct  on 
he  then  saw  for  the  first  time,  and  upon  which  this  occasion  brought  him  prominently  into  no- 
he  gazed  for  many  hours  with  intense  satiafao-  tice,  and  gave  him  a  high  reputation  as  a  bold 
tion.  His  father,  hoping  that  his  inclination  for  and  thorough  seaman  and  a  competent  surveyor 
the  life  of  a  sailor  would  be  removed  by  an  ex-  and  scientUSc  observer.  In  1819,  on  the  re- 
perienoe  of  its  discomforts,  permitted  him  to  commendation  of  the  lords  of  the  admiralty,  he 
make  a  voyage  to  Lisbon  in  a  small  merchant  was  appointed  to  the  command  of  an  expedition 
vessel.  But  this  experiment  only  confirmed  the  to  travel  overland  from  Hudson^s  bay  to  the 
boy  ^s  fondness  for  the  sea,  and  his  father,  deem-  Arctic  ocean  for  the  purpose  of  exploring  the 
ing  it  hopeless  to  overcome  so  strong  a  propen-  coast  of  America  eastward  from  tne  Copper- 
mty.  yielded  to  it,  and  procured  him  admission  mine  river.  (For  an  account  of  this  and  his 
to  tne  navy  as  a  midshipman  at  the  age  of  14.  other  arctic  expeditions,  and  of  those  sent  in 
He  entered  on  board  the  ship  of  the  line  Poly-  search  of  him,  see  Arctic  Discovbbt.)  Frank- 
phemus,  and  served  in  her  at  the  battle  of  lin  returned  to  England  in  1822.  During  his 
Copenhagen,  April  2,  1801.  A  midshipman  absence  he  had  been  promoted  to  the  rank  of 
who  stood  at  his  side  was  shot  dead  during  the  commander,  and  shortly  after  his  arrival  home 
engagement  In  the  ensuing  summer  he  Joined  was  made  a  post  captain  and  elected  a  fellow 
the  Investigator,  which  was  commanded  by  his  of  the  royal  society.  In  1823  he  published  a 
oousin,  Capt  Flinders,  and  was  commissioned  nartative  of  his  journey,  and  in  August  of  the 
by  the  English  government  to  explore  the  coasts  same  year  he  married  Eleanor  Porden,  daughter 
of  Australia.  After  nearly  two  years  spent  in  of  an  eminent  architect  In  1825  he  was  ap- 
this  service,  which  was  eminently  of  a  nature  pointed  to  the  command  of  another  overland 
to  qualify  him  for  his  future  pursuits,  the  In-  expedition  to  the  Arctic  ocean.  When  the  di^ 
vestigator  proving  unseaworthy,  Franklin  and  assigned  for  his  departure  arrived,  his  wife  was 
the  rest  of  her  officers  sailed  for  home  in  the  lying  at  the  point  of  death.  She,  however,  in- 
store  ship  Porpoise;  but  thst  vessel  was  wrecked  sist^  that  he  should  not  delay  hb  voyage  on 
Aug.  18,  1808,  on  a  reef  about  200  miles  from  her  accoimt,  and  gave  him  as  a  parting  gift  a 
the  coast  of  AustraJia,  and  he  and  his  compan-  silk  flag,  nrhich  she  requested  him  to  hoist  when 
ions  remained  for  50  days  on  a  sand  bank  600  he  reached  the  polar  sea.    She  died  the  daj 


710 

afttr  he  led  TjisIatvI.    lie  r&tznje-l  }.:.r..o  ry  Es:-:Ir--i-x  ::  i?  oer^z  ii^z  ilts*  r:€=  v^r»  i 

Tray  of  New  York.  fcrriv'L  2  &t  Li  v.;  r:  •(>•/:.  >•:;:.  i-ir.ivL    tui   pr'ViV'.y   tJ.-:   li?':   r:rv;T.r'».f 

24,'lV27,  ai.d  on  March    S.  1^2^  h^'vr::,''  !:;lr-  i"ra:.k::L*»  trj-.-i/.l-.s.     Ke  L:::i**"*f  La:  d    .: : 

riei  Ui  Jar.c  GrifMn.  the  jre?^:.:  I-i!y  Frrii.k-  !e*T  a>-.'jiy  5«ir'>ht-:.  f  r  :Lo  larrj  &«  ce^  r.  -a! 

liD.     l:i  the  5a:rje  year  h^   p'-ll:-:.vi   &   L:ar-  l-y  :}.v  E5.:.;'.:r:s-i  t''r.li'.i^  lo  iii^:;  K' vl:  *• 

rative  of  his  «:<osi  cxf^-'i ::::•::.     I::  1^-^*   h^  Frii^klin.  ^h-*  :::  :*0  ■   v..uM   hiw   \-tv:.  rt 

was  kr.it'htfc'i.  a:*-!  rcc-eive^i  t}je  oecrtv  t-f  I».r.I-.  yiA.-*  of  art. — Sc-e  "•  Nirr:»:lvc  •;:'  &  ."v^srr.*^;  : 

fn^ni  0>::or<l  UDivc-rsity  a:.'3  :he  s-j'A  u..-:;*!  of  the  >hori*  of  irePolir  ?v.a  in  ;S1'>-'::-:.    \j 

the  peoiT-ajihical  eoclcty  of  Par!-.     I:i  l^o.'  h?  Caj:.  .^.^hr.  Fmnk'-ri   Lrr.ioL.  l-^C!    :  "  Nirrv 

•was  Fi-.-rj:  to  the  Mt-»:i:crrarjcia  ia  rornini^L'i  ci  live  of  a  Sc<:o:i.l  Ex;">11:".'L  t  ■  iLv  >:.or<-»  tf  a 

the  haiiibow:  arsJ  hivlni:  reij'ivrcd  W'::ie  ser-  P«''.ir  Svo,  in  lv2o-'-T.*'  by  the  fc^.e  (I.-  n^.:-. 

vice  Vf  tiic  Greeks  in  thoir  r.rri^j'e  f -r  iriivj-jri-  l-^i?  ■.    Tlie<e  works  have  l-«:a  rt-j  rxt^^J  >.  Elj 

deiicc-,  h».'  was  decorated  hv  Kirij  Othowlrh  the  !a:.d  and  America. — £LXA>>i:  Ays,  an  El^t!^-- 

cro^s  of  the  Itrrdeerner  of  Greece.     While  on  i"»v-:e?«,i5rs:  wife  of  thv  pr«.<e<:ir-p.  In-rr.  i:- J-'.  . 

HiU  station  he  wa5  noted  for  his  attention  u>  the  1 7'.*:i.  Her  father.Williani  P^rdi l,  wa^tLv  ar*, ::.- 

comfort  of  hi*  crew,  and  the  saili^r?  exjre^'^-d  tec:  of  Eaton  halh  and  of  other  totetl  l-uil-jiij*-. 

■  their  Hi-n^  of  }ji.s  kindness  by  ca'iina:  h:<  v(.-s.ic-l  At  au  early  aze  she  xna!iifo*:ed  rvTr-arkail*.  "wil- 

the    "('clestijl    Rainbow"    and    "  Franklia'3  en!*, and  esj-eoially  an  aptiiudo  f-;r  lar.j-.i?-. 

Paradi«<.'."     In  IS^G  he  was  made  governor  of  Almost  una>."i?ied  S'ho  ta::jht  hc-rsolf  lir«.vk  i:. : 

Tasmania  or   Van   I'ienien':*  Lrimh   in  w}iich  Latin  when  uijly  11  or  12  year*  t.«iJ.     >iie  s-.-. i 

office  lie  continned  till  1S40.     He  wa,s  a  very  acjiiired  ^ever:ll  other  lanfruaj*.*,  ai.d  a  ^eitral 

I>opular  governor,  and  ori;rinated  and  carried  knowkdreofall  iheirihcipais.ivnic-s.tTj'ec;*;  y 

many  measures  of   great  impi»rtanco  to  the  of  botany,  chemistry,  aiid  pet »i»\ry.  AtiL^A^..-^ 

colonv.     He  founded  a  rolieff*.-  and  ;rave  it  lariro  15  ^lIe  K-zan  to  write,  and  in  her  17:h  r,.ar  ■•  ? 

endowments  from  hi-*  own  funds,  and  exerted  produced  a  f  mem  in6ca:itr»N  •'Tlie  W-il".  .r:..- 

Limiielf  to  have  it  conducted  in  the  most  lil-eral  Triumphs  of  Constancy."  whi«h  atrra*  toi  •  -:.- 

manner,  without  regard  to  distinctions  of  .Krct.  Mdorablo  attention  un  its  publjc.iticn  in  i-/ 

In  IH'^'i  he  founded  the  Kf.'ientific  a.s««>ciati(in  Her  next  publication,  **  The  Arctic  Exi^'ht.- r, 

now  known  a.s  the  royal  s<-»ciety  of  liubartim;  a  Poem"  (1**1**».  led  to  her  acqua:itta::>  <  u.:. 

during  his  administration  its pajK'rs  Were  printed  Capt.  Franklin,  and  t'»  their  niarr;a;rv  il  A-r 

at  his  ex[>en!$e.     When  the  colonial  leCT>lature  1S23.     In  tlie  [»rcviou>  year  ht-r   !■  nji^t  a:,. 

voted  an  increase  to  tiio  governor's  sahtry.  Sir  best  i»oem,  **Civur  de  Lion,  or  the  Iri.r-.:  (.-. 

John  refused  to  accept  it  fur  himsi-lf,  but  i^ecur-  sade,"  in  1»5  canto*,  was  pubiished.     She  .:  ■-•: 

ed  the  adrlitional  ai>proiination  f(»r  the  beneiit  of  consumption,  Feb.  22.  l-2\  th«-  d.;y  aft-  r  ;  -  • 

of  hi-^  s'.icces-or.     On  the  dav  (-f  his  tk-parf.iro  }iU'»:':iniI  :>.'iilid  <<n  hi>  <i.'.':i«l  e\;-.  ■:.:-■'   :  ■  ■ 

frciMi  tij».*  oil'iiiv  the  mo-t  n*iiiieri»*.;<  uMthvrii.;^  Ar-iir  -h'..'-i"j.     IKr  ]ov:.;-,  \\'.\).  *.':.'-  i  *■  ■ ; ' 

of  the  pt'opli,"  thiit  had  evi.r  been  .-eon  in  T;*—  of  "C'.i'ir  «K' l.in:!."  w^re   «■■!"•    t.-i    ..:  : 

maijia  attended  Ijiui  !•>  tlie  j»l:ii'e  t-f  e:iib.irk;i-  li-hed  in  I.on'b»:i  i:j  l>iL*7-  -I  am    -■  \'*f.  - 

ti..»n,  tin?  ]ii-hi»p  af  the  c«»lniiy  wa';kii.j  ;it  their  wife  of  >ir  .bil.n    rr.iii'uiiri.  ..ri    Kr  j  >^  '.    . 

liea«h     He  wa.s  also  <-'»rn[ilinjeiiled  by  u<!« he -■-•.■•»  di<iini:iiN!.«.il  f-r  the  dev.-t. .'.  ]  vr-<  \>  r  i'  • 

from  i-v»  ry  di-tri<t  of  the  i-i;inih     L"ii^  nfter-  wliich  -he  h;is  UmTi'I  i'-t  !;»•■  r-  -  •:.•  ■■::-:.    - 

w:ird    the   reniembr;i:ne   of  lii-   virtues   drew  band  fru:n  tJie  j't  r!I-.  i»f  i.i-  li-:   u:    :       «; 

fnnii    tlie   inii:i!ii:;iiits   tif   Ta-iinani.i   a  rniiin-  tii»n,   born  .ibtui:   l*»"ii.     >:.*•   \s  :k-   :  ..    - 

bntioii    «if   £1,7mi\  whirh    was   *ei:t   t<»    Lady  daiiditer  of  .l«<}i?i  ilriiV;:!.  E-...  ISA... 

Franklin  t«»  a>^i-t   i:i   puyin:;  tlio  e-xjieiiM-i  i»f  of  I'rei.ili  ll-.:-ri:rno:   ib--.i  :.t    -.i.   :■  -   :..  v      • 

the  .»••  urt'Ii  lor  her  nji^-'iiJtr  h;i^buii<i.     in  1*^1*)  ^i^Ie.    While  in  ■r:i»':!.a!;ia  *:je  r«.:.'ii  r..  :..;■-    - 

Sir   .lolin  was  apiniin'o-d    t'»  the  ct»iimjand   ^f  n-jiit  »•  r\i.e  li»  tluM-.'-sniry  ly  |  :•>.:.:  ■•■.:  ■ 

a  n»-'.v  exp.<lition  t«»  ili-it)vor  tlie   N.   W.  jia-^-  ]»rlv:iie  pur-i- a  bi«;i.!y  i-f  !■>  ."i... '..:■.-■•  %^    .•  • 

Fa;re.     il  e.iri^i>ted  4if  ili».  *.liip^  Ei-ibus  and  T«  r-  the  jle-tnieiinn  i.'f  a  thiij;:".  :i'.;i   >:  •     ■■*  •:  " 

ror,  uliitli  were  furni'.Iierl  uij<l  uUi.d  out  in  the  poiit.  wlii-h   in  o.ii:-.,  ..■.].i:.  e  wa-  -.'   :.  ■  \-   • 

MroiJL'f't  and  mo-t  (■•inplito  mannrr,  aj:il  man-  natod.    Site  h:L-;  exj»«  :ni«'!  pi  .iri\  ;i".  :.-  "  :'  v 

nt'd  by  pii-keiltrew^.  anjoiintin^inall.  I'tliri  rtand  in  the  searcli  I'-r  Iht  hii-^b.i.jih  i*:  ■:    -   -: 

in«-n.  t«»  loM  per-«on«*.     'Mn  y  h.iiloil  from  >ijeer-  in^  new  t  xpf«li:io!i-.  t.«  -^e-k  fc  ;  >  :■       ..   - 
n<-'«-.  May  i«'»,  1  >»!').     iVankliuN  orders  wen- i«)         KiiANKI.I.N.     Wii.iuv,  l*  .   h»v   r  j. 

return  in  1^17.     ll»-  ^^a-^  la*:  .seen  bv  a  whab.r  rrnorof  S\Vf  .b-r>ev.  «..iii  *•:   ll.  •  -.k-    .:.    •  -^    ■■ 

wh<i  iJH't   him  in   Uallin's  b.iy,  .Ii;ly  ll«»,   l^l.*i.  lin,   burn  in    I'liilaiblphi.*  :%\'  :\    17.  !. 

In    1*^1*<,  no  ti'lin;."*  of   ih.*  exp.dui«in    !i;i\in:^'  Knjhiiiil,  Ni»v.  17,  I'^l-I.      I:i<;...i:.  ■ -;  . 

reai'lud   Knu'hind,  tiie  anxiety  nf  the  pnliiif  a-s  liki-  l:i«.  fath'T.  rt  nia!k:ib\\  f:.  :  ■  :  :■■   ^.   .. 

to  hi' f;itf  h<l  t«»  ihi*  tinin,^  inii  <i:' m-vi-ral  e\-  likeui-'O    »if    an    a-l\i-nt'iri-:>   ili-:-. -.' 

p«-diiji>ii";  \i\  -earrh  (»f  hint.      In   tlif   ^prinJ  nf  >.  i;:L'lit  t«»  pi  !••  p-.  ;i  i:i  a  ]  rw..:  .  :■  .:,-     _-   • 

lSo'».  :i«j   hr.  I::ii'   iLMvrtainid  in   I'^.M,  a  partv  Fn  n.li  \\ar  ( 174  I   "'^».  a'.«l.  li.-.i::    ■     ■     :.     ■ 

ul  aiMiui   H»  whir,' hH-n  were  Seen  by  thi'  K-ipii-  obtained    a   ei>nuiii''-iiiii    ir.    i;.«.     !'.     ■.-."    .     . 

iiiaux    I'll    Kin^    William'-!   i-lan«l,    and    a   few  b»r«e-..   with   wliiih   ho   -irxej   ;;.   ir 

nnHiili"*  lifi  r  th«' •«.ivaj<-4  f'liind  their  b'ulii's  at  canipaivjn-i  ^'n   the  (.'jnM':j:»:i  :V  ■:.'...  ^.  ..■       •    - 

A   jMiint    ni»l    far   t-i   the    N.  W.    «»f  l»a«k'- (ireat  ti>  be  eaptain    In  tore    he  W;L-«it"    ;i^-    .       .*. "    ■ 

Fi!»h  river.     From  articles  picked  up  by  ihc  return  to  Philadelphia  h-.-  .-»■.•.  ..■•.a:     "   .-. 


FRANKIJNIT£  7U 

cud  employment  tbrongh  his  iatber^s  inflaenoe.  red  oxide  of  zinc,  lying  between  the  crystalline 
From  1754  to  1756  he  was  comptroller  of  the  limestone  and  the  gneiss  rocks.  At  Stirling 
general  post  office,  and  was  during  part  of  the  hill  it  constitutes  the  main  substance  of  two 
Bame  period  clerk  of  the  provincial  assembly,  beds  of  considerable  magnitude,  lying  in  imine- 
In  1757  he  accompanied  his  father  to  London,  diate  contact  with  each  other,  divided  only  by 
where  he  studied  law  and  was  admitted  to  the  a  parting  seam,  running  S.  W.  and  N.  K,  and 
bar  in  1758.  In  1762,  while  yet  in  Europe,  dipping  S.  K  about  40  from  the  hill  aniinst 
he  was  appointed  governor  of  New  Jersey,  which  the  beds  seem  to  repose,  toward  and 
to  which  province  he  returned  in  1763.  In  the  under  the  bed  of  the  Walkill  river.  The  upper 
revolutionary  contest  he  remained  loyal  to  of  these  beds,  lyin^  immediately  under  the  crys- 
G^reat  Britain,  and  some  of  his  letters  containing  talline  limestone,  is  composed  chiefly  of  the  red 
strong  expressions  of  tory  sentiments  having  oxide  of  zinc  with  the  Franklinite  interspersed 
been  intercepted,  he  had  a  guard  put  over  him  in  granular  masses,  often  assuming  the  appear- 
in  Jan.  1776,  to  prevent  his  escape  from  Perth  ance  of  imperfect  crystals.  It  presents  a  thick- 
Amboy.  He  gave  his  parole  that  he  would  not  ness  varying  from  8  to  8  feet,  and  is  traced  with 
leave  the  province,  but  in  June  of  that  year  he  great  uniformity  of  structure.  At  times  almost 
issued  a  proclamation  as  governor  of  New  Jer-  perfect  crystals  of  Franklinite  are  found,  par- 
eey  summoning  a  meeting  of  the  abrogated  legis-  ticularly  where  the  bed  comes  in  contact  with 
lative  assembly.  For  this  he  was  arrested  by  the  superincumbent  limestone;  these  crystals  are 
order  of  the  provincial  congress  of  New  Jersey  of  the  regular  octahedral  form  with  the  edges 
and  remov^  to  Burlington  as  a  prisoner.  He  replaced.  The  Franklinite  constitutes  about  40 
was  soon  after  sent  to  Connecticut,  where  he  per  cent,  of  the  mineral  contents,  the  rest  being 
was  detained  and  strictly  guarded  for  upward  mainly  red  oxide  of  zinc.  This  bed  is  exten- 
of  two  years,  till  in  Nov.  1 778,  he  was  exchanged  si vely  worked  by  the  New  Jersey  zinc  company, 
for  Mr.  McKinley,  president  of  Delaware,  who  who  remove  annually  about  8,000  tons  of  the 
had  fallen  into  the  hands  of  the  enemy.  Grov.  ore  to  their  works  at  Newark,  where  they  man- 
Franklin  after  his  liberation  remained  in  New  ufacture  from  it  the  white  oxide  of  zinc  used 
York  till  Aug.  1782,  when  ho  sailed  for  £ng-  for  pidnt;  the  residuum,  after  the  oxide  of  zino 
land,  in  which  country  he  continued  to  reside  is  driven  off,  being  Franklinite,  is  smelted  into 
till  his  death.  The  English  government  grant-  iron.  The  underlying  bed  appears  on  the  surface 
ed  him  £1,800  in  remuneration  of  his  losses,  and  or  outcrop  to  be  almost  a  pure  massive  Irank- 
in  addition  a  pension  of  £800  per  annum.  Wil-  linite,  amorphous  in  structure,  although  occa- 
liam  Franklin^s  adhesion  to  the  royal  cause  led  sionally  also  exhibiting  very  large  and  nearly 
to  an  estrangement  between  him  and  his  father,  perfect  crystals  of  the  Franklinite ;  it  contains 
which  continued  after  the  revolutionary  contest  no  red  oxide  of  zinc,  which  fact  is  the  distinctive 
was  over.  The  son  made  advances  toward  a  feature  between  this  and  the  overlying  be^ 
reconciliation  in  1784,  which  drew  from  the  which  is  generally  known  as  the  bed  of  red 
father  the  declaration  that  he  was  willing  to  zinc.  As  the  underlying  bed  of  Franklinite 
forget  the  past  as  much  as  possible.  In  l788,  descends  it  becomes  less  pure,  the  Franklinite 
however,  in  a  letter  to  Dr.  Byles,  he  speaks  of  being  replaced  by  the  crystalline  limestone,  with 
his  son  as  still  estranged.  In  his  will,  he  be-  the  Franklinite  and  willemite  (anhydroos  sili* 
qneathed  to  William  his  lands  in  Nova  Scotia,  cate  of  zinc)  thickly  interspersed  in  grains  aad 
and  released  him  from  all  debts  that  his  execu-  imperfect  crystals.  It  preserves  this  character 
tors  might  find  to  be  due  from  him,  and  added  in  its  entire  depth  as  far  as  explored,  nearly 
this  clause :  *^  The  part  he  acted  against  me  in  200  feet  below  its  outcrop ;  this  bed  is  aboat 
the  late  war,  which  is  of  public  notoriety,  will  12  feet  in  thickness,  but  is  not  worked.  Sever* 
account  for  my  leaving  him  no  more  of  an  estate  al  hundred  feet  westwardly  of  these  mun  beda, 
he  endeavored  to  deprive  me  of  and  higher  up  on  the  hill,  another  bed  of  Frank- 
FRANKLINITE,  a  mineral  composed  of  Unite,  mixed  with  a  little  of  the  red  oxide  and 
peroxide  of  iron,  oxide  of  zinc,  and  oxide  of  a  good  deal  of  the  silicate  of  zinc,  is  found, 
manganese,  in  appearance  much  like  the  ma^-  running  the  entire  length  of  Stirling  hill;  on  the 
netic  oxide  of  iron.  It  is  found  in  considerable  S.W.  point  of  this  vein  a  considerable  quantity  of 
qnantity  only  in  Sussex  co.,  N.  J.,  although  it  is  ore  is  mined  by  the  Passaic  zinc  company,  and 
also  mentioned  as  accompanying  ores  of  zinc  by  them  manufactured  into  the  white  oxide  of 
in  amorphous  masses  at  the  mines  of  Altenberg  zino  at  their  works  at  Bergen,  near  Jersey  City. 
(Vieille  Montague),  near  Aix  k  Ohapelle.  The  The  other  locality  where  the  Franklinite  is 
composition  of  the  Franklinite  of  New  Jersey  is:  found  in  large  masses  is  on  Mine  hill,  about  1^ 

miles  N.  £.  from  Stirling  hill,  following  the 
course  of  the  Walkill  to  the  village  of  Fhmklin. 
Here  there  are  also  found  two  distinct  beds 
lying  in  immediate  juxtaposition ;  but  their  rel- 

ative  position,  as  compared  wiUi  that  of  the 

Its  hardness  is  5.5-6.5 ;  specific  gravity,  5-5.09.  beds  at  Stirhng  hiU,  is  reversed,  the  Franklinite 

It  occurs  in  large  veins  or  beds  at  the  mines  of  being  the  easternmost  and  uppermost,  and  tlM 

the  New  Jersey  zino  company  at  Stirling  hill  zino   being  the  underlying  and  westernmost, 

and  Mine  hill  in  Sussex  CO.,  accompanied  by  the    The  fbnnaticm  generally  on  Mine  hill 


COMlilMBta. 

B«rtJu*r. 

TBempMn. 

DkkiMMi. 

AlbUb. 

Peroxide  of  iron 

Oxide  of  lino 

66.00 
IT.OO 
16.00 

•  •  •  • 

66.10 
1T.48 
14.96 

•  •  «  • 

66.115 

21.771 

11.987 

0.127 

6S.86 
10.81 

Oxide  of  manganese. . . 
Silica 

18.17 

712  FRANKUNITE  FRASCATI 

considerably  disturbed,  and  mnch  less  rc^irnlar  axicc,  and  stracturc  ivitli  the  best  lanullAr  i.-'-'C 

than  on  Stirliug  hill.    The  Franklinite  on  Mine  inado  of  tho  fainoi:s  bjtalhic  ores  of  ^iv^^  n  &i-; 

hill,  which  pruiiiiscs  from  surface  indications  to  Miiscn  in  Gcniiaiiy.     Its  fracture  Ki'^s^s  L.r»-d 

bo  a  rich  and  regular  bodj  of  ore,  has  however  and  brilliant  silver- white  laizit- liar  fiu  i-:%  K^r-.r- 

not  proved  so  in  the  numerous  0[)enings  and  times  beautifully  crystallized,  and  h»  liord  &i  :«> 

explorations  made  by  the  Franklinite  iron  com-  cut  glass;  these  crystulsarenut  attntcii*:  \y  the 

pany,  who  erected  a  large  blast  furnace  hero  magnet.     (See  Prof.  J.  AVilai^n's  spi^n  i:«l  r*;i  n 

some  4  years  since  for  the  express  purpose  of  in  the  "Gomral  Kejiort  of  the  Hriti^h  L'« ■::.:•:;> 

working  tliis  ore.     They   found  it  so  much  sioners/'pri-scnted  to  parliament,  Feb.  G.  l*'-;.) 

disturbed,  and  immediately  below  the  outcrop  An  analysis  of  this  iron  gives  in  KXt  par.?,  ir  >z^ 

80  nmch  mixed  with  other    and  useless  suh-  88.30;    carbon   combined,   5.4S;    c;irii>u  fz^^ 

stances,  chiefly  an  impure  garnet  (silicate  of  (graphite),   0.00;    mamiancse,   4.u0;    .•*.!    .l::^ 

iron),  as  to  make  tho  ore  untit  for  any  metal-  0.20;   zinc.  O.oO;  suhhor    O.OS  ;   ]  Lo.'^pLo.'^^ 

lurgical  purpose.     The  attempts  to  smelt  it  did  0.15;  loss,  0.99. 

not  prove  successful,  and  the  works  were  aban-        FUANKS,  a  confederacy  of  Girn^an  I^-.be^ 

doned.     The  underlying  or  westerly  bed,  on  the  which  first  a]>peared  under  this  naniv  i:t  ur  ::.« 

other  hand,  is  much  purer,  and  is  composes!  lower  Kliine,  about  tho  middle  of  t!.e  ^irtr.- 

of  massive  Franklinite,  interspersed  through-  tury.    Tho   name   is  variously   derived    fruia 

out  with  more  or  less  red  oxide  of  zinc  in  span-  framea^  a  weafon  of  tlio  anriont  Ger:::iu:s  x=il- 

gles  or  small  lamellar  masses.     Its  outcrop  is  tioned  by  Tacitus,  from  aiiemianic  wurd  :i.taL- 

plainly  traceable  along  the  entire  crest  of  Mine  ing  free,  and  from  another  meaning  ixj*. v.     \\a 

liill  for  nearly  half  a  mile  in  length,  varying  now  generally  believed  that  the  triU.s  v!...  h 

from  3  to  5  feet  in  thickness;    it  has  been  constituted  the  bulk  of  tho  Frariki»h  c*  r.:\vItT- 

worked  to  some  extent  by  tho  Xew  Jersey  acy  were  the  same  whicli  were  kr.owr.  t  j  ::.:: 

cine  company.    A  late  examination  of  this  ore  Komans  in  tho  time  of  the  tlrst  cmiHrnr?.  '.i-I-.r 

by  Professors  J.  D.  Dana  and  B.  Silliman,  jr.,  the  names  of  i^igambri.  Chamavi,  Aiiii -iv.r.'^ 

shows  it  to  be  com])Osed  of  4G  to  4S  ]>er  cent.  Bructeri,  Chatti,  &c.    The  first  ]nen:i<  x^til  vir«» 

of  Franklinite,  the  rest  being  mainly  red  oxido  the  most  powerful.     A  nart  of  tlics«:  tril-«.s  \.*\ 

of  zinc,  yielding,  exclusively  of  the  zinc  in  tho  passed  the  Uhine  as  early  as  the  \<  l.ul!'  t :' :'  * 

FraukUnite,  2G  per  cent,  of  oxido  of  zinc. — As  1st  century.     In  the  3d  and  4th  Lrger  K^2.*.-i 

has  been  already  stated,  the  Now  Jersey  zinc  successively  passed  into  the  N.  E.  puit  (.f  iia:.l, 

company,  after  extracting  tho  zinc  in  the  shape  which  country  was  finally  wre>u>l  ly  '.L-  u 

of  the  white  oxido  from  the  ores  of  Stirling  and  from  the  Komans  in  the  5ih  century.     Vi 

Mine  hills,  smelt  the  residuum,  consi>ting  almost  Probus  they  appear  as  dangerous  i-:ii:i^:>-t>  i-:' 

wholly  of  Franklinite,  into  iron.     Attomptshad  Konian*!.     Cartiu>iiis,  who  wa-^  aj'Tio  :  •, 

been  made  manv  vears  sinoe  bv  muw  of  tlie  imii  fv.iid  the  i»rovinre  ajaii.-:  ll.tia  \  •  '•:. ':  v  1 .:.    ..    i 

works  in  the  nei^'hhorhoiKl  to  sniclt  the  Frank-  s^-a,  haviutr  beirayt'd  !.:■*  i:ik-:i  r.  ;.:.  :  .  >    .      1 

linite  ore  which  appeared  in  >ii«'li  larjo  masses  the  purj-le  in  Uritaisi,  ur.nw  tla  r.i  j..-  ..''.  -.  -.-- 

and  soca-iy  to  be  mined;  but  nmi^uf  these  early  rendering  to  iIjliji  thv  i^lai..!  . :"  ::.o  i  ..:..v.  ^.  : 

operations  pruvc-d  siu-ces.Ai'ijl.  owing,  no  doubt,  to  the  rounlry  on  tin-  >iiii!i.t.     « "■  -ri^T..:.: .  .  -  I   .1 

the  great  quantity  of  zinr  in  tlie  ore,  whii-li  in  C\'n>tan:ine  ihefiieat  lAjKiifl  rh- :..  :r   :.    :.  ' 

its  pn)i'e-?s    of    volatili/alion   absorbs  a   lar;:e  territory,  l»ut  thi-y  mmh  li.v.i.li .]    i:. ■,-..■    ..'. 

amount  i>f  heat,  and  thon-bv  tends  to  eliill  tliO  wcrelinallv  Kll  in  il-*!-!!.— t-.-n-ri  I  v  .'.."   .■      ;:    -. 

furnace.     Karly  in   isr>:j  Mr.   K.  I*o>t,  of  Stan-  that    peritvl  tiny  appcir  to  l-r:;;  I  .■• - 

liope.  N".  J.,  urnlertiKik  to  work  the  <»re  with  groups,  the  >a;lan(t"r«»i:i  t:ie  oM  u.  r:   ...»    .  -  .. 

anthraeito    in   one   of    tlie    bhi-t    furnaces   at  or  Ironi   Sn'n.  the  :.n(  iei.:  ii;ir;ir  i  :'  :'  .   r      : 

Stanliope,   and  Hieeinlwd  in  making  some  pig  Y^T^1^,  ancl    Kip::ari;in    {iVi-iii  :lii-  ].,'  :.    -     ;. 

iron    of  exeellent    cjiiality ;    but   tlie>e   oj'era-  b.;i:k  of  a  riNirs.     Thi-  l"i»r!:ii.-  »■:'..:    :  :  ■' 

tions   Were   >oon   dirs.'ontinned.     In   the   Kimo  atlaik.t  t»;i  <iaul  ilunn^'  tin-  **:':.  i    ■..:    -■  .  .     - 

year  Mr.  C  K.  iK-tnmM  sueee>.-t*ully  and  pernia-  *-.'n.iu»:rv«l  ihe  griati  r  p.irt  i-f  i:  \.:  t'.-. r  !   ■   M  • 

Dcntly  e>fal'lis}n.d  t!ie  luanufiu'ture  of  iron  from  ^u^  in;::an  kiii^:  ("o\S;  t!i''  I.iTtcr  .-;  :....-    .:  ■ 

the  zinc  and  Franklinite  orei  at  tlie  works  of  w:ir«l  on  both  si<les  cf  i:;i  ";-i'tr  K:.  -.•  .  t  -.  ■ 

the  New  Jersi-v  /.ine  Company  (nf  wliieli  he  was  ini:  \\u  ir  eonpii^:-  W.  :i';  :'.ir  :i.«.  :!-•    >!■  --.  .  .-■  : 

tlien  prei»ident),  by  >!jiiltingthe  re^-iduiini,  iA'iKi'  K.  a.**  f.ir  a««  tin-  lieail  of  il.i-  M.i:i      I  .    :.'...  •- 

the /ine  had  bein  driviii  olV.  hir  thepurpo-o  of  tin*  couniry  inljai  i-nt  to   tl.<-   >':.■:.   •'   r..    •  .» 

making  ilie  wliito   oxide.     This   branih  {»f  in-  in.i-U  ni  nai.ie  of  Krain  i'r.:;i.     T;.^   l*     :•■:•■: 

duvtry  is  caleulateil  to  ben'nie  one  of  niucli  iin-  an  tl»  inent  m  ibe  nioiifr::  j-i  j. ■.:'.»:  :i..  i  :  1  :  . 

[  ortanei-.  «<  the  iron  prt>dueed  iViuii  tlii-*  re>".d-  as  will  :ls  of  >.  W.  (uri.ai.y.     'il.-. .:  :. 

uuni   not  only  yields  ii  bjir  iron  of  reniarkablo  vi^ii-ns  ha'l  >«  ]'ar:ite   h.w.-,  \\1..  '.    ;. .. :      .-  ■   •• 

purity,    llbre,   ninl  htrength,   but   i<   opiM-ially  wanl  riMKi  Uii  in  twn  ni,!^*.  k:j-j.\ :   .k- 

Kuiu-il  to  tlienianufactureof  ^teel.     Tlie  furnaeo  iV?  and  Ltz  /.'i/''.''//i' r:.  ■,. 
in  ^vhicli  this  iron  is  made  is  1*^  f.-.  t  hiji  an.l        FKASCATI,  a  t' -au  ■  :" 

8J  f'-et  (liameti  T  of  Ik^Ii;  it  j»ri»'liuis  annually  tl:e  (ampajn.i,  ••::  x\.k-   N 

alM»ut  2,<''"J    tons  an«l  works   u::in:errnj»iodly  T':-.iu!;in  nn-u:.:,    "^  i.i.   F. 


.  ■  ■ » 
1  ii-— 


-  \ 


• 
• 

r.. 

w 

> 

>. 

F 

"witli  ViTV  ^Tt  at  PuMlarlty.     Tho  yc  iron  pro-     j"»p.  abfi.!  .'..•■"'.     It  w  ..-  :: 
duced  id  ahiiUjt  identical  in  charucter,  uppej^r-    re.-uKnce  of  ihe  Kol.ui:  :.j: 


-.4.t  ^    .iL  1    v_r     .'  ■.  i 


FRASER  FRATERNITIES                718 

for  some  centnries ;  and  many  of  their  magni-  bolieal  of  the  72  disciples  of  Christ,  the  main 
licent  Tillas  remain  as  monaments  of  the  taste  object  was  perfection  in  spiritual  life ;  such  are 
and  opulence  of  their  proprietors.  Of  these  the  nniDerous  sodalities  (Lat  todalU^  a  com- 
the  most  celebrated  is  the  villa  Aldobrandini,  panion)  which  have  spread  from  Rome  all  over 
which  is  adorned  with  numerous  fountains,  the  world.  With  others  it  was  practical  phi- 
water  works,  and  paintings.  The  villa  Rufinel-  lanthropj ;  with  others,  penitential  works, 
la  was  once  the  property  and  abode  of  Lucien  There  were  fraternities  of  pilgrims ;  fraternities 
Bonaparte.  On  the  summit  of  the  mountain,  of  the  Passion,  whose  members  performed  mjs- 
at  an  elevation  of  2,000  feet  above  the  level  of  teries  in  the  theatres;  fraternities  of  merchants, 
the  sea,  and  about  2  miles  from  Frascati,  are  tradesmen,  and  artisans ;  and  fraternities,  like 
the  ruins  of  Tusculum,  round  which  clustered  thefratre$pont\fice$,  who  flourished  in  the  south 
in  the  palmy  days  of  republican  and  imperial  of  France  from  the  18th  to  the  15th  century, 
Rome  tne  villas  of  her  patricians,  orators,  and  who  took  upon  themselves  the  construction  and 
emperors.  repair  of  bridges,  roads,  and  hospitals,  the  keep- 
FRASER,  CnARLSS,  an  American  artist,  bom  ing  up  of  femes,  and  the  security  of  the  high- 
in  Charleston,  8.  C,  Auff.  20,  1782.  In  early  ways.  Manv  of  them  obtained  the  sanction  of  the 
life  he  evinced  a  strong  disposition  to  become  a  church ;  otners  met  with  great  opposition,  and 
painter,  and  at  12  or  14  years  of  age  was  in  Uie  were  finally  suppressed  as  heretical.  Not  a  few 
habit  of  employing  his  pencil  to  depict  the  acquired  in  time  a  political  character,  or  con- 
Boenery  of  Charleston  and  its  neighborhood,  cealed  one  from  the  first  under  the  guise  of  re- 
His  friends,  however,  deeming  it  necessary  that  ligion.  The  brethren  of  the  white  caps,  so 
be  should  adopt  one  of  the  learned  professions,  called  from  their  peculiar  head  gear,  were  estab- 
at  the  age  of  16  he  became  a  student  of  law.  lished  about  the  end  of  the  12th  century  in  the 
At  the  end  of  8  years  he  commenced  the  study  south  of  France  by  one  Durand,  a  carpenter. 
of  his  favorite  art,  but  becoming  discouraged  Their  professed  design  was  to  rid  the  country 
he  resumed  his  legal  studies  in  1804,  and  in  of  the  marauders  disbanded  from  the  armies  of 
1807  was  admitted  to  practice.  By  close  atten-  Ilenry  II.  and  Philip  Augustus ;  but  having  ac- 
tion to  business  he  was  enabled  to  retire  at  the  complished  this,  they  undertook  to  forbid  the 
end  of  11  yeai^  with  a  competency,  and  in  1818  lords  to  receive  dues  from  their  vassals,  and 
he  refimbarked  in  the  career  of  an  artist.  The  were  consequently  soon  put  down.  During  the 
example  of  Malbone,  with  whom  in  his  youUi  struggle  between  Simon  de  Montfort  and  Count 
he  haa  been  on  terms  of  intimacy,  induced  him  Raymond  of  Toulouse,  a  confraternity  of  white 
to  give  his  attention  to  miniature  painting,  a  brethren  was  founded  at  Toulouse  (1210),  in 
branch  of  the  art  which  he  has  followed  more  the  interest  of  Montfort,  and  was  opposed  by 
persistently  than  any  other,  and  in  which  he  theblackcompany  attached  to  Count  Raymond, 
nas  attained  eminent  success.  In  1825  he  paint-  The  whites  were  afterward  remembered  for 
ed  the  portrait  of  Lafayette,  and  probably  nearly  their  cruelty  at  the  taking  of  Lavaur  (1211). 
•rery  citizen  of  South  Carolina  distinguished  in  Of  other  associations,  both  orthodox  and  other- 
the  history  of  the  state  during  the  last  60  years  wise,  some  of  the  most  noted  are  the  Begnins  or 
bas  been  numbered  among  his  sitters.  He  has  Beghards  (see  Bbguins)  ;  the  Alexians,  called 
also  produced  many  portraits,  landscapes,  inte-  also  LoUaras,  Cellites,  and  Matemans,  who  de- 
rion,  historical  pieces,  and  pictures  of  ffenre  and  voted  themselves  to  works  of  benevolence,  and 
■tin  life,  the  greater  part  of  which  are  owned  in  have  left  much  of  their  spirit  to  the  burial  so- 
Sooth  Carolina.  Mr.  Fraser  also  possesses  a  high  cieties  of  Cologne  and  other  European  cities ; 
reputation  in  the  South  as  a  contributor  to  pe-  the  brothers  of  the  common  life,  founded  about 
riodical  literature,  and  the  author  of  occasional  1380,  and  composed  mainly  of  clergymen  en- 
addresses.  He  has  produced  several  poems  gaged  in  copying  books;  the  flagellants;  the 
obanu^rized  by  elegance  of  diction  and  eleva-  calendar  brothers  of  Germany ;  the  brothers  of 
tion  of  thought.  In  1857  an  exhibition  of  his  death  of  the  order  of  St.  Paul,  founded  at  Rouen 
collected  works  was  opened  in  Charleston,  num-  in  1620,  and  suppressed  by  Pope  Urban  YIII. ; 
bering  818  miniatures,  and  139  landscapes  and  and  the  fraternity  of  the  Holy  Trinity,  founded 
other  pieces  In  oils.  by  St  Philip  Neri  in  1548,  for  the  relief  of  pil- 
FRASER  RIVER.  See  Columbia,  British,  grims  and  others.  St  John  of  God,  a  Portu- 
FRATERNITIES,  or  Coxfbatsrnitiks  (Lat.  guese,  established  in  the  16th  century  a  society 
fratemitoMy  brotherhood),  associations  of  men  for  the  relief  of  the  sick  and  poor,  the  members 
for  mutual  benefit  or  pleasure,  or  in  a  more  re-  of  which  were  known  in  Spain  as  brethren  of 
stricted  sense,  religious  societies  for  purposes  hospitality,  in  France  as  brethren  of  Christian 
of  piety  or  benevolence.  In  the  latter  meaning  love,  and  in  Grermany  as  brethren  of  mercy, 
it  generally  designates  lay  organizations.  During  The  brothers  of  the  Christian  schools,  the 
the  middle  ages  such  fraternities  were  extremely  brethren  of  the  holy  cross,  and  many  similar 
popular,  and  scarcely  any  external  act  of  devotion,  associations  for  works  of  charity  and  education, 
exoeptjoining  a  religious  order,was  thought  more  are  now  spread  over  the  world.  Of  the  purely 
meritorious.  Many  sorts  ofthese  societies  might  lay  fraternities,  one  of  the  most  extensive  is 
be  mentioned.  With  some,  like  the  confrater-  the  benevolent  society  of  St  Vincent  de  Paul, 
nitr  of  Notre  Dame,  founded  at  Paris  in  1168,  founded  in  the  17th  century,  which  has  branches 
ftDd  eompoaed  of  86  prie8tsand86  laymeui  sym-  in  moat  of  the  cities  of  the  United  States.    In 


714  FRAUD 

the  city  of  Rome  there  are  nearly  200  societies    law.    But  it  is  cerUin  that  there  is  a  Ur» 
irhose'  members  visit  the  hospital^,  bury  the    amount  of  craft,  aiid  a  very  cunDlru;  kin*!    -i 
dead,  instruct  poor  children,  and  supply  j)or-    deception — active  ur  passive— c»f  wLirh  ihe  !aw 
tionlos^  pirls  with  dowers.    The  confraternity    takes  no  cognizance,  and  which  charactcnie  a 
of  i^t.  Yves,  composed  of  lawyers,  undertakes    very  lar^re  proportion  of  tlie  common  tniL-j*:- 
the  dcfonce  of  the  poor  before  the  courts ;  tiiat    tions  of  society.     Sumewherc  the  law  dr^v*  a 
of  the  perieolanti  protects  young  girls  whose    line  between  that  measure  and  tliai  manr.gr  cf 
virtue  is  in  danger;  that  of  St.  Jerome,  della    deception  against  which  it  directs  men  to  ;ro- 
cflri7<i,  is  specially  devoted  to  prisoners.    The    tcct  themselves  by  their  own  caution,  ur.dir  *J:e 
fratornity  of  St.   Giovanni  Decollato  attends    penalty  of  sutfering  without  remedy  ar,y  n:.?- 
culprits  to  execution.    The  «7<*c<;ni,  so  called    chiefs  which  may  result  from  their  want  of  ^k-I 
from  a  peculiar  dross  which  conceals  the  face    or  care,  and  that  larger  or  deeper  or  more  is- 
and  prevents  the  wearer  from  being  recognized,    portunt  kind  of  deception,  which  it  C'-s-iiTfi 
go  about  the  city  at  certain  times  barefooted  to  unreasonable  to  require  that  nun  shouM  z^ijl 
collect  alms  for  pious   ]>urposes.    Among  fra-    themselves  from  without  its   aid.  and  «':..:! 
tcrnitios  m.iy  be  numbered  several  congrega-  therefore  it  will  lay  a  strung  hand  ap<>D  ii! 
tions  of  priests  who  apply  themselves  to  special  EUp])ress  or  render  hannless  whonevc-r  i:  ii  i- 
objects  &nd  generally  live  in  common,  without  tected.    ]iut  where  tliisline  is  dramn  i:  v^  Ji 
being  bound  by  the  ordinary  mona<itic  vows,  he  impossible  to  declare  by  any  fomiulx    I:.- 
Such  are  the  priests  of  the  oratory,  organized  at  deed,  there  are  whole  classes  of  ca&>e!j  :l  ^\.  :\. 
Rome  by  St.  Philip  Keri,  in  1548,  for  mutual  it  may  be  considered  as  not  yet  settled  i«h^:  '1-. 
edification;  the  French  oratory  of  Jesus,  found-  law  is  in  this  respect.    Thus,  the  law   -f  ^i*- 
cd  by  Cardinal  Herulle  in  1  Gil,  for  the  reform-  ranty  has  been  ex presaly  founded  in  Er.j'.j.:: 
ation  of  the  clergy;  and  the  society  of  St.  Sul-  and  the  United  Status  ujKjn  the  rule  di^dl  r"-:- 
piciup,  which  takes  an  active  share  in  the  edu-  tor^  or,  let  the  buyer  beware ;  and  it  was   z< 
cation  of  candidates  for  orders.  applied  almost  to  the  extent  of  holding  iLl:  ::  i 
FRAUI>.    There  are  few  principles  of  law  buyer  did  not  choose  to  obtain  an  cxprc-**  *»:- 
more  ot\en  or  more  em])hatically  asserted  than  ranty  of  the  thing  sold,  lie  was  retuediieft^  v  :.&:- 
tliat  fraud  avoids  every  contract  tainted  with  it,,  ever  might  bo  the  amount  of  decvpti-.-n  j  rib- 
and annuls  every  transaction.    It  is  seldom  that  tised  upon  him,  or  rather,  whatever  mizl: '* 
this  is  not  true ;  but  there  are  certain  rules  and  the  degree  or  the  way  in  which  he  wa?  j^rr.  :• 
qualitications  which  must  be  known,  if  the  prac-  ted   to  deceive  himself.     Hut,  in  li.e    a.-.   .- 
tical  application  of  the  i)rinciple  would  be  un-  Warranty,  we  shall  show  that  thor*.-  J.r.!«  U*: 
derfitoo<l.     TIius,  fraud  does  not  so  much  make  an  important  modi  ttcat  ion  ff  the  law  i:.  ::>•.- 
the  cnntract   tainted  witli  it  void,  as  voidable,  spect. — While  it  i<  iii!i».«s-:>.lo  t.»  -:.-.•*■  ;  r.    - 
This  is  an  iin]«ort:mt  pnu'tical  distiin.-ti«»ii,  for  a  by  deliiiition  what  fraud-  t;;i-  l:i\\  '*\ ..'.  :>,:   .-   •• 
void   ci»iitrai't    lias,  and  can  have,  n»)  ellioacy  and  treat  as  ««urlj,  at.d  \vh:it   i:  w;.l  :    *. 
whaU'W-r,  being  simply  ni»lljing:  wIkto^l-^   he  are  si>nie  leading  prin^iplv-  wM-.  J.  r;:.  v  •     - 
wlio  is  <!efraudv.-d  in  a  rnnira<'t  <>r  traiisu-tion  the  adjuiliratiini  I'n  ihi'i  Mil'jvi!.  :l:.  :  :    ._. 
may  >tiil  bo  on   the  whoK-  benelited  by  it.  and  to  a  ju-it  uiider-taiMliiii:  iif '.i:i- i:  .it:.,  r 
he  may  rortaiiily  waive  his  ri^'lit  to  avoid  it  for  these  is.  tliat  the  fraud  iin>t  :  ■.-  i.:.i*'.  -.  .'.  :     ■ 
the  fraud;  aR<lif  Ik*  dots  S(».  the  fraudulent  party  c«>iitraci   nr  transact  it -n,  ari-I    a-  /.    v.  ^.-. 
caiiiiMt  iii<i-t  that  his  own  fraiid  has  lil derated  into   its  very  c—eiiiv  ai.d  >:;"•-•  .i..**  .   ..■  i 
liiiu  iT'iTii  his  uwn  enL^ajeiiienls.  and  annulled  be-t  te>t  of  thi'*  may  l-e  f.'Uii'l  ;::    :'..■.     .   -. -• 
hi*'oMii:aiiniis.     It  is  very  «liilicull  logivealogal  would  the  transiu'tiiT.  Lavc  !;tk.  i.  ['.:....     :  ' 
dvlisiiiit'M  nf  fraud:  but   it  may  bf  suitl  ti»  bo  frau«l  had  nut  bveu  f-raotiMd  !      l-r  .:  .'    ■ 
any  <K're]»iii»n  by  wljifli  anotlivr  jur-nn  is  in-  not.  the  fraud  wa-*  niati-rial.      Ai.   '.\  •.  r    -. 
jured.     This  delinitiMn,  hnwovcr,  leaves  it  ne-  the  fraud  nUNt  wi-rk  an  aif.::.l  nv  :  -      -■  ■  ■  _ 
ee<sn:*y  t.»  explain  iiow  lar  su»*!j  dic«-ptif»n  may  injury.  f,.r  luen*  ii.leutiin:  kt  t  \;  -^i  .*     •     •  . 
be  carrie'l,  i.vA  what  its  ohararii  r  m-iM  be,  be-  cn»'i:gli.     Aiwilher  :•;.  tl.:/.  r^i-  il^ ?'.-.»■..  ".  *  ;    - 
fore  tbf  law  recuLMiizes  it    as   iVauil,  aud  will  nnist  nut  onlv  l;ave  l»Iievii!  ;:i  i  .-.:,•  .!:.:' 
j)eniiii  a  party  injured  by  it.   li)  tiiid   lr:.'al  re-  faKo  ^tatenunr,  bi.t  i.,u-t!.a\e   ;  .-]    :i    v.- 
dre-"*,   either  by  aunuliing  hN  en;:auviniMtK  nr  right  to  l-olievo  it.  biia;>e  !...-  ...:.:.•  : 
otherwi-e.     I-'i-r  ii  \>  rcrtain  that  all  dr«  iptiun  the  law  ti»  jir-*o«.;   hiiu  tV'-ii;  ?],..-   ^-   :  -..       ■     • 
i.-  ni>t  fraud  inlaw.     'Il:i*  Ii«»i!ian  ri\il  law  i>ed  of  hi«;  own  ni-^'h^-t  *t  uV.y.     Ij.  r«.  '■  ^     .'«        ■- 
tbephra<^w/"'vJ«r;^//'.Jr.  evil  i]ir«it.toi'\pr«-><  the  carifully  at  the  ii.j^^r- •!  pi  r--  :/-  .»'      •     •    ■• 
iVaMil  wiruh  the  law  ili-alt  with.     Wi-  lia\e  no  tei't  liiiM*-elf:  ar.d   i!   i»  :.ir   iii   ri   *.  '  -  r  .' 
Kiuil.ir   plj.-a«-e   i!i  our  law,    1  «;t  we    bavf   un  suj«pres.-ion  i-f  Iraud,  •  r  ;::  r^.  r,.i  \\'.:s.'- 
e\ai';!y  -iiiiilur  <li<tiiiiti"!i.  al:).'i!:u'li   it    i«-  <iiiO  ipuiiie-.  "wlnti  ll.at  l":a:.  1  w  a- j  -  .  ■•  *.   ■   ..-;     . 
w!i:i!i  it   i-;  dillieult   ti>  «b.li:ie,  iir  i  \.  ii  ti- illus-  one  \vhi>   in-ru   aj^e,  i:.::rMi:_\  ■  :"  :..      '     - 
traN'.      I  id*  I.jw  of  ni'»rality  aud  »  f  n  ii^riou  is  or  the  conrMi-nre  ari-ii  ^  :".-  ■:.   ,l   :'         .•    '  ■ 
plain  ami  >iuiph-:   "  1  >(»  unto  other-*  a-*  v.. u  would  hitii'iJ,  ha- a  ri:;li!  t«'t.i\  i:i  •!.,   \^  \  :   -    •-  ■  ■ 
have  tlu'ui  di  unto  yon;"  auil  any  rrat't  «.reun-  lertiou.     AnotluT  di-:. :.'.:"    :l    \s  ■  ..  '     ' 
nir.'j,  a:.y  r.iiii*i;ilrn<  nt  or  prevjirit'.'iti.iii,  iT  <rn-  m.ake-  i-   l'o:ii!.!i.d  on   iri.  t^ij^lr.  .- 
Pent  to  ••vii-il.Mi'piinn.  by  whiih  one  n.ay  make  anii»unt  indtid  lo  a  ii'.-.  i --.:;..  "    ■     ^   .   .- 
gain  over  auol her,  is  clearly  a  violati-'U  of  this  suMainod  by  principles  vf  i:.:7ji.;'}  ,  ;■    •      -: 


STATUTE  OF  FRAUDS  716 

between  concealment  and  misrepresentation,  ing  and  signed  by  the  party  whom  it  was  songht 
In  some  branches  of  the  iaw,  as  that  of  insnr-  to  charge.  For  this  purpose,  in  the  29th  year 
■nee,  tlie  distinction  is  of  little  valae,  but  gener-  of  Charles  II.  (1678),  the  *^  statute  for  the  pre- 
ally  it  has  mach  force.  Thus,  if  one  buys  goods  vention  of  frauds  and  peijuries'*  was  enacte<l ; 
who  is  at  the  time  insolvent,  but  says  nothing  and  it  is  commonly  known  by  the  shorter  name 
aboat  his  affairs,  the  sale  is  valid,  and  the  prop-  of  the  **  statute  of  frauds.**  It  has  been  doubt- 
erty  passes  to  the  buyer,  leaving  the  seller  only  ed  by  wise  lawyers  and  judges,  from  the  time  it 
bis  claim  for  the  price.  But  if  the  buyer,  being  was  enacted  to  the  present,  whether  this  statute 
insolvent,  falsely  represents  himself  to  the  seller  has  not  caused  and  protected  as  many  frauds  as 
as  having  9ufficient  resources  to  justify  the  sale  it  has  prevented.  But  the  same  reasons  which 
or  credit,  this  is  a  fraud  which  permits  the  seller  led  to  its  enactment  have  always  produced  a 
to  avoid  the  sale,  and  to  reclaim  the  goods,  prevailing  belief  that  it  was  on  the  whole  a  use- 
(See  Falss  Pretbncbs.)  The  question  how  far  ful  statute.  Hence,  its  provisions  have  been 
one  is  boond  to  communicate  to  another  any  enacted  more  or  less  entirely,  or  declared  to  bo 
special  facts  which  he  knows,  or  indeed  any  law  by  adoption,  in  nearly  if  not  quite  all  the 
infbrmaUon  which  ho  possesses,  has  often  passed  states  of  the  Union.  In  no  one  of  them  is  the 
under  adjudication.  That  a  sale  is  not  void-  English  statute  verbally  copied;  and  perhaps 
able  merely  because  the  buyer  knew  what  the  the  provisions  are  not  precisely  the  same  in  any 
seller  did  not,  and  bought  because  of  his  better  two  states.  But  they  all  cony  parts  of  the  ori* 
knowledge,  is  both  certain  and  obvious ;  and  ginal  statute,  and  most  of  tnem  enact  its  most 
perhaps  it  is  equally  certain  and  obvious  that  material  parts ;  and  the  difference  between  the 
if  the  law  annulled  all  transactions  of  this  kind,  enactments  of  different  states  is,  generally  speidc- 
a  very  larco  i)roportion  of  all  the  buying  and  sell-  ing,  not  important.  The  reason  why  the  statute 
ing^-of  all  that  goes  under  the  name  of  spec-  has  been  deemed  by  so  many  useless,  or  worse, 
nlation — must  come  to  an  end.  The  supreme  is,  that  it  has  been  found  impossible  to  make  dl 
court  of  the  United  States  has  distinctly  held  its  provisions,  or  even  its  more  important  ones, 
that  a  buyer  is  not  bound  to  communicate  to  a  universally  known.  Ilence,  while  by  its  require- 
seller  extrinsic  circumstances  which  were  very  ment  of  written  evidence  it  tends  strongly  to 
material  to  the  price,  and  were  known  to  the  suppress  that  large  class  of  frauds  which  was 
buyer  alone.  Still,  while  the  law  is  so  in  general,  founded  upon  mere  peijury,  it  tends  also  to  ex- 
there  are  cases  in  which  the  concealment  of  pose  innocent  parties  to  grievous  fraud  through 
special  knowledge  invalidates  a  transaction  their  ignorance  of  this  requirement.  They 
founded  upon  that  concealment.  It  has  also  make,  and  perhaps  carefully,  iniiK)rtant  bargains, 
been  distinctly  held,  that  if  one  injures  another  with  all  the  details  well  adjusted ;  but  they  do 
by  such  fraud  as  the  law  recognizes,  he  is  re-  not  take  the  precaution  to  have  their  agreements 
^Mnsible  although  not  interested  in  the  transac-  reduced  to  writing  and  verified  by  the  signature 
tion,  and  not  himself  gaining  by  the  fraud ;  as,  of  the  parties ;  and  after  complying  with  their 
for  example,  when  one  knowingly  gives  false  part  of  the  bargain  in  good  faith,  they  learn  for 
recommendations  of  a  person  seeking  employ-  the  first  time  in  court,  or  from  their  counsel, 
ment — It  may  be  proper  to  mention  the  doc-  that  their  bargain  gives  them  no  legal  right  nor 
trine  of  constructive  fraud,  or  that  by  which  the  remedy,  because  of  the  omission  of  that  which 
law  treats  as  fraudulent  certain  acts  which  have,  they  had  never  supposed  to  be  requisite.  Wo 
or  which  are  adapted  to  have,  the  effect  of  fraud,  shall  proceed  to  give  the  most  general  rules  in 
although  none  be  intended ;  as.  for  example,  if  regard  to  the  provisions  of  this  statute  (mean- 
one  buys  a  chattel,  and  leaves  it,  however  lion-  ing  thereby  both  those  which  are  most  widely 
estlv,  in  Uie  possession  of  the  seller,  this  is  a  adopted,  and  those  of  the  most  important  and 
Toid  sale  as  against  a  third  party  who  buys  of  frequent  application)  which  have  been  sanction- 
the  seller  not  Knowing  the  previous  sale.  This  ed  by  the  jurisprudence  of  the  United  States ; 
not  taking  away  what  one  buys  is  held  in  some  without,  however,  attempting  to  go  into  a  close 
ooorts  to  be  conclusive  evidence  of  constructive  consideration  of  the  details  and  diversities  of 
fraud,  and  in  others  to  be  only  what  is  called  a  state  enactment  or  ai^udication,  which  would 
badge  of  fraud,  or  a  very  suspicious  circumstance  be  inappropriate  jn  a  work  like  this,  and  im- 
indicating  firaud,  but  open  to  explanation.  (See  possible  within  Uio  space  which  can  be  given  to 
Balk.)  this  subject — ^By  the  4th  section  of  the  English 
FRAUDS,  Stattte  of.  This  is  a  very  pecn-  statute,  which  is  the  one  tliat  our  statutes  copy 
liar  law,  and  in  its  extent  and  systematic  form  most  frequently,  no  action  can  be  brought  upon 
b  quite  unknown  out  of  the  British  empire  and  an  agreement  not  reduced  to  writing  and  signed 
the  United  States.  It  originated,  nearly  two  by  the  party  to  be  charged  therewith,  or  by 
centuries  ago,  in  the  earnest  desire  of  eminent  some  person  by  him  authorized,  if  by  the  action : 
En^ish  jurists  to  prevent  the  numerous  fVauds  1 ,  any  executor  or  administrator  is  to  be  charged 
which  were  perpetrated  by  means  of  suborned  to  answer  damages  for  the  deceased  out  of  his 
and  peijured  witnesses ;  and  it  was  thought  that  own  estate ;  2,  or  if  any  person  is  to  answer  for 
the  more  effectual  way  of  doing  this  would  be  the  debt,  default,  or  miscarriage  of  another ;  S, 
a  provision  that  a  large  number  of  the  most  or  upon  any  agreement  in  consideration  of  mar- 
common  contracts  should  be  incapable  of  legal  riage ;  4,  or  upon  any  contract  for  the  sale  of 
eoforoement  unless  they  were  reduced  to  writ-  lands^  or  any  interest  in  or  concerning  them ;  6, 


716  STATUTE  OF  FRAUDS 

or  any  agreement  not  to  be  performed  within  nntil  after  the  marriage,  is  not  a  promi<e  to  L'.s. 

one  year  from  tho  making  thereof.     In  refer-  and  cannot  l)e  enforced  by  Liro.     Thc4ihtl»a»« 

cnce  \o  all  those,  it  is  held  that  a  nigning  i3  sufti-  relates  to  any  ]>^oIlii^c  or  contract  f  »r  "  ih«  solc 

cioiit  if  substantial,  although  not  Utend  and  of  lands,  toncment«^  or  ber^diLament«.  '.-r  zzj 

formal.     Thus,  if  in  a  letter  signed  by  the  party,  interest  in  or  concerning  Uiem.'*     The  vcrt 

ho  alludes  to  and  recognizes  the  n^rreoment;  so  broad  scoi»e  of  this  phra^^Kdogy  has  l-e^n  cv*- 

if  the  party  writes  his  name  at  tho  beginning  siderably  curtailed  by  ai^judicaiiun.     Tlii>,  i 

or  in  any  part  of  tho  agreement,  with  the  in-  contract  for  the  sale  of  grt»wing  crop^  ixht  U 

tention  that  it  shall  verity  the  instmment  as  his  within  the  requirement  of  the  htatute  or  v:'.i- 

own ;  or  if  a  broker,  for  both  parties  or  either  out  it,  according  to  circunistanoo^.     If  t lie  rrr^ 

party,  writer  their  or  liis  name  in  his  book,  they  is  already  reape<l,  it  is  certainly  Ptvorct:  fnn 

or  he  assenting.     But  where,  as  in  some  of  our  the  land,  and  is  of  course  a  nicro  ch.'ittel ;  \r^ 

statutes,  the  word  used  is  not  "  signed  '^  but  even  if  it  bo  still  growing,  if  the  inteniH^  cf 

**  sub:*cribed,"  there  it  has  l>oen  said,  but  may  the  parties  be  to  reap  it  when  grown  a&nlrv- 

not  be  certain,  that  tho  name  nmst  be  written  move  it  at  once  from  tho  land,  thb  i'«  coi  hiA 

at  the  bottom  of  the  agreement.    So  the  name  to  bo  a  contract  for  a  sjile  vf  an   iiiivrta>:  :a 

may  he  printed,  or  written  in  pencil.     An  agent  lauds ;  and  t!ie  same  ruK*  was  aj^pli^tl  f  >^  a  *>Mk 

may  sign,  and  may  sign  sufficK-utly  althougli  ho  of  nmlberry  trees  in  a  nursery.     WLil«-  tl^rf  :s 

write  only  his  own  name;  and  any  ratiticatiou  soinu  uncertainty  in  the  ca.<e!«,  wo  ih.r.k  il^ 

of  his  signature  would  bo  cipiivalent  to  a  pre-  sjune  rule  of  con-s-truciifin  applies  to  CT*'Wirr 

viuus  authority,     liut  ono  of  tho  contracting  grass,  trees,  or  fruits  making  writ  ins  urar-\-^- 

parties  cannot  sign  as  tho  agent  of  the  other,  sary  for  the  enfonvnieut  uf  a  ci»iitrai  t  rc>:<-':- 

An  auctioneer  or  his  clerk,  or  a  broker,  may  bo  ing  them.    A  mere  li(vnsoti>  ii*o  Ian*!  f-.r  f»-r  * 

agent  for  either  party  or  botli ;  and  his  entry  special  purpose,  as  to  stuck  hay.   or  Kf.v?'  % 

of  the  n.imo  of  a  seller  or  purchaser,  at  the  time  wagon  on  it  fiT  a  sh<»rt  time,  is  n<it  a  birzsi 

of  the  sale,  satir»fies  tho  requirement  of  tho  stat-  fur  an  int^'rost  in  lauds.     ]ii:t  ii  cM.Trat :  i  > « .  :• 

ute,  unless  there  be  some  agreement  or  coudi-  vey  land**  for  certain  service*  i*  wit] tin  :1.^  •-?-:- 

tion  to  tlie  contrary.    The  written  agreement  ute:  and  if  it  l»o  not  in  writing,  ht-d  ::.i  -*■:- 

need  not  be  in  any  precise  or  regular  form,  but  vices  be  ren«Kred,  tho  party  rcniUrirc  ::.'- 

must  contain  all  tlic  substantial  elements  of  tho  cannot  enforce  (he  cotitrai  t  or  have  t!.t  Ir^i-. 

bargain.     In  England,  and  in  some  of  our  states,  but  he  may  sue  for  tho  value  r-t*  la-  !^"^    •.  •. 

as  in  New  York,  Maryland, and  Cieoi^ia,  it  must  and  in  determiiiin;:  that  value,  \):%-  \.i'  •■■  -  ■  r  * 

recite  the  consideration   of  tho  contract.     In  lands  may  he  taken  into  t«'n*i«'.v  rur  .  -      *  i* 

others,  as  in  Maine,  Massachusetts,  Mis<issi])pi,  fith  Haii^e  rtlate>ti>an  u^rceiii*  r  t  ** :.  .r  ;•  :   : 

Ttii'.h'ssee,  and  Texa^,  if  tlie  proiui>e  be  in  writ-  tt>  be  |MTi*i«r!Me»l  uitl.irj  iise  >e  .r  :>■  t.  t:  -  :  _■  ■ 

ill::  ari'l  signed,  tliocnn-ideralion  may  he  proved  \v.j:  tin  r«'"l'."'     Hi-r'\   :':.«•  irij  «.■■:..•  *    ;          "  ' 

by  n'JjLT  evidentv.     The  ri;;rofment  m:iy  he  enu-  luts   Ikm-i'Ijio   w«.!1   >i::\-].   ti  :■/   :i    •    "'■.    " 

tainvd  iu  K-f-vr-s  and  written  nii  f.ev^.-ral  pii-«es  ajrorir.i.iit    i-;    !!■  t     wi'liin     l?  ■■     -:   •    ■- 

of  [  a|»v.T,  if  thry  jire  bUi'li  thiit  tliey  can  he  read  theiilore  uicd  i:fi   If  i:.   '^:.''  j    ,■    * 

t«'„'L-thi.-r  co!i»'i-teritly   with    their  jjurju^-ii*  and  reality  and  in  ;rM..il  !"ii:!i  i. »•■:■.■  !i-  ■  :    .  * 

ch;jr;u  ti-T.     An*!  if  a  eoiitraet  I'esever.iMe  in  in  suh-iantia!   ]'rrl"":-mai.''e  v  :':.:::    •■■       ^'    - 

owt:  II. iture.an'l  in  so:iie  «»i'it^  parts  t!ie  statutory  Ir.--   t- TTr.ii'riliiiarv   i  ;:-i-:!m-Vi:..  .  «.           ■•  - 

roinir.:m«.iit   is  sati-ti»'d  and  in  M»me  n<»t.  tho  ju-i  vi-iit  it  ;  ainl  tisi"  j-iiri-ij  '•'.-■; 

riiiiTiMi'i  i-^ -till  eiit«»r<<.-:ii»]i' f.»rthn'-e  j>:irt'i  whiih  w)rere  thi' p:.?*!-!  s  ihi  ii.-»'.v. '.  i*. . 

ctiiiiply  ^vith  tin- >tatMtv'.     If  a  written  runtraet  j«hili'  any  j-rviiTiiia:!' «•  if:';.    -     ■*    .  ■    ■ 

1h'  •-Mei],  it  mav  111.'  >]ii)\vn  in  d«  tVlln- that  it  lias  a    ^la^   lri»!ri    !!;i'   lriak.::J  •■!    -•         • 

I'f.-M  alirrc'l.     r»tii  it' a  p!aif:titr  n'•.f^  upon  liis  a^'ri"i.«.  !•»  \\*'vk   I -r  a:;-:'.' r   '•:■:. 

w:-;:t'  II  «iii.tr:ie*,  but  ran  maiiitairi  lii>  ai-tion  hy  im  tii::i-  I'-t  \\\v  1"  ,:"::::i!i  /.?:'•-•■. 

it  «■:  ly  l-y  ^-Imw  Inj  that  it  w:is  <»rally  ali»Ti.-l.  it  l*ixi-«l.   !:••  l.a-  a  li/'i'   \-*  \ '  j   .     :  -•  .   ■ 

is  no  lor-jiT  tin-  written  roiitraet  oti  wljir!i  lie  then  all  hi-  .■*«  rvi.i-  \\";".i  b«   r-  :.■!.  r-   ".  v.  • 

rc>:s  aii'l  i!;i' ar:ii»i;  i-j  di  It-ati-d.     <  )i' the  >pri':.il  year,  a^'l  r!i«'  ii:i'.ra>r  t'.rtil  :■   •    ':  *■   :-.  .i  ■  ■    .• 

rla::-*-,  til." -Jil,  nh.Tinu'to  a  i-romiM*  *•  tt»ai!«-\\iT  It  i-^  imp'-rtMii:  t-i  rriM  Vi*.  a  7.  r :  .:■;  .:    .      ■  *-    . 

fur  the  drht.dv.laiilr,  or  miM'aVria^e  »'f  a!ii»th«  T,'*  whi'h  .-hui;!-!  ha\e  l- ■. ;:  !:.  u  r/  ■  .-.  ":    •    •       ', 

m.il<ts  this  statute  <«»ViT  all  guaraistn  *« ;  ami  it  i«i  wholly  ]«•  r!-';Mt  ■!  •    •.  ■■:.-■  -.      .    .     :    • 

is  of  irri.Mt  iiniK)rta:n'.-  in  r« -pfi-t  ttithi!.-!,     i'>ut  that  i:i-!h:Mj  r.  1:..  ::  «•  !•=;!   :!.'■   ;■•••■    :  ■   ■ 

i^  ^\i!l  W  mon*  ronveiiiiVit  t't  state  t  lie  law  in  i-«>!i-'.>:«  ratii'U  !:.•»:.•  _\,  tl.irt-  a'-    ■              .- -   - 

t!.:-4  brhalf  und«r   t!ie   tit]'.'  <  ItAirANiKF.     The  \\h:»!:   a:i  at  ti":i    i....y  l--   1     »    .\,  •     \         -      ' 

"1  <laM-e,  wliirli   relati's  t>»  ]»rMTi;i-i's  "i'l  iiii-  1m;;:i  f.-rTlii-  m-!:' y  "''i''       A:  ■  !':  -  r  - 

hi  l-raJ:.*;i  «>f  marriaiTe."  i-*  Im  id  n-ii  to  ap?]v  t«>  lT:!i  "f  tl,"   K:..:',>h   -•  it  ■.:•  •  -  •      *-   *    .* 

a  pii)ia.-i.- ic <'i):itrai-Mo marry,  I'Jit  tit  all  prom-  r«»ii?rait   f"r  Tin-  -■!•■  •■!  :.:  y  .-  ......  ■.'    -  • 

i-N   -  uf  -I'.thTiKlit,  adv.'Ult'cTlleli!,  uf   ntlivT    \'Vk*-  m-T'  halJili- '.  f-T   t!.  ■  pr!   •■  ■••*■■  r      •   «  ." 

vi-:..n   i:i   \ii-w  of  marriaje.  anil  tJnTitoro  ail  sha'!   l-i-  '/.-i-!,  .  \i-.  i-^    r-.-  1     ■.••    -                  i 

th« -I*  mu-t   1-e  in  wrilii'.g  ami  :»!::::■  \.     And  it  pan  I'f  thi-  l'-'-N  *••  *•."  !  ;.:   i   ..  •    .  ..  • 

iiiii^t  h«.*  a  ]»riinii-'e  to  the  otln  r  party  :  t!i:i-i  a  the  .-aTin*.  "T  j:\. •'•■■..•  li.:.^  *  ;.   v  ■■  ■  ■  '          " 

jir.'V.i'i-«'f  ri:i  :iilv;ujfi-mrnt  maile  ti»  ad.:';^'}i*<r,  t-i  liii.-l   tliv  l-.i'j.iia.  •  r    m    j    ■:    :    ; 

in  wri'.iiij;,  nut  known  to  the  icteuded  husband  that  .-ome  I;l-iC  it  mei;;.'r;u<.':j-:.  1  ^  ?  .  .      -* 


STATUTE  OF  FRAUDS  717 

before.  This  provision,  in  some  form  or  other,  thing  which  has  an  actual  value,  tliongh  a  small 
is  very  common  in  the  United  States.  The  one,  may  suffice.  Thus,  a  dime,  or  even  a  cent, 
•urn  is  variously  fixed,  in  different  states,  at  might  be  sufficient,  but  not  a  straw  or  a  chip, 
about  $30  to  $50,  rarely  less  or  more.  The  though  it  were  called  *^  earnest  money  ;*'  it 
principal  questions  which  have  arisen  under  would  be  safe,  however,  if  earnest  were  relied 
this  clause  are,  what  delivery  and  acceptance,  upon  as  clinchmg  the  bargain  (to  use  an  old 
or  what  earnest,  or  what  part  payment,  will  phrase),  to  give  money  of  some  real  and  con- 
satisfy  the  statute,  so  as  to  make  the  writing  sidcrable  value.  So,  part  payment  has  the  same 
unnecessary.  In  the  first  place,  there  must  be  effect  as  earnest  money ;  but  it  must  be  an  ac- 
both  delivery  and  acceptance.  A  meets  B,  and  tual  part  payment.  Therefore,  if  the  seller  owes 
they  agree  orally  that  A  shall  buy  100  boles  the  buyer,  and  it  is  a  part  of  the  bargain  that 
of  cotton  which  B  has  for  sale,  for  $25,000.  B  the  debt  shall  be  discharged  and  be  considered 
sends  the  cotton  forthwith  to  A^s  store.  This,  as  a  part  of  the  price  to  be  paid,  the  contract 
according  to  common  law,  completes  the  sale  must  nevertheless  be  in  writing,  because  this  is 
and  B*8  right  to  demand  the  price.  But,  by  not  a  part  payment  within  the  meaning  and  re- 
the  statute  of  frauds,  if  there  be  no  note  or  ^uirementof  the  statute.  If^  however,  the  debt 
memorandum  in  writing  signed  by  A,  he  may  were  certainly  and  irrevocably  discharged,  as 
instantly,  and  without  assigning  any  reason,  by  the  giving  up  of  a  note  of  hand,  the  decision 
send  all  the  cotton  back  to  B.  As  to  what  is  might  be  otherwise.  The  difficult  question  has 
a  delivery,  it  may  be  said,  in  general,  that  it  is  been  much  considered,  whether  a  bargain  that 
any  transfer  of  possession  and  control,  made  by  A  should  make  and  sell  a  certain  article  to  B, 
the  seller,  for  the  purpose  and  with  the  effect  of  is  a  contract  for  the  sale  of  the  thing,  which 
putting  tne  goods  out  of  his  hands  and  into  the  must  be  in  writing,  or  a  mere  bargain  whereby 
nandsof  the  buyer.  It  maybe  an  actual  deliv-  B  hires  A  to  work  for  him  in  a  certain  way, 
ery ;  or  it  may  be  constructive,  as  by  the  de-  which  need  not  be  in  writing.  Perhaps  no 
livery  of  the  key  of  a  warehouse,  or  making  an  better  rule  or  principle  for  deciding  this  ques- 
entry  in  the  books  of  the  warcliouse  keeper,  or  tion  can  be  found  than  the  following.  A  con- 
the  delivery  of  an  endorsed  bill  of  lading,  or  tract  to  buy  a  thing  presently,  whicli  the  seller 
even  pointing  out  as  the  buyer's  own  massy  has  not  now,  is  just  as  much  within  the  re- 

rids  that  are  difficult  of  removal,  as  timber  quirement  of  the  statute  as  a  bargain  for  a  pres- 

a  dock,  or  a  large  stack  of  hay.    So  a  part  ent  sale ;  and  if  by  the  bargain  the  seller  may 

may  be  delivered  for  the  whole,  and  carry  with  himself  buy,  or  make,  or  procure  in  any  way 

it  constructively  the  delivery  of  the  whole.  On  he  likes,  the  things  ho  agrees  to  sell,  this  is 

the  other  hand,  as  to  what  constitutes  accept*  only  a  contract  for  the  sale  of  the  goods,  and 

ance,  we  must  look  mainly  at  the  intention  of  must  be  in  writing.    But  if  the  seller,  and  he 

the  party ;  for  if  he  so  acts  as  to  manifest  his  alone,  is,  by  the  bargain,  to  manufacture  these, 

assent  to  the  delivery,  and  his  intention  to  ac-  and  in  a  certain  way  and  of  certain  materials, 

eept  and  retain  the  goods,  or  so  as  to  justify  or  after  a  certain  model,  or  if  in  any  way  it  ap- 

the  seller  in  believing  that  the  buyer  so  assents  pears  that  the  seller  is  to  make  certain  thinji^s 

and  intends,  this  will  have  the  effect  of  fixing  and  charge  therefor  a  price  for  his  labor,  skill, 

his  Hability  for  the   price,  whatever  be  the  and  material,  although  all  these  are  included  in 

way  in  which  he  expresses  this  assent  and  in-  the  mere  sale  price  of  the  article,  then  it  is  a 

tentlon.    Uence,  mere  delay,  or  holding  the  contract  for  the  manufacture  of  the  goods,  and 

goods  for  a  considerable  time  in  silence,  is  an  not  merely  a  contract  for  their  sale,  and  it  need 

assent  and  acceptance.    But  as  ho  has  a  right  not  be  in  writing.    The  statute  itself,  both  in 

to  examine  the  goods  and  see  whether  he  England  and  the  United  States,  speaks  of  part 

chooses  to  accept  them,  he  must  be  allowed  payment  only ;  but  courts  of  equity,  both  there 

time  enough  for  this  purpose ;  and  his  silence  and  here,  have  strongly  inclined  to  the  rule,  that 

doring  a  period  of  time  that  is  not  more  than  part  performance  of  any  of  the  contracts  within 

anfilcient  for  this  is  not  evidence  of  acceptance,  the  statute  of  frauds  shall  have  the  same  effect 

It  has  been  much  questioned  whether  the  sale  that  part  payment  has  upon  a  contract  of  sale 

of  shares  or  stocks  in  incorporated  companies,  by  the  statute.     There  has  been  some  doubt 

as,  for  example,   in  corporations  for  manu-  expressed  as  to  the  expediency  of  the  rule; 

fiictnring  purposes,  for  railroads,  and  the  like,  but  it  may  now  be  considered  as  settled,  that 

ia  a  sale  of  ^^  goods,  wares,  and  merchandises''  courts  of  equity,  or  courts  of  law  having  equity 

within  the  meaning  and  operation  of  the  stat-  powers  (as  most  American  courts  of  law  now 

lite.     In  England  the  prevailing  authority  is  nave),  will  enforce   an  oral    contract  which 

that  the|e  shares  are  not  ^^  goods,  wares,  or  should  have  been  in  writing,  provided  there 

merchandises''  within  the  statute,  and  therefore  has  been  an  actual  and  substantial  part  perform- 

ihe  bargain  need  not  be  in  writing.    Perhaps  ance  of  it  by  the  party  sought  to  be  charged. 

the  prevailing  rule  in  the  United  States  is  the  — ^There  are  other  sections  in  the  English  statute, 

other  way.    But  the  authorities  are  to  some  and  in  some  of  our  American  statutes  of  frauds, 

extent  conflicting,  and  the  question  may  not  be  or  statutes  for  analogous  purposes,  which  pre- 

oonsidered  as  settled.    As  to  giving  any  thing  scribe  in  what  way  Wills  must  be  made,  others 

by  way  of  earnest  (the  exact  words  of  the  Eng-  which  relate  to  Trusts  ;  and  others  to  Leases, 

liah   statQte  are  '*in  earnest"),  almost  any  which  wiU  be  considered  under  those  titles. 


FREDERIO  (UTT  FREDERIO  YL  (Dknicabk)        719 

and  fine  white  marble  are  among  the  most  val-  soon  after  lost,  through  the  battle  of  Prague 
nable  mineral  prodacts.  Facilities  for  trans-  (Nov.  8,  1620)  rapidly  won  by  his  cousin  Ikux- 
portation  from  tiie  interior  are  numerous,  as  the  imilian  of  Bavaria,  the  head  of  the  Oatholio 
county  is  traversed  by  the  Baltimore  and  Ohio  league.  Leaving  the  crown,  the  insignia,  and 
railroad,  and  has  on  its  S.  W.  border  the  Poto-  the  charter  of  Bohemia,  Frederic  hastily  escaped 
mac  river  and  the  Ohio  and  Chesapeake  canaL  to  Holland,  and  lived  in  exile,  under  the  ban 
Capital,  Frederic  City.  II.  A  N.  £.  co.  of  Ya.,  of  the  empire  and  persecuted  by  ridicule,  till 
abounding  in  magnificent  mountain  scenery ;  his  death, 
area,  878  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1860, 15,975,  of  whom  n.  DKNMAKK. 
2,294  were  slaves.  It  occupies  part  of  the  great  FREDERIO  YI.,  king  of  Denmark,  son  of 
valley  of  Yirginia,  is  highly  productive,  well  Christian  YII.  and  the  princess  Caroline  Ma- 
cultivated,  and  in  all  r^ects  one  of  the  richest  tilda,  bom  Jan.  28, 1768,  died  Dec.  8, 1839.  He 
Sortions  of  the  state.  Two  or  three  small  af-  was  declared  regent  at  the  age  of  16.  His  ed- 
nents  of  the  Potomac  supply  it  with  good  ucation  had  been  much  neglected,  but  he  rem- 
water  power.  The  staples  are  grain,  butter,  edied  this  misfortune  by  great  natural  intelli- 
and  live  stock ;  in  1850  the  productions  amount-  gence,  firmness  of  purpose,  and  a  capacity  for 
edto811,060bushel4of  wheat,  199,  242ofIn-  observation.  With  the  help  of  his  minister 
dian  corn,  60,701  of  oats,  6,438  tons  of  hay.  Count  Bemstorff  he  applied  himself  to  the  abo- 
and  193,394  lbs.  of  butter.  There  were  78  lition  of  feudal  serfdom,  the  reformation  of  the 
mills,  11  factories,  1  iron  furnace,  1  founderv,  7  criminal  code,  the  breaking  up  of  monopolieSi 
tanneries.  81  churches,  and  860  pupils  attending  the  establishment  of  a  better  financial  system, 
public  scnools.  Blue  limestone  is  abundant.  A  and  the  prohibition,  earlier  than  any  other  gov- 
railroad  extends  from  Harper^s  Ferry  to  Win-  ernment,  of  the  slave  trade.  March  16,  1792, 
Chester,  the  capital,  and  turnpike  roads  inter-  was  the  date  of  the  edict  against  the  slave 
sect  tiie  county  in  all  directions.  Yalue  of  real  trade,  providing  for  its  enforcement  on  and  after 
estate  in  1856,  $5,742,761.  Jan.  1, 1804.    In  1797  Bernstorff  died ;  he  had 

FREDERIO  CITT,  the  capital  of  Frederic  recommended  to  the  regent  to  observe  a  strict 

CO.,  Md.,  situated  on  Carroll^s  creek,  2  m.  from  neutrality  in  the  wars  of  the  epoch,  but  this 

its  mouth  in  Monocacy  river,  and  60  m.  W.  of  soon  became  impossible.    In  1797  the  Dani^ 

Baltimore;  pop. in  1860, 6,028.    A  branch  rail-  admiral  Steen  Bille  gdned  a  complete  victory 

road  8  m.  long  connects  it  with  the  Baltimore  over  the  Tripolitans,  who  had  for  some  time 

and  Ohio  railx^ad.    It  is  a  well  built  city,  with  disturbed  the  trade  of  the  Mediterranean ;  and 

wide  regular  streets,  lined  with  houses  of  brick  in  1800  the  regent  concluded  a  convention  with 

or  stone.     It  contained  in  1850  a  handsome  England,  whose  claim  of  right  to  search  Dan- 

court  house,  a  gaol,  12  churches,  8  banks,  an  ish  merchantmen  for  goods  contraband  of  war 

Insorance  office,  various  scientific  and  literary  had  led  to  much  recrimination,  and  even  some 

institutes,  6  newspaper  offices,  8   founderies  acts  of  open  hostilily.    But  in  Dec.  1800,  Den* 

and  machine  shops,  a  fulling  mill,  a  woollen  mark  having  signed  t|ie  maritime  confederacy 

ilMtory,  2  rope  factories,  12  com  and  flour  mills,  with  Russia,  Sweden,  and  Prussia,  on  terms 

8  saw  mills,  a  paper  mill,  and  severe  other  man-  similar  to  the  armed  neutrality  of  1780,  the 

nfactories.    It  is  the  seat  of  a  college  with  90  flames  of  war  broke  out  afresh.    Every  Danish 

atadents,  under  the  charge  of  the  Jesuits,  of  a  vessel  in  English  ports  was  seized  on  Jan.  14^ 

house  for  novices  of  the  same  order,  and  of  a  1801.  On  March  20,  Sir  Ilyde  Parker,  with  Nel- 

oonvent  and  academy  of  the  Yisitation  nuns,  son  second  in  command,  entered  the  Cattegat 

Its  teade  is   extensive,  and  the  surrounding  with  a  fleet  of  47  vessels,  18  of  which  were  line- 

oonntrv  is  remarkably  productive.  of- battle  ships.    The  regent  was  summoned  to 

FREDERIO,  the  name  of  several  monarchs  withdraw  from  the  neutral  convention,  and  to 

and  princes,  arranged  below  under  their  respect-  open  his  ports  to  the  English.    The  demand 

ive  countries  in  the  following  order :  Bohemia,  was  r^ected,  and  a  furious  engagement  follow- 

Denmark,  Germany,  Prussia  (including  Bran-  ed,  in  which  the  Danish  fleet  was  almost  anni- 

denbnrg),  Saxony,  and  W&rtemberg.  hilated.    An  armistice  was  now  concluded  for 

L  BOHEMIA.  14  weeks,  during  which  Denmark  consented  to 

FREDERIO,  elector  palatine  (Y.)  and  king  withdraw  fh>m  the  maritime  confederacy,  and 

of  Bohemia,  bom  in  Amberg  in  1596,  died  in  this  led  to  a  peace,  when  the  confederacy  was 

Ifenti^  Nov.  19, 1682.    He  was  the  son  of  the  broken  up  by  the  assassination  of  the  czar  Paul, 

elector  Frederic  I Y.,  and,  by  his  mother,  grand-  June  24,  1801.    Frederic,  however,  persistea 

mm  of  William   I.  of  Orange.     He  received  in  the  policy  of  neutrality,  and  on  Aug.  8, 

a  earefbl  education,  succeedea  his  father  in  the  1807,  a  British  fleet  agidn  passed  the  strait  at 

palatinate  in  1610  as  a  minor,  married  Elizabeth,  Elsinore,  and  appeared  off  Copenhagen.    The 

dao^ter  of  James  I.  of  England,  became  the  prince  was  summoned  to  an  alliance  with  Eng- 

lea&r  of  the  P]:otestant  union,  and  in  the  2d  land,  to  surrender  his  fleet,  his  capital,  and  his 

▼ear  of  the  80  years*  war  (1619)  was  elected  castle  at  Elsinore.    The  British  envoy  assured 

Jdngof  Bohemia  by  the  revolted  people.  Indue-  him  that  Denmark  should  lose  nothing,  and 

ed  by  his  ambitious  wife,  who  preferred*' fatter-  that  his   new  allies,   the  English  garrisons, 

hraut  with  a  king  to  roast  beef  with  an  eleo-  would  pay  for  every  thing  they  needed.    Upon 

tor/'  he  accepted  the  regal  orown,  which  he  his  rerasal,  the  capital  was  bQm.\Mx^<ij^  l<sit  % 


720        FSEDERIO  VII.  (Desmaxk)  FREDERIO  L  (Gmmrr) 

days  (Sept.  2-5).     A  capitwlation  -was  then  I",  oermaxt. 

made,  tho  licet  was  transtorrcd  to  a  British  ad-        FREDERIO  I.,  emiieror  of  GermanT.  kt^ 

niiral,  tlio  arsenal  and  docks  were  destroyed,  named  Barbaroesa  ^Redbeard),   son  of  I>Lke 

and  every  ship  and  boat,  as  well  as  every  avail-  Frederic  II.  of  Swabia,  and  Judith,  daophter  of 

able  piece  of  timber,  rope,  or  shipwright's  tool,  Henry  the  Black,  duke  of  Bavaria,  bom  in  2 12!. 

were  carried  otf  to  Enp^land.    Denmark  threw  drowned  June   10,   1190.     His  noclo.  Ojiirad 

herself  at  onco  into  Uio  anns  of  France,  and  HI.,  tho  first  German  emperor  of  the  hoosv  L-f 

sent  forth  a  tleet  of  privateers  which  preyed  in-  Swabia  (Hohenstauffen),  liad  so  entirely  won  tL« 

ccssantly  upon  British  commeroc.    The  father  confidence  of  the  princes  and  nobles  of   z«^ 

of  the  banish  repent,  the  unha]>py  Christian  Italy  and  Germany,  that  upon  his  recomm^ii'li- 

VII.,  died  March  12, 1808,  and  Frederic  ascend-  tion  Frederic,  then  duke  of  Swabia,  was  un&ni- 

cd  the  throne.    He  had  been  married  in  1790  inoualy  elected  his  successor  (1152).     liiself- 

to  tliO  dau$;hter  of  the  landgrave  of  Ifesse-Cas-  vation  was  received  throughout  £arop^»  vl'Ji 

acl.    On  Dec.  10,  1809,  Sweden  signed  away  marked  satisfaction.     After  reducing  sevcr^ 

Finland  to  Russia ;  and  in  tho  course  of  the  revolted  Italian  cities  and  receiving  Uie  cr  '^z 

following  month,  a  treaty  was  concluded  by  of  Italy  at  Pavia,  he  went  to  Roue,  rc<:Ma^ 

Denmark  with  Sweden  which  was  designed  to  Hshed  the  popc^s  supremacy  there,  whirh  Lid 

reC'stablisih  the  good  relations  of  tho  two  coun-  been  shaken  by  Arnold  of  Brescia,  and  vii 

tries.    Both  were  exhausted  by  tlio  wars  of  crowned   emperor,  but   not    until    tho   j-:p« 

their  great  neighbors,  and  both  soon  becamo  (Adrian  IV.)  had  obliged  him  to  p»erffnn  i«T. 

subject  to    tho  imperious  rule  of  Najioleon.  eral  humiliating  ceremonies  which  Fr^lc no  «m 

Denmark  remained  his  most  faithful  ally,  and  afterward  enraged  to  learn  that  the  R<.*m&»  r:- 

puffcred  accordingly.    In  1814  she  was  robbed  garded  as  acts  of  temporal  va.'«alag«.     ll\s  ccx: 

of  Norway,  in  exchange  for  which  she  received  care  was  to  pacify  the  empire  by  sk.'ttl;ac  iL-t 

Pomernnia,  which  she  afterward  ceded  to  Prus-  disputes  between  the  archbishop  of  Mtrnti  str.-l 

sia.     Frederic  was  at  last  compelled  to  send  tho  count  palatine  of  the  Rhine,  and  the  d.'f- 

10,000   men  to  tho  allied  anny  against  tho  culties  concerning  tho  duchy  of  Bavaria.    L'^ 

French  emperor.    The  state  had  become  bank-  reduced  Bole^las  of  Poland  to  va^^sala^e.  LLi 

rupt  in  1H13.    Tho  peace  brought  with  it  an  in  6  years  had   restored  tho  empire  to  i: « 

immense  fall  in  tho  price  of  ])rovisions ;  and  prosperity  which  it  ci^oyed  andcr  Utnry  lil. 

real  estate  remained  at  a  great  depreciation  of  He  now  turned  his  attention  aguln  to  'lu.j, 

value  as  late  as  182G.    The  wisdom  and  devo-  where  the  smaller  towns  were  frroanini:  LL^r; 

tion  of  the  king  gradually  brought  about  im-  tho  opj>ression  of  Milan,  and  in  115**  hc~K:-tir- 

provemont  in  general  alFairs.    A  national  bank  cd  before  the  latter  city  with  llo."^-.'  ir- ;  • 

was  rei-stablished.    The  farmers  were  allowed  and  forced  it  to  submi"*>ion.     It  >'-zi  r^.'   .    ! 

to  ji:iy  tlioir  taxos  in  kind.     Order  wu-;  restore<l  again,  and  its  fort il; rations  WiTi-  .!*•-•:  ;  ■  :  .   : 

to  the  llnanpt'S,  and  coMlidonre  returned.     The  its  inha^il:lnt*exiU•d.     Mranwhilv  i'. ■;  ^  A  -  ^. 

last  part  of  Frederic's  roi;j:n  is  n-tnarkable  lor  Iwd  died  (ll.'iy),  and  AlixainUr  III    N.^;: 

the  cMaldishmcnt  of  ari'prL'Suntativocouncil  as  sen  to  succeed  him.     rndc-rio.  h"U^-.^r.  -    - 

a  po])ular  branch  of  tlie  povermncnt  (May  ^J!^,  p(»rtcd  an  antii)Ope,  Vi(ti»r  IV..  ii:;d  A!  x  ..  .  ' 

1831),  which  was  roccivod  by  his  suljccts  with  was  forced  to  take  rvl'iiire  in  Kr.ii..  i.     V.  •  • 

every  dornon^it  ration  of  joy.  died  in  IKU,  and  the  empvror  tin  re:;  •  :.  -  ■ 

rHHI)EKIC  VII..  kinir  nf  Denmark,  son  and  another  antipope,  >\lii»  ti>.)k  t?;.:  t;:I.   ■  :  I"  -  . 

successor  of  Christian  VIII.,  born  in  Copenlia-  III.,  and  crowned  the  einj-epT  j-.n-i  :,  ?  •-  ■  -  •: 

pen.  C>ct.  rt,  1"^i;h,  ascende«l  t!ie  throne  .Tan.  2i>,  a  second  time  in  t!ie  ehiin  h  if  .'^:.   I*  :  •  :.: 

1^4*^.     liis  motlier  w.Ts  tho  ])rince'is  Charlotte  Bomo   in   1107.     Tlie   I.^'ur-.k.'-d    ».:..-.,  ■.. 

Fredorioa.    uf  Mecklenbunr-Scliwerin.      Fmm  h.id  formed  a  iM»wort";:l  lrj»::::e  n^-.»;-  -:  i  :-. 

1S2'J  to  lv2S  lie  travelled  in  variinis  parts  of  next  awakened  llie  inipi  ri:il  r*.  >.:.::.■:  v     .   i 

Fliirop.',  :ind  >tiidied  in  Ceneva.     lie  wa«*  iniir-  terrible  pe-ilileiice  which  Ir-'k.-  •■;.*  ::.  :  >  .--. 

rii'd  N«iv.  1,  lyJ8,  to  tho  prinev-:^  Wilhelinina  dissipated  all  his  plan<  ai.tl  f.  r- •  ■!  .  .:.:  :     r- 

Maria  of  I>enniark,  whom  he  divnrced  in  ls:)7,  tiirn  to  (Jennany  in  di-j'i-*^.  ^*''.-.  '■■' i.    \'  ' 

nnd  in  the  same  year  he  waH  removed  by  ntyal  follnwers.     Tlie  «i:ies  *•:' J, ■■?:.:  .ir-';.    :  *  *      ." 

order  to  Fretlerieia  in  .lutlaiid.     His  exile  end-  solidated  their  lo.'iL'ue.     TJie  »:i:\:...-    :  >!.  .i 

ed  with  his  father's  accesMon  to  the  thnme  in  wore  re^tored,  and  a  new  <\\\  -:ri:  j     :    .:.  i 

lb.'{',».     In  Juno,  l>^n.  ho  was  married  to  tho  beautiful  and  liatiirally  I'-r:;:'*-.!  >: .  :.  -..       .   : 

»riuce«-»  Caroline  Charlotte  Marianne  <»f  Meek-  honor  of  tho  pojn-  jit.d  in  dvtl.i:... .   ,:':'■ 

iMihiirLr-Strelitz,  wlioni   h^'  also  jiut  away  in  r(»r  was  calkHl  .\]i\an<Iria  it  A:- ;■- .:,  !:  -.. 

S  pt,  \^\i}\  and  in  Auij.  \<\*K  ho  contracted  a  rin^' this  time   Fr.-.Krio  w.»-   !■:>.;/  .    .v.-.:    . 

iiiorj;inaric  marria;re  with  a  milliner  of  c'open-  re^'ulatinp  the  allVir-i  i-f  ti..r::i;i:.'. .  ;.  _  ..•  :.:    - 

li:iL'i-:i  whoTu  he  hud  created  Couritt-:s  I  ):irinor  ternal  troubles  >«tt'.inu' tiie  e..:j:. -;-  \\  \  ..  •    • ': 

in  1**^*^.     Tho  prineipal  events  of  lii-i  ri"i;rn  aro  between  Henry  the  l.it.ri.  d..k'-  i :'  .-^^x  :. .-  sj  ; 

tho  revolt.  <if  iS'hleswijj-Hol-trin  in  \^\^   and  Havana,  and  his  a  l\\'^^Ariv-.  j^:;  i  -Ti    „••;.:      ,; 

tho  ahoiiiiiiM  (if  tho  Smnd  dnes  in  l*^"!!,  for  an  his  own  powi-r.     Af:«r  ni  ar!  v  7  \.  :.r,  :  ■..    : 

aceoiiiit  oi'  whicli  seo  Dkxmahk.     Fruleri*.'  L;w  at  home,  ho  prepyirt'l  i»::ct  n.-  :e  :  '.',:■:!■.  . 

ii()   <h:li!n-n.  :ind   the  heir  presuii:i>tiv.'  is  hi^  In  the  autumn  of  1 1 74  Ik.- i:i\ «.«:.!  .i".-.-.;  "    - 

uncle,  rrinoe  Ferdinand,  who  iti  aUi  chiidlc:;^.  but  uftor  a  sicgo  vi  7   niL-:it:L.%  u:..':!^-  ^.    - 


I 


FBSDEBIO  L  (Gsrmaht)  FBEDERIO  IL  (OsaacAinr)        721 

bis  army  suffered  fpreatly  from  sickness  and  fa-  the  8d  cmsade,  and  another  son,  Henry  VL, 
tigue,  and  a  fruitless  assault,  he  drew  off  his  succeeded  to  the  empire, 
forces  and  opened  negotiations  with  the  Lorn-  FREDERIO  II.,  a  German  emperor  of  the 
bards  who  had  come  to  the  relief  of  the  city,  house  of  Hohenstauffen,  and  king  of  Naples  and 
The  deliberations  howeyer  were  soon  broken  Bicily,  eon  of  Henry  YI.  and  Oonstantia  of 
off,  and  on  May  29,  1176,  a  decisiTo  battle  was  Bicily,  bom  at  Jesi,  near  Ancona,  Dec.  26, 1104, 
fought  near  Legnano,  in  the  vicinity  of  the  died  in  Fiorenzola,  Dec.  12,  1250.  He  was 
lake  of  Ck>mo,  in  which  Frederic  was  defeated  educated  with  great  care  by  his  mother  under 
with  great  loss,  and  was  supposed  for  some  the  guardianship  of  Pope  Innocent  III.,  ao- 
days  to  have  been  killed.  He  reappeared  at  quired  an  extensive  knowledge  of  ancient  and 
Pavia,  where  the  empress  had  already  put  on  modem  languages,  as  well  as  of  different  sciences, 
mourning.  He  now  acknowledged  Alexander  including  philosophy,  whidi  he  learned  from  a 
as  pope,  the  ban  of  excommunication  under  Saracen  teacher,  and  poetry,  which  he  cultivat- 
which  he  had  lain  for  10  years  was  taken  off,  ed  himself,  and  soon  developed  tiiose  chivalrio 
and  in  July,  1177,  an  interview  took  place  at  and  royal  talents,  that  active,  energetic,  and 
Venice,  between  the  pontiff,  the  emperor,  and  buovant  spirit  which  made  him  one  of  the  moat 
several  other  potentates,  in  wliich  a  complete  distmgnished  monarehs  of  the  middle  ages*  He 
reoonciliation  was  effected.  Frederic  humbled  was  hereditary  duke  of  Bwabia  and  other  do- 
himself  again  at  the  pope^s  feet,  and  received  minions  in  Germany,  but  for  his  investiture  and 
finom  him  the  kiss  of  peace,  at  which  the  Ger-  coronation  as  king  of  Naples  and  8icily  his 
mans  exclaimed :  ^^  Lord  G<>d,  we  praise  thee  I"  mother  sacrificed  to  Innocent  HI.  (1209)  some 
The  cities  of  Lombardy  obtained  a  truce  for  6  of  the  most  essential  rights  of  the  state.  His 
years.  The  war  had  lasted  20  years.  New  imcle,  Philip  of  Swabia,  who  disputed  the 
troubles  were  now  raised  in  Germany  by  the  throne  of  Germany  after  the  death  of  Henry 
ambitious  duke  Henry  the  Lion.  He  was  final-  YI.  with  Otho  IV.,  having  fallen  in  a  battle, 
ly  subdued,  however,  and  banished  for  8  years  Frederic  was  assisted  by  the  pope  to  re^stab- 
to  England,  where,  having  previously  married  lish  the  imperial  dignity  of  his  house.  He  re- 
Katilda,  the  daughter  of  the  English  king  Henry  paired  to  Germany  in  1212,  was  joyfully  re- 
II.,  he  became  the  founder  of  the  royal  family  ceived  by  the  Ghibellines,  compelled  OUio  to 
of  Bmnswick.  The  Lombard  truce  was  follow-  retire,  was  crowned  at  Aix  la  Chapelle  in  1216, 
ed  in  1188  by  a  definitive  treaty  of  peace  on  and  generally  acknowledged  in  1218.  Leavinff 
terms  honorable  to  all  parties,  and  when  Fred-  his  son  Henry,  whom  he  caused  to  be  declared 
eric  made  a  journey  to  Italy  soon  afterward  he  king  of  the  Romans,  in  Germany,  he  started  in 
was  received  by  his  old  enemies  with  the  wild-  1220  for  Italy,  hastened  to  Rome,  where  he 
est  acclamations  of  joy.  Tranquillity  reigned  was  crowned  as  emperor,  and  thence  to  his 
in  all  his  dominions  when  the  news  of  the  fall  hereditary  kingdom,  whose  afifairs  he  arranged 
of  Jerusalem  in  1187  caused  Pope  Clement  lU.  while  preparing  for  a  crusade,  according  to  a 
to  nroclaim  the  8d  crusade.  The  old  emperor  solemn  promise  given  to  the  see  of  Rome.  Men 
took  the  cross,  and  in  the  spring  of  1189  put  of  science^  poets,  and  artists  flocked  to  hia 
himself  at  the  head  of  160,000  warriors,  crossed  court,  the  university  of  Naples  was  founded, 
Hungary,  severely  punished  the  Greeks,  whom  the  medi(»l  school  of  Salemo  became  flourish- 
he  suspected  of  treasonable  designs^  penetrated  ing,  collections  of  art  were  procured,  and  Peter 
into  Asia  Minor,  defeated  the  Moslems  in  sev-  de  Vinea  prepared  an  extensive  code  of  laws 
eral  engagements,  and  took  Iconium  (Konieh).  to  suit  all  the  classes  and  nations  of  Germany 
The  army  reached  the  banks  of  the  Seleph  or  and  Italy,  which  Frederic,  no  less  ambitious 
Calycadnus,  June  10, 1190.  The  vanguard  had  than  his  grandfather  Barbarossa,  was  scheming 
crosBed  by  abridge,  when  the  emperor, impatient  to  unite  into  one  hereditary  empire.  These 
to  ioin  his  son,  Duke  Frederic  of  Swabia,  who  schemes,  however,  were  checked  by  the  inde- 
led  the  advance,  plunged  with  his  war  horse  and  pendent  spirit  of  the  Lombard  cities,  which  re- 
hueavy  armor  into  the  stream,  was  overpowered  fused  to  send  their  representatives  to  the  pro- 
by  the  current,  and  was  home  away.  His  dead  posed  diet  of  Cremona,  re^tablished  tkeir 
body  was  recovered  and  buried  by  his  son.  league  under  the  lead  of  Milan  and  barred  the 
Some  hbtorians  have  preferred  a  less  well  an-  passages  of  the  Alps,  and  still  more  by  the  antag- 
tiienticated  account  that  he  lost  his  life  in  con-  onistio  exertions  of  the  popes  Honorius  III.  and 
aequenoe  of  bathing  in  the  Cydnns.  Frederic  Gregory  IX.,  who  finally  compelled  the  emperor 
was  a  man  of  noble  and  magnanimous  qualities,  to  start  upon  his  long  delayed  crusade  (1227). 
cf  great  mental  endowments,  and  of  spirit  equal  But  a  pestilential  disease  which  broke  out  on 
alike  in  reverses  and  prosperity,  though  ^me-  board  the  fleet  obliged  him  to  land  at  Otranto: 
what  arrogant  and  occasionally  cruel  in  the  the  expedition  only  reached  the  Morea,  and 
beat  of  war.  He  was  a  patron  of  letters  and  a  Gregory  IX.,  boldly  pursuing  the  policy  of 
man  of  learned  accomplishments,  and  all  these  Gregory  VII.,  punishea  the  emperor  with  ex- 
advantages  were  moreover  enhanced  by  remark-  communication  and  interdict  It  was  in  vain 
able  elegance  and  majesty  of  aspect.  After  that  Frederic  started  again  the  next  year, 
divorcing  his  first  wife  (1156),  he  was  married  reached  the  Holy  Land,  and  fought  succesafblly 
to  Beatnce  of  Burgundy.  His  son  Frederic,  against  the  Mussulmans ;  the  policy  of  the  pope, 
fiHUider  of  the  Teutonic  knights,  lost  his  life  in  who  declared  him  unworthy  before  absolutioii 

VOL.  VIL— 46 


722  FREDEBIO  III.  (Gkbmavt) 

to  battle  for  the  cross,  roascd  tgainst  him  the  came,  after  the  death  of  the  emperor  Albert 
patriarch  of  Jerusalem  and  the  8  orders  of  II.  (1489),gnardianof  hisson  LadiaUa  the  Pu&t- 
tnights  in  the  £a^  and  also  produced  tlio  usur-  humous,  and  was  unanimooslj  elected  kins  of 
pation  of  his  father-in-law,  John  of  Brienne,  Germany  (1440).    Beingof  an  exceedingly  can- 
titular  king  of  Jerusalem,  in  the  Italian  king-  tious  and  peaceful  disposition,  he  accepted  ti.i* 
dom.    Having  concluded  a  truce  of  10  years  burdensome  dignity  only  after  11  wetfka"  ite^i- 
with  the  sultan  of  Egypt,  which  brought  into  tation,  and  was  crowned  at  Aix  la  Ciiapcll«  is 
his  possession  the  holy  cities  and  the  whole  1442.    Possessed  of  many  private  virtues  W 
coast  of  Judea,  ho  returned  as  crowned  king  was  nevertheless  inadequate  to  tlie  ta«k  ot  rcl- 
of  Jerusalem,  reconquered  his  kingilom,  de-  in^  the  German  empire  in  that  period  of  auAr* 
feated  the  intrigues  of  his  enemies,  and  finally  chical  turbulence,  or  even  of  defending  the  inlr^ 
gained  his  absolution  (1230).    The  Lombard  estsofhishouse,  though  these  were  much  dearer 
cities,  however,  still  maintained  their  league,  to  his  heart  than  the  interests  of  the  empire 
being  now  supported  by  the  rebellion  of  Henry,  aeainst  the  attacks  of  the  warlike  and  ambiucai 
the  son  of  the  emperor.    Frederic  returned  to  luitthias  Gorvinus,  king  of  Hungary.  Gcnr^pe 
Germany  after  an  absence  of  15  years,  restored  Podiebrad  of  Bohemia,  and  Charles  the  Bold  of 
his  imperial  dignity,   and  pardoned  his  son.  Burgundy.    The  only  weapon  he  seems  to  have 
Bot  a  new  rebellion  drew  upon  the  prince  the  wielded  witli  dexterity  was  diplomacy,  but  ti^a, 
punishment  of  imprisonment  for  life,  m  the  7th  too,  served  only  the  private  parpo^es  of  the 
year  of  which  he  died.    His  younger  brother  house  of  Austria,  of  which  he  may  be  rvcai\!- 
Conrad  was  made  king  of  the  Romans  in  his  ed  as  the  second  founder,  in  spite  of  hi>  iiMk>> 
stead,  and  Frederic  marched  against  the  Ix)m-  lence.    Wars,  however,  in  wliich  his  part  va» 
bards,  and  defeated  tliem  at  Cortenuova  (Nov.  generally  passive,  filled  nearly  the  whole  reiA 
26-27,  1237) ;  all  the  cities  surrendered  except  of  this  peace-loving  monarch,  which  was  liic 
Milan,  Brescia,  Piacenxa,  and  Bologna,  whose  longest  of  any  German  emperor's,  lasting  for  iZ 
resbtance  was  again  encouraged  by  Gregory  years.  His  brother  Albert,  duke  of  I'pper  Aw- 
IX.    Irritated  by  Frederic's  having  made  his  tria,  repeatedly  attacked  him ;  the  llan^araci 
natural  S4>n  Enzio  king  of  Sardinia,  the  pope  under  John  Hunyady  invaded  Austria  (144^ 
again  excommunicated  the  emperor  on  Palm  '52);  the  Armagnac^  whom  the  empvror  IaI 
Sunday,  1239.  Frederic  marched  against  Rome,  called  to  aid  him  against  the  Swifi^s  cummiitc^ 
took  Ravenna  (1241),  but  paused  to  listen  to  a  depredations  (1445);   Matthias   Corvinui  ud 
proposal  that  the  feud  should  bo  decided  by  an  Geor^^  Podiebrad  defeated  the  imperial  furr«^ ; 
assembly  of  bLsliops.    Soon,  however,  changing  the  Turks  rava^d  Comiola  (H^^>;  hot^iliT^^ 
his  mind,  he  had  the  Genoese  fleet,  which  was  brokeontwithCharlesthelkildof  Hureuni]v.&:c 
conveyinj*  100  prelates  to  Rome,  intercepted  by  a  war  was  carried  on  in  the  Nclliorla:;'-:?.  «  '     . 
Enzio.     (iropory  IX.  did  not  long  survive  these  Maximilian,  the  urn  of  Frvdcrir,  liu*!  r.   •■•..■. 
reverses.     Tho  short  jjapacy  of  Celestino  IV.  after  the  death  of  Charles  tliv  Uuid  .  1477.  v    , 
and  a  lonp  interre^ium  followed,  which  was  ter-  the  hand  t»f  hi**  daughter  Mary,  ami  u  ; ,  r- 
minated  by  the  election  of  hnun-ent  IV.     Tho  was  niado  captive  in  14S«=!.     FroKr.r  '.x-i-*.^* 
new  iK)|>e,  once  tho  friend  of  the  emperor,  he-  humiliated  hy  the  usurpation  ff  S!c»r7.i :.:  ,M  -■. 
came  his  bitterest  enemy,  confirmed  his  cxcom-  (1447),  after  the  dt-ath  of  the  ]:ist  Vi-  •    t. . 
municatioi),  lied  to  Lyons  in  France,  where  ho  the  Swiss,  who  routetl  the  Ann.ii:nar>.  :*■  #;  ,■ 
convoked  a  council,  cited  Frederic  before  this  pclled  him   to  an  unfavorable  iri:i'.;.   «;  ;-i.-  . 
tribunal,  rejected  his  defender  Thaddcus  of  Su-  m  the  quarrel  of  the  succe*-ii»n  *.'f  thv  j-.L..:  :. 
essa,  declared  the  throne  of  Germany  vacant,  (1440),  which  threatentMl  to ci»t  him  }:.-:.:r.  :• 
and  Mibsequently  recojrnized  two  new  cmpe-  by  continual  lawloMiess  in  <tvrrnar.y.  «i.  r\  ! - 
ror?,  Henry  Ra^^pc  uf  Thurin<;ia,  who  was  de-  was  even  once  cili-d  before  the  M-r.-*.:  t.-:-  ..  i. 
feated   bv   Conrad,  and   William   of  Holland,  of  the  ]'<Aw^;  and  bv  the  i»ucri*.»'!\i- « r  .■:..-.  .. 
The  old  emyieror  was  nowdesiTted  by  many  <>f  mentsofthejK>pes,  parliruliirly  uf  Pill's  il. 
his  allies,  and  lost  a  battle  l>efore  Parnui,  an«l  his  sirretary  as  .Kne;is  Syl\iu»".     Hi*  , !  :• :"  •: 
another  near  Holo{;nn,  in  which  Enzio  was  made  forts  to  avert  the  inviUMua  of  t!ie  Tur^-  » ■  ri  * 
primmer.     He  even  became  convinced  that  his  journey  to  Home  for  a  conunni^e  i^  i::.  t; «  :•  ;• 
old  friend  Peter  do  Vinea  ha<l  treacherou.»-ly  (14»V^),  and  the  convininp  uf  a  d-.cl  a:  ll-*.'  ■  * 
attempted  to  jjoi-^n  him,  for  which  Peter  was  (1471 ),  l»uth  without  result.  Hi*la<  y,.-.r-i  •-  - 
sent  topri»*on,  where  be  killed  him.Hclf  by  dash-  cheered  by  the  sucre>o^s  of  Iiis  ?4»ii  M.n  :.:,.  .:. 
ing  his  head  against  the  wall.      In  .^pitc  of  all  whom  he  had  made  kini:  of  Ufrnt-  tl4>-    j   . 
these  disasters  Frederic  continued  the  struggle  linally  iiitru>ted  wiih  all  the  carxr^  vi  l.>  •■'  n.  • 
until  he  died.  ion  (141*0).  himselt  retiriuf*  lo  I,in:z,  »;  *:».  . 

FKEDEKIC  III.,  sumamed  the  Pacific,  cm-  was  enpat,'id  in  hi"*  fa\oriioe»tn'lii-»ff  a-:r    .irv 

peror  of  (iermany  (IV.  as  king  of  Cicnnany,  V.  ahhemy,  and  U»tany  till  the  tini  i.:"  i.  *  ;  :•.     ■ 

as  archduke  of  Austria),  Kon  (»f  Dvike  Ernest  w:w  the  last  kin;:  of  iiennany  wLt»  i»  i-  ;-  ^ 

of  Styriji,  and  a  Polish  princess,  born  in  Inn»*-  e«lemi»en>r  of  lionie  and  kin^  of  lin- 1..  :.".:: 

pruck,  Sept.  21,  1415,  died  in  Lintz,  Aug.  !!♦,  Ha\in;:  inheriti-d  I.uwtr  Ai>:ria  i-n  :i..  --tii- 

141*3.     Having  bepin   his   reign   ovt-r  Styria,  of  La«li>las  and  PpiH-r  .\ii-:.-i:i  oii  :I.a:  if  :  • 

Carinthia,    and    Curniola,    together    with   his  brother  Albert,  ho  rai^-\l  thv^i:  uti?*^  }r'»%  r>« 

brother  Albert  tho  Prodigal,  in  1435,  ho  bo-  to  tho  dignity  uf  au  archduchy.    TLc  crv*&  ^: 


FREDERIC  in.  (Gincunr)  FREDERIC  L  (Psuwa)          728 

Germany  became  nearly  hereditary  in  his  house,  operations  against  the  French,  the  elector  again 

the  Q|wt  SQOcessor  being  his  son  Maximilian  L  took  np  arms,  and  Louis,  in  oiider  to  famish  oo> 

His  deirice  is  said  to  have  been  A.  K  I,  0,  U, :  cnpation  for  the  electoral  forces  in  their  own 

Auitrim  e&t  imperare  orbi  univena,  oonntry,  engaged  the  king  of  Sweden  to  ad?anoe 

FREDERIC  III.,  king  of  Germany.     See  npon  Berlin.    The  Swedes  accordingly  entered 

Louis  THX  Bavabian.  Brandenborff  by  a  rapid  forced  march.  Frederic 

ly.  PRUSSIA.  arriyed  saddeodv  from  the   Rhine  at  Hagde- 

FREDERIC  WILLIAM,  elector  of  Branden-  burg,  and  harrying  across  the  Elbe  at  the  head 
bnrg,  nsnally  styled  the  Great  Elector,  and  the  of  his  cavalry  (but  6,000  in  namber),  sorprised 
fonnder  of  the  Prossian  monarchy,  born  in  the  Swedes  at  Fehrbellin.  His  infiamtry  (11,000) 
1620,  died  in  Potsdam,  April  29,  1688.  He  were  many  miles  in  the  rear,  bat  he  attacked  the 
came  to  the  electoral  power  at  the  age  of  20  enemy  without  delay,  Jane  28,  1675.  The 
f  1640),  on  the  death  of  his  father,  George  Wil-  rout  was  complete.  Frederic  pursued  the  fly- 
nam,  the  10th  elector.  The  father  had  been  a  ing  enemy  into  Pomerania,  and  reduced  the 
feeble  prince,  with  a  tnutorons  minister.  His  greater  portion  of  the  province.  By  a  treaty 
estates  had  been  continually  ravaged  by  Swedes  of  peace  (June  29,  1679)  the  elector  restored 
and  imperialists  during  the  first  22  of  the  80  nearly  all  his  conqnestsi  and  received  from 
years'  war.  The  cities  lay  almost  in  ruins,  the  France  800,000  crowns.  He  now  devoted  him- 
vUlages  for  the  most  part  burned  and  depopa-  self  to  the  prosperity  of  his  dominions,  and  the 
late^  and  a  part  of  his  paternal  inheritance  had  extension  of  their  area.  He  founded  nniversi* 
been  confiscated  b^  tlie  Swedes.  The  young  ties,  wdcomed  over  20,000  Protestant  exilaL 
pnnce  began  his  reign  by  dismissins  his  father's  whom  Louis  XI V.  banished  from  France,  and 
unworthy  council,  by  regulating  bis  finances,  made  it  the  aim  of  his  life  to  oppose  French  sf^ 
and  by  negotiating  with  so  much  address  as  to  gression,  and  to  protect  tlie  liberties  of  Germany, 
regain  his  lost  provinces,  which  were  guaranteed  FREDERIC  I.,  Ist  king  of  Prussia,  bom  in 
to  him  by  the  peace  of  Westphalia  8  years  later.  E6nigsberg,  July  22, 1667,  died  Feb.  26, 1718. 
A  year  after  his  accession  he  concluded  a  treaty  He  was  the  son  of  Frederic  William,  the  great 
of  neutrality  with  the  Swedish  queen  Christina,  elector,  whose  heir  apparent  he  became  on  the 
and  8  yeara  after,  by  an  armistice  with  Hesse-  death  of  his  elder  brother.  Deformed  by  hav- 
Cassel,  the  strong  outpost  city  of  Cleves  and  ing  l>eencbropped  when  a  child  from  the  arms  of 
the  county  of  Mark  in  Westphalia  were  added  his  nurse,  and  of  weak  constitution,  his  educa- 
te his  dominions.  The  treaty  of  Westphalia  tion  was  neglected,  and  thus  hisstepmothercoald 
was  concluded  in  1648,  when  the  elector,  who  the  more  easily  persuade  the  old  elector  to  be- 
had  just  claims  to  tho  whole  of  Pomerania,  re-  queath  in  his  will  a  part  of  his  possessions  to 
oeived  but  the  eastern  portion  of  that  coon-  her  children.  But  Frederic,  who  was  no  less 
try;  but  as  an  indemnification  for  the  loss  of  the  ambitious  than  his  father,  and  was  assured  of 
western  division  and  the  island  of  ROgen,  he  the  favor  of  the  emperor  Leopold  I.,  took,  on 
obtained  the  county  of  Hohenstein,  the  bishop-  his  accession  as  elector  in  1688,  under  the  name 
rics  of  Minden,  Halberstadt,  and  Kamin,  as  lay  of  Frederic  III.,  immediate  possession  of  the 
principalities,  and  the  reversion  of  the  arch-  whole  inheritance,  declaring  the  will  null,  and 
bbhopric  of  Magdeburg.  He  had  withdrawn  satisfyi^his  stepbrothers  with  offices  and  pen- 
trom  the  war  in  great  part  7  years  before,  but  sions.  While  vying  in  brilliancy  with  the  court 
bis  army  was  much  improved.  He  formed  an  of  Louis  XIV.,  he  also  strenuously  pureued 
alliance  with  Charles  X.  of  Sweden  in  1656  the  policy  of  aggrandizement  so  successfully 
ai^nst  Poland.  The  sequel  was  the  fall  of  carried  on  by  his  father.  Seeking  the  allianoe 
Warsaw,  and  Frederic's  achievement  of  the  in-  of  infiuentiid  princes,  he  lent  several  of  them 
dependence  of  his  Prussian  duchy,  formerly  un-  his  troops,  on  condition  of  mutual  support  or 
der  enfeoffment  to  Poland.  Louis  XIV.  at  this  payment  in  money.  Thus  6,000  of  his  soldiers 
time  was  pursuing  with  persevering  ambition  aided  William  of  Orange  to  secure  the  throne 
bis  project  of  a  Rhine  frontier,  and  the  conquest  of  England,  and  fought  in  tlie  great  battle  of  the 
oi  the  Spanish  Netherlands.  He  seized  a  Boyne ;  20,000  fought  successfully  against  the 
line  of  frontier  towns,  and  invaded  Holland  French,  who  had  ravaged  the  Palatinate  (1689); 
(1672).  One  only  of  the  (German  princes,  the  16,000  joined  the  quadruple  alliance  of  the  Em- 
electorof  Brandenburg,  seemed  conscious  of  the  pire,  Spain,  Holland,  and  England,  and  fought 
danger,  and  after  arming  his  exposed  Westpha-  on  the  Rhine  (1690) ;  6,000  were  sent  (1691)  to 
Itan  dominions  he  appealed  successfully  to  the  assist  the  emperor  in  his  Hungarian  war  a^^ainst 
«mperor  Leopold  of  Austria,  to  Denmark,  to  the  Turks,  and  contributed  to  the  victories  of 
Hesse-Cassel,  and  other  German  states.  A  joint  Zaldnkem^n,  Belgrade,  and  Zentlia.  But  all 
army  was  placed  under  the  command  of  an  im-  these  services  procured  Frederic  in  the  peace 
perial  general;  but  the  Austrian  cooperation  of  Rjswick  (1697)  politically  only  the  oon- 
iras  crippled  through  the  machinations  of  Leo-  firmation  of  the  stipulations  granted  to  his 
pold*sprirvcouncillor,Lobkowitz,  who  became  a  father  by  the  treaties  of  Wes^halia  and  St. 
oreatoreof  the  French  ministers.  Frederic  Wil-  Germain.  Private  negotiations,  however,  with 
Ham  was  compelled  thus  to  come  to  terms  with  several  reigning  houses,  founded  on  exchanges^ 
France,  with  the  loss  of  Wesel  and  Rees  (1678).  pnrdiases,  and  promises,  gave  him  in  part  the 
Immediately  after  this  «vent,  Austria  resuming  immi^^mfA  possession  oL  in  part  hereditaiy 


724    FREDERIC  WILLIAM  L  (Prubua)  FREDERIO  IL  (Psuhia) 

claims  to,  rarions  territories,  which  greatly  en-  key,  a  treaty,  the  object  of  which  was  to  ptwerre 

larged  the  limits  of  his  dominions.    The  chief  Swedish  Pomerania  from  Russia  and  Sasocj. 

object  of  his  ambition,  the  royal  crown,  had  In  consideration  of  400,000  thakra*  Fne^kric 

still  to  be  gained.  This  was  finally  accomplished  received  the  cities  of  Stettin  and  'Wismar,  and 

after  long  negotiations  by  a  treaty  with  the  em-  was   to   mediate    between    the    bellifrerratj. 

peror,  concluded  Nov.  16,  1700,  and  based  on  Charles,  returning  subsequently  from  Turkey, 

the  humiliating  obligation  to  aid  the  emperor  insisted  on  the  restoration  of  Stettin,  bat  ref»rd 

with  10,000  troops  in  the  threatening  war  of  the  to  refund  the  money.  Frederic  promptly  dccUr- 

Bpanish  succession,  to  support  the  house  of  Aus-  ed  war,  and  took  the  field  in  person ;  and  tht 

tria  in  every  debate  in  the  diet,  and  to  vote  for  result  was  the  acquintion  of  Pomerania  as  £v 

its  princes  at  every  imperial  election.    Hasten-  as  the  river  Peene,  with  Stettin,  and  th«  blandi 

ing   to  Kdnigsbcrg    in  the  midst  of  winter,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Oder,  on  payment  of  2.  WO.- 

Frederio  and  bis  wife,  the  sister  of  George  I.  000  thalers  (about  $1,400,000).    The  foDowisjr 

of  England,  were  crowned  with  the  greatest  characteristic  speech  was  addressed  by  the  kln^ 

splendor,  Jan.  18, 1701.    On  this  occasion  ho  to  his  privy  council  when  about  to  take  th« 

founded  the  order  of  the  black  eagle.    Prussia  field  for  this  war :  ^^  As  I  am  a  man,  and  maj 

was  soon  acknowledged  as  a  kingdom  by  most  therefore  die  of  a  shot,  I  command  yoa  to  tak« 

of  the  states  of  Europe ;  by  Spain  and  France  good  care  of  Fritz  [the  crown  prince  Frvderi^. 

in  the  treaty  of  Utrecht ;  the  pope,  the  republic  then   8  years   old];  and  I  give  all  of  too, 

of  Poland,  and  the  Teutonic  order,  were  the  last  my  wife  to  begin  with,  my  curse,  if  too  do 

to  recognize  it.    In  the  wars  of  Charles  XII.  of  not  bury  me  at  Potsdam  in  the  church  rtsji 

Sweden  Frederic  took  no  port,  being  actively  there,    without    feasting    and    witliout  ait- 

engaged  in  the  support  of  his  ally  the  emperor  mony.''     The  wife  of  this  amiablfi  La»l  lad, 

in  the  long  struggle  against  Louis  XIV.  lie  sent  Sophia  Dorothea  of  Hanover,  bore  10  childnec ; 

to  the  army  on  the  Danube  20,G00  men,  who  among  whom  the  eldest  son  (afterwartl  Fnrdcnc 

took  port  in  the  battle  of  Blenhehn  (1704),  and  the  Great)  and  a  daughter,  Wilhelmina,  incamii 

to  Italy  6,000,  who  greatly  contributed  to  £u-  the  ferocious  hatred  of  the  father.    Tb«  kic^ 

gene's  victory  at  Turin  (1706).    When  he  died  strove  hard  to  cut  off  the  young  prince  fnxa  tL^ 

the  war  was  not    terminated,  though  in  its  succession,  and  endeavored  to  force  him  to  re- 

ohief  point  Ions  before  decided  in  favor  of  the  nounce  it.    The  youth  consented  on  c«)ndji:'  & 

Frencii  pretender  to  the  Spanish  succession,  of  his  father  declaring  that  he  was  not  hii  £i- 

Frederic  is  ])raised  for  his  natural  kindness,  love  ther.    The  old  king,  whose  copjugal  sentinitc: 

of  his  subjects,  and  loyalty  to  his  allies ;  but  was  severely  shocked  at  this  unan:*werab!«  rv*- 

his  vanity,  love  of  pomp,  and  extravagance,  tort,  was  silenced  by  it,  and  died  at  K-nrtL  i= 

which  led  to  ruinous  extortions,  deserve  unmiti-  his  son's  arms.    His  son  wrote  of  hUa:  ";!.: 

gated  blame.     IIo  founded  the  iinivorsity  of  had  an   industrious  spirit   in  a   n-'i-u-:   ':-'... 

Halle,  tlio  Herlin  academies  of  stMonce  and  of  with  |H?rhaps  more  capacity  for  mi. m::..-  .1' :....« 

sculpture  and  painting,  and  the  supremo  court  than  any  man  that  ever  lived :  aj.d  ::"  l.v  ^  - 

of  appeal.     Liku  his  fatlier  he  was  a  consistent  cupied   himself  with  little  tiling*,  i:  «_-  :   ■' 

defender  of  the  interests  of  Protestantism  in  great  results  niij^ht  l»e  the  con>i'viUvi] -.    "    l!.? 

Germany.  character  was  sin jrularly  full  of  c••:.t^.l^:.. :.    * 

FUEDERIC  WILLIAM  I.,  tho   2(1  king  of  He  wasatonceju>tandcnu-l;  parsiino:.-- ■> --. 

Prussia,  son   of  Frederic   I.  and  ElizaK'th,  a  lil>eral:  a  carduland  ahruial  fjUhi-r ;  a  •?•.!  :. .  * 

princess  of  llesse-Cassel,  born  in  1088,  died  May  of  Lutheranism,  yet  jmni>hin4;  inet;\T  i.;  -  ■  i'- 

81,    1740.     The   new   monarchy  (datinj;  from  with  exile.     He  left  to  his  wn  $•',».'•.'••,  v   •  •• 

1701)  had  been  iin;;raoiously  rcciJgnize^l  by  the  plus  money,  and  72,0<"»i)  soldiers 
crowned  heads  of  Kiirope,  and  tlie  crown  prince        FKEDEKIC  II.,  3d  kinn  of  Prassi.i.  kn   *:  i* 

early  conceived  the  dcsij^u  of  makinj;  for  Prus-  Frederic  the  (Jr^'at,  born  in  Berlin.  J  in.  2;.  IT-  - 

sia  a  conspicuous  place  amon^  the  [»owers  by  died  atthe  chatvauof  San?*Siuei,  At:^-.  IT.  IT-' 

means  of  an  army.    lie  iiscended  tlie  throne  Feb.  Ho  was  tho  oldest  son  of  Kin^:  Fr^d^  p.-  W ..  .i.- . 

25,  171  •'^,  and  by  strict  economy  was  enabled  to  and  tlic  ])rincess  Sophia  lK»r*.)th*'a.  *lai:j:.:,r  * ! 

maintain  a  i)eaoe  e<tal)lishment  of  Oo,00o,  and  (ieorjre  I.  of  England.     Fn^m  chi..]:,-.--!  v  : 

at  length  of  72,00o  men,  heiri;;  ^^^  part  of  liis  theajro  of2o  he  wa<Mil.j<.t'ud  to  acr-;^.!  ]  ..r  -r:. 

subjects.     The   rulin;;  mania  of  hi-*  life  was  to  tyranny.     His  father'-*  sav.-ure  nature  v-.:!:-     ."• 

form  a  corps  of  giant  soldiers;  and  fur  thi-»i)ur-  self  upon  the  son,  apparently  .in  e-ji-»  .1    ".    " 

pose  his  envoys  ran-^icked  the  world.     An  Iri>h  of  aver-ion.     The  prinre,  educati-il  li.i-r./     .- 

recruit  measuring  7  feet  w;l»*  intluce<i  to  enlist  French  refugees,  conceived  a^I^t■^J  ;  .^*-:  •.  ;  • 

by  a  bounty  paid  in  cash  e^juivalent  to  Jl0.2oO,  French  literature.     Ho   knew  i.-ti.  ::^   ■:    - 

a  sum   much  greater  than  the  year's  sidary  of  other  forei^rn  lancuap'.     I.jitiri  hi*   f-'..-:'   -■ 

the  Pru>«,i:ui  ambassador  who  found  him  in  tlie  tively  forbade.    Frederic,  de^^-tc!  t  •: -k ': 

stret^ts  of  London.     Ihiring  a  reign  of  27ycars  ignorant  of  l>ante  or  Sliiik^-sj^ ;ire,   V::^  .     : 

Frederic  preserved  uninterrupted  peace  for  Prus  Homer,  surrendered  hims<-lf  t. »  V.  it.i.re  a.  .  * 

sia,  with  the  e.vception  of  a  short  misunderstand-  Jlcnriadf.     **  My  royal  tilKs'*  he  wr  •:•■  !    -  • 

ing  with  C'iiarles  XII.,  and  a  little  itlle  soldiering  idol,  '*shidl  run  thus  :  '  By  ilie  praie  v  f  ii.-!.  *    ,* 

under  Prince  Eugene.  In  1713  he  had  couelu<led  of  Prussia,  elector  if  Hrundeiii. arj,  jv .^-v--.  .*    ' 

with  Sweden,  during  Charles's  absence  in  Tur  Voltaire,'  4c.''    Within  a  wwk  Lc  wn.:^  :o  X,- 


FREDERIC  U.  (PBirflBu)  725 

garotti  that  he  knew  Voltaire  was  a  sconndrel,  cnred  the  peacefol  inheritance  of  the  Austrian 
bat  that  he  could  make  use  of  him.  Je  veux  dominions  to  the  joang  Maria  Theresa  as  arch* 
$avoir  $on  Francis  ;  gua  mHmporte  8a  morale  t  duchess  of  Austria  and  queen  of  Hungary  and 
Frederic  was  endowed  by  nature  with  a  vig-  Bohemia.  Frederic,  immediately  on  her  father's 
orous  and  acute  understandiug,  with  firmness  of  death,  sent  her  an  offer  of  pecuniary  aid  and 
temper,  and  indomitable  will.  After  narrowly  his  vote  for  her  husband  Francis  as  emperor  of 
escaping  death  from  his  father's  hand,  he  deter-  Germany,  on  condition  of  the  cession  of  the 
mined  to  seek  safety  in  Eotfland  with  his  uncle  duchies  of  Qlogau  and  Sagan,  to  which,  as  wdl 
George  II.  He  #as  overta&en,  brought  a  pris-  as  the  greater  part  of  Silesia,  the  house  of  Ho- 
oner  to  Custrin,  was  made  to  witness  the  execu-  henzoUem  laid  claim.  This  being  r^ected,  on 
tion  of  a  young  officer  who  had  been  priyy  to  his  Dec.  13  he  entered  Lower  Silesia  at  the  head  of 
flight,  was  himself  condemned  as  a  deserter,  and  his  army,  routed  the  handful  of  Auetrians  who 
was  only  saved  by  the  interposition  of  the  em-  were  quartered  on  the  frontier,  and  overran  the 
peror  of  Austria,  the  kings  of  Sweden  and  Po-  province.  In  6  weeks  he  returned  to  Berlin 
land,  and  the  states  of  Holland.  His  father  m  triumph.  It  was  the  dead  of  winter,  and 
eaosed  him  to  be  informed  that  if  he  would  re-  the  queen,  almost  incredulous  of  what  had  hap- 
nounce  the  throne  he  should  be  allowed  to  pened,  was  honored  with  proposals  of  peace 
study,  travel,  or  do  whatever  he  pleased.  ^I  and  alliance.  Frederic  officially  pretended  to 
accept,*'  said  Frederic,  ^^  if  my  father  will  de-  justifv  himself,  but  privately  acknowledged 
dare  that  I  am  not  his  son."  Released  after  a  that  ^  ambition,  interest,  the  desire  to  make 
lofig  imprisonment,  he  was  appointed  a  coun-  people  talk  i^ut  me,  carried  the  day ;  and  I 
cillor  of  war,  and  charged  with  duties  which  decided  to  make  war."  He  had  inherited  from 
virtually  banished  him  from  courts  In  1788  his  his  father  a  splendid  army  of  70,000  men,  at 
£ither  required  him  to  marry  Elizabeth  Chris-  that  period  the  finest  troops  in  the  world.  There 
tina,  daughter  of  the  duke  of  Brunswick-Be-  was  m  the  treasury  a  surplus  of  $6,000,000. 
Tern,  and  in  1784  permitted  him  to  take  up  his  He  felt  that  a  bold  stroke  might  be  made,  and 
residence  at  the  castle  of  Rheinsberg.  Here  he  that  by  means  of  a  strong  military  organization 
could  pursue  his  favorite  amusements  unmolest-  he  could  obtain  for  his  two  and  a  half  million 
ed.  A  few  French  and  German  savants,  poets,  subjects  a  foremost  place  among  the  great  na* 
and  artists  were  his  guests,  and  with  these  he  tions  around  him.  Hastening  in  the  spring 
could  practise  his  flute  without  fear  of  its  being  (1741)  to  rcioin  his  troops,  he  fought  his  first 
broken  over  his  shoulders ;  he  dined  with  no  battle  at  MoUwitz.  His  army  was  victoriou8| 
fear  of  plates  hurled  at  his  head ;  he  could  write  but  their  leader  had  fl^.  He  had  beheld  real 
Terses  without  being  kicked  and  dragged  by  war  for  the  first  time,  and  so  completely  lost 
the  hair ;  in  short,  he  was  released  from  inter-  self-command  as  to  put  spurs  to  his  horse  and 
course  with  his  father.  Here  he  wrote  many  gallop  many  miles  from  the  field.  His  personal 
of  his  works,  including  the  ^  Anti-Macchia-  courage,  which  this  event  seemed  for  the  mo- 
velli"  (the  Hague,  1740).  Meantime  the  heart  ment  to  call  into  ouestion,  had  been  previous- 
of  the  old  king  grew  softer;  a  reconciliation  fol-  ly  well  establisheo,  when,  a  volunteer  under 
lowed ;  and  the  father,  pressing  his  son  to  his  Prince  Eugene  against  the  French,  he  sacrificed 
heart)  sobbed  forth  with  almost  his  latest  breath:  the  pleasures  of  Rheinsberg  for  a  few  weeks ; 
**My  God,  my  God,  I  die  content,  since  I  have  but  he  saw  during  that  campaign  nothing  of  the 
Buch  a  noble  son  and  successor."  On  the  death  fury  and  carnage  of  war.  The  battle,  fought 
of  Frederic  William  in  1740,  Frederic  became  April  10,  1741,  decided  the  fate  of  Silesia.  It 
king  at  the  early  age  of  28.  His  character  had  was,  however,  the  signal  for  a  general  war  in 
been  wholly  misconceived  by  his  subjects  and  by  Europe,  known  as  that  of  the  Austrian  succes- 
the  world.  One  class  thought  him  a  mere  sen-  sion.  Bavaria,  with  France,  now  took  up  arms, 
snalist,  a  rhapsodical  voluptuary ;  others  looked  A  French,  Saxon,  and  Bavarian  anny  invaded 
forward  to  a  reign  of  moderation,  peace,  and  Bohemia,  while  Frederic  marched  into  Moravia, 
oniversal  benevolence.  Both  of  these  classes  of  The  fortunes  of  the  youthful  queen  grew  darker 
judges,  with*' Anti-Macchiavelli"  before tliem,  still,  when  England,  her  last  ally,  determined 
nnd  a  knowledge  of  the  epicurean  abode  at  to  be  a  neutral  spectator  of  the  confiict  Fred- 
Rheinsberg,  might  find  ground  for  their  predic-  eric  gained  a  second  victory  at  Chotusitz  (Czas- 
tions;  and  both  were  equally  confounded  at  the  lau),  May  17,  1742,  and  at  once  effaced  by  per- 
almost  instantane6us  transformation  effected  by  sonal  prowess  the  blot  upon  his  victory  at  MoU- 
the  crown.  A  military  despot,  listening  to  no  witz.  Accepting  English  mediation,  Maria 
council,  confiding  in  no  friend,  bent  upon  the  Theresa  made  peace  with  Prussia  by  a  treaty  oon- 
atngle  purpose  of  enlarging  his  monarchy,  he  eluded  at  Breslan,  June  11,  and  ceded  Silesia  and 
regarded  himself  as  an  instrument  appointed  the  county  of  Glatz.  Frederic  withdrew  from 
to  elevate  Prussia,  and  embody  in  the  parvenu  Moravia,  while  the  Austrians  everywhere  tri- 
title  of  Prussian  kin^  that  substantial  possession  umphed  against  France  and  Bavaria.  England 
of  royal  power  which  could  only  come  from  meanwhile  declared  for  Austria,  and  British 
enlarged  dominion.  The  pragmatic  sanction  of  troops  fought  at  Dettingen.  Frederic  grew 
Charles  VI.,  guaranteed  solemnly  by  Europe,  and  anxious  in  the  midst  of  ceaseless  Austrian  vie- 
by  no  member  of  the  familv  of  nations  more  sol-  tories,  and  in  Aug.  1744,  marched  into  Bohemia 
emnly  than  by  Prussia,  had,  it  was  supposed,  se-  at  the  head  of  100,000  men,  and  took  Pragoe. 


726  FREDEBIO  II.  (Pkcbsia) 

He  felt  that  he  had  no  right  to  expect  furbcar-  he  hoped  t]iat  genim,  Jodgraent,  and  mdo- 

ance  after  liis  own  perfidious  conquest  of  Silesia ;  tion,  with  onlinarj  good  fortune,  uiiglit  ai  I«ait 

and  acoordiugly,  with  no  more  notice  than  at  Bustiun  him  until  his  enemies  ahould  ouarrvl 

first,  he  threatened  Vienna,   lie  confesses,  how-  among  themselves.    At  Dresden  he  seized  K'Hn 

ever,  that  this  campaign  was  filled  with  blun-  state  papers  which  exposed  the  designs  of  the 

ders;  that  no  general  ever  committed  graver  ca'dition.    They  were  published,  and  thvworMi 

faults;  and  it  appears  that  during  this  year  he  saw  that  this  time  be  bad  right  on  bis  side, 

first  learned  to  be  a  general.    He  retreated  rap-  Saxony  was  reduced,  and  became  in  effect  for 

kUy,  but  only  to  retrieve  the  past.    Next  year,  the  time  a  part  of  bis  domiolons.    He  kricd 

at  Ilobenfriedbctg,  he  defeated  a  joint  army  of  troops  and  supplies;  and  tbui  witbin  a  few 

Austrians  and  Saxons,  June  4^  1745,  in  a  man-  weeks,  one  of  tue  confederates  was  made  to 

ner  which  placed  him  at  the  bead  of  contem-  turn  his  weapons  against  the  others.    The  nexi 

porary  commanders.    This  victory  was  followed  campaign  o|>ened  with  the  great    battle  U 

by  those  of  Sorr  (Sept.  30)  and  Kcsseldorf  (Dec.  Prague,  May  5,  1757.    Frederic  was  Tictorioaw 

15),  and  the  fall  of  Dresden;  and  having  no  longer  but  lost  12,000  men.    A  second  battle  was 

reason  to  fear  that  Maria  Theresa  could  avenge  fought  and  lost  at  Collin,  June  18.     Fredc-nc 

bersclf^  he  deserted  his  French  ally,  and  made  abandoned  Bohemia.    French   troops  iuvadid 

BMice  with  England  and  Austria  by  the  treaty  of  Prussia,  and  his  anny  lost  confidence.     Fr^nfb. 

rcsden  (Dec.  22X  by  which  ho  acknowledged  Swedes,  and  Russians  were  marching  upon  B«r- 

Francis  as  emperor,  and  was  confinned  in  the  lin ;  and  Frederic,  mourning  the  demn  of  lis 

possession  of  oilesia.     Frederic  by  this  time  mother,  whom  ho  tenderly  luved,   proviiltd 

nad  doubled  the  number  of  bis  subjects,  and  himself  with  i>oison,  and,  resolvinff  ncrer  ta  l<e 

bad  succeeded  so  well  in  humbling  Austria  and  taken  alive,  meditated  suicide.     He  marcbrd 

ber  allies,  that  bo  appeared  to  bold  in  his  hand  fh>m  Bohemia  against  the  French.     Witli  kilf 

the  balance  of  power  in  Germany.    His  peo-  their  numbers  ho  defeated  them  at  Ro«»l*ach, 

plo  now  eqjoyed  11  years  of  peace,  dnrine  and  took  7,C00  prisoners  (Not.  5).     On  Dec  5, 

which  he  devoted  himself  to  tlie  organization  of  at  Leuthen,  with  80,000  men,  be  atuurke«l  iAC^.^i 

bis  states  and  his  army,  the  advancement  of  tho  Austrians  (according  to  Kohlraittcli),  killvJ  cr 

arts,  agriculture,  manufactures,  commerce,  and  captured  21,000  of  Uieir  number,  and  tcvk  KO 

education,  tlie  amelioration  of  Uie  laws^  and  tho  guns,  50  standards,  and  4,000  wafroos.    Ear/* 

increase  of  the  public  revenues.    lie  also  re-  in  1758  bo  was  again  ready  for  action,  ami  «>::. 

snmed  his  literary  occupations,  and  wrote  bis  37,000  troojis  fought  almost  band  to  ban«I  v/^ 

**  Memoirs  of  the  House  or  Brandenburg^'  (2  vols.,  60,000  Russians  at  Zomdorf.   It  was  the  fierK>; 

Berlin,  1751),  Lis  poem  of  tho  "Art  of  "War,"  and  bloodiest  battle  of  the  war.     Frvdi-n-    c:- 

and  many  other  productions  in  prose  and  verse,  dcrcd  that  no  quarter  ^h«>uld  bo  pivvr..  s*-  i:- 

This  was  a  period,  nevertheless,  of  constant  raged  was  he  with  thu  devastatioTi*  io(:.:../.:   . 

anxiety  and  insecurity ;  and  learning,  in  IToO,  by  the  invaders;  and  1D,(K)0  Kl:^«:a:t:<  ^:A  11.- 

that  a  now  coalition  was  forming  against  Iiim,  OOOPrusMans  hiy  upon  the  field,  dcadir  ««i.-.  -  .- 

Frederic  at  onco  prepared  for  the  encounter,  ed,  at  the  close  of  thi?j  fearful  day.     Tl  v  i.  - 

Although  at  the  moment  in  alliance  with  France  sian  survivors  abandi>neil  IVuv^^ia  in;!iu.V.;a:i  ; , 

and  Sweden,  he  resolved  to  rely  as  far  as  possi-  and  Frederic  marclK-d  into  Saxony.     lit-  i. .; 

ble  upon  himself  alone.    Wholly  distrusting  tho  beaten  French,  Austrian,  and  Uiu^Man  ar::..:*  .. 

French  ministry,  ho  turned  suddenly  to  Kng-  turn,  each  with  un're  than  douMi*  hii  K^r 

laud.     His  offer  was  rea<Iily  accepted.     rrus.sia  but  close  upon  l!ie>o  triumphs  followol  a  i...    . 

tlirew  off  France;  and  Enjjiand,  Austria.     Tho  of  disasters  which  would  have  »»vir'J  rkw.  i  ;■ 

two  rejected  parties  forthwith  allied  tlieniselve.",  other  comniandirr.     At  dccul  of  i.i;;!i:  }.<    »i- 

and   the   whole  face  of   aflairs  Wits  changed.  sur[»riscd  and  terribly  defeated  at  Hc^'LI^.n*..  ■, 

Sweden,  the  tool  of  France,  followed  the  French  but  rallying  in  an  incn-dihly  short  Uu.r  Ii.  r.-^ 

leading;  and  Fre<lcric,  wiili  hcarcely  r),0(M),oOO  cued  Drestlcu  from  an  ovcrwheliiur.^  ar-:  >  %: 

subjects  including  tho con({ueredSilLsiaiis,  found  Au>trians,  and  went   into  winter    <j*.. ir.tr-  ^ 

himself  alone  on  tho  continent  njrainsl  100, UOO,-  Breslau.     The  4tli  year  opi-nid  with  \)  %■  A  .*■ 

000.     It  was  resolved  to  cru.>h  him  ;  hut  those  trians  overrunning;  Saxoiiy,  Kii!L«ian»  v :. :.  -:  ':^ 

who  made  this  resolution    knew  littlo   of  the  uihiu  the  OiUr,  Frinkric  utterly  r».  uTol  at  K . 

pnKligiesofwhichthisnian  WiLsca])aMe.  He  had  ners<lt»rf,  an*!  Ikrlin  >avtd  only  I  y  t:.o  kj« 

foreseen  their  designs,  detected  all  tlieir  secret  miraculous  eneri:y.  T!ie  T'th  vi-ars^iw  :?.*'€;.  .:« 

intrigues,  and  resolved  to  strike  tho  tir».t  Mow.  in  the  han<ls  of  the  eneiuy,  whilo  FrtU-. :     ^-.. 

Acconlingly,  in  June,  1756,  with  TO,OuO  men,  great  battles  at  I. iegn  it/,  and  Ti»v.r,;.     1)-  •- 

he  entered  S^axony,  and  comnienced  the  fnniouH  year  was  also  unfavoniMe,  l-u:   he   s:.'!  !'■    -:  i 

7  years*  war.     His  arm v  had  grown  to  iriO,OO0  on.     Tho   circle  Kvniod   to  \ni  ci«.-::  j  an     •. 

men.     His  enemies  could  bring  C00,0"0  troops  him.  an«lho  gn.«w>avai;e  withdc'.[».i.r.    F  j-:*- 

into  the  Held,  and  there  was  not  a  politician  in  descrte<l  him,  but  Ui:*sia  w  it  lid. -\  v.   f.i.     i 

Europe  who  did  not  look  niN)ii  !iis  de^trucjion  coalition.     Frederic  broke  into  >.iv»;n  »■  :  i:-- 

as   Ci'rtain.     Ho   himsedf  scarcely    doubled  it.  featod  the  Austriania!  HuokerMli-rf.   Ti^ir-:--- 

He  knew,  however,  that   he  hud  some  ailvan-  of  France  were  meanwhijo  wi;I.dra*r.  : : »:  .^ 

tages.      Ho   ha«l   an    overllowing   troa>ury  at  declaring  future  neutrality  ;  and  IVj-^*.-:..-  i:.- 

home,  and  plenty  of  money  from  England,  and  Aubtriaus  stood  alone  agaiust  v;k:b  k,Cak  r.    T-c 


FREDSBIO  IL  (Pbusbul)  FBEDEBIO  WM.  IL  (Psubsia)     727 

• 
empress  now  gaye  way,  and  in  Feb.  17C3,  1772  was  contemplated  the  dismemberment  of 
pe»oe  was  signed  at  Hnbertsbnrg,  leaving  Fred-  Poland.  It  originated  between  Frederic  and 
eric  in  possession  of  Silesia,  the  sole  object,  short  Catharine  of  Russia ;  for  it  is  certain  that  a 
of  saving  Prussia  itself,  for  which  he  had  fought,  most  unwilling  consent  was  wrung  from  Maria 
After  an  absence  of  8  years  he  reentered  Berlin  Theresa.  Frederic  took  possession  of  his  share 
in  triumph.  The  city  had  been  more  than  once  in  Sept  1772,  and  issued  in  justification  of  him- 
plandered ;  the  population  had  suffered  fright-  self  a  manifesto  so  vain,  that  it  has  been  called 
folly.  He  found  the  number  of  his  subjects  an  insult  added  to  the  injury.  No  other  war* 
diminished  by  y*. ;  a  sixth  of  the  male  able-  like  event  occurred,  except  the  threatening  of 
bodied  adults  had  died  upon  the  field  of  battle,  another  war  with  Austria  on  the  subject  of  the 
Cossacks  and  Groats  had  slaughtered  young  and  Bavarian  succession.  The  emperor  Joseph  II. 
old,  women  and  children.  Fields  were  nnsown ;  laid  claim  to  it,  and  entered  Bavaria  with  an 
villages  and  hamlets  were  deserts.  But,  say  army  in  1778.  Frederic  interposed  as  protector 
historians,  Frederic  did  not  owe  a  dollar.  His  of  the  rightful  heir,  the  duke  of  Deux  Fonts, 
first  object  was  the  thorough  restoration  and  Some  skirmishes  ensued,  when  Maria  Theresa 
reorganization  of  the  army.  During  every  mo-  prevailed  upon  her  son  to  forego  his  claims, 
ment  of  the  24  remaining  years  of  Fredericks  Peace  was  accordingly  rigned.  May  IS,  1779. 
life,  be  was  armed  at  all  noints.  His  energies,  Later  important  public  acts  of  his  life  were  the 
meanwhile,  were  employed  with  equal  devotion  establishment,  in  1785,  of  the  so  called  confed* 
in  the  restoration  of  his  country.  The  corn  eration  of  princes  (Fir$tenhund);  and  a  trea^ 
which  had  been  provided  for  the  next  campaign  with  the  United  States  of  America,  embodying 
w^  bestowed  forthwith  upon  the  destitute.  In  the  most  elevated  principles  of  internatiomd 
8ifl^  taxes  were  remitted  for  6  months ;  in  rights.  Without  much  community  of  political 
Poraerania  and  New  Brandenburg  for  2  years,  sentiment^  he  was  friendly  to  the  American  pa- 
Immense  sums  of  money  were  expended  in  agri-  triots,  and  gave  evidence  of  his  dislike  of  Brit* 
ooltnralandindustrial  improvements;  in  all,  dur<»  ish  policy  in  employing  Hessian  troops  across 
ing  the  remainder  of  his  reign,  24,000,000  thalers.  the  Atlantic,  by  levying  the  same  toll  per  head 
To  meet  these  and  other  similar  ends,  the  most  upon  the  recruits  which  passed  through  his  do^ 
rigid  economy  was  practised.  The  royal  house-  minions  as  was  charged  upon  ^'  bought  and  sold 
hold  was  so  frugal  that  the  king  saved  annually  cattle.**  Washington  commanded  his  admira- 
from  the  sum  appropriated  to  his  court  nearly  tion,  and  Mount  Vernon  received  among  its 
1,000,000  thalers.  His  envoys  in  England  and  treasures  a  Prussian  sword  of  honor,  forwarded 
France  each  had  salaries  less  than  $5,000  a  year,  from  Potsdam  with  the  words :  '^  From  the  old- 
The  king  himself  hod  but  one  fine  dress  during  est  general  in  the  world  to  the  greatest*'  Fred« 
the  remainder  of  his  life.  Shabby  old  garmenU  eric  died  after  a  severe  attack  of  dropsy,  at  the 
and  snuffy  yellow  waistcoats  were  his  daily  wear;  age  of  74 ;  he  left  no  children  by  his  wife,  with 
and  when  it  was  found  at  his  death  that  he  did  whom  he  never  cohabited,  and  was  therefore 
not  possess  a  single  decent  shirt,  he  was  buried  succeeded  by  a  nephew,  Frederic  William  II.,  to 
in  one  belonging  to  his  taUt  de  cTuimhre.  In  whom  he  left  a  treasury  containing  a  surplus  of 
one  fancv  alone  was  he  ever  enticed  from  an  72,000,000  thalers,  an  army  of  220,000  men,  a 
excess  of  economy ;  this  was  his  love  of  build-  territory  increased  by  29,000  sq.  m.,  and  a  peo- 
ing.  He  was  himself  the  great  exemplar  of  pie  industrious,  intelligent,  and  happy.  On  his 
industry.  Twenty  hours  in  the  24  he  spent  in  accession  he  had  2.240,000  subjects;  at  his  death 
some  active  bodily  or  mental  employment.  He  the  number  exceeded  6,000,000.  His  works  were 
rose  at  4,  and  retired  at  midnight  Dinner  was  published  by  order  of  the  king  of  Prussia,  under 
the  scene  of  intellectual  activity,  a  school  of  the  auspices  of  the  royal  academy  of  ^iences 
wit  and  discussion.  Religious  persecution  was  (30  volsl,  Berlin,  1846-*57).  Extensive  works 
unknown  in  his  dominions ;  perfect  order  reign-  on  Frederic  have  been  written  by  Eolb  and 
ed  throughout;  property  was  secure;  speedi  Preuss.  Of  Carlyle's  "  History  of  Frederic,"  to 
and  the  press  were  free.  Lampoons  and  libels  be  completed  in  4  vols.,  2  vols,  have  been  pnb- 
on  himself  he  wholly  disregarded.  *^  My  people  lished  (Aug.  1859).  Friedrich  der  Oros$e  und 
and  I,"  he  said,  ^^  understand  each  other.  They  Katharina  JL^  by  Kurd  von  SchlOzer  of  St  Pe- 
are  to  say  what  they  like,  and  I  am  to  do  what  tersburg,  appeared  in  Berlin  in  1859. 
I  like."  Cheap  and  sneedy  justice  was  admin-  FREDERIO  WILLIAM  II.,  king  of  Prussia, 
Istered.  In  commercial  policy  and  international  bom  Sept.  25, 1748,  died  Kov.  19,  1797.  He 
law  he  was  in  advance  of  his  time.  Devoted  was  the  grandson  of  Frederic  William  I.,  nephew 
as  he  was  to  letters,  he  never  allowed  the  pas-  of  Frederic  the  Great,  and  son  of  the  prince  An- 
sion  for  literature  to  divert  him  from  duty,  gustus  William,  who,  having  incurred  the  re- 
He  had  no  knowledge  of  the  force  of  the  Ger-  sentment  of  his  brother  the  king  by  an  nnsnc- 
tnan  language,  and  spoke  of  it  with  contempt  cessful  retreat  afler  the  disastrous  battle  of 
Yet  he  never  wrote  French  correctly.  Respect-  Collin  (1757),  shortly  after  died.  Frederic 
able  as  he  was  as  a  historian,  and  voluminous  as  William,  having  become  heir  presumptive  to 
a  versifier,  he  never  learned  to  spell  the  language  his  unde,  received  from  him  but  rare  marks  of 
which  he  idolized.  It  has  been  said  of  him  cordiality  or  affection,  was  rather  austerely  ed- 
that  in  action  he  was  a  German  prince,  and  in  ncated,  and  often  exposed  to  all  the  dangers  of 
q>ecalation  a  French  philosopher.    In  the  year  the  war  daring  the  last  period  of  the  7  yeaia' 


728      FREDERIC  VOL  IL  (Pkcssu)  FREDCRtO  W.  UL  ffklMu) 

Btmggle.    lie  et^o}:eiI  little  freedom  in  the  teo-  when  engaged  In  tb«  wm  vU)  FrasM,  Immt  ft 

ond  and  peaceful  half  of  Frederic's  reign.  w«s  more  conTcni«nt  and  mora  pniltabia  to  Aw* 

obliged  to  repudiate  bis  firat  nife,  Elizabeth  of  the  prcj  wHh  Rua^  Rod  Aottia.    Il«  nanbl 

Bnmswick,  be«iuise  of  ill  cuaduct,  and  lived  ia  his  army  into  Pi)luid.  tod  acUn);  |iliiiiiii>JrtM 

ft  drcle  of  lite  own,  in  irhicli  Bome  visionaries  second  and  tliird  dismembertBtat  of  th*  ■» 

of  the  thenpowerfnllrorgaaizediiectof  iUami'  happf  republic  (1703-'S5J.   ni«shai«WMl«m 

nnti  were  parlicnlarly  conipicaous,  who  main-  eztendlii);  to  the  Niemeo,  and  '■— '-■*''n  u* 

toioed  Uieir  inflaenca  over  him  even  after  his  ao-  capilAl,  Wargs'vr.     Thett  wan  uui  ihk  «Btnf- 

cesaioQ to  tlie  throne.  ThistookplaceoDAug.lT,  aganco  of  tljo  court  eshauucd  lli*  flMMcMtf 

1TS6.    Freed  from  his  longcoQUnued  restraint,  Prussia.    IntoIiTuil  edicts  and  wran  iwtrit 

the  now  king  gave  himself  up  without  modero-  lions  of  tho  press  contribatcd  to  mak*  Ui  ni^ 

"'  n  to  his  voluptuous  ineUnalJona.    ITutreases  unpopular.    It  must,bow«vM',bo*i'        '"'"  ' 


dbvoritcs  reigned  in  the  oourt  and  squander-  that  it  was  not  without  merit  In  d«Ttil«pta*. 

k    irittbe  treasures  of  tho  state.    The  favor  of  the  resoarces  of  the  8tat»  and  tlw  md&ra  sf  Am 

I   AVP^  ^*  sought  to  ffuin  by  ostentatious  mild-  pcoplo  by  useful   internal  iiD|iraraB«n^    Tka 

^  Sw;  even  tho  disci^ino  of  the  army,  so  re-  juridical  organiutiou  of  Pru«aiatra»*ko|nM- 

flMraod  under  Frc<leric,  was  relaxed.    Tliefirst  ly  promoted  under  Fredwto  WlUtoin. 

important  act  of  his  policy  abroad,  which  was  FREDEIUO  VTmAMUL.iijwiiilxBM^ 

but  lightly  inlluoncea  by  the  energetic  miins-  of  the  preceding,  bom  Aug.  a,  17T0,  dial  Jim 

ter  Herel>erg,  was  to  reinstate  iu  power  bia  7,  ISM.    Eilncnteil  with  oare  bj  hu  ririMM 

brother-in-law  tho  etadtholder  of  the  Nelber-  luoUier,  Louisa  of  UMM-DvmaUdt,  b«  W^ 

lands,  who  had  beendeposedby  the  anti-Orango  ide  opportunity  of  comparing,  at  tlwcomtsuf 

party.     A  Prussian  army  under  the  duke  of  Frederic  llie  Great  and  of  bi>  latbtr,  tlia«f^ 

Brunswick  entered  Holland,  occupied  Amster-  dta  jinfluenre  uf  royal  virtuM  ■wlvMatifM 

dam,  and  restored  the  ancient  order  of  thingx,  tlieoSkira  of  lUBlat>.s  and  Im  eadj  nntrw^ 

which  wax  confirmed  by  a  treaty  conclnded  in  the  love  of  urdor,  discipline,  croDanT.aiiilUa^ 

I7S9,  at  tho  Hague,  by  Prussia,  England,  and  whicli  in  after  time  contributed  ao  Tittl*  totba 

Holland.    Alanued  by  the  alliance  of  the  em-  prospprity  of  bis  people.    Ue  aeeniBpaAM  hb 

peror  Joseph  II.  with  Catharine  It.  of  Ruatia,  father  to  the  cunferencw  t^  PUaha.  and  to  lU 

and  by  the  successes  of  the  Russians  in  tbv  war  army  ut  tlio  fir*t  poalitlon  if'"**  FraBM  mi 

against  Turkey,  ho  concluded  a  treaty  with  tho  la  17'.'3  married  tho  bcantifm  and  aocMpBifcat 

latter  power  giuiranteeing  all  its  possessions,  princess  Louisa  of  yeoUenbtin-^to^tx.  rfba 

An  armv  was  assembled  in  Rilesia,  near  Ihe  B<v-  his  ar<V!isi<m  to  tlie  thr'me(ITSi)Ih*  nvMtp^ 

hemion'fr.)fjti,T.      IVfiiro.  tl,^  ..iUhn-nk   "f  Hip  nlHr.,.-...'.!..!' Pru-vU     Tbetrrriil  Ui*i  of  thea.* 

flnally  restored  bis  good  understanding  with  tionof tbecreatoresa&dabnaeaortJMpntfeiimf. 

..._._,_   i_  .1  .   ._            ,  T,  .  .      .     ,     ,.-««,  Xhis  was  done  with  energy.     The   nnpofokr 
edicts  restricting  the  pres*  and  the  (rtadoni  id  la- 

IL,  who  MOD  also  made  peace  with  the  Porte,  ligions  instruction  were  abrogated,  and  aeoeMBy 

Knssia,  however,  was  allowed  to  continue  her  and  order  restored  in  the  adroiaistrattoa.    U 

operations  undisturbed,  and  the  enoouraging  his  foreigu  policy  the  Tonng  Ung  iwiintriasJ 

promises  madetothe  Belgian  natriota  were  soon  the  neutrality  imposed  by  the  treaty  of  BaMt, 

ibrgotten.    Heriberg  resigned.    The  interview  the  temporary  stipulationa  of  whiob  ware  mml» 

at  PilniU  with  the  emperor  (1T91)  prepared  definite  by  the  treaty  of  LaneTille  (1801).  For 

tbe  Srst  coalition  against  the  Freneli  revolution,  its  cessions  on  the  left  bonk  of  the  BUb^  Pra- 

The  hpstlle  operations  began  in  the  spring  of  lia  soon  after  received  ample  oonpetuatkaa  ia 

1798.     The  duke  of  Brunswick  entered  France  small  territories  deprived  of  their  Jaitninitrnm 

iaJune;  the  king  and  the  crown  prince,  tho  as  members  of  the  empire  bv  decree  o(  tbe  Gir- 

aon  of  bis  aeoond  wife,  Louisa  of  Ilesso-Barm-  manic  diet.     Satisfied  with  lua  a 


t,  Joined  him  ioon  after.    Want  uf  harmony  mlttical  influence  in  tbe  north  of  ( 

and  repeated  blunders  on  tho  part  of  the  allies,  Frederic  WiUiam  refiised  to  Join  tbe  tldrd  e»- 

reTolutioDaryfaoaticlsraandtheskillofthecom-  alition . against  France  which  waa  t'ai—</l  by 

manders  on  the  ride  of  the  French,  soon  turned  England,   Russia,  and  Anstria.     But  wbaa  IM 

theacaleinlavorofthelatter,  compelling  Fred-  French  armiea  had  inftinged  tbe  neitt^aiayrf 

erio  William  to  keep  the  defensive,  and  finally  the  Prussian  territoriea,Frcdcrle  WJlBaai  *e- 

to  ooncludo  the  treaty  of  Basel  (17B5)  with  the  cretly  allied  himself  with  Alexander  of  Bmm, 

repablic,inwhiehbeeededhisterritor)esbeyond  during  a  sudden  visit  of  the  latter  at  Btcfia. 

the  Rhine,  oontractingforftitureindemnitiesand  Ilesitatiou,  however,  spoiled  tbe  eflcct  ci  tUi 

a  kind  of  protectorate  oier  northern  Germany,  alliance,  and  the  hauls  of  Ansterlitx  waa  U- 

His  partieipation  in  the  affairs  of  Poland,  fickle  lowed  by  a  new  treatv  with  Ka|>Qk«Mi  (I>*e. 

and  treacheroua  as  bis  policy  was,  was  produo-  1805).     Cedins  Anspach,  Clevea,  and  N««IeM- 

tlve  of  more  advantageous  results.     Having  en-  tel,  it  received  Hanover  tnna  tbe  ooaqacror. 

eooraged  tho  so-called  Long  Palish  diet  iu  its  The  consequence  of  this  ciehange  waa  what 

eflbrU  to  regenerate  the  state  and  to  make  it  Napoleon    wanted,  a  declaration  ot    war  hj 

Independent  of  Russia,  by  a  treaty  in  which  ha  England  against  Prussia.     Tbe  latter  wa*  alae 

loaranteed  Ila  integrity  0190),  he  afterward,  embtwled  with  Sweden.    BaTiag  mda  paaat 


FREDERIC  WM.  III.  (P&ubsu)  FREDERIO  W!L  IY.  (PBuseiA)      729 

with  these  enemies,  Frederic  William  made  dinarj  losses,  and  to  face  so  many  enemies.  The 
peremptory  demands  on  Napoleon  in  behalf  of  Prussians  fought  bravely  in  various  engagements 
the  neutrality  of  his  state  and  its  allies  in  north-  in  1813  and  1814  (see  BlOoheb),  and  the  king 
em  Germany.  Napoleon  answered  with  prompt  often  gave  proofs  of  personal  activity  and  cour- 
hostilities,  and  the  battles  of  Jena  and  Auerstadt  age.  He  entered  Paris  with  his  allies,  accom- 
were  both  fought  on  Oct.  14, 1806.  The  power-  panied  Alexander  on  his  visit  to  England,  made, 
ful  Prussian  army  was  broken,  Berlin  was  occu-  m  Aug.  1814,  a  triumphal  entry  into  his  capi- 
pied  by  the  enemy,  and  the  fortresses  surrender-  tal,  and  repaired  to  the  congress  of  Vienna. 
ed  at  the  first  summons.  The  aid  of  Alexander  The  stipulations  of  this  congress  conferred  on 
was  of  little  avaiL  After  a  winter  campaign  in  Prussia  greater  power  than  it  possessed  before 
Fmssian  Poland  and  the  indecisive  battles  oJT  the  wars,  enlarging  it  particularly  with  parts  of 
Pultusk  (Dec.  26)  and  Eylau  (Feb.  8,  1807),  Saxony,  one  of  the  last  allies  of  Napoleon.  The 
Napoleon  conquered  peace  by  the  battle  of  sudden  return  of  the  captive  of  Elba  called  the 
Friedland,  won  on  the  anniversary  of  Marengo  Prussian  army  again  to  arms,  and  BlQcher,  after 
(Jane  14).  The  treaty  of  Tilsit  (July)  sacrificed  his  previous  defeat,  appeared  at  Waterloo  in 
one  half  of  Prussia,  parts  of  which  were  trans-  time  to  finish  the  great  struggle.  The  last  25 
formed  into  the  duchy  of  Warsaw,  and  others  years  of  the  reign  of  Frederic  William  form  a 
attached  to  the  kingdom  of  Westphalia.  The  period  of  undisturbed  peace  and  prosperity  for 
other  half  remained  for  years  in  the  hands  of  Prussia.  Closely  allied  with  the  czar  Alexan- 
the  conqueror,  and  was  treated  as  a  subdued  der,  and  afterward  with  Nicholas,  the  king  pur- 
province.  The  king,  who  paid  a  visit  with  the  sued  a  policy  of  strict  conservatism.  Much  was 
qneen  to  Alexander,  could  not  return  to  his  done  for  internal  improvements,  little  for  polit- 
capital  before  1809.  This  gloomy  period,  how-  leal  reform.  Revolutionary  agitations,  wher- 
ever, became  one  of  the  most  successful  in  the  ever  they  manifested  themselves,  were  suppressed 
history  of  the  state  by  a  series  of  salutary  and  with  severity.  Science,  however,  was  patron- 
energetic  reforms,  undertaken  and  executed  ized,  and  the  king  could  boast  of  the  friendship 
Earticularly  under  the  celebrated  ministers  of  the  Humboldts.  The  last  years  of  his  reign 
tein  and  Hardenberg.  Serfdom  was  abolished,  were  agitated  by  a  strife  with  the  Roman  Catho- 
the  towns  obtained  some  independence  in  the  lie  clergy.  The  eldest  of  his  4  sons  succeeded 
management  of  their  own  affairs  through  citr  him  as  Frederic  William  lY.  One  of  his 
representatives,  the  royal  domains  were,  sold,  daughters  was  married  to  the  emperor  Nicholas, 
convents  and  ecclesiastical  foundations  convert-  In  1824  he  had  formed  a  morganatic  marriage 
ed  into  state  property,  public  instruction  was  with  the  countess  Augusta  of  llarrach,  whom 
organized,  and  the  new  university  of  Berlin  he  made  duchess  of  Liegnitz. 
founded.  The  new  systeni  of  military  organi-  FREDERIO  WILLIAM  IV.,  son  and  succes- 
zation  of  Prussia  had  also  its  origin  in  that  sor  of  the  preceding,  bom  Oct.  15,  1705.  He 
period.  In  1810  the  king  lost  his  wife,  the  received  a  careful  scientific  education,  though 
faithful  companion  of  his  misfortunes.  In  1812  his  boyhood  was  passed  in  the  most  disastrous 
he  was  compelled  to  aid  Napoleon  with  an  army  period  of  Prussian  history,  and  his  youth  in 
against  Russia.  Forming  the  left  of  the  great  that  of  the  great  struggle  against  Napoleon. 
French  army  of  invasion,  it  was  saved  on  the  Ancillon,  DelbrGck,  Schamhorst,  Knesebeck, 
retreat  by  a  special  arrangement  between  its  Savigny,  Ritter,  and  Ranch  were  among  his 
commander,  York,  and  Diebitsch.  York  was  of-  teachers  in  philosophy,  belles-lettres,  military 
ficially  blamed,  but  soon  received  a  due  aoknowl-  science,  political  economy,  and  art.  He  was 
edgmont  of  his  patriotic  act.  Having  trans-  often  present  on  the  scene  of  action  during  the 
ferred  his  residence  to  Breslau  (Jan.  1813),  last  campaign  against  Napoleon,  became  famil- 
Frederio  William  now  issued  his  famous  pro-  iarly  acquainted  with  many  distinguished  men 
elamation,  which  was  answered  by  a  general  ofhisage,ofwhom  Humboldt  remained  attached 
rising  of  the  nation  against  France.  The  capi-  to  him  through  life,  and  developed  his  taste  for 
tal  of  Prussia  alone  is  said  to  have  contributed  the  fine  arts  while  residing  in  Paris  after  its  oc- 
a  force  of  10,000  men.  Fortunately,  prudent  cupation  by  the  allies,  and  on  a  journey  to  Italy 
measures  had  been  adopted  in  secret  to  pre-  in  1828.  Admitted  to  the  councils  of  his  father, 
pare  for  the  struggle.  The  youth,  meeting  pri-  he  evinced  a  marked  independence  of  opinion 
vately,  had  been  drilled  in  the  use  of  arms  in  with  much  administrative  ability.  As  military 
small  detachments.  Thus  the  power  of  the  governor  ofPomerania,  his  affability  gained  him 
people^  answered  to  their  will.  The  militia  general  popularity.  Great  expectations  had 
naving  been  summoned,  war  against  France  was  been  formed  of  his  future  career  when  he  suc- 
dedared  on  March  17.  The  situation  had  its  ceeded  to  the  throne  (June  7,  1840).  His  first 
dangers.  The  French  still  held  the  fortresses  solemn  declaration  at  Konigsberg,  a  limited 
of  Prussia  and  Poland;  their  army  in  the  domin-  political  amnesty,  the  reinstating  of  Amdt,  the 
ions  of  the  king  still  amounted  to  60,000.  But  old  liberal  poet,  the  reappointment  to  oflUce  of 
the  hour  of  success  had  passed  for  Napoleon,  the  popular  lieutenant-general  Von  Boyen,  the 
The  continual  desertion  of  his  allies  served  to  conciliatory  termination  of  a  diflUculty  be- 
strengthen  the  phalanx  of  the  coalition  after  tween  the  state  and  the  Roman  Catholic  clergy, 
every  defeat  of  his  armies.  His  enormous  new  were  hailed  with  applause ;  but  the  anpoint- 
leries  were  not  sofiloient  to  cover  the  extmor-  ment  of  statesmen  like  Hassenpflug  ana  £ich- 


TW  IBIDBRIC  WILLIAM  lY. 

lionL  the  ptinmage  bastowad  on  the  iiobiIitj»  «Aiiiitiit    Thftm 

ttwdlatoiitlierepra8eiitatiT«B€ftlMhiitori-  with  iitlwwIiM,  tut  thtptcpitain 

oi>-roiiuttiticaiidi^tittlo  lehooltithedkBikMl  th»  ranoval  cf  the  hated  traopaftwittscifM^ 

efBnmoBaneriranhUproliHnonhipktheMn^  mdgMrtldapmpofdqwrtirtoflfair 

pen^  of  BraaI^  the  ezpokloii  IWN&  the  ]dii9-  pairad  to  the  paltea  (Manah  ISkwyb 

j^  ftf  PwMikn  and  aon»Pniaiian  damociralif  of  paopla  aMftmbiad  balbfa  It   ^adij 

among  othen  of  Herwai^Itiit^  and  Hebkar,  waa  roftiaad  admittaaefl^  and  m' 

the  eevera  amilieatkm  or  IHerarj  oenaofahini  fromthaconricf  thanalaoatn 

and  the  eordial  relatioitf  of  the  ooort  with  the  Borne  alwHa  were  Area.    Lbom 

etar  Nieb^lai,  the  brother-in-law  of  the  kin|L  nie  diapnaed  in  eveiy  diraetkHi  wiA  nriii  ef 

aoondeetrc^ed  the  hopes  of  the  liberal  pari  of  ^Treaaonl  they  arenraideriaf  wl  nvn^p^ 

thenati<»L    Anattempton  theUfeof  thekinc  Hnndredacf  barrioadeawwe  analal  InnAv 

1^  the  diindaeed  borsomaiter  Tadieeh  in  1844  hoor^  the  araenal  waa  itofiad,  and 

WW  poniahed  with  &ath.    The  developnieni  ight  enaned,  which  n^^  till  Inn  a 

given  to  the  reproaantation  by  provincial  eatatei^  the  next  day,  when  the  Uac  oenHH 

which  had  been  introdnoed  under  the  preced-  retreatof  the  troopa  and  their  raBMfilJfc— lb 

ing  rdgn,  by  the  convocation  of  their  standi  d^.  Theeoraaeaof  theflilMiea 

lngeonimitteeainl84S.andl7tbeooQTocatioa  carried  into  the  eourlyard  of  the 

of  the  nnited  provincial  citatea  of  theldngdom  IdngwaaeonpeDadtoapnearbai 

in  Feb.  1847,  waa  made  leai  aignificant  by  the  nnoovered  head;  the  pMaoo  of  Ua 

diatinot  declaration  of  the  IdtM  that  the  repre-  nnpopnlar  brother,  the  prinen  of 

aantativca,  to  IWim  becoming  fe|^ilatora.woQld  dedared  national  property.    Tho 

be  allowed  only  to  give  advfoe  to  the  nmimited  diamlmad,  a  dvie  gnard 

aovereign,  and thatne  woold  never conaent to  era! aninaaty  nanted.    I 

bind  hit  inherited  anthority  Inr  a  written  com"  been  aantcneed  to  death, 

pact    Periodical  meetin«  of  the  united  MMm-  tfaro^theatieetaofBe(fin|«ndlMaririiai- 

n(y  were  aiked  for  in  vain.    The  govenunent  aociatea  left  the  primi  with  Uaa,  aad  hartwri 

thoogh  craning  general  toleration,  declared  toBoaantooammencetheieatornHoBcCTBim^ 

againat  the  aepiffation  of  the  chnrch  tnm  the  the  new  miniatnrpramiaing  IteaariataBaa.  Ha 

atate,  and  the  emandpation  of  the  JewB|  and  king  now  openqr  and  oatentatioiMHy  dadHii 

avowedly  aongfat  to  role  the  kingdom  in  eon-  Ua  pnrpoae  to  take  the  lead  in  GacBa«y;  Ihi 

Ibrmity  with  the  views  of -the  school  generally  diet  was  again  assembled  (April  iX  to  a" 

known  as  pietists.  Much  more  waa  done  for  the  rate  a  new  election  law.    It  waa  dlaaoivei 

material  interests  of  the  state  through  internal  the  passage  of  that  law  on  April  ^end  a 

improvements,  commercial  union  with  foreign  stitnent  assembly  was  convened  in  Berlin  (Hmj 

states,  and  the  commercial  union  with  the  north  22),  while  the  delegates  of  Pnissin  alio  sppcsr- 

of  Germany  (Zollterein\  which  also  extended  ed  in  the  national  German  parliament  which  ia 

the  political  influence  of  Prussia.    Tlie  Polish  Frankfort-on-the-lilain  had  sopersedcd  the  dici 

conspiracy  ofl846,  which  threatened  the  eastern  of  the  princes  (^«fii2fifa^).      Pnissiaa  trom 

possessions  of  the  king,  was  detected  in  time  in  were  sent  to  8chlesm'ig-Ilolsteia  to  asKrt  tbs 

the  duchy  of  Posen ;  the  outbreak  in  the  same  German  inhabitants  in  their  revolt  agaamt  tbs 

province  was  easily  suppressed  ;  the  insurji^nts  king  of  Denmark.    In  Posen«  howcvvr,  when 

of  Cracow,  who  laid  down  their  arms  on  Prus-  the  Poles  hod  risen  in  a  bloody  iniarrectwa, 

sian  territory,  were  treated  with  rigor.    The  the  troops  restored  order  after  farioos  cuotefli 

people  were  already  politically  agitated  by  tlie  with  the  half-unarmed  bands  under  Mierodav* 

lively  discussions  of  the  diet  (from  April  11  to  ski  (April  and  May).    This  was  the  first  rtmt- 

June  22,  1847),  and  of  its  stondinj;;  committees,  tionary  victory.    Others  followed.     While  the 

assembled  Jan.  18, 1848,  and  also  by  the  trial  of  revolution  was  losing  its  time  in  endless  •perrb- 

the  insurrectionists  of  Posen,  and  of  Micros-  making,  framing  of  constitutions,  and  scumiag 

lawftki,  the  destined  leader  of  the  Polish  move-  on  the  reorganization  of  Germany  aa  n  aaiud 

ment,  as  well  as  by  the  victory  of  the  liberals  in  empire,  in  the  assemblies  of  Frmnkfort.  B«rliB» 

Switzerland  over  the  Sonderhund^  the  constitu-  Vienna,  and  elsewhere ;  while  it  was  ^ 

tional  movements  in  Italy,  and  the  revolution  its  power  in  party  strifes  and  nseleta 

in  Sicily,  when  the  news  of  the  French  revolu-  takings,  and  degenerating  thnnigh  the  < 

tion  of  Feb.  24  involved  the  m'hole  of  Germany  of  the  populoce,  the  governmental  whirh  bad 

in  a  flame.    The  popular  movement  was  vie-  maintaineu  their  armies,  paved  the  way  W  a 

torious  all  over  the  south-west  and  south  of  the  complete  restoration  of  their  power  by  mBtxtal 

eonftfilcration,   before  Frederic  William    was  understanding,    skilful    connter-rvvolatkiasrT 

Ibrced  to  yield  to  its  irresistible  current.    Even  manoDUvres,   continually  changing    ministrM^ 

after  the  fall  of  Mettemich  in  Vienna  (March  and  varying  programmes.    In  rnuwia  the  m«& 

Id),  he  was  detennined  to  maintain  his  royal  who,  bv  their  zeal,  activity,  or  pctpoUritj,  bnt 

authority,  and  to  grant  liberties  only  as  free  assisted  the  government  daring  tne  dangervat 

ffifls.     Threatening  popular  gatherings  in  Ber-  period  of  the  revolution,  were  the  miniftUn 

lin  were  dispersed  by  his  fiuthful  soldiery  bo-  Camnhausen,  Plbel,   RadowiU,   Brandcnbcrp 

lore  he  prtK-loimed  the  freedom  of  the  press  and  Maoteuffel,  and  the  generals  Wtllisra  sad 

and  the  promise  ofa  change  in  the  form  of  gov-  WrangeL    Emboldened  by  the  triad  idi£^  ef 


FREDEBIO  WK.  lY.  (PbusBiA)  FREDERIO  AUG.  I.  (Saxoitt)      781 

the  annj  and  the  growing  desire  for  order  among  ment  of  affidrs,  and  to  repair  for  the  restora- 

the  wealthier  classes,  hy  the  reaction  in  France,  tion  of  his  health  to  the  Tjrol  and  suhsequent- 

and  the  successes  of  the  Austrian  government  1  j  to  Italy.    His  marriage  with  Elizabeth,  prin- 

in  Prague,  Lombardy,  and  Vienna,  Frederio  cessof  Bavaria,  being  without  issue,  his  brother 

William  prorogued  the  Prussian  constituent  as-  William,   prince  of  Prussia,  bom  March  23, 

aembly,  transferring  it  to  the  town  of  Branden-  1797,  became  regent    The  son  of  the  regent, 

burg,  closed  its  sessions  by  an  armed  force  under  and  heir  presumptive  to  the  throne  in  case  of  the 

Wrangel  (November),  and  finally  dissolved  it  expected  abdication  of  the  king.  Prince  Frederio 

shortly  after  its  reassembling  in  Brandenburg  William  (bom  Oct.  18, 1881),  married  Victoria, 

(Dec.  5),  promulgating  a  liberal  constitution  of  princess  royal  of  Great  Britain  (bom  Nov.  21, 

hb  own  (octToyirU  Verfasaung),    The  last  act  1840),  Jan.  25, 1858. 

of  the  assembly  of  BerUn,  the  decree  ordering  y.  saxont. 

the  refusal  of  taxes  (Nov.  15),  remained  without  FREDERIO  m.,  surnamed  the  Wise,  elector 

effect ;  the  new  elections  took  place  according  of  Saxony,  bom  in  Torgau,  Jan.  17,  1468,  died 

to  the  king^s  constitution,  and  the  two  cham-  May  5,  1525.    He  succeed  his  father  Ernest, 

bers  were  convened  in  Berlin  (Feb.  26,  1849),  in  1486,  only  in  a  part  of  his  possessions,  gov- 

which  remained  in  a  state  of  siege.  Of  these  the  eming  the  rest  in  common  with  his  brother 

lower  house  was  still  too  revolutionary,  and  both  John  the  Constant,  who  also  became  his  suc- 

were  dissolved  (April  27).    In  the  mean  time  eessor.    He  was  the  founder  of  the  university 

the  king  had  not  only  abandoned  the  cause  of  of  Wittenberg,  and  though  not  an  avowed  ad- 

Bchleswig-Holstein  by  the  armistice  of  Malmoe,  herent  of  the  reformation,  greatly  promoted  it 

but  had  also  refused  to  accept  the  hereditary  by  his  protection.    He  procured  safety  for  Lu* 

imperial  crown  of  Germany  offered  him  (March  ther  during  the  diet  of  Worms,  and  subsequent- 

S8)  by  the  Frankfort  parliament.    The  Prus-  ly  sheltered  him  in  the  castle  of  Wartburg.  His 

aian  army  now  suppressed  the  revolution  in  influence  with  the  emperor  Charles  V.  was  due 

Dresden,  after  a  blooay  straggle  of  8  days  (May),  particularly  to  the  circumstance  that  after  the 

and  in  the  Palatinate  and  Baden  (June),  while  death  of  Maximilian  I.  he  had  refused  to  accept 

it  was  almost  a  mere  spectator  in  the  renewed  the  crown  of  Germany,  which  was  conferred, 

struggle  in  Schleswig-Holstein.    A  confedera-  according  to  his  advice,  upon  that  monarch, 

tion  of  Prassia  wiui  Saxony  and   Hanover  The  peasants^  war  embittered  the  last  days  of 

(^DreMnig$bund,  confederation  of  three  kings),  his  life. 

and  some  minor  northem  states,  formed  March  FREDERIO    AUGUSTUS  I.,  1st  king  of 

2A,  was  hailed  by  the  so  called  party  of  Gotha  Saxony,  eldest  son  of  the   elector  Frederio 

(Gagem,  Dahlmann,  &c.)  as  the  last  anchor  of  Christian,  born  Dec.  28, 1750,  died  May  6, 1827. 

hope  for  a  union  of  Germany.    It  ended  in  He  succeeded  his  father  in  Dec.  1763,  under  the 

failure.    Opposed  by  Austria  and  its  southern  tutelage  of  Prince  Xaver,  was  declared  of  age 

allies,  it  was  given  up  by  Saxony,  Hanover,  and  Sept.  15,  1768,  and  in  the  following  year  mar* 

others;  its  parliament  of  Erfurt  assembled  in  ried  Maria  Amalia,  princess  of  Deux  Fonts.    The 

Tain  (March  20, 1850).    Frederic  William,  who  only  frait  of  this  marriage  was  a  daughter,  the 

had  in  the  mean  time  convoked  a  new  Prussian  princess  Augusta.    The  claims  of  his  mother  to 

assembly  and  confirmed  a  new  constitution  the  possessions  of  her  deceased  brother,  the 

witii  his  royal  oath  (Feb.  6),  followed  for  some  elector  Maximilian  Joseph  of  Bavaria,  induced 

time  a  more  nopular  course  in  the  affairs  of  him  to  ally  himself  with  Frederic  the  Great 

Hesse-Cassel  (October),  but  soon  yielded  to  the  against  Austria  in  the  short  war  of  the  Bava* 

threats  of  Austria  and  her  allies  (November),  nan  suooesnon.    Subsequently  he  joined  the 

Order  was  restored  in  Hesse  and  Schleswig-  league  of  princes  (FUr$tenhund)  formed  undef 

Holstein,  and  the  ancient  Grermanio  diet  was  the  protectorate  of  the  Prussian  monarch.    In 

once  more  established  in  Frankfort.    The  rev*  1791  he  refused  to  accept  the  sucoes8i<m  to 

olntion  was  over.    A  second  attempt  on  the  life  the  throne  of  Poland,  offered  him  in  the  name 

of  the  king  by  Sefeloge  (1850)  had  no  connection  of  that  country  by  Pnnce  Adam  Casimir  Czar- 

with  it.  Only  NeufcnAtel  remmned  with  Switz-  toryski.    He  also  r<^ected  the  instances  of  a 

eriand  as  a  conquest  of  the  movement,  and  was  conference  of  the  emperors  Leopold  II.  and 

finally,  after  some  threats  of  war  in  1857,  ceded  Frederio  William  II.  of  Prussia,  held  at  Pilnitz 

to  that  republic.  The  policy  of  the  government  0791),  to  join  as  an  independent  sovereign  the 

was  peaceful,  and  Prassia  took  no  part  in  the  nrst  coalition  against  the  French  revolution, 

war  in  Turkey,  though  it  participated  in  the  though  he  did  not  withhold  his  contingent  as  a 

peace  of  Paris  (1856).    The  constitution  was  member  of  the  German  empire  when  the  war 

modified   and   remodified  ;  the  revolutionary  had  been  declared.    In  1796  he  took  part  in  the 

members  of  the  assembly  of  1848,  Jacoby  and  treaty  of  peace  and  neutrality  concluded  with 

others,  were  persecuted ;  the  nobility  (die  Jun-  the  French  republic  by  the  district  of  Fpper 

her)  and  the  pietists  received  new  influence ;  Saxony.    He  maintained  his  neutrality  dunnff 

the  fireedom  of  the  press  and  of  religion  was  thewarof  1805,  but  in  the  following  year  joined 

oironmscribed.    In  1857  the  king  was  seized  by  Prussia  in  the  unhappy  contest  decided  by  the 

a  malady  connected  with  temporary  insanity,  battle  of  Jena.    Saxony,  which  fell  into  the 

which  increasing  by  degrees,  compelled  him  hands  of  the  F^nch  conqueror,  was  severely 

(Oct  28, 1858)  to  give  up  the  personal  manage-  poniahed,  and  Frederio  Augnstua  was  finallx 


732      FREDERIC  AUG.  H.  (Saxostt)  FREDERICSBURG 

compelled  to  throw  himself  into  the  arms  of  intervention  of  Pmssia,  thinjrs  soon  retnmeil  :.> 
Napoleon.      Having  concluded  the  treaty  of  their  ancient  order,  and  the  reartioDarj  niovc- 
Posen  (Dec.  1806),  he  assumed  the  title  of  king,  ment  continued  to  the  death  (»f  the  kin^.  wl.lih 
and  joined  the  Rhenish  confederation.    For  the  was  occasioned  by  a  fall  fniiii  Itisi  curria^  f.a 
cession  of  several  districts  of  western  Saxony  a  new  tour  in  the  Tyrnl.     He  was  twicv  mtr- 
annexcd  to  the  new  kingdom  of  Westphalia  he  ried,  first  to  Carolina,  daufrhter  of  the  tirju-r-  r 
was  scantily  compensated  by  a  part  of  Lusatia,  Francis,  and,  after  her  death  in  1SH2,  Im  Mani, 
and  after  the  peace  of  Tilsit  (1807)  more  liber-  daughter  of  Maximilian  I.  of  Bavaria.     B-.-Ji 
ally  by  the  duchy  of  Warsaw.    He  was  a  faith-  marriages  being  without  issue,  he  was  succcx-Jed 
ful  vassal  of  the  French  emperor  during  the  by  his  brother  John,  the  present  king, 
wars  of  1809  against  Austria,  and  1812  against  VI.  wrsTEMBERG. 
Russia,  and  in  1813,  when  Saxony  became  the        FREDERIC  I.  (Wilrelm  Kari.\  l^^t  kin*  cf 
chief  scene  of  the  conflict     Having  personally  WOrteml>erp,  son  of  the  duke  Frtderic  Euj^.m, 
joined  Xapoleon  shortly  before  the  battle  of  bom  Nov.  fi,  1T54,  died  Oct  30,  l^Ki.     }U  re- 
Leipsic,  he  was  declared  after  its  bloody  issue  ceived  his  first  instniction  from  hi*  aoctniipli-h- 
a  prisoner  of  war  by  the  emperor  Alexander,  ed  mother,  a  princess  of  Brandenburp-Schwp.::. 
was  sent  to  Berlin,  and  aftenvard  to  the  chateau  and  completed  his  eduoation  at  IjiusAnm-.  i!ixT 
of  Friedrichsfeld,  but  was  subsequently  allowed  the  French  fashion  of  that  pcriiK!,  scrv<:d  io  'J.* 
to  reside  at  Presburg  during  the  deliberations  bloodlesswaroftheBavariunsucrc«*i>i4in,  arr-'T^- 
of  the  congress  of  Vienna.    That  congress  re-  panied  his  brother-in-law,  the  future  Rc*»iis 
stored  to  him  half  of  his  German  possessions,  the  emperor  Paul,  on  a  jt»urney  to  Italy  in  1 7^2,  t.  -  k 
other  half  being  annexed  to  Prussia;  the  duchy  service  in  Russia  aspoveruor-peni-ral  of  Ri:**ar. 
of  Warsaw  was  made  a  dependence  of  Russia  as  Finland,  and  after  having  left  it  in  17*7.  I.^t■i 
the  kingdom  of  Poland.     Returning  to  his  capi-  for  some  time  in  retirement.     In  17'.K*  he  vti 
tal  in  June,  1815,  Frederic  Augustus  spent  the  aspectatorof  the  sessions  of  the  Fronrhr. a:;- -ril 
last  12  years  of  his  life  in  healing  the  wounds  assembly;   in   170G  ho  ftuight   iin>urct'*f-:"T 
of  his  diminished  country  by  promoting  its  agri-  against  the  French  on  the  Rhine,  and  U.'z 
cultural,  commercial,  and  mining  interests,  by  compelled  to  leave  his  country,  rriirf«l  v.*  Al*- 
cstablishingor  developing  institutions  of  art  and  pach,  and  subsequently  to  Vienna  nnd  I-^^nvI. - 
science,  and  particularly  bv  a  strict  administra-  In  the  following  year  he  returned  :••  Wur:»B:- 
tion  of  justice.     His  grateful  subjects  bestowed  berg,  succeeding  \i\>  fatlier  on  the  durnl  :L^  r.i. 
upon  liim  the  surname  of  Just.     His  brother  He  shared  in  the  war  of  1T!»0.  re«e;vi.l  *  v  •:- 
Anthonv  succeeded  him.  treat  v  of  Luneville  as  a  ctanfK'n>.it:«.'n  ?•  r:.i  :■  :• 
FREDERIC  AUGUSTrS  II.,  king  of  Sax-  ritorioson  the  left  l.:i!ik  of  th-  ]i).\:  <-.  .t:  \  ^  - 
ony,   born  May  18.  17^7,  died   An;:.  0.  lsr)4.  allowid  to  n-s'iim*  t!.e  e!ic  Ti-r.i'   •:  _•:   :\.     '.. 
He   was   tlie  eldest    sun   of  Mfixiinili:m,   bn»-  is«jr>  lie  inaile  :iii  alliai-.eo  w  i:}i  N.-.!  .  ' 
ther  of  the  kin}r?*   Frederic   Aii;:ii«iTus  I.  and  ed   the   iJlieiii-li    «i»ril''i!«T:i!:i':i,    .^r.  '.    :• 
Aniliuny.     Iliiviiij:   Inst   his  niotlier,  Carolina  fn»m  its  protn-tt'r  tin-  ti:!.-  i.f  Vl-.j      \. 
Maria  Thore<a,  T)rinoess  of  Parma,  at  tlio  «u'0  sortvd  Napoleon  H!'t«T  \iU  ilivi^t.  :-.    1  .« 
of  7.  ho  was  edueated  prinoinally  under   tlio  of  Vienna  left  liiin  in  J""»m "-'•::  *•:'  ]   - 
r.'ire  of  Fon*ll,  a  di>iin;rui.»«lie<!  Swi^^s,  and  of  d<^m.     T^  ri»n<"i!iaie  lii>  p«i'i\-  :i*':..  r   *. 
(len.   Wat/dt»rf.       TIioULrh  ofti*n  <'onijielli-d  to  of  de^jiotie  >\vay  ho  ^'ave  ;?i«::i  ;i»  l..i— •  r.  ■■ 
leave  the  capital  of  his  uncle  dnrin^  the   later  was  rejoctetl  hy  tin-  e^ta!*-.      1!^-  :'--•  v.  :" 
canij»ai^'ns  of  Napoleon  in  (lerniany,  and  fre-  a   prinrr<s   of  Bnin>wiik   Wi-'f, :.'   .••  ; 

qnently  to  chanjrv.-  hisalxMlo,  he  ea^'erly  purMit-d  bore  him  twn  Min*,  \Vi!:ia!!i,  :.i'  »   r. 

hU  Mmlies,  wliirli  iiu-linlv«l  jmlitieal  eronomy^  Paul,  and  ailaUL'litvr,  drliari::.-,  ;  :*.  -u.i-  '  : 

law,  and  military  jM-ii-nre.     llotany.  however,  ces"  <»f  M«tnl!t»rt ;  hi*;  M.-emhi  \\  i:".  u...  r". 

became  hi-*  favi»rite  j>nr-uit.     AVhon,  in  Se]>t.  ce*-*  ('lian»ttr  A^L'n^ta  Matilda ».■!  P.-. >!.■.  1 

1X'A*\  in  eonsi'-jiii'nei' nf  i1k»  revo]iiti<inary  move-  died  in  l**'^'^. 

nunt  in  Paris,  I)n<ilin  betami-  a  f-tvne.tf  politi-         FREnEliU'SIU'Rd.  .i  «::y  if  ."^j    ••.-* 

cal  enmmotions.  Fnthri*'  AuiruMus  was  placvd  co..  Va.,  ]«lt'a*-antly  >i'i:ati-l  \v.  a  U  rt.'     \  : 

by  the  «»ld  kin;:  Anthony  at  thr  hea«l  nf  tlierom-  the  ri;:ht  hank   of"  the   Kapp  i^  ri".'  ■  -  ^    r  ■  ^ 

niittee  fnr  jnihliftrainjTiiHity.   A^the  prinn- was  thelnad  of  titii'  wjit.-r.  'u'i  m.  N.  :>.-;.  i  I;    :  ■ 

vi-ry  popnlar,  tliis  nua^nri'  ^Ti-atly  r.»ntrihut«  .1  an<l   110   ni.   a^-»'.e   ('!je<ijK-riki-   \  ■..  .    ;    ; 

to.jiiirt  thea;:it;itiiin.   <>n.hini-t;.  is:;r,,  Kn-<leric  l^'t^K  4,0<'2.     It  ii'iitaln";  ai  .-Tir:  1  ■   i'*    .:  '  . 

Auju-ln-j  sni'«-r<M!cd  to  tin- thr««iM«.     A*  he  was  and  in   ls."»«i  had  ."i  rhurchi*,  -   *■•■..•  ■:  ■ - 

but  jiartially  ixnipicd  with  j»olitii'al  atVairs  he  or[»h-m  n\\lMm,  *J  h.ink-j.  a;:r!-.!  n.'l.  ..-  \  .  . 

maile   I'otanii'al   tuurs  ;ind    i<»'.iriiivs  !■>   Ntria,  taniierirs     The  llar-pahai.;.'- k.  1  •  *.    .    ^   . 

Paliiiatia,  and   Montrne;iro  (1*^:;^»,  tn   EnHand  in;;  it  with  l''»*->1  xxat.r,  wlii.  h  >  .[  -■-.      ■ 

and    IM^'iMin  <1*^-Uk  to  Vienna   .'iinl   lInii::aF-y  j-ipi-s,  is  vahial'%'  fi'r  i*-i  rn.'t.vt-  ]     \\    r    .. 

n*^i.'M.  atnl   til   the  Tvri'l   (l^t'".*.     Tin-  iiidM--  h!e  at  the  talN  ii-.-tahnve.     A   .  .i-   .'   •  *.: 

nn-nt-  "t   H-l*<,  ln-jinnin;r  in  Saxmiv,  a«»  *-\«t\-  to  a  iMiint  4o  m.  firti.vr  »::•  ::  ■■   -!-■    n.  ..•' 

w  InTi-  ti-»'  in  (MTi'iaiiy.  with  irnat  i  r.thu*«ia-ni  nieansof  tran-'p'-rtati'Ti   !'  r  t!  .    :  r  -■■    •• 

fnr  l.'i'Tty  aii'l  (ii-rtii.-iii  iminn,  wiTi-  r«'l)M\vfil  in  rieh  farriiiiif:  I'l'iintry.  a'ld  r)  .    !:  .  •  "    I' 

May,  IM'J.  hy  a  rtv..!nti«inary  ouThrrak  in  Pn-^-  erie>l'nri:,   .M.d   Pot-'iMia.-  r:.  >    .!.■■■     . 

den.     This  having  been  jiuppressed  through  the  city  with  the  Mate  and  ledvral  e.^:  .!i!-. 


t 


i:.* 


FREDEBIOTOK  FEUCE  CHUROH  OF  SCOTLAND    788 

exports,  comprising  grain,  flonr,  tobacco,  isc.  sitely  wronsht,  and  containing  upward  of  600 

are  vidaed  at  $5,000,000  annually.    Marble  and  pounds  of  the  precious  metal, 

freestone  abound  in  the  vicinitj.    Just  beyond  FBEDERIKSHALD,  or  Frsdebikbhaix,  a 

the  limits  of  the  city  an  unfinished  monument,  seaport  of  Norway,  province  of  Aggerhuua. 

begun  in  1833,  marks  the  tomb  of  the  mother  on  the  Iddefiord  near  its  junction  with  the  gulf 

of  Washington,  who  died  here  in  1789.  of  Swinesund,  Skager  Rack,  5T  m.  S.  E.  from 

FREDERICTON,  a  city  and  port  of  entry  Christiania,  near  the  frontier  of  Sweden ;  pop. 
of  New  Brunswick,  capital  of  the  province  and  in  1855,  7,408.  The  harbor  is  excellent,  and  is 
of  the  county  of  York,  situated  on  the  right  accessible  to  the  largest  class  of  shipping.  The 
bank  of  the  river  St.  John,  80  m.  from  the  bay  great  fire  of  1759  nearly  destroyed  the  town, 
of  Fundy,  and  54  m.  N.  N.  W.  from  St  John ;  but  it  has  been  handsomely  rebuilt.  It  stands 
lat.  45°  55'  N.,  long.  66**  82'  30"  W. ;  pop.  in  around  the  base  of  a  gigantic  rock,  on  the  sum- 
1852, 4,458.  The  river  is  here  i  of  a  mile  wide,  mit  of  which,  400  feet  perpendicularly  over  the 
and  is  naturally  navigable  to  this  point  by  ves-  sea,  is  the  historic  fortress  of  Frederiksteen. 
sels  of  120  tons ;  light  steamers  can  ascend  to  The  old  name  of  the  town  was  Halden.  Charles 
Grand  Falls,  140  m.  above  Fredericton.  The  XII.  was  killed  here,  Nov.  80, 1718.  Freder- 
sum  of  $40,000  was  appropriated  by  the  legis-  iksteen  was  formerly  a  fortress  of  great  strength* 
latore  in  1849  for  the  improvement  of  the  upper  On  8  sides  it  is  inaccessible.  On  the  only 
course  of  the  river,  and  the  work  was  com-  accessible  side,  close  under  the  outer  walls,  a 
menced  during  the  following  year.  The  city  rude  monument  is  said  to  mark  the  spot  of  tiie 
became  a  port  of  entry  in  1848,  and  is  now  the  king's  death.  The  castle  was  invested  in  1814 
chief  entrepot  of  commerce  with  the  interior  by  the  Swedish  crown  prince,  Bemadotte,  and 
and  an  important  station  of  passenger  travel,  its  boneless  defence  was  a  prelude  to  the  dmoet 
Merchandise  is  brought  up  the  river  by  steam-  immeaiate  conquest  of  the  kingdom  and  its 
er,  except  during  winter,  when  transporta-  union  with  Sweden,  Nov.  4  1814.  About  8  m. 
tion  is  effected  by  sledges  over  the  ice.  Great  £.  of  the  town  there  is  a  lake,  the  Fern  Si^  Uie 
quantities  of  timber  are  collected  at  Fred-  stream  from  which  flows  into  the  fiord  near 
ericton,  and  then  floated  down  to  St  John,  Frederikshald.  The  waterfalls  upon  the  stream 
whence  they  are  exported  to  foreign  parts,  are  the  most  picturesque  in  S.  Norway. 
The  lumber  business  is  one  of  the  principal  FREDRO,  Maxstmiliak,  a  Polish  statesman 
sources  of  the  wealth  of  the  city.  Fredericton  and  writer,  died  in  1676.  He  spent  his  life;  in 
stands  on  a  low  point  of  land  formed  by  a  sharp  the  service  of  his  country,  in  the  camp  as  well 
bend  in  the  river,  and  is  encircled  on  the  land  as  in  the  council,  and  rose  to  the  dignity  of  pa- 
side  by  a  range  of  hills.  It  has  broad,  regular  latine  of  Podolia.  He  wrote  severed  works  in 
streets,  adorned  with  many  fine  gardens  and  Polish  and  Latin,  being  honored  in  some  with 
shade  trees,  and  with  several  elegant  publio  the  name  of  the  Polish  Tacitus.  His  principal 
buildings.  The  government  house,  the  residence  works  are  Manila  Politico-Maralia;  Frofftnenta 
of  the  lieutenant-governor,  is  a  stone  building  Scriptorum  Toga  et  Belliy  *^  Considerations  on 
at  the  W.  end  of  the  town.  The  province  hall,  Military  Service,"  and  "  Proverbs  and  Advice,** 
in  which  are  held  the  sessions  of  the  legislative  the  latter  two  in  Polisli,  and  all  abounding  with 
bodies ;  the  barracks,  capable  of  accommodate  curious  details  and  keen  observations, 
ing  1,000  infantry  and  a  company  of  artillery ;  FREE  CHUROH  OF  SCOTLAND,  an  ecde- 
churches  belonging  to  the  Baptists,  Episcopa-  siastical  body  originally  formed  by  a  separa- 
liana,  Methodists,  Presbyterians,  and  Roman  tion  from  the  national  establishment  in  the  year 
Catholics ;  and  King^s  college,  a  freestone  struc-  1848.  No  separation  so  large  from  any  ecclesl- 
tnre  170  feet  long  and  62  feet  wide,  are  the  astioal  body  had  occurred  since  the  St  Bartiiol- 
principal  other  edifices.  Fredericton  was  for-  omew  ^eotment  of  2,000  ministers  from  the 
merly  called  St.  Ann^s,  and  was  made  the  seat  national  establbhment  of  England  in  1662.  On 
of  government  by  Sir  Guy  Carleton  in  1786.  It  May  18,  1848,  the  general  assembly  of  tiie  es- 
has  suffered  at  times  from  terrible  conflagra-  tablished  diurch  of  Scotland  met  as  usual  in 
tions.  one  of  which  in  1825  laid  i  of  the  town  Edmburgh,  the  Rev.  David  Welsh,  D.D.,  being 
in  ashes,  while  another  in  Nov.  1850,  was  still  the  moderator,  and  the  marquis  of  Bute  being 
more  disastrous.  the  representative  of  the  queen.    After  prayer 

FREDERIKSBORG,  a  royal  palace  built  by  the  moderator  read  a  solemn  protest  on  the  part 

Christian  IV.  of  Denmark  in  1606-^20,  near  the  of  the  church  of  Scotland  against  the  wrongs 

town  of  Hillerdd,  on  the  island  of  Seeland,  22  inflicted  on  her  by  the  civil  power,  which  pro- 

m.  N.  N.  W.  from  Copenhagen.    It  is  a  Gothio  test  was  signed  by  203  members  of  the  assem- 

castle  of  red  brick,  covering  8  small  islands  in  bly.    He  then  laid  the  protest  upon  the  table, 

a  little  lake.    The  BidderMl,  or  knight^s  hall,*  and  bowing  respecti\illy  to  the  representative 

has  a  ceiling  elaborately  decorated  with  carv-  of  royalty,kft  the  house,  followed  immediately 

ings,  gildings,  and  paintiuffs.  on  which  26  artists  by  Dr.  lliomas  Chalmers^Dr.  Robert  Gk>rdon, 

are  said  to  have  worked  ror  7  vears.    It  has  Dr.  Patrick  McFarlane,  Dr.  John  McDonald, 

also  a  collection  of  portraits,  ana  a  richly  or-  Dr.  Thomas  Brown,  and  rank  after  rank  of 

namented  chapel,  in  which  all  the  late  kings  of  the  country  ministers.     The  protesters  with- 

Denmark  have  been  crowned.    The  pulpit  and  drew  to  a  large  hall  at  Canon  nulls,  preceded 

altar  in  the  last  are  of  ebony  and  silver,  ezqni*  and  followed  by  sympi^thizing  crowds,  and 


734  FREE  CHURCH  OF  SCOTLAND 

there  organized  the  Free  Protesting  charch  of  and  in  power,  espedaOy  from  the  bcsimui^ 
Scotland  under  the  inodcrotorship  of  Dr.  Tliomas  of  the  present  oenturf,  and  under  inch  leaden 
ChflJmers.    It  was  then  found  that  475  ministers  as  Thomson  and  Chalmera  one  abose  after  ap- 
had  separated  themselves  from  the  national  other  was  rooted  out ;  and  at  last  an  act  was 
church.      The  amount  of  capital  surrendered  passed  by  the  general  aseemblT  in  1834  dcri^a- 
tliat  day  by  the  protesting  brethren,  in  relin-  ed  to  be  a  corrective  of  the  evils  of  lav  patroik- 
quishing  their  stii>ends  from  the  establishment,  age— an  act  which  gave  to  the  male  hoMb  c^ 
was  stated  to  be  not  abort  of  £2,000,000  ster-  families  in  every  parish  the  right  of  objecting  lo 
ling. — ^The  French  revolution  had  considerably  any  presentee  whom  the  patron  might  wiiii  ia- 
idfected  the  standing  both  in  the  church  and  in  ducted  into  the  pastorate  over  them.    This  act, 
society  of  the  evangelical  party  in  the  church  commonly  called  **  the  veto  act,"  thooiefa  pit>- 
of  Scotland.    Their  doctrines  had  hitlierto  been  posed  by  one  of  the  senators  of  the  college  c/ 
looked  upon  as  tmnted  with  fiuiaticism,  but  the  Justice,  the  late  Lord  Moncrieff,  and  tboc^  be- 
general  Lorror  of  infidelity  awakened  by  the  ueved  by  the  church  to  be  entirelr  within  her 
events  in  France  caused  them  to  be  regarded  power  as  a  church  established  by  utw  to  enact 
with   greater   favor,  while   their   impressive  very  soon  brought  her  into  conflict  with  the  pa- 
preaching,  exemplary  lives,  and  solid  learning  trons,  and  through  the  patrona  with  the  ci«il 
began  to  give  character  to  the  cause  with  which  courts.    On  a  vacancy  occnrring  in  a  ccrtaia 
they  were  identijfied;  and  though  as  yet  a  mere  parish  the  patron  presented  hb  proii^i^  who 
handful  in  the  church,  they  were  every  day  however  was  vetoed  by  almost  the  entire  body 
rising  in  numbers  and  power.    Under  the  sue-  of  inhabitants.    The  presentee  appealed  to  the 
eessive  leaderships  of  Erskine,  Sir  Henry  Hon-  civil  courts,  who  at  once  commanac«i  the  pie»- 
crieff^  Andrew  Thomson,  and  Chalmers — men  bytery  to  proceed  to  his  settlement.    The  pKs- 
who  inherited  the  principles  and  many  of  the  bytery  refused ;  for  tlie  law  of  the  cbnn^  bai 
varied  gifts  of  Knox,  and  Melville,  and  Hen-  given  the  male  heads  of  famlliea,  being  ecin- 
derson,  the  heroes  of  the  first  and  second  re-  mnnicants,  a  right  to  object  if  they  oonld  prprr 
formations,  the  evangelical  party  became  strong-  sufficient  cause  to  exist.    The  civil  conm  </ 
er  and  stronger  until  a  fair  opportunity  for  course  stood  mainly  on  the  interpretatioa  of  tbe 
testing  the  {tower  of  parties  in  the  church  oe-  law  of  1TU-*12.    The  evangelical  party,  nov 
curred  in  1834.    In  1706  the  treaty  of  union  tlie  majority  in  the  general  assembly.  be*licrii« 
between  England  and  Scotland  was  consumroat-  that  law  to  be  both  unconstitutional  and  cvcP 
ed.    It  contained  a  si>ecial  guarantee  for  the  trary  to  the  word  of  God,  resolved  to  funi 
integrity  of  the  church  of  Scotland  as  cstab-  upon  their  rights  given  them  by  the  head  of  :be 
lished  in  1689  under  the  reign  of  William  and  church  in  the  Holy  Scriptures* and  ratified  Ij 
Miiry,  free  from  prelacy,  from  the  royal Miprera-  the  revolution  potllcment  and  tlie  tn-irr  ■ : 
ocy  in   things  spiritual,  and  from  the  Inw  of  union;    and   iniiMniich   as   the  l-Htt-t.-  ^x*i'. 
patronage.     But  4  years  af^er  the  consunima-  theirs  <mly,  hut  that  ulso  t»f  tliv  C!iri*t.!ir  f^- ;  ' 
tion  of  tlie  treaty  of  union  (1711)  tlie  parlia-  of  Scotland,  they  reM»lvitl  to  ahi«if  l»y  \\ »  de- 
ment of  Britain  violated  its  pledcje,  and  under  ion  to  whit-h  they  had  ennio  in  l-."4"  wz. :  ::.-'- 
the  lcader>hip   of  IJolingbroke   lay  patrouu;::o  the  Christian  {K-ople  ha^l  i\  rijrlit  hy  l:»w  ar  :  15 
was  reiniposed  ii|Km  the  Scottish  chwrch.     In  warrant  of  (io<lV  wordtt»K'  heard  in  vt-z-^'.* 
tliis  act  Sir  I)avid  Dalrymple,  one  of  the  Scot-  tlie  appointint-nt  of  a  niin>ter  orer  ti.ri.. .  4.: 
ti>h  inoni])ors,  Miceringly  said  that  he  would  be  that  the  aot.s  of  onhiiniiifr  to  tl:f   ni;i«i*!-y  i- 1 
willing  to  aiMjuiesce,  provided  that  it  should  ho  of  inducting  intoapa^tor.U(-ha^k^.*  w«re  ^j  r.:  a. 
designated  l»y  its  right  name  :  **  An  act  for  the  octs  in  regard  to  whioh  t!io  ehnri  h   al.«i  •.*  \  r- 
cncouraireinentof  imniorulity  and  JacoMtism  in  juristHction.     The  supreme  oi\il  miirt  *  f  n  .  ;- 
S<otl:in<l."     liiMiop  liurnet,  the  hi>torian,  says  land  had   interposed  it-*  authoriry  u«-.t.:.*:  :  ■* 
of  it  that  it  wa>  |»a-setl  **  to  hpi:e  the  Presbyte-  ordination  and   induction  of  a  iiin-ti.-.     T>i 
rians  who  from  the  beginning  had  st-t  it  upas  assembly,  whei)  api»i^-.iliil  to  fi>r  ad^.iV.  \\  \ 
a  principle  that  pari<hes  had  from  warrants  in  large  majority  authorized  thepre^^bvurj  :.»p- 
Seripturo  a  right  to  cht»ose  their  ministers."  cecd  with  tlie  belt  lenient  occordip^  :•»  "ih*  la^t 
Such  was  the  Mn-*e  of  the  wri»ng  inflicted  by  of  the  clmrch.     Tlie  prc>hytory  wor^-  ii.r\A:<i- 
this  act,  that  the  Scottish  church  tor  a  long  jw-  ed  by  the   civil  ct»urt  with   impriMTn'r.:  4: : 
riod  annually  renewed  lier  protest  again^t  it;  fine  should  they  dure  in  tlte  estni-e  i-:  *.>*- 
and  during  .several  year-*  after  it  was  passi'd  no  spiritual  fmu-tions  t«»  K't  at  dti!an<e  the  ir-.r 
X>atron  was   found  to  appropriate  the  i>owers  diet  of  the  civil  ci»urt.     Tims  a  1  Ir at  Ain:  i!  rw-. : 
which  it  conferred  upon   him.      Towani    the  ct)llision  <M*curred  l»olweentlK>ero;t*M«T.-3- a- : 
clo>o   of  the   Century,  howevi-r.  forcrd   yettlo-  civil  court*.     The  <»nlin.itioii  an«l  in-Ju.  t:  r    ' 
nu'Uts  <»f  ministers  ujion  parishe-*  became  fre-  the  pn-M.»ntee  were con<ui!iinalitl,  .iiU  ir.-r.  *  ■ 
qui-nt.  and  multitudes  of  the  U-t  <if  Scotland's  ately  acftmplaint  was  laid  a^jiiit^:  tin-  j  r*-'  _»:•  -■■ 
]H;(»]>le  wvre  driven  forth  from  her  ciimmunion.  beft»re  the  civil  c<Miri,    Tlu-y  wt  rt*  ■.!  :•  •  ■    .-:  :. 
AgaiU'^t  Mich  pr<H'eedings  it  wrjs  in  vain  that  the  apfH»ar  before  the  lar  of  ilie  i-ourt.  JaTi«  14  >  . 
cvangernul  party  eanicstly  an«l  frojuenlly  pro-  which  they  did.     Tin- jiulc*-?  ln.irU  \\  x.r  T\\'.y 
tcstetl:  their  prote>ts  were   tho>e  of  a  small  and  ttK)k  a  peritnl  of  4  d.iy>  iiicoi.Mi't  r  t.\*'*a#*. 
juiiioriry,  whose  \»rinci\»leslhe  majority  despised  during  which  it  wa«  i:nder>ttXN!  :>:ai  ;.  *:  :■-» 
and  hated.     Hut  that  iu\uor\\\  ^^:N>i'\viliM\il^^t^  V^^i^v^  \v)U:d  for  a  sentence  of  iui|n9oc;^&^ 


FREE  CHURCH  OF  SCOTLAND  786 

and  0  for  the  more  lenient  measure  of  a  rebnke.  bad  ooeapied  since  the  times  of  reformation  as 
The  rebnke  was  accordingly  pronounced,  and  tlie  national  church  of  Scotland.  Without  hest- 
tbe  presbytei^  were  dismissed  from  the  bar  tation  the  decision  was  made,  and  475  ministers 
with  the  intimation,  designed  to  reach  the  gave  unto  Ca)sar  the  things  that  were  Ciesar^Si 
ftirthest  ear  of  the  church,  that  a  sentence  of  that  they  might  give  unto  Gk>d  the  tbines  that 
imprisonment  wonld  certainly  be  pronounced  are  6od*s.  Very  few  of  those  who  had  acted 
against  any  presbytery  that  should  afterward  be  openly  with  the  evangelical  party  continued  in 
found  chargeable  with  a  similar  offence.  Other  the  established  church ;  but  while  475  ministers 
cases  involving  the  same  principles  rapidly  kfttheestablishment,  many  of  the  congregations 
arose,  and  elements  of  a  still  more  deplorable  also  left  it  whose  ministers  remiuned  in ;  and 
character  were  brouffht  into  the  arena  of  strife,  hence,  as  well  as  from  the  continued  accession 
all  of  them  evincing  the  purpose  of  the  civil  court  of  numbers  in  every  district  of  the  country,  the 
to  reduce  the  national  church  to  a  mere  creature  number  of  churches  now  exceeds  800.  Retain- 
of  the  state.  For  example,  the  civil  court  re-  ing  all  its  old  and  honored  standards  without 
qoired  a  presbytery  to  take  a  clergyman  on  the  relinqubhment  of  a  single  principle,  the 
trial,  and  admit  him  to  the  office  of  Uie  minis-  Free  church  has  brought  them  out  into  action 
try  in  a  narticular  charge,  and  to  intmde  him  instinct  with  new  life.  The  missionaries  be- 
abo  on  tne  congregation  contrary  to  the  will  of  longing  to  the  establishment  in  1843  to  a  maa 
the  people.  The  civil  court  interdicted  the  es-  threw  in  their  lot  with  the  Free  Protesting 
tablishment  of  additional  ministers  to  meet  Uie  church ;  and  yet,  with  churches  and  parsonages 
wants  of  an  increasing  population.  It  inter-  to  build  for  her  ministers  at  home  and  schools 
dieted  the  preaching  of  the  goipel  and  all  min-  to  erect  for  her  children,  her  college  to  equip 
ii^tion  of  ordinances  throughout  a  whole  dis-  for  the  training  of  ministers,  and  her  funds  to 
trict  by  any  minister  of  the  church  under  an-  establish  for  aged  and  infirm  ministers  and  min- 
tbority  of  the  church  courts.  It  interdicted  isters*  widows  and  orphans,  the  number  of  her 
the  execution  of  the  sentence  of  a  church  Judi-  missionaries  has  been  largely  increased,  and 
catory  prohibiting  a  minister  from  preaching  or  there  are  now  over  800  in  foreign  countries  em- 
administering  ordinances  within  a  particular  ployed  directly  or  indirectly  under  her  jurisdio- 
parish,  i>ending  the  discussion  of  a  cause  in  the  tion  and  supervision.  Her  ministers  are  paid 
church  courts  as  to  the  validity  of  his  settlement  out  of  a  common  fhnd,  to  which  every  member 
tb^rein.  It  interdicted  the  general  assembly  of  the  church  is  expected  to  contribute  accord- 
and  lower  Judicatories  of  the  church  from  in-  ing  to  his  ability,  and  the  dividend  accruing 
flicttng  church  censures — ^in  one  case  where  Uie  from  this  fund  every  congre^tion  is  at  liberty  to 
minister  was  accused  of  theft  and  pleaded  guilty  supplement  at  its  pleasure.  To  the  general  state- 
of  the  charge ;  in  another  where  a  minister  was  ment  that  since  the  period  of  its  organization  in 
accused  and  fonnd  guilty  of  fraud  and  swin-  1848  down  to  May  1, 1859,  no  less  a  sum  than 
dling ;  and  in  another  where  a  licentiate  was  ao-  £6,000,000  has  passed  through  the  hands  of  her 
cnsc^  of  drunkenness,  obscenity,  and  profane  treasurer  to  be  applied  to  her  various  schemesi 
swearing.  It  suspended  church  censures  when  we  add  the  following  abstract,  presented  to  the 
pronounced  by  the  church  courts  in  Uie  exercise  general  assembly  in  1859,  showing  the  whole 
of  discipline,  and  took  upon  itself  to  restore  the  sums  raised  for  the  various  objects  of  the  Free 
aimended  ministers  to  the  power  of  preaching  church  of  ScoUand,  for  the  year  from  March 
and  Uie  administration  of  ordinances.  It  as-  81, 1858,  to  March  81, 1859 : 
flomed  to  judge  of  the  right  of  indi  viduids  elected  £      t.  d. 

"S"^J'J'!?!r*^,"**'?W  *°  f!'  ^*"'^      i:  BSiSfifC.""."':::::*::::::--'":??!  I  U 

ana  mterdicted  them  from  takmg  their  seats.         &  Cooirr^paioiMa  Aind 94,48t  is  s 

By  these  things  the  creed  of  the  church  as  well         J-  Ji!^<>?»"»*  edacation 65,w«  ii  o 

«a  ber  liberties  was  interfered  wiUi,  her  efforts         '^  ic««u*neoa. ^^^  ^^  ^^ 

-to  promote  purity  of  morals  at  home  and  to  Total 848^77  12  lo^ 

advance  the  canse  of  truth  abroad  were  fms-  The  material  work  accomplished  by  the  Free 
trated,  and  as  a  last  resource  she  was  compelled  church  may  be  thus  summed  np :  800  church- 
to  appeal  to  the  parliament  of  Great  Britain.  Hot  es  erected,  a  few  of  them  in  Uie  ciUes  mag- 
^daim  of  rights,"  carefully  prepared,  was  pre-  nificent  structures,  along  with  600  parsonage 
■ented  to  the  house  of  commons,  March  7, 1848.  houses;  900  school  houses;  2  normal  schooia 
by  the  Hon.  Fox  Manle  (now  Lord  Panmnre,  and  in  theciUes  of  Edinburgh  and  Glae^w,  attended 
a  ruling  elder  and  a  member  of  the  general  as-  by  an  average  of  1,600  pupils,  with  a  staff  of 
■embly  of  the  Free  church);  but  it  was  refused  200  teachers  under  training;  8  colleges,  the 
bj  a  minority  of  211  against  76.  It  is  worthy  principal  one  in  Edinburgh,  presided  over  by  the 
OT  notice,  however,  that  of  87  Scottish  members  Rev.  Dr.  William  Cunningham,  the  others  in 
present  at  the  division  25  voted  for  Mr.  Mania's  Glasgow  and  Aberdeen ;  Uie  assembly  hall  in 
motion.  The  qnesUon  now  was:  Will  the  Edinburgh,  erected  during  1858-'9  at  a  cost  of 
church  retire  from  her  declared  principles,  or  £6,000 ;  and  mission  premises  in  the  chi^ 
will  she,  to  preserve  her  liberties,  relmquish  cities  in  the  8  presidencies  of  India.  Theaver- 
her  connection  with  the  state  ?  The  nature  of  age  sidary  of  the  ministers  is  £180,  with  parson- 
tbe  case  admitted  of  no  compromise.  If  true  to  age  house  and  garden,  and  in  some  parishes 
hend^  the  church  must  reugn  the  posiUon  she  tmall  ^bea. 


736        FKEE  COXGREGATIOXS 

mEE  COXGREGATIOSS  (Genii.  FnU  Ge- 
meindcii),  rvliiriuus  IkxIU-a  fonnvil  sinre  li!^6  of 
m.'d-ilvr:!  fruui  the  P^ute^>tant  ^tatc  chuTL'hcs  uf 
Uvnnuny.  TLv.v  trcru  prMC<li;d  by  a  tVei!  a^so- 
ci:Ui<in  uf  tlic  libcrul  or  rutiimulistic  party  in 
tlic  cliiirch  uf  Pru^iiii,  d«»ignii.-(l  to  uppoim  the 
fuitli  of  thi:  fyiiitMtk'al  books  and  viniJicutc  tbe 
ri^-ht  iif  L-vvry  iiiuuibvr  of  the  cburoh  to  f'>riii  liiit 
nn-ii  cri.-i.-(i  from  the  Bible.  Tlie  uiiinber:)  of 
tliU  assdtiation,  vliicli  was  onruiiiieJ  in  1841, 
colled  tlii'iii'^.lvL'S  Proteiituiit  rril■ud^  while  by 


,.  .  Tlic.v  liL-ld  f«Terul  general  as»ouiblies  at 
Kolhtn,  the  limt  in  the  auluniD  of  11^^  the 
most  iiiipurtant  in  1$43.  Thu  li'itdin^'  men  in 
\\h»  Mioveiiiont  wore  Uhlicb,  Dr.  S.'hwaK,  and 
Wi.-ilic«nii»  in  the  PmMian  provintc  of  Suxoiit, 
linpp  at  KOnipihi.-r(r,  and  Arptidi>a(M.>n  Fisher  at 
Leipsie.  The  lirst  funiial  fepuratinn  fruiu  tlio 
■tote  rlinrch  took  place  at  Koiiiir^berp,  Jan. 
16. 1S4().  after  tb>!  dismissal  of  Eiipp  from  his 
oliice  by  the  church  p>Teriiment.    Iii  tbc  samo 

{ear  anoilier  Freo  coitKre^cation  ^a»  formed  at 
futle,  under  Vii^liccnn*,  and  tii  1^7  another 
under  Vblich  at  Mai^cburg.  Soon  thctr  nam- 
her  rose  to  more  tlian  ItW.  Tlie  first  cotifcr- 
cnce  .■k^ieint'leil  at  Sordhauscn,  Sept.  0-8, 1647, 
atwhiehaitrictlyconprecaliuDnlformofi-hurch 
Itoreriiinent  waa  odoiitod.  No  congremiion 
was  ever  to  be  lunnd  by  tho  decree*  of  Rcn- 
cral  ci'iifercnres,  but  only  to  receive  from  them 
pnipii'iaM  anil  atlvice.  Tlie  coii.-iiitutiuD  of  the 
iiidiviilual  con^'ri'^jationa  KhowLil  many  diflVr- 
eiicc''.  )>ut  wasinvvery  caMboivdon  tlu)rou(Ehly 

dc nitii:   ;>riiiriple!>,   iteually   i-<itifvrrln;(  on 

cvu-ri-  i,ii'tii!nT over  2il  vears  old, male nr  femnh>, 
the  ri-li!  ui  voting  mill  ..f  hoidiiiL'  ,.iV\n:  Tho 
n;>..-:!es  ,r,e.l  wa»  unaiiimon^ly  r-je.tv.l,  and 
bv  n>tiiiiir.n  .'..n'^-nt  the  w.•^d^:  '-]  b.-li.ve  jti 
U.I.I  iiiid  hi..  .-V,  rh>-Iii>:t  kiiuilom.  us  it  has  U.n 
iiitri..lii,'e.l  iiit.i  the  world  bv.le-lis(.'brir.(-' were 


w*re  wbcJly  or  ; 
panraeoii.  The  s 
of  l'ru3!>ia  Cleludi 
the  Eacramenial  a 
and  prt^ibited  ttn 
baptuun.  tad  froi 
evangelical  ceiueti 
Btodt,  which  wu 
at  which  12  congi 
9  of  their  preache 
a  fusion  with  thi 
clared  that  the  i 
world's  redeniptio 
not  fomiH,  ordinK 
but  tbc  free  spirit, 
cociotiona.  Tlie  ct 
then,  wbich  was  o 
Au);.  2S,  ItUd,  am 
inoonseuacnc«uf( 
tcmiined  to  recou 
tions  and  the  tiei 
to  fuse,  M'hieh  wa 
to  by  both  denoi 
wero  in  1855  abm 
the  Free  or  tieruu 
number  of  congrei 
S6  pKaciiera.  ^i 
considerable  inert 
gatlona  liaa  taken 
toleration  conce<Ii 
(ian  uiiniAttry,  whi 
uf  their  ineviinir*. 
from  comiinlstirv  u 
nmetion;*  of  ille 
slate  i-liureh.     In 


*.rM:irl.tirj 


:iJ.    Siverid  .-. 


ei-tlieK-!..lvr.-liipofrr.,r.  iiiivr- 

niEE  MAsr.N 

le.llheb..lii.finulier..oii:aii.Nl 

iiiiiiaiiriiirii  iiiid  tlie  world,  but 

orsoeiety  .if  free 

Tv,..lber,atolhatb>liet-.      The 

fT..l.r:iii..,i,,rM.ir.li:;ii.  \^i-. 

subj.Tt,'a-Ior  i'li-l! 

<.f!i  treati>e  mi  in 

llir.r.-  !■•  .ji.i:i  ihii:!.  ei'v^t  In 

{.•ard  it  u*   .'.■eval 

Ollicrs  wore  i.u- 

'd  their  iiivi:^!>.'r-lii|i  in  orn-  of 

n-lipirtw  niy-iiTiv 

..-.     T!..-  v.ar  1M^  and  i-|«- 

piirtiouhrly  in  li  > 

ali.i;.  ..fti.e  i!n--irr'hU- v\iM- 

Tvre.  wli.^  m;d.r 

Sim-  KralerTiilv,"  ,-. 

»e.lu  jiVAl    -.Miii.alii%.      ii.icli 

blliMeri  exdi.-ive! 

ofleii>i>l.'.a[ia  \),.. 

.:i<l  l-:.ii.      S; [--■..I.ie.r.vs 

WlTi'  lll-:il:i.'lli-!l.d 

Ollier  ..i>«lc-i  .if  ir. 

i.~<le<liiiii,ai',v::n  tb.'iM'niiali 

ria.l,i,l.ti-iui...n.r!„..,ll..  ili.ir 

M...^b.  A-iaMii..-i 

,.ial:.r,   «:i-  .l.,l:ir..l    iin:,ll,t. 

(.'ralioll.  when   the 

'.■!e;,.-...!t!„iri!ii,era:,li.i..,.l,- 

.■..ni|.-:i.,l  to   .-tbai 

<-M.-h  lb"  edi.'l  ..]'i,.|.ta1i<,[ior 

scari'liofniiiore  fi 

r„.:vi!yabr..;:.,r..l.  .:..-.■,! t 

five  urrii.iry,  nn< 

-,  aiW^iu;  &»  n  T-iinou  \Ws.  vW-; 

tiLXvuk  udvutiet.'d 

FREE  MASONBT  787 

In  a  knowledge  of  the  arts  and  soiences,  carried  talha  in  Portugal  abont  the  beginning  of  the 
with  them  into  their  new  territories  the  mjs-  15th  century,  the  cathedral  of  Strasbourg  from 
terieaof  Atheneand  Dionysius  in  all  thepuritj  1015  to  1489.  of  Cologne,  founded  in  1248 
which  distinguished  these  religious  associations  and  continued  fcMT  several  centuries,  beside 
before  they  were  corrupted  by  the  subsequent  many  famous  structures  in  En^^d  and  Italr, 
licentiousness  of  the  mother  country.  The  data  Behold,  who  has  written  learnedly  on  this  sub* 
of  the  Ionic  migration  is  fixed  at  1044  B.  C,  lect,  says  that  the  masonic  corporations  were 
abont  half  a  century  before  the  commencement  diffused  throughout  Europe  in  Uie  banning  of 
of  the  buil^g  of  the  temple^  thus  giving  ample  the  7Ui  century  under  the  same  general  regular 
time  for  the  establishment  of  the  Dionysiao  fra-  tiona,  but  recognized  by  different  names  in  dif* 
temity  in  the  city  of  Tyre  at  the  time  when  ferent  countries.  Thus  in  Italy  they  were 
Hiram  was  called  upon  to  assist  Solomon  in  the  known  as  colleges  of  architects ;  in  France  as 
execution  of  hb  design,  which  he  did  by  sending  free  corporations,  and  sometimes  as  **  pontifical 
him  a  band  of  Dionysiao  workmen,  at  the  head  brothers,''  from  the  fiict  that  they  monopoliMd 
of  whom  was  a  widow's  son,  to  whom  is  attrib-  tiie  construction  of  bridges ;  and  in  En^^d 
nted  the  organization  cf  free  masonry.  The  and  Scotland  as  freemasons,  a  name  assuuMd  in 
rituals  which  are  used  in  the  lodges  of  the  order  consequence  of  the  exclusive  privileges  which 
are  based  on  the  supposition  of  the  truth  of  they  ex^joyed  as  a  corporation  of  buUdera.  It 
this  theory.  Solomon^s  temple  figures  prom-  i^pearsthat  fit>m  an  early  period  many  persons 
inently  among  the  symbols  of  free  masoniy,  who  were  non-operative  masons  or  architects 
and  masonic  writers  abound  in  allusions  to  it,  were  admitted  into  the  community,  and  that 
one  of  the  latest  of  their  text  books  calling  it  men  of  eminence,  and  more  particularly  eode- 
*^  that  stupendous  edifice  which  has  been  and  al-  siastics.  were  numbered  among  its  members 
ways  will  remain  the  admiration  cf  the  world.**  These  latter,  says  Mr.  Hope,  '*  were  especially 
Amon^many  well  informed  masons,  however,  no  anxious  themselves  to  direct  Uie  improvement 
credit  is  given  to  these  pretensions  to  so  remote  and  erection  of  their  churches  and  monasteriesi 
an  origin,  based  as  they  are  on  exaggerated  and  to  manage  the  expenses  of  their  buikUnga, 
ideas  of  the  magnitude  and  importance  of  Solo-  and  became  members  of  an  .establishment  which 
mon's  temple  in  the  architectural  history  of  had  so  high  and  sacred  a  destination,  was  so  en- 
the  world.  The  celebrity  of  Solomon's  t^i&-  tirely  exempt  from  all  local  and  civil  Jurisdiction, 
pie  and  the  popular  notions  of  its  splendor  acknowledged  the  pope  alone  as  its  direct  chiei( 
and  vastness  may  be  traced  to  the  period  of  the  and  only  worked  unaer  his  immediate  author- 
middle  ages,  in  which  secret  associations  of  ity,  as  lus  own  immediate  ministers;  and  thence 
practical  masons  or  builders  were  formed,  to  we  read  of  so  many  ecclesiastics  of  the  highest 
which  the  lodges  of  the  present  day  probably  rank — abbots,  prelates,  bishops--conferring  ad- 
owe  their  origin.  It  was  but  natural  that  those  ditional  weight  and  respectability  on  the  order 
who  formed  the  rituals  of  those  imaginative  of  free  masonry,  by  becoming  its  members — 
times  should  resort  to  the  sacred  writing  themselves  giving  Uie  designs  and  superintend- 
and  to  the  most  famous  structure  recorded  m  ing  the  construction  of  their  churches,  and  em- 
them  for  the  mystical  and  symbolical  source  of  ploying  the  manual  labor  of  their  own  monks 
their  organization.  The  great  Gothic  cathe-  in  the  classification  of  them."  Thus  in  England 
drals  and  other  buildings  of  the  middle  ages,  in  the  10th  century  the  free  masons  are  said  to 
several  of  which  were  each  many  times  larger  have  received  the  special  protection  of  Kins 
than  Solomon's  temple,  were  erected  by  com-  Athelstane,  who  granted  them  a  charter  to  h<M 
panics  of  builders  who  encamped  around  them,  their  annual  assemblies  and  to  frame  the  neces- 
and  who  had  a  peculiar  social  organization  sary  laws  for  their  own  government  as  a  corpo* 
which  enabled  them  to  preserve  for  their  own  rate  body.  They  met  at  the  city  of  York  in 
use  and  benefit  many  professional  secrets,  and  the  year  ^6,  and  the  regulations  they  there 
fhinished  facilities  for  mutual  defence  and  assist-  adopted,  nnder  the  tide  of  tiie  *'  Gothic  Ckmsti- 
ance  of  great  value  in  the  midst  of  rude  and  tutions,"  after  being  long  lost,  were  discovered 
turbulent  communities.  Dr.  Henry,  in  his  by  Mr.  Hfdliwell,  tiie  cSstiuffuished  antiquary: 
^  Watorj  of  Great  Britain,"  cites  the  following  a  few  years  since  in  the  old  royal  library  of 
account  of  their  origin :  ^^  The  Italians,  with  tiie  British  musemxLand  published  by  him  in 
some  Greek  refhgees,  and  with  them  French,  their  original  form.  They  penetrated  into  Scot- 
Germans,  and  Flemings,  joined  into  a  fraternity  land  about  the  beginning  of  the  12ih  c&aixujj 
of  architects,  procuring  papal  bulls  for  their  and  among  other  edifices,  erected  the  abbey  of 
encouragement  and  their  particular  privileges ;  Kilwinning,  which  afterward  became  the  cradle 
they  styled  tiiemselves  free  masons,  and  ranged  of  Scotch  masonry.  In  the  18th  century  we 
fhmi  one  nation  to  another  as  they  found  church-  find  the  same  body  of  architects  at  work  in  Ger- 
es to  be  built ;  their  government  was  regular,  many,  and  there  is  a  record  of  a  convention 
and  where  they  fixed  near  the  building  in  hand  held  by  them  in  1275  in  the  city  of  Strasbourg 
they  made  a  camp  of  huts.  A  surveyor  gov-  where  thev  were  engaged  in  the  construction  of 
erned  in  chief;  every  tenth  man  was  called  its  cathedral;  at  which  time,  in  imitation  of 
a  warden,  and  overlooked  each  nine."  In  their  English  brethren,  tliey  assumed  the  name 
this  manner  and  by  these  **free  masons"  offreemasons,and  took  the  obligations  of  fidel- 
were  built   the   magnificent  convent  of  Ba-  ity  and  ohedieiiCtt  t^  \3a5i  \aw^  «si.^  ^t««i>»fio«»^ 

VOL.  rn.— 47 


788  FREE  1£AS0KRY 

of  the  society.    In  the  ooQrse  of  time  the  op-  ed  Apple  Tree  tarern  in  Covent  Garden,  Loo* 

erative  character  of  the  association   began  to  don,  and  reorganized  the  grand  lodke  of  En^acd, 

become  less  prominent,  and  the  specalative  to  renewed  the  annual  meetings,  and  collate  sad 

assame  a  preeminence  which  eventnolly  result-  compiled  the  old  mles  and  regnlatioos  which 

ed  in  a  total  dlsseveranoe  of  the  two.    At  what  hod  long  been  in  existence,  but  for  Bocoe  time 

precise  period  we  are  to  date  the  commence-  past  neglected,  with  tlie  addition  of  a  fe 


X 


and  is  in  all  probabilitj  to  be  attributed  to  tlio  speculative  and  operative  organization.    Frt 

increased  number  of  learned  and  scientific  men  masonry,  thus  modified  in  itji  chararttr, 

who  were  admitted  into  the  ranks  of  the  fra-  gan  rapidly  to  fipread  thronghont  the  wi<r)d  &« 

temity.    The  "Charter  of  Cologne,**  a  curious  a  speculative  system  of  symbolism.     In  1725  it 

masonic  document  nurporting  to  date  from  the  was  introduced  in  its  new  form  into  Fnuici^, 

year  1535,  speaks  of  "learnt  and  enlightened  in  1729  into  Ireland,  in  1731  into  HoHunil,  Kc«- 

men*'  as  constituting  a  part  of  the  society  long  sia,  and  Spain,  in  1733  into  Italy,  and  in  17S6 

before  the  16th  century,  but  by  many  masons  into  Scotland,  at  which  time,  Sinclair  of  R«MhB 

the  authenticity  of  this  instrument  is  not  ad-  having  resigned  the  hereditary  grand  mojCcr- 

mitted.    The  diary  of  the  celebrated  Englbh  ship  of  the  masons  of  that  kingdom,  which  Lad 

antiquary,  Elias  .^hmole,  describes  his  initia-  long  been  vested  in  his  family  by  royal  cnct, 

tion  mto  the  order  in  1646,  when  there  is  no  the  grand  lodge  of  Scotland  was  organized  c-a 

doubt  that  the  operative  character  was  fast  giv-  the  same  principle  tliat  had  been  adopti^  19 

ing  way  to  the  speculative.    Preston  tells  us  years  before  by  the  masons  of  England.    Aa 

that  about  30  years  before,  when  the  earl  of  attempt  was  made  in  1730  to  intrudnce  the  or- 

Pembroke  assumed  the  grand  mastership  of  the  ganization  into  America  by  the  nppointm«rDt<.f 

masons  of  England,  **many  eminent,  wealthy,  a  provincial  grand  master  of  New  Jvrwy,  be: 

and  learned  men  were  admitted.**  In  1C63  an  as-  we  have  no  record  of  the  incuml»erit  havis^  c4- 

sembly  of  the  masons  was  held  in  the  city  of  Lon-  tablisbed  any  lodge  umlcr  the  authority  uf  L$ 

doBfOndtheearlof  St  Albans  was  elected  grand  deputation.    In  1733,  however,  a  lodce  v^ 

master.    At  that  assembly  oertain  regulations  opened  at  Boston,  which  was  sficedily  fo!UiVi-i 

were  adopted,  among  which  the  qualifications  by  the  organization  of  other  liMigea  in  the  Ui- 

prescribed  as  necessary  for  candidates  to  pos-  ferent  colonic:*.    After  the  assumntiur.  cfin^k- 

Bcss  clearly  point  to  the  speculative  character  pendence  by  the  Unitetl  States,  tlic  KhI^»  <:' 

of  the  institution  as  the  most  unportant  consid-  America,  nil  of  whicli  derivt-d  their  vrvr^'*^ 

erntion.     And  finally,  at  the  beginning  of  the  of  authority  ori^jinally  frmn  t}ie  ;:r.i:  •:  '.    : 

18tli  Cfntiiry,  and  during  the   reign  of  Queen  of  Eiijrland  or  that  of  Sr'»tl:ir*:!.  kv:*!!..-  ::. 

Anne,  wlio  died  in  1714,  arc^^ulation  was  adopt-  selves  of   tlie  privik-iics    im.*^->-i.I    ■  y   ..   . 

ed,  as  we  are  infonned  Ia-  Preston,  which  pro-  lKnlii"<  in  all  indeiKiuKnt  c«i;iii:r.i  s.  :»:.  \    v-"- 

vided  *'that  the  privileges  of  injisonry  should  izcd  prand  liKl^res  in  their  ri>peot.vc  -:  i*.*-.    '.: 

no  longer  be  restricted  to  operative  masons,  but  no  country  in  the  worM  ha-*  freo  liia-  :.".  r    :"- 

extend  to  men  of  various  professions,  provided  i^hcd  with  more  viiror  than  in  the  I'l-iti  :  ^'-i  -. 

they  were  rcjrularly  approved  and  initiated  into  and  nntwiihstandlnir  a  severe  l<^::   •:•.  •*    *  — . 

theorder.^'  In  1717  the  lodges  tJien  in  active  ex-  opp<»siti<>n  to  it,  which  rcuuiii  n«V'l   ■.:.  >-.• 

istence  in  the  city  of  London  united  together  and  the  i>rL'anizati<»n  ()f  an  anti-iii:i^»iij.i'  j  .■*;    -■■' 

fonned  the  prand  lodtre  of  England,  upon  tlie  Anti-Mas<)Xi:y\  it  has  in'-Tea-Mil  in  :.■:.-:    - 

basis  here  indicate*!    Thi.-?,  it  must  he  observed,  extent  with  suoh  Pti  ady  pn^.TL-*   tr..i:    -s:  '    . 

Wiw  not  the  ostahlishinent  of  a  new  and  hith-  ]>reM'nt  day  it  nunihers  in  aU  j^irt-.  ■  :'  t   -.-  i   ■  ■ 

erto  unheard  of  society,  as  .•i*)mo  of  the  opi)o-  federation,  nearly  r»,<.»«J  hnl^'v-i   ui  \    S:«^--. 

nents  of  the  order  havo  maintanied,  but  the  re-  Io'MHM)   and   2(.h».(hm»   niei^il-vr*.     I::    -;  :•    ■: 

organization  uf  an  old  one  in  a  new  and  more  many  attein[»ls  Vt  >upiTe^-*  i:  }\  I    *'.        r  . 

popular  form.     Lone:  previous  to  this  period  and  Htate  in  vanou<  <«.ii.iru-  .■!    11  :r  ;•     ' 

the  general  a«*<.»mblies  of  the  masons  haa  heen  is  firmly  planted  in  every  j.;»rt  i-i"  i!  .z  •.     v- 

annutdly  held  in  P'n^land  as  in  other  countries;  nent,  and  many  KmIjv*  hvM«U'  li.ivf  I .  * .-  ■  -■:.- 

but  Sir  Chri'«topher  Wren,  the  grand  master  in  lished  in  Afrira  and  A>i:i.     Its  i.rj:i:  *.»: 

the  reipn  of  i^ueen  Anne,  having  become  ohl  Kurope  ha-*  been  t're.i;:tiiT!y  u- i*:   i  .r  \-    -.  J 

and  infinn.  Lad  neglected  tlio  interests  of  the  i»urpo<es,  and  c-peri;illv  ns  a  ^'.uik  t  -  •    :.-;  *- 

institution,  and  the  society  had  fallen  into  do-  ciesajrainst  thepiveri'iru-iil-s.     Tl.i  i  ^   '.'.'■    ' 

cay,  8o  that  in  1715  there  were  but  4  hnlpes  in  (»f  it,  however,  fi«r  Mi»h  «i!ijeet-.  i^  u  \.     .:    :. 

art  ive  Work  in  the  whole  south  of  En;:land,  al-  <if  it'*  c«)nstitutn»n,   whith  pn*);!!:*-    ^      *    .1, 

thouirh  it  is  admitted  that  the  niasonB  in  the  partisan.  <»r  se<tarian  di-^t  M--i. in*  ::.  \^     .  ■.:  • 

north  were   in   a   more   pro^iKTtuis   conditit»n.  Thenio'»t  remarkai»leiii"tlie"«*- [•*  r\i  r-.-- •    *• 

On  the  deatli  of  Sir  Christopher  Wren  no  sue-  institution  wa-*  in  Mexim  in    1*»J',  .^  i       *. 

ces^or  was  apT>ointed,  and  tlie  general  ass<.»m-  years  immediately   f.^llowinj.     Vr*-     :    ►*•-•> 

blies  were  no  lonjrer  convenetl.     It  wjls  during  had  >hortly  before  l^'J")  Ik»  n  i^Tr**.. .  \  "    - 

thi-s  unppnni^iiiL'  eondition  of  alTairs  that  the  Scotland,  and  had  been  eaj-vr^y  «  :li*  -.»■■':  ■     i 

4  Itidjres  already  mentioned  met  at  the  celebrut-  largo  body  of  iuliucutial  ivliticiotj  ^l..»  »«.:-: 


FREE  THINEEBS  FREEIIAN                      TW 

in  favor  of  the  independence  of  the  country,  the  sea ;  lat.  S""  29'  N.,  long.  18"*  9'  W. ;  pop. 
but  opposed  to  democracj.  They  formed  a  estimated  at  16,000.  It  is  sitoated  on  an  in- 
poweif  ul  party,  which  from  the  Scotch  origin  dined  plane,  50  feet  above  sea  level  at  higfa- 
of  their  lodges  called  themselves  the  Eteoeeaei.  water  mark.  The  streets  are  wide,  well  laid 
An  opposition  party  of  democratic  principles  oat,  and  ornamented  with  rows  of  orange,  lime, 
was  formed,  witn  which  the  American  minister,  banana,  or  cocoannt  trees.  Several  of  the 
Mr.  Poinsett,  cooperated,  and  which  called  it-  honses  are  commodious  and  substantial  stono 
self  the  Torhinoij  because  it  constituted  a  ma-  buildinss.  The  principal  public  edifices  are  St. 
sonic  society  which  had  received  its  charter  George's  church,  the  church  missionary  and 
firom  the  masons  of  New  York  through  the  Wesleyan  missionieuy  institutions,  the  grammar 
agency  of  Mr.  Poinsett.  The  conflict  of  these  school,  market  house,  custom  house,  gaol,  and 
parties  led  for  a  time  to  civil  war. — ^The  prima-  lunatic  asylum.  The  govemor^s  resiaence,  har- 
ry organization  of  the  masonic  fraternity  is  into  racks,  and  government  offices  are  situated  OQ 
lodges,  which  must  each  be  composed  of  at  least  some  hills  above  the  town.  The  navigable  en- 
7  master  masons  in  good  standing.  The  first  tranceof  the  Sierra  Leone  river  is  narrow,  there 
and  lowest  degree  of  masonry  is  that  of  entered  being  a  large  shoal  called  the  Bullom  shoal  in 
^prentice,  the  second  of  fellow  craft,  the  third  its  centre. 

ci  master  mason.    The  officers  of  a  lodge  in  FREEDMEN  (liberti,  libertini)^  the  name  of 

the  United  States  are  9  in  number :  worahipful  manumitted  slaves  in  Roman  antiqui^.    They 

master,  senior  warden.  Junior  warden,  treasur-  were  called  liberti  with  reference  to  their  maa- 

er,  secretary,  senior  deacon.  Junior  deacon,  ters,  and  Itbertini  with  reference  to  their  new 

tiler,  and  chaplain.    There  are  also  two  stew-  rank  or  condition.    According  to  various  oir- 

ards.    Of  these  officers  the  master,  the  ward-  cumstances,  defined  by  law,  the  freedmen  be- 

ens,  and  the  tiler  are  essential  to  any  lodge  or-  came  Roman  citizens,  Junian  Latins  (from  the 

ganization.  The  tiler  keeps  the  door  and  guards  Junian  law  which  gave  them  freedom),  or  (20- 

against  intrusion.    The  officers  are  elected  an-  ditieii.    The  last  were  neither  free  nor  slaves, 

nually  by  ballot.    In  each  state  of  the  Union  The  Junian  Latins  suffered  great  disabilities 

there  is  a  grand  lodge  composed  of  the  repre-  as  to  property,  but  could  in  various  wavs  rise  to 

sentativesof  the  subordinate  lodges,  over  which  citizenship.    But  even  the  freedmen  of  the  fint 

it  exercises  a  certain  Jurisdiction.    Its  officers  class  were  not  genuine  (inaenui)  citizens,  and 

are  styled  grand  and  deputy  grand  masters,  remained   under  certain  obligations  to  their 

grand  wardens,  grand  treasurer,  grand  secretfr-  masters.  The  freedmen  wore  a  cap  as  a  sign  of 

ry,  grand  chaplain,  grand  deacons,  grand  mar-  freedom,  and  took  the  names  of  their  previous 

^lal,  grand  pursuivant,  erand  sword  bearer,  owners.    The  sons  of  freedmen  became  genuine 

grand  stewaras,  and  grand  tiler.    There  is  also  citizens.    In  later  times  the  number  of  man- 

a  still  higher  degree  of  masonry,  the  members  umitted  slaves  increased  to  an  alarming  extent, 

of  which  are  termed  royal  arcn  masons,  and  and  some  of  the  emperors  passed  laws  restrict- 

form  royal  arch  lodges.  And  beyond  this  there  ingmanumiasion.    (See  Slavxby.) 

is  still  a  long  series  of  degrees  bearing  various  FREEHOLD.    See  Estats. 

titles.— See  the  "  Masonic  Text  Book  "  by  John  FREEMAN,  Jamks,  D.D.,  an  American  Uni- 

Dove(12mo.,  Richmond,  1854);  *^  A  Text  Book  tarian  minister,  bom  in  Charlestown,  Mass., 

of  Masonic  Jurisprudence,^'  by  Albert  G.  Mac-  April  22, 1769,  died  in  Newton,  Mass.,  Nov.  1^ 

key,  MD.  (12mo.,  New  York,  1869) ;  the  "  His-  1886.    He  belonged  to  the  class  which  entered 

tory  of  Free  Masonry,"  by  J.  W.  S.  Mitchell,  the  Boston  Latin  school  in  1766,  under  Master 

M.D.  (2d.  ed.,  2  vols.  8vo.,  Marietta,  Ga.,  1859).  John  Lovell.    After  graduating  at  Harvard  ool- 

FREE  THINKERS,  a  name  applied  to  the  lege  in  1777,  he  went  to  Quebec  to  visit  hia 

opponents  of  Christianity  in  England,  in  the  father,  returned  to  Boston  in  1782,  and  became 

17th  and  18th  centuries.  Lord  Herbert  of  Cher-  reader  at  the  King^s  chapel  in  Boston,  an  Epis- 

bury,  Hobbes,  Toland,  Tindal,  Woolston,  Chubb,  copal  church.    Becoming  Unitarian  in  his  views, 

and  Anthony  Collins  were  among  the  most  he  induced  the  society  to  alter  their  prayer  book 

noted  of  their  writers.    Bolingbroke,  Shaftes-  in  1786,  and  in  1787  he  was  ordained  by  his 

bury,  and  David  Hume  were  counted  among  own  wardens  and  people  by  a  peculiar  service, 

their  ablest  representatives.    They  were  never  He  continued  rector  of  King's  chapel  for  66 

an  organized  philosophical  or  raligious  sect,  years,  till  his  death.    He  was  one  of  the  found- 

The   French    writers  who    labored   for    the  ers   of  the   Massachusetts  historical  societj^ 

overthrow  of  Christianity,  partly  from    the  was  distinguished  for  his  general  culture  and 

standpoint  of  deism,  partly  n*om  that  of  ma-  social  virtues,  and  his  published  sermons  havo 

terialism,  and  who  cidle^  tiiemselves  ewriU  been  regarded  as   mcndels   of  English   style, 

jf^to,  were  in  England  called  free  thinkers.  They  are  extensively  quoted  by  Southey  in  hia 

Voltaire,  D'Alembert,  Diderot,  and  Helvetius  "Doctor"  and  his  " Commonplace  Books."  But 

are  the  most  celebrated  among  them.    In  6er-  Dr.  Freeman^s  chief  distinction  is  that  he  was 

many  the  rationaliBts  have  often  been  called  free  the  first  minister  in  the  United  States  who 

thinkers  by  their  opponents.  openly  assumed  the  name  of  Unitarian,  and  that 

FREE  TOWN,  a  town  of  W.  Africa,  capital  through  his  means  the  first  Episcopal  church  in 

of  the  British  colony  of  Sierra  Leone,  on  the  New  England  became  the  first  Unitarian  church 

left  bank  of  Sierra  Leone  river,  about  6  m.  from  in  America. 


fM            fBEEPoBT  nmi 

TBEEPORT.  ft  toinuhip  of  CtnnlierLieil  ex,  delegatw  tnm  aSt 

lU-odCwoaUr.BttlwmMtbaf  DurandcM  T«iua  om«  fa  <  ; 

rhtf,t7i>i.K.E.Cn«iIVrtlanil;  |>of>.liil86Q,  UMUwaaddi^ 

Utt*.    Il  WM  fenMrl;  MUcd  BMraMckel  Ml-  aDMoUMllMlM 

ttBwnt,  aad  necifvd  itt  pnMat  buh  on  )te  tbe  dliMrtwi  MtA 

faeorpcmtiaa  in  17W.    b  OcttlkiBi  4  *iUi«M,  mk  and  btMnMl 

am  Pf  wliid>  to  criUd  Jrtnart,  5  <iwirch«B  (1  «aM  wm  «{«ted. ' 

Su£t,ICoagPMttkaial,l»rMwUIB<vnl«,l  tto  oT  Vnr  ^ 

^r«taditt,n'llUiilMboiiM),9p<NtaffloM,  Sortb  Otrallw  oTi 

U  MUi««lKWli^SMV«iddUiH^naLi,Bi>d  tfwUcb  wasdut] 

9  Jjp  nrdk.    In  April,  ISMv  10  ^Mt^  *<r*  t^c'r  neonb  a  q 

Ib cowM of  ontnutiM  here.    adp-bnBdiBft  Ba|<ta(AiM»dOa 

■KvigatiMi,  Mid  agrtooltiir*  utt  lb*  priitdpw  Hmt  MO*  Bumhi 

Jbnacliea  erf  indoit^.  Tlic  EcmMlwo  abJ  Fort>  ff/ND  iB«inboTih  a 

hud  railro^  tyti  thravgh  the  town.  lUted  with  Ite  4 

FR£iE8TOSE,  a  Bunc  oft«n  givan  to  ilia  ntfnulned  a  toi^ 

BUKbtoDe  naed  for  tniildiag  nnrnosqiL     (S««  M^xdMcrRMdlMI 

PAXMron.)    The  naniB  U  pniMbI;  due  toita  Um  ■*  Monday  8tfl 

warkiiufreefarand(TUie  tuolo.  KHUan  M.  Bmll 

FKEBVILL  BAPn^ra,  or  Fan  B*Ptin%  eemmniilaB  B«tM 

ft  denwuhutioii  of  ernn^HMl  Cbristuu  ia  tlM  DalreaeowliM  M 

nwtfaani  United  States  mil  Cauoda.    Itafinind-  cornnundathn  ftqjj 

~    '     '     ~  adall   (1749-1908),   who  Imded  the  paHftf 

._           '•  bcaran  at  PortotBoath,  B4>tiBta  al  CobM 

S.  B^.8aiiL  sa,  IITO;  and  Uie  imcresiioin  for  ordtnattoa  loll 

pade  Dj  tlie  Mnnon,  and  mare  espedalljr  by  the  boeit  adn^ttad  to  i 

tUinsi  of  the  preadier'*  death  3  iAjt  later,  k-  appcwd  bdbra  til 

polled  in  his  ogDVeidoa.    At  4rat  a  Congre-  taia  dciioiiiiiialio«| 

jntioDaltet,  ha  cotm«c(ed  luntteirin  1770  with  Tbeiira^>6Ctirai| 

iha  Bi^tist  church  in  fiouth  Berwiclc,  He.,  and  to  tho  wet  Aon  ] 

•Don  afUir  eutered  the  tuiuiatrr,  but  was  uulltid  portnl  that  Dr.  Qfl 

to  acoount  for  proaching  a  diKlriiio  dillereDt  qnaltiSed  for  the  | 

fWm  that  of  hia  iHVlbrva.    In  1T60  ho  onnn-  iW  ha  wai  a  alan 

tasod  in  New  Dnrfaain,  N.  H^  a  cburdi  holding  alooe  the  ecmndl  i 

rivws  NiuiUr  tu  hU  own,  wliich  wan  the  uu-  minixtor  or  fdlnwi 

cleaiof  ttio  new  ileiioniination.    The  dj^tiiictlvo  the  e«n«ral  couTera 

teD«Ls  of  Randall  and  his  i-oaiyatora  were  the  finallf  voted  wilho 

doctriuM  of  frcesalTationandopenconunmuoa,  dsion  of  the  com 

aa  opposed  to  those  of  bIocUuo  and  close  com-  The  connectioii  of  | 

mnnioa  hdd  bj  the  Calriuinic  Dantiita.    Thef  holding  chnrches  ii 

fbo  insisted  upon  the  freedom  of  the  will,  aa  yrta  broagUt  befoP 

fBiential  to  man  as  a  milyuct  of  moral  Bovem-  waa  eotimy  disM 

ment,  and  therefore  h8  inviolable  by  the  divine  Freewill  Bapttsta  b 

■overeigDty,  and  not  tu  b«  ooolravened  bj  any  then  takeo  upoa  I 

•ipUxiation  of  the  Utter  doctrine.    Their  op-  A)W  unreoognuad  t 

_               .1   ...          '"iiieTttl  Prorisionota,"  however,  attU  con 

"  Free  BaptiBta,"  by  There  are  acmraltM 

uw  ■Brand  of  which  names  ihcy  have  usoally  ioationol  interest, 

Inea  detignated,  though  the  last  is  now  prcftr*  bf  aU  the  cburchaa 

red  In  aome  of  their  own  pnblicetiuns.    la  ftov-  the  foraign  and  hoa 

•nuneut  thajr  are  CongregatioDaliits.    The  6m  cation  aocictx,  and 

^Orch  held  a  oonfcrcnco  once  a  month,  which  bv  all  of  thi-m  an  i^ 

ma  called  n  moullilv  mevliuK.     When  other  I'liJ.OW  Is  amjnally 

ahnrehv  varofonned  InLeighWioglocaUlii'i,  nirtmnry  meetingt 

»  ganeral  meeting   by  dviogntlon   ttom    the  which  are  niuaeroa 

^on^icawiabeldottooin  S  monihs  which  waa  eat  taken  in  the  repc 

tanned  a  quartet^  HMetioft.    As  Itondall  and  nent  rriin&alarT  I 

U«  aModatea  triTelled  and  eitunded  the  de-  The  forrign  miaiKia 

aoninatiao  tfaroogb  K«w  llain|i«hlre  and  the  In  OrI«a,  India.    I 

•<l}aG«nt  itatai^  samnvot  quarterly  meetinga  piety,  the  FreewQ]] 

ware  oripBlted,  and  yearly  ineotiaei  wer«  in«U-  ipocial  atutntion  to 

tBtad,  eoulrttag  of  delt^atea  from  anaoclated  and  since  1M7  han 

qaartoriy  meailngi.    At  length  the  orgonlcatJoa  educational  purposa 

wsanNnplatedby  thohistitntionin  lS27ortho  ooUcko  at  Ulllsilala, 

nnrml  conf<Tcnc«,  the  iuu>t  imiwrtant  asKUi-  Iioih  sexea  and  all 

hi/  of  the  denoiuUiatriou,  wUi^  u  cuuivuw^  "A  \u^kii1.  ncbmL  at  V, 


FBEEZmO  UIXTTTKSS 


7<1 


semiiiAiiesof  higherade  nndreimte  st  the  Utter 

e'iCQ,  »t  WUtwtown,  N.  T.,  and  it  Lewiston, 
e^  together  with  other  scboola  of  leas  nota. 
Tbo  Uaine  st&te  BeminArj  at  Lewiston  received 
A  liberal  endoirmeDt  from  tbe  state  on  its  eetab- 
lishment  in  1807.  The  Freewill  BaptUt  print 
iiig  establishment  is  at  Dover,  N.  H.,  where  are 
pnbllabed  the  "MominE  Star,"  which  for  88 
yean  hu  been  their  weeklj  organ,  the  "MfTtle," 
» Sabbath-achool  paper,  and  the  "Qnarterly," 
eaob  nmnber  of  which  compiiaee  at  least  120 
pans.  Blompbica  have  been  pnblished  of  Ran 
claD,  Otdbj,  Marka,  Phti]ne<r,  Hartin  Ohenej,  uid 
other  olersTmen,  whidi  throw  light  upon  the 
Uatory  ana  spirit  of  the  denondnaUon.  A  gen- 
«ral  hiatoTf  of  the  Freewill  Bqitista  is  now  In 
prepcration  onder  the  direction  of  the  general 
MoiereDce.  la  IBOO  the  whole  uomber  ofoom- 
mnnicanta  was  leas  than  8,000.  In  1BS9,  when 
oompleta  retams  were  for  the  first  time  obtun- 
ed,  Uiere  were  8  yearly  meetlnga,  22  qoarterl; 
meetinga,  811  charohee.  868  minister*,  and 
12,890  commniiieasta.  There  are  now  (ISfiS) 
S9  jearlj  meetings,  1S2  quarterly  meetings, 
1,80<  cborches,  1,188  mimsterH,  and  CS,02S 
«ommniiie«nt^  an  increase  of  fourfold  within  a 
nneration,  and  of  6,714  commnnicaiits  within 
UM  last  year.  They  are  fonnd  in  all  the  free 
flbAea,  bnt  are  most  nnmerons  in  New  England. 
There  ii  also  in  New  Bmnswiok  and  Nova  Sco- 
tia asepamte  and  rapidly  increaidng  conferenoe 
of  Fi«9  Baptists,  of  about  4,000  members,  not 
included  in  the  above  oompntaUon.  They  have 
»  weekly  organ,  the  "  Religions  Intelligencer," 

EUished  at  SL  John,  N.  B.  Tbe  Freewill 
ptista  correspond  by  letters  and  delegations 
with  the  Qeoerttl  Baptists  of  En^jud,  with 
whom  they  asree  in  doctrine. 

FREEZma  UISTUKES.  From  ancient 
ttmei  Tarions  methods  have  been  practised  of 
producing  low  d^rees  of  beat  for  the  prepara- 
tion 1b  hot  weather  of  gratefol  cooling  mixtDres, 
Some  of  these,  the  ol^ect  of  which  is  more  par- 
tkmlarlT  the  production  of  ice,  are  described  in 
the  article  apon  that  subject  Methods  of  pro- 
dndng  intense  cold  are  also  noticed  in  Evapo- 
XATioK.  Freedng  mlxtares,  properly  to  called, 
are  eolations  of  a  solid  in  a  fluid,  cold  being 
Modnoed  by  the  tendency  of  the  former  In  paas- 
Ug  to  the  liquid  state  to  render  latent  a  portion 
of  tbe  iennble  heat  of  the  mixture,  what  is 
called  tite  beat  of  flaidity  is  derived  chiefly  ftom 
that  which  had  previously  exist«d  within  the 
solid  itself  in  a  sensible  state.  The  property  of 
nitre  or  saltpetre,  a  common  natural  prodnollon 
of  the  East,  to  render  water  cold  by  solution, 
was  known,  it  is  believed,  to  the  ancient  Hin- 
dooa,  thoDgh  ia  the  "  Institntea  of  Akbar"  tbe 
dteoorery  is  attribnted  to  that  prince,  who  ruled 
from  15S6  to  1605.  The  directions  there  given 
are  to  throw  one  part  of  aitn  into  a  vessel  con- 
taining S  parte  of  water,  and  then  stir  in  thia 
mixtoro  rapidly  for  a  quarter  of  an  hour  a  pew- 
ter or  rilver  vcbmI  tightly  stopped  and  contain- 
big  the  liquid  to  be  cooled.  Aa  early  m  the 
Tear  1050  it  was  a  oommoD  praotio*  wi th  wealQif 


Italian  fomilies  to  cool  Ilqnon  in  a  rimilar  man- 
ner, and  they  are  supposed  to  have  derived  the 
method  from  IndiaorPerua.  Theyaddedgrad- 
nally  30  to  86  parts  of  nitre  to  100  parta  of  cold 
water,  and  whirled  rapidly  round  in  it  a  lobu- 
lar, long-neoked  bottle  containing  the  wme  or 
water  to  be  cooled.  The  salt  was  afterward  re- 
covered by  crystallization,  and  was  then  ready 
for  the  same  use  again.  Boyle,  and  afterward 
Fahrenheit,  extended  thispractice  to  other  sa- 
line eolutioDB,  and  Ifr.  Walker  of  Oxford  and 
Lowitz  of  BtL  Petersburg,  in  the  latter  part 
of  the  last  century  and  early  part  of  the  pre^ 
ent,  were  particularly  SQCoeasnil  in  intiodudng 
new  salts  and  developing  the  principle  of  tbdr 
action.  The  former  published  essays  in  th« 
"Philosophical  Transactions"  in  1785,  and 
a^in  in  1801,  with  tables  of  the  most  importaol 
mixtures.  Those  salts  were  found  to  produos 
the  greatest  effect  which  dissolved  the  most 
rapidly,  and  the  processes  were  much  more  ef- 
fectuiQ  when  the  materials  were  previously  cool- 
ed by  immersion  in  other  fiigonfio  mixtnres,  or 
when  freshly  &llen  dry  snow,  or,  in  lieu  of  tbU, 
finely  powdered  ice,  was  added,  Mr.  Walker 
'thus  succeeded  in  obtaining  a  degree  of  coll 

Sool  to  — 100°  F.  'With  snow  and  oommOB 
It  Fahrenheit  reduced  tbe  temperature  to 
—88°,  and  originally  proposed  tills  as  tbe 
method  for  fixing  the  zc9Y>  point  of  hisscole.  In 
this  process  the  salt,  by  its  affinity  for  water, 
causes  the  snow  to  melt,  and  the  water  thus 

firoduced  dissolves  the  salt,  and  both  becoming 
iquid,  a  large  quantity  of  the  sensible  heat  u 
rendered  latent  The  tables  of  Mr.  Walker,  still 
referred  to  in  chemical  works,  are  aa  follows : 

FnisoiiinD  Hnmma  with  Show. 


I  'hkirld«  of  (nitnasitBi. . 


iirans  mlphinlc  add 


"inifntnUd  nltrk  ul 
'hiDTidi  ttmMnta... 
:r7iiiilllud  cUmMe  oT 


frcm-Hl'  to— as* 


m+arto-so- 

m  +«r  to  — SI- 


The  effect  of  the  following  mixtures  is  Iq£M*m>A. 


T41 


TBEIBEBG 


"! 


diluted  uitroos acid  named  is  composed  of  fuming 
nitrouA  acid  2  ports  b;  weight  and  1  of  water, 
tho  mixture  being  allowed  to  cool  before  using ; 
th«  di!uu-d  Bulphuric  acid,  of  equal  weights  of 
•troDg  acSd  and  water,  and  allowed  * ' 


I  weights 


WI.UH, 

i 

i 

Tvr.wi>(»u'r. 

{ 

i 

fe"""- 

to +11)° 

to  +  4- 

W -io- 
ta — U" 

to-l»* 
to  — W" 
to       0* 

ta  +  »" 

«• 

«. 

^S=r:::::: 

sr 

ij 

jmlSdniiSSSrtdd:::::: 

*r 

niBUdiUtnmitdd 

BBfSiSii::::: 
BSttSSSii::::;: 

IMlaUd  nlirsu  wKI 

44' 

b\) 

JMIntwtiulpliurfcuiJ,,., 

" 

Tbo  following  is  recently  recommended  u  a  con- 
venient and  efficient  preparation :  One  part  bjr 
weight  of  crade  powdered  aal  ammoniac  is  la  bo 
intiiDiitelv  mixed  with  3  parts  of  pulverized  aalt- 
Detre,  and  to  this  miitnre,  when  required  for  DM, 
U  ("be  added  au  equal  bull:  of  carbonate  of  soda. 

FBEIIiERG,  or  Frbtbbrg,  a  walled  town  of 
Germany,  the  mlniuE  capital  of  Baion;,  on  the 
Manibach,  2S  m.  S.  W.  of  Dresden  ;  pop.  about 
1S,000.  ItissitaaU-d  on  the  N.declivity  of  the 
Erzgebirge.  The  streets  ore  regular,  well  built, 
lighted,  and  ^avcd.  There  arc  haiidDotne  monu- 
meuls  to  Pnnce  Huarioe  of  Saionj,  and  to 
■Werner,  the  great  mineralogist,  and  a  fine  Gothic 
cathedral,  hnllt  in  the  IGtIi  century.  Tlio  mining 
■cademy,  fottndc<l  in  ITijS,  han  a  niuwain  of 
modc'l  uduini;  macliiueji,  andahbrary  of  18,000 
Tolniiics.  Tim  Btupio  monufucturcs  conniw  of 
gold  and  ailTW  laeo,  braiwware,  white  Icai!, 
gunpowder,  ahot,  iron  and  copper  ware,  linenn, 
wootlena,  ribhona,  tape,  leather,  and  beer. 
Ftcibcrg  Is  an  ancleut  city,  and  woi  Ions  the 
reaUlenc*  of  tho  Sasoo  prlni-eii.  Werner,  Uum- 
boldt,  Uoha,  Mid  Jameson  wf  ro  sludeDis  at  iu 
Madcmy.  The  mining  diatricl  of  Freiberg  ia 
divided  into  11  clrolca,  and  cootadns  lilO  nilnea, 
yielding  silver,  Icati,  copper,  cobalt,  &c.  Tha 
total  mineral  product  In  IftM  amonnted  to 
About  <ec>O,OO0,  and  In  18S0  to  $1,000,000. 

FEEIUUEO,  or  Fwraciio.  a  city  of  Ger- 


many,  in  the  ffranA 
the  circle  of  tie  XSz 
B3m.  byraDroada 
N.ELofBa>d;pai 
ed  MO  feet  ab<yv61 
walls  with  S  KUm,' 
open  and  well  bd 
xtrouc,  which  b  ri 
the  exceUooce  of' 
publlt^edlflcMarat 
nalancs ',  tlia  catboJ 
itil  and  perfect  upod 
b  Germany :  ttie  ti 
former  of  which  i 
library  of  100,000  • 
achooE  of  Cathotto 
offices,  cunrta  of  j 
thvalrc,  fTmnaaiuni 
and  Mminario*.  1 
leather,  pai>«r,  «il| 
bella,  musical  iul 
chamlcalo.  There  i 
and  dye  works.  H 
way  passM  throu^ 

FitEIGDT,  tn  bi 
olthm*  th«  cargo  wU 
paid  to  the  «liart«r 
ofgoMK  Intheci 
ooonni  (Brisbi  m 
Goldsboron^,  SIX 
carried.  Kut  it  DM 
sively,  the  money  I 
it  is  principally  nMi 
(ForthehiwoffW 

FREn-UiRATH, 
born  in  Detmuld,  3 
ho  engaged  in  mvi 
Westphalia,  and  wl 
Blerdam  and  Bam 
which  ho  poblished 
the  favorite  pi«jl«  i 
Prueno  conferred  a 
Mon,  wbicli  lie  rci 
Adopted  democralit 
ed  for  political  r* 
Switaenaod.  In 
where  he  woa  emp! 
of  Unth  and  c«. 
revolation  in  Feb. 
many,  and  for  3  ys 
eSbrta  of  the  ileioo 
he  waa  arrested  oni 
Un  a  n  die  L*htiidt» 
and  tried,  hat  acqa 
writ  of  onvat  was  i 
of  the  second  part 
Poems"  and  his  itif 

ready  left  GermaA] 
be  has  managed  thi 
bank,  nia  ffoltai 
ed.,  IS&T),  with  w 
cart«r,  U  atUl  th< 
Hi*  poUtlcalpoemt 
Jttrilutim  (Leip^ 
lim  1H8),  ud  S 


FBEUNGHUTSEN  FREMONT  748 

CMidUs  (Cologne,  1849 ;  2d  part,  Branswiok,  In  Majr,  1844,  the  whig  national  convention  at 
1850),  are  also  valued  hy  those  who  accord  with  Baltimore  nominated  him  for   vice-president 
their  principles.  Some  of  these  poems,  as  Robert  and  Henry  Clay  for  president.    They  received 
Blumy  Die  Bevolutian,  Die  Todten  an  die  Leben-  105  electoral  votes,  while  their  snccessful  com- 
<20iL  are  classed  among  the  best  political  poetry  petitors.  James  K.  Polk  and  George  M.  Dallas, 
of  Germany.    A  tasteful  selection  of  German  received  170  votes.    In  1850Mr.  Frelinghuysen 
poetry  was  published  by  him  in  1854,  under  the  resigned  the  chancellorship  of  Uie  university  of 
title  IHchtung  und  Dichter  (Dessau,  1854),  and  New  York  to  become  president  of  RutfferB 
another  of  English  poetry  at  Stutt^rt  in  1858,  college,  New  Brunswick,  N.  J.,  and  removed  to 
under  the  title  *'  The  Rose,  Thistle,  and  Sham-  that  citj\  where  he  now  resides, 
rock.*'    The  first  complete  edition  of  all  his       FREMONT,  John  Chablbs,  an  American  ex- 
works  appeared  in  New  York   (Sdmmtliehe  plorer,  bom  in  Savannah,  G^.  Jan.  21,  1818. 
Werhtf  6  vols.,  1858-^9).    Some  of  his  poems  His  father  was  a  Frenchman  who  had  settled  in 
have  been  translated  into  English  by  Longfel-  Norfolk,  Ya.,  where  he  supported  himself  by 
low,of  whose  **  Hiawatha"  he  in  turn  publiwed  teaching  his  native  language.     His  mother, 
a  German  version.  whose  maiden  name  was  Anne  Beverley  Whit- 
FRELINGHUYSEN,  Febdebio,  an  American  ing,  was  the  daughter  of  an  opulent  and  promi- 
lawver,  bom  in  New  Jersey,  April  18,  1758,  nent  Virginian,  connected  by  marriage  with  the 
died  April  18,  1804.     He  was  graduated  at  Washington  fiunily.    She  was  left  an  orphan 
Princeton  college  in  1770,  and  in  1775  was  sent  at  an  early  age,  and  when  17  years  old  was  per- 
as  a  delegate  from  New  Jersey  to  the  contl-  suaded  by  her  relatives  to  marry  M^or  Pryor, 
nental  congress.    In  1776  he  Joined  the  revo-  a  rich  and  gouty  gentleman  45  years  her  sexiior. 
lutionary  forces,  and  served  with  distinction  as  This  union  was  childless  and  unhappy,  and  at 
captain  of  a  volunteer  corps  of  artillery  at  the  the  end  of  12  years  was  terminated  by  a  divorce 
battles  of  Monmouth  and  Trenton.    In  the  bat-  which  the  friends  of  both  parties  combined  to 
tie  of  Trenton,  it  is  said,  he  shot  Col.  Rail,  the  procure  from  the  legislature.    Major   Pryor 
commander  of  the  Hessians.    He  was  promoted  soon  married  his  housekeeper,  and  Mrs.  Piypr 
to  be  colonel,  and  served  dnrins  the  remainder  married  Mr.  Fremont.    He  died  in  1818.    The 
of  the  war.    After  the  peace  he  filled  various  widow  with  8  infant  children  settled  in  Charles- 
state  and  county  offices,  and  in  1790,  when  the  ton,  S.  C.    At  the  age  of  15  John  Charles  en- 
New  Jersey  and  Pennsylvania  troops  were  tered  the  Junior  claas  of  Charleston  college, 
called  to  take  part  in  the  expedition  against  the  For  some  time  he  stood  high  in  college,  and  mi^e 
western  Indians,  he  was  appointed  m^jor-gen-  remarkable  attainments  in  mathematics.    *'  But 
end  by  President  Washington.    In  1 793  he  was  about  this  time, "  says  Mr.  Bigelow,  one  of  his  bio- 
elected  a  senator  of  the  United  States,  which  gniphers.  ^^  he  beciune  acquainted  with  a  young 
poet  he  occupied  for  8  years,  when,  in  conse-  West  Indian  girl,  whose  raven  hair  and  soft  black 
quence  of  domestic  bereavement,  he  reigned,  eyes  interfered  sadly  with  his  studies."    His  in- 
and  devoted  the  remainder  of  his  life  to  his  attention  and  frequent  absences  at  length  caused 
family  and  private  afiEairs. — Thbodors,  an  Amer-  his  expulsion  from  the  college.    After  this  event 
ican  statesman,  son  of  the  preceding,  born  at  he  obtained  employment  as  a.private  teacher  of 
Millstone,  Somerset  co.,  N.  J.,  March  28, 1787.  mathematics,  and  took  charge  at  the  same  time 
He  was  graduated  at  Princeton  college  in  1804,  of  an  evening  school    In  1888  he  obtained  the 
Btodied  kw  with  Richard  Stockton,  and  in  1808  position  of  teacher  of  mathematics  on  board  of 
was  admitted  to  the  bar,  where  he  soon  became  the  U.  6.  sloop  of  war  Natchez,  which  was  ^en 
distinguished  as  an  eloquent  advocate.    During  in  the  port  of  Charleston,  from  which  she  sailed 
the  war  with  Great  Britain  in  1812-U4,  he  on  a  cruise  to  the  coast  of  South  America.   Fire- 
raised  and  commanded  a  company  of  volunteers,  mont  was  absent  in  her  for  more  than  two 
In  1817  he  was  elected  attorney-general  of  New  years,  and  on  his  return  to  Charleston  received 
Jersey  by  a  legislature  opposed  to  him  in  poll-  from  the  college  which  had  expelled  him  the 
tica,  and  held  the  post  till  1826,  when  he  was  degreesof  bachelor  and  master  of  arts.    Shordy 
chosen  IT.  S.  senator.     In  the  same  vear  the  afterward  he  passed  successfully  a  rigorous  ex- 
legislature  had  elected  him  a  Judge  of  the  su-  amination  at  Baltimore  for  the  post  of  professor 
Ereme  court,  which  office  he  declined  to  accept,  of  mathematics  in  the  navy,  and  was  appointed 
a  the  senate  Mr.  Frelinshuysen  acted  with  the  to  the  frigate  Independence;  but  he  soon  re- 
whiff  party.    He  exerted  himself  in  behalf  of  solved  to  quit  the  sea,  and  engaged  himself  as  a 
the  Indians;  advocated  the  bill  to  suppress  the  surveyor  and  railroad  engineer  on  a  line  be- 
carrying  of  mails  on  the  sabbath;  supported  tween  Charleston  and  Augusta,  Gku    Subse- 
Mr.  Clay's  resolution  for  a  national  fast  in  the  ^nently  he  assisted  in  the  survey  of  the  railroad 
season  of  the  cholera ;  spoke  in  favor  of  the  ex-  Ime  from  Charleston  to  Cincinnati,  and  particu- 
tenaion  of  the  pension  system,  and  acted  in  uni-  larly  in  the  exploration  of  the  mountain  passes 
son  with  Mr.  Clay  upon  the  question  of  the  between  South  Carolina  and  Tennessee.    He 
tarifi^  and  the  compromise  act  of  1832.    He  re-  was  engaged  in  this  work  till  the  autumn  of 
mained  in  the  senate  till  1835,  when  he  was  1837,  when,  in  consequence  of  its  suspension,  he 
superseded  by  a  democrat.    In  1838   he  was  accompanied  Capt  Williams  of  the  U.  S.  army 
chosen  chancellor  of  the  university  of  Now  in  a  military  reconnoissance  of  the  mountainous 
York,  and  took  up  his  residence  in  that  city.  Cherokee  country  in  Geor^pa,  North  Carolina^ 


tnd  Tttmaaaae.  In  anttclpfttloii  of  boatilldM 
with  tlie  InJlitDS  thu  sxavej  wu  rnpidlj  mule 
ia  Uiu  dcipUi  iif  wioter,  oiul  woe  Premoat's  first 
experionco  of  »  campaign  amid  momit^ii  nowa. 
In  ]B38-'0  h«  accompimicd  U.  NicoUet,  a 
Fnnolinuto  tuid  a  distingitiahe^  miui  of  soiencc^ 
la  cxplorntions  of  tbo  connb?  bol«-<>eii  Ihe  ICa- 
■oori  uiij  ths  Bridsh  line.  These  c3plorntion» 
were  niado  timler  Um  uttborit;  of  the  govern- 
minit,  aai  trbilo  Hinged  in  Uiem  in  1@38,  Fre- 
mont reooivod  from  Frwldent  Van  llnran,  iind<T 
dat«  of  Ju]y  7,  a  coaunlarion  u  3d  lieutenant  in 
the  corp*  of  to]iogrn[&Ioal  engiii«en.  ^TUlunt 
Vudiinstonin  IMO,  «mpUi7(>d  in  the  prepara- 
tion of  ih»  report  of  theio  axpeditions,  Fremont 
Wcanio  DO(]n]i<nt«d  wKb  UIm  Jesaiii  Benton,  n 
dnnghttfr  of  Out.  Thomu  IL  B«uton.  U  thttt 
tlin«  ■  sunstor  from  Hiuonn.  An  engsg^nu^t 
vu  formed,  but  as  (bo  lady  was  on);  16  ytara 
of  age,  li«r  porontu,  notwtlnstotiding  th^  bish 
|>onoiiiu  regard  for  Fremont,  objected  to  Uie 
uiatett,  nud  soddeal^r,  probably  throngU  tl>e  po- 
tMt  Indneace  of  Ool.  Ikmton,  tho  jonng  offloer 
ncaivod  from  the  war  dqwrtment  n  ptremptotr 
order  to  m^«  an  ejamlnaUoa  of  the  riTor  Dm 
Uotnee  vpon  tbe  w«et«m  frontier.  The  «iiiT<i)r 
vu  rqiUllj  oxccuted,  and  cbortly  after  bia  re- 
turn from  tlii*  Aaty  tbe  loTuiwere  aeenily 
inuried,  Oet.  19,  !»!.  In  Uw  foSowin;  *ear 
Fntroont  projected  a  geognphlcal  snrrej  of  the 
enUre  territoc;  of  tlie  United  States  fimn  the 
Hiasonri  river  to  the  PadJic  ooean,  the  fearibil- 
itj  of  an  orerUnd  Mtmmankatjon  liettrMO  the 
tvo  sides  of  tlio  conliueDt  beinga  teadioe  idea 
in  bis  tcheme  of  explorations,  lie  accordingly 
applied  to  the  war  department  fur  employment 
on  this  wriice,  and  having  received,  at  hisoirn 
BQgKfAtion,  inatnictions  to  explore  the  Rocky 
monntainjt,  and  particnlorly  to  czamine  the  South 
paio,  hu  loft  Woshiogton,  iL&j  3,  1843,  and  on 
Jnne  10  began  his  expedition  from  a  point  near 
the  month  of  the  Kudms,  a  few  miUe  beyond 
the  Miasonri  border,  whtcce  he  prooeeded  np 
tbe  Plilte  rircr  and  its  tributariea,  tlirougli 
bands  of  ho«lile  Indinmi,  to  tlio  Sooth  pass, 
which  wax  cajeflilly  examined.  lie  next  ex- 
plorud  the  Kioil  Kiv«r  monntnins,  the  loftiest 
peak  of  which,  18,730  feet  above  theaei^  hees- 
oended,  Ang,  10,  accompanied  by  4  of  hia  men. 
Tbia  moantain  ia  now  called  Fremont's  peaik. 
From  the  Wind  River  mountoins,  which  he  left 
Aug.  IS,  Fremont  rvtumed  lohiii  BtarUas  place 
by  nearly  the  aame  rente  that  he  had  foUoned 
In  (!oing  out,  IIo  rcnchod  the  month  of  the 
Kansaa,  Oct.  10,  1843,  after  an  absence  of  4 
iBanth&  Ue  had  ciMonntered  ranoh  hardablp 
and  many  p«ril^  aod  bad  aDOocaafttlty  Moom- 
pltabed  all  the  oldoota  of  tbe  expedition.  Over 
tbe  whole  eoorw  t/t  hia  ettnided  ronte  be  bad 
made  harometrln]  obatrvations  to  aaoertoia  tho 
elavatJona  both  of  tho  plaint  and  of  the  monn- 
talna,  end  aatronomlcu  obacrvalions  ftir  latl- 
todei  and  Ifinttltnitea.  Tho  fcr*  of  the  country 
wai  noted  at  dirtlle  or  Uerile,  the  practicability 
of  ronlM  WB4  Mttlcd,  military  positions  Indlcut- 
aod  large  oontribotiona  made  t«  geology  and 


of  Na      ., 

nouuced  it  one  of  H 
of  Hm  kind,  tmtati 
of  hi*  report  Ftema 
tiou  of  a  mncfa  mei 
than  tho  fimt.  B«4 
plorations  aCTOM  tU 
then  unlmowa  iwla 
mouutiuns  and  Ua^ 
1)^5,  he  coumienoM 
and,  In  porsnonoe  a 
cd  on  the  Eouuu  ril 
Ua  uiaractcr,  *<*>!  « 

Pl«tt4,  Wblob  b«  ■■ 

mountain^  wbeae  t 
tribntariea,  ^cina^ 
tbe  eonth  paM.  at 
&  went  throng  IL) 
the  OoloradB  ili>wn 
fbtnta.  OnSopki 
miletL  ho  earn*  In  rf 
of  whioh  no  aecaa 
^ven,  and  of  wtil«i 
noUona  wen  «Dt<i 
eOected  important  I 
(pra^doal  knowledgl 
UMDtjBndbadaaM 
tn  promoting  the  ■ 
tbe  Facile  eUtes. 
eeed«d  to  Ute  oppfl 
hia  riier,  whose  li 
Nov.  4  ho  reached 
mouth  of  tlie  Coin 
oDt  on  his  retom  t« 
6.  E.  mate.  IcAdiD) 
tho  Columbia  to  th 
an  almost  nntcnuwu 
raggiHt  moon  tain  cb 
d««p  BDowB,  wbioli 
feraed  him  to  deaeei 
BreeenUy  fi»md  bin 


wbctef 
Bloat  obi 


was  in  tbe  latlMd«i 
but  between  him  « 
WM  a  range  of  moa 
which  the  Indiana  d 
and  over  which  no 
to  attempt  to  gvii 
nndertooK  tho  pwM 
oom^labedltinMl 


men  redooed  abaoal 
88  out  of  OT  botaa* 
those  that  ■nl«ed< 
could  bnr«ly  walk  v] 
hia  Jonnioy  )Ur«b 
wanl,  ikirted  tbe  « 
Nevada,  ottMaed  tha 
ler«d  thegrMlhadi 
lake,  from  which  tbi 


FBEMOlirr  746 

tornedtoEaiiBasin  July,  1844,  after  an  absence  Gen.  Castro  intended  to  destroy  the  Amer- 
of  14  months,  daring  the  greater  part  of  which  lean  settlements  on  the  Sacramento.  Fremont 
he  was  never  ont  of  sight  of  snow.  The  re-  promptly  retraced  his  steps  to  California.  Gen. 
ports  of  this  expedition  occupied  in  their  pre-  Castro  was  already  marchmg  against  the  settle- 
paration  the  remainder  of  1844.  Fremont  was  ments.  The  settlers  rose  in  arms,  flocked  to 
brevetted  captain  in  Jan.  1845,  and  in  the  spring  Fremont^s  camp,  and  under  his  leadership  the 
of  that  year  he  set  out  on  a  third  expedition  to  result  was  that,  in  less  than  a  month,  as  Col. 
explore  the  great  basin  and  the  maritime  region  Benton  says  in  his  ^^  Thirty  Years*  View:*' 
of  Oregon  and  California.  The  summer  was  ^  All  the  northern  part  of  California  was  freed 
spent  in  examining  the  head  waters  of  the  from  Mexican  authority,  independence  procldm- 
nvers  whose  source  is  in  the  dividing  ridge  be-  ed,  the  flag  of  independence  raised,  Castro  fly- 
tween  the  Pacific  and  the  Mississippi  valley,  ing  to  the  south,  the  American  settlers  saved 
and  in  October  he  encamped  on  the  shores  of  from  destruction,  and  the  British  party  in  Call- 
the  Ghreat  Salt  lake.  From  thence  he  proceeded  fornia  counteracted  and  broken  up  in  all  their 
to  explore  the  Sierra  Nevada,  which  chain  he  schemes.*'  On  July  4  Fremont  was  elected 
crossed  again  in  the  dead  of  winter  with  a  few  governor  of  California  by  the  American  settlers ; 
men  to  obtain  supplies  from  California  for  his  and  on  the  10th  of  that  month  he  learned  that 
party,  with  whom,  after  perilous  adventures  Commodore  Sloat,  who  commanded  the  TJ.  S. 
smong  the  mountains  and  some  successftd  en-  sauadron  on  ^e  coast,  had  taken  possession  of 
counters  with  hostUe  Indians,  he  made  his  way  Monterey.  Fremont  proceeded  to  join  the 
into  the  valley  of  the  San  Joaquin,  where  he  naval  forces,  and  reached  Monterey  with  his 
left  his  men  to  recruit,  and  went  himself  to  160  mounted  riflemen  on  the  19th.  Commodore 
Monterey,  which  was  at  that  time  the  capital  Stockton  about  the  same  time  arrived  at  Mon- 
of  California,  to  obtain  from  the  Mexican  terey  with  the  frigate  Congress,  and  took  com- 
mnthorities  permission  to  proceed  with  his  ex-  mand  of  the  squadron  with  authority  from 
ploration.  Termission  was  granted,  but  was  Washington  to  conquer  California.  At  his  re- 
almost  immediately  revoked,  and  he  was  per-  quest  Fremont,  who  had  now.  May  27, 1846, 
emptorily  ordered  to  leave  the  country  without  be^i  promoted  to  the  rank  of  lieutenant-colonel, 
delay.  Fremont  as  peremptorily  refused  to  organized  a  force  of  mounted  men,  known  as 
comply.  His  men,  exhausted  by  &e  hardships  the  **  California  battalion,*'  of  which  he  was 
they  had  suffered  and  destitute  of  supplies  and  appointed  major.  He  was  also  appointed  by 
animals,  were  in  no  condition  to  repass  the  Conu  Stockton  military  commandant  and  civU 
mountains  and  the  deserts  from  which  they  had  governor  of  the  territoir,  the  project  of  mak- 
jnst  emerged.  The  Mexican  governor,  Gen.  ing  California  indepenaent  having  been  re- 
Castro,  mustered  the  forces  of  the  province  and  linquished  on  receipt  of  intelligence  that  war 
prepared  to  attack  the  Americai^  who  were  had  broken  out  between  the  United  States  and 
only  62  in  number.  Fremont  took  up  a  strong  Mexico.  He  was  actively  employed  for  some 
position  on  the  Hawk's  peak,  a  mountain  80  m.  time  in  suppressing  insurrections  of  t^e  Mexi- 
from  Monterey,  built  a  rude  fort  of  felled  trees,  can  inhabitants,  and  in  averting  by  his  personal 
hoisted  the  American  flag,  and,  having  plenty  influence  a  war  with  the  Walla-Walla  Indians. 
of  ammunition,  resolved  to  defend  himself.  He  On  Jan.  18,  1847,  he  concluded  with  the  Mexi- 
wrote  to  the  American  consul  at  Monterey,  in  cans  articles  of  capitulation  which  terminated 
reply  to  a  private  message,  March  10, 1846:  ^*We  the  war  in  California,  and  left  that  country 
have  in  no  wise  done  wrong  to  the  people  or  the  permanently  in  the  possession  of  the  United 
anthorities  of  this  country,  and  if  we  are  hemmed  States.  Meantime  Gen.  Kearney  of  the  U.  S. 
in  and  assaulted  here,  we  will  die,  every  man  of  army,  with  a  small  force  of  dragoons,  had 
us,  under  the  flag  of  our  country.**  The  Mexl-  arrived  in  California.  A  quarrrel  soon  broke 
can  general  formed  a  camp  with  a  large  force  out  between  him  and  Com.  Stockton  as  to 
of  artillery,  cavalry,  and  infantry,  in  the  plain  who  should  command.  They  each  had  in- 
inmiediately  below  ti^e  position  held  by  the  structions  from  Washington  to  conquer  and 
Americans,  whom  he  hourly  threatened  to  at-  organize  a  government  in  the  country.  Fre- 
taok.  On  the  evening  of  the  4th  day  of  tiie  mont  had  accepted  a  commission  from  Com. 
aiege,  Fremont,  tired  of  inaction, withdrew  with  Stockton  as  commander  of  the  battalion  of 
his  party  and  proceeded  toward  the  San  Joa-  volunteers,  and  had  been  appointed  governor 
qnin.  The  fires  were  still  burning  in  his  de-  of  the  territory.  Gen.  Kearney,  as  IYemont*s 
•erted  camp  when  a  messenger  arrived  from  superior  officer  in  the  regular  army,  required 
Gen.  Castro  to  propose  a  cessation  of  hostilities,  him  to  obey  his  orders,  which  conflicted  with 
Without  ftirther  molestation  Fremont  pursued  those  of  Com.  Stockton,  whose  authority  Fre- 
his  way  northward  through  the  valley  of  the  mont  had  already  fhlly  recognized  as  com- 
Sacramento  into  Oregon.  Near  Tlamath  lake,  mander-in-chief  of  the  territory — an  authority 
on  May  9,  he  met  a  party  in  search  of  him  with  which  had  also  been  admitted  by  Gen.  Kear- 
de^atches  from  Washington,  directing  him  to  ney  for  a  considerable  period  after  his  arrival, 
watch  over  the  interests  of  the  United  States  In  this  dilemma  Fremont  concluded  to  obey 
in  California,  there  being  reason  to  apprehend  the  orders  of  Com.  Stockton.  Despatches  from 
that  the  province  would  be  transferred  to  Great  Washington  received  in  the  spring  of  1847  at 
Britain.    There  was  also  reason  to  believe  that  length  terminated  this  conflict  of  authorities  by 


746  FREMONT 

directing  Com.  Stockton  to  relinquish  to  Gen.  his  guide  lost  his  wa^,  and  Fremont's  T4.*tt 
Kearney  the  supremo  oommimd  m  California,  encountered  horrible  sufftrring  fniiu  c>v:  &i^ 
Fremont  hesitated  no  longer  to  place  himself  hanger,  a  portion  of  them  lieing  drivi-n  ;«•  th- 
under Gen.  Kearney *8  orders,  wno,  however,  nibtUisni  to  sustain  life.     All  of  his  soiiiitftL*  llI 
treated  him  with  marked  aversion,  and  refused  one  third  of  his  men  i»eri>hed.  and  he  w&«  fi  rrtU 
him  pennission  to  join  Gen.  Taylor*B  army,  to  retrace  his  steps  to  Stmta  Fe.     rxidaLj.:«^ 
then  ticrving  in  northern  Mexico.     In  June,  by  this  disaster,  he  gathered  ari'und  LixL  ii« 
1847,  Gen.  Kearney  set  out  overland  for  the  other  bond  of  30  men.  and  after  a  long  yn-hnU 
United  States,  ordering  Fremont  to  accompany  discovered  a  secure  route,  which  coiiiiuciol  LI2 
him,  and  treating  him  with  deliberate  disre-  eventually  to  the  Sacramento  in  thv  ^prxf  •< 
spect  throughout  the  journey,  until  at  Fort  1840.    Ho  now  determined  to  settlv  in  Col ::Vr- 
Leavenworth,  Aug.  22,1847,  he  put  him  under  nia,  where  in  1847  ho  had  bonght  thi-  M&.n- 
arrest,  and  directed  him  to  repair  to  Washing-  posas  estate,  a  very  large  tract  of  Ul.-!.  r-  d- 
ton  and  report  himself  to  the  ucyutant-generd.  taining  rich  gold    mines.      II is   title  ti  •  iL^ 
On  his  way  to  Wasliington,  passing  through  St.  estate  was  contestetl,  but  after  a  h'Og  litijAt/  a 
Louis,  a  large  number  of  the  most  respectable  it  was  decided  in  his  favor  in   lis55   ty  il* 
citizens  addressed  him  a  letter  recapitulating  supremo  court  of  the  United  State*.     I::  1^) 
his  claims  to  public  admiration  for  his  geo-  he  received  from  President  Taylor  the  app'  i:- 
graphical  explorations  and  military  operations,  ment  of  commissioner  to  run  the  lK>uii<!nr}  III-* 
and  inviting  him  to  a  public  dinner.      This  between  the  United  States  and  Mt- :ci«  1  .    Er- 
honor  he  declined  under  tlie  circumstances  of  garding  this  appointment  as  intend*. d  ii>^^k.jT 
his  arrest,  and  arrived  at  Washington  Sept.  10.  Gen.  Taylor's  disapproval  of  the  Ci>ur:  i::&r^ 
He  found  letters  there  informing  him  that  his  which  had  dismissed  him  from  the  nn.y.l't 
mother  was  dying  in  South  Carolina.    Obtain-  accepted  it  to  show  his  sense  «.»f  the  m'.-l*  : 
ing  leave  of  absence,  in  8  days  ho  reached  tho  good  opinion  of  that  dis»tingiii>h«.-\l  «  v'.^r. 
Charleston.    His  mother  died  a  few  hours  before  The  legislature  of  California,  whioh   iiiti  i^ 
he  readied  her  residence.     Immediately  on  his  Dec.  1849,  elected  him  on  the  tirst  \<j1\^i  <  :.i    i 
arrival  at  Washington,  Fremont  asked  for  a  the  two  senators  to  represent  the  Lew  ti^zr  \ 
speedy  trial  on  Gen.  Kearney's  chargesi,  and  the  eenato  of  the  United  States.     He  1  •  ::^- 
accordingly  a  court  martial  was  held,  beginning  quently  resigned  his  commissii•nor^hi;-.  ur.*l  Jr- 
Nov.  2,  1847,  and  ending  Jan.  81,  1848,  which  parted  at  once  for  Washington  ly  « ai  ^-f  u« 
found  Iiim  guilty  of  '*  mutiny,"  "  disobedience  of  isthmus.     He  took  his  scat  in  tliv' m.  i;a': •-.  S : :. 
the  lawful  command  of  a  superior  officer,"  and  10, 1850,  the  day  after  tl»e  admi>«:i'U  * : A  ii  ■  "• 
"conduct  to  the  prejudice  of  gocnl  order  and  nia  as  0  state.     In  drawing  lot*  f»r  li.t   •  r.* 
military  discipline,"  and  sentenced  him  to  bo  of  tho  respertivo  senators.  Frt!:i":.t  1!:.*   : 
di>ini>sed  from  tlie  serviee.     A  niai(»rity  ot' tho  short  term,  ending' Man  h  Ji,  l^'l.     1:..    -.    .- 
members  of  the  court  rerunmiended  him  to  the  remained  in  se^.-inn  l-ut  iljr^r  u^t  "«.-  _•■  •  ■ 
clemency   of  IVe-^idtiit   Pnlk.      The   president  admis-Jion  <»f  UalilMnii:!,  aiiil  iliiri:  j  :":    ::    ■     . 
refused  t«»  confirm  the  verdict  of  mutiny,  hut  Fremont  devnteii  him-ill"  aln.*'-:  *  \  .  .-  - 
apprtived  tlie  rest  of  tlio  venlict  and  the  ."en-  measures  relating  ti»tl.i.- iijiir*.-:- ■  :::..  -■ . 
tciice.  of  whicli,  however,   he  immediately  re-  represented.  Forthi-purj-itst  I.i  iiiT:- ■'  .   . 
initte<l  tlie  iienalty.  Fremont  pnanptly  declined  advocated  a comj)rclii:iMVc  *«.r:. -«!  .   .  -    :-    - 
to  aviiil   him>elf  «»f  the  presitk-nt'.'^  i»anh>n,  al-  20  in  numher, eml»ra'ii;L'ai!j:'  -'  i  ■•  r;.      ^     ■    ■ 
le^rinjr  as  a  rea>on  :  '*  I  du  nnt  feel  conM-ious  of  le^iJaiion  dcmiindnl   by  t:>-  j^.   ..  ..: 
having' (lone  any  thin^:  to  merit  tlie  lindin;:  of  stances  of  Califitrnia.     Vi\  Si;-:.    ', :.    ' 
the  Court ;  and  tlii-%  bein;:  the  <*ase,  I  cannot,  by  n^ruinst  Mr.  {Reward's  un.^iiil!i:i :.:;'.      ■  .-     • 
accfptiii;:  tlie  clfim-ncy  of  the  pre.si<lont,  admit  tlie  aholiiitjn  of  Mavt-ry  int):e  ♦:':-.::;  •    :  • 
the  ju>tl<e  of  the  dtci>iiin  a;:ain>t  me.''     IIo  Imi,  which,  howrvi-r,  only  net  :■.■ -i  .'  ■.    :  - 
accnnliiiL'ly  forthwith  resi::ned  his  ctanmission  the  14t!i  he  voted aiJuin-t  an  :»:n  i.  1:   i:  :  ;  " 
a>  lieutenant -coIoiu-1.     The  friiinls  of  Col.  Fre-  ing  that  if  a  free  person  in  tlie  i!i«:-  - :  .  :  1 
mont  and  a  larire  i#ortion  <»f  the  puMie  con«»id-  bia  i^hituM  inducv  a-hne  li-  ni:.  :.u  .■...-. 
ered  tliis  court  martial  an«l  the  eliar^'es  that  K-d  harbor  a fn^ritiw  >la\i-,  h«-^l...  ;M  \  .     :   *     -. 
to  if  a«  an  attemp:.  in  the  lani:ua;;e  of  one  of  in  thei)enitehtiary  5  \vnr-«.  oi. :!;.    \ '■:'• 
his  hio^rraplnTs,  '*  in-ti;:ated  ]>y  pn;Ies».ional  and  f«ir  the  bill  suppro^iii;:  tin-  *'.i\  ^    :-^\- 
per-^onal  jealousy  t«)  break  d«;\vn  the  character  di'»trict:  he  al-41  vi-tid  aijaii -•    :lt.    i*  * 
and  to  ruin  the  pro'ipi-t-t-.  of  an  a>pirinj:  and  nuth<tri/.in;;  the  ci»rp"ra!;':>  •  :'  v..    '.  ■■■ 
de.servin;;  rival."     On   <>ct.  14.  1^4^  Frem<int  pnihihit  free  neirro*  -  \Mtl.::.  rl.i   -::.--      : 
start i.-d  upon  a  4th  oxpedititin  acr.»->  tlic  eiMiti-  mont  ri'turned  ii»l'aii;"»'riii.i  i:.  :':  .  t>-*  -■■  .■    " 
mnt,  at   hi-^  own  exjK-n>e.     Willi  00  men  and  that  mailed  alter  tin-  a«:i  J-r:  ••:.::  i 
l-'i  mi:!.-  Ill-  made  his  way  al«»n;:  the  ujjpvr  he  was  prevent  edfr«'i:i  rit- ;::.■«•;•    "^\  ..• 
watrr-  of  t!ie  Kio  (irande  thri'U^'h  tlie  <'ouhtry  next  se<«'it»n  by  a  sc\vre:i:r..i  *    :  t^  -. .  • 
ot  thi'  rt:d.-.  Apaches,  Coman«lu-J.  ami  otlier  ed  u])on  the  i>thmu^.     I::  :i  i    -v.:-   •!     : 
Indian    triiu-,  th.n   at    war  with    the   rnitul  isril.  in  Calit'ori.iji.  the  j  .1-:;.  \\':.    ..■>:■      - 
State-.     Ili-i   iilijvi-t   va-i  til  find  a  i-rai-ticable  ed  the  inir«Kluc!i..n  t-f  >!.i-.  i 'v  ;.     :  :  ..  i   :    ■ 
ju-'^aire  I'j  till-  ri'Ute  t-- C'aiil"iir:iia.    In  attempt-  the  i»rovi>M.  ajain-t  it  it.  tl  ».  •!..!.    .    :  -•  *   ■ 
UJgtociV??  the  jiredl^'verru,  \:v)\v:tv:*iN\'\\\v'&\xvj>N^  vcua  dcfeate'l.     As  FreUi.  :.:  V.  .i-   k: 


FREMONT                   I  FBENOHFOUSH               747 

leaden  of  this  party,  he  failed  of  reSleotion  to  Fremont  for  the  presidency.  He  accepted 
the  senate,  after  142  ballotings  in  the  state  their  support  in  a  letter  dated  June  80,  in 
legislature.  The  next  2  jeard  he  devoted  to  which  he  referred  them  for  an  exposition  of 
bis  private  affiurs,  and  visited  Europe  in  1852,  his  views  to  his  forthcoming  letter  accepting 
where  he  spent  a  year,  and  was  received  with  the  republican  nomination.  After  a  most  spirit- 
distinction  by  many  eminent  men  of  letters  ed  ana  exciting  contest,  the  presidential  elec- 
and  of  science.  In  1850,  while  he  was  in  the  tion  resulted  in  the  choice  of  Mr.  Buchanan  by 
senate,  Baron  Humboldt,  on  behalf  of  the  king  174  electoral  votes  from  10  states,  while  Fre- , 
of  Prussia,  had  sent  him  *'  the  great  golden  mont  received  114  votes  from  11  states^  includ- 
medal  for  progress  in  the  sciences."  At  the  ing  the  6  New  England  states^  New  York, 
same  time  the  geographical  society  of  Berlin  Ohio,  Michigan,  Iowa,  and  Wisconsin.  Mary- 
elected  him  an  honorary  member.  A  few  land  gave  her  18  electoral  votes  for  Mr.  FiU- 
months  earlier  the  royal  geographical  society  more.  The  popular  vote  for  Fremont  was 
of  London  had  awarded  him  the  '^  founder's  1,841,514 ;  for  Buchanan,  1,838,232 ;  for  Fill- 
medal  "  for  his  ^^  preeminent  services  in  promot-  more,  884,707.  In  1858  Mr.  Fremont  returned 
ingthe  cause  of  geographical  science."  While  to  California,  where  he  has  since  resided. 
in  Europe  he  learned  that  congress  had  made  FREMONT,  a  S.  W.  co.  of  Iowa,  bordering 
an  appropriation  for  the  survey  of  8  routes  on  Missouri,  and  bounded  W.  by  the  Missouri 
from  the  Mississippi  valley  to  the  Pacific  river,  which  separates  it  from  Nebraska ;  area, 
He  immediately  returned  to  the  United  States  about  600  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1856.  8,368.  It  has 
ibr  the  purpose  of  fitting  out  a  5th  expedition  a  rich  soil  and  a  diversified  suruice  with  exten- 
on  hb  own  account  to  complete  the  survey  of  sive  prairies  and  timber  land,  watered  by  Nish- 
the  route  he  had  taken  on  his  4th  expedition,  nabatona  river.  The  productions  in  1856  were 
He  left  Paris  in  June,  1853,  and  in  September  1,088  tons  of  hay,  12,460  bushels  of  wheat, 
was  already  on  his  march  across  the  continent.  9,614  of  oats,  806,448  of  Indian  com,  18,166 
The  result  of  this  6th  expedition  was  satisfao-  of  potatoes,  and  45,806  lbs.  of  butter.  In  1855 
tory.  He  found  passes  through  the  mountains  the  county  contained  a  carding  machine,  7  saw 
on  the  line  of  lat  88^  and  80^  N.,  and  reached  mills,  2  grist  mills,  8  or  4  churches,  and  about 
California  in  safety,  after  enduring  great  hard-  20  public  schools.  It  was  named  in  honor  of 
thxps.  For  60  days  his  party  lived  on  horse  Gol.  J.  0.  Fremont  Capital,  Sidney. 
flesh,  and  for  48  hours  at  a  time  were  without  FRENCH  BROAD  RIVER,  a  river  of  North 
food  of  any  kind.  In  the  spring  of  1855  Fi*e-  Carolina  and  Tennessee,  rising  in  Henderson  co. 
mont  with  his  famUy  took  up  his  residence  in  of  the  former  state,  near  the  foot  of  the  Blue 
Kew  York,  for  the  purpose  of  preparing  for  Ridge,  flowing  N.  W.  into  Tennessee,  bending 
publication  the  narrative  of  his  last  expedition,  toward  the  S.  W.,  and  discharging  into  Holston 
His  name  now  began  to  be  mentioned  in  con-  river,  4  m.  above  Enoxville.  It  is  about  200 
nection  with  the  presidency  by  those  who  were  m.  long,  and  is  navigable  by  steamboats  as  far 
combining  to  act  against  tiie  democratic  party  as  Dandridge.  For  about  40  m.  from  Ashville 
on  the  basis  of  opposition  to  the  extension  of  to  the  Tennessee  line,  it  is  remarkable  for  its 
slavery.  In  April,  1856,  he  was  invited  to  at-  beautiful  scenery,  flowing  through  deep  moun- 
tend  a  meeting  in  New  York  of  those  who  tain  gorges,  or  overhung  by  high  clifls.  Nearly 
opposed  the  Kansas  policy  of  President  Pierce,  opposite  the  Warm  Springs,  in  Buncombe  co.^ 
In  nis  letter  of  reply  he  said :  *^I  heartily  con-  N.  C,  are  precipices  xnown  as  the  Chimneys 
cor  in  all  movements  which  have  for  their  ob-  and  the  Pamted  Rocks.  The  latter,  which  are 
lect  to  repair  the  mischiefe  arising  from  the  vio-  between  200  and  800  feet  high,  deiive  their 
lation  of  good  faith  in  the  repeal  of  the  Missouri  name  from  some  Indian  pictures  still  to  be  seen 
compromise.    I  am  opposea  to  slavery  in  the  on  them* 

abstract  and   upon   principle,    sustained  and  FRENCH  HORN.    See  Horn. 

made   habitual   by   long-settled    convictions.  FRENCH  POUSEL  a  varnish  made  by  dissolv- 

While  I  feel  inflexible  in  the  belief  that  it  ought  ing  some  resinous  substance,  as  shell  lac,  copal, 

not  to  be    interfered  with  where    it  exists,  or  mastio,  in  alcohol,  and  designed  for  polishing 

under  the  shield  of  state  sovereignty,  I  am  as  the  flat  surfiftces  of  furniture  bv  being  rubbed  in 

inflexibly  opposed  to  its  extension  on  this  con-  with  soft  rubbers  made  for  the  purpose.    Al- 

tinent  beyond  its  present  limits."    The  repub*  most  every  maker  of  it  has  his  own  recipe,  by 

lican  national  convention,  which  met  at  Phila-  which  it  appears  that  the  proportions  of  the 

delphia,  June  17,  1856,  deeming  this  letter  resin  or  even  the  Idnds  used  are  not  essential. 

Mtufactory,  nominated  Fremont  for  the  presi-  Some  add  dragon's  blood  or  other  coloring  mat- 

deney  by  a  vote  of  850  to  106  for  John  McLean,  ter  to  give  a  dark  tint  to  it,  while  others  prefer 

on  an  informal  ballot.    On  the  flrst  formal  bal-  it  colorless.    The  consistency  is  reduced  to  the 

lot  Fremont  was  unanimously  nominated.    He  f^cy  of  the  operator  by  adding  more  alcohol 

accepted  the  nomination  in  a  letter  dated  July  after  the  solution  is  made.    In  its  use  the  sur- 

8|  1866,  in  which  he  expressed  himself  strongly  face  of  the  wood  is  first  well  smoothed  with 

against  the  extension  of  slavery  and  in  favor  sand  paper.    The  rubber,  which  may  be  a  small 

m  fi'ee  labor.    A  few  days  after  the  Philadel-  ball  of  clean  cotton  covered  with  a  linen  rag,  is 

phian  convention  adjourned,  a  national  Amer-  then  moistened  with  the  varnish  by  laying  it 

lean  convention  at  New  York  also  nominated  upon  the  month  of  the  bottle  and  i^^^^c^Ss^ 


tlila  upon  it.    Another  r«  Is  tliOT  Wd  OTcr  !t  «ii!  r«i»  irfbr  ttN 

Mid  wet  with  9  or  8  dro^  of  Unseed  oil.    As  naU'ir«»'»'"''r"P« 

thi«  l*  moved  over  the  wood  with  free  ciMalar  the  Mtablbliinetil 

aweeiM  and  li^t  prsaroro,  tlie  Tamish  erodes  PMlndelpf.U  he  w 

thmugh  the  rag  and  is  ovenl*  spread  over  the  tor  in  the  depitrta 

BQriiuv.  tlie  eapply  htaog  regnlat^  by  the  pre*-  m<r,  oitd  et  the  ill 

■oro  •  Ff  ihe  hiiiid«.  Care  U  Kqaired  not  to  lln  the  "  National  OaaetU 

mbber  A'trr^tir  from  the  work,  hut  to  iveep  it  cle  of  hitt«r  ittacll 

off,  lis  in  blending  with  a.  brash.    In  &  few  mo-  Gen.  Vaslihigtoa 

ments  the  oater  rag  becomes  closed  ao  that  the  whether  FVeoeaaj 

polish  cannot  pass  tretiy  throurb ;  it  is  then  c)e«  on   thla  raljp 

neressarf  to  renew  it    The  nibbera  are  often  etatementt  the  mt 

thrown  awftT  and  replaced  with  now  ones,  as  written  or  dict^ 

the;  beoomcWd  and  liable  to  8orat«h  the  work,  was  disoootinned  < 

When  tbo  gmin  cif  the  wood  appeara  to  be  nn!-  Frenesu  al&rtfid  k 

fonnlj  filled  np  It  is  left  to  Unnluu  for  an  boor  Point,  X.  J.,  whtd 

or  two,  »Dd  is  then  smoothed  down  with  very  priniM  tbvr*  an  i 

line  Band  paper.    Tliese  procc<«M  are  ropcatod  after  vdiUns  toe'' 

till  tlio  wood  appears  uairorml;  bri^t  and  tri-weekljr  ftneet,  ^ 

•month.    The  don^  marks  way  b«  removed  York:,  deTot«d  la 

by  tcent1<r  nibhiiig  with  a  cIpiid  rnbber  and  rag,  naws,li«rc«nmed1 

the  latter  moistened  with  it  few  drops  rit  a1co<  of  a  merchant  vfl 

hoi — the  rnbbing  being  Sret  in  cireolar  swectia,  Great  Britain  reat 

and  ending  in  straight  atrokea  passing  in  the  corded  in  etirrioi 

direction  of  the  grain  cpf  the  wood.    After  dry-  American  ann&  " 

tuK  A  few  days,  the  work  shonlJ  be  again  rubbed  spent  fn  rntlrenieiil 

wiih  the  finest  sand  paper,  and  then  polished  sty,  with  ftY^ncn 

with  varnish  of  the  Ihinncet  consistene;. — A  New  York,  where 

polish  reoonuncnded  as  preferable  to  the  abovo  Dent  staie«niMi  aoj 


A  being  injnred  by  water,  and  lost  his  life  by  tnU 
neiuT  covering  any  stains  or  scratches  in  Iho  footintbcnizbtoi 
wood,  is  thoa  prepared.     Three  or  fonr  dIccc*    denco  near  Freelu 


)f  sandarnch  of  tbesizeof  asmolleeg  nreoolled  known  to  the  preM 

with  a  hotdeful  of  linseed  oil,  rendered  dryins  sod  an  able  vrit«ri 

hj  litbar)ce  or  otlier  drier,  for  an  honr,  and  His  poems  erahraofl 

while  cooling  ateaspoonfid  of  Tenico  tnr|icn-  position,  and  shoir 

tine  is  gradually  added.    If  too  thick,  spirits  of  tion.    lUs  humor' 

turpentine  may  bo  used  to  thin  it.    After  rnh-  satirical  poems,  an 

biog  it  on  the  fnmitnre  nod  exposing  it  a  short  he  so  r^dily  tfan 

time  to  the  snn,  it  is  to  be  nibbed  off.    Every  poems  posMS  gM 

day  the  wood  ^ould  ho  mbbed,  and  in  8  or  10  year«agoww«wn 

days  the  polish  should  be  agmn  applied,  and  Campbell  mi  Soc 

afierward  onro  in  one  or  two  months,  whole  lines  from 

FRESEAIT,  Phiup,  an  Aiuorican  poet  and  that  the  time  Wi 

Jonmaliat,  bom  in  New  York  Jon.  13,  1762,  like"  Hudibras,"  i 

iod  near  Freehold,  N.  J.,  Dec.  18,  1883.     lie  tor  like  Grey.     S 

was  of  Hngnenot  descent,  and  was  educated  at  ooems  were  pnhB) 

Nassan  hall,  N.  J.,  where  James  Madison  wo3  liave  bmn  long  00 
his  room-mate  and  intimate  personal  fricndl        FBEBB,  JoHS 

As  a  bur  he  showed  coeriderable  satirical  power  and  diplomallaLl 

and  faciiUyin  versificalJon,  andwhilo  at  college  Jan.  T,  1848,     iJ| 

wrote  the  "  Pi>etical  History  of  tho  Prophet  wbiio  a  school  b^ 

Jonah,"  in  i  cantos.     It  was  his  flret  intention  War  song  opontbv 

to  stndr  law,  bnt  ho  finally  engaged  in  a  sea-  nenborg  from  the. 

faring  life.    During  the  war  of  the  revolntion  tnry  into  the  An^ 

his  pen  was  bnay  on  the  patriotic  side,  and  his  found  in  tho  firrt  i 

political  bnrleeqnes  in  prose  and  verse  were  of  the  £ar1yEn^ 

widely  circulated  and  relished.    Some  of  hla  tliat  of  all  the  m 

Tenm.  deMrtptive  of  memorable  events  on  land  prodnce<l  aa  antnei 

and  sM,  are  gennino  ipecimoni  of  tho  national  he  had  seen  wbidh 

hiOad.    In  ITSO  ho  was  captured  by  a  British  on  internal  erUfl 

cnberwhStonhisway  to  theWe«tIndi«s,an<t  Eton  tn  oonoectk 

VM  nMeded  to  a  long  and  i^mel  conHnement  Smith  ba  started  ■ 

HI  beard  the  dioorpion  prison  ahip  in  New  York  weekly  paper  calli 

litrbor,  which  ho  has  comiDetnorUcl  In  lits  poem  tervd  parliament  b 

•ntklec  Uio  **  Uritiatt  PiWta  EVly.**    ?B(rmi-  vBAm-wKnjutr)  ti 


FR£B£T  fresco  painting            749 

minister  plenipotentiary  in  Spain  in  1818-  separable  from  that  of  Voltaire,  who  was  stung 

10.    He  afterward  filled  other  diplomatic  sta-  to  madness  by  the  passionless  satires  which  ap- 

tloDB  in  Portngal  and  Prussia,  and  during  his  peared  weekly  in  Vannie  litteraire,     Fr{Ton 

lelsare  made  ezc^uisite  translations  from  the  never  missed  an  opportunity  to  attack  him, 

G^reek   and  Spanish,  for  which  Prof.  Wilson  and  Voltaire  repaid  him  with  equal  malice. 

classed  him  with  Coleridge,  styling  them  the  two  He  stops  in  the  midst  of  a  grave  historical  dis- 

most  perfect  versifiers  of  the  time.    In  1817  he  cnssion  to  insult  Fr^ron ;  he  assails  him  in  his 

pubUsoed  an  extravaganza  of  the  Pulci  and  Cas-  most  dignified  tragedies,  in  La  pucelle  and  Can- 

tisdiool,  nnder  the  title  of  Whistlecraft's  ^Pros-  dide;  he  hurls  against  him  tlie  philippic  of  Le 

peotos  and  Specimen  of  an  Intended  National  pauvre  diahle,  and  in  the  comedy  of  L^coMaige 

Poem^  (also  called  the  ^*  Monks  and  the  Giants"),  calls  his  journal  L'dns  litteraire.    Fr^ron  sus- 

whioh  treated  in  a  light  and  satirical  way  the  aa-  tained  the  conflict  alone,  and  large  volumes 

▼entores  of  King  Arthur.  Its  peculiar  stanza  and  might  be  collected  of  epigrams  and  satires  by 

•tn^»tio  pleasantry  formed  the  immolate  ex*  men  of  genius  of  which  ne  was  the  object ;  yet 

emplar  of  Byron  in  his  "Beppo"  and  "Don  though  he  was  defeated  at  last,  and  died  in 

Joan.''    Frere  united  with  Canning,  Ellis,  and  grief  for  the  suppression  of  his  journal,  he  is 

Gifford,  as  a  contributor  to  the  "  Anti-Jacobin,*'  now  remembered  as  one  of  the  calmest  observ- 

Mid  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  London  ers  and  keenest  analyzers  of  the  society  of  his 

^  Quarterly  Beview.*'    For  many  years  before  time,  as  a  man  of  admirable  taste,  and  the 

hia  death  he  resided  in  Malta,  receiving  from  the  founder  of  newspaper  criticism  in  France. — 

goremment  a  liberal  diplomatic  pension.  Louis  Stanislas,  a  French  revolutionist,  son 

FB£R£T,  Nicolas,  a  French  scholar,  bom  of  the  preceding,  bom  in  Paris  in  1765,  died  in 
In  Paris,  Feb.  15, 1688,  died  in  the  same  city,  St.  Domingo  in  1802.  A  schoolfellow  of  Bo- 
March  8, 1749.  Admitted  in  1714  to  the  acad-  bespierre  and  Camille  Desmoulins,  ho  became 
emy  of  inscriptions  and  belles  lettres,  of  which  one  of  the  most  fervent  of  the  revolutionary 
he  was  afterward  perpetual  secretary,  he  was  party,  and  published  a  ferocious  newspaper, 
imprisoned  for  his  nrst  memoir,  which  discussed  jjorateur  dti  peuple.  He  was  at  the  same 
the  ori^n  of  the  French.  On  recovering  his  time  a  member  of  the  club  of  Cordeliers.  On 
liberty  m  1715,  he  began  to  produce  the  long  the  flight  of  the  king  to  the  frontier,  he  in- 
■eries  of  memoirs  which  gave  him  distinction  sisted  upon  his  deposition,  and  afterward  parti- 
as  a  ohronologist,  geographer,  philosopher,  cipated  in  the  insurrection  of  Aug.  10,  and  in 
mythologist,  and  philologion.  The  annals  of  the  slaughters  of  Sept.  1792.  lie  was  now 
the  Assyriajis,  Chaldeans,  Egyptians,  and  In-  elected  to  the  convention,  where  he  took  his 
dians,  the  principal  ancient  and  oriental  cos-  seat  among  the  Montagnaros ;  he  voted  for  the 
mogonies  and  theogonies,  and  numerous  ques-  king^s  death,  and  contributed  to  the  fall  of  the 
tions  of  history  and  geography  are  among  the  Girondists.  Being  i^pointed  one  of  the  com- 
ol»}ects  of  his  research.  Ho  wrote  on  chronol-  missaries  of  the  convention  sent  with  the  army 
OffJ  against  Newton.  An  incomplete  collection  against  Marseilles  and  Toulon,  he  signalized 
orchis  works  was  made  by  Leclero  de  Sept-  himself  by  such  brutalities  that  he  was  ccn- 
ohdnes  (20  vols.,  Paris,  1796-^99).  A  more  com-  sured  even  by  the  committee  of  public  safety. 
^ete  eaition  was  undertaken  by  Champollion-  After  the  death  of  Donton,  he  sided  with  the 
FigCHBO  (Paris,  1825),  but  only  Uie  first  volume  Thermidorians  against  Bobespierre,  and  in  con- 
was  issued.  junction  with  Barras  commanaed  the  troops  who 

FB&BON,  £lib  Cathsbine,  a  French  critic  arrested  the  dictator  and  his  adherents  at  the 

and  joumalbt,  born  in  Quimpcr  in  1719,  died  hdtel  de  ville.    He  now  unrelentingly  pursued 

in  Paris,  March  10,1776.    He  studied  under  the  members  of  the  committee  of  public  safety, 

the  Jesuits  in  the  college  of  Louis  le  Grand  at  procured  the  condemnation  of  Fouqnier-Tinville, 

Paris,  in  which  he  was  for  a  short  time  profes-  became  the  chief  of  a  reactionary  band  of  young 

Bor.    At  the  affe  of  20  he  joined  Desfontaines  menknownas2a  9ettneM0^rtf^,wasin8tmmental 

in  conducting  his  journal  of  criticism,  and  in  in  soppressing  the  Jacobins,  and  energetically 

1746,  after  the  death  of  the  latter,  commenced  opposed  all  attempts  at  insurrection.    Under 

m  periodical  of  similar  character  entitled  Lettrei  the  directory,  he  was  sent  to  the  south  on  a  mis- 

d  Madame  la  Comtesae  de  ***,   This  was  sup-  sion  of  peace ;  but  his  former  cmelties  were 

pressed  in  1749,  but  resumed  under  the  title  LeU  still  remembered  by  the  people.    He  was  on 

irm  9ur  quelques  ecrite  de  ee  tempi,  in  which  he  the  point  of  committing  bigamy  by  marrying 

was  associated  with  the  abb6  de  La  Porte.  This  Paulme  Bonaparte,  the  sister  of  the  first  consul, 

was  sniceeded  in  1754  by  Uannee  litteraire,  when  his  wife  came  forward  and  prevented  tlie 

which  Fr^ron  conducted  alone,  and  which  was  match.    He  accepted  an  appointment  as  sub- 

the  chief  foundation  of  his  reputation.    In  this  prefect  in  the  island  of  St  Domingo,  and  soon 

he  showed  himself  a  passionate  admirer  of  the  after  his  arrival  there  was  carried  off  by  the 

age  of  Louis  XIV.,  and  a  decided  adversary  of  yellow  fever. 

the  new  philosophical  and  literary  doctrines.  FBESCO  PAINTING  (Ital.  fresco,  fresh),  a 

His  invectives  produced  against  him  the  most  method  of  ornamenting  the  walls  and  ceiling  of 

violent  hatred,  and  the  rest  of  his  life  was  a  buildings  by  painting  designs  in  colors  ground 

warfare  with  the  encyclopedists.    Throughout  in  water  and  mixed  with  lime  upon  the  freshlv 

the  literary  history  of  Uie  time  his  name  is  in-  laid  plaster.    This  art  was  a  favorite  qua  ^OL 


livTIIniTiB 


'-•^  —  pwpwri  wtek'  a^tnoM  dnv,  In 
tn*  printi         


BUUMnt  Bttnn.  But  whh  the  modarai  tbe 
flommon  pUstsr  of  Sxa»  and  Mod  k  pnAmd 
fin-  «  fimndttion;  ft  k  loogar  fn  Mtting  nd 
igtTMftMftercAattottwpdnttifr  lUai^l* 
of  palntlns  tm  nwcb  pneUitd  bj  Am  moit 
adabntod  ItiBin  irtiM^  and  tba  waOi  olnmj 
of  Am  ItaHaa  pahcM,  drntohaa,  and  'eoimBto 
an  itm  adoHMdvidi  tbaworka  dadgnad  bj 
tbdrbuuk  IbeoatHncaortlMdadfMBaflnt 
cxamted  upon  dddc  p^wattaohad  to  cloth, 
vUdt  la  dntdwd  upoB  a  frame.  Tbaaa  an 
aallad  eartoona,  from  tha  HaBan  tarlmu,  paata 
board.  Hw  frmoaa  eartocu  «r  BaphM^  da- 
risna  ttiat  ban  nanr  ban  anpaMad  u  bna^ 
br  tha  mA  of  maa^  Iwndi,  wan  of  tida  <li«- 
-  '  r,mada  to  ba  oopledln  latiMtij,  Ooo^ 
'WnUaUatobaappBadtoaadaootattaoC 


ftra  oopMa  upon  cndiii|  papar,  asd  naaa  baiBfl 
■ttaobad  to  ^  wan  Ifl  portleaa  rf  oaonniaiii 
risa,  tba  ontUna  b  tniHfaTCd  to  OMTatplartw 
br  B<^  OTar'tba  BntawHh  a  diaip  point 
Otur  matboda  of  trmftr  am,  bonmi;  fa 
ne;  w  eorarins  tba  back  oe  tha  daiivi  wia 
Uaek  faad  or  aoma  obor  ooloriDg  nuttar,  «p> 
^jlDg  lUa  to  tba  walL  and  flian  goingofw  to* 
aeaof  tbe  drawing  wm  a  point;  andiOlaB- 
othar  metiiod  b  to  priek  thailgiini  tliroii^  tba 
cartoon,  aotnetimM  upon  a  a^arftta  ahaet  laid 
bebind  it,  and  then,  pladng  either  the  cartoon 


nanr  of  tb«  great  paintora  have  worked  im- 
mediately on  the  plaster  without  the  inter- 
vention  of  anj  gaiio  whatever.  The  prepa- 
ration of  the  walls  is  sttll  an  object  of  aopecial 
care.  All  the  mortar  shoold  be  fruh  woi^ 
and  of  clean  sand  and  good  lime.  When 
tbe  rough  coat  is  perfectlj-  diy  and  hard,  the 
emoother  layer*  are  added  of  tbe  moat  oarehilly 
prepared  mortar.  In  Unnich  this  lime  is  some- 
timea  slaked  iori  years  before  it  laosed,  being 
kept,  after  thorongh  stirring  end  rednction  to  an 
Impalpable  consistency,  in  a  pit  ooTered  with 
clean  sand  a  foot  or  more  in  thiclcneM,  over 
vbich  eartb  is  laid.  Pure  rain  or  distilled  water 
■taonid  be  need  in  nixing  it,  and  also  perfectly 
clean  sand.  The  rough  coat  being  dampened 
till  it  will  absorb  no  more  water,  the  finer 
plaster  is  laid  on,  and  when  this  be^ns  to  set,  a 
still  finer  coot  is  ^plied  containing  a  smaller 
proportion  of  sand.  Before  this  dnea,  tba  de- 
sign ninsl  be  transferred  and  tlie  peinung  com- 
pleted ;  conseqnently  bot  mall  portions  can  be 
plastered  at  a  time.  Tbe  drying  may  be  check- 
ed by  occational  sprinlding  with  water,  or,  as  la 
aometimes  nractised,  by  keeping  wet  sheets 
preoeed  to  the  dedgo,  as  it  la  atlaobed  to  tbe 


maooabladtogn 
tmiaBitoMiiH 
tn«ft«aoaMtatfi 
faUaboBlflthaf 


style  were  pi^Mt 
Pompeii  ana  Hen 
masses  of  eolor  w 
and  the  piotnre 

parinK  the  wall  ai 
Latroonoed  Into  C 
called  the  stereocli 
a  preparation  of  1 
the  least  poidblet 
application  of  tbl 
more  tbe  ontar  ec 
mospbere.  It  ia 
of  rilica,  prepared 
aoda8.M;  polasb 
Isthnasaldtobefl 
must  bo  mbbed  < 
api^ies  hit  odors  1 
ing  dialled  watei 
washed  orer  with 
tore  also,  at  It  Is  ii 
same  solntion,  and 
corporated  in  tb« 
rendered  hard  ani 
this  prooess  tbe 
and  retnm  to  It  al 
to  retoneh  and  al 
aeeflt.  Tba  new 
reeently  admied ' 
Tbe  deeoratioDS  1 
mendons  of  wbl« 
Sit  in  width;  and 


FRESCO  PADirnNG  761 

arabesques,  ko.     They  hare   the   brilliaQoy  efforts  are  now  making  to  restore  them,  or  to 

and  vigor  of  oil  paintings,  with  no  dazzling  arrest  the  progress  ofdecay.    A  series  pdnted 

effect  from  whatever  direction  in  regard  to  bj  Orcagna  about  1885,  representing  the  last 

the  li^t  they  may  be  viewed. — Ancient  paint-  judgment,  hell,  and  other  subjects  acoordiuff 

ings   m  fresco   have  been   transferred   from  with  the  chu^cter  of  the  place,  are  considered 

walls  crumbling  by  decay  to  canvas,  and  thus  among  the  grandest  specimens  of  earlv  art   Af- 

presefired.    The  wall  being  thoroughly  dean-  ter  him  came  Simone  Memmi,  Taddeo  Gaddi, 

ed,  doth  b  glued  to  it,  and  successive  layers  Francesco  da  Volterra,  Antonio  Veneziano,  and 

are  added  and  glued  on.     When  quite  dry  others,  whose  labors  extended  to  the  dose  of 

the  whole  is  torn  off,  taking  the  firesco  with  it  the  century.    The  wars  and  intemd  dissensionfl 

Oloth  is  now  attached  with  stronger  glue  to  the  which  distracted  I^sa  subsequently  interrupted 

back  of  the  fresco,  and  the  adherence  of  the  the  decoration  of  the  Oampo  Santo  for  manr 

layers  on  the  other  side  is  loosened  by  the  con-  years ;  but  tranquillity  having  been  restoredi 

ttnoed  application  of  warm  water,  until  they  benozzo€k>zzoli  was  invited  in  1468  to  complete 

are  all  removed  and  the  painting  is  left  upon  the  work.    The  whole  of  the  north  wall,  400 

the  cloth  at  its  back.    Such  was  the  process  feet  in  length,  was  assigned  to  him,  and  in  the 

aacceasfblly  employed  in  removing  and  nreserv-  course  of  the  next  16  years  he  covered  this  im- 

log  the  paintings  on  the  old  wafis  of  tne  con-  mense  space  with  a  series  of  frescoes  represent- 

▼ent  of  Sta.  Enfemia  at  Brescia  in  1829. — ^The  ins  the  principal  events  in  the  Old  Testament — 

history  of  fresco  painting  during  the  first  two  vw opera terrtbUimma^BsYaamoalls it  Beside 

oenturies  after  the  revival  of  art  b  a  history  of  the  works  enumerated  as  bdongins  to  the  14Ui 

mrt  itself^  as  nearly  every  considerable  work  was  century,  we  may  mention  Olotto^  celebrated 

executed  by  that  process.    As  a  means  of  con-  series  in  the  Arena  chapd  at  Padua,  representing 

Teying  thoughts,  ideas,  and  information,  not  scenes  from  the  Ufe  of  the  Virgin,  and  the  same 

tlien,  as  now,  acquirea  through  literature,  it  master^s  recently  discovered  portnuts  of  Dante 

coQtinned  to  subserve  a  useful  purpose  even  and  other  Florentine  dtizens  in  the  diapel  of 

after  the  invention  of  printing.     Hence  the  the  Bargello  at  Florence ;  the  series  by  Taddeo 

early  masters,  laboring  for  the  edification  of  Gaddi  and  Simone  Memmi  in  the  Spanish  chapel 

men  in  general,  and  not  for  the  gratification  of  in  the  church  of  Sta.  Maria  Novella,  Florence, 

individuals— or,  to  adopt  the  language  of  the  representing  the  ^  Triumph  of  the  Ohurch  i^ 

smcient  fi*atemity  of  the  painters  of  Sienna,  Spinello^s  *^  Overthrow  of  the  Rebel  Angels^  in 

«« being  teachers  to  ignorant  men,  who  know  the  convent  of  S.  Agnolo,  at  Arezzo ;  and  the 

not  how  to  read,  of  the  miracles  performed  by  series  representing  the  "  Fruits  of  Good  Govern- 

▼irtue  and  in  virtue  of  the  holy  faith" — rarely  ment  and  the  Triumnh  of  Peace,"  painted  by 

painted  easel  pictures,  but  lavished  all  their  Ambrosio  Lorenzetti  m  the  Palazzo  Publico  of 

ffenius  and  thought  upon  mural  decoration  or  Sienna.    In  Uie  16th  century,  to  which  belongs 

fresco  painting.    As  late  as  the  latter  half  of  what  has  been  caUed  the  renamance  or  new 

the  16th  century  Vasari   declares   it  to   be  birth  of  art,  increased  wealth  and  intelligence^ 

**  more  masterly,  noble,  manly,  secure,  resolute,  the  result  of  greater  political  and  religious  free* 

and  durable  than  any  other  kind  of  painting;"  dom,  caused  an  increased  demand  for  easel  pio- 

and  he  records  the  opinion  of  Mchel  Angelo  tures,  the  value  of  which  was  greatly  enhanced 

that  fresco  was  fit  for  men,  oil  painting  T)nly  by  the  introduction  of  oil  as  a  medium  for  mixing 

for  women,  and  the  luxurious  and  idle.    The  colors;  but  fresco  painting  still  maintiuned  its 

abbey  church  of  St  Francis  in  AssLd,  near  Pe-  supremacy,  and  claimed  for  its  fhnction  the  re« 

mgia,  witnessed  the  first  development  of  fresco  ligious  and  moral  teaching  of  the  P^P}^  ^nd 

painting  in  modem  times.    About  the  middle  the  representation  of  sacred  history.    The  no- 

of  the  18th  century  Giunta  of  Pisa  commenced  blest  achievements  in  art  are  therefore  still  those 

a  aeries  of  painting  on  its  wdls,  and  during  the  of  the  fresco  peters.    The  great  names  of  the 

next  two  centuries  Cimabue,  Giotto,  Taddeo  century  are  rietro  della  Franceses,  of  whose 

Ghiddi,  Simone  Memmi,  and  nearly  every  other  frescoes  in  the  church  of  S.  Francesco,  in  Arez- 

painter  of  note,  were  invited  to  add  to  its  adorn-  zo,  Vasari  says  that  '^  they  might  be  called  too 

ment  Neglect  and  exposure  have  ii\}ured  these  b^utiful  and  excellent  for  the  time  in  which 

works,  but  as  the  earliest  spedmens  of  modem  they  were  pfdnted ;"  Masolino ;  Ulippo  Lippi, 

Ohristian  art,  they  still  possess  an  absorbing  in*  who  paintea  the  frescoes  in  the  Duomo  at  Prato ; 

terest    Next  in  date  to  these,  and  of  far  greater  Fra  Angelico  da  Fiesole ;  Masaccio,  whose  series 

imp<Nrtance,  are  the  decorations  of  the  Oampo  of  the  me  of  St  Peter  in  the  Brancacd  chapel 

Santo  in  Pisa,  a  burial  ground,  about  400  feet  in  in  the  church  of  Sta.  Maria  del  Carmine,  in 

lensth  by  118  in  breadth,  enclosed  by  high  walls  Florence,  to  which  additions  were  afterward 

wiu  an  arcade  something  like  the  cloisters  of  a  made  by  Filippino  Llppi,  formed  an  epoch  in 

monastery  running  all  around  it    It  was  com-  art;  and  Ghirlandaio,  the  master  of  Michd 

pletedabontl28S,anduntil  the  close  of  the  15th  Angelo,  whose  frescoes  representing  the  his- 

eentury  its  wallsemployed  the  services  of  some  of  tories  of  John  the  Baptist  and  the  Virgin  af- 

the  chief  masters  of  fresoa    The  early  paintings  forded  models  for  Leonardo  da  Vinci,  Raphael, 

bvBuffiilmacco,  Giotto,  and  others,  have  nearly  and  Michel  Angelo.    Luca  Signorelli,  Andrea 

disappeared,  and  time,  neglect,  and  damp  have  Mantegna,  the  great  founder  of  the  Mantuan 

seriously  impaired  the  effect  of  the  others;  but  sohool,  Francesco  Franda,  who  decorated  the 


nMaOO  TAIBTSM9 


•dMH^  bdoog  Miilj  to  tUi  Mntarr  and  par^r 
to  tbe  Mzb  wtaloh  wltDMnd  at  obm  Um  eat 
-    Boarfl  " 


idpilaaM.  and  tb^  voMmi  < 
itofllUd  an  ft^i^inUattc^iiHaHnlbff 
innid  fl>a  oIom  oI  Aa  vmdmj  iSo  USSi 
nauimimm.  Lacmrto^  tUif mifc  to  ttMVill 
]«nra''UatfiiqparJ*  oneoted  ftirdM  nto> 
ton  of  dw  aoanataSlM.  Haitodalltefarfart 
UBia,  and  of  wUck  oolrtba  irnddHba  Mi 
ndB*  •»  aov  TMUa.  &  hM  baw  oaDad  flw 
.  BMMtpwlMwartaMantadiiiiaatfaawrinlcC 
{^di«.  OrHUMlAntdo^framwLi' 


IMiQsiBaaFiM 

WHBMMd#IWlV] 

wntttoa  oe  Xm 


Una  ehapcL  gwwMirtliig  Uw  **<mi 
^  "  na  <tf  dsD,"  with  tba  tnad  ignaa  fl< 
tha  pnvlMta  and  ribjH  and  aia*'lMt  Jadtf: 
inUc?UMelu9d-tbai^3a 


mmt"  ontbaMd 

Bomtinlng  to  «  danae 
"    Bndmi 


mndaorof  &ntnd 
0  rfig^  baantv  and  i 

ti  thfllrttMihBinu  fmwt 

Miliqw  raUUt  tfaa  iiifimt  danJopmnt  of 
GbMiaiiait,    llMiiioBtAiBOaaaradioaaaov 


friw  tba  vaQa  and  adUup  at  tha  elunbwa  In 
ttw  Vattoan,  knowiiM  die  "fitaaia  (tf  B^ifaaiL" 
although  many  o<  theae  mriEit  w  well  aa  tba 
deeoratiou  <rf  the  Ivvjf  or  opeo  oidoimBdM  cf 

the  Vatican,  wera  p^ted  by  fflnlio  Bonuno 

and  otber  Bcholan  of  Bapbad  from  hla  detugtu. 
Bapbaera  hand  U  seen  chiefly  in  the  series  of 
"Theology"  or  tho  "  Di»pate  of  the  Stumnient,'* 
"Fbilosophj"  or  the  "School  of  Athene" 
^PoetrT"or"PamaBww,"«nd"JuriBiirndenoe," 
lu  the  Oamen  della  Segnetnra.  and  in  the  "  £x- 
tmlsioQ  of  Heliodonu  from  tlie  Temple,"  the 
"MassatUoIsena,"  "Attil&,"aadtbo"D«Iive^ 
of  SL  Foter,"  in  tho  stanza  of  Ileliodonu.    Ho 


''Gahtt«a"intbeFaniediiaTillamB(Hae, 


In  the  la«t  century.  GiulioRomonoaloop^nted 
thewellknown"  Fall  of  tbe  Giants"  in  thePa- 
lano  del  Te  at  Mantua.  Shortly  aft«r  tho  com- 
pletion of  the  works  in  tbo  Vatican,  Correggio 
painted  in  tbe  church  of  S.  GioTanni  in  Panna 
lis  Ireoco  of  tlie  "  Ascension,"  and  that  of  the 
"  AasDmption"  in  the  Doomo  of  the  aame  dty, 
in  both  of  which  Hie  ut  of  cbiaroscoro  and  re- 
lief is  carried  to  perfection,  Parmiglatio,  hia 
pupil,  left  DDfinislied  aome  frescoee  In  the 
Bteccata  at  Farma,  in  which  a  fignre  of  Moaea 
breaking  the  tablets  baa  been  greatly  extolled. 
The  Zaccheri,  Andrea  del  Sarto,  Seboatinn  d«I 
Piombo,  YaBBii,  and  nearly  every  other  distin- 
gulahed  pointer  of  the  age,  practised  ftiseco 
panting,  and  sometimes  on  tiie  moat  extensive 
•cale;  bnt  tbe  art  rapidly  deteriorated  until 


of  art,  and  Sing 
nalinatoMonieht 
Plnakothek,  aa  tl 

^^eneeofthlii 
ing  sprang  np  In 
pnpoi  Eimlbach, 
otben,  whoee  « 
BasUioaof  St  £ 
Featbao,  the  AU 
other  bnildbgs. 
0Dt«d  OomeUna^ 
ment'*  In  the  i 
and  elaewbore  la 
mens  by  Corne 
otben. — ^Mnraldi 
France  nntil  the 
the  last  few  yean 
been  embelUshei 
Brknond,  and  < 
moral  painting  ii 
de"  In  the  jkmoi 
oil,  althoi^Ji  it  ii 
haaallthebreadt 
Tbeereotioo  of  < 
gave  the  first  dee 

iti  TCniflAnil  %ni  1l 

a  adeot  commit 
the  ptlDcipal  arl 
Weatminslcr  ball 
dmaoac^freaool 


1 


« 

Ing^  Some  of  these  works,  oomprisiog  abstract  The  true  laws  of  the  complicated  phenomena  of 
representations  of  religion,  justice,  &c.,  and  double  refraction  were  demonstrated  bjr  Fres- 
passages  from  British  nistorj  and  mythology,  nel.  It  is  now  known  that  nearly  all  crystals 
oave  been  executed  by  Cope,  Dyoe,  Ward,  Mao-  oossess  the  property  of  double  refhustion.  Be- 
fore Fresners  investigations  it  was  supposed 


Herbert,  Watts,  ^k.\  others  are  in  pro- 
gress.   A  summer  pavilion  in  the  gardens  of  that  Iceland  spar  and  auartz  were  alone  en- 
Bookingham  palace  has  been  painted  in  fresco  do  wed  with  it.     Fresnel  in  conjunction  with 

Sr  Leaue,  Eastlake,  Maclise,  Ross,  Stanfield.  Arago  explained  the  interferences  of  polarized 

wins,  and   Dyoe.     Watts   is  now  engaged  lighL  giving  all  the  phenomena,  and  determin- 

upon  the  hall  of  Lincoln's  Inn,  and  several  ing  all  their  laws.    He  proved  that  idl  the  colors 

ennrehes  in  London  have  been  painted  with  engendered  in  doubly  refracting  crystals  are 

frescoes  in  the  style  of  earl^  Christian  art  particular  cases  of  the  interference  of  polariaed 

Lastly,  in  Oxford,  Dante  Gabriel  Rossetti  and  light,  and  also  discovered  tiie  phenomena  whidh 

others  of  the  so  called  **pre-Raphaelites'*  have  are  called  circular  polarization,  and  explained 

undertaken  to  adorn  the  theatre  of  the  Union  their  laws.    He  was  an  able  and  enthusiastio 

debating  society  with  a  series  of  paintings  on  advocate  of  the  wave  theory  of  light,  against 

aahiftBts  from  the  romances  of  King  Arthur.  that  of  emission  or  material  emanations.    In 

FRESNEL,  AuQUsmr  Jkan,  a  rrench  phys-  1811  a  lighthouse  board  or  commission  of  light- 

ioiati  Ikmh  in  Broglie,  department  of  Euro,  May  houses  was  formed  in  France.    One  of  Uie  du* 

10.  1788,  died  at  Ville  d'Avray,  near  Paris,  ties  of  this  commission  was  to  determine  whether 

Joiy  14, 1827.    In  his  childhood  he  is  repre-  the  system  of  lighting  apparatus  then  in  use 

aented  to  have  had  little  taste  for  languages  might  not  be  improved.    In  1819  Arago  volun- 

and  a  very  bad  memory ;  but  he  was  nick-  teered  to  take  charge  of  the  experiments  on  the 

named  the  man  of  genius  by  his  brothers,  for  subject,  provided  Fresnel  and  Mathieu  were 

lie  devoted  his  leisure  to  the  determination  of  joined  with  him.    The  proposition  was  accept- 

the  proper  calibres  and  lengths  of  toy  guns,  ed,  and  Fresnel  devoted  the  whole  strengUi  of 

and  the  proper  woods  for  &e  fabrication  of  his  mind  to  the  subject.    The  result  was  the 

bows.    At  the  age  of  18  he  was  sent  to  the  system  of  lens-lighting  apparatus  which  has 

oentnd  school  at  Caen,  and  in  his  17th  year  he  changed  the  mode  of  lighthouse  illumination 

entered  the  polytechnic  school,  where  he  gained  over  the  whole  world,  and  is  universally  known 

the  applause  of  Legendre  by  a  peculiar  solution  as  the  Fresnel  system.    The  most  perfect  sys- 

of  a  question  in  geometry.    From  the  poly  tech-  tem  of  lighting  apparatus  known  before  the  in- 

nie  school  he  passed  to  the  school  of  bridges  vention  of  the  Fresnel  system  was  that  of  para- 

and  roads.    After  graduating,  he  was  sent  into  bolic  reflectors.    In  this,  for  a  fixed  light,  the 

the  department  of  Vendue  to  superintend  the  reflectors  are  arranged  around  one  or  morehori- 

engineering  operations  of  the  government,  and  zontal  circles  with  their  axes  parallel  to  the 

remained  in  this  service  between  8  and  9  years,  horizon,  and  passing  (produced)  through  the 

Upon  the  landing  of  Napoleon  from  Elba  in  centres  of  the  circles.    In  a  revolving  light  the 

1815,  he  joined  the  Bourbon  army  of  the  south  reflectors  are  arranged  with  their  axes  parallel 

as  a  volunteer,  but  ill  health  compelled  him  to  to  each  other  and  to  the  horizon.    By  makins 

abandon  military  life,  after  which  ne  proceeded  the  system  revolve,  a  bright  flash  is  produced 

to  Paris.    His  first  memoir,  written  in  1814,  by  the  combined  action  of  all  the  nefiectora. 

was  a  demonstration  of  the  phenomenon  of  the  when  the  eye  is  in  or  near  the  axis  of  one  of 

ateUar  aberration.    His  first  experimental  re-  them.    As  the  rays  proceeding  from  a  lamp  at 

aesot^es  were  made  in  1815  after  he  began  to  the  focus  of  a  parabolic  reflector  are  parallel  to 

rende  in  Paris,  and  from  thb  time  until  his  the  axis  after  deviation  by  the  reflector,  it  is 

death  his  discoveries  and  scientific  memoirs  fol-  evident  that  systems  arranged  as  above  indicat- 

lowed  each  other  rapidly.    At  the  commence-  ed  will  show  a  bright  light  in  the  horizon  to  an 

ment  of  1815  he  haxtQy  knew  what  was  meant  observer  situated  in  or  near  the  axis  of  any  one 

by  the  term  polarization  of  light,  and  in  less  of  the  refiectors,  since  the  refiected  beam  does 

than  a  year  he  stood  at  the  head  of  investigators  not  lose  its  intensity  except  by  atmospheric  ab- 

of  the  snlject.   In  1819  he  gained  a  prize  offered  sorotioa. '  Therefore  the  greater  the  number  of 

1^  the  French  academy  of  sciences  for  an  article  reflectors,  the  better  will  be  the  light ;  and  to 

on  diffraction.    In  1828  he  was  elected  a  mem-  produce  as  nearly  as  possible  a  uniform  light  at 

bar  of  the  academy  by  a  unanimous  vote.    In  the  horizon,  the  number  of  reflectors  in  impor- 

1825  be  was  made  an  associate  of  the  royal  so-  tant  fixed  lights  is  sometimes  very  great,  aa 

eiety  of  London,  and  in  1827,  just  before  his  many  as  24  having  been  used.    In  all  cases  the 

death,  that  society  presented  him  with  the  Rum-  reflectors  are  made  of  copper  carefully  shaped 

iard  medaL    In  May,  1824,  he  was  appointed  to  the  form  of  a  paraboloid  of  revolution,  and 

aeoretary  of  the  commission  of  lighthouses.  He  covered  with  a  uniform  coating  of  pure  silver, 

at  the  same  time  held  the  position  of  engineer  The  objections  to  the  reflector  system  are :  1,  the 

of  the  pavOTients  of  Paris ;  and  he  was  also  one  want  df  uniformity  of  the  light ;  2,  the  great  an- 

of  the  examiners  of  the  polytechnic  school,  nual  expense,  each  lamp  requiring  50  gaflons  of 

From  the  end  of  1824  until  hb  death  his  health  roerm  oil  per  year ;  8,  the  n^id  deterioration  of 

was  so  bad  fi^m  the  effects  of  unremitting  la-  the  reflectors  fh>m  the  necessity  of  daUy  cleaning 

bor  that  he  was  obliged  to  c^ve  up  all  work. —  the  silvMt»d  aoriace,  the  alvering  requiring  en- 

VOL.  vn.— 48 


tire  reoeni  st  k&'it  once  in  10  jesrs ;  4,  the  great 
loBS  of  light  c>iii»e<l  b;  tUe  reflection  and  by  the 
Dececeary  iEa|>erfecUoas  in  fonn  in  a  parabolic 
reflecting  surface.  As  soon  as  ho  Wgan  to 
atady  the  Gnbject,  Fresnel  cooc«iTe<l  the  idea  of 
Bnbstitnting  lenses  (brlherefleciora.  A  codtcx 
lens  poaaes««s  the  properly  of  making  aU  rays 

Sroceediog  ftom  its  principal  focus  parallel  after 
ovintion.  It  prodaoe«  the  eSect  bj  refraction 
that  parabolic  reflocton  produce  by  reflection. 
If  therefore  a  plnno-cooYcx  Icoscould  be  formed 
irhich  would  not  mach  exceed  in  thickness  oi^ 
dinarv  pkta  gluss,  the  )o^  of  light  by  absorp- 
tion in  passing  through  such  a  lens  would  be 
inach  lees  than  it  wonld  bo  in  the  case  of  reflec- 
tion. For  the  two  refracting  snrfacei  the  loss 
does  not  much  eiceed  j',,  wfillo  by  reSeclion  it 
is  aboDt  i.  But  if  the  exterior  snrfuce  of  the 
lens  is  tphericol,  it  is  evident  tliat,  supposing 
the  lens  to  embrace  all  rajs  which  ore  contained 
inBhelt2S|°abovoand221°  bek>\Ttbe  horizon, 
and  in  a  horizontal  angle  of  45',  the  thicbncea 
ironld  become  so  great  for  a  lar}(e  principal  fo- 
cal distance  that  mnch  of  the  light  wonld  be 
absorbed,  and  the  lens  wonld  become  nselcsa. 
The  weight,  too,  would  be  so  great,  that  it  would 
be  nearly  imposaible  to  make  the  apparatus  re- 
Tolve  by  machinery  available  at  the  top  of  a 
liglitbouw.  For  lh«90  reasonsa  len^  light  which 
existed  in  England  when  Fresnel  mode  his  ei- 
perimenta  was  considered  a  failure.  If  now  a 
circular  eeotrnl  part  of  the  enrved  surface  of  a 
plano-convex  lens  is  moved  parallel  to  itwif 
until  at  iU  eitsvi  IliP  gln.-^  H  vrv  thin.,  the  'Vim- 
nution  of  thickness  will  not  atfeot  the  parallel- 
ism of  the  rayi  after  deviaUon,  and  the  absorp- 
tion will  be  very  mnch  lessened.  If  another 
part  of  the  lens,  of  a  convenient  breadth  and 
concentric  with  the  first  part,  bo  moved  as  woa 
the  first  part  until  its  edges  become  very  thin, 
the  thicknessof  this  will  not  much  increase  the 
ahsorptioD,  and  so  of  the  whole  suifaco  of  the 
lens ;  that  is,  it  eon  be  divided  into  thin  con- 
centric rings  of  convenient  breadth  and  of 
nearly  the  same  curvature  aa  the  lens,  which 
will  absorb  but  little  light,  and  at  the  same  time 
will  send  out  the  rays  parallel  to  each  other, 
and,  if  properly  adjusted,  parallel  to  the  hori- 
zon. BuSbn  lirst  imagined  this  manner  of  con- 
■tnicting  a  lens.  Coodorcet  in  1TT3  snggested 
that  the  rings  might  bemade  in  separate  pieces, 
and  Sir  David  Brewster  made  the  same  sugges- 
tion in  1811.  Fresnel,  without  knowing  cQjn- 
dorcet'a  or  Brewster's  mggestioDS,  conceived 
the  idea  of  making  the  lenses  in  step*  and  in 
separate  pieces,  and,  following  up  his  ideas,  had 
iite  lenses  monnfaotnred  and  applied  to  light- 
houses. To  him  therefore  is  the  credit  of  the 
first  application  of  tenses  to  lighthouses  due, 
and  the  svsiem  is  properly  called  by  his  name. 
The  vertical  central  section  of  Fresnel's  lens, 
instead  of  being  that  of  a  plano-convex  lens,  la 
a  figure  bounded  on  the  ride  toward  the  lamp 
by  a  vertical  rtraight  line,  and  on  the  outside 
Iqr  a  serrated  line.  This  last  line  is  a  portion  of 
the  arc  of  a  circle  at  its  oeatnl  part,  and  rsoed- 


ing  from  iHe  centra  rMirfrfa  of  pactiaea  tf  ami 
of  circles  boonded  b^  boriaonlaJ  Vm».  7W 
first  lens  fptntaa  >^a  by  Ttwuti  oMBMrf 
of  8  lenses  uke  that  abcm  deanibad,  araapd 
in  the  form  of  an  octagoQal  Miiai.  It  h  at»> 
dent  that  an  eye  aitaaled  la  Um  buriaoo  waaH 
|>eroeiii-e  a  bHgbt  fladi  wbeM««r  am  ef  Aam 
lenses  came  in  front  of  it,  and  au|i|Miaia|  tla 
octagons!  prism  to  be  reroiTad  ab«Mi  ila  VM^ 
cal  axis,  there  will  b«  8  flaalN*  ia  ooa  nsnia 
tion.  In  Fresnel'a  6nt  s|if««ataa,  aad  li  il 
very  large  ones  manalactiUBd  wUtua  U  ar  tS 
years  after  his  iaveatioti,  the  njm  in  lb«  pHnaoa 
of  the  sphere  above  the  belt  danatcd  by  Ua  Im 
were  brought  to  the  borisoo  by  a  oanUHMM 
of  lenses  and  plane  refleetora,  ataj  Hum  bdiv 
by  the  combination  of  curved  i^aaa  nflariOB 
nmilar  to  the  slots  of  Venetiaft  bllDdLAaft 
that  the  reflectors  are  not  [<i«ciMl7|i«aU,bit 
are  placed  at  such  angles  that  tU  tba  B(lft  dHf 
receiveahall  be  thrown  to  the  borino.  TtaM> 
terrol  between  the  flashes  ia  dbalaltbad  hf  ^ 
ranging  the  anxiUary  tnirron  ao  tbM  ib^  *9 
reflect  the  light  a  little  to  ob«  aida  of  tfeabiB 
refracted  by  the  leDMs.  This  uakiaafbiiHk 
longer,  ondcorrespondeDtlr  tflmlniahaa  tta hA 
interval.  In  order  (o  prodoeaaSarilMiUt 
which  shall  »how  nuifonnlj  tuSjnif  amoad  it* 
horizon,  if  the  central  vcrlkal  anetiaB  af  da 
lens  (the  section  bounded  by  |] 
above  described)  be  revolved  aT 
line  drawn  through  the  c 
lens,  it  will^nerotea  snli'i 


are  brought  to  the  horizon  by  a  o 
lenses  and  reflectors  on  the  nioa  prineqik  M 
those  described  for  a  revolvii^  tana.  BM 
Fresnel  was  not  satisfied  with  tba  Bie  of  fcOed- 
ora  for  bringing  to  the  boriioa  tba  layi  aborc 
and  below  the  central  belt  of  W.  Ob  aiw^ 
of  the  acntonesa  ot  the  aa|^  at  whicb  th«M 
rays  must  be  incident  npofiaay  deiiatiagsw- 
face,  it  was  not  practieaUe  to  band  than  to  Um 
horixon  merely  by  reftmctiati  at  two  wrftesa 
He  therefore  calonlated  the  dimanwoaa  tfs 
aeries  of  annnlar  prisma,  ao  arranfad  that  the 
rays  from  the  lamp  Ino^Bt  npoo  Uia  St<  sa^ 
fiuM  of  the  prisros  were  refrartad  by  it  \awmi 
the  boriion,  were  incident  npoa  Iba  atCMl 
Biufaee  at  an  angle  greater  tban  that  of  laid 
reflection,  were  reflected  by  it,  and  wicrs  m  n- 
fracted  by  the  third  sarfaoe  that  they  mnmfd 
from  the  prism  horizontal.  Tbna  all  tba  rn« 
proceeding  from  the  lamp,  oxeapt  IfacMS  aa- 
stmcted  by  the  riaaa  chimney  and  iba  bay  ih 
•elf,  were  utiliied  by  tha  lens,  fbraunf  the  ntr 

ScrfecUon  of  a  ligfatbouae  appatats*.  Fnm 
id  not  live  to  see  his  idea  of  nrinf  the  priMB 
instead  of  reflactm  in  the  Urga  lena  aHiaraf 


CMS.    It  is  believed  that  tba  a 

were  first  naed  in  an  apMoataa  of  tba  b 

kind  iBooa  nada  at  Fans  radar  tba  AractiaB 


:e? 


FRESNSL  766 

of  Alan  Sterenson,  engineer  of  the  commission  1.5  inches.    Spherical  aberration  is  nearly  elimr 

of  northern  lights  of  Scotland.    The  prismatic  inated  by  a  proper  nse  of  the  formolaa  m  cal- 

rinss  placed  above  and  below  the  annular  lens  cnlating  the  radii  of  the  aorfaces.    The  index 

irill  with  the  lens  throw  all  the  rajs  to  the  of  refraction  of  the  glass  used  is  1.51.    In  the 

horizon,  and  the  combination  will  thus  answer  large  lenses  the  rings  are  gronnd  in  segments 

admirably  for  a  fixed  light  The  annular  prisms  of  circles,  are  fasten^  into  brass  armatures,  and 

to  fulfil  their  object  must  be  arranged  in  conical  are  put  together  at  the  lighthouse.    The  small 

or  bee-hive  shape  above  and  below  the  annular  lenses  are  placed  in  their  armatures,  and  are  put 

lens.    For  a  revolving  light,  a  vertical  central  together  ready  for  erection  at  the  workshops, 

section  of  the  annular  lens  with  a  meridian  sec-  The  glass  used  is  that  commonly  called  flint 

tion  of  the  system  of  prisms  was  revolved  glass.    It  is  that  of  St  Gobain,  and,  although 

around  the  horizontal  line  joining  the  centre  of  not  as  colorless  as  crown  glass,  was  selected 

the  annular  lens  and  the  principial  focus  of  the  because  it  could  be  obtain^  more  free  from 

combination.    The  revolution  was  continued  bubbles  and   striie  than  crown  glass.    It  is 

fiir  enough  to  generate  a  larger  or  smaller  solid  cast  in  pieces,  exceeding  the  intended  size  of 

as  the  interval  between  the  flashes  was  greater  the  finished  parts  by  about  i.     There  are  6 

or  smaller,  the  dimensions  at  the  top  and  hot-  orders  of  lenses,  arranged  according  to  size.  The 

torn  of  the  lens  regulating  the  amplitude  of  the  8  first  and  largest  are  used  in  seacoast  lights, 

revolution.    Thus  a  polygon  of  8  sides  answers  and  the  8  last  in  harbor  and  river  lights,  and 

for  an  interval  of  one  minute,  supposing  the  generally  in  those  of  lesser  importance.    They 

time  of  revolution  to  be  8  minutes,  one  of  16  are  beautiful  exemplifications  of  science  applied 

aides  to  an  interval  of  80  seconds,  and  one  of  24  to  one  of  the  every-day  necessities  of  mankind, 

aides  to  an  interval  of  10  seconds,  supposing  the  IVesnel's  invention  has  also  been  adapted  to 

time  of  revolution  to  be  6  minutes.    In  order  smaJl  lanterns  used  for  steamers*  signal  lighta, 

to  lengthen  the  fiashes,  the  upper  and  lower  pier  head  and  ferry  lights,  Ac.,  and  many  of  this 

i^jrstems  of  prisms  were  moved  a  little  to  one  kind  are  now  manufactured  in  the  United  States 

aide  of  the  central  annular  lenses.    The  flash  of  prei^ed  glass.     The  1st  order  fixed  lena 

from  the  prisms  was  therefore  produced  a  little  apparatus  is  about  6  feet  in  diameter  and  9  feet 

after  that  from  the  lens,  but  so  soon  after  as  to  high.    The  central  zone  consists  of  the  central 

appear  a  part  of  it    Another  distinction  was  plano-convex  belt  and  16  steps  (iehelorui)^  ar- 

formed  by  revolving  a  system  of  cylindrical  ranged  in  equal  numbers  above  and  below  it 

Tertical  lenses  around  a  fixed  apparatus  and  out-  The  lower  set  of  prisms  is  6  in  number,  and  the 

aide  of  it    These  lenses  collected  the  rays  inci-  upper  set  13.    This  last  set  is  arranged  in  the 

dent  upon  them,  and  emitted  them  parallel  to  form  of  a  cone,  and  the  whole  apparatus  is  a 

each  other  and  to  the  horizon.    When  one  of  most  beautiful  object    In  the  revolving  1st 

the  lenses  came  opposite  the  observer,  the  eye  order  lens,  having  an  interval  of  10  seconds, 

received  a  bright  flash  preceded  and  followed  there  are  17  upper  and  8  lower  prisms.    The 

by  a  short  eclipse.  Before  and  after  the  eclipses  6th  and  smallest  order  of  lens  is  11.8  inches  in 

the  flxed  light  was  visible.    This  arrangement  diameter  and  17.5  inches  high.    The  central 

ia   called   a   "  flxed  light  varied  by  fliashes."  zone  is  composed  of  the  plano-convex  belt  and 

Kearly  the  same  appearance  is  given  by  usins  4  steps,  2  on  each  side  of  it  There  are  8  prisma 

the  upper  and  lower  prismatic  rings  of  the  flxed  below  and  5  above  the  central  zone.    As  the 

light  and  the  annular  lenses  of  the  revolving  lamps  in  use  when  Fresnel  made  his  inventioii 

Hght    By  revolving  the  latter,  the  eye  per-  were  entirely  incompetent  to  supplv  enough 

oeives  a  flash  from  the  annular  lens,  and  in  the  light  from  one  burner  for  the  use  of  the  higher 

Interval  between  the  flashes  perceives  the  light  o^ers  of  lens  i^paratus,  he  in  cotjunction  with 

from  the  fixed  part  of  the  apparatus.    Itwillbe  Arago  made  a  thorough  investigation  of  the  ^ 

seen   that  the  variations  which  this  system  subject  of  lamps.  The  result  was  that  he  adopt- 

mdmits  for  the  same  order  are  numerousL  far  sur-  ed  for  the  1st  order  lens  a  burner  about  Zi 

pasring  in  number  those  of  reflector  lights.  The  inches  in  diameter,  (^ving  a  flame  about  H 

latter  can  only  be  either  flxed  or  revolving,  and  inches  high,  and  containing  4  concentric  wicka. 

it  has  been  found  impossible  in  practice  to  di-  The  intensity  of  the  light  of  this  lamp  is  aboot 

yersify  the  intervals  between  the  flashes  to  any  eaual  to  that  of  25  ordinary  Garcel  burners 

extent    The  radii  of  the  spherical  surfiices  wnich  have  a  diameter  of  about  f  of  an  inch, 

forming  the  lenses,  and  the  radii  and  other  The  lamp  is  placed  in  the  centre  of  the  appa- 

dimensions  of  the  prismatic  rings,  are  calculated  ratus.    As  the  heat  evolved  by  such  a  lamp  ia 

hj  known  formul®  from  the  index  of  refraction,  very  great,  there  might  be  danger  of  melting 

the  position  of  the  exterior  surfaces  of  the  lens  the  burners,  and  of  burning  up  the  wicks.    To 

with  reference  to  the  source  of  light,  and  the  avoid  these  difficulties,  Fresnel  adopted  the 

diatances  of  the  various  concentric  rings  and  Corcel  lamp,  which,  by  a  system  of  clockwork, 

prismatio  surfaces  from  the  horizontal  plane  pumps  up  to  the  burner  4  times  as  much  oil  as 

passed  through  the  principal  focus.    The  sur-  is  consumed.    By  this  meana  the  burners  are 

noes  of  the  lenses  are  limited  in  breadth  by  the  always  kept  comparatively  cod,  and  the  wicka 

eonditdon  that  the  solid  of  revolution  shall  not  be  sometimes  bum  a  whole  nisht  without  requir- 

thiok  enough  to  absorb  a  material  portion  of  the  ing  snuflSng.  For  the  2d  order  lens  apparatua  a 

li^it  This  condition  makes  their  breadthabont  lamp  with  8  concentric  wicka  was  adopted;  for 


^ 


75«  FRESSEL  ] 

the  M  nnd  4th  orden,  \amf«  with  2  Cflnoentric  da  piam  <Fari 

Vtcks  vere  OMd,  aixl  for  the  6tli  Bad  6lb  onlera,  Mlruoli^n  fantt  l| 

erdinwj  Argand  bnrneri  ore  used,     Verjaligbt  (Paris,  ISftS);  A 

chingea  in  »ny  of  tlio  iletniii  of  the  laiu|is  liave  Commifaion^rft 

U«ii  m»Ae  ^OM  they  were  I1rf;t  setUed  I<t  Frei'  the  Illuiniiisticm 

ncl.     The  anDeol   conmiuptiDn   of  oil   by  tlt«  1684},  aiiit  "Ba 

knscs  of  tlie  different  ordere  is  an  follows:  Ist  houses"  (London 

order.  es4  gallons;  8d,  4GI ;  3d,  231 ;  *\h,  16G  4S8.  first  se»loi 

to  190,acconliiig*stiio  wicksoTODe  ore  use-l;  1$4II);  Senate  0 

Bth,  TO;  6th,  6(1.     In  the  1st  order  octagoiud  £2d  conftrgai  (W 
revolving  lens  the  mmntity  of  light  sent  lo  Uio         FRESNO,  aa 

liorizon  by  one  of  the  octagonal  faces  and  ita  on  Utah,  anil  a 

nlivvIorB  is  between  3.00»  ood  4,000  times  the  goUmiiiitig  rc^ 

Ugtit  of  a  single  Corcel  burner,  being  8  lime«  u  trcme  aoatheni 

mnefa  as  that  sent  to  the  hortxon  by  the  best  M  3,400.     Tlie  p 

tvde<iton  that  are  moiU.    To  get  tho  mofiil  in  iho  btids  of  ■ 

c^ectof  the  whole  leD»,  the  nbovoDombors  mast  I*  collected  chid! 

b«  tnutiiplied  by  8,  tbal  bviiig  tbe  number  of  «nd  oeoual  twrtl 

Biiaular  lenses  doing  the  work  of  tbat  oumbef  tho  6lem  Ken 

of  buroera  at  the  same  time.     Tho  usenil  cfTeot  mainly  of   nulb 

flf  tbe  lens  light  U  to  that  uf  the  rdkctor  light  There  i«  good  ' 

as  4  to  I ;  that  is,  one  gallon  of  oil  burned  in  a  iwigbborhood  of' 

lens  light  throws  as  mneh  light  to  the  horSzoa  1^  said  to  bo  ex* 

OS  4  gallons  bnmed  in  a  rdlecior  light.    The  the  jirinc^iMil  era 

hriltiaacy  of  a  Ut  order  lens  light  m  comporod  amotinled  to  9,01 

with  the  best  redcclor  Ughta  is  as  63  to  IC,  or  barley,  3,000  of  I 

■aCio  1. — The  first  lens sjiparatminaDofaotured  and  400  tons  of  j 

under  the  direction  of  Fresnel  was  ereolod  in  Uorcoil,  and  Tid 

1B33  in  the  Cordouan  lighthouse  at  the  mouth  UiUerton.    An  ', 

0ftheUinindD.onthecoastaf thebayofliiecaj.  DOftodKbg'a  tl 

The  auxiliary  lenses  and  reSeclors  for  uttliting  !•  aitiiated  in  tU 

the  rays  aluTe  and  below  the  eentral  belt  have  2,000  ncre*  Id  • 

been  removed,  and  are  now  replaced  by  the  cultivation;   uti 

prismatic  rings.     la   1S9S  the  kns  system  woa  aliODt  800  of  wl 

adopted  for  the  ccosts  of  France,  aod  a»  early  tbe  re^rraiion, 

as  IdSS,  la  lighthomca  on  the  coast  wcro  il-  turol  implcinrntl 
htminftt*d   by   the   Fresnel   systein.      In   1S40         FlUi^  BURG, 

there  were  ISl  tens  lights  on  the  French  coast,  Switierioud.  ibo 

and  it  is  not  probable  that  there  is  a  single  re*  m. ;  pop.  in  IBSO; 

flector  light  in    France  at   present.    ]t  was  Catholics,  tlie  Pi 

next  adopted  by  the  Dutch,  and  in  1884  the  sively  in  the  dig 

authorities  of  the  Scotch  ltghibons«s  author-  eeption  of  S  da 

ited  the  erection  of  a  1st  order  lens  in  Indikeitb  crajibieally  in  tbt 

liffhtliouse.   The  Trinity  house  corporal  I  on  next  K.  nnd  E.  by  Ba 

adopted  the  lens  system  in  1637,  and  It  has  since  V.  W.  by  tlie  lab 

been  used  by  all  European  maritime  nations  lies  also  the  Ian 

and  their  colonies.    In  18S3  the  attention  of  with  tlie  town  of 

tlie  United  States  gorernmetit  was  tirst  directed  SnTpiorTo  and  T 

to  the  FVcSDcI  system.    In  IMS  a  coiiitiiis»ion  tarfac«  of  tlie  cat 

consisting  of  two  officers  of  the  nsvy  was  »eot  in  tho  &,  8.  W., ; 

abroad  to  examine  and  report  upon  tlie  li|i;lit-  tains  are  tbe  Vta 

hoDse   establishments  of   Europe.     In  1S.M  a  tlw  Dont  do  FolU 

temporary  liglillionse  board  was  authoriznl  by  aoiL  flJ>T3  feet.   C 

congress,  which  consisted  of  9  officer*  of  the  pnagypsamnroft 

Bavy,  8  officers  of  army  cn^ecn.  2  civilians  of  tliv  Sariiie  (fleaiM 

high  scientific  attainments,  and  an  officer  of  the  One  half  of  the  lal 

naVy  w  secretary.    A  permanent  lighthoiue  portof  thelak««l 

board  wasestablislied  in  165:3.  and  entered  uiwa  ton,«bkJi  ha*  b« 

tho  performonco  of  its  duties  in   Oct.   IKTiS.  has  aim  several 

Under  this  hoard  506  lenses  have  I>cen  vrcciod  arc  aulpbttrouk 

In  the  lighthoiHci  of  the  Tnitcd  8tai<>«.    Of  K.  than  in  tfa*  fl 

tliej*.  S6  are  of  Uie  Irt,  19  of  Uio  2d,  CM  of  the  rina  of  tb«  rirw 

Sd,  I6S  of  the  4th.  101  oT  UieGth.imd  110  of  fhiJt;  in  tba  N.  1 

!)■«  Otli  order.   Five  lenses  hod  tiecniiilrotluced  lohacro.     In  th« 

before  the  ereotiou  of  the  board. — Sco  A.  Fren-  meadows.  Alp*,  i 

Bol,  M^fir*  *ur  wn  w«rM«  syXraw  iPiJairaft  the  coUiTStioa  at 


IBETBUBG  HBtXTTAG                   7fiT 

toiti.  The  GniTdre  ((keierz)  dieese  is  made  worthy  of  notice  are  the  4  public  aonareii  minti 
here.  Horses,  sheep,  goats,  hogs,  chamois,  roes,  arsend,  state  prison,  town  Ubrary,  lyoeom  with 
bares,  lynxes,  a  few  wild  boars,  and  in  the  N.  a  cantonal  moseam,  observatory,  economical 
numbers  of  wild  fowl,  are  found.  The  chief  ar*  society  and  sodetr  of  historians,  sayings  bank| 
Holes  of  export  are  cheese  and  timber.  There  theatre,  2  public  baths,  breweries,  mannfacto* 
aremanufactoresof  straw  hats,  leather,  tobacco^  ries  of  tobacco^  chicory,  straw  hats,  earthen- 
cotton  goods,  watches,  and  silk,  but  only  to  a  ware,  iron  tools,  and  woollen  yam,  and  several 
small  extent  The  common  language  is  a  mix-  dye  houses  and  tanneries.  It  is  the  seat  of 
ture  of  French  and  German  in  several  dialects ;  government,  and  of  the  bishop  of  LaoMume  and 
the  German  prevails  around  the  capital  and  in  Geneva. 

the  district  of  Morat;  the  official  language  is  FREYOINET,  Louzs  Clattdv  DnAULSis  x>i, 
French,  but  all  official  acts  are  publish^  in  botli  a  French  navigator,  bom  in  Mont^limart,  Ang. 
languages.  The  new  constitations  of  March  ^  7, 1779,  died  near  Loriol,  Aug.  18, 1842.  In  1799 
18^  and  Hay  27,  1857,  agree  in  all  essential  he  served  in  the  Mediterranean  nnder  Admiral 
points  with  the  constitutions  of  the  other  can-  Braeys.  The  next  year  he  accompanied  Bandin 
tons.  The  legislative  assembly,  the  grand  coun-  on  his  scientific  expedition  to  Australia,  and 
dl,  Is  chosen  for  a  period  of  4  years  by  a  direct  beinff  appointed  to  edit  the  nautical  and  tteo- 
Tote  of  all  citizens  who  are  over  20  years  old;  graphical  portion  of  the  narrative,  devoted  10 
bat  10  additional  members  are  elected  by  the  years  to  thb  task.  In  1817  he  was  intrusted 
grand  council  itself.  The  state  council  (execu-  with  the  command  of  a  new  expedition,  the 
tive)  consists  of  7  members  chosen  by  the  object  of  which  was  to  study  the  figure  of  the 
grand  council  for  a  period  of  8  years.  Frey-  globe,  the  elements  of  terrestnal  ma^etism,  and 
burg  sends  6  members  to  the  national  coun-  certain  meteorological  phenomena  in  the  south- 
dl,  and  2  to  the  federal  senate.  *  Its  contin-  em  hemisphere.  After  8  years^  navigation  ha 
gent  to  the  federal  army  amounts  to  4,482  returned  to  Havre  in  1820,  having  sailed  round 
men,  and  its  contribution  for  federal  expenses  the  earth,  and  bringing  a  ^reat  number  of  ob- 
to  89,956  francs.  Education  in  this  canton  was  servations,  charts,  and  cunous  specimens  for 
fbraaerly  in  a  lower  state  than  in  many  others ;  museums.  A  narrative  of  this  voyage  was  pub- 
but  in  1829  there  were  229  primary  schools,  at-  lished  (18  vols.  4to.,  with  4  atlases,  Paris,  1824 
tended  by  12,886  children.  There  is  a  Protest-  -*44),  and  gained  fbr  Freycinet  admission  into 
ant  college  at  Morat  Chief  towns,  Freyburg,  the  academy  of  sciences. 
RomonL  Bnlle,  and  Morat.  The  canton  of  Frey-  FREYTAG,  Gboro  Wiuislm  Frixdrich,  pro- 
burg  belonged  in  the  middle  ages,  as  a  part  of  feasor  of  oriental  languages  in  the  university 
the  Uechtland,  to  Franche  Comt6.  In  1481  the  of  Bonn,  bora  in  Ltlnebnrg^  Sept  19, 1788.  He 
town  of  Fr^burg  with  its  territory  Joined  studied  theology  and  philosophy  at  Gottingen, 
the  Swiss  confederacy  by  the  compact  of  Stanz.  and  in  1811  became  tutor  there,  which  office 
The  reformation  never  got  a  footnold  in  Frey-  he  renounced  in  1815,  through  hatred  of  French 
burg;  and  it  has  ever  remained  one  of  the  domination,  and  was  chaplain  in  the  army  of 
strongholds  of  the  Roman  Catholic  church  in  the  conquerors  which  entered  Paris  in  1815.  Ha 
Switzerland.  During  the  civil  war  of  1847,  in  resigned  his  office  to  study  the  Arabic,  Persiani 
which  the  canton  Joined  the  Sanderimnd^  it  was  and  Turkish  languages  under  Sylvestre  de  Sacy, 
occupied  by  Gen.  Dufour  without  much  op-  and  has  held  the  proftesorship  of  those  Ian- 
position. — ^Friybttbo,  or  Fribocro,  the  cap-  gp^^g^  in  the  universitv  of  Bonn  since  1819. 
Ital  of  the  above  canton,  on  the  Serine,  con-  Beade  Arabic  text  boon,  he  has  published  a 
■Istaof  the  lower  (German)  town  in  the  narrow  trandation  of  Caabi  Ben  Sohair  (ktrfnen  m 
rallev  of  the  river,  and  the  upper  (Frendi)  town,  Laudem  Muhammedii  dictum  (4to.,  Bmm,  1 822X 
which  rises  like  a  terrace  on  a  succession  of  sand-  Praterbia  Araibum  (8  vds.  8vo.,  1888-*44X 
■tone rocks;  pop.  9,580.  The  great  gloryof  the  Fakihet  al  Kkolefa^  by  Ibn  Arabshah  fvoL  L, 
town  is  the  suspension  bridge  over  the  Suine.  Arabic  text,  Bonn,  1883 ;  vol.  ii.,  translation, 
built  in  1882<-*4, 905  feetlong,  28  feet  wide,  and  1858),  and  a  krge  LatUs&n  Arabioa-Latinum  (4 
174  feet  high.  The  town  has  8  convents  and  4  vols.,  Halle,  1880-'87),  which  was  foUowd  by 
ehurchea,  beside  several  chapels.  The  princi-  an  abrid^ent  in  1887. 
pal  church,  that  of  St  Nicholas,  has  a  spire  876  FREYTAG,  Gubtav,  a  German  aothor,  borm 
Ibet  high,  being  the  highest  in  Switzerland,  and  in  Ereuzberg,  Silesia,  Jidy  18, 1B16,  studied  at 
•n  organ  with  7,800  pipes,  reckoned  one  of  the  universities  of  Bre^u  and  Berlin,  and 
the  finest  in  Europe.  Before  the  town  hall  wrote  poetry  and  plays,  some  of  which  were 
stands  the  Hnden  tree  planted  in  1480  in  fitvorably  received.  A  complete  editioo  of  them 
eoounemoration  of  the  victory  at  Morat  over  was  published  in  Leipsic,  in  8  vols.  (1848-*50X 
Charles  the  Bold  in  1478.  Before  the  expul-  Since  1848  he  has  edited  in  oonoert  with  Julius 
aion  of  the  Jesuits  fh>m  Switzerland,  in  1847,  Schmidt  a  periodic  called  Die  GrefubeUn^ 
Fireybnrg  had  a  celebrated  Jesuits*  college,  and  in  1854  he  was  appointed  councillor  of  the 
founded  In  1584,  restored  to  the  Jesuits  in  1818,  court  and  lecturer  of  the  duke  ct  Gotha.  In 
and  counting  fh>m  800  to  400  pupils,  mostlr  1855  appc^ured  his  novel  8qU  nnd  Hdben^  which 
fh>m  Switzeriand,  France,  and  Germany.  It  has  ffsined  for  him  a  wide  popularity.  It  waa 
was  reopened  as  a  Catholic  coDege,  Oct  15,  translated  into  French  (185*0,  into  English 
1858,  with  about  800  popOa.    Other  objeota  C"  Debit  and  Credit,"  1858X  and  a  7th  edUiea 


75^  TBHAR  KBIOnOH 

Wftf  pnbliBhed  ia  Leipsio  in  1863.    His  drama    long  in  contact,  and  at  the  beginnmgot  notioa, 
JHe  Fabier  appeared  m  1859.  and  always  so,  unless  corrected  by  labricaou. 

FRIAR  TLat/ro^er,  brother),  a  name  applied  between  metallic  snrfiMses  so  highlj  poluhed 
to  the  members  of  certain  religions  orders  who  that  air  may  be  exdnded  from  between  tbeo. 
are  not  clobtered,  particularly  to  the  mendi-  The  friction  of  smoothly  polished  iron  on  ircA 
cants.  The  principal  orders  of  friars  are  the  has  been  found  not  quite  |  the  total  prasmt; 
Augustiniaus  or  black  friars ;  the  Franciscans,  of  iron  on  brass,  \ ;  that  of  an  iron  axle  in  a 
gray  friars,  or  friars  minors;  and  the  Domin-  box  of  brass,  lubricated,  jV;  that  of  brass  on  cop- 
leans,  orpreaching friars.  per,  less  than  on  itsel£     The  least  possiUt 

FRICTION  (Lat.  frieo,  to  rub),  an  action    friction  b  secured  by  pivots  or  edges  of  poibh- 
arising  between  the  surfaces  of  two  bodies,  one    ed  steel,  turning  in  cups  or  grooTcs  m  tbc 
of  which  is  caused  to  move  upon  or  over  the  hardest  gems.    Applicationa  of  the  above  pria- 
other;  and  idso  the  mechanical  resistance  to  ciple  are  seen  in  the  use  of  brass  boxes  kc 
motion  consequent  on  such  action.   No  surfEtces  axles  of  iron  and  steel,  leather  betwc^i  aor- 
can  be  made  absolutely  hard  or  smooth ;  when  faces  of  iron,  Ac»    The  brass  bearinn  or  hou» 
one  surface  is  made  to  slide  over  another,  the  in  which  the  iron  shafts  of  nropelkri  tare, 
slight  asperities  of  the  one  interlock  with  those  however,  having  been  found  to  oe  rapidly  wora 
of  the  other,  so  that  the  surfaces  must  be  sep-  imder  the  varying  pressures  doe  to  pitchisf 
arated  or  the  points  abraded  to  allow  of  the  and  rolling  of  the  vessel,  boxes  of  the  hardeii 
motion ;  but  if  one  surface  roll  upon  another,  wood  are  now  substituted ;   these  being  kept 
the  prominent  points  are  successively  raised,  wet  with  water  or  oil,  the  heat  of  fricuon  k 
without  the  need  of  complete  lifting  of  the  body  carried  off,  and  the  wear  is  found  to  be  almoai 
or  of  wearing  off  those  points.    Hence  ^ere  inappreciable. «  The  above  principles  may  be 
are  two  kinds  of  friction,  the  sliding  and  the  still  further  generalized.    Friction  is  in  tCtd 
rolling.    The  former  of  these  in  amount  greatly  an  equivalent  force  exerted  in  a  directioii  op^o 
exceeds  the  latter;  it  is  a  leading  element  in  the  site  to  that  in  which  the  sliding  oocnre.    lb 
stability  of  structures  and  fabrics  of  all  kinds,  whole  amount  is  the  product  of  two  facton: 
and  the  most  important  resbtance  and  source  the  first  of  these,  which  sums  np  the  efled  uf 
of  waste  in  all  machinery,  and  is  therefore  the  nature  and  condition  of  the  snriaoea  is  nZr 
a  chief  object  of  regard  in  the  arts  of  construe-  ed  the  coefficient  of  firiction ;  the  second,  wLich 
tion  and  the  science  of  engineering.    To  this  is  the  sum  of  all  pressures,  aa  weight,  tirt^ 
form  of  friction  attention  will  here  chiefly  be  and  the  adhesion  doe  to  magnetism  (when  in- 
given. — Sliding    friction  increases    with    the  ployed),  which  act  to  urge  the  two  budks  lo- 
roughness  of  the  surfaces  in  contact ;  hence,  it  gethcr,  i.  «.,  perpendicularly  to  the  sorf&oe  ^( 
is  in    practice    diminished    as  these  surfaces  contact,  is  called  the  normal  pressure.     I'^u:  f  * 
become  worn,   also  by  polishing,  and  by  the  law  holds  only  where,  with  dry  surface*,  :: 
use  of  unguents  or  lubricants,  whicli   smooth  pressure  is  not  enough  to  indent  or  abraJv  i  .:i.  r. 
the  rubbing  surfaces  by  filling  their  depressions,  or,  with  wot  surfaces,  not  enough  to  forcv  *    :  :. 
It  increases,  almost  universally,  in  exact  pro-  unguent.     In  either  of  these  ca«»»  the  u.  :. 
portion  with  the  entire  pressure,   owing    to  increases  more  rapidly  than  the  ratio  of  i    ::  - 
weight  or  other  causes,  with  which  the  two  pressure.    Thecoeftlcient  of  friction  i/*  •  i*  :*..• 
surfaces  are  held  together;  but  at  very  great  the  constant  ratio  of  the  whole  fricti*::    :    * 

I >ressures,  somewhat  less  rapidly.     Consequent-  the  normal  pressure  (/>) ;  or,  F  = /»  X/.     * 

y,  in  all  ordinary  cases,  so  long  as  the  entire  work  caused  by  friction  by  sliding  l\.r  a  cx--  . 

weiglit  or  pressure  remains  the  same,  the  fric-  distance  («)  is  W  =  />  X/  X  «;  and  in  the  i-^  . 

tion  is,  in  general,  entirely  independent  of  the  wooden  axles,   the  nunilK?r  of  revolutitr.-  :-* 

extent  of  the  surfaces  in  contact.    Tho  excep-  minute  (n),  and  radius  (r),  the  work  p^ .-  *c^.    . 

tions  are,  some  increase  when  tlio  rubbing  sur-  =0.1047  X/X  n  x  rX  p.  Extensive  laI.v-  : 

faces  under  tho  same  total  pressure  are  very  the  value  of  y*  are  found  in  works  on  pra*:. 

greatly  extended,  or  when  either  surface  is  com-  engineering.  The  recent  results  of  the  cl-iv-r." 

paratively  soft;  and  considerable  lessening  of  experiments  of  Morin  dilFer  in  some  |«ar::»--!i'- 

frictiou  when,  tho  bodies  being  very  hard,  tho  from  tho  usually  received  concluaioa  a*  t.. :. . 

rubbing  surface  is  made  very  small,  as  in  tho  relations  of  like  and  unlike  surface*.     Vu  :    .• 

runners  of  skates  upon  ice.     For  ordinary  rates  the  value  of  /  for  wootl  on  wool,  ilrj,  .£"    ' 

of  motion,   the  total   friction  within   a  given  do.  do.,  soaped,  .2;    metals  on  oak,  t^rv.  ..* 

space  or  distance  is  in  like  manner  entirely  in-  do.  do.,  wet,  .24-.26;  do.  do.,  5c»ai»v'L  --  ;   - 

dependent  of  the  velocity  witli  which  one  sur-  on  elm,  dry,  .2-.25 ;  leather  on  oak,  ut-;  v  r  •> 

face  is  caused  to  move  over  tho  other ;  but  in  .27-.35 ;  do.  on  metals,  dry,  .o<» ;  do.  d 

very  slow  motions  it  is  increased,  and  in  very  .30;  do.  do.,  greased,  .23;  do.  do.,  »..U  :.    '. 

rapid  motions  perceptibly  diminished.    Friction  metals  on  metals,  dry,  .15-.2;  do.  do..  \w:. 

is  also  increased  in  proportion  to  tho  tendency  smooth  surfaces,    with  unguent*  ivci.-..  ;. 

of  the  surfaces  to  adhere;  hence  it  is  usually  applied,   .07-.0S;    do.,  woli  a;»pluxl.  .- r> ;    '. 

found  greater  between  bodies  of  tho  same  kind  best  results,  .03-.036.     The  limi;  of  tl-  :.. .-    . 

(steel  on  steel  proving  almost  an  exception)  pressure  allowable,  with  un^nciiij^,  r-.:  i.T.^ 

tlian   between  those  of  different  kinds ;  it   is  minishes  as  tho   sj>ced  incrc;!*^^-*.      l\'r  1 

usually  greater  when  tho  surfaces  have  been  cants,  in  case  of  very  slight  pressure,  a^  ;:.  *j.^ 


FRIDAY  rRHaroLY  ISLANDS            76» 

machinery  of  watches,  the  most  limpid  oils  learning  that  Lannes  was  in  the  neighhorhood 
should  be  used ;  as  the  pressure  becomes  great-  with  a  single  division,  despatched  a  colamn  to 
er,  snocessivelj,  the  thicker  oils  (not  including  compel  him  to  retire.  Not  succeeding  at  once, 
the  drying  oib),  grease,  tallow  with  tar  or  black  he  brought  out  the  rest  of  his  troops,  and  was 
lead,  black  lead  fdone,  or,  with  very  heayy  ma-  insensibly  led  into  a  general  action  against  the 
chinery,  soapstone.  For  metal  on  metal,  oils  whole  French  army,  which,  with  Napoleon  at 
•re  best^  or,  if  the  velocity  be  such  as  to  burn  its  head,  had  been  gradaaUy  assembling.  By  5^ 
them,  black  lead  ;  for  wood,  the  fatty  unguents  o^cIock  the  French  advanc^  with  great  impet- 
and  tar  are  preferred.  The  power  lost  in  fric-  uosity  and  drove  the  Russian  left  wing  back 
tion,  as  is  well  known,  gives  rise  to  heat ;  this,  to  the  village.  A  gallant  charge  of  the  Russian 
if  moderate,  is  useful  in  softening  the  lubricant ;  imperial  guard  had  nearly  changed  the  fortune 
if  excessive,  pr^udicial  by  decomposing  it,  soft-  of  the  day ;  but  upon  being  again  repulsed  they 
ening  metai  pivots,  or  firing  neighboring  com-  retreated  across  the  AUe,  baming  the  bridges 
bustibles.  Constant  and  copious  supply  of  a  and  suburbs  behind  them.  The  Russian  centre 
good  unguent  usually  averts  these  effects.  £le-  and  right,  being  thus  unsupported,  gave  way 
ration  of  temperature  thus  becomes  a  test  of  after  an  obstinate  contest,  and  succeeded  in  ford- 
the  value  of  lubricants  ;  a  rubbing  velocity  of  ing  the  river  with  nearly  all  their  {pins,  though 
4  to  5  feet  per  second  has  been  observed  to  heat  with  terrific  loss.  The  French  had  between 
good  fatty  or  soapy  unguents  40°  or  60°,  good  70,000  and  80,000  men  in  action,  and  lost  8,000 
mineral  ones  80°.  The  obliquity  or  inclination  men  and  2  eagles.  The  Russians  lost  17^00 
of  the  direction  of  friction  to  the  common  per-  men  and  17  guns.  The  battle  of  Friedland  led 
pendicnlar  of  the  surfaces  is  known  as  the  angle  to  the  peace  of  Tilsit. — Another  town  of  Fried- 
of  repose,  and  it  is  the  angle  of  which  the  co-  land  in  the  Bohemian  district  of  Leippa  is  the 
efiBcient  of  friction  is  the  tangent  This  is  the  capital  of  the  domain  of  Friedland,  which  now 
angle  formed  by  either  surface,  as  an  inclined  belongs  to  the  count  of  Clam-Gallas,  and  from 
plane,  with  the  norizon,  at  which  the  other  body,  which  Wallenstein  derived  his  title  of  duke  of 
the  surfaces  and  pressure  being  the  same,  wiU  Friedland ;  pop.  4,500. 
just  begin  to  slide  upon  it  by  tlie  action  of  grav-  FRIENDLY  (or  Tonga)  ISLANDS,  a  gronp  in 
ity.  At  less  angles,  friction  holds  the  surfaces  the  southern  Pacific  ocean  lying  between  lat.  18^ 
in  stable  contact ;  and  thus  it  becomes  an  ele-  and  21''  80'  S.,  long.  174**  and  175**  80' W.  The 
ment  of  stability  in  structures,  walls,  and  fences,  name  of  Tonga  is  that  by  which  they  are  known 
and  of  strength  in  cordage,  thread,  and  woven  by  the  natives.  Thev  were  discovered  by  the 
fabrics.  Rolling  friction  is  usually  very  slight,  Datch  navigator  Abel  Tasman  in  1643,  and  vis- 
and  diminishes  with  increase  of  velocity ;  in  cai*-  ited  and  described  in  1773  and  1777  by  Cook,  who 
riagea  the  chief  resistance  is  transferred  from  gave  to  them  the  name  of  Friendly  from  the 
the  rim  of  the  wheel  to  the  axle,  a  mechanical  apparently  hospitable  and  kindly  reception  ho 
gain  ;  and  this  resistance  may  be  further  and  met  with  from  the  inhabitants.  It  has  since 
almost  indefinitely  lessened,  by  the  contrivance  been  ascertained,  however,  that  the  character 
of  an  axle  rolling  upon  the  rims  of  smaller,  or  of  the  natives  is  no  better  than  that  of  the  other 
friction  wheels.  The  reastance  of  cordage  in  Polynesians,  and  that  they  were  deterred  only 
machinery  is  due  sometimes  in  part  to  ordinary  by  fear  from  attacking  Cook,  against  whom  it 
friction ;  always  in  good  part  to  friction  of  the  is  now  known  tiiey  plotted  treacherously  not- 
fibres  and  their  rigidity,  which  oppose  the  bend-  withstanding  their  warm  professions  of  friend- 
ing of  the  ropes.  Applications  of  friction  to  ship.  They  consist  of  about  82  ereater  and 
useful  purposes,  beside  those  drcady  named,  160  smaller  islands,  about  30  of  which  are  in- 
are  brakes  of  various  kinds,  the  ^^  locking  "  of  habited ;  pop.  about  26,000.  The  islands  are 
wheels,  the  "  shoe"  used  in  descending  de-  mostly  of  coral  formation,  and  are  surrounded 
divities,  and  the  so-called  adhesion  to  tlie  rails  by  dangerous  coral  ree&.  A  few,  however,  are 
by  the  driving  wheels  of  locomotives,  enabling  of  volcanic  origin,  and  in  Tofooa  there  is  an  acdve 
them  to  exert  their  force  upon  the  triun,  which  volcano.  They  are  divided  into  8  groups,  viz. : 
Nickles  of  Nancy  has  proposed  to  increase  by  the  Tonga  at  the  south,  the  Hap^  in  the  centre, 
electro-magnetism.  and  the  Vavao  at  the  north.    Tlie  climate  is 

FRIDAY,  the  6th  day  of  the  week,  called  by  healthy,  but  humid ;  much  rain  falls,  and  none 

the  Saxons  Frige  daeg^  or  day  of  Frigga  (the  of  the  islands  is  destitute  of  fresh  water.    The 

wife  of  Odin),  whence  our  name,  and  by  the  mean  temperature  during  the  stay  of  the  U.  S. 

Romans  dia  Venerii^  or  Venus^s   day.    (See  exploring  expedition  at  Tongataboo  (April,  1840) 

Good  Friday.)  was  79.25''.    The  trade  winds  are  by  no  means 

FRIEDLAND,  a  town  of  £.  Prussia,  on  the  constant     Earthquakes  are  frequent,  but  not 

Alle,  27  m.  S.  E.  from  Konigsberg,  memorable  formidable ;  hurricanes  both  frequent  and  de- 

for  a  battle  gained  by  the  French  under  Na-  structive.    The  natives  cultivate  yams,  sweet 

Joleon  over  the  Russians  under  Benningsen,  potatoes,  bananas,  cocoanuts,  bread  fruit,  sngar 

nne  14,  1807,  the  anniversary  of  the  battle  of  cane,  shaddock,  limes,  and  the  ti  (tpofidiai  ail' 

Marengo.    After  the  combat  at  Heilsberg  the  cis) ;  the  pandanus  is  one  of  their  most  nsefbl 

Russian  army,  numbering  about  60^00  men,  trees,  of  which  they  make  their  mats ;  a  little 

under  Benningsen,  concentrated  at  Friedland.  com  is  grown,  and  they  have  the  papaw  apple 

Early  on  the  morning  of  June  14^  Benningsen,  (pqpay^  and  watennelon.    The  mutsionanes 


a 


780  FRIENDS 

liBT«  raoces^ull;  intrcklDoad  the  sweet  oTBDge  nailed  Qaofcen,  1 

fl!«iii  Tahiti,  bat  ntaof  other  imtiortcd  fruit  und  aboat  the  mlddlA 

v<^t»ble»eeaa!iiive failed.     Tho (lora rawMnblea  fonsded  MrGeon 

that  of  the  Feejoe  groop.    Of  native  qiiailnipeils  Leiceaternhire.     1 

tli«/  Iiave  on)/  tbe  bog,  dog,  and  rut.     Toogo-  maker,  but  at  thel 

taboo,  or  Sacred  isle,  is  tbo  principal  island.    It  of  a  divine  call,  l>4 

In  Bl«ut  18  iti.  long  and  13  broad ;  it  i»  low  and  and  went  from  r'" 

lovel,  of  coral  formation,  and   risea   nonbere  vho  bod  the  curl 

more  tluin  60  feet  above  the  level  of  tbe  sea.  and  IbeoammenM 

In  pagan  times  it  exerdaed  a  sort  of  religions  with  his  exbortad 

■upreinac^  over  tbe  other  islamls.     Tbe  oalj  plaintof  tbe  coldg 

important  article  of  export  (W>m  tho  Friendly  r«ligious  forms  aa 

islands  is  cocoanut  oil.     Port  IlcAige  in  Vavao  ence.andtbensBCOl 

b  tbe  best  harbor,  and  Is  much  frequented  bj  teacher  bad  decefl 

Britith  and  American  whalcre,    Tbe  port  of  toa  Beeular  trad«; 

Bea  on  Tonpataboo  is  celebrated  as  the  place  onctioa  eonld  fit 

where  in  1810  Capt.  Croker,  of  II.  1).  M.  sloop  tbiugti'  aud  thai 

Favorite,  wm  defeated  by  tlie  pagan  party.    In  was  fell  was  ma^ 

this  engagement,  ntidertaken  in  behalf  of  the  The  time  In  wbic 

Ob rUtian  missionaries  and  their  native  partltians,  of  fo^at  social  n 

Orokor  and  many  of  bis  oflicers  and  men  were  land,  the  timci  of 

slain.    Tbo  Friendly  islanders  contrast  favorably  weallli.    The  prifl 

with  their  neighbors,  the  Fcejeeans,  in  appear-  were  noitber  «||( 

knee  and  digposition.    Tbe  iaiandi  were  formerly  George  Fox  ImoM 

groverood   by   several  indc|iendent  eliiefs,   bnt  Uis  life  was  lilend 

tbej'  ore  now  nearly  all  under  tho  sway  of  a  age  frum  prison 

native   Christian  prince,  called  King  George,  as  usoal,  made  Wt 

When  pagans,  the  natives  wore  dovot«d  (o  war;  tion.and  enlUted  1 

the  women  went  nearly  naked.    They  offered  in  his  eaimei.    Ulf 

bilman  saerlGees,  and  cut  off  their  little  fingere  40  yearsi,  in  the  i 

and  toes  as  prcparatorj-  offerings  to  their  god*,  repeatedly  all  ordi 

Their  mytliolopy  was,  like  that  of  the  other  riao  visiting  the 

Polynesians,  a  low  type  of  polytiioism.      Tbe  missionary  tour  ■ 

Bpirita  of  all  cbie6  go  to  Bulotn  ;  those  of  the  America.    Aft«r  I 

poor  people  remain  in  this  world  to  feed  upon  In  all  direetiona,  h 

ants  and  lizards,     Tbey  repreeent  the  island  of  'mng  them   Into  I 

Bulota  as  not  far  distant,  but  do  not  attempt  to  was  origln.'vl,  and  i 

Mttto  its  precise  position.    Nearly  all  tlie  jpop.  liar  doctrines  on  i 

nbtion  of  tho  islands  is  now  Christian.     Tbey  Every  Christian  et 

were  first  visited  in  ITQTby  ai^ntsof  the  London  assembliesi  Iheac 

missionary  society,  but  In  1827  oamennder  tho  bare  come  into  ex 

charge  of  the  Wcstoyan  society  of  Great  Britain,  were  to  preside  an 

Tho  groQp  is  diiided  into  8  missionary  staliomt,  There  could  bo  no 

viz.:  TongatabooandIIapai,commeDeedin  1639,  term;  there  was 

and  Vavao,  in  1930.    The  smaller  islands  are  or  loachinij  by  or 

tntrusted  to  the  supervision  of  native  teachers,  and  presido   waa 

and  are  visited  occasionaliy  by  tho  miKionarics.  They  came  logt-th 

A  printing  press  has  been  in  operation  at  Vavao  were  nuide  the  lei 

ainee  I8SS.    Many  of  the  women  can  sew,  and  Those  apoko  who ' 

a  great  number  of  tbo  natives  havo  learned  to  inlomal  imi>ulae,  ■ 

readaodwrite,both  in  their  native  tongue  and  in  teachers  whower* 

English ;  a  few  havo  been  taught  arithmelic  and  to  tbo  oditlcalioa  a 

geography.    King  George  is  ■  constant  preach-  architecture  was  j 

er,  and  is  thus  descrihed  by  a  missionary :  **  In  waa  everything  di 

the  pulpit  be  was  dressed  ta  a  black  coat,  and  trine  of  the  "iooM 

his  manner  was  solemn  and  earnest.  He  held  in  imimlM.   Tliere  w 

his  hand  a  small  bound  maouscript  bo^  but  ana  thoro  wa*  no 

aeldem  looked  at  it.    It  was  affecting  to  eoo  if  there  hnd  been 

thin  dignified  man  stretching  out  bis  bands  over  aeoordingly,  in  tiM 

his  people,  with  one  of  his  little  fingers  rut  off  of  bcneiies,  iJigbl 

as  an  offering  to  a  heathen  pod."     Of  late  years  which  waa  appn^ 

come  Cathoho  missionaries  have  come  to  tbc40  more  venerable  n 

Islands  fVom  France.    InterconrBe  witli  tho  east-  eipecinlly  to  IfaoM 

cm  inlands  of  the  Feejoe  group  is  frequent,  and  to  addm  thrir  fk 

many  Tonfreso  have  emigrated  thither.  ao«  thai  tbe  ordliu 

FRIENDS,  a  sect  of  Chriatians,  commonly  such  a  cboroii  <«| 


FRIENDS  761 

aboold  administer  them  would  imme^atelj  be-  respect  to  anj  hnmiui  pesenoe.  He  thought  it 
•ome  a  priest;  a  ncerdotal  order  is  tlie  in-  hisdn^tonse  the  plain  address  of  ** thee'*  and 
•▼itable  resnlt  of  the  celebration  of  the  rites  of  ^  thon/'  instead  of  nsinff  a  plaral  prononn  to  de- 
GhristianitjT.  There  could  be  no  such  thing  signate  a  single  iDdiTiaoai.  Then  the  protest 
either  as  a  litursy  or  stated  prayets;  he  who  against  the  vanitj  of  fashion  in  dress  led  them  to 
shoold  from  Sabbath  to  Sabbath  officiate  in  this  continue  to  ose  the  same  style  which  happened  to 
d^Moity,  wonld  to  all  intents  and  purposes  be«  be  in  vogne  when  the  sect  came  into  existence, 
oome  a  clergyman,  and  be  regarded  as  such,  Thus,  by  a  process  by  no  means  anticipated, 
notwithstanding  the  doctrines  of  the  divine  call  the  Qnalcer  dress  itself  became  a  fashion,  the 
and  the  inner  li^t.  Bat  Fox  did  not  stop  at  the  badge  and  uniform  of  a  religjons  sect ;  and  it  is 
organization  of  single  churches,  for  the  accom-  impossible  to  estimate  the  effect,  eitlier  for  good 
modation  of  single  n^hborhoods.  He  insti-  or  for  evil,  which  this  fortuitous  circumstance 
toted  monthly,  quarterly,  and  yearly  meetings,  has  had  upon  the  condition  and  fortunes  of 
which  should  emlnrace  large  areas  of  territory,  the  whole  denomination.  Another  peculiarity 
and  thus  extend  fellowship,  sympathy,  ana  which  the  followers  of  George  Fox  introduced 
oo6peration  among  isolated  societies,  and  keep  was  the  participation  of  women  in  the  office  of 
alire  the  primitive  idea  of  a  church.  The  busi-  public  teaching.  But  with  the  principles  with 
nesa  of  these  meetings  was  not,  as  in  most  ec-  which  they  started,  it  could  not  have  been 
dasiastical  associations,  the  discusdon  of  theo-  otherwise.  According  to  their  theory,  the  real 
logical  dogmas,  or  the  comparison  of  different  ministry  of  the  Christian  community  is  merely 
tbeological  opinions— though  there  were  from  the  organ  by  which  '^the  Spirit  speaks  to  the 
the  first  in  the  Quaker  church,  as  in  all  churches,  churches.**  If  it  speaks  throagh  a  woman,  there 
differences  of  dogmatic  belief— but  the  enforce-  is  nothing  to  be  said.  Edifying  speech  is  of  it- 
mentofa  moral  discipline  in  the  discharge  of  the  self  a  sufficient  authentication  of  a  religioua 
mostessential  duties  c^  social  life.  The  followers  teacher.  The  discerning  of  ^irits  must  be  of 
of  George  Fox  set  thttnselvesunmediately  about  necessity  as  much  a  divine  gift  as  the  posses- 
some  ipreat  practical  rdbrms.  War,  idavery,  sion  of  supermundane  power.  Another  peculi- 
intemperance,  litigation,  extravagance,  profan-  arity  of  the  ri»ng  sect  was  of  a  more  serious 
ity,  were  made  the  subjects  of  the  most  solemn  character,  and  leaf  to  great  practical  inconveni- 
protest,  and  participation  in  them  the  ground  ence,  as  it  touched  its  relations  to  the  state.  If 
of  censure  and  admonition,  and  perseverance  in  the  power  to  teach  and  edify  the  church  is  a 
them  the  sufficient  cause  of  expulsion  from  the  divine  gift,  and  in  no  measure  the  result  of 
community.  The  strictness  of  their  morality  study  and  preparation,  then  it  would  seem  un- 
was  carried  out  into  what  the  world  considered  reasonable  that  the  religious  teacher  should 
asoeUdsuL  Fashionable  dressing,  dancing,  and  have  any  pecuniary  support,  or  at  least  that 
the  theatre  were  forbidden,  and  the  luxury  of  such  8U|^rt  should  be  given  on  compulsion, 
mono  was  set  aside  as  one  of  tlie  seductive  He  may  devote  himself  to  some  secular  pur- 
raniUes  of  this  life.  The  whole  society  was  suit,  as  other  men,  fbr  ^  days  of  the  week, 
considered  as  bound  to  a  watchftd  gmutlianship  and  be  equally  prepared  for  his  sacred  function 
over  the  daily  life  of  each  of  its  members,  and  when  the  seventh  day  arrives  as  if  he  spent 
if  one  was  seen  going  astray,  his  brethren  were  his  whole  time  in  study  and  thought  Most 
to  admonish,  and,  if  posBible,  to  reclaim  him.  especially  were  the  Quakers  dissatisfied  with 
In  the  denominational  meetings,  en*,  as  in  other  the  manner  in  which  the  clergy  were  support- 
aects  they  wonld  have  been  ^ed,  ecclesiastic  ed  in  England  by  the  system  of  tithes.  Tlie 
eal  assemblies,  the  time  was  taken  up  with  sub-  Episcopal  church  was  a  part  of  the  civil  consti- 
Jeots  of  practical  morality ;  attention  was  ra-  tuUon,  and  all  the  property  in  the  realm  was 
ther  turned  to  the  fireat  facts  of  a  religious  life  taxable  for  ^e  support  of  Uie  clergy  of  the  ea- 
than  to  the  diversities  of  speculative  opinion,  tablishment.  The  tax  was  levied  on  all  holders 
On  the  great  moral  and  reformatory  enterprises  of  property,  whatever  might  be  their  religioua 
above  sUted  the  position  of  the  Quaker  church  opinions.  The  Quaker  made  it  a  matter  of 
was  strong^  and  its  opponents  were  compelled  to  conscience  to  resist  the  payment  of  these  church 
admit  that  the  Quaker  profession  was  a  guaran-  dues,  and  hence  he  was  harrassed  by  perpetual 
tee  of  a  morality  above  the  common  level  of  the  litigation.  He  was  compelled  to  take  an  antag^ 
world.  There  were  other  peculiarities,  both  of  onistic  position  to  the  laws  o{  his  country;  he 
IMinoiple  and  practice,  of  which  the  Quakers  were  r^^arded  the  law  as  an  oppression,  and  the  ma- 
eqnally  tenaciooa,  which  fidled  to  carry  the  same  gistrate  considered  him  a  bad  and  ccmtumadona 
moral  convictions  with  them,  and  which  operated  subiect  There  was  another  Quaker  principle 
to  their  disadvantage.  They  entertained  the  which  did  not  commend  itself  to  the  moral  con- 
opinion  that  it  was  morally  wrong  to  comply  with  victions  of  the  public,  the  refhsal  to  bear  arma, 
the  usages  of  society  in  their  daily  salutations  and  to  be  enrolled  in  the  military  force  of  the 
and  manifestations  of  mutual  respect  They  country.— The  first  outbreak  of  Quakerism  waa 
eoDoeived  that  it  had  the  evil  tendency  of  min-  powerful ;  it  spread  rapidly,  and  was  received  in 
istering  to  human  pride  to  uncover  the  head,  or  remote  regions.  It  was  established  extensively 
ose  the  royal  style  of  tiie  plural  number  in  the  in  England  and  America,  became  one  of  the 
presence  of  each  other.  Accordingly,  nothing  recognized  sects  of  Christianity,  and  was  left  to 
ooold  indooe  the  Quaker  to  take  off  hia  hat  from  its  own  natural  laws  of  propagation  and  endnr- 


m 

IpM.    ItviufoDDd  Intbelapse  of  lime  tobe  Ui«  pyntntof  tH 

4danl4t«<l  rather  for  permaneoe;  tboo  incrcHE^.  age  of  LU  world! 

tin  qaictne?s  of  its  worship,  and  oven  absolute  were  his  coottant 

flReDee  of,  Eome  of  its  meetio^  deprived  of  the  ccntoriee,  ttii^t  caa 

aoliTpning  infinenee  of  sacred  miU4C,  whiob  had  ImporUint  tfrect  i 

formed  a  part  of  Christiun  wonihip  front  Iho  drove  them  froa 

bipgtiiLiing,  made  \U  assemblies  nnnitrnetire  to  citiei,and  conip«)l 

tlie  inastifa,  and  evea  to  the  jroung  of  Uteii  own  Dteot  of  ttielr  M 

coinmonlt}'.    Another  caiue  which  oet  a  limit  it>  and  mod*  of  I 

to  tliu  propBgotion  of  the  Qaaker  chareh  wm  mutated  raonwM 

the  want  of  a  distinct  clerical  order,  to  tbiak,  inOiwnoe  and  aa 

write,  and  speak  for  them,  and  b;  conseqacDcc,  tho  aamcUtee  sal 

'        ninatioDal  literature.     For  men ;  Ihoy  foattd 


mctliod  was  adopted  and  no  pains 

to  preserve  the  best  tilings  of  their  1  .      „       - 

>Jo  man  whohaseTorattendedayearlymcetinjt  paid  iiricstbood  1 

of  the  Friends,  can  denjthat  be  has  hoard  churches  of  th«l 

prtaahing  the  moat  pungeDt  and  eloquence  of  and  derided  as  sU 

ths  flrfit  order.    But  it  was  nnwritten,  and  there  the  profession  t>M 

was  no  reporter.    The  most  striking  thoughts  wboU;  impiabdi 

were  epokea  into  the  air,  and  perished  with  the  eerlors  went  dim 

utleritnce.    No  press  multiplied  them  a  tbon*  ood  adopted  tlMt 

sand  fold  and  scattered  them  broadcast  over  forehadbMitiitl 

'  e  land,  or  made  thorn  part  and  parcel  of  the  and  nnqaestion 


this    circumstance  alciao  has  been    immense,  ijinc  einoe  tiie  a. 

There  was  nnollier  circnmstance,  proceeding  Friends  was  ori(^ 

from  the  Mune  cause,  which  tended  to  cb-ctim-  linquents  and  m 

•cribe  the  influence  of  the  denomination.    The  once  and  cmitha 

Gtvlo  of  Quaker  prescbing.  uncorrected  b;  the  rule  and  were  ( 

frr-o  criticism  of  the  literary  world,  become  pe-  their  fvllow  Chri 

euliar  and  technical  in  ila  phraseologj.     Al-  enbjeclcd  to  a  d( 

tbotiEh  to  the  initiated  it  was  pregnant,  ticrspi-  offences  wore  ma 

cnous,  and  forcible,  full  of  meaning  ana  edifi-  But  he  who  lived 

cation,  to  a  strnnger  it  was  shorn  of  its  (fowcr  endued  with  an  « 

by  lying  oat  of  die  path  of  common  thought  ncsf,  to  be  able  U 

and  expression.    It  has  always  had  the  merit  becoming  degrei 

of  being  eminently  practical.     It  has  never  and  Ilioeo  who  at 

wasted   mnch  time  in  the  di^nssion  of  doc-  pline  must  bav« 

trincs,  and  notliing  can  be  more  simple  than  onllnary  in  orda 

the  practical  precepts  of  Christianity.    It  was  effect.    Tkeoona 

found,  as  years  rolled  on,  that  the  trends  as  )>o^tion  has  been 

asect  had  strongly  developed  the  element  of  plino,  andaretoxi 

endurance.    In  the  absence  of  amusEraents  and  tlie  Friends  onca 

the  bonistiment  of  intoxicating  drinks,  the  moat  maiutniii  over  e 

common  occasions  of  youthful  aberration  were  discipline  is  sjm] 

removed.    It  was  found  that  though  for  a  few  est  in  their  dea 

years  these  restrictions  might  alienate  Uio  young  this  loo  is  regard 

from  the  society,  the  years  of  redection  and  so-  as  a  sign  that  Um 

brietywonid  generally  bring  them  back.    It  was  b  nearly  accom| 

a  part  of  the  discipline  of  the  sect  to  discouraga  their  nurobors  d< 

marriages  with  the  outside  world,  and  to  con-  timehavotlteya 

flne  motrimonial  connections  to  the  member*  of  America.  They  b 

their  own  denomination,    litis  tended  strongly  ever,  about  tlieir 

to  perpetnato  the  sect,  and  to  keep  their  wtiU-  of  their  number 

aavcdwealchaniongthemseKee.  Another  cause,  mate  tluur  racial: 

however,  has  operated  in  another  direction,  abont  100,000,  pi 

<>corgv  Fox  made  his  converts  chiefly  among  tho  sylvanla  <£3,000] 

rural  population.    They  were  spread  almost  oil  OOO),  Mow  York  i 

over  England.    Their  property  was  in  land  and  Uaryland  (S^OOO 

ronl  cutaie.  or  such  personal  effeoU  as  were  ob*  Carolina  (3,000),- 

vioua  to  the  eye  of  the  tax  gatherers,  and  easily  Qnidfen,  as  we  b 

Bulgecl«d  lo  asseasment  and  distraint,     Tho  trine  of  "  tho  id 

Quaker,  by  hia  priooiplcs,  wai  bound  to  resist  *v«ry  nan  thai  a 


FRIENDS  FRIES                      768 

doctrine  gives  a  coloring  to  everj  other  reUgioQB  on  the  borders  of  total  nnbeliefl    Those  who 

i^nnion.    It  teaches  that  God  gives  to  every  had  held  Qaakerism  with  an  orthodox  theology 

human  being  sufficient  light,  if  he  will  rightly  became  alarmed,  imagining  that  such  doctrines 

use  ity  to  redeem  and  save  him.    Even  the  hea-  tended  to  the  total  subversion  of  the  sect.    But 

then  are  taught  directly  by  Gk)d.    Those  who  whatever  might  have  been  the  alarm  of  a  por- 

take  heed  to  the  light  shining  within  are  pro-  tion  of  the  hearers  of  Hicks,  his  opinions  met 

SMsively  illuminated  and  prepared  for  heavenly  the  convictions  of  a  part,  often  of  a  majority  of 
ppiness.  Those  who  slight  and  contemn  it,  them.  His  doctrines  were  canvassed,  discussed, 
whether  pagan  or  Ohristian,  reject  the  conn-  and  criticized,  and  everywhere  became  the  pre* 
■el  of  6oa  against  themselvea  This  has  been  vailing  topic  of  debate.  Parties  were  formed, 
regarded  by  theologians  of  the  liberal  school  as  pamphlets  were  written,  and  periodicals  were 
the  basis  of  a  great  theological  reform,  while  established,  advocating  one  or  tue  other  side  of 
those  of  the  opposite  opinion  looked  upon  it  as  the  great  controversy.  Gradually  the  differ- 
a  fatal  departure  from  "•  the  faith  once  delivered  ence  became  more  and  more  marked,  till  at  last 
to  the  saints,"  and  the  introduction  of  other  a  schism  took  place  in  a  small  sect  of  the  Chris- 
errors  no  less  dangerous.  The  previous  doctrine  tian  faith  which  had  lived  in  peace  for  almost 
had  been,  that  by  the  fail  man  had  lost  all  ca-  200  years.  This  division  did  not  extend  to 
pacity  for  spiritual  good.  It  was  restored  only  England,  and  was  regarded  by  the  Friends  there 
to  a  few,  and  those  few  selected  by  the  divine  with  great  regret  Bat  the  unity  of  the  sect 
pleasure.  This  appearance  of  partiality  on  once  broken,  other  divinons  have  sacceeded, 
the  part  of  God  was  removed  by  the  doctrine  of  extending  to  England  as  well  as  America,  so 
universal  light,  and  thus  the  divine  administra-  that  the  harmony  of  the  denomination  seems  to 
tion  was  relieved  from  a  supposed  reproach,  and  be  broken  up. 

not  only  so,  but  this  doctrine  laid  the  foundation  FRIENDS  OF  PROGRESS.    See  PsooRis- 

of  spiritual  freedom  and  emancipation.     Ac-  sivb  Friends. 

oordingly,  the  largest  liberty  of  thought  was  FRIES,  Eixis,  a  Swedish  botanist,  bom  Aug. 

enjoyed  in  the  Quaker  church  from  the  very  16, 1794.    He  was  appointed  adjunct  professor 

first,  and  the  widest  differences  of  opinion  were  of  botany  at  Lund  in  1819,  and  professor  in 

promulgated  by  speech  and  writing,  without  1828.    In  1834  he  was  called  to  the  chair  of 

scandal  and  without  offence.    As  early  as  1668,  economy  at  Upsal,  to  which  in  1851  that  of 

William  Penn  and  George  Whitehead  held  a  botany  was  attached,  and  in  1858  he  was  made 

public  discussion  with  a  clergyman  of  the  estab-  rector  of  the  university.    As  director  of  the 

lishment,  in  which  they  maintained  that  the  museum  and  botanical  giurden  of  the  university, 

common  doctrine  of  a  tri-personal  Qod  was  not  he  introduced  important  improvements.     He 

found  in   Uie   Scriptures.     Afterward,  Penn  has  reputation  not  only  as  a  botanist,  but  as 

wrote  and  published  an  elaborate  treatise,  which  an  orator,  and  has  twice  represented  the  uni« 

he  entitled  **  The  Sandy  Foundation  Shaken,"  versity  of  Upsal  in  the  diet.    His  most  valuable 

hi  which  he  maintained  that  the  common  doc-  work  is  Summa  Vegetdbilium  Seandinatia  (2 

trines  of  vicarious  atonement  and  justification  by  vols.,  Upsal,  1846-^8).    He  has  also  publish^ 

imputed  righteousness  were  as  destitute  of  sup-  over  100  dissertations  and  numerous  treatises  oq 

port  from  the  Scriptures  as  the  Trinity  itself,  botany,  especially  on  mycology. 

He  lived  ever  after  in  full  conmiunion  with  his  FRIES,  Jakob  Fkiedsioh,  a  German  philos* 

breUiren,  unaccused  of  heresy.  Almost  two  oen-  opher,  bom  in  Barby,  Prussian  Saxony,  Aug. 

tunes  elapsed  before  there  was  any  schism  in  28, 1773,  died  in  Jena,  Aug.  10,  1843.    He  wat 

the  body  on  account  of  doctrinal  speculations,  educated  in  the  school  of  the  Moravian  brethren, 

About  the  year  1827  this  peaceful  sect,  without  and  studied  philosophy  at  the  universities  of 

ereed  or  confession  as  it  was,  began  to   be  Leipsic  and  Jena.    He  passed  several  years  in 

distracted  by  dogmatic  debate.     A  member  Switzerland  as  a  private  teacher,  after  which  he 

named  Elias  Hicks,  a  native  of  the  state  of  became  professor  of  philosophy  successively  at 

New  York,  began  to  be  disturbed  in  the  exer-  Heidelberg  and  Jena.    Beinjg  deprived  of  his 

eise  of  his  minikry  by  a  questioning  which  arose  professorship  for  having  taken  part  in  the  dem- 

eonceming  his  orthodoxy.    He  was  a  man  of  ocratic  movement  of  1819,  he  was  in  1824  ap- 

nnoommon  depth  and  strength  of  mind,  as  well  pointed  to  the  chair  of  physics  and  mathemat- 

as  force  ofchm^ter,  great  natural  eloquence,  and  icsin  the  latter  university,  which  he  held  till 

unswerving  rectitude  of  life.    While  he  had  em-  his  death.    His  works  are  numerous,  chiefly 

braoed  the  religion  of  George  Fox,  he  had  adopt-  upon  problems  of  speculative  philosophy.  Pro- 

ed  Uie  theology  of  William  Penn.    These  views  oeeding  from  Kant,  he  inclines  to  the  aoctrine 

he  was  capable  ofsetting  forth  with  great  power,  of  faith  as  developed  in  the  system  of  JacobL 

though  they  were  only  occasionally  and  sparingly  He  maintains  that  there  is  only  subjective  oeN 

introduced.     His  preaching  was  mainly  of  a  tainty,  that  mental  phenomena  are  the  only  ob« 

praotioid  and  devotional  character.     By  the  jects  of  knowledge,  but  reoosnizes  a  principle 

mere  force  of  character,  talent,  and  industry,  he  which  he  names  faith,  by  which  we  have  a  pre> 

rose  to  the  first  rank  in  his  sect,  and  his  preach-  sentiment  of  Uie  existence  of  outward  things, 

hig  everywhere  attracted  a  crowd.    Some  of  and  of  the  eternal  existence  of  the  ideas  of  the 

his  expresnons  were  doubtless  extravagant  and  pure  reason.    The  system  of  Fries  formed  the 

ttOf^oardady  and  led  to  the  so^ioion  that  he  was  basis  of  the  religious  philoeophy  of  De  Wette. 


T««  FRIESLAND  1 

FRIESLAND,  nr  VmKSLAjni  (imc.  IMtia),  oad  bead  b«xcii>J[ 

wnnetimes  called  West  Friesland  to  distinKUith  b&w  of  th«  JovrO 

it  from  East  Frieriaml  in  Hanov«r.  Iho  most  colowid  Me,  capabi 

northerly   province   of  Holland,  boiindBil   N.,  nhart   and  (toul, 

W.,  and  8.  W.  by  the  North  sen  »nd  Zuydor-  ptuuiuge  is  comn 

Zee,  E,  by  the  pfovinocs    of  Groningun  and  of  the  upper  neelt 

Drcnthe,  and  B.  E.  bythat  of  Ovcryssul;  lougth  muh,  la  tbe  4tli; 

45  m.,  breadth  40  m. ;    area,   1,S61  sq.  in.;  green  and  por^ 

Sop.  in  1859,270,618.    The  Eorfnce  is  mostly  tinged  with  graj 

at,  many  parts  of  it  being  lotrcr  than  tlie  levd  bruwn,  the  ehafli 

of  the  sea,  from  the  encroochnipnto  of  which  it  pnrplisb  bine.  wU 

is  protected  by  dikes.    It  \a  intersected  by  nn-  the  lip ;  iris  dark 

merooa  draining  canals,  the  principnl  of  which  ortmge  boloir.    h 

is  the  Great  canal,  extending  from  naarlingeii  neck  and  a  broad 

on  the  W.  coast,  lliroDghFranekcr,  Leeuwarden,  the  wings  and  taQ 

and  Dokkum,  to  Groningen.    The  whole  man-  o/  the  back  less  | 

Dement  of  the  caaa1»,  dikes,  Ac,  is  rested  in  of  tail  is  41  inefai 

a  board  called  the   Water-SCadf,  and  the  ex-  or  more,  and  the 

pease  of  keeping  them  In  repair  is  net  by  a  species  are  dcscil 

tax  levied  on  the  land  owners.     The  only  river  (Vicill.),  very  ga 

worth  mentioning  is  liie  Lanwera,    There  aro  pical  regions  of  | 

nnny  email  lakes.     Dairy  farming  is  very  ex-  speciea,    T.  arUt'. 

teiuively  carried  on,  6,000,000  lbs.  of  butter  and  their  Nze.  their  1 

1,000,000  lbs.  of  cheese  being,  on  an  average,  other  bird ;  thelr> 

annually  exported.    The  chief  inanufnctaresara  are  seen  more  th 

woolluD    stnffi^  linen.  Mil  olotb,  salt,  paper,  so  rapid  that  th« 

starch,  spirits,  hardware,  and  tiles.  A  consider-  the  words  of  Aod 

ahlo  portion  of  the  people  are  emiiloyed  Ln  dig-  meteor,"  anrpoul 

giug  turf  for  fnel,  and  fishing.    Oapitfll,  Leen-  they  can  glla*  an 

warden.— 'Ei^  Fbibeund,  an  old  principality,  brcort  the  burrif 

now  mrinly  comprised  in  the  Hanoverian  db-  riaiDgwitheaaed 

triot  of  Aunch.    It  was  part  of  the  territory  of  ever  Ihoj'  pleaN 

the  ancient  Frisians,  and  in  the  18th  century  high  as  to  beacan 

MHed  to  Profsia.  Napoleon  I.  took  it  from  the  great  dtfflcallyoB 

utter   tn  1900,  but  it  was  restored  after  the  water;   by  rajsini 

Mace  of  IS14,  and  a  little  later  was  ceded  by  and  siircading  th 

Prussia  to  Uanover.    (See  Fbibun  Luiortoi  asceno  from  a  lev 

avi>  I  jTEBiiTiras,  and  Fstan.)  in  search  of  food, 

FKIEZE,  in  architecture,  the  middle,  princi-  smallness  of  the  n 

pal  DiGuther  of  the  entablature,  or  thai  part  good  swimmera. 

which  separates  the  architrave  from  the  cor-  of  fisJi,  which  tfie 

nice.    It  has  a  Sat  enrtaee,  and  is  often  enriched  detect  from  a  go 

by  (culptore  in  bass-relief.   The  celebrated  frieze  shoal  of  fish,  he  si 

<a  the  Parthenon,  which  was  adorned  in  this  notplunge,  qnickl] 

way,  was  a  part  of  the  entablature  of  the  second  miug  along  tlie  ai 

or  inner  range  uf  oolnmns  which  snrroiinded  the  stretched  horizon 

•diflce.  above  (he  back,  ai 

FKIGATE,  in  earal  architecture,  originally  a  other,  the  bird  da 

name  for  a  class  of  long  vesseli  common  in  the  hils  to  seize,     tl 

llwiiterranean,  navigated  with  sails  and  oars ;  fishes,  and  catehei 

BOW  applied   to  ships  of  war,  generally  two-  np  dead  fish  and  I 

deckers,  built  with  special  reference  to  speed,  during  the  neaUn 

Thpymoontfrom30to40gnns;  sometimes  more,  favorite  arUclo  of 

KIMCATE  BIKD  (called  also  frigate  pelican  Ing  in  like  maun 

and  man-of-war  bird),  a  tropical  web-footed  Bui  its  favorite  w 

apwies,   belonging    to   the   family  pehntniiia  and  that  which  hi 


longer  than  the  head,  strong,  hooked  hawk ;  , ^ 

al  the  end,  and  sharp ;  wings  long  andpoinled,  pcrior  power  of  ' 

the  flr*t  S  •]ul11»  the  longest;  the  tail  length-  gulls  which  have 

•ned.  deeply  furltcd.  of  12  feathers ;  the  tarsi  them  witii  wioga 

abort  and  nlrong.  fuathcred  for  half  their  length  ;  or  dii^ip  it;  Ok 

|0es  long,  nnli«d  by  a  deeply  indented  web;  pidity,  it  »AtM  tl 

alawa  Baewd  aniall.  and  pectinated,  the  latter  water.    It  i*  belia 

'         '"^™'^HJflg  to  Audubon)  tmabling  the  the   peliiuns  and 

fnsocta  from  [lorta  of  the  body  Aadabcm  and  otl 


nOQGA  FBISUN  LANGUAGE          766 

«Me,M  these  krge  birds,  with  a  single  stroke  consnlted  in  nomerons  disputes  concerning  rivers 

of  tlieir  powerful  bills,  ooold  easily  destroy  their  and  torrents,  directed  a  school  of  architecture 

aggressors.    Th€|y  are  very  quarrelsome,  and  the  at  Milan,  and  was  the  first  to  introduce  the 

Tobbers  despoil  the  originxd  thief  whenever  op-  lightning  rod  into  Italy.    The  most  important 

portanity  oners.  With  all  this  strength  of  wing,  of  his  numerous  writings  is  tiie  C<f8fnographia 

Audubon  says  the  keel  of  the  sternum  is  no  more  Phynea  et  Mathematica  (Milan,  1 774-^5),  which 

devebped  than  that  of  the  short-flying  grouse  has  been  compared  with  the  Mecanique  eiUsU 

and  partridge,  showing  the  insufficiency  of  this  in  practical  utility  to  the  astronomer. 

bony  crest  as  a  means  of  indicating  the  power  FRISIAN    LANGUAGE    AND    LITERA* 

of  flight    They  are  not  shy ;  when  shot  at  and  TURE.    The  Freeiehe  Sprik  is  one  of  the  most 

woonded  they  disgorge  tho  contents  of  the  ancient  Teutonic  dialects,  belonging  to  the  low 

stomach,  generally  of  Uie  most  fetid  character;  German  group,  nearly  related  to  the  old  Saxon 

their  only  note  is  rough  and  croaking,  and  very  and  Anglo-Saxon,  as  well  as  to  the  Icelandic 

seldom  uttered;  the  flesh  is  totally  nnfit  for  The  rh;^ming  chronicle  of  Klaas  Kolins  (1190) 

Ibod.  They  are  rarely  found  further  north  than  shows  its  transition  into  the  Flemish,  out  of 

Charleston,S.O.,but  are  abundant  in  the  south  which  the  Butch  was  developed  in  the  14th 

from  Florida  to  Texas,  and  in  California.  These  and  15th  centuries.  Its  ancient  form  exists  only 

marine  vultures,  as  they  have  been  called,  breed  in  some  very  remarkable  ancient  books  of  law, 

in  groat  numbers  on  the  Florida  keys^  generally  and  its  modem  vernacular  tongues  are  of  8 

making  their  nests  of  ooarse  sticks  in  mangrove  kinds,  viz. :  the  N.  Frisian  (Strand-  Vriesi$eh\ 

trees,  beginning  about  the  middle  of  May ;  the  on  the  W.  coast  of  Schleswig,  on  its  islands, 

•ggs  are  2  or  8,  about  8  inches  long  and  2  broad,  and  on  Helgoland ;  the  Westphalian  varieties  of 

ofa  greenish  white  color;  the  young  grow  slowly,  Rustringen,  Wursten,  E.  Friesland,  and  Sater- 

and  are  fed  by  regurgitation.  land  (between  Ems  and  Mnnster) ;  and  the  Ba- 

FRIGGA,  the  highest  and  eldest  goddess  of  tavian,  whose  varieties  are  the  common  W. 

ihe  ancient  Scandinavians,  the  daughter  of  Frisian,  and  those  of  Mulkweren  and  of  Hinde- 

Sdrgyn,  wife  of  Odin,  and  mother  of  the  race  lopen.  In  this  language  the  demonstratives  thi^ 

Asen  or  celestial  gods.    Her  dwelling  place  <Ayt2,  thet^  answer  to  the  German  articles  der,  die^ 

is  the  magnificent   mansion  of  Fensalir  (the  da$.    The  declension  and  other  accidents  of  the 

marshy  hails),  which  denotes  the  deep,  moist  noun  are  similar  to  those  in  Anglo-Saxon  and 

earth ;  and  in  the  representation  of  the  Asen  as  German.     The  personal  pronouns  are :  tl:;  { ; 

the  children  of  Odin  bv  Frigga  or  the  earth,  (An,  thou;  At,  hj^  hit,  he,  she,  it;  tft,  we;  i. 

the  idea  is  expressed  that  the  supreme  Being  you ;  hja,  they.    The  numerals  are :  en,  tioa 

united  himself  with  the  earth  to  produce  the  (ft^ne),  thrju  (thre),  /juteery  Jif,  sex,  tjuffun^ 

infeflor  divinities.  The  favorite  servant  and  in-  aeA^<i^  njugun,  tian;  andlcva,  11 ;  tmlif,  12; 

timate  confidant  of  Frigga  is  Fullu,  who  is  the  fiftine,  16 ;  twiniich,  20 ;  thritk\  80 ;  hundred^ 

dth  in  rank  of  the  goddesses,  and  is  intrusted  thvsend,  &c    The  following  are  examples  of 

with  the  toilette  and  most  important  secrets  of  verl»:  ik  hrenne,  I  bring;  thu  hrenehtt,  thou 

her  mistress.    Gna,  the  18th  of  the  goddesses,  bringest;  hi  hreneht,  he  brings;  plural,  hreni- 

is  Friffga's  messenger  to  the  various  worlds.  satA,  &c ;  imperfect,  broehte  ;  passive  participle, 

FRINGE   TR££    (ehionanthus    Virginiea,  gbrocht,  brought ;  hi  heth  enoeren,  he  has  sworn ; 

linn^X  a  beautiful  tree  of  10  or  20  feet  in  height,  ts  efiiTiden,  is  found ;  $heik^er  enieh  daddd,  if 

with  somewhat  ovaL  smooth,  entire  leaves,  re-  there  happen  any  death  or  murder.  The  deriva- 

markably  4-comered  pyramidal  buds,  white,  tion  and  composition  are  analogous  with  those 

narrow-Detailed  flowers  in  drooping  racemes,  in  other  Germanic  tongues.    The  syntax  is  less 

and  ovflJ,  purple  drupes,  growing  wild  at  the  Latinical  than  that  of  Uie Anglo-Saxon;  e.^. ; 

south.    Its  lignt  and  pure  clusters  of  blossoms  ffwer  si  Am       sins        cuithar  wet  icertikat 

are  not  only  suggestive  of  its  English  name,  but  Wktrt  •©  him  bu  (0«r.  ••<»«)  clotha    wet  beeomei 

of  the  generic  title  of  ^Auman^Aus,  blossoms  of  ^Thrueh  thet,  thet        ma        hdeh  alls  thjtita 

the  snow.     It  is  found  in  the  United  States  from  Though   that,   that  one  (Ger.  man)    has      ell    thtevee 

latitude  89^  to  the  gulf  of  Mexico,  and  forms  an  altd/e$ts  to  bindands  thet  ss  nens  monne  nenns 

attractive  feature  in  gaarden  shrubbery.  to     fart  to      bind      that  thej    no     men     aoae 

FRISI,  Paolo,  an  Italian  mathematician  and  slaiha      ne  due. 

philosopher,  bom  in  Milan,  AprU  13, 1728,  died  *«0or7  (-catho)  no  da 

m  the  same  city,  Nov.  22,  1784.    He  studied  In  this  sentence  three  negatives  are  used  toex- 

with  the  Bamabites,  whose  order  he  entered,  press  a  simple  negation.— In  the  literature  of  the 

«id  he  composed  at  the  age  of  22  years  a  dis-  old  Frisian  we  find  the  most  ancient  sources  of 

sertation  on  the  shape  and  size  of  the  earth,  de-  Teutonic  jurisprudence,  the  most  im|x>rtant  of 

monstrating  more  completely  than  Newton  had  which  are :  the  Sendtjueht  (ecdesisstical  law), 

done  its  spheroidal  figure.    He  was  professor  edited  by  Winshem  (Aimeker,  1622) ;  Oit-Pries- 

of  philosophy  successively  at  Casale,  Kovara,  Landreeht,  by  Wicht  (Aurich,  1746) ;  ffunsin- 

MiUm  (1763-»66X  and  Pisa  (175^'64X  and  slso  ger   landrseht   of  1252  (Groningen,    1778); 

taaght  mathematics  at  Mikn.    He  afterward  Fivdinguer    und    Oldanuter   Landreeht.    by 

travelled  through  France,  Eoghmd,  HoUand,  Wiarda  (1784) ;  ^-te^a-^iicA  (right-say  book)  of 

and  Crermany,  and  was  receivcid  with  distino-  the  Rustringians  on  the  Weser,  with  a  German 

tioQ  l^  the  savants  of  those  countries.    HewM  veraon  by  Wiarda  (Berlin,  1806) ;  WiU-ZOrsn 


(deciuonB,  tkrkitralion«)  dtr  BrohnAniur  (a  free       FRTTII,  TTiLli 

Frisian   people),  1^  tlie  Mme  (ISSO):  Emuigtr  ist,   born   In   Ul 

LandrefU  of    1312    (Hanover,   1624).   OoUeo  H«   is  ono  of  tb 

ttatiB  of  Friaion  laws  have  boen  mada  b?  G.  gtnn  of  Uut  moi 

F.  ran    Schwartzecberg  (Lcenvrarden,  170S).  hissatijeeUaoiBi 

Diplomnsftiid  other  docomenUuro  contained  in  smith,  ihfl  "So* 

the  Lislories  of  Fricslaad  by  Scliotaa  and  Wins-  Of  Ielm  yaw*  n 

hem.  See  also  Montsn.  Hetlemii's  iTurwiuru-  reprcMnUUona « 
Jmlia  Fritica  (1884),  and  "Joumoj  throngh        FRITZ,  Baiioi 

the  Sftgelterland"  (Saterland),  1880.    Among  missionary,  born 

lite  lair  apccimens  of  Frisian  litcratnro  are :  the  Xeberos,  £cua^ 

"Wedding  of  Waatzo  Gribberts^  a  eomedj  nii»onanr  to  til 

(ITIB);   tlie    "Life  of  Aagtje   Ysbmnts,"  a  America, he eelM 

novel ;  the  poems  of  Alhuysea  (Leeuwardeo,  trict  betwiwn  tfal 

1765)  iWiarda'ahisloiT  of  the  language  (1T&4),  the  Eio  Nqco  « 

Mid  of  Friesland  (1791)1  and  Midielseo's  "Dis-  in  1686  he  had  « 

tory  of  North  FWesland  "  (Scbleswig,  182e.>—  tribes  to  th«  Or 

Fur  Frisian  grammar,  Bee  the  FrUteKt  RymUrU,  e&tablishcd  40  nd 

by  Gj»l«rt   Japic£  (Franeker,   1S94).    Some  Indians  to  whom 

Mattered  and  Dot  altogether  faQltkss  materinU  was  about  40,000 

on  tlis  snbjoct  are  found  in  Jacob  Grimm's  fbl  pO|)u]allon.  tt 

.Dtulteit  Orammatik  (Qottlngen,  1819).     See  tributed  into  0  1 

also  B.  BendMa'D  North  Frisian  grnmmtr;  It,  ibi  capital.    Uan 

Rack's  granunar,  translated  into  Uermrin  by  F.  ruvbu  territory  ta 

H.  Bass  (Freiberg,  1884).    Among  Frisian  vo-  for  the  ooOMtrnatj 

cahularies  are  Wiarda's  Alt-Fri»iif^  Wfrrftf  by  ordM  of  the  ■ 

hueh  (Anrich,  178B,  inaccurate);  Jniicx's  Door  his  liberty  only) 

Ejikrma,  Woordenboeli  op  dt  Oediehtea  (Leon-  tiignl.     In  1710  I 

warden,  1S34) ;  and  N,  Oatzen's  Oltmarivmder  alou  which  WM  I 

Pru*i»ckat  Sfrtieht  (Copenhagen,  18ST).  the  PortngueM 

FRISII  (in  the Frankisb  period  also  Fruonm  mnkingan  irmpll 

or  IHtionfg),  a  German  tribe,  who  in  the  time  per  Amaion.  aa4 

of  Dmsua  dwelt  between  tbo  mouths  of  the  of  Fatlier  Fritz  i 

Bhiueand  tkeEms,  N.ofthedistrictinhabited  captive  to  Para, 

by  the  Bracteri,  ia  the  modern  provinces  of  their  native  fore 

IVtestand   and  Oroningen.      Having  lived   on  complaints  to  Qa 

friendly  terms  with  the  Romans  for  some  lime  able  to  refstabli^ 

after  the  first  expedition  of  Dmsus.  they  wore  n  lar^  map  of  1 

soon  driven  to  hostilities  by  oppression,  wore  tiuiintained  its  an 
partially  snbilued  in  47.  and  rebelled  agdn  with       FRICLI(Geni 

tbo  Bataviaos  nnder  Civills.    In  the  6th  cen-  an  old  province 

toryahosC  of  Frisii  joined  the  Saxon  invaders  between  Auatmi 

of  Briiain.    They  were  aftcrwrf^  subdned  by  nowfonningthei 

Uie  Franks  and  converted  to  Christianity,  and  and  the  de!ogati« 

Charlemagne  defined  their  rights  in  8')2  by  a  Jt  was  one  of  the 

Lex  Fririonum.    Their  coantry  was  divided  into  Longobard  kingd 

8  districts,  2  of  whioh  were  anneiod  on  the  di-  of  that  monareb; 

vidoD  of  UieCarlovingion  empire  to  the  i>oe»cs-  up  to  the  13lh  o< 

•ions  of  Louis  the  German,  and  ono  to  those  of  by  Venice  and   I 

Charles  the  Bold.     Tbe  Intler  part  was  called  retained  a  considi 

WestFri«ia(W,  Friesland),  tbe  two  former  to-  The  modem  adm 

gether  East  Friaia  (E.  Friesland).    The  limita  N.  by  the  Tyrol, 

of  the  modem  provinces  of  tlie  eomo  nnnies,  the  Azotic  oM 

however,  do  not  precisely  coineido  with  those  W.  by  Troviso,  i 

of  the  tune  of  the  division.     Tbe  distinctive  090  sq.  m.;  jiop 

national  features  of  tbe  people  were  gradually  tenvd  by  tmuienM 

lost  by  continual  contact  with  their  oeighbon,  railway  from  TH 

«nd  their  modem   history  is  chiefly  eonnoctcd  fhiitfol  in  s^^b 

with  that  of  the  Netlterlands  and  Hanover.  hilly  districts  ia  I 

FBITQ,  or  Firth  (Ut.   fretum,  a  etrnlt),  afre.    Tliere  are 

properly  a  narrow  passoge  of  the  sea,  or  a  di>rp  coast,  hat  tbo  i 

narrow  inlet,  particularly  on  B  rocky  coast ;  but  Moiv  cattle  ore 

in  ScuLland  the  name  is  generally  applied  to  the  port  of  Austrian 

•stnnrics  of  the  most  important  riversu     It  is  worked  to  sorae  i 

Ci|iiivalent  to  the  Danish  and  Norwegian  Jjord  ([ood   marble,  sni 

and  the  loelaDdic^^nfui-.  tnanafocUired.    ( 


FBOBEN  FBOEBEL                   767 

FROBEIT,  or  Frobbhitts,  Johakk,  a  Swiss  school,  where  female  teachers  were  instmoted. 

printer,  bom  in  Hammelborg,  Franconia.  in  His  system  of  education,  however,  subjected 

1460,  died  in  Basel  in  1627.    He  was  an  inti-  him  to  many  attacks  and  misrepresentations, 

mate  friend  of  Erasmns,  whose  works  he  pub-  The  great  freedom  which  he  allowed  to  the 

liahed,  and  was  the  first  to  introduce  into  Ger-  children  was  considered  dangerous,  and  his 

many  the  Roman  letter  in  place  of  the  Gothio  schools  were  denounced  as  nurseries  of  socialism 

characters.     The  emblem  of  Froben  was  the  and  atheism.    His  nephew,  Karl  Froebel  Cbom 

caduceus  of  Mercury  surmounted  by  a  dove,  in  1808),  had  founded  a  school  for  girls  at 

and  with  mottoes  in  Hebrew,  Greek,  and  Latin.  Hamburg,  the  programme  for  which  furnished 

FROBISHER,  Sib  Mabtin,  the  first  English-  a  pretext  to  the  Prussian  government  for  pro- 
man  who  attempted  to  discover  a  N.  W.  pas-  hioitinff  (Aug.  7,  1851)  ful  Kinderg&rten  in 
aage  to  Asia,  bom  near  Boncaster,  Yorkshire,  which  theFroebelqrstem  of  education  pre  vuled. 
in  what  year  is  not  known,  died  in  Plymouth,  Saxony  also  prohibited  them,  but  they  continue 
Nov.  7, 1594.  After  spending  15  years  in  frait-  to  exist  in  other  parts  of  (Germany.— Julius^ 
leas  endeavors  to  get  up  an  expedition,  he  at  nephew  of  the  precedinff,  a  German  author  and 
lengUi  obtained  the  patronage  of  Dudley,  earl  traveller,  bom  in  Griesheim  in  1806.  He  is  Uie 
of  Warwick,  and  with  8  barks  sailed  from  Dept-  son  of  a  clergyman,  and  engaged  successively 
ford,  June  8, 1576,  ^ing  as  far  as  Labrador  and  at  Stuttgart,  Munich,  and  Weimar  in  various 
Greenland,  discovenn^  the  strait  now  Imown  by  scientific,  literary,  and  statistical  labors,  the  pro- 
his  name,  and  returmng  in  October.  Indica-  oeeds  of  which  gave  him  the  means  of  attenoing 
tions  of  gold  were  discovered,  which  led  to  tbe  the  university  of  Jena  and  afterward  of  Berlin, 
despatch  of  a  large  squadron  in  the  following  In  1888  he  was  appointed  professor  of  geography, 
year;  and  the  ore  brought  back  being  thought  natural  history,  and  history,  at  Z&rich.  Subse- 
Talnable,  still  a  third  expedition  was  fitted  out  quently  he  officiated  in  the  high  school  of  that 
with  15  ships  in  1578,  but  the  fleet,  being  scat-  city  as  professor  of  mineralogy,  to  which  sdenee 
tered  by  storms  on  the  coast  of  Greenland,  was  he  has  made  an  important  contribution  by  his 
obliged  to  return  early  in  the  winter  without  OrundzUge  einM  ay$tem$  der  KrviidllologU 
having  effected  any  settlement.  In  1585  Fro-  (Zarich,  1848 ;  2d  ed.  1847).  Havmg  become 
bbher  went  with  Sir  Francis  Drake  to  the  West  a  naturalized  citizen  of  Switzerland  in  1826,  he 
Indies ;  and  in  1588,  on  the  defeat  of  the  Span-  took  part  in  politics,  in  the  interest  of  the  ez- 
ish  armada,  was  knighted  for  his  services  in  the  treme  radicalparty,  and  edited  the  "  Swiss  Re- 
action. He  afterwara  commanded  a  fleet  on  the  publican.''  He  also  founded  a  publishing  house 
Spanish  coast,  and  in  1594  supported  Henry  IV.  at  Zarich  and  Winterthnr  under  the  name  of 
against  the  leaguers  and  Spaniards,  and  died  of  Literaruches  Comptoir^  and,  devoting  himself 
a  wound  received  in  an  attack  on  Croyzon.  exclusively  to  this  establishment,  he  relinquished 

FROBISHER  STRAIT,  an  arm  of  the  sea  in  his  professorship  in  1844,  and  issued  several 

British  North  America,  setting  up  westward  scientiflc  works  and  many  political  pamphlets, 

from  the  Atlantic  near  the  entrance  to  Davis's  which  found  a  large  circle  of  readers.  But  many 

strait,  between  Hudson  strait  and  Northumber-  of  them  were  suppressed  by  the  government^ 

land  inlet    It  separates  the  regions  called  Mo-  and  having  returned  to  (Germany,  he  was  ex- 

taincog  and  Nita,  is  240  m.  long,  80  m.  in  av-  polled  from  the  Prussian  territory  and  took  up 

erage  breadth,  and  has  rugged  and  mountainous  nis  abode  in  Dresden  until  the  revolution  of 

shores.    It  was  discovered  by  Sir  Martin  Fro-  1848,  when  he  became  a  popular  leader  of  the 

bisher  in  1576.  democratic  party  and  a  member  of  the  Gkrmaa 

FROEBEL,  Frikdhicii,  a  Carman  educator,  parliament  at  Frankfort-on-the-Mun.    He  ao* 

founder  of  the  KindergdrUn  svstem  of  schools  companied  Robert  Blum  to  Vienna,  was  arrest- 

for  children,  bom  in  Oberweissbach  in  1782,  ed,  out  acquitted  by  the  same  court  martial 

died  in  Marienthal,  June  21, 1852.    In  1826  he  which  pronounced  the  sentence  of  death  upon 

published  the  1st  volume  of  his  work  on  educa-  his  unfortunate  friend.    On  the  dissolution  of 

tion  (IHe  Menmheneniehung).    In  this  work,  as  the  parliament  he  repaired  to  Switzerland,  and 

well  as  in  a  weekly  journal  which  he  edited  sub-  afterward  to  the  United  States.    He  lectured  in 

sequentJy  (  Wbeheniehr\ft  fUjr  alls  Freunde  der  New  York  on  German  politics,  engaged  in  oom- 

MeMchm  JBildung),  he  advocated  a  full  and  mercial  pursuits  there,  went  in  1850  to  Nicar- 

harmonious  development  of  the  human  faculties,  agua,  and  afterward  engaged  in  one  or  two 

Inl887hefounded  a  schooler  iTtTk^^^art^ for  commercial  expeditions  to  Santa  F6  and  Chi- 

little  children  at  Blankenburg,  Thuringia,  which  buahua.    In  1855  he  edited  a  Journal  at  San 

be<uune  the  model  of  similar  Institutions  in  many  Francisco,  and  in  1857,  after  his  return  to  Ger- 

parts  of  Grermany  and  in  foreign  countries,  es-  many,  he  was  expelled  from  Frankfort — a  pro- 

pedally  in  Switzerland.    His  o^ect  was  to  give  ceeding  against  which  the  American  consul  pro- 

a  wise  direction  to  the  mind  of  the  child  from  tested  upon  the  ground  that  he  had  beoome  a 

its  earliest  infancy;  he  regulated  tl^  amuse-  naturalized  citizen  of  the  United  States.    He 

ments  of  the  children,  and  rendered  thftn  happy  has  since  resided  in  London.    Among  his  works, 

at  the  same  time  that  he  endeavored  to  teach  which  include  many  on  geosraphy  and  politics, 

them  to  think.    The  duke  of  Meiningen  gave  are :  Sy$tem  der$oeialen  Politih  (2  vols.,  Mann- 

him  the  use  of  h'ls  mansion  of  MarienUial,  near  heim,  1847) ;  JHs  Bepuhlikaner,  a  historical 

Liebenstein,  for  the  establishment  of  a  noraud  drama  (Leipsio,  1848);  and  Am  Amerika,  JEr^ 


fiS°T£" 

Md  IB  Loodon  m  ma 

_.BnT««n'TimnltaOwtnl  Amnion 

HorUMraKexioot  and  tlMhr  T«(</aw  TTnUad 


Uui.    Ad  EofdUi  __ 
vaA  appagMd  m  Loodm  in  ISSfl  under  the 
'  ^^BmnTaui'TnnltnOwtnl. 


rek-Ldtdo,   tki.   Th»HMi 
oTOa  ktter    Ua  eoBiUMfcfa 


FBOa^nwflD  knows  brtwnlilan  rapttk  itf 
fbtt  anoiiKMii  or  UOaw  odar,  mUnSiat  tht 
nnp  ^tawfv'MM  0"^  >nd  BikX  wUi 
tbe  wnUiwnwUa  or  amaoa  frogrL  utd  Um 

S2aAi  or  tm*  ftqp.    Tlw  |M>mo1  cMnfltan 


ThiaAfiMbi 
MiTKaighkR 
Mnnbruw  « 
MiMttaults  V 

fll^  BCjiBlldlW  41 

omljlimtUM 

tbebodrb«ii«i 
|inni)  flMn  o4 


rfna  in  tlw  artiofo  Awsau,  M  tlut  tho  nin- 
5pd  bmiBa^  >">•»,  md  tpvim  will  0117  bo 
BMn&MMd iNn.    Tbo'    "     " 


wImmo  SngBn  and  toai  nra  not  dllatod  into 
ttdn^  and  wboao  upper  jaw  ii  pmridod  wtth 
tMtbt  uMMg  tlMM  thin  K«  Bunr  wboM 
thiok  ai^  dangr  boOia  nMmUa  tiMoa  ^ 
toadi  ^it/Mite)  raOxr  tlun  <tf  fron;  in  adA- 
tkn  to  maxinaiT  taath,  suit  bava  du  taaili  M 
tha  palate  ana  Tooer,  viMaa  gcaofHagL  to- 
gotbar  with  tfaa  form  of  tho  toogna  and  tba 
TiriUWr  of  tbe  tjnponim,  an  ohanteten  dla> 
tlnodn  of  faom  and  ^aaloa.  Almoit  all 
'  L  tha  TQoal  TaridM  in  tlM 
«  wUh  tba  mo^bjr  tbo 

_    ^kbtb^ntnariaoiloaod 

load  nanda  an  prodwoed;  tba  noMrila  opoa 
kterallr,  near  the  oad  of  tbo  aaatAiibuy  ban 
4  noa-pd  mated  flngrai,  with  tba  mdlnMnt  of  a 
thnmbtandBwebbedtoea;  tbebaolciagaimallr 
bregularlr  ronobeoad  hj  tf^-AnUr  ud  other 
emlDenoc^  vhiJe  the  under  SDrfaee  Is  smooth- 
Frogs  pass  most  of  their  tims  in  the  water,  being 
czcellent  swiminera ;  tlie  length  of  their  hind 
limbs  enables  tbem  to  make  e«ii«derttble  leaps, 
■nd  to  travel  over  land  in  this  way  long  Jit-  . 
tances  in  search  of  WBt«r;  tliof  are  unable  to 
climb  trees,  like  the  family  hylada  or  tree  frogs. 
Some  spedes  prefer  moist  localities  and  damp 
woods,  where  tbej  hide  in  the  grass  and  ander 
'  leaves;  others  dwell  in  BublerraneaD  hollows 
which  thef  dig  on  tho  borders  of  marshes,  1 
coining  forth  at  evening  or  on  rainy  days.  All 
thoQ>eciee  when  adult  are  decidedly  caruivoroos, 
even  the  amaller  eating  mollaska,  insects,  and 
worms,  and  all  are  characterized  by  great  vora- 
<nty.  The  trog  family  is  found  tliroughont  the 
clobe,  though  moat  abundantly  in  America ; 
Indeed  5  of  the  8  genera  admitted  by  Bnm&ril 
and  Bibron  are  peculiar  to  the  new  world: 
after  AmeHca  come  Asia,  Enrope,  AfHca,  ai^ 
Polynesia,  in  the  order  of  abundance  of  species. 
Of  the  nameroQB  genera  described,  the  senna 
nma  (linn.),  which  includes  tbe  oommon  uugs^ 
Is  the  best  known  and  the  moat  interesting. 
The  principal  characters  of  the  skeleton  of  the 
Aog  are  the  small  nnmber  of  vertcbne,  tbe  at>- 
■ence  of  true  riba,  tbe  development  of  the 
transverae  processes  of  the  sacrum,  tlie  mobility 
of  the  iliao  bones,  the  length  of  the  coccyx,  the 
presence  of  occipital  condyles  and  an  arch  of 
■capulor  bones  constitnting  a  ahoulder,  and  tlie 
•bngation  of  the  bone*  m  the  lower  axtremi- 


water.  Among 
attempted  to  lit 
the  frog,  one  ol 
topbones,  in  whi 
frequent  Terse  in 
toax,  whose  oi^ 
summer  sometm 
those  QuaccustoB 
retardiug  or  ocoe 
mentj^  and  of  ati 
vessels  distribnto 
resist  condderab 
andtosostun  UK 
the  abeoiption  ant 
the  akin  explain  t 
ezisten(#  nnder  t 
anlmala  woold  ao 
in  air-tight  phoei 
tbe  repradno^To 


FROG  TBB 

most  fishes;  the  ova  are  fecnndatod  at  &e  in<>>  whirlwhid  and  let  fall  during  a  rain;  the  latter 
ment  of  their  ezdosion.  As  the  eggs  are  ex-  occnrrence,  on  a  small  scale,  is  not  impossihle^ 
pellbd  they  are  enreloped  in  a  glairy  mass,  in  in  exceptional  cases.  The  frogs  which  thns  ap- 
which  the  emhrToa  are  seen  distributed  like  pear  bear  marks  of  their  recent  metamorphosui 
black  dots ;  the  development  b  very  rapid  under  m  the  remnant  of  a  tail  and  other  organs ;  crawl- 
favorable  circumstances  of  temperature,  the  ing  as  they  naturally  would  into  the  ground, 
head  and  tail  becoming  perceptible  in  the  course  the  swelling  of  the  earth  from  rain  would  drive 
of  the  2d  day,  the  gills  on  the  8d,  and  the  tad-  them  out  by  compression.  From  fiiots  recorded 
pole  at  the  temperature  of  80^.  (as  in  Rusco-  in  the  ^  Annals  and  Magazine  of  Natural  HSa- 
ni*s  experiments)  may  leave  the  egg  on  the  4th  tory''  (1^8;  pp.  841  and  482),  it  would  seem 
or  6th  day ;  but  in  the  ordinary  seasons  of  tem-  that  frogs  ana  toads  may  be  reproduced  without 
perate  Europe  and  America,  the  young  are  not  passing  threngh  the  intermediate  stage  of  tad- 
natched  until  about  a  month  after*  the  deposit  pole ;  it  is  only  of  late  years  that  many  commoa 
of  the  eggs.  Tlie  tadp^e  iahalf  .an  inch  lone  nsbes  have  been  ascertained  to  be  viviparou8| 
when  hatched ;  the  mouth  indistinct,  but  smaU  and  it  is  not  improbable  that  eggs  laid  in  local- 
•nd  without  lips;  the  gills  rapidly  enlarge,  and  ities  where  water  cannot  be  obtained,  as  in  oel« 
when  at  their  maximum  development  afford  lars  and  hot  houses  and  beds,  may  produce  frogs^ 
beautiful  objects  for  displaying  t^e  circulation;  whose  larval  form-  is  very  soon  exchanged  for 
the  giUs  soon  begin  to  aecrease  in  size,  and  are  the  perfect  state^  the  ffiUs  being  prematurely 
finaUy  withdrawn  within  the  branchial  cavity,  cast  to  enable  the  animal  to  Jiuscommodate  itsdf 
as  in  fishes,  and  concealed  by  an  opercular  fola  to  its  new  circumstances  ;  and  it  mav  be^  as  Mr. 
of  integument ;  the  eyes  are  perfectly  formed ;  Jenvns  remarks,  that  the  frogs  are  hatched  on 
the  mouth  acquires  movable  lips,  isplaiced  nearer  land  in  the  perfect  stat^  the  gills  either  never 
the  end  of  the  head,  and  is  used  for  the  intro-  having  existed  or-  having  disappeared  imme- 
duction  of  vegetable  food;  the  caudal  fin  in-  diately  after  birth.  On  the  etner  hand,  it  has 
creases  in  size,  and  serves  for  rapid  locomotion,  been  ascertained  that  the  larval  or  tadpole  state 
Without  any  great  change  in  form,  the  size  is  may  be  unnaturally  prolonged  ;  Prof.  J.  Wyman 
rapidly  increased ;  2  smaU  tubercles  appear  near  (in  the  **  Proceedings  of  the  American  Academr 
the  vent,  the  rudiments  of  the  posterior  legs,  of  Arts  and  Sciences,"  vol.  iii.  p.  85)  expert- 
which  are  soon  developed  into  the  perfect  limbs ;  mented  on  the  tadpoles  of  the  common  bullfrog^ 
the  anterior  limbs  are  afterward  formed  under  the  greater  number  of  which  pass  the  winter 
the  skin  in  a  similar  manner ;  as  the  legs  are  without  having  undergone  metamorphosis,  not 
perfected  the  tail  is  ffraduolly  absorbed  from  becoming  perfect  animals  until  the  foUowing 
the  tip  to  the  base,  and  progression  is  effected  spring;  he  found  that  the  tadpole  state,  bythein- 
by  the  hind  limbs.  The  lungs  are  now  fitted  fluence  of  darkness  and  low  temperature,  could 
fbr  the  respiration  of  air,  and  the  little  creatures  be  prolonged'  certmnly  from  one  to  two  years, 
come  on  land  in  search  of  worms  and  insects,  and  probably  much  longer ;  possibly  some  of  the 
and  in  such  multitudes  in  damp  weather  as  to  cases  referred  to  by  Mr.  Jenyns  and  others  may 

S've  rise  to  the  belief,  still  popularly  adhered  to  admit  of  explanation  by  prolongation  rather 

many  places,  that  it  has  rained  frogs.    They  than  an  absence  of  the  larval  condition,  the 

grow  rapidly  during  the  summer  and  autumn,  younff  frogs  havings  been  the  result  of  tadpoles 

and  in  winter  plunge  into  the-  mud  to  pass  their  which  had  passed  tiieir  larval  condition  in  soma 

stage  of  hibernation.    In  the  tadpole  state  great  other  looality,  or  in  the  same  in  a  torpid  state 

numbers  are  devoured  by  fishes,  oth^r  reptiles,  fbr  a  year. — ^The  tenacity  of  life  im  frogs  is  very 

and  by  each  other ;  and  the  adults  furnish  food  great ;  they  survive  the  severest  wounds,  live  a 

for  all  classes  of  vertebrata  from  fishes  up  to  long  time  after  the  heart  and  entrails  are  re> 

man  himself.     It  is  probable  that  not  more  moved,  and  display  muscular  contractility  and 

than  one  in  a  thousand  of  those  which  come  the  phenomena  of  circulation  in  various  organs 

from  the  egg  in  the  spring  live  to  reach  their  for  many  minutes  and  even  hours  after  death 

winter  retreat ;  if  fortunate  enough  to  escape  has  actually  taken  place.    On  this  account  the 

from  all  enemies,  frogs  may  live  many  years.  fh>g  has  from  time  immemorial  been  selected  as 

Serpents  among  reptiles,  pickerel  among  fishes,  a  subject  of  experiment  to  ascertain  and  illns- 

Tultures,  storks,  herons,  and  cranes  among  birds,  trate  the  most  important  phenomena  of  human 

are  the  worst  enemies  of  frogs ;  were  it  not  physiology,  and  has  in  this  way  been  of  ines- 

for  the  storks  of  Egypt,  that  country  would  be  ttmable  advantage-  to  maidund.   The  change  of 

overrun  with  frogs.    When  it  is  remembered  a  fish-like  animal,^  breathing  by  means  of  gula  in 

that  each  female  frog  of  the  hundreds  in  a  water,  to  a  leaping,  air-breathing  creature,  with 

sfaigle  locality  may  produce  1,000  young,  which  the  correspondmg  modifications  of  food  and  hab- 

bide  in  crevices  in  the  earth  and  under  stones,  its,  iswell  csloulated  to  excite  the  admiration  of 

ready  to  come  forth  to  enjoy  the  genial  summer  a  thinking  person.    The  air  cells  of  the  frog^ 

ahowers,  there  is  no  necessity  for  any  attempt  lungs^  the  membrane  of  its  foot,  and  the  delieate 

to  expUun  the  appearance  of  the  frog  mtdtitudes  fringe  of  the  tadpole^a  gills,  afford  admirable 

br  supposing  them  to  have  fallen  from  the  and  easily  obtained  tissues  for  demonstrating 

efonds,  as  has  been  believed  even  from  the  time  under  the  microscope  the  circulation  in  the 

of  Aristotle,  or  by  the  supposition  that  they  oapillarv  vessels,  with  their  chains  of  movins 

have  been  taken  up  from  some  marsh  by  a  blood  ^obnles.   The  stmctnre  of  the  longs  and 

VOL.  TII.— 49 


770 

tbo  meAbanisin  of  their  respliution  fnrnisbcd  to  ticar  the  (mdet^ 

Uiatomists  and  ph^sioli^ists  proof  of  the  obacgea  (B./oiitiinili^[ 

«liir]i  the  bluod  undergoes  nnder  the  ialluenco  uiut;  ^ts  bd 

of  tbe  osygQo  of  the  air  through  the  medium  low ;  liiiid  liml 

of  A  tbia  intcrvetiing  Tascnkr  wall.    The  wnsi-  a  cntsseons  tab 

bUity  of  their  mu^drs  to  tlie  galianio  currents  hind  legs;  ilia  < 

led  (ialvBiti  and  Volta  to  most  important  dis-  it  is  food  of  ip( 

ooveriM  in  elcctriuit/  and  galToitisni,  nbence  worina  sod  iim 

flowed  the  sreat  results  obloined  by  Bell,  Fora-  to  Virginia.    11 

day,  and  Matleacci  in  the  physi^ogy  of  the  Conto)  i»  [«le  b 

nervons  system,  and   by  0017  and  others  in  rows  of  dark  b 

pbyiics  and  llje  chemical  coDElitution  of  bodies  and  sidcti,  yetlo! 

profioualy  supposed  simple.    The  pbenomena  te^or  half  of  ij 

of  cataneoQS  absorption,  exlialation,  and  respi-  with  bUtek ;  itl 

tntioo  have  derive^d  their  fnlkat  illustratioa  and  abont  6  incliM  I 

eiuIanatioD  from  experiments  made  on  Ibe  aoft  Maine  to  Virgil 

ana  naked  skin  of  the  frog.    Thns  tbi«  despised  and  pool*,  ana 

orealare  ha«  rendered  the  greatest  serrieea  to  from  water;  it 

auatomy,  physiology,  physics,  and  chemistry,  agreeable  odor; 

and  has  throno  light  which  no  other  animal  pike,  it  Is  oCloa 

oonld  on  tbo  fiincticins  of  innervation,  muscnlar  diadtrog(B.hsH 

oontraclility,  circulation,  respiration,  absoqition,  tomeet  sbMiM) 

tad  generation.    The  frog  is  not  only  a  grac^-  tpota  of  oark  n; 

fid  and  harmless  animal,  but  is  actnally  neeftd  yoUowlffa  wbita 

in  destroying  iasects  and  slugs  injurious  to  vog«-  t«tal  length,  aotl 

ta^n.     Though  in  England  and  the  United  BtolO(o«twb^ 

States  frogs  are  rarely  eaten  by  man,  in  Frauee  from  lis  sppeil 

and  southern  Europe  tliey  are  Imply  conRumod  tftittg  vith  ttill 

■s  food ;  tbey  are  caught  in  various  ways,  and  teopard  fiwg :  It 

are  preserved  in  large  "froggerie9"nntil  wanted  United  8tal«i>,  I 

for  the  table;  the  flesh  is  most  delicate  and  bore  of  the  ouH 

nntrltious  at  the  time  when  they  are  about  to  t!>at  coDght  aft 

ontur  their  wiuter  quarters,  yet  great  numbers  {li.  tj/haliea,  h 

are  eaten  in  the  spring,  when  tliey  are  more  above,  and  t«| 

aasily  caught;    the  bind  limbs  are  generally  has  a  dark  bN 

the  only  part  eaten,  and  theso  ko  cooked  In  snout  to  the  tyi 

various  modes,  in  all  of  which  tliey  are  oa  much  total  length  is  a 

more  delicate  than  chicken  as  thnt  is  superior  from  Michigan  1 

to  veal  and  pork.    In  the  materia  medica  the  woods,  preleriif 

flesli  of  frogs  has  long  beennsed  by  continental  when  parsutd 

physicians  as  the  basis  for  anti-scorbutic  and  rarely  approaob 

restorative  broths. — The  largest  species  of  the  season.    The  ei 

genus  rajia  in  the  United  Blates  is  the  bullfrog  a  slender  sjiecici 

(£.  jtipimu.  Lair.),  which  often  measures  when  behind,   and   A 

extended  18  or  21  indies ;  the  general  color  length  is  B|  iod 

above  is  green  In  IVonl,  dusky  olive  behind,  with  le.iping  frighten 

irregolar  black  blotches,  and  below  yellowish  loud  cry ;  it  ia 

white,  with  dnsky  marks ;   the  limbs   dusky,  place  of  the  spr 

■witli  black  bars.    Tho  bullfrog,  so  called  from  other  rpptilos.  ti 

its  loud  voice,  is  rather  solitary  in  iU  habits,  UtapoTuria,   Ui 

living  about  stagnant  and  sluggish  water,  not  species;  tbo  ool 

very  abundant  in  one  place  except  during  the  to  reddish  or  ] 

breeding  aeasoD ;  it  Is  the  most  aquatic  of  the  ipoU  of  black  0 

f^ogs,  and  au  excellent  swimmer,  often  living  on  Ibe  Irgs,  aw 

for  years  in  wells,  where  it  is  allowed  to  re-  cmaJler  and  fm 

mun  nnder  the  mpposition  tliat  it  pnriRea  the  mark  is  an  cloi 

water;    it  ia  also  an  active  leapcr,  taking  to  eye  on  each  rii 

the  water  when  alarmed.    Its  voracity  ia  ex-  inobce;  It  id  funi 

treme ;  it  devours  yonng  ducks,  snakes,  moles,  TIio  giwo  fVoa  1 

mice,  insects,  worms,  snails,  its  own  ladpoloa,  is  of  a  general  | 

and   any  small   animal   it  can  catch ;   it  does  vr  browuisb  ml 

not  seize  prey  unless  alive  or  in  motion.    The  low  strlpee  on 

nea  Is  very  generally  distributed  over  th«  below ;  the  toti 

United  States.  A  smaller  spedce,  iho  northern  disiribnted  otn 

bnlltVog  (//.  Jloriconmti*,  llolbr.),  is  dark  olLvo  Africa,  and  Is  t] 

abuvn,  silvery  and  fleib.colared  below ;  found  food.— Tlure  at 


I^OISSABT  771 

principaD/ American  and  subtropical,  belonging  grejhoond,  and  gathering  on  bis  w^  araeh 

to  the  genus  cytti^na<Au«(Wagler).  characterized  valuable  information,  whidi  he  used  afterward  • 

bj  the  almost  entire  absence  of  webs  to  the  in  the  continuation  of  his  Chronicles,  whidi 

toes ;  for  their  description  the  reader  is  referred  henceforth  embodied  the  results  of  personal  oh- 

to  the  works  of  Br.  Holbrook  (vol.  i.),  and  of  servation  and  experience.    After  gathering  am- 

Bum^ril  and  Bibron  (vol.  viii.).    The  genus  pie  materials  in  Great  Britain,  he  returned  to 

eeratcphrys  (Boie)  or  jpAryn0eera«(T8chudi)  will  the  continent  and  in  1866  went  to  the  EnffUsh 

be  described  under  Uobnbd  Fnoa ;  the  tree  court  at  Bordeaux.    Thence  he  returned  for  a 

fro^  (hyla^  Laurenti)  and  the  peeping  Arogs  short  time  to  England,  and  in  1868  we  find  him 

(hyhdes^  Fitz.)  will  be  noticed  under  Tbeb  Fboo^  accomi>an7ing  Lionel,  duke  of  Clarence,  to  Italr, 

belonging  as  tbey  do  to  the  family  hplada. —  and,  with  Chaucer  and  Petrarch,  witnessing  In 

The  frogs  are  considered  bj  Agassiz  lower  IGlan  the  celebration  of  the  marriage  of  that 

than  the  toads  among  anourous  batrachianS)  on  prince  with  the  daughter  of  Galeazzo  Yisoond. 

account  of  their  aquatic  habits,  the  persistence  He  visited  several  other  Italian  courts,  ttud 

of  the  embryonio  webs  between  the  toes,  and  large  gratuities  were  bestowed  upon  him  by 

the  non-existence  of  glands  developed  in  the  some  of  the  Italian  princes.    In  1869  his  pror 

iubstanoe  of  the  skm.    The  family  ranidm  are  tectress  Philippa  of  Uainault  died,  and  he  com- 

the  most  numerously  represented  of  the  fossil  memorated  her  virtues  in  an  elegy ;  he  has  also 

anourous  batrachians.  and  their  remains  occur  feelingly  narrated  her  death  in  the  24  part 

in  the  tertiary  and  diluvian  formations,  some-  of  the  1st  book  of  his  Chronicles.    He  now  re^ 

times  of  large  size.    ThemMnticeheirotherium  paired  to  his  native  country,  where  he  obtained 

or  IdbvrintMcUm  is  placed  by  Juger,  Fitzinger,  the  living  of  Lestines.    But  the  life  of  a  conntry 

and  Owen  among  batrachians ;  this  imniense  priest  dia  not  suit  hun,  and  he  attached  him- 

firoff-like  animal,  with  a  head  2  or  8  feet  long  self  to  Wenceslas  of  Luxembourg,  duke  qf  Br»* 

and  Uie  body  10  or  12,  first  appeared  in  the  bant,  a  liberal,  pious,  and  courteous  prince,  and 

carboniferousperiod,  was  abundant  in  the  trias-  himself  a  poet^  who  intrusted  him  with  the 

sic,  and  probably  disappeared  before  the  juras-  care  of  collecting  and  writing  down  his  ron- 

sic  epodi.    This  creature,  whether  saurian  or  deaus,  ballads,  songs,  and  virelays.    To  theaa 

batrachian,  is  interesting  in  connection  with  the  Froissart  added  some  of  his  own  compositions, 

fossil   footprints  of  the   Connecticut   valley,  and  the  collection  formed  a  volume  with  the 

(See  Fossil  Footpbints.)    From  facts  now  as-  title  of  Mdyador^  or  the  '^Elni^ht  of  the  GcJd- 

certained  it  would  appear  that  the  muddy  shores  en   8un."     But  Wenceslas   died   before  the 

and  flats  of  remote  geological  ages  were  in-  work  was  completed,  and  Froissart  had  to  look 

habited  by  batrachoid  forms  as  stranso  as  the  for  other  employment.    Guy,  count  of  Blois, 

flying  pterodactyls  or  the  great  iehthyoiaurvM  made  him  clerk  of  his  chapel,  and  sent  him  with 

and  pleiiaaurusj  and  that  possibly  frogs  12  feet  a  letter  of  introduction  and  gifts  to  Gaston  Ph^- 

long  Qike  eheirotherium),  and  deprived  perhaps  bus,  count  of  Foix,  at  whose  court  Froissart 

of  anterior  extremities,  leaped  and  croiaked  m  found  himself  in  a  congenial  sphere.    After  ao- 

the  ancient  marshes.  Jouming  a  long  while  at  Orthez  and  receiving 

FROISSART,   Jehak,  or   Jeak,  a  French  flrom  Gaston  Ph^buson  his  departure  a  gratoi^ 

chronicler  and  poet,  born  in  Valenciennes  in  of  80  florins,  he  accompanied  this  prinoe^s  i^eea^ 

1337,  died  in  Chimay  about  1410.    His  father,  Jeanne  de  Boulogne,  when  she  went  to  Riom 

a  heraldic  painter,  destined  him  firom  infancy  to  to  marry  the  duke  of  Berry.   Thenoe  he  repdx^ 

the  clerical  profession,  although  his  natural  di»-  ed  to  Paris,  and  visited  the  lord  of  Coney  in  his 

position  seems  not  to  have  htted  him  for  that  castle  of  Cr^vecoBur,  receiving  from  him  mudi 

calling.    He  was  scarcely  20  years  old  when,  valuable  infonnation  upon  the  political  reli^ons 

upon  the  invitation  of  Kobert  of  Kamur,  lord  between  France  and  England.    He  afterward 

of  Beaufort,  he  undertook  to  write  a  history  of  travelled  again  through  HoUand,  Languedoo, 

the  wars  and  adventures  of  his  time.    He  com-  and  other  countries.  In  1890  he  settled  at  Chi- 

^"  1  from  the  Vraie$  chraniques  of  Jekan  Le  may,  having  been  appointed  canon  and  treas- 

canon  of  St.  Lambert  in  Li^ge,  the  1st  part  urer  to  the  church  there,  and,  with  the  exoep- 

of  his  own  **  Chronicles,*'  embracing  the  period  tion  of  the  time  spent  in  a  visit  to  England  m 

from  1826  to  1840.    When  this  was  completed  the  purpose  of  presenting  Ridiard  II.  with  a 

he  went  to  England  in  1360  and  presentea  it  to  collection  of  his  poems,  he  there  devoted  his 

Philippa  of  Hainault,  the  queen  of  Edward  III.,  later  years  to  the  completion  of  his  great  work, 

who  richly  rewarded  him.    But  the  queen,  dis-  His  book  is  a  living  picture  of  his  age.   An  ad- 

oovering  that  he  was  the  victim  of  a  hopeless  mirer  of  heroic  de^s,  an  instinctive  courtier  of 

passion  for  a  lady  of  exalted  rank  in  his  own  every  prince  or  lord,  delighted  with  feasts  and 

country,  out  of  compassion  sent  him  back  with  pageants,  he  vividly  depicts  all  that  interests 

a  good  equipment.    In  1362  he  returned,  and  nim,  and  gives  more  prominence  to  individual 

was  made  clerk  of  her  chapel  (having  already  exploits  than  to  important  events.    He  is  de- 

teken  holy  orders),  and  also  her  secretarv.    In  void  of  patriotism,  and  shows  no  partiality 

1864  he  viMted  Scotland,  where  he  was  kindly  to  the  French,  narrating  their  defeats  with  as 

treated  by  King  David  Bruce,  and  eigoyed  the  much  gusto  as  their  victories ;  he  has  no  philo- 

hospitali^  of  the  Douglases.     He  made  his  sophical  views  nor  political  opinions ;  but  he  fa 

jonmejY  on  horseback,  attended  only  by  his  incontrovertibly  the  most  amnmng  and  rivik* 


IS  of  clironiclem    Ha tiaoloft  lio  feircrthan    Uteairest  of  ibe  tl 


•XcJnslvely  upon  bis  hisLorical  work.     ThU  imq-  the  Swiss  gnBrd% 

lirtKVB  tlie  Buniila  of  111 o  Hth  ocnttiry  from  the  tlitcU  a^iolo 

laSa  to  UOO,  oDil  wus  priBUxl  for  tho  tlrst  time  frighUiDed  court  1 

about  1498  at  Paria  by  Antoine  Vi-riir<1  (4  vols.  promUed  n  better  i 

fol.),  under  the  titlo-of  Chreniqua  de  PYant^,  still  uore  encourtj 

iPAnffUUrre,  iT&am,  tPEipagne,  de  Brttngiif;  llniii«nt,  whose coi 

<b    (Jatevffnt,    ITandra,   tt    lieux    ^aleiitoar.  polled  the  court  U 

Ths  ln*t  unit  best  editlonisby  Buchoti  (IG  vuIb.  6,  1649).     Paris  1 

Btol,  Pim&  1SS4),  ivprinle4  with  important  a>l-  iiiwirgcDte,  and  1ft 

ditiuua  aiKl  tniprovamenta  Id  tlie  Panthion  lit-  of  7,000  luen  nndt 

touir^,  under  tho  title  of  £«  ehronique*  dt  tin  liotneiit  cjdiod  thi 

IJtan  iVoiMaTt,  qui  traitatt  dt*  memeilUuiia  llio  priuM  of  Con 

entrtpriiet,  uobU*  artiUuns,   et  fttif*  d'arme*  Beaufort,  Orloanl^ 

odteiiut  en   »n  tempi  en  IVance,  AngleUrre,  and  Nemonni,  tha 

Brttaigiu,  BourgDgnt^  Seoue,  ^ipaipar,  I'ortin-  genial  aud  popati 
fat,  tt  il  autrtA,  nmnellraeiit  Tenia  el  mig^  ■  thi.<irl«aden;  vmA 

mentieid'apTfilti  fnanmerili,  aiM  nolu,iclair-  whom  the  ducnea 

einemmli,  table*,  et  glouairi  (3  large  vola.  Hvt>.,  co^»picIIou^  Inndi 

Paris,  182&-'B).  This,  however,!* far &oiu being  aid  wiuiexpcctcdfl 

Jud|^  Batislactory  by  the  learned,  ond  a  com-  leaders  of  the  moti 

pet«Dt  »cho1ar  has  been  for  years  preparing  a  to  change  U  into  I 

new  edition.     A  volume  of  extracts,  contain-  which  bod  Jiwt  b 

Ing  the  most  luteresting  ports,  n'Oj  pablbhcd  in  came  afraid  of  til 

IMn.     llbi  Chronicles  were  first  tranaUled  into  victory,  nud  hasU 

English  by  Bonrcbier,  Lord  ticrnert  (9  vols,  fol.,  treat/  with  iho  M 

London,  1533--'3I(},  reprinted  iu  litl3  in  8  vols,  pbaws  of  tho  Yttit 

4to.    Sir  Walter  Scott  was  of  optpioo  that  for  and  contention*  fi 

artle«aDe»  oiid  vivacity  of  Btyle,  this  old  veruon  of  the  Uoud  and 

la  to  be  preferred  to  the  more  exact  and  learned  the  return  of  the  4 

tmnslation  made  by  Tliomaa  JohnM,  under  the  lluftrln  again  umi 

title  of  ''Sir  John  Froisaort's  Ohraniclea  of  and  tho  nrincnop 

England,  France,  and  the  aitjoictng  Countries"  13.  IflOO).     Tliia* 

(4  vois.  4to.,  tiafod  press,  1803-'o).    An  edition  and  Marshal  Tan 

of  Johnea's  translation  has  been  published  by  thepriticn.   Aftn 

Henry  B"hn  (9  vols.  roy,8vo.,  London,  1846).,  the  great  general 

FliONDE,  apoliUcalfa>MioDin  France  which  of  Bethel  (Itoe.  II 

Leaded   an   insnrrectionary   inovement   during  coald  not  long  • 

the  latter  port  of  Ibe  minority  of  Lonis  XiV.  opposition  of  oil 

Tiie  name  ot  Jhndeyn,  which  means  literally  release  the  prina 

dingers,  was  applied  toita  members  in  derision;  laud^.     The  parll 

in  tlicir   sneering  and    flippant   attacks  upon  nient,  and  CondA  I 

Cardinal  Haiarin  they  were  said  to  resemble  now  degGncmtcd ' 

Wy«  throwing  stones  from  ilings.    Tlio  lung  mother  prevailed! 

and  powerfol  rule  of  lticheli«u  hod  completed  the  eooiyutor  Dt 

the  work  of  centnilizins    all    the  power  of  movement,  waibr 

France  in  the  hand*  of  the  royal  government,  fled  to  Uuivnntt,  n 

wid  flnoU;  broken  the  might  of  tho  independent  nomalsof  the  yom 

ftamilies  in  the  kingdom.    The  spirit  of  oppr«i-  had  noaiioaUj  eo 

lion,  which  was  crusheil  in  Its  lost  ronspiracien,  1051),  repalrtd  tC 

revived  under  his  feebler  surcesaor  in  the  par-  on*  MhorMlta,  SDI 

liaiuenta  or  high  Judicial  bodies,  of  which  that  but  TuraniM  coma 

of  Pnris  numbered  many  persons  of  rank  aud  would  harebc«D  I 

(lUtioEtion.      Maiarin  was  hsied  by  the  great  LfthugBte«oftba< 

as  a  foreigner  and  friend  of  foreigners,  nnd  by  to  him.     Porli^  h 

tlie  people  fur  his  extortions ;  he  was  besidu  de-  treated  with  the 

■piwil,  kn  KfiitooThlisueMMsful  niMingementuf  and  l.uDis  pruni 

foreign  affain,  as  an  unworthy  diwtiple  of  Blehe-  miwal  of  ib«  hw 

lien.     The  parliament  of  Paris  mode  u«>  of  Im  reccive<I  a  rei-nf« 

Srivllegn  to  refiwe  ilie  refpatration  of  some  now  [.orrune,  rejeciod 

uonciol  oeta  of  ihe  oonrl.     It  was  in  vain  that  Into  Champagne; 

Mveral  lili  dt  jutliee  of  the  king  ordcrud  Iba  went  over  tr,  the  I 

|yili<.lralii>a ;  the  reilstunc*  became  it  ill  more  l»iiis  XIV.  hsvia 

Muorin  r«sorl«(l  la  Tloteuoe,  causing  31},  pnMcribvd  O 


IHOirrENAO  ntOTHINQHAH  778 


aetion  on  the  part  of  the  parliament.    Kazarin  their  aarface ;  bat  this  can  be  done  npon  a  small 

also  returned  triumphantly  (Feb.  8,  1658)  to  scale  only.    A  tiiin  t^overinff  of  anj  kind  of 

his  post.    Hanj  who  had  distin^ished  them-  doth  spread  over  them  will  serve  to  check 

selves  in  the  parliament  or  under  Cond6  were  evaporation  and  the  chilling  effect  it  produces, 

temporarily  banished,  and  the  movement  in  the  Black  frost  is  the  effect  produced  When  plants 

provinces  soon  subsided  (1653\ — See  Be  Ba-  are  frozen  by  congelation  of  the  moisture  with- 

rante,  Leparlement  et  la  franae  (Paris,  1859).  in  them  without  the  appearance  of  congealed 

FRONTENAC,  a  county  of  Canada  West^  moisture  npon  their  external  sorfaoe. 
bounded  S.  by  the  river  St  Lawrence,  near  its  FROST,  Wiixiui  Edwabd,  an  Enfflish  paint- 
head  in  Lake  Ontario ;  area,  1,342  sq.  m. ;  pop.  er,  born  in  Wandsworth,  Surrey,  inoept  1810. 
in  1852,  80,735.  It  is  traversed  by  the  Grand  He  commenced  his  career  as  a  portrait  painter. 
Trunk  railway  of  Canada,  which  passes  through  and  executed  in  the  course  of  14  years  upwwra 
Kingston,  the  county  seat,  and  by  the  Rideau  of300  pictures  of  this  class.  In  1889  he  attempt- 
canal,  which  has  a  terminus  at  that  city.  ed  historical  composition,  and  his  "  Prometheus 

FRONTIGNAC,  a  sweet  muscat  wine  made  Bound, ^*  exhibited  in  that  year,  gained  the  gold 

in  Frontignan,  in  the  department  of  H6rault.  medal  at  the  academy.    In  1848  he  won  a  price 

It  is  of  two  kinds,  white  and  red,  and  is  an  agree-  of  £100  in  the  Westminster  hall  competition  by 

able  table  wine.  his  cartoon  of  ^*  Una  alarmed  by  the  fawns  and 

FROST.    By  fall  of  the  temperature  of  the  Satyrs."    He  thenceforth  abandoned  portrait 

air  to  the  freezing  point,  the  moisture  upon  the  painting,  and  has  since  confined  himself  chiefly 

surface  of  the  earth  is  congealed,  and  appears  to  classical  subjects,  or  those  suggested  by  the 

in  the  form  of  icy  particles,  which,  as  well  as  poems  of  Spenser  and  lOltoo. 

the  phenomenon  itself,  are  designated  as  frost.  FR0THIN6HAM,    Nathahibl    Lakodoh; 

Continuance   of  low  temperature  causes  the  D.D.,  an  American  clergyman  and  poet,  bom  ia 

fh)st  to  penetrate  into  the  interior  of  plants,  Boston,  July  23, 1793.  i  He  was  graduated  at 

and  further  and  further  below  the  surmce  of  Harvard  college  lin  1811,  and  after  teaching  in 

the  ground ;  that  is,  the  moisture  is  converted  the  Boston  Latin  school  and  as  private  tutor, 

into  ice,  the  effect  of  which,  by  reason  of  its  became  in  1812  instructor  in  rhetoric  and  orir 

increase  in  bulk,  is  to  burst  the  fibres  of  the  tonr  at  Harvard,  an  office  which  he  was  the  first 

plant,  causing  more  or  less  injury,  according  to  to  hold.    Meantime  he  pursued  the  stndj  of 

the  delicacy  of  its  organization,  and  the  quantity  theology,  and  in  1815  was  ordained  pastor  of 

of  water  it  may  have  imbibed.    In  the  soil  a  the  First  Congregational  church  in  Boston.  This 

similar  result  takes  place  when  by  thawing  the  charge  he  retained  till  ill  health  compelled  his 

earthy  particles  are    freed  from  the  binding  resignation  of  it  in  1850.    He  is  the  author  of 

effect  of  the  disseminated  ice;   and  when  in  more  than  50  sermons,  published  occanonally, 

the  spring  the  frost  is  said  to  have  come  out  and  also  of  a  volume  of  **  Sermons  in  the  Order 

of  the  ground,  its  useful  effect  is  perceived  in  of  a  Twelvemonth^*  (Boston,  18521  none  of 

the  finely  pulverized  state  to  whicn  it  has  re-  which  had  otherwise  appeamt    He  has  also 

duced  the  clods.    This  action  of  the  fh)st .  ex-  contributed  many  articles  to  religions  periodi- 

tends  also  to  the  disintegration  of  the  rocky  cals,  chiefiy  to  the  **  Christian  Examiner.    While 

strata,  and  it  is  found  to  be  a  most  powerful  agent  a  student  at  Cambridge  he  delivered  a  poem  at 

in  the  conversion  of  the  solid  materials  of  the  the  installation  of  President  Kirldand,  and  he 

earth  to  the  condition  of  soil.    The  water  pen-  subsequently  contributed  sevoid  venioos  firom 

etrating  into  the  crevices  of  the  rocks  and  tnere  the  German  and  original  poems  to  magarineti 

freezing  bursts  off  the  layers,  sometimes  throw-  In  1855  a  collection  of  these  was  published  in 

ing  them  violently  to  a  distance  with  an  explo-  Boston  under  the  title  of  **  Metrical  Pieoei| 

sion,  as  if  they  had  been  blasted  with  powaer.  Translated  and  Original,**  which  aredistingnbh<- 

The  force  has  even  been  applied  as  a  mechanical  ed,  as  well  as  his  prose  writings,  for  refinement 

power  for  splitting  rocks,  water  being  poured  of  sentiment  and  ffraoefhl  expression, 

into  the  seams  and  allowed  to  freeze.    What  is  FROTHINGHAM,  Richabo,  Ir.,  an  Ameri- 

called  white  or  hoar  frost,  which  is  seen  in  cool  can  historian,  journalist,  and  pohUdan,  bom  in 

mornings  covering  the  ground  and  objects  ex-  Charlestown,  Mass.,  Jan.  81,  1812.     At  an 

posed  to  the  weather,  is  frozen  dew,  formed  early,  age  his  attention  was  turned  to  politksa 

when  the  air  is  not  so  cool  as  to  prevent  the  dew  and  literature,  and  he  formed  a  connecdom 

from  being  precipitated,  but  wnen  the  surfaces  with  the  **  Boston  Post,**  oi  which  journal  ha 

upon  which  it  faUs  have  been  reduced  by  radi-  is  yet  one  of  the  proprietors,  as  well  as  its 

ation  of  heat  (increased  often  by  rapid  evapora-  managing  editor,  and  the  chief  contributor  to 

tion)  to  so  low  a  temperature  as  to  cause  it  to  its  columns-.    Having  become  known  as  a  po* 

congeal.    Sometimes  the  frost  does  not  appear  litical  writer  and  speaker,  he  was  chosen  to 

until  after  the  sun  has  risen,  its  rays  having  the  the  Massachusetts  house  of  representatives  in 

effect  to  rednce  the  temperature  of  the  surface  1839  by  his  native  town,  where  he  has  always 

for  a  time  by  increasing  the  evaporation.    (See  resided.    He  was  reelected  in  1840,  *42,  '49, 

Evaporation.)     A  brijght  morning  sun  may  and  *50.    He  was  during  each  of  these  tenoa 

thus  ag^avate  the  injurious  effects  of  frost  npon  a  prominent  member  of  the  house,  on  aeoomt 

vegetation.    To  protect  plants  from  frosty  it  is  of  his  intimate  acquaintance  with  parliament* 

enough  to  prevent  the  radiation  of  heat  frtnn  ary  law  and  general  history.    In  1050  he  was 


TRt 


t,m»  MU  ^  w  dMtton.    In  18S1  ha 

WW  ft  Mwto  to  fl»  Mttaod  oODfwrtkti  of 
*»lii  iirtltep«tr,Md^diB<atofa»pMt 

fa.  flw  iiiii vfehfa.  te  ISO,  M  to  tiM 

aoMtaMta'tf  Cm.  Hmm  ftr  Oa  pcaddaBor* 
Kr.  JMUnriMBi  WW  «laeta<  ana  or  tba  dd»- 
iMm  fci»  ttriwtewH  to  flw  oaawtfaa  aaB- 
adlB  iaUto«wlto  flwaaatftotfon  of  IbM- 
ihiiitto  HatookwaottroiMrtliitlMdabatM 
•rOit  Wdrv^wiallT'M  *lM  nUaotofilw 
MMkt,  ta^Uw;  ampontkHit,  tba  foiaflo*- 
•oM  «f  valM^  m  taaa  of  nnwwMnt,  tba 
iMae«rT8rmanitadv«8,aiidt£a  mOltia.  fbr 
WBV  MBS  ha  fcaabaw  -•  powvftd  writer  on 
bnUaft  Md  U  afipkiiM  wl&  MMd  to  it  ham 
taw  waodaa  ty  tha  hwra  of  Itawi  Jwiuft^ 
"kk  I»1,  «Bd  b  Iha  two  fldtowlBc  jaw^  ha 
AM  <M«aw«f  Aaror  ef  COittlef'  - 
4MB*ad  sAh  tewT^  "HWaiT . 
town"  wwpBblUbad  ta  18M.  Jbl8 


arHwcyVHL— I 

HiiijaiiiwlH.ini 

SbraiMTiBWt    u 

aarfwatwafc  ban 
ISSS.  nSim%)a 
MHwwdaatadi 
radSTMnaftHTi 

Onbra.  fMfTai 
of  axtranti  ftval 
aBdwittlBga,l>iri 
traadriiMMrilTol 


aa  Ua  "rartMT  «f  tba  BhM  4f  BoatoL  and  of 
*a  BatUea  af  iudactwrOoBaord,  and  BoBkar 
mt,"  wM^  yfcHy  j^ied  toaaaowd  atotoa. 
Vo  iwawwraafc'  ca  vba  Aiwnw&  Tandiiwift 
Itttaiagaidad  woftba 


in  whidi  v 
»  fflwAi 
VBlnT.tlMtflq 
jaaaadu  Ihatar 
Undori^utwU 


dKwUaklfB 
d  1b  nptonata 
eapaolaofawi 


laa'Mwmraf  t 

iii^.haWv  fa  tttba  oawartfaaannr,  wUA 

ha-Ma  Aaabiried  Ibr  aaranl  yaara. 

ntOUI^  Smjom  Jarmemr,  m  En^di  Ua- 
torian,  a  aoQ  of  tba  lato  ArahdeaeoD  KtoDde,  born 
at  Dartfngton  ractorr,  Totnea^  Derombire,  in 
1818.  In  I88S  he  entered  Olid  college,  Ozftwd. 
Be  took  biB  degree  in  1B40,  and  S  years  after  ob- 
tained tbe  obaitcellor's  prue  for  an  En^ish  es- 
aaj,  and  waa  elected  fellov  of  Exeter  college. 
Mr.  Froode'a  aTrnpatby  with  the  bigh  chnrcb 
viewswhieb  tiien  prevailed  led  him  to  entertain 
Bie  idea  of  stad jing  for  the  ministi; ;  and  he 
proeeeded  m>  &r  a>  to  be  ordained  deacon  in 
18U.  Bnt  be  nerer  undertook  anr  clerical 
dnty,  and  soon  abandoned  theotogjr  far  litera- 
ture. InlS47he  pahliabed  arolume  of  storiee, 
antttkd  "The  Shadowa  of  the  Clondi,"  and  in 
184S  "TheNemeata  of  Faitb,"  a  well  written 
but  gloomj  book,  the  tendency  of  which  i*  to 
throw  deabt  on  the  bbdhI  theoriei  of  revMled 
vdWoo.  Shortlj  after  the  appearance  of  this 
book,  Mr.  Fronde  reigned  hie  fellowship,  and 
was  obBged  to  gtTe  up  an  appointment  which 
he  bad  reoetred  to  a  teacbenhip  in  Totma- 
xta.  For  B  or  8  yean  he  wrote  almost  eon- 
atantljr  for  "  Fraaer's  Kagailne"  and  the  "  West- 
mlnater  Review."  One  of  hb  articles  in  the 
httter  on  tbe  hook  of  Job  baa  been  reprinted 
la  a  laparate  lunn.  In  ISOe  tbe  first  S  Tolnmea 
•f  hit  "  Iliatory  of  England  from  tbe  Fall  of 
Votser  to  the  Death  of  Elizabeth"  appeared, 
and  la  1S6S  the  8d  and  4th.  The  materiaU  for 
lUa  woi^  are  mainlj  derived  fhim  the  publio 
"^Anmeirta  of  tbe  time,  and  tbe  boldness  sod 
^t^ndity  or  the  aothor^  Tlewi  ban  attnctad 


the  IhdL    Even 
tablaa,tbMeiaaoa 

andthefniltistb* 
gbape  and  oonwiti 

Seodeot  on  the  t 
iffera,  the  eansea 
&mK  development 
tienlar  portiona  of 
language^  and  in  bi 
matured  envelope 
pie,  pear,  peach,  : 
we  hare  seen,  tlie 
at  tbe  Nune  tune  i 
being  the  ripened 
Bonie  trace  of  this 
case,  even  In  thoe 
grviiB,  as  tbe  wit 
corn,  or  tbe  remai 
on  Uie  triangular 
which  are  alio  se« 
qiple.  Some  at 
fhiits,  accortling  t 
are  merely  tbe  c 
and  in  tbe  ^iple, 
hnlla  containing 
ovarinm  and  its  < 
tbns  changed,  bea 
eompoaed  of  8  laj 
wliere  the  skin  i 
aareocarp.  andthi 
seed  is  still  with 
the  stone.  Even 
in  all  frDito  wh 
at  flrst,fi>rtb7i 


FRY  778 

fonn  sabstanee,  as  in  the  nnt,  hardening  into  a  asylums,  and  infirmaries  of  the  United  Kingdom, 
woody  shell;  for  example,  the  hazel  not  and  No  prisoner  who  had  once  been  under  their 
acorn.  Fruits  are  divided  into  two  classes,  superintendence  was  allowed  eyer  to  be  lost 
simple  and  multiple.  The  simple  are  the  result  sight  of.  Those  under  sentence  of  transport* 
of  one  flower,  as  the  apple,  dec. ;  the  multiple  ation  were  supplied  with  religious  books,  and 
are  the  result  of  several  flowers,  as  the  pine-  a  more  favorable  treatment  ofthem  was  obtained 
apple,  where  each  eye  or  pip  bears  on  its  sum-  from  suocesdve  ministries.  From  1887  to  1843 
mit  some  trace  of  the  pistil,  and  the  entire  flower  Mrs.  Fry  made  seyeral  Journeys  in  France  and 
spikes  hare  grown  together  into  a  fleshy  mass,  in  northern  and  central  Europe,  visiting  prisons, 
FRY,  EuzABKTE,  an  English  philanthropist,  and  ezpoundiDg  her  plans  of  improvement  to 
bom  in  bramerton,  near  Norwich,  May  21,  I78O,  the  public  authorities.  The  baron  de  G^erando 
died  in  Ramsgate,  Oct.  12, 1845.  She  was  the  was  her  companion  through  the  hospitals  of 
daughter  of  John  Gumey,  a  wealthy  merchant  Paris.  The  poet  Orabbe  addressed  to  her  the 
and  banker  of  Norwich,  and  one  of  her  brothers  lines,  which  appear  also  in  his  **  Maid^s  Story'^ : 
was  the  author  J.  J.  Gnrney.  The  family  be- 
longed to  the  society  of  Friends,  but  did  not  Oaw  I  UheW  »  wife. »  mother,  go 

^jiP   ^  _i.  Ai_  J.    Ai-     —              ^iv-        A,    'av  To  gloom  J  »cen«»  of  wretched  nesa  and  woo  ; 

adnere  strictly  to  tne  usages  of  the  sect  either  8he  Magfat  her  wej  throngh  all  things  Tile  and  hiM^ 

in  dress,  language,  or  so<ual  habits.    Elizabeth  AndmadeapriMnareiigTottspUMse; 

with  her  «  sitter,  dre»kl  and  oonversed  gayly,  ^^%'S;;?LtiW^^Si•l&'l^ 
and  took  part  in  many  of  the  social  amusements 

of  ^Norwich,  which  she  even  introduced  into  She  was  greatly  aided  in  her  arduous  labors  by 

Earlham  hsJl,  her  father*s  country  residence,  an  exquisitely  sweet  and  soothing  voice,  whi<u 

At  the  age  of  17  she  visited  London  in  the  at  once  subdued  the  most  intractable  nature.— 

height  of  Uie  season,  attended  theatres  and  the  See  **  Memoirs  of  Elizabeth  Fry,  with  Extracts 

opera,  made  acquaintance  with  Mrs.  Inchbald,  from  her  Journals  and  Letters ;  edited  by  Two 

Amelia  Opie,  and  Dr.  Wolcot  (Peter  Pindar),  of  her  Daughters"  (2  vols.,  London,  184*0. 

and  took  especial  delight,  as  she  herself  says,  hi  FRY,  Williax  Ukkbt,  an  American  oom* 

**  scandal  and  grand  company.'*    In  1798  an  poser  and  Journalist,  bom  in  Philadelphia,  Aug. 

American  Quaker,  William  Savery,  who  was  1815.    His  father,  William  Fry,  was  proprietor 

travelling  in  England  on  a  religions  mission,  of  the  ^'  National  Gazette"  newspaper  of  PMIa- 

preached  in  the  Friends*  meeting  house  at  Nor-  delphia.  The  son  was  educated  in  his  native  citj^ 

wicb.    The  assembly  consisted  of  about  200  per-  and  at  Mount  St  Mary's  college,  Emmitsbuig^'' 

sons,  among  whom  were  the  7  Earlham  laaiea,  Md.    His  aptitude  for  musical  acquirements  was 

and  Savery  was  astoni^ed  and  pained  to  find  very  early  apparent,  and  his  studies  in  this  direo* 

himself  in  presence  of  the  gayest  company  of  tion  were  guided  by  Mr.  Leopold  Meignen.    Hia 

Quakers  he  had  ever  seen.    As  he  lamented  in  first  orchestral  productions  were  4  overtureapei^ 

his  discourse  the  departure  of  the  ancient  plain-  formed  by  the  philharmonic  society  of  Philadel- 

ness  and  gravity  of  the  sect,  Elizabeth  was  pro-  Phia  in  1885,  for  which  the  composer  received  an 

foundly  affected,  and  subsequent  discourses  and  honorary  medal  from  the  society.    '^  The  Bridal 

conversations  with,  the  preacher  contributed  to  of  Dunnre**  and  '^  Aurelia,"  his  first  two  opera% 

her  change  to  the  strict  piety  and  usages  of  a  have  never  been  represented,  although  seleotioDa 

**  plain  Friend."   In  1800  ahe  was  marri^l  to  Jo-  from  them  have  been  given  in  concerts,  lectureiL 

seph  Fry,  whose  family  belonged  to  the  strict  sec-  &c.    In  1889  he  became  regularly  connected 

tion  of  the  Quakers,  and  she  afterwu^  resided  with  the  '*  National  Qazette."    In  1844  he  was 

in  London,  t2l  in  1809  she  removed  to  Plasket  engaged  as  editor  of  the  Philadelphia  ^^  Ledger" 

house,  Essex.    In  1810  she  be(»une  a  minister  when  the  native  American  riots  raged.    He 

among  the  Quakers,  and  in  1818  made  her  first  afterward  wrote  for  the  Philadelphia  *'  Sun." 

visit  to  Newgate  prison,  wh^^  she  witnessed  In  1845  the  opera  of  **  Leonora"  was  written 

nearlySOOwomencrowded  together  in  rags  and  by  him  for  the  Seguin  troupe,  and  was  pro* 

filth,  without  bedding,  and  suffering  aU  the  duced  in  June  of  that  year  at  the  Ohestnul 

privations  and  neglect  of  the  old  prison  system,  street  theatre.     An  Italian  veraon  was  per- 

ner  liveliest  sympathies  were  awakened,  and  formed  in  the  spring  of  1858  at  the  academy 

she  supplied  them  with  clothing,  and  did  all  that  of  music  in  New  York.    In  1846  Mr.  Fry  viated 

was  then  in  her  power  to  amdiorate  their  con-  Europe,  and  remained  there  6  years,  residlBg 

didon.    After  several  other  visits  in  1817,  she  chiefly  in  Paris,  and  corresponding  with  the 

succeeded  in  establishing  a  school  and  manu&o-  New  York  ^^  Tribune,"  the  Philadelphia  **^  Led* 

tory  within  the  prison,  organized  a  ladies*  asso-  ger,**  and  other  newspapers.    Mr.  Frj  return* 

elation  for  the  reformation  of  the  prisoners,  and  ed  to  America  in  1853.     In  the  same  year 

thenceforward  devoted  all  her  energies  to  the  he  delivered  in  New  York  a  series  of  10  lea* 

promotion  of  prison  reform.     Within  a  few  tnres  on  the  history  of  music    Two  new  wwm» 

years  she  personally  inspected  prisons  in  many  phonies,  ^The  Breaking  Heart"  and  **  A  Daj 

parts  of  Great  Britain,  extending  the  improve-  in  the  Oountry,**  were  written  as   illa^m- 

ments  which  had  already  been  introduced  into  tions  for  these  lectures  by  Mr.  Fry.    ThesiL 

Newgate,  and  instituting  committees  fbr  visiting  with  two  other  fljmphoniea,  "  Santa  Glaus"  and 

female  prisoners.    Her  influence  was  apparent  ^'Ohilde  Harold,*'  were  also  soon  after  played 

in  most  of  the  gaols,  hooaea  of  oorreetion,  loaatio  by  M.  JnUien'a  ondiestra  in  various  parta  of  tlM 


■77»  F0CHS 


rnited  StftUfl,    Hi,  Fr^'s  next  coiDi>Mition  vm  TTamboldt  mi  < 

tha  mtisic  to  na  ode  written  ii>r  Ihe  opening  of  Euglaod  in  IStt 

tho  great  indoatrial  exhibition  at  Now  York  ID  anymb^flora,  Bi 

1SS3.    nil  \aA  iiublished  niusiiuil  work  was  a  4-iuiglfd  brancll 

£(dZH)(ifaf«r,ooiDpase<l  ID  1855  with  full  orchc*-  lanceolaU,  slmoi 

trsl  ftod  vocal  score  for  {>«rformsnM  at  the  Now  9  inDbe»  louft  Ml 

Torlc  ocAdeni}'.    His  inoet  recently  performed  fuIoorymbBi  tuLi 


wrks  are  aonio  vlotia  qnartettea-  Sinca  his  re-  native  nf  Para  1 
tarn  trwn  Eurone  Mr.  Fry  lias  been  attaclicd  t«  fulgm*,  a  lieiiia 
tha  tuff  of  the  New  York  "  Tribune"    H«  haa    and  of  mwni6ck 


_.._o  bocoroe  known  as  a  political  orator,  and  aa  Aicluia  {Katies 

a  popular  lecturer  on  misccllBUeons  «abjrcla.  absigbtof  IfifM 

FUCUS,  or  FconsiuB,  Lbonbaro,  a  German  Icatos  disposed  i( 

botanitC  and  phyRiciao,  born  in  Wemding  Srb-  sciuniuatM  at  t 


of  Luther,  became  in  1526  profcasor  of  medicine  orate'aralei  spn 

at  Ingolstudt,  and  in  1528  first  phj-sicianto  Iho  the  petals:  a  nil 

margravcafAnspach.iiDdbcldlljecbiui'ofined-  fuclisia  (F.  ffrat 

loine  at  Tftbingcn  from  IfiHO  till  bis  death.    He  finelj-   pobesceol 

eoDtribn ted  much  toward  overthrowing  the  an-  long  poUoles;  tl 

thoritj  of  the  Arab  phfHiciaos  and  to  rftstoiing  Iqb«  coItx,  lobM 

the  Greeks  to  honor.     As  a  botimist  ho  corrected  tala  pnrple,  ThM 

mttuy  current  errora  in  the  nomenclBture  of  esteemed,  ench  i 

t^Ants.    An  American  plant,  tht/uehiia,  bears  /'   ph!i^,  F.  * 

bianame.    He  wrote  afreatnumberof  medical  bud^tn|{  out  in  < 

and  botanical  works,  of  which  the  most  impor-  others  6  and  8  fi 

Ut,t\*t.HatariaStirpiMniSo\.,Bnsi\,1M2).  12  to   18  feet,| 

yUf^HSIA,    popnlarij    oallwl    Eikmiop,    a  {F.  apttala,  Bu 

cenus  of  ornameDtal  and  verj  ahowjr  plants,  cm.    It  wonldl 

belonging  to  tiio  natural  order  of  onagraeia.  det«rmiDO  at  A 

The  flowers  of  llie  fncksia  Lave  tbo  tube  of  the  present  highlj'  ri 

oalys  drownool  and 4-cIenat  the  apoi;  within  tained;  ;ct  nrol 

there  are  4  netab  of  a  diflbrent  color,  8  stamens,  and  bricllj  dcM 

and  a  threadlike  pistiL     The  fruit  is  a-t-valved,  the  first  IcDOWIt 

4-cellMl,  monj-seeded  hcrrr,  which  ia  ovate-  A  writer  in  tha 

glolx>se  or  oblong  in  shape.    Tlie  species  are  don)  thinks  that 

low  shrubs,  having  nsually  opponte  leaves,  the  mnnication,  ma; 

flowers    home  upon   single   aiiUary   pedicels,  ind  I',  arbomra 

though  sometimes  tlicy  are  disposed  in  racemes  that  certain  spe 

at  the  ends  of  the  hranciios.     Ferbapt  the  his-  other  species  dol 

tory  of  DO  other  greenhouse  plant  presents  so  are  frequently  Ui 

many  interesting  items  as  do  the  changes  pro-  soperb-lookieg  c 

dneed  by  the  hybridizing  and  rearing  of  now  The  Inte  Mr.  D 

varieties  of  thiaelegant  flower.    Loudon,  iu  bis  England,"  speaki 

"Encyclopredia  of  Plflnts"(I8S0).  ^vea  only4  ard   roses  to   a 
species  and  a  single  variety ;  and  in  his  "  Ar- 


■pecies  and  a  single  variety ;  and  in  his  "  Ar-  stems  10  feet  hi) 

boretum  and  Fruticetum"  (1844)  he  gives  31  ing  and  depcnd< 

■pecies.    A  writerin  tbo  "rcnnyOyclopisdia"  dent  flowers."    1 

f  supplement)  enumerates  GO  species  as  the  num-  among  many  kini 

ber  de«oril)e<l ;  and  the  flower  catalogues  of  the  treatment.    Old 

jiresent  time  flHSO)  furnish  double  the  number  can  be   taken   q 

of  the  choicest  varieties  only.    For  many  years  kept  through  tbi 

the  only  kind  known  in  the  Unil«d  St^es  was  any  cellar  whioll 

the  F.  (iMVinea  from  Chili,  oonsidered,  not  more  planted  out  in  H 

than  SO  years  ago,  one  of  the  most  elegant  of  shady  place,  tbejr 

plants,  conspicuous  for  its  axillary  and  drooping  gardens.    The  U 

flowers,  with  scarlet  calyx  and  violet-colored  keptinlhegreenl 

petals.    We  have  lost  sight  of  this  older  kind  into  the  b^dcr, 

U)  collkrlions.     Tlie  smalt-leaved  fuchsia  (F.  and  cuttings  put 

tniavpKylla)  has  pubesoent  branches,  with  op-  previous  inmimM 

|Kiut«,  lunnil,  ctlipUc-oblong.  acnlish  (oolhetl,  are  very  elegant ' 

glabroua.  alichtly  ciliated  leaves;  the  flowers  naming.  The largt 

MTO  a  scarlet  calyx  and  deep  rod  petals,  bios-  prefernble,  liiuu^ 

Kunicg  from  Juno  to  ^ptcmb«r.     U  was  found  arc  exceedingly  ■ 

oa  the  rutoaiiio  mouataw  Jorullo  ia  V auco  hj  tan.    Soma  ran 


FU0U8  777 

• 

tnd  Bcarlet-eorolled  blooms,  and  are  nnsorpass-  ooant,  among  otihen,  of  the  two  gigantic  species 
ed ;  others  of  equal  size  hare  rosy  calyxes ;  and  Leuonia  /ueeteru  and  the  macnuyatia,  8een 
by  freak,  the  colors  have  become  reversed,  the  from  the  surface  in  sailing  oTer  them,  they  ap- 
oorolla  being  white  instead  of  the  calyx,  which  pear  like  groves  of  trees,  their ''^sterns  from  8  to 
is  red  or  scarlet  As  yet  snch  kinds  have  poor,  10  inches  in  diameter,  and  the  branches  of  the 
weak,  and  insignificant  stems,  foliage,  and  hab-  former  species  spreading  out  and  dividing  into 
its,  and  are  cmtivated  more  as  objects  of  cori-  sprays,  n*om  which  the  leaves  are  suspended, 
ority  than  of  value.  Even  approaches  to  striped  Covered  with  parasitic  algie,  and  with  numerous 
flowers  are  being  made ;  and  in  fine,  such  is  the  species  of  adhering  shell-fish,  as  the  chitons  and 
propensity  to  sport  in  the  fuchsia,  tliat  almost  patella,  and  many  Crustacea  and  radiata  swarm- 
any  kind  may  in  time  be  anticipated.  Indeed  mg  among  their  tangled  roots,  while  fish  of  dif- 
tiie  &ci]ity  with  which  the  different  sorts  im«  ferent  species  are  seen  darting  through  their 
pr^^ate  each  other  and  produce  showy  flowers  .  foliage,  tJiey  remind  one  of  the  coral  reefs  of 
from  new  seedlings,  the  result  of  the  union,  has  tropical  seas.  Their  stems  strewed  upon  the 
caused  the  fuchsia  to  take  rank  with  the  gera«  beaches  appear  like  driftwood,  and,  as  they  de- 
ninms  in  floriculture. — ^The  uses  of  these  plants  cay,  exhale  an  almost  insufferable  odor  like  that 
■eem  to  be  as  yet  very  limited.  The  wood  of  of  putrid  cabbage.  The  macroiyUu  is  a  single 
F.  cceeinea  is  used  in  Chili  to  make  a  block  stem,  without  branches,  vegetating  upon  rodca 
coloring  matter;  and  the  leaves  and  branches  in  water  not  exceeding  8  or  10  fathoms  in  depth; 
are  used  for  some  kinds  of  medicine.  The  her-  but  when  swept  away  from  these,  it  attaches  it- 
ries  of  F,  mierophylla  are  very  sweet.  Those  self  to  rocks  40  fathoms  below  the  surface,  and 
of  F,  excortieatOy  a  native  of  New  Zealand,  are  then  elongates  itself  indefinitely.  It  is  seea 
greedily  eaten  by  swine ;  and  so  sweet  are  they  upon  the  beaches  rolled  up  by  the  waves  in 
when  ripe,  that  attempts  have  been  made  to  in*  great  strands  larger  than  a  roan^s  body,  entan- 
troduce  the  species  into  other  similar  regions  as  gled  one  with  another.  The  harbors  about  the 
a  sugar  plant.  Falkland  islands,  Cape  Horn,  and  Kerauelen 
FUCUS  (Gr.  <fn/Koty  a  sea  weed),  a  genus  of  Land,  are  so  filled  with  it  that  boats  can  hardly 
marine  plants  included  with  other  genera  in  the  be  forced  through.  The  gulf  weed  is  a  species 
common  name  algsD.  Its  relations  have  alreadv  of  fncua  (F,  natans).  It  &  found  floating  m  the 
been  described,  and  some  of  the  species  name^  Gulf  stream,  and  in  the  great  tracts  of  the  At* 
in  the  article  ALOis.  Beside  living  species  of  lantic  ocean  called  the  Sargasso  sea  is  collected, 
fuci,  there  are  others  of  particular  interest  from  as  in  the  whirl  of  a  vast  eddy.  It  is  this  sea^ 
the  occurrence  of  their  fossil  remains  in  the  most  presenting  boundless  fields  of  floating  weeds, 
ancient  stratified  rocks,  associated  with  those  of  that  gave  alarm  to  the  sailors  of  Columbus,  who 
the  oldest  forms  of  animal  life,  also  marine,  to  feared  they  might  never  escape  from  its  en- 
which  they  no  doubt  served  as  nutriment.  They  tauglements.  The  fuci  are  remarkable  among 
are  abundantly  met  with  in  the  sandstones  of  vegetables  for  the  large  amount  of  inorganic 
the  Appalachians,  covering  the  surface  of  the  matter  or  ash  they  afford.  It  is  from  this  ash 
slabs  witl^  irregularly  shap^  ridges.  The  flag-  that  the  principal  supply  of  the  carbonate  oT 
stones  obtained  from  the  Portage  group  of  tiie  soda  of  commerce,  culed  soda  ash,  has  until  re* 
Kew  York  system  so  abound  with  them,  that  cently  been  obtained.  Dr.  Thomson  states  that 
the  fossils  are  seen  in  every  village  where  these  the  gulf  weed,  which  he  calls  Sargdsium  tulffore^ 
atones  are  used  for  the  sidewalks.    They  are  contains  22.58  per  cent  of  ash ;  the  padinapch' 

ricularly  noted  in  the  streets  of  Geneva,  N.  tonia^  after  drying,  84.75  per  cent.  They  also 
(See  Hall*s  **  Geology  of  New  York,''  p.  yield  iodide  of  sodium,  and  various  salts  of  lime. 
i42.)  The  fossil  fuel  of  the  most  ancient  magnena,  soda,  and  potash.  Along  the  coast  of 
formations,  according  to  A.  Brongniart,  are  the  British  isles,  especially  on  the  snores  of  Ayr- 
xnost  nearly  related  to  existing  species,  which  shire,  the  plants  are  collected  in  large  quantitlea 
belong  to  tropical  dimates;  but  Uie  forms  of  after  storms.  They  form  a  valuable  manure,  and 
marine  vegetation  found  fossil  in  the  rocks  of  on  the  west  coast  of  Ireland  the  poorer  classes 
the  8econ£iry  and  tertiary  formation  resemble  are  almost  entirely  dependent  upon  this  material 
those  now  living  in  temperate  olimalee. — ^The  for  the  cultivation  of  their  potatoes.  It  is  car- 
living  species  of  fuci  found  about  the  islands  off  ried  to  Gal  way  from  Slyne  Head,  60  to  60  m.  dis- 
the  southern  extremity  of  South  America  are  tant,  and  is  then  conveyed  sometimes  80  m.  into 
so  remarkable  as  to  deserve  particular  notice,  the  interior.  It  is  used  raw  as  a  top  dresnng. 
They  grow  up  from  deeply  sunken  rocks,  and  and  the  ash  for  the  under  crop.  The  plant  also 
spread  over  the  surface  of  the  ocean,  presenting  serves  as  a  fuel  for  the  poorer  people,  and  is 
tne  ^>pearance  of  extensively  inundated  mead-  sometimes  cooked  for  the  food  called  dulse, 
ows.  Ships  penetrate  with  difilculty  through  Long  before  it  was  known  to  contain  iodine  it 
the  obstructions  they  present.  The  stems  grow  was  esteemed  a  purifier  of  the  blood  and  effica- 
very  rapidly,  and  have  been  known  to  attain  cions  in  warding  <^  or  curing  scorbutic  or 
the  length  of  700  feet;  Lamouroux  describes  glandolar  affections.  The  Icelanders  also  use 
them  as  even  exceeding  800  feet  Dr.  J.  D.  different  species  of  the  fVicus  for  food.  The 
Hooker  in  the  **  Botany  of  the  Antarctic  Yoy-  plants  are  washed  in  fresh  water,  then  dried, 
age  of  H.  M.  Discovery  Ships  Erebus  and  Terror,  when  they  give  out  a  white  powdery  substance 
in  the  Years  1889-'48,"  gives  an  interssting  ac-  sailed  mannite,  sweet  and  palatable.    This  is 


lift' 


778"  rCEGO 

oollected  and  )>ackcd  away  in  ti^t  casks,  mi  nil  TOgetoble  m 

U  aherword  Mten  nitli  milk,  fia&,  or  ryo  tiour.  food  of  the  grat 

CstlJe  and  ii!)e«p  are  said  to  be  vetr  food  of  tbU  leavtti  hj  Uta  lil 

Mibstance.  CBm^eeu  moss  uid  Uio  edible  birds'  guthortd  theu  i 

neata  are  derived  from  fuci.     Rromine  and  to-  annoal  growth  I 

dine  are  prepared  from  its  ash  or  kelp.  portion  BTaiUfa) 

FUEGO.    See  T&RBA  DBL  Frsoo.  not  long  nroTefli 

FUEL  fFr.  /en,  fire,  contracted  from  Sp./utge,  aappllfd  by  lli«i 

Lat  /ecu*,  firejiluce),  the  material  used   for  mote  Bgwinbej 

produeing  heat  bj  combustion.    The  term  is  are  by  no  meal 

ooninionlj  applied  onl^  to  siibsbmcea  orieiDallf  proved  to  be  aid 

derirod  from  tha  growth  of  plants,  as  wood,  peat,  them  for  man/ 

charcoal,  coke,  and  tli«  various  kinds  of  mioeral  ^wo  maf  safely  t 

ooaL     Even  thua  limiud,  it  might  properly  in-  'euppliea  of  fad  1 

dode  tiie  inflammable  f^aaes,  wbieb  are  used  of  will  be  fumbfai 

)ato  for  the  soke  of  the  heat  (renerated  bv  their  whloh  wa  are  I 

combustion.    The  oils,  animal  fat,  wax,  ulcohol,  nniversally  kncn 

Ac,  tire  Co  some  extent  employed  for  the  uimo  in  fintna  and  q 

erposc,  and  might  be  treated  as  Epeeicatif  fuel,  and  to  some  es 

itiu  the  present  article  refereDce  wilt  be  made  which  it  iaobtd 

only  to  the  materials  included  in  the  popnUr  dm  compounds — th 

of  Uie  term ;  and  these  we  propose  to  treat  only  aap,  and  the  alk 

inrdatlon  totheircomparAtivovaluvaus  BrtioM  remain  after  oai 

of  fael,  referring  for  further  detaUa  reepectiue  tains  a  variabte 

each  to  its  own  place  in  this  work. — Soiue  klna  two  named  are! 

of  ftiel  has  always  been  an  article  of  prime  no-  which  Its  volua 

cesaity  to  man,  at  least  from  the  lime  when  lia  tlie  tisnla  is  of 

bcwon  to  jircpare  hia  food  by  the  heat  of  fire,  or  toting  In  tliorO 

had  learned  to  prize  it*  comfortable  warmth  In  iw  more  of  Ita  w 

the  cold  of  winter.     Hia  dependence  upoD  it  is  dicnt  which  gi( 

ebown  by  the  snbstitntca  he  makes  ufee  of  in  character,  exoep 

paasing  throuf>h  the  barren  wastes  left  by  natare  density,  for  pur 

without  fuel  or  water.    The  dung  of  tlio  camel,  solable  in  watei 

dried  in  the  ann,  is  gathered  for  fuel ;  and  in  form  oompositk 

Sorts  of  China  and  other  eastern  countries,  the  aap  and  the  mol 

UDg  of  cows  and  horses  ia  eolleot(4  and  mixed  the  difllerent  wo 

into  bolls,  with  dust  of  coo),  refuse  vegetable  lly  the  sap  beal 

matters,  and  clay;  these  balls  are  an  article  of  on  the  oak  ita  ti 

tnflie,  and  in  China  are  transported  upon  the  birch  the  pecuUi 

canals  to  distant  places.     As  man  gained  experi-  tinguith  these.  1 

enOB  in  the  properties  and  nses  of  the  materials  difibront  inthei 

around  him,  iheapplicaljonsoffueltosupply  his  and  oxygen  froi 

Increased  wants  wore  greatly  moltipUed.    By  rangemcntofthi 

meansof  Itclaywaaconverted  into  better  bricks  a  variety  of  coo 

than  those  baked  in  tbesun,  limestone  was  burned  Its  proportion  la 

for  cement,  and  the  ores  were  mode  to  give  up  and  U  variable  I 

the  valuable  mctala  they  held  concealed ;  ana  qirlog  it  Bowa  £ 

the  Biibsequeot  treutmeut  of  these  for  ubtaioing  ing  life  and  vigi 

the  articles  they  were  iittcd  toprodncewaaalso  fbre  the  aeaaoB 

wholly  dependent  on  the  use  of  fuel     So  from  object  is  t*  leov 

the  fraita  of  the  field  were  obtnined  by  various  aap;  but  oo  aoi 

prooesses,  dependent  ou  the  combnation  of  fuel,  of  water  prcaenl, 

new  prodocts,  the  continued    preparation  of  for  fuel  oa  in  in 

which  adds  not  a  little  to  its  value.    But  the  Sehobler  found 

modem  discovery  of  its  being  the  most  avail*  nary  cont^nod  i 

able  aonree  of  motive  power  has  given  to  it  a  cut  in  April  cool 

new  importance  hardly  inferior  to  that  derived  8S.0  In  Jonuaryj 

from  Its  otiier  uses,  causing  it  to  contribute  raoT«  flr,  G9.T  and  6lfi 

than  all  the  other  resonreea  of  nationi  to  their  prownl  involvM 

wealth  and  proeperily.    The  qiieations  then  of  of  the  carbon  of 

Its  sapply  and  most  economical  application  ore  tliU  ia  oir-dried 

of  tbo  higheat  tnterect. — Ita  original  sonrcc,  aa  heat-producing 

iA«adrstatad,ls  vegetable  growth;  but  oltliou^h  sometime*  )  of 

the  protialonsofnatDro  ore  sech  that  the  ma-  per  cent,  of  that 

terlid*  lliat  supply  thia  can  never  fail — iuaamurh  this  b«  all  MXft 

M  the  pruduoLs  of  th«  deoayor  oomboation  of  trivedtoaitedl 


of  the  otber  oonidtaeota,  tha  vood  will  aliaorb 
from  the  lir  10  per  cent,  or  more  of  moUtnre. 
Tbe  mean  qoanuty  cfhjgromatrio  water  inlOO 
pttrti  of  Tvions  8peei''>B>'*  of  wood  is  thtu  givea 
U  the  treatiw  of  Ricbardion  and  Booalds  {  ia 
oord  wood  tho  leaaoaiDg  woold  not  have  been 
■o  eSbctnal  aa  in  the  apecimens  emplojed : 


Btnh  *ind.'. 

Tauif  brud  wood, . . 


EL  7TO 

The  gnvitj  of  wood  varies  greatly  with  th* 
difierent  apeoiea,  and  abo  with  ita  cooditioo  ts 
to  irjueta.  Though  the  solid  fibre  is  heoTier 
than  water,  the  air  oontaioed  in  the  cella  bnoja 
up  the  wood,  and  caoaes  it  commonly  to  floaL 
As  the  fibre  is  the  heaviest  ingredient,  a  greater 
weight  in  drj  wood  indicatea  a  greater  propor- 
tioD  of  woodf  or  combustible  matter.  Bat  even 
an  approximate  comparative  determination  of 
the  qnaatitj'  of  this  ia  attended  with  much 
nnceruiotj.  The  following  table  gives  the  spe- 
dfio  gravities  of  the  different  kinds  of  wood 
named,  according  to  the  experimenta  of  the  best 
anthoritiea : 


Oniwin  Mit— cirfnlg  (pHllef 
AiUb  oUa  (wbit*  willow).. . . 

.    WItamt  ttihiHto  ibIvM 

H  wauMitria  (elm)  . . 
iliHU  MuliMOuirmbM 
MliH«»<lHck) 


»o.^r:^T^:::::;::::;;; 

JSamflfMHUStMkti) 

Afrpmmit-plataiuu  Ujmoan) 

W^vmtmut  taaltlv  (lak) 

■tfHtaoOa  (biKb) 

KUparla  (mondUlo  Mh) 

Mm.... 

_  .  . MOUrMflt) 

Outwf  (omfootK  (wild  HTTlca) 

,^fr«iAtf  JUnwdoAiiHimfbafH  vheitiLiit)  ., 
AMaal-M  (ildor) 

nUa  nvOHH  (IlDM) 

ftpmttu  »lim  [bUek  popki) 

f^pmlu*  Irvfnui  (upea) .,.. 

J^mf  M  Tfaitlai  (luIlM  pnpltr) 


The  experiment)  of  Wernek  ore  not  considered 
•0  aecarate  as  those  ofHartig  and  Winkler.  His 
samples  were  dried  in  an  oven  so  long  as  thef 
CDDtioned  to  lose  weight,  and  the  specifio  grav- 
ity WM  then  taken  by  immersing  them  in  water. 
Winkler's  experimenta  were  npon  exact  cubio 
inch  samples,  uniformly  dried  for  6  months  iu  a 
heated  chamber  and  weighed  in  the  air.  The  re- 
cent experimenta  of  Earraorsh,  made  apon  woods 
in  the  green  state  and  in  the  dried  state,  give  the 
Avowing  resnlta : 


™.--. 

i,«iU 

(,.,U,. 

w.nii. 

Q«^ 

D.M. 

ans 

1-M« 

6.9X 

li 

Mat 

ss 

O.MW 

0.1*3 

ni-Ti 
i.i» 

C.THS 

o!«w 

O.MT 

6.iii, 

O.MI 

ftJM 

Whlubi^di 

The  lut  cQlninn  of  the  above  taUe  cmtaiiistlM 


weight  in  English  pounds  of  one  eobia  foot  of 
each  kind,  air-dried,  the  mean  only  being  giv- 
en of  the  two  extremes  of  the  original  table. 
The  experiments  of  Uarcns  Ball  Qp<m  Amer^ 
ican  woods  were  condooted  with  great  nicety, 
the  specific  gravity  of  each  being  taken  by 
coating  the  dry  sample  with  a  varni^  of  tbs 
HUne  weight  as  water,  thus  retaining  the  air  in 
the  cells.  The  following  table  is  contained  in 
bis  original  memoir,  rrad  April  T,  1820,  and 

fnblished  in  the"Transaotionsof  the  American 
hilosophleal  Bocietv"  (vol  iii,  new  aeries,  pp. 
1-00).  Tills  gives  toe  weight  of  a  owd  of  wood 
as  it  ahonld  be  pnt  np,  the  istetaliUal  matter 
even  then  amonating  to  44  parts  in  100  of  the 
whole  bnlk ;  aa  it  often  ranch  exceeds  this,  tha 
measure  affords  an  estiinat«  of  tlie  quantity  of 
woody  matter,  even  more  unoertun  wan  would 
be  the  estimate  by  w^ht,  variable  as  this  has 
been  shown  to  be.  'Die  arrangement  of  tiM 
columns  is  as  follows:  A,  qteoiflo  grarity;  B, 
lbs.  avolrdnpoia  in  i»e  cord ;  O,  oharooal  in  100 
parte  of  dry  wood  by  wmght;  D,  specifio  grav- 
ity of  dry  wal;  E,lbs.ofdrycoalin(mebDsheI; 
F,  lbs.  of  dry  ooal  from  one  oord  of  dry  wood; 
0,  bnshels  of  coal  ihim  one  oord  (A  dry  wood; 
H,  time  in  honra  and  mlnntes  during  which  10^ 
of  heat  were  maintained  in  the  room  by  the 
combostion  of  1  lb.  of  each  wood ;  I,  value  of 
ntecified  qnanlitlee  of  each  wood  compared  witli 
^ell-bark  Mokoiy  as  the  abuidud. 


Biuk  iuOTitt^ 

—  -toblnli.A«>iHiUMla 

™'"  -> M  Pfcfflll 


Pfa-aiU  u£«iT,  (^  pardta . . . 
bSUmK  UikM7,  XfaeMofc 
Wllcfakwt,4aw      "  -~     ' 
AmailauMMj.a     . 
AoifUH  b«nbwM,  wrpfluM  ^nu 
HoanWa  IMU«I.  *»(■■<«  £>i(Mia . . 

aud  ntd*.  M*- *Me*ar«wm. . . . 

Badniplt,  An»t)«H.| , 

Ijui*  Buaiielbk  napaaua  prawf^m 

CbMaut  vklta«k.giMiiiM(prUHUj>alMM«.., 


f^Bodc^.^ofiutrM., 


JM  otk.  O.  nam 

9»iTui  omL  ^.firfwHiua 

Beck  ebutBDl  eak.  O,  pKnu  n< 
T>naw  <ak,  O  dWhm  oduuna 
8pHUh  a«t,  &,>Je>ilii . . , . , 

J»[WT  UW,  /■.  (iWH 

rHehtiat,P.riciS<> 

Vhiit  Hat,  f.tnbit 


J^L 


|r7 


The  lieniu  of  wood  was  first  shown  by  Prout  to 
be  of  Ilie  nnino  componition  in  th«  dillerent  spe- 
cies of  trees,  bjannlyilDg  portions  from  the  boi 
and  ttie  willow,  attir  tbej  were  freed  from  all 
soluble  matters  and  tboroughlj  dried  in  the  sir. 
The  box  gave  60  per  cent,  each  of  carbon  and 
of  the  deinenta  of  water,  and  the  willow  49.8 
of  carbon  and  fiO.S  of  hfdro^ten  and  oxygen, 
ltd  composition  is  tlierefore  Uiiis  enpressed: 
Oh  Hh  Ok.  l.iebig,  however,  from  the  analy- 
ses of  Gty-Lii!ssc  tuid  Tlit-naril,  which  were  of 
oak  (carbon  G3.Q3,  wat«r  4T.4T)  and  of  beech 
(csrhon  61.45.  water  49.B5),  gives  the  formula 
Gm  Hn  0>).  As  the  gaseous  elements  uniting 
In  the  combustion  to  produce  water  have  but 
a  feeble  aoency  in  developing  heal,  the  caloric 
disengageo  must  be  due  to  the  unftn  of  the  car- 
ban  with  the  oxygen  of  the  air.  To  convert  G3 
parts  of  carbon  into  carbonic  acid,  there  are  re- 
quired 1S9  parU  of  oxygen,  and  the  heat  devel- 
oped in  this  reaction  is  enffieient  to  raiM  3,696 
part*  of  water  from  39°  to  213°.  This  accords 
wllJi  the  practical  results  obtained  by  Rumford 
anil  TIa«»eDfratz,  giving  S,600  to  3,080  as  the 
tiquivnleat  for  dry  woods.  The  composition  tit 
tlie  aap  is  so  nearly  tlio  same  as  tiiat  of  tb« 
woody  fibre,  and  its  quantity  is  su  small,  that  its 
presence  modifies  the  result  only  in  a  very  utiglit 
oe^jree.  The  mineral  constltnents  of  some  parte 
of  the  tree  may  have  more  infiuonce,  ae  in  tlio 
bart  of  some  trees  tbey  amoaal  to  3  per  cent., 


and  in  the  leave 
of  the  wood  thai 
of  nitrogen.  1 
difierent  parts  < 
special  precauti 
ble  tbeM  poculL 


UMillt  Mud  de 


EaaUeU.  THh  hoM 

When  wood  is  e 
mor«  volatile  ii 
moisture,  first  • 
next  disturbed  1 
■nd  the  hjirof 
from  one  combll 
tlona  of  Uiese  9 
otlier  portloni  ■ 
wiUi  uia  a  mDl 


FtTEL 


7rt 


Tarjing  with  the  degree  of  temperature  and  the 
propoitioDs  of  the  elements  present.  If  the 
process  he  conducted  in  close  Tessels  away  from 
the  action  of  air  or  oxygen,  the  volatile  ingredi- 
ents may  he  driven  on  in  the  form  of  inflamma- 
ble gases,  and  of  vapors  of  water  holding  in 
eolation  numerous  comhustihle  principles,  and 
last  of  all  the  vapors  of  the  resins  and  ethereal 
oils  constituting  tar.  Oxygen  is  required  to 
complete  their  combustion  and  bring  the  ele- 
ments of  the  fuel  to  their  goal  of  carbonic  acid 
(COt)  and  water  (HO).  In  this  process  but  a 
small  portion  of  the  carbon  has  been  taken  up 
and  made  volatile  by  uniting  with  the  hydrogen 
and  oxygen.  This  flxed  ingredient  is  left  behind 
in  the  form  of  charcoal,  retaining  the  form  of 
Uie  wood.  So  when  wood  is  cpnsumed  in  the 
air,  heat  is  first  applied  to  drive  out  the  volatile 
elements.  The  hydrogen  eliminated  in  the  pores 
of  the  fat\  at  a  heat  ^low  that  of  redness  takes 
bold  of  a  portion  of  the  solid  carbon,  and  meet- 
ing the  air  they  rapidly  enter  into  combination 
With  its  oxygen,  emitting  light  and  heat.  By 
the  latter  new  supplies  of  me  volatile  ingredients 
are  ^turbed  farther  within  the  mass  of  the 
burning  body,  and  there  by  their  ignition  serve 
to  keep  up  the  process.  There  being  no  lack 
of  oxygen,  the  combustion  is  complete,  and  the 
Tolatile  products  of  the  distillation  process,  if 

Senerated  at  all,  pass  immediately  into  the  sta- 
le compounds  of  carbonic  acid  and  water. 
Ibe  carbon  attacked  at  its  surface  by  the  oxy- 
gen of  the  air  yields  more  slowly,  and  the  prin- 
cipal portion  of  it  is  left  behind  after  the  name 
and  rapid  chemical  action  caused  by  the  com- 
bostion  of  its  volatile  associates  have  disap- 
peared with  their  departure.  The  combustion 
of  this  charcoal,  going  on  only  in  the  space  it 
occupies,  produces  an  intensity  of  calorific  effect 
far  superior  to  that  derived  from  the  burning 
of  the  gaseous  elements.  Hence,  where  concen- 
tration of  heat  is  required,  as  in  the  smelting 
of  ores,  a  condensed  form  of  fuel  like  charcoal 
18  more  effective  than  one  containing  gaseous 
dements,  which  in  their  combustion  dispense  a 
Tcry  uncertain  amount  of  heat,  as  they  flit,  per- 
haps but  parUally  consumed,  past  the  points 
where  the  effect  is  wanted,  carrying  with  them 
a  portion  of  the  carbon  of  the  fuel,  and  also 
more  caloric  rendered  latent  than  the  prod- 
uct of  combustion  of  an  equal  weight  of  car- 
bon is  capable  of  absorbing.  This  will  be  again 
alluded  to  in  this  article  in  treating  of  the  heat- 
ing power  of  fuels.  The  diff^erence  in  the  pyro- 
metrical  effect  of  wood  and  charcoal  would  be 
ftili  greater  than  it  is,  were  it  not  for  the  prop- 
k.  erty  of  charcoal  of  rapidly  absorhing  moisture 
^  Drom  the  air.  When  it  is  desirable  to  ^ply  the 
beat  generated  by  combustion  at  a  distance 
from  we  fire,  as  in  reverberatory  furnaces,  fuel 
is  preferred  that  bums  with  a  flame.  So  where 
the  gaseous  products  are  the  object,  to  be  used 
for  purposes  of  illumination  or  otherwise,  the 
fuel  most  abounding  in  hydrogen  is  sought  for, 
and  this  may  be  the  lighter  kinds  of  wood,  the 
resinoos  and  ofly  products  distilled  off  from  its 


fixed  carbon,  or  the  highly  bitnminons  coals. 
The  natural  fuels  thus  give  rise  to  a  variety  of 
artificial  products  better  applicable  for  special 
purposes. — As  charcoal  is  obtained  from  wood 
by  charring,  so  from  peat  this  fuel  is  obtained 
in  a  condensed  form  called  peat  charcoal,  and 
from  the  bituminous  cosls  the  mineral  charcoal 
or  coke.  The  mode  of  occurrence  of  peat  has 
already  been  treated  in  the  article  Boo.  This 
fuel,  found  in  great  abundance  and  easily  pro- 
cured in  many  of  the  European  countries,  where 
other  fuels  are  scarce,  is  there  much  more  highly 
appreciated  than  it  is  in  the  United  States.  Its 
qualities  have  there  been  thoroughlyin  vestigated, 
and  various  methods  have  been  contrived  for 
iniproving  its  adaptation  to  the  uses  for  ii^^hich  it 
is  fitted.  (See  Pkat.)  As  a  fne],  this  material  is 
much  used  for  domestic  purposes  in  the  countries 
where  it  abounds,  and  it  is  ^>plied  both  in  the  raw 
state  and  charred  to  manu&cturing  operations. 
In  the  neighborhood  of  Oarolinen-Hdtte,  near 
Aichthal,  in  Stjrria,  successful  attempts  have 
been  made  to  smelt  iron  with  it  in  its  raw  state, 
mixed  with  wood ;  while  the  charcoal  obtainea 
by  charring  it  has  long  been  successfully  applied 
to  the  same  purpose  in  Bohemia,  Bavaria, 
France,  Russia,  and  other  countries.  For  gen- 
erating heat  this  charcoal  is  stated  by  Dr.  Mus- 
pratt  to  be,  when  of  good  quality,  **  as  eflicient 
as  bituminous  coal,  and  some  varieties  are  even 
above  the  average  heating  power  of  the  latter 
kinds  of  fuel.''  When  freshly  cut,  peat  con- 
tains from  80  to  90  per  cent  of  water,  which 
by  drying  is  commonly  reduced  to  about  25  per 
cent.  When  well  dried,  the  heating  power  of 
good  peat  is  about  the  same  as  that  of  wood, 
and  about  half  that  of  bituminous  coaL  The 
following  analyses  by  Sir  Robert  Kane  and  Dr. 
W.  K.  Sullivan,  editor  of  the  Dublm  «' Journal 
of  Industrial  Progress,"  are  of  neat  dried  at 
220^  F.  The  proportions  are  calculated  after 
deducting  the  ash.  The  percentage  of  the  min- 
eral ingr^ients  varies  in  good  peat  from  1  to  5; 
some  qualities  contain  much  more,  even  83  per 
cent.,  but  such  are  worthless  for  fuel. 


VartetlMi. 


Barikoe  pMt,  PhUUpetown 
Dense  peftt,  ** 

Light  BorilMe  peat,  wood  of 

AUen 

Deaae  peat,  wood  of  Allen . . 
Boiikee  pent,  Twiehnevin.. 
Light  rarflioo  pent,  Shannon 
Dennepent, ** 


C«rt— . 


58.694 
S0.47e 

5s.no 
ei.ott 

60.1(tt 

eo.018 

ei.947 


«.t71 
&0S7 

&S14 
5.771 
«.7» 
5.875 
5.6ie 


Otyfva. 


82J88 
815tf 

98.907 
SS.400 
81.8SS 
81.158 
81.44S 


Mitrofm, 


1.4514 
0.8800 

1.8588 
0.8070 
1.8800 
0.9545 
1.6004 


— Reference  has  already  been  made  to  the  prac- 
tice of  the  Chinese  in  mixing  together  refuse 
combustibles  with  clay,  and  mining  of  this 
compound  an  artificial  fuel.  Similar  processes 
have  been  in  use  among  other  people,  some  of 
which  are  of  very  ancient  date.  The  petroleum 
that  is  found  so  abundantly  near  the  Caspian 
sea  and  in  other  parts  of  the  eastern  countries 
is  converted  into  fuel  by  making  a  mixture  of 
it  with  clay ;  and  the  Norwegians  have  long 
ised  sawdust  and  tar  in  a  similar  manner.  The 
methods  recently  introduced  in  western  Europe 


.788  tfOtt 

itf  iitfliiiQg  «li6  dolt  <^  niiiierd  oodi  ilia  <€  UattJOlMrmAwt^t 

cliarooal  aie  sieaii J  •&  b«Md  «poB  the  MBM  Mto  witti  &•  mM  BOBbar  cff 

prindplo  of  maUBg  tlMM  nlitttiioeB  00^  ariedi  wwjtiii  Mtwuil  ifck  ^^Mb  la  >i 

tlioroi^7iiiooiiK»atiiiBtb«mwitf&taroridt^  11&  Uoek  it  itavrif 

•ndtli0D«zpotlngtheeoiBpoiiiid,wli6QiiKNi]dM  tohcftvr  Smb  bedflatet  ^  kiyt 

IntoUcNski^inioiiDeoiMttoaoarraniof  drto  qpoa  Vam  mam  JtmndMomfB 

diy  tiieiiiy  and  in  oUi«ni  to  n  high  ttinptt^  vith  Hi  4f  whedi  and  end 

.ntnte  hi  tewoli  Mning  the  porpoM  of  xelorti.  ptoton  ndt  or  planf«%  whMt 

Tb»  former  mode  of  drytaig  is  employed  for  mftoMttl  owrHkete  ouiii|M  em 

mlxtnrm  <tf  ehereoil  doit»  tiuiL  end  mnuir  iob-  DioekBofeoiL    TheemagmM 

■ttooe^  with  tar  or  pitch,  end  the  litter  wh«i  oeedin^iogeBleQi.    OneeiCeft 

letoe  MtomhMNie  eoal  ie  used  witfi  eboot  I  of  taobedtotiie 

itswei^of  pitdb    Unkm  thfe  diirtlllatioii  ia  aihortpiftBH 

.eondneted  at  •  heeft  <jf  from  40Qr  to  MO*  V^  801  ewlre  of  tiie  abaft; 

aa  to  diyt  the  Tob^ae  by»egent%  there  la  votked  injnUeaaltMhedtotibe 

danger  ei  aabae^pMnt  apontaneona  oombnadoo*  yood  the  omar  end  of  Hm  <^fBi 

Borne  of  thea^eomponnda  of  fine  bitnminoiv  phmgan^  entering  the  ofiporileaHiof  Aaifl* 

.eoel, pitch, Aw^ are mondtopomemeqnallf not  mdemlmnthemafcaal|«BaiCiBmBtfanlfS 

aapecior  heeting  poirer  to  tut  of  the  natmal  lengooBBeetiagmd%  wUehpanacaBriiaefAi 

.eoel,  and  hafe  tneadTanlage  momover  of  being  be^Ii^  and. am  aitnebed  atfe  oaa  eat  tea 

•eonyioietttl/  handled  and  atowed  iw«[.   Aa  eHBBkoneachitramHyoftfcerihaiLe 

{the  prooem  ia  oondnetad  at  Blanaf  in  Fmnee^  other  to  the  wrnmhaedi  teirtMitte 

theooelialggidtoaipenitethedatjandpgrri-  gm  hayed  m  thar  pern  fhte^b  it> 


tone perticlea.^  It  ia  then^ormbed  and  hitro-    are  thna  mofed  pyUiemaBe  ihaft^yi|lyin 


intoaelranlarflietaDie.barin,  which  re-  awangamcnt  of  tim  ctanbn 

toItm  hoctentdbr  in  a  revmberatonrfbniaoi^  the  SI  eeta  being  at  en  aag^a'af  4i*  «Mb 

the  flame  of  wUdhpaamaonder  it   fiottaror  other,  the  piaton  rode  amamletnaMamheMft 

-pitchiagradnaUrlet  innpoQ  the  eoel  ftom  a  otharintheblodctoi^lkeiBfDlreipmHm^ 

meonrolr  over  the  fira  to  the  amoontof  TorS  andtbcntoaipamtomtteQoellapaAnimirf 

•perocntyandthemiztttmiaatfaTedbyatntioii-  tbebeekendbytheplaegemoflhnimteaLlhb 

aryxakeaattaobed  to  rode  let  down  throonh  the  being  done,  the  rafomim  «f  Ihn  abaft  ^ 

-arched  eorer.    When  anlBcientlx  mliea,  the  tlin  Tiif¥  plimfio  In  igiln.  e  imw  nhmge  k 

materiala  are  made  to  drop  through  the  bottom  preamd  luid  uurwt  oot^  and  tinatfm  opac 

into  a  reoeptade,  whenoe  tbcy  are  remored  goea  on,  ddiToiing  S  of  the  cylBdma  ef 

while  plastic  to  the  monlds  and  there  pressed  by  with  each  revolution.    The  madiinecy  is  mC  k 

the  hydraulic  machine.    The  process  of  Mr.  motion  by  a  steam  engine.    The  speed  of  tbt 

Bessamer  appears  to  be  most'higfaly  approved,  feeder  dram  and  the  diain  and  acraperi  em  be 

It  is  applied  only  to  fine  bituminoos  coal  with-  regulated  to  prodace  coal  more  or  lea  Tob> 

oot  mixture,  the  object  being  to  render  this  tiluM^  aa  desired.    The  gaa  can  be  aand  by 

Elastic  by  heat  and  mould  it  by  heavy  pressure  pessing  it  into  a  gas  holder.    It  ia  foimd  adfaa- 

ito  convenient  shapes.    In  the  softening  pro-  tageooa  to  use  an  air  pump  for  rcdntiag  tbi 

cess  the  coal  may  be  exposed  to  the  heat  long  pressure  in  the  retort;  the  eacape  of  the pMs 

enough  for  a  portion  of  its  volatile  elements  to  is  thus  facilitated  at  the  lowest  poesible  ttar<r- 

be  expelled,  by  which  the  product  is  rendered  ature,  and  the  product  is  more  denae  ma 

more  dense  and  of  the  nature  of  coke ;  or  it  pressed.    Highly  heated  ateam  mdiy  be  nufkuf- 

may  be  softened  so  quickly  as  to  be  but  slightly  ed  instead  of  the  fire,  the  steam  being  drivtm  4- 

altered  in  its  chemical  composition.    The  ap-  rectly  into  the  retort  with  the  coal,  and  pasad 

paratus  employed  for  the  heating  is  a  long  rect-  out  into  the  gas  holder.  Where  anthradte  daB  ■ 

angular  iron  retort,  set  in  brick  work  over  a  cheaplv  obtained,  together  with  large  smlMS(f 

fire  and  its  horizontal  flue.    The  hopper  for  refbse  bituminous  c<mJ,  this  prooem  may  eelbaa^ 

feeding  it  is  at  the  front  end,  which  projects  from  still  more  nseAil  by  mixing  the  two  ^     '  ''~' 

the  brick  work,  and  the  discharge  is  through  the  — ^The  composition  of  fuels  is  comnaoDly 

floor  of  the  retort  also  in  the  extreme  front  end.  ed  by  stating  the  proportiooa  of  eoko  or 

The  fine  coal  is  introduced  by  a  feeding  drum  coal,  volatile  matters,  moistnre,  and  ash.    TW 

arranged  to  keep  the  aperture  tightly  closed,  ultimate  analysia  redncea  the  whole  to  Its  •!•» 

The  coal  is  received  upon  a  horizontal  shel^  ments^  and  expresses  the  proportioaa  of  earboa» 

which  extends  nearly  to  the  back  end  of  the  hydrogen,  oxygen,  nitrogen,  and  theingre£aii 

retort,  and  it  is  moved  on  in  that  direction  of  the  ash.    In  order  to  ascertain  the  miii  ■  «f 

by  an  endless  chain,  which  is  furnished  with  ftid  for  making  gas  and  nrodncing  the  bSXj 

scrapers,  and    is  carried  round   a   drum    at  products,  the  proportion  of  volatile  mgndiBA 

each  end  of  the  retort  inside.    As  the  coal  must  first  be  ascertained^  and  then  tiM  aatan 

falls  from  the  back  end  of  the  shelf  upon  the  of  these,  aa  the  proportion  of  tlie  infiammablt 

floor  of  the  retort,  it  is  pushed  along  by  the  gases  to  the  liquia  prodncta.    For  other  prnpoaa 

chain  and  scrapers  in  the  opposite  direction,  the  simple  form  of  ana]\*sb  ia  commoBly  taft* 

till  it  is  discharged  at  the  front  end  into  a  ves-  dent   The  ash  b  obtdn«i  by  thoroogh  <«nba»> 

scl  placed  underneath  to  receive  it  Inthebot-  imw*  <«  an  apwi  platinnm  ct«<*iij^  t^nm¥^m,A  tJ 


IWllUfc 

i 

iP 

Hj-dtogen 

Zo 

e 

CO, 

ZnO 
BO, 

i 

A-MA 
IMS 

e.BM 

Hi 

Duprtti. 

Srfphar  

notUog  It  left  but  the  p%j  or  brown  ash.  Hie 
UfFerenoe  of  wekbt  of  the  crocible  and  its  eon- 
tenta  before  and  after  the  operation,  dedncted 
from  the  wekht  of  the  fnel  employed,  givM 
tliat  of  the  aah.  Another  weighed  sample  sub- 
jected in  a  limUar  way  to  a  heat  of  about  SOO" 
wiH  pve  hj  loss  of  weight  the  amonnt  of  mcust- 
nre ;  the  oradble  ooDtainiog  it  ia  then  cloaelj' 
eoTered  to  ezckde  the  air,  and  U  set  in  a  HeaslBn 
crndble  abo  dosed  with  a  cover,  and  containing 
calcined  magneua.  This  aapports  the  platinam 
cmcible,  and  keepa  it  from  contact  with  the 
outer  one.  The  whole  is  now  exposed  to  a  red 
heat  for  an  boor.  The  TolatUe  matters  are  thns 
driven  0%  and  the  difCerenoe  of  weight  of  ora- 
dble and  oontenta  before  and  after  the  opera- 
tion gives  thdr  proportions.  The  oharooal  or  From  soch  a  table,  the  proportlMU  of  carbon, 
cokeuthe  difference  betweenthe  cmcible  with  hydrogen,  and  oxygen  in  anyltael  being  asoer- 
the  residnnm  it  contains  and  that  of  the  crndble  tained  br  analyiiB,  the  uDinber  repreeenUng  Ha 
alone  leas  the  weight  of  the  ash.  Thb  may  be  r^alive  heating  power  may  be  catoalated  from 
again  obtained  by  oonsnmiug  tbe  carbonaceooa  the  proportiMis  of  oarbon  and  hydrogen,  after 
rnidae  exposed  to  acurrent  of  air.  The  heat-  dednoling  from  the  latter  an  eqairalent  to  the 
ins  power  of  tad  is  often  estimated  by  what  is  oxygen  present,  the  exceaa  only  betog  acoonntad 
eaUed  the  lead  te^  a  method  introdnced  by  a'rauable  for  rddng  the  teniperanr*.  Still, 
Berthier,  (bonded  on  the  theory  of  Welter  that  liioi%b  the  figiires  of  snoh  a  taua  emreotly  ex- 
the  qnaotity  of  heat  developed  bv  the  oombn»-  press  the  totu  amonnt  of  beat  evolved  and  ab- 
tion  of  bodies  ia  proportional  to  Uie  amonnt  of  sorbed  by  the  products  of  comboation  of  100 
oxygen  assimilated.  If  this  law  were  sound,  parts  of  the  fneX  tbe  r«el  pyrametrioal  effect  ia 
the  determinatioD  of  the  oxy^  required  to>  only  known  when  allowance  is  msde  of  the 
take  np  the  oombostible  constituents  in  a  cer-  quantity  absorbed  by  these  products;  and  this 
taia  weigbt  of  fnel  wonld  give  at  ooce  its  com-  involvea  the  con^eration  of  tbe  quantity  of 
paralive  calorific  valu&  The  resnlts  are  eo  oxygen oriyrconsiimed,aiidofthespedfioheat 
nearly  correct,  and  tbe  process  is  so  easily  oon-  or  capaci^  (^  taking  np  heat  of  the  several 
dnot«d,  that  the  method  is  still  much  emplojed.  products.  This  allowanoe  being  mode,  the  ro- 
A  weighed  portion  of  the  friel  findy  powdered  markable  prominence  of  hydrogen  in  increariog 
ia  mixed  with  80  or  40  times  its  weight  of  the  cdorific  effect  of  bodies  containing  it  S 
litharge  (oxide  of  lead),  and  introdnced  mto  an  foond  to  be  greatly  reduced;  for  in  its  union 
oarthen  crudble,  the  mixtnre  being  covered  with  oxygon  it  atiaorba  Si  t^nieaaamuchheatas 
with  a  layer  of  litharge.  The  cmcible  is  Uien  in  that  of  carbon  with  oxygen ;  and  the  amount 
oarefnlly  dosed  and  exposed  to  amoderate  heat  of  thia  being  calonlated  for  the  quantity  employ- 
till  the  carbon  and  hydrogen  have  abstracted  ed,  thedeductionforthehydrogenwillbefoand 
the  o^gen  they  reqube  for  their  combustion,  considerably  greater  than  fbr  the  carbon.  It  la 
and  left  behind  an  eqaivalent  amonnt  of  metal-  for  this  reason,  and  others  which  have  been 
lie  lead.  This  being  removed  and  weighed  de-  mentioned  in  a  previous  part  of  this  artide,  that 
temucee  the  oxygen  that  has  been  assimilated,  wood  and  tbe  bilnminous  coals  are  charred,  thdr 
Johnson  found  in  bis  experiments  that  the  re-  pyrometrio  effects  being  increased  by  the  larger 
salts  thus  obtained  were  constanOy  about  J  proportion  of  carbon  m  the  charred  prodoot. 
ahort  of  the  truth.  The  defect  of  the  process  is  Tbeintensed^reoof  heat  evolved  in  the  use  of 
that  it  gives  the  tame  resnlt  whether  it  ia  by-  the  condensed  fuels  adds  largdy  to  the  capadty 
dtiMen  or  carbon  that  abstracts  tbe  oxygen,  the  of  heat  of  the  aqneoos  vapor,  and  hence  fnrtber 
diwence  of  the  calorifio  effect  of  the  same  leeaens  the  value  of  hydrogen  in  fods  intended 
wd^t  of  these  two  dements  not  being  in  fact  for  the  nses  to  which  Uiey  are  applied.  Bat  fbr 
proportionBl  to  the  difference  of  oxygen  they  other  otjecto,  Teqniring  a  quick  heat  and  at  the 
eonanme.  This  has  been  ascertained  by  deter-  same  time  diffiuM  over  connderable  qwce,  the 
minbg,  after  the  method  proposed  by  Rumford,  more  inflammable  foels  are  found  more  efficient ; 
tha  increase  of  temperature  communicated  to  a  and  according  to  the  mode  in  which  their  heat- 
eeitain  quantity  of  Water  in  the  process  of  oxi-  ing  power  is  eetimated  they  may  even  be  classed 
£dng  a  certain  quantity  of  fHiel  or  other  oxi^i-  as  prododcg  a  greater  amonnt  of  heat  thsn  tbe 
able  Dody.  The  results  thus  obtained  from  a  more  carbonaceous  varieties.  Whenever  the 
graat  number  of  sobatanoes  by  different  cberoieta  heat  from  the  combustion  of  Hydn^en  can  be 
■re  ^ven  in  the  following  tabular  form  by  Dr.  concentrated,  as  in  the  hydro-oxygen  Uow^pe, 
Hn^pratt  in  tbe  3d  voL  of  his  "  Chemistry."  a  more  intense  degree  is  obtained  than  by  the 
Ihe  table  referred  to  presents  tbe  resnlts  of  use  of  any  other  fiieL  Other  condderati<ms. 
more  l^an  BO  experiments  upon  29  different  therefore,  b<side  the  chemical  compoeitioa  of 
combnstiblea,  includicg  in  these  various  gaso-  fo^  affect  their  value.  For  practical  purpoaea 
<Hi^  fluid,  metallic,  and  other  lolid  bodies.  aneroohaoge  in  the  mechanical  strnottira  maf 


TO  ™ 

give  an  entirely  different  characlet  to  them, 

wliila  tlieir  renl  oftlorifio  power  is  not  altered. 
This  is  apparent  in  the  cools,  which  are  ren- 
dered olniDal  trorthless  when  r«duc«d  to  dnat, 
until  in  ihe  pelent  fneU  they  nre  reconverted 
into  solid  form.  Wood  possesses  very  different 
Tkiuea  in  solid  sticks,  in  shavings,  and  m  saw- 
dust. In  ordioarj  use  other  oircnmstaDces  are 
to  be  token  into  account,  as  the  arrangements 
for  \1titi2i11g  the  beat  produced,  so  that  there 
shall  be  the  least  amount  lost;  olso  the  provi- 
tioas  for  insuring  perfect  ■combusCioD  of  the 
ftiel.  The  lossof  be&t  resulting  from  imperfect 
Birangementa  in  theM  respects  alone  has  been 
estimated  at  fall  one  half  of  all  that  generated. 
The  chiinnc;  Decesearilf  carries  off  a  consider- 
able portion,  as  tbere  will  he  no  draught,  and 
consequently  no  continued  supply  of  nir  to  sup- 
port the  combustion,  nnle^  the  column  floating 
upward  by  its  rarity  produces  a  partial  yocuum 
to  be  filled  with  fresh  air  poMing  through  the 
fire.  The  quantity  of  tliis  admitted  should  be 
limited  to  a  proper  excess  onlyof  tiiat  absolutely 
required  for  the  tiorough  combustion  of  the 
fael,  and  this  can  be  determined  for  each  variety 
of  fijcl  only  by  Ilie  experience  and  good  judg- 
ment of  the  operator,  Ihe  object  in  view  being 
n  uniform  rate  of  comhusUon  more  or  leas  rapid- 
ly conducted,  according  to  the  fuel  omplo^'ed  ■ 
and  the  special  purpose  to  which  it  is  applied. 
The  quantities  necessary  for  conipleto  comhn»- 
tian  of  one  pound  of  the  diflereut  fuels  ore  given 
in  the  following  table,  the  temperature  of  tlio 
«r  being  88.3°  F.  and  ita  weight  0.07G  lb. : 


■L I7  Um  lead  iHt  (innfe  tU). .  .110  to  ITS 

MCMLDr-Rlchufwe «SUS« 

__■■  cou,  «THi«  qaalllka  from  tlia  «•] 

moB,  BwHDlt SWtoStt 

Bttmnlnou*  ml  tnm  tb*  nepei  weooduT  ikm*- 

Uaa,Kffualt MtaSN 

Cok* IMtoBO 

Anll>ncit«.brtli«leidtat IMtaITT 

ABlhnelU,It*(Bult Ill 

We  present  below  portions  of  TarloQi  tables 
which  have  been  prepared  ^y  different  anthori- 
ties  to  represent  the  comparative  values  of  tha 
fbels  named,  according  to  the  methods  sdonted 
of  determining  these.  The  first  la  from  Scnee- 
rer's  Melallurfie,  in  which  the  heating  effect  is 
calculated  from  the  results  of  anolyaia  ttcoordlng 
to  the  method  explained  above,  the  estimationB 
of  DoloDg  being  the  itondard.  Tha  figures  In 
the  first  aolnnm  refer  to  the  heating  eflbct  of 
carbon  taken  m  udI^. 


m  lOwr  CL  I 


iifllbiepneLBalM* 


KllD-dil»l  turt  With  a 
Dal  Lln-diitd  iaii  '«i 


Ait-^rtti  bliek  fbu«e<  11  pa  ct 

PttftcUydTWd  bta<^  tttuDoili'vitk  • 

Atr^ncd  Rd'cliH«ii'i^l*'<*'B»M' 
DniDdllpcreLuh 


The  following  Ublea  contain  the  iiiaiilla  •(  n- 
peiimenta  by  the  lead  teat,  asd  of  tha  anpok- 
ting  power  of  ftiel^  aa  given  bj  iBffail  m- 
thoiitka.  In  each  tabla,  colnntB  A  gina  tha 
lbs.  of  lead  rednoed  by  1  lb.  of  the  nantliia 
fhel;  B,  the  Iba.  of  water  that  iumU  feaaUl 
fivro  8S°  to  318' by  1  lb.  of  tba  fbal;  Qrirrt 
66'  F.  required  to  coBsnma  1  Itk  cf  fW  (fi^m 
for  wood  in  Headan  lb*,  and  eaUe  fcal);  Dl 
Ibt.  of  oxygen  raqnlred  fi>r  ooaa[dato  nnwihiMiw 
of  1  lb.  <^wood;  ^lba.of«at«racGCrdiagla 
analyaea. 


lb.U.W.»4. 

tr 

T- 

rr* 

-Wo«l,  <l[-4rM.  IriUi  M  |»r  kL  Bolit. 

»prBe.i;'iiimto,ta*:;;::::::::: 

S 

*1T 

ITM 

«... 

wUUr 

' 

*. 

B, 

A. 

A. 

1 

< 

t--. 

;£'"-■■ 

■£40 

IIS 

ft 

1 

i 

Hmie'li  tir 

5 

■  Lo»lllr. 

fcnhWr. 

Vunt  ati*  from  th*  Uuti  mou 

Anrn.  IrrLaiwI,  npi»r  pe*E 

■■       li.«*r    -     

-       i.rcKK.1"    

t-ln. 

^,. 

J:: 

'''"■ 

r    Btlne-ct- 

n.T 

Fm™.nl.ii.lChM.piIaKra 

T.  MmuL  C 

tu 

[«liV  »■.»«>. 

A.     1    B. 

1 

(?iinnrl  coat.  Linruhln 

VL  CoKi 

u~iiir  >>'•?«>••. 

B« 

""■ 

I^S 

L»]l>T»dv-te 

A.    1     *     1     t 

y^^^'^-r^.:::::::-:::::-. 

sola 

88,0 

SilS! 

»>.s|  .... 

The  (jQulities  of  the  American  coals  have  been 
ably  investigated  by  Prof.  W.  R.  Johnson,  who 
was  commisaioned  by  the  U.  S.  government  for 
this  purpose,  tad  whose  report  was  addressed 
to  the  navy  department  in  1&44  (Senate  Docu- 
ment No.  88fi).  Tlie  results  are  prpsented  in  a 
condensed  form  by  Prof.  Johnson  in  tlie  Amcr- 
VOL.  vn.-— 60 


EL  786 

lean  edition  of  Knspp's  "Chemical  Technolo- 
gy." liia  operations  were  conducted  upon  a 
krge  Bculc,  4  trials  being  nsnolly  mode  in  aecer- 
taining  tlie  evaporative  power  of  each  cual,  and 
each  trial  consaniiDf;  from  800  to  1,300  lbs. 
The  total  number  of  trials  was  144,  in  which 
021  tons  were  consumed.  Tlio  object  was  par- 
tii^ularty  to  determine  what  cools  were  best 
adapted  for  steam  navigation ;  and  the  points 
.  of  special  attention  were  essentially  the  same 
as  those  to  which  the  attention  of  the  commis- 
sion afterward  appointed  by  the  British  govern- 
ment was  directed,  viz. :  1,  tlio  capacity  of  the 
cools  for  raising  steam  quickly ;  2,  for  rai^ng  it 
abundantly  for  the  quantity  consumed;  3,  free- 
dom from  dense  smoke  in  its  combustion;  4, 
freedom  from  tendency  lo  cnmihle  in  handling; 
S,  capacity,  by  rea.'<on  of  its  density,  of  dote 
stowage;  and  G,  freedom  from  sulpliur.  The 
names  and  exact  lucallLles  of  the  particokr 
kinds  of  coal  which  were  employed  in  these 
experiments  are  now  in  most  instances  lost ; 
but  tlieir  composition  being  preserved  in  the 
records  of  their  analyses,  Uio  principlea  estab- 
lished are  readily  applied  to  other  cools  of  simi- 
lar (imposition.  It  should  also  be  added  that 
the  semi -bituminous  coals  experimented  upon 
were  chiefly  from  tlie  northern  margin  of  the 
coal  basin,  but  that  coals  more  highly  esteemed 
have  since  been  obtained  in  the  central  portions 
of  the  basin  on  George's  creek,  which,  from  the 

E reference  they  enjoy  in  the  coal  trade,  it  ia 
clieved  would  have  furnished  slill  better  re- 
sults for  this  class ;  and  late  investigations  of 
Prof.  Doremus  of  New  York  prove  tliat 
these  coals  from  George's  creek  cannot  be  con- 
sidered as  liable  to  spontaneons  combustion. 
Tlie  English  commissioners  wore  Sir  Henry  De 
1&  Beche  and  Dr.  Lyon  Playfair.  Their  flrel  re- 
port was  made  in  1648,  and  the  final  report  in 
1851.  Convenient  reference  for  the  most  im- 
portant results  of  these  may  be  made  to  the  ar- 
ticle "  Fuel "  in  Tomlinson's  "  Cyclopaidia  of  the 
Dsefbl  Arts."  The  table  below  was  arranged 
by  Prof  Johnson  from  the  more  detuled  tables 
contained  in  his  report,  and  was  published  in 
the  work  above  referred  to.  It  contains  86  vft- 
rieties  of  coals,  6  from  each  one  of  S  diflferent 
classes,  and  is  succeeded  by  one  sDrnming  up 
the  resnlta  or  presenUng  a  general  scale  of  rela- 
tive values  maile  up  from  the  averages  of  the 
classes.  From  this  it  appears  that  in  evaporat- 
ive power  under  equal  weights  the  Cumberland 
class  surpasses  the  anthracite  by  about  S.S  per 
cent.,  and  under  equal  bulks  by  1.4  per  cent. 
From  single  experiments,  however,  the  most 
water  evaporated  was  with  antliraeite.  [Se« 
note,  vol.  V.  p.  834  of  this  work,  article  Coal.) 
Tlie  anthracites  alsoenrpass  the  foreign  bitumi- 
nous coals  20  per  cent,  when  we  compareeqnal 
weights,  and  26  per  cent,  by  equal  bulks.  In  free- 
dom from  clinker  the  anthracites  stand  preC-mi- 
nent;  in  rapid  production  of  steam,  when  once 
in  action,  the  Pennsylvania  bituminous  coals  are 
somewhat  superior  to  all  others,  and  for  rapidly 
getting  up  steam  the  foreign  bitumiuous  coau 


786  FUXNTEREABIA  FUEBOS 

are  most  ciFectire."    Column  A  gives  the  rela-  rapidity  of  action  in  CTaporatinfc  water;  E,  f^ 

tive  evaporative  povrcr  of  equal  weights  uf  cool ;  ciliijf  of  ignition,  or  reailtnees  with  «  Licb  ^da 

B,  coiiipnrativupowerof  equal  bulksof  cool;  0,  is  gotap;  F,  liuin  of  tbe  relative  vslina  'm\M 

relative  freedom  from  teiidency  to  clinker;  D,  prweding  coljiniDS. 


C1«.*~U. 

N.»^.i.F^ 

*. 

«. 

c. 

B. 

t.    '    1 

MO 
MS 

MS 

1..™ 

»•« 
•ST 
9UC 

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Wft 

Ml 
AH 
HI 

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Hn 

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TK 
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NowTgrkukdUuTludDiliUiis 

»-«   VET 

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1-:  (j« 

At. 

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■ 

'  nuihhlouHHtiuqiuhuiu 

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c!^ch*llSI!B^;\::.';::.':.:.'::;;:::;;.'; 

tM  ;L;>a 



SewcMtV  Eral*») 

fJ.^'Si,?-4to-;:.:;::;:::::::.:::::::: 

??Tr? 

ui  !.:• 

l.^» 

et 

n»:, 

M« 

Murylsml  IVoe  iHiinlnE  rmla 

»-.■ 

Fur  fnrtlit'r  iiifiirniiuiiiti  ri'!:iling  to  the  Eulijoct 
of  fiii-l,  tlio  rcii'li-r  U  rtfurrtd  lo  tlio  urtides 

ANTDliAClTE,     CHABCOAL,      CoAI,     CoKE,     UaS, 

Peat.  Wwn. 
■       FlENTERRABH,orFoxTAnAniA,acitvan<l 
port  of  S|>ttin,  in  the  UaMiiio  [province  of  Ciii- 

fuzcott,  at  tlic  luuuth  nf  tlio  itiilassoo,  on  the 
ri'nch  frontier;  pop.  3,0;i5.  It  wna  fonnerly 
veil  forliSuil,  Imt  the  French  ili->mantleil  it  in 
1T04.  It  lifLS  Kniuo  manu  fact  lira's  <if  liL'miicii 
eiioc^,  linen,  cloili,  marine  i>lorc9,  and  cartiicn- 
wiire.  It  hna  bustniticti  Hcvcral  ^icfrcs  onil  *'«» 
the  scene  of  iv  victory  over  tiie  ('arli»i«  liy  tlio 
anxiliary  llritish  Icpion  under  Ccn.  Evqhh  in 
li*:i7.  Diiriiip  the  peninsnlar  war,  the  Kucntar- 
raUlans  were  rcproachml  with  sitiiriiliirly  inlios- 
pitalilc  treatment  of  ilisalJcd  British  tnmp^. 

FfEBOS  (probably  fnini  S]!.  /urni,  oiitsi.Io, 
or  foreign),  tliu  tvrm  applied  in  Spniri  to  the 
anrii'tit  ('on>^tiliiti(iiiuI  i>rivilvk;t'!<  <>f  the  ISus-ino 

Krovini'i-s,  IJuipiiwiHi,  Alava,  Itisciiy.  and  rpjM.T 
avarn,'.     The  origiual  luiKWiut'  of  the  word  iu- 


diciilfs  that  iho.-e  prinim-i  s  iirc 

(wviTni'iiciit  ia  t^^-^■mially  r.[.iil 
hovinj;  only  the  iioiver  of  iKm.i 
ri'^'idor  or  tliiif  iii.iKislr;!!!'.  n  h 
has  to  be  coutirnied  by  the  jtuitu  < 
a  lup-lative  IihIv  tkctvil  bv  ;,; 
BiiHru^c.  The  iti'hahit,iiit.'i  of  i 
nru  exi.'iii]'t  fn.>in  nil  taxi'<  ni;<l 
Mich  ns  ihev  vote  thtniscU  i--.  ;ti 
too  of  their  birth  the  [riii:.-; 
nobililv.  From  the  roimiiv-l 
li-ivo  inaiiitiilnnl  tl»ir  rl-h!* 
ilvna-lieH  of  Sjiiiin.  In  ihi-  i;: 
fiii-ros  tt\Te  cniUKlicd  in  a  ivrlti 
was  crdaniiMl  an<]  r.rMiiiir[iii-.l 
Charles  V.  Idl^Sailica-.-i-tii..: 
Ic-cs  i.v  thelU-qnes  -iiw  n- 
whi.'hla-Icd  fors.>ivral  mw- : 
in  ilie  f.>nnal  a.ltiii-ion  U  lb,' 
fiLcros  by  ihu  cartes  and  "iU!.!; 
lUi. 


EXD   OF   VOLUME  6E^■E>;■^I. 


CONTENTS  OF  VOLUME  VII 


EJcbciuliuli;  JoKph  Kvl  Bel 


runnnlr IM     ENliMnliia.  Paint.  . 

Kwlinsinr.  m     h|ri|.liwy 


w  C>clo™-dl».  Ejil«coior». 

a 145  >:[il>Uil^Churrh,l-r>ib,UU   , 

14S  >:|4>™plu^  ^uwB 

IM  Kjiblufo-  OiKriiniiuDi  Vinniu. 


vn  ..  Iirr,  SlfPlm  IjilliUai IM  KlibluF.... 

V"i  ..s:-:a MI  I':nJtti.-Uuin. 

1     .  .  .  IfO     KTiiU.r ItT  Gidlw 

yat-nnn.., 1"9     Kn.l.BiW'W. - HI  K|urli 

ilijiorltupUi-cr.  LL-U '"*     Kwlymhm 1«  EpmurvtlA 

rJnir!7..r?rT 110     Enfl-M lit  KliMniMI. 

Klmulnns IW     CnflrM,  Tllliun. llf  e<|Balh« 

ElnhiLilBDin. 110     KntlWlo 14f  Kdoukiniir  Patnuai.... 

nmlna. "1     EnriuUnc 14»  KqaaUMi  or  Tlow 

ElniLn Ill     Knj,inn I«  Ei|ual>w 

Idioflrr.  PnaUla  lUn*r Ill  tin-iiMi,  i>„i[.  Ant»ln«  Ilrprl  da  Kqiuta-rtol 

ElouKr.  Prt« Ill  ■  ■■< I«  KiialDca 

Elnoiilfim,iMOniV.rr  ai»d\«>M.  .   IM  Eqiilaoeiiil  Un.-. 

r>lilni  Ill      ■  ISI  K-iulaiwUB)  r«lnt<. 

t-'-'-ii-—    ' 111  .  ...1, .  t.„,d.  irf. IS*  X4i>lB«<WC^w*----    - 

1   ;  ■  .  .  ■    .  .<■     ■  T,  sfpK.iih.  ii.ii.  Lnngunnj mhI  UUnIur«  EqnlUa 

i-Tiiari 1I-;  ^1)  giinitr.,, .    . 

1111 Hi      ■      'ii"l.  John.  I),n. »«  KonliT«f  RwlrmpUoB... 

1I-:  -li,  Op«w  BfthBoe SH  jnol'il*"*.  O^auc^t-  ■■ 

KL-.UT,  Kannv Ill  .  ..',.T m  Dunn Wl  Ers'.l.  P.KvOI,.n    . 

KM.T.  T1J.1.-1C Ill  ■'  1 1 ?'4  * 1  -'•->-!l   f   r         . 

Elt..n Il;l       ■  510  V     I    ■■        !■■     .r.Li,.      .. 

EtvM. ii;i  ?>fl  [  

Elvvs Ill  S-H  Emih™. 

Elirw,  John. HI  P"D  Ojiii 

Ely lit      KHL-mvIni:,  si..,i Ill  Kn».>.ll,.-i.-      

ElynKili lU      1  .  .    lUnliSmc 213  Etrllli  y  Znf.in.  Al-.n-..' 

Klf»lum in      I   ., -.r..l,...,,l, 5M  Enll  .MirlH..|l'l.i. 

ElK.T<r. in      Knnis »1«  EnlmaoisUtiu  Lion,-.. .. 

Elu>Tlr.  I^onl)  (IbivT). HI     Kimlim.  Otilntiii. '.'U  Kirhii" 

Elirvir,  Mattlwiu 115      Knn^art.iT. JU  ErwMhtui 

Elimlr,  aill>% IIS     Enll^at»^'n SI*  Erv^I 

Eherlr,  tbrnwDtuR US     Emwli S1«  Ewnarjujlv 

SairTlr.  Abralau. Hn     KniJcr S17  EU'riia 

>:iwvlr,-Ian 115     EnUMalun SIT  Erfirl. 

Elwvlr.  l>>Bt>L 11.1     Entail SIT  Ewrt 

KIwvir,  ni-lcr 115     Entriltlii SIT  Knr  IX 

EmMwIiullun, .« Slavirr.  Gnt»in»l<.vy.  SIT  >-ff  MV 

Enianiii'lf" IW  EMn|<li)'k"M«<  EplpbylM.  Erli-'-i.n.  .ri.l.n 


CONTENTS. 


m 


PAO« 

XielieAt Ste« 

JEiehentMwb,  Wolfram  ron. iisS 

Eacbenmajrer,  Adolf  Karl  A.  von..  i:S$ 
Eachacholtx,  Johann  Friedrlcb . . . .  SS4 

Eacurial 2S4 

Eidnu,  Books  of. 285 

Esber 8S5 

£ak,  aereral  riven. 2S5 

Eamermldas. 386 

Esoeh 2S« 

Espalier 236 

Espartero,  Joaquin  Baldomero. . . .  2S6 
Espinasse,  Esprit  Charles  Marie. . .  2S7 
Espinasse,  Mile,  de  l\   see  Les- 
plnasse. 

Espinel,  Vicente 287 

Eapirito  Santo. 288 

Espronceda,  Jos6  da. 288 

Esquimaux. 288 

Esquire 200 

Esquirol,  Jean  £tlenne  Dominique.  291 

Ess,  Ilelnrlch  Leander  van 291 

£m6 291 

Esaen,  Hans  Henrik. 291 

Essences,  see  Essential  Oils,  and 
Extracts. 

Essenes 291 

Essential  Oils. 292 

Essequibo 298 

Essex  CO.,  Vt 298 

Esaexco.,MaM 298 

Essex  CO.,  N.Y 291 

Eaw^xco.,N.  J 294 

Essex  CO.,  Va. 294 

Essex  CO.,  C.W 294 

Essex  CO.,  Eng. 294 

Essex,  Earls  ot,  see  Devereuz. 
EsslinjEr,  see  Aspern. 

Esslinijren 294 

Estalng,  Charles  Hector  d' 294 

EsUte 295 

Este 207 

Esterh^jr,  Famllr  of .-.  208 

Esterhuzy,  Paul  Anthony 293 

EAterbuzjr,  Valentine 293 

Esther 293 

Esthonia 299 

Estienne,  see  Stephens. 

Estill  CO, 209 

Estovers. 299 

Estrays 209 

Estreat 800 

Estrces,  Oabrielle  d' 800 

Estremadura,  Portugal 800 

Estremadura,  Spain. 800 

Esick 800 

Etampes 801 

JEtampes,  Anno  de  Plsseleu 801 

EUwah 801 

Etcbinjc  see  Enxraving. 

Eteodes  and  Polynlces. 801 

Etesian  Winds. 801 

Etbelbald 802 

Etbelbert,  king  of  Kent 802 

Etbelbert,    king    of   the    Anglo- 
Saxons 802 

Etbelred 802 

Etbelred  II 802 

Ethelwulf 808 

Ether 808 

Etherege,  Sir  Oeorse 804 

Ethics,  see  Moral  Philosophy. 

Ethiopia 804 

Ethiopian  Language  and  Literature.  305 

Ethnology 806 

Etbyle 811 

Etna 812 

Eton 814 

Etruria 815 

Etruftcan  Language 816 

Etty,  William 818 

Etymology,  see  Language. 
Eubceo,  see  Ncgrofiont 

Enbulides  of  Miletus 813 

Eabulus. 818 

Euebarist 818 

Eadid 818 

Eadid  of  Megara 819 

EodiomeUr 819 

Eadocia 819 

EadoxU 820 

Ewioxus  of  Cnidus 220 


PAOa 

EodoxQs  of  Cyziens 820 

Euiaula 820 

Eugene,  Francois,  Prince 820 

Eugenie  Marie  de  Ouzman. 821 

Eugenius,  four  popes. 822 

Eulenstein,  Karl 828 

Euler,  Leonhard. 828 

Eumenldes 824 

Eunapius. 824 

Eunomius 824 

Eunuchs 824 

Eupatoria 825 

Euphrates. 825 

Euphuism. 826 

Eup4»lls 826 

Eure 826 

Eurc-et-Lolr 826 

Euripides. 826 

Euripus 829 

Euroclydon 829 

Eunipa. 829 

Europe 829 

Eurotos 840 

Eur>'dice. 840 

Eusebius 840 

Eustachi 840 

Eustls,  William. 841 

Eutaw  Springs 841 

Euterpe 841 

Eutychc.%. 841 

Euxine  Sea,  see  Black  Sea. 

Evagoras 842 

Evangelical 842 

Evangelical  Association 842 

Evangelist 848 

Evans,  Sir  De  Lacy 848 

Evans,  Lewis 848 

Evans,  Oliver M4 

Evansville 8U 

Evaporation 844 

Evarts,  Jeremiah. 847 

Eve 847 

Evection ^47 

Evelyn,  John 847 

Evcrdingen,  Aldert  van 847 

Everett,  Alexander  Hill &t8 

Everett,  Edward 850 

Evidence 854 

Evora 859 

Evreux 859 

Ewald,  Georg  Helnrich  August  von  860 

Ewald,  Johannes 860 

Ewbank,  Thomas. 8C0 

Ewing,  John,  D.D 861 

Ewln?,  Thoma^  LL.D 861 

Exarch 862 

Excellency 862 

Exchange 862 

Exchange,  BlU  of 363 

Excise 865 

Excommunication 865 

Execution 865 

Executor 867 

Exclmans,  Remy  Joseph  Isidore . .  303 

Exeter,  N.  H 868 

Exeter,  Eng. 368 

Exhaustion 860 

Exhilarating  Gas,  see  Nitrogen. 
Exmouth,  Edward  PeUew,Vlscount  869 

Exodus 871 

Exogens. 871 

Exorcism 872 

Exostosis. 878 

Expansion 878 

Explosion 874 

Exfionent 876 

Express 876 

Extracts 877 

Extractive  Matter 873 

Extraction  of  Boots 873 

Extreme  Unction 878 

Exuvice 878 

Eyalet 879 

Eyck,  Hubert  van 879 

Eyck,  Jan  van 879 

Eye 880 

Eye  Stone 832 

Eyes 8S3 

Eylau 8S8 

Exekiel 888 

Exra 8>4 

Ezzellno,  see  Ohibeilines. 


F 

F  834 

Fabe'r,*  Frederic  WlVliam,  D.D .'  .* .' .'  8S5 

Faber,  George  Stanley 8S5 

Fabius,  Family  of 8S5 

Fabius,  Quintus  RuUianns SS5 

Fablu^  Quintus  Maxlmus  V 8$6 

Fabius,  Caius  PIctor 836 

Fabius,  Numerius  Pictor 886 

Fabius,  Quintus  Pictor 8S6 

Fabrc,  FranpoU  Xavler  P 8S6 

Fabre  d*£glantine,  Philipi>e  Fran- 
cois Nazalre 8S6 

Fabrcttl,  Raffaello 836 

Fabriano,  Francesco  dl  Gentile  da.  886 

Fabriclus,  Calus 88T 

Fabriclus,  Georg 8ST 

Fabriclus,  Glrolamo 88T 

Fabriclus,  Johann  Albert 88T 

Fabriclus.  Johann  Christian 83T 

Fabronl,  Angelo 888 

Fabyan,  Robert 888 

Eacciolato,  Jacopo 898 

Facial  Angle 888 

Factor 889 

Faculty 89S 

Faed,  Thomas. 899 

Faenza 802 

FageU  Family  of 892 

FageUKaspar 899 

Fatrel,  Frans  Nlcolaos. 899 

Fairel,  Hendrik  (two) 809 

Fahrenheit,  Gabriel  Daniel 809 

Fair 898 

Fair  Haven 806 

Falrbalrn,  Wlllhim 806 

Fairfax  co 806 

Falrtkx,  Edward. 896 

Fairfax,  Thomas 896 

Fairfax,  Thomas,  6th  Baron 898 

Fairfield  co.,  C«nn 808 

Fairfield  district,  S.  C 898 

Fairfield  co.,  Ohio 890 

Fairfield,  Conn. 899 

Fairfield,  Iowa 800 

Fatrhaven 890 

Fairies 890 

Fairy  Circle 409 

Fakir 409 

Falaise 408 

Falck,  Antonlus  Relnhard 40S 

Falcon 408 

Falconer,  William 406 

Falconet,  £tlcnno  Maurice 406 

Falconry 406 

Faleril.. 40T 

Falemns  Aper 40T 

Falleri.  Marino 408 

Falk,  Johann  Daniel 408 

Falkirk 408 

Falkland 408 

Falkland,  Amelia  Fltzclarence 408 

Falkland,  Lucius  Cary 400 

Falkland  Islands 410 

Fall  of  Bodies,  see  Gravity. 

Fall  River 410 

Falling  Stars,  see  Meteors. 

Fallmerayer,  Phlllpp  Jakob 411 

Fallopplo,  Gabriello 411 

Falloux, Frederic  Alfred  Pierre...  419 
Fallow  Deer,  see  Buck,  and  Deer. 

Falls  CO 419 

Falmonth 419 

False  Impri.sonment 419 

False  Pretences 418 

Falsetto 418 

Falun 418 

Faluns 414 

Famagosta 414 

Familiar  Spirits,  see  Demons. 

Family 414 

Fan 415 

Fanariotes 416 

Faneull,  Pct<r 41T 

Fannin  co 41T 

Fannin,  CoL  James  W 41T 

Fanning,  David 418 

Fanning  Machine 418 

Fano 418 

Fanshawc,  Sir  Richard 418 

Faat,  Erik  Mikael 419 


FiixIV.Uielu.'l... 

Finftrh 

Tmi,  (kailtuuar. . . 


FLIIn]i,VlHUDda... 


ra.lii(WB.H«...".. 
FirtoliiffloD,  CuDiL , . 

Firm  IllsBda 

Ftrnhun,  Ellu.  W. . 
FfemlMnl.  ThonuA  J- 


*it  PrntlUBd  t,  Aulila. . . . 

4«  F<'ntlundL,Xuili).  .. 

4»  Ft-nllnud  I.,  thi.  Two  *i 

tH  Frnllninl  I,  SpalK 

«a  PinllnudllUHf 

—  FrnllMi  ■  ■■■    - 


iM  Flll.h,  II'EMGI- 

4M  FlDilrn.  nillUu. 

4M  FIbIIim: 

Vt  rtnMtt... 

M>  FlnkT.  G»rp> - 

«ll  ViBlllT.  JokB 

Mt  rtn>tjirm,a*tm^ 


Flnl^.  Il..ba<,  n.XK.. 


4iS     FlBDrr.  t.'h>rtH  U. . . 


*-l 

rirbSklB 

CONTENTS. 


PAOB 

Fbtbfuh 650 

Fkthea^l  IndJjuu 6ft0 

Iflavel,  John Wl 

Flax Ml 

Ftexman,  John 06ft 

Flea,  •««  Kpizoa. 

FUcbler,  £*prit 6ft5 

Fleckooe.  Kichard ^^ft 

Fleetwood,  Charles fifift 

Fleming  CO 866 

Fleming,  John 666 

Flemtoh  Language  and  Literature.  667 

Flentborg 667 

Fletcher,  Andrew 667 

Fletcher,  GUes 663 

Fletcher,  Phlneas. 66S 

Fletcher,  John 66S 

Fletcher,  John  William. 688 

Fleninie 6^9 

Fleory,  Andr6  Uercnle 6M> 

Fleary,  Claude K9 

Flinders,  Matthew 6S0 

FNnt 660 

FUnt,Mlch. 660 

Flint,  Timothy 660 

Flint  Blver. 661 

FllnUhire 661 

Floating  Islsnds 661 

Flodden  Field,  BatUe  of 661 

Flood,  Henry. 661 

Floorcloth 663 

Flora,  a  goddess 668 

Flora 664 

Florence,  Ala. 668 

Florence,  lulr 669 

Flores,  one  or  the  Azores 666 

Flores,  Malay  Archlpelsgo 665 

Florlan,  Jean  Pierre  CUu-is  de....  665 

Florida. 665 

Florin 670 

Florus,  Lndns  Ann»us 670 

Flotow,  Friedrich  Ton 670 

Flotsam 670 

Flounder. 670 

Fkmrens,  Marie  Jean  Pierro 671 

Flower. 678 

Flowers,  Artiflclal 678 

Floy,  James,  D.D. 678 

Floyd  ca.  Vs. 678 

Floyd  CO.,  Oa. 678 

Floyd  co.,Ky 678 

Floyd  CO.,  Ind 678 

Floyd  CO.,  lows. 678 

Floyd,  Oen.  John. 674 

Floyd,  John  Buchanan. 674 

Floyd,  William 674 

Fli^l,  Qustar  Lebrecht 674 

Fl&gel,  Johann  Gottfried. 674 

Flaor  Spar 674 

Fluorescence 676 

Fluorine 676 

Flushing,  N.Y 677 

Flushing,  Holland 677 

Flute 677 

Flute,  Octave. 673 

Flute  Stop 673 

Fluvanna  ca 673 

Flux 67S 

Fluxions,  see  Calculus,  and  DilTer- 

ential  CalculuSb 

Fly 673 

Flycatcher 680 

Flywheel 6S1 

Flying  Fish 681 

Flying  Squirrel 638 

Foetus,  soe  Embryology. 

Fog 638 

Fogarassy,  J4noe 635 

FocgJa 685 

F<Hi: 636 

FoU 635 

Foix,  Counts  de 685 

Foix,  Raymond  Kogcr,  Count  de..  635 
Foix,  Roger  Bernard  m  Count  de.  666 
Foix,  Bogor  Bernard  III.,  Count 

de 686 

Foix,  Gaston  I L,  Count  de 635 

Foix,  Gaston  III.,  Count  de. 636 

Fokshanr 636 

Fold var  l)nna 686 

Foley,  John  Henry 636 

FoUgno 666 


PAOB 

Folkestone 636 

Follen,  August 636 

Fnllen,  Charles 636 

Follen,  KHzaLee 537 

Fonhlanque.  Albany  W 687 

Fond  du  Lac  co. 633 

Fonk,  Peter  Anton 688 

Font 638 

Fontaine,  Jean  de  la,  see  La  Fon- 
taine. 

Fontaineblcau 683 

Fontanes,  Louis 639 

Fontarabia,  see  Fuenterrabla. 

Fontenay 639 

Fontensy-le-Comte. ^9 

Fontenelle,  Bernard  le  Bovier. ....  6*9 

Fontonoy 690 

Fontvvrsult,  Order  of. 690 

Foo-ebow 690 

Food,  see  Aliment,  and  Dietetics. 

Foo-sban 691 

Fool 691 

Foolshs 693 

FooU,Fea8to£ 693 

Fooeee 698 

Foot 693 

Foot,  Solomon 698 

Foota 698 

Foota  Jallon 594 

Foote,  Henry  Stuart 694 

Foote.  Samuel 694 

Forbes,  Duncan 695 

Forbes.  Edward 696 

Forbes,  Jamea 697 

Forbes,  James  David 697 

Forbes,  Sir  John, 697 

Force,  Peter 693 

Forwlllni,  Egidlo. 693 

Forcbhamroer,  Johann  Georg 693 

Forrlble  Entry 693 

Ford,  John 598 

Forrl,  Richard. 899 

Fordham 699 

Fordyce,  David. 600 

Fore 600 

Fore  and  Aft 600 

Forb  Brace 600 

Fore  Tackle 600 

Foreclose 600 

Forest  CO 600 

Forestalllnir. 600 

ForesU,  E.  Vellce 600 

Forests,  Submenred 601 

Forey,  £lle  FrW^ric. 601 

Forthr. 601 

Forfeiture 608 

Forge 608 

Forgery 604 

Forset-Me-Not 605 

Fork 605 

Foril 606 

Forll,  Melozzo  da 606 

Forlorn  Hope 606 

Formes,  Karl  Jean. 606 

Formic  Acid 606 

Formosa 607 

Fom«»t,  Edwin 607 

Forrester,  Alfred  Henry 603 

Forsksl.  Peter 603 

Forstcr,  Ernst  Joadiim 603 

Forster,  George 603 

Forster,  Helnrich. 603 

Forster,  Johann  Reinhold. 609 

Forstcr,  Johann  Georg  Adam 609 

Forster,  John 610 

For^ti'r,  Thomas  Ignatius  Maria. . .  610 

Forsyth  co.,  N.  C 610 

Forsyth  CO.,  Ga 610 

Forsyth,  John. 610 

Fort  Bend  co 611 

Fort  Des  Moines 611 

Fort  Laramie,  see  Laramie. 

Fort  Leavenworth. 611 

Fort  Madison 611 

Fort  Riley 611 

Fort  Royal 611 

Fort  St  David 611 

Fort  Wayne 618 

Forte 618 

Fortescue,  Sir  John. 618 

FortlflcaUon 618 

Fortuna. 628 


TAQU 

Fortunate  Islands,  see  Canary  Isl- 

ands. 

Fortune,  Robert 688 

Forum 088 

Forward,  Walter 634 

Forwarding  Merchant 684 

Foscari,  Francesco 626 

Foecolo,  Nioolo  Ugo 626 

Fossano 686 

Fossil 68T 

Fossil  Footprints 62T 

Foster,  James 680 

Foster,  John 680 

Foster,  Randolph  S.,  D.D 680 

Fotheringay. 680 

Foucault  Leon 680 

Fouchu,  Joseph. 681 

Fould,  Achille. 688 

Foulls,  Robert 689 

Foundiitlon 688 

Foandery 688 

Foundling  Hospital 684 

Fountain  CO 660 

Fouquc,  Helnrich   August  de  la 

Motto 640 

Fonan6,  Friedrich  Helnrich  Kari 

delaMotte 640 

Fouquct,  Nicolas. 610 

Fouquier-TlnvUle,  Antolne  Quen- 

Un 641 

Fourcroy,  Antolne  Francois. 641 

Fourier,  Francis  Marie  Charies...  641 
Fourier,  Jean  Baptlste  Joseph. ....  644 

Foumeyron,  Benoit 644 

Fowler,  Orson  Squire 645 

Fowler,  Lorenz«>  Niles 645 

Fowler,  Lydia  Folger. 645 

Fox. 645 

Fox  CO 646 

Fox,  Sir  Charles 647 

Fox,  Charles  James 64T 

Fox,  George 649 

Fox,  John 660 

Fox,  William  Johnson 660 

Foxglove,  see  Digitalis. 

Fox  Indians 690 

Fox  Islands,  see  Aleutian  Islanda 

Fox  River. 661 

Foy,  Maximlllen  Sebastien 661 

Fraction 651 

Fracture 688 

Framlngham 668 

Franc 658 

France 658 

France,  Isle  of^  see  Mauritius. 
France,  lACguage  and   Literature 

of 675 

Franchi,  Ansonia 635 

Franche  Comt<^ 685 

Francia,  Francesco 685 

Francia,  Jo«v  Gaspar  Rodrigues. . .  635 

Francis  I.,  France 636 

Francis  U.,  France 638 

Francis  I.,  Germany 689 

Fraocb  1 1.,  Germany 639 

Fruncls  JoM'ph.  Austria. 691 

Francis,  John  Wakefield 698 

Francis,  John  W.,Jr 694 

Francis,  Sir  Philip. 694 

Francis  of  Asslsl 694 

Francis  of  Paula 695 

Francis  dc  Sales 696 

Franciscans 69T 

Francke,  August  Hermann. CSS 

Francolln. 699 

Franconl,  Antolne 699 

Franconla 699 

Franconta,  Tpper 699 

Franconla,  Middle 699 

Franconla,  Lower 699 

Franconla,  X.  H 699 

FrankeL,  Zacharias 700 

Frankfort  Ky 700 

Frankfort-on-the-Main 700 

Frankfort-on-the-Oder 701 

Frankincense 701 

FrankMn  CO.,  Mo 708 

Franklin  CO.,  Vt 708 

Franklin  co..  Mass 708 

Franklin  CO.,  N.  Y 708 

Franklin  co.,  Penn 708 

Fnuiklin  CO.,  Ya. 701 


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FnOorls  WUIIUD  IL, 


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